title: John Sheridan (footballer)

text: On 22 January 2022, Sheridan returned to Oldham Athletic as head coach with the club bottom of the Football League. He could not halt the slide towards the National League. Oldham were relegated from the English Football League following a 2-1 home defeat by Salford City on 23 April 2022, a match interrupted by an on-pitch protest by fans against the club's owners. Sheridan said he would stay at Oldham with the aim of an immediate return to the English Football League in the next season. On 15 September 2022 it was announced that he would step aside after their match on 17 September.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: Jacob Penn Cooper Hurwitz (born August 5, 1985) is an American comedian, writer, actor, and member of the comedy duo Jake and Amir. He was hired by the comedy website CollegeHumor after becoming an intern there in 2006, and has written and appeared in original videos for the website, as well as contributing articles which have been published both online and in print. He also starred in "The CollegeHumor Show", an MTV sitcom that ran for one season in 2009. Outside of CollegeHumor, Hurwitz has hosted Myspace's "BFF" series.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: He is best known as the comedy partner of Amir Blumenfeld: the two appear as humorous and exaggerated versions of themselves in the web series "Jake and Amir", with Hurwitz generally assuming the role of the straight man. Originally made as a hobby by the pair, the series was later produced by CollegeHumor. Beginning in April 2016, they announced the streaming of their new video series, "Lonely and Horny", exclusively on Vimeo. The pair have also hosted numerous live shows, and started the advice podcast "If I Were You" in 2013. On August 1, 2015, Hurwitz and Blumenfeld launched the comedy podcast network HeadGum alongside Marty Michael.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: Hurwitz has cited the television series "Arrested Development" and comedian Mitch Hedberg as major influences in his comedy styling.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: In 2005, Hurwitz began to write a column for the comedy website CollegeHumor while attending school. When he transferred to Hunter College, he became an intern at the company—he summarized his duties saying "I put together desks and microwaved". He later got a full-time position at CollegeHumor, where he wrote and acted in original videos. Having originally wanted to be a sitcom writer, he "spent a year or two feeling really uncomfortable on camera", but now says he "love[s] it".


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: Hurwitz was a cast member on "The CollegeHumor Show", a 2009 sitcom set in the CollegeHumor offices and featuring videos from the website. His character's biography on the MTV website reads: "Jake might not be smarter than his coworkers, but he's better looking, and that's good enough for him." The show received mixed reviews. "Pajiba" Dustin Rowles dismissed it as "a series of atrocious sketches haphazardly strung together", while Liz Shannon Miller, editor for online streaming site "Newteevee", criticized the show's sitcom format and wrote that she "would have preferred a stronger debut," but gave the premiere four stars out of a possible five. After it had gone nearly a year without being recommissioned, Hurwitz commented "We stopped holding our breath for a second season".


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: In 2009, Hurwitz was selected as the host of the second season of "BFF", a game show produced for Myspace that Hurwitz described as ""The Dating Game" for friends". This was the first time he had been hired to appear in a non-CollegeHumor series; he called it "the first time I've been tapped on the shoulder to do anything that wasn't frat boy humor" and said the show's format was "out of [his] wheelhouse". Hurwitz was given the chance to film a "Jake and Amir" video on the set, which he said "turned out pretty well". "Tubefilter" Marc Hustvedt said of the season: "It's a bit of a shame to see the typically absurd Hurwitz stripped of any real comedy purpose and thrown into what is pretty squarely a young, fashion-loving women's chit-chat." Although some episodes of the season appeared to have been viewed over 500,000 times, Hustvedt said that many of them appeared to come from embedded video advertising and doubted the veracity of this number.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: Hurwitz met his colleague Amir Blumenfeld in 2006, when the former began his internship at CollegeHumor. When their offices moved to Union Square, the two were seated across from each other. Hurwitz received a digital camera as a birthday present from his father, and the two used it to make videos together, which they uploaded to the video-sharing website Vimeo. Hurwitz thought Blumenfeld was "the funniest person in the office" and said "Amir and I were constantly joking around in different, strange characters, so it seemed natural that once I had a camera we began to record it." Their first video was called "Quick Characters": it was unscripted, and involved either Hurwitz or Blumenfeld spontaneously pointing a camera at the other and instructing them to act in a certain way.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: The two later began the web series "Jake and Amir", episodes of which they posted to jakeandamir.com In it, Hurwitz plays Jake, a "normal guy", and Blumenfeld plays Amir, his annoying and obsessive co-worker, who craves Jake's attention.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: Hurwitz summed up the writing process by saying "me and Amir sit in a room and we make each other laugh for an hour or two and somehow we leave with a script"—he also noted the series' increased production values, saying that he and Blumenfeld have become better at editing it over time. Describing how his character has developed, Hurwitz said "I think the Jake character has become a little more wacky, which is fun for me. We've given me triggers for my insecurity and then I get to be a little weird which is cool." He also noted that the characters' roles had swapped somewhat because "when we're writing together we do each other's voices sometimes ... it was just making us laugh a lot when I was doing the crazy/funny man and he was doing the straight man when it came to fashion and girls."


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: On May 13, 2013, Hurwitz and Blumenfeld announced their first new project since "Jake and Amir": a comedy audio podcast called "If I Were You", in which they give advice to listeners who submit questions. Kayla Culver of "The Concordian" lauded the podcast as "comfortable to listen to" and "genuinely funny" and said "It's like listening to two best friends having a hilarious conversation on the couch next to you." Conversely, "The Guardian" Miranda Sawyer described "If I Were You" as "a typical example of a comedy podcast" and "amiable enough", but said it contained "far too much laughing", commenting that "New Yorkers Jake and Amir laugh and laugh, giggle and chortle their way around a topic" and "if I wanted stream-of-consciousness waffle with the occasional funny line, I'd listen to [my small children]."


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: In 2016, Hurwitz and Blumenfeld released an on-demand comedy series called "Lonely and Horny" on Vimeo. The series was picked up by CollegeHumor for its second season.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: In 2015, following the success of Hurwitz and Blumenfeld's If I Were You podcast, the duo founded the HeadGum podcasting network in tandem with their friend and colleague Marty Michael. HeadGum currently hosts 42 podcasts, many of which are hosted by comedians who were involved with CollegeHumor. Some of the notable programs that can be found on the network include "Why Won't You Date Me?", "Gilmore Guys", and "Doughboys". "If I Were You" and "Not Another D&D Podcast", both of which feature Hurwitz as a co-host, are also featured on the network.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: In 2018, Jake Hurwitz alongside Brian Murphy, Emily Axford and Caldwell Tanner launched "Not Another D&D Podcast". On May 9, 2020, the Dungeons and Dragons-themed podcast released its 100th and final episode of its first main campaign, with plans to begin its second campaign later in 2020. In the first main campaign, Hurwitz played Hardwon Surefoot, a human fighter. Hardwon was raised in a "dwarfanage". Hardwon is commonly referred to by his full name: "Hardwon Surefoot, Bastard of the Mountain, Pride of the Dwarfanage"(and on rare occasions, Thick of Calf and Quad, Dug farther into Iron Deep than any man or dwarf before him, Dragon Slayer, the Oft Dead, will be added). In episodes 62-65, Hurwitz played a dwarven Path of the Zealot barbarian named Jveliin. In their monthly campaign, "Trinyvale", DMed by Caldwell Tanner, Jake plays Nyack, a half-elf ranger who dreams of being the silverback of his gorilla tribe. He deeply loves his half-brother, Jens Lyndelle, sometimes called Jensitals (played by Brian Murphy), who refers to him as a half-stranger. In the second season, Jake played Henry "Hank" Hogfish, a cursed human echo knight fighter. In the third and current season Jake plays Calder Kildae, a half giant Eldritch Knight from the frozen north of Bahumia.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: Hurwitz was born in Connecticut. The son of a Jewish father and a Christian mother, he had a Bar Mitzvah and attended Hebrew school, but also celebrated Christmas and Easter. He attended Hamden Hall Country Day School for high school, and Hunter College and New School University in New York City.


title: Jake Hurwitz

text: From 2009 to 2012, Hurwitz was in a relationship with Bee Shaffer, the daughter of fashion editor Anna Wintour, whom he met after she began working at CollegeHumor. Since 2013, he has been in a long-term relationship with Jillian Vogel, whom he married in August 2018.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: The 1988 presidential campaign of Joe Biden, a Democratic U.S. Senator from Delaware, began in June 1987. Originally, Biden was regarded as potentially one of the strongest candidates in the field. In September 1987, however, reports emerged that he had plagiarized a speech by the British Leader of the Opposition and Labour Party Leader, Neil Kinnock. Other allegations of past law school plagiarism and exaggerating his academic record soon followed and Biden withdrew from the race later that month.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden would run for president two more times. His 2008 campaign also ended in early failure, although he was asked to join nominee Barack Obama's ticket and was elected the 47th vice president. On his third effort, in 2020, he became the Democratic Party's nominee and then was elected the 46th president of the United States.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden had nurtured dreams of someday running for president going back to his college days. He had been mentioned among possible contenders in the 1984 presidential election. He had considered the notion in 1983, urged on by pollster Pat Caddell, who thought there was space for a young candidate. A fiery speech he gave to several Democratic audiences had simultaneously scolded Democrats for outdated thinking and encouraged them regarding future directions, and had gained him some notice in the party. However, Biden did not enter the race that season. Nonetheless, he won one vote at the 1984 Democratic National Convention.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden was active on the party speaking circuit from 1985 on, and was considered one of the best orators among the potential presidential candidates for 1988. The declared absence of Senator Ted Kennedy from the field, to whom Biden was sometimes compared, was also encouraging to a possible Biden candidacy.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden received considerable attention in the summer of 1986 when he excoriated Secretary of State George Shultz at a Senate hearing because of the Reagan administration's stance towards South Africa and its system of apartheid.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden was initially considered one of the potentially strongest candidates as campaigning began in 1987. This was because of his image as a political moderate, his speaking ability on the stump (rated second only to that of Jesse Jackson), his appeal to Baby Boomers, his high-profile position as chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee, looming for the Robert Bork confirmation hearings, and his fundraising appeal—his $1.7 million raised in the first quarter of 1987 was more than any other candidate. By the end of April he had raised $2 million, using not just contributions from Delaware but also establishing a base of support among young professionals and Jewish voters in a number of urban- and suburban-oriented states. He had no campaign debt, and "Fortune" magazine termed his "most impressive start" a "surprise".


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: When the campaign began, former Senator Gary Hart, who had made a strong nomination run four years earlier, was considered the clear front-runner. Indeed, "The Wall Street Journal" referred to the eight-person Democratic field as "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs". However, Hart then withdrew from the race in May 1987, following revelations of his friendship with Donna Rice.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Despite this, Biden did not see a rise in his poll numbers immediately after the Hart withdrawal, and was particularly stagnant in polls for the Iowa caucuses. Nevertheless, Biden had confidence that he could prevail; on the eve of his announcement, he said: "I'm going to win this thing. I really am. I just know it, I can feel it in my fingertips." Some political professionals saw Biden as believing that he could simply will himself to win the race, but his continued ability to raise campaign funds gave him credibility as a candidate. However, later reports suggest that up until his announcement, Biden was actually unsure whether he wanted to run at all, and it took the urging of his wife Jill Biden to convince him to go forward.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: In his speech, Biden said that Americans should rise above "the mere accumulation of material things". In language intended to recall John F. Kennedy, he said,


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: "For too long in this society, we have celebrated unrestrained individualism over common community. For too long as a nation, we have been lulled by the anthem of self-interest. For a decade, led by Ronald Reagan, self-aggrandizement has been the full-throated cry of this society: 'I've got mine so why don't you get yours' and 'What's in it for me?' ... We must rekindle the fire of idealism in our society, for nothing suffocates the promise of America more than unbounded cynicism and indifference."


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden also laid out the platform he was running on, which included a middle stance between protectionism and free trade, opposition to the Reagan Strategic Defense Initiative, and support for child welfare, reduction of poverty, and the war against illegal drugs. Biden also emphasized the need for integrity in government.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden's campaign manager was Tim Ridley (1955-2005), his press secretary was Larry Rasky (1951-2020), and his pollster and strategist was Pat Caddell (1950-2019). Biden's Senate chief-of-staff Ted Kaufman served as the campaign treasurer and principle fundraiser. John Marttila served as a political consultant and Tom Donilon served as another strategist. Biden's sister Valerie Biden Owens also served a major role in running the campaign, as she had in all of his Senate campaigns, and was considered "first among equals" in making decisions.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Once underway, Biden's campaign messaging became confused due to staff rivalries and bickering. Four different themes were presented, sometimes simultaneously: "Pepsi Generation", "Voice of optimism", "Save the children", and "Scold the voters". Pollster Pat Caddell in particular was a disruptive force within the campaign, but he had been Biden's friend for fifteen years. Another of the themes was generational change; Biden hoped to inspire a new generation, as John F. Kennedy had inspired his. Indeed, Biden had a theory of presidential elections as a cycle, wherein there are candidates, such as he saw himself, who can bring with them large spurts of sometimes disruptive progress, followed by periods of adjustment in which voters prefer candidates who can "let America catch its breath."


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: However, the generational change theme was not catching on especially well. Biden was also hurt by his never having been a player in the Washington social scene. He would later write that his messaging had been "a bit opaque, like audiences were hearing me through a veil. ... I started looking at the race through the wrong prism. I looked around, judg[ing] myself against the other potential candidates for the nomination ..."


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: He received somewhat mixed notices for his performance in the first of the Democratic presidential primary debates, which was held at the Wortham Theater Center in Houston, Texas on July 1, 1987, during a special production of William F. Buckley's "Firing Line" program. Biden received audience applause for his energy policy in favor of domestic oil production, for his objections to what he called unfair trade practices of foreign countries, and for his criticisms of the Reagan administration's policies in Central America.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden was also suffering from having to divide his attention between the campaign, Senate responsibilities (including handling the Bork nomination), and family duties, but he campaigned intensively nonetheless. A profile at the time in the "Dallas Morning News" assessed him thusly: "He brings to the campaign an ingratiating manner and a quick wit with considerable Irish charm plus an ability to rouse audiences that few Democrats can match. But he also brings a reputation as a showboater and a hothead with a penchant for windiness." Such was his propensity to keep talking at campaign appearances that staffers gave reporters a note saying that "Senator may stray from prepared remarks". Then, as throughout his career, Biden was, as the "New York Times" later profiled, "a 'gut politician,' ... swaggering, ad-libbing, liable to get carried away in front of a crowd."


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: By August 1987, Biden's campaign had begun to lag behind those of Michael Dukakis and Richard Gephardt, although he had still raised more funds than all candidates but Dukakis, and was seeing an upturn in Iowa polls.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Major controversy beset Biden's candidacy, beginning on September 12, 1987, with high-profile articles in "The New York Times" and "The Des Moines Register". Biden was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock, leader of the British Labour Party. Kinnock's speech, delivered to a Welsh Labour Party conference on May 15, 1987, and then rebroadcast during the UK 1987 general election, made reference to his background and that of his wife Glenys. It included the lines:


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden went on to duplicate other parts of Kinnock's speech, such as their forebears' ability to read and write poetry, their strength in working for hours underground in a mine only to come up and play football afterward, and their being limited by lack of a "platform" upon which to stand.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden had in fact cited Kinnock as the source for the formulation on previous occasions. However, he made no reference to the original source at the August 23 Democratic debate at the Iowa State Fair being reported on, nor in an August 26 interview for the National Education Association. Moreover, while political speeches often appropriate ideas and language from each other, Biden's use came under more scrutiny because he fabricated aspects of his own family's background in order to match Kinnock's.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Following the Kinnock attention, reports came from the "San Jose Mercury News" of Biden giving a February 3, 1987, speech to the California Democratic Party that reused without credit passages from a 1967 speech by Robert F. Kennedy, and of Biden giving 1985 and 1986 speeches that did the same with a passage from a 1976 speech by Hubert H. Humphrey. In the Kennedy case – which got the greater attention, since there was film footage of both versions that television news programs could play side-by-side – Pat Caddell stated that the reuse without credit was his own fault, and that he had never informed Biden of the source of the material. It was also reported that the California speech had taken a short phrase from the 1961 inaugural address of John F. Kennedy.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: After Biden withdrew from the race, it came to light that he had indeed correctly credited Kinnock on other occasions. However, in the Iowa speech that was recorded and distributed to reporters (with a parallel video of Kinnock) by aides to Michael Dukakis, the eventual nominee, he failed to do so. Dukakis, who disowned any knowledge of the Kinnock video, fired John Sasso, his campaign manager and long-time Chief of Staff, but Biden's campaign could not recover.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: During the Kinnock controversy, there was discussion of an incident during Biden's first year at Syracuse University School of Law in 1965. Biden initially received an "F" in an introductory class on legal methodology for writing a paper relying almost exclusively on a single "Fordham Law Review" article, which he had cited only once. Biden was allowed to repeat the course and passed with high marks. Though the then-dean of the law school, as well as Biden's former professor, downplayed the incident, they did find that Biden drew "chunks of heavy legal prose directly from" the article in question. Biden said it was inadvertent due to his not knowing the proper rules of citation. After ending his presidential campaign, Biden requested the Board of Professional Responsibility of the Delaware Supreme Court review the issue. The Board concluded on December 21, 1987, after Biden had withdrawn, that the senator had not violated any rules, although Biden did not release this result until May 1989.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: When questioned by a New Hampshire resident about his grades in law school, Biden replied "I think I probably have a much higher IQ than you do, I suspect," and then had inaccurately said that he had graduated in the "top half" of his class, that he had attended law school on a full scholarship, and had received three degrees in college. In fact, he had earned a single B.A. with a double major in history and political science, and had received a half scholarship to law school based on financial need with some additional assistance based in part upon academics, and had graduated 76th out of 85 in his law school class. During this time, Biden also released his undergraduate grades, which were unexceptional.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Before and during the campaign, Biden had a tendency to invent a past as a marcher in the Civil Rights Movement. For instance, in a February 1987 speech in New Hampshire, he said, "When I marched in the civil rights movement, I did not march with a 12-point program. I marched with tens of thousands of others to change attitudes. And we changed attitudes." Statements of this nature had been made by Biden going back to at least 1983. Such statements concerned campaign advisors, who knew they did not represent a truthful recollection of Biden's past; Biden said he understood, but continued to make them.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Following the Kinnock and academic revelations, reporters pressed Biden on the matter. Biden acknowledged that his activities were actually limited to one summer job incident, where while working as a lifeguard at a swimming pool, he learned of racial inequality issues and joined black lifeguards in establishing a picket line around a local movie theater that had a segregation policy. Biden said, "The civil-rights movement was an awakening for me, not as a consequence of my participation but as a consequence of my being made aware of what was happening." Speaking to reporters, he objected to this line of questions as a whole, saying, "I find y'all going back and saying, 'Well, where were you, Senator Biden, at the time?' – you know, I think it's bizarre. ... Other people marched. I ran for office."


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: On September 17, 1987, Biden held a press conference at the United States Capitol in an attempt to address these questions and put the issues behind him. He acknowledged that "I've done some dumb things, and I'll do dumb things again." However, he vowed to stay in the race regardless. A number of Biden's senate colleagues supported him regarding the controversies, including longtime Democratic fixture Robert C. Byrd and Republican Alan Simpson, who quoted Theodore Roosevelt's "The Man in the Arena" speech.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: However, the Kinnock and academic revelations were magnified by the limited amount of other news about the nomination race at the time, when most of the public were not yet paying attention to any of the campaigns; Biden thus fell into what "Washington Post" writer Paul Taylor described as that year's trend, a "trial by media ordeal". As Valerie Biden Owens later said, "It was a tsunami." Biden lacked a strong demographic or political group of support to help him survive the crisis. The controversy also hit Biden in his most vulnerable area, accentuating the notion that he lacked mental and verbal discipline.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden withdrew from the nomination race on September 23, 1987, saying his candidacy had been overrun by "the exaggerated shadow" of his past mistakes. His formal campaign had lasted only three and a half months.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Because of his early withdrawal, Biden did not participate in the 1988 caucuses and primaries, in which Governor Michael Dukakis defeated Jesse Jackson, Senators Al Gore and Paul Simon, and other longer-standing contenders.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: In retrospect, Biden would take the blame for his mistakes during the campaign. On one, he said, "All I had to say was 'Like Kinnock.' If I'd just said those two words, 'Like Kinnock,' and I didn't. It was my fault, nobody else's fault." On another, he ruefully recalled, "'Hey pal, you want to compare IQs?' What an immature thing to say."


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: Biden had felt poorly physically during parts of the campaign, suffering repeated headaches and at one point in September 1987 having to halt a speech in New Hampshire for 15 minutes after feeling faint. During his time on the road he carried an oversize bottle of Tylenol with him. In February 1988, he suffered the first of two brain aneurysms that required life-saving surgery and seven months away from the Senate in order to convalesce. Biden and others would speculate that had his campaign not ended early, the aneurysms might have been more severe or detected later and that he might not have lived out the year.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: In any case, Biden would not run again for the presidency until his 2008 campaign, twenty years later. This time he made it to the Iowa caucuses, but withdrew after a poor showing. Meanwhile, Biden and Kinnock had become close friends after the plagiarism incident. During 1988, Biden and his son Beau had visited Kinnock in Britain, with Kinnock later saying they "got on like a house on fire", calling him "good company and [...] one of the good fellas." Meeting again in August 2008, after Biden had been chosen by Democratic nominee Barack Obama as his running mate, Biden introduced Kinnock to his Senate staff by saying: "Hey, you people! Do you know this guy? He used to be my greatest speechwriter." Obama and Biden proceeded to win the general election against the Republican ticket of John McCain and Sarah Palin. Biden's 1988 campaign lapses were never a significant issue in the race, and Biden invited Kinnock to the inauguration.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: In 2015, as Obama's second term neared completion, Biden considered a possible 2016 presidential bid. He decided not to, in large part due to the recent death of his son Beau from brain cancer. The Kinnock controversy and other failings of the 1988 campaign were not considered to be major factors in the 2016 decision, nor were they considered likely to be a factor in his decision process regarding whether to attempt another run.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: On April 25, 2019, Biden announced his 2020 campaign for the presidency. This time he was the front runner, and the failures of his 1988 bid again received scrutiny. Biden still at times became confrontational with voters, at one point issuing a similar IQ test challenge. Following defeats in the first few contests, Biden staged a crucial win in the South Carolina primary; as news accounts described, it was his first-ever win in a presidential nominating contest in his third such campaign. He leveraged that into a winning campaign and became the Democratic nominee for president.


title: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

text: In the general election he defeated incumbent President Donald Trump and became the President-elect of the United States. In doing so he completed what one media outlet termed "a decadeslong quest to become president" and "fulfilled a long and winding road to the presidency that first began in 1988 but twice ended in failure." Biden was inaugurated as the 46th President of the United States on January 20, 2021.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mariana Francesca Mazzucato (born June 16, 1968) is an economist with dual Italian–US citizenship. She is a professor in the Economics of Innovation and Public Value at University College London and founding director of the UCL Institute for Innovation and Public Purpose (IIPP). She is best known for her work on dynamics of technological change, the role of the public sector in innovation, and the concept of value in economics. "The New Republic" have called her one of the "most important thinkers about innovation".


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mazzucato has published widely in the fields of innovation economics, value theory and political economy and is the author of various books, including: "The Entrepreneurial State: Debunking Public vs. Private Sector Myths", "The Value of Everything: Making and Taking in the Global Economy", and "Mission Economy: A Moonshot Guide to Changing Capitalism."


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Her career has emphasised translating economic ideas into policy and she holds numerous high-level policy roles. Currently, she is chair of the World Health Organization's Council on the Economics of Health for All, a member of the Scottish Government's Council of Economic Advisers, the South African President's Economic Advisory Council, and the United Nations' High-Level Advisory Board on Economic and Social Affairs.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: In 2021, in recognition of her contributions to economic theory and policy, Mazzucato received the Grande Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana from the Italian President, Italy's highest civilian honour.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mazzucato was born in Rome, Italy to parents Ernesto Mazzucato, a physicist, and Alessandra Mazzucato, who are both Italian. In 1972, the family moved to Princeton, New Jersey, with their three young children, Valentina, Mariana and Jacopo, after Ernesto accepted a position at Princeton University's Plasma Physics Laboratory. Mazzucato spent most of her early life in the US before returning to Europe.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: In 1986, Mazzucato graduated from Princeton High School. In 1990, Mazzucato received a B.A. in history and international relations from Tufts University. In 1994, Mazzucato received a M.A. in economics from the New School for Social Research before earning her PhD in Economics at the New School in 1999. Her dissertation was titled "Four Essays on Evolutionary Market Share Dynamics: A Computational Approach". Her thesis advisors were Willi Semmler, Lance Taylor, Duncan K. Foley, and Charles Tilly.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: From 1995 to 1997, Mazzucato was an adjunct professor of economics at New York University. She taught at the University of Denver between 1997 and 1999. Between 1998 and 1999 she was a post-doctoral Marie Curie Research Fellow at the London Business School where she worked closely with Paul Geroski.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: She joined The Open University in 1999 as a lecturer, and became a full professor in 2005. She founded their Innovation, Knowledge and Development research centre. From 2008 to 2010 she was a visiting professor at Bocconi University. In 2014, she was a distinguished visiting professor at the University of Technology Sydney. Between 2011 and 2017, she was the RM Phillips Chair in the Economics of Innovation at the University of Sussex before moving to University College London in 2017 to become Professor in the Economics of Innovation and Public Value and found their Institute for Innovation and Public Purpose (IIPP).


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mazzucato has been active in advising governments on innovation and growth policies. Between 2015 and 2019, she was a member of the international advisory panel of Sitra, the Finnish Innovation Fund. In 2018, she was co-chair of the Commission for Mission Oriented Innovation and Industrial Strategy informing the Government of the United Kingdom's Industrial Strategy. In 2019, South African President Cyril Ramaphosa appointed Mazzucato to be a member of his Economic Advisory Council, a position where she remains active in providing recommendations for building sustainable and inclusive development. Since 2020, she has been a member of the Innovation Expert Group at the United Kingdom Department of Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy and a member international advisory panel of Vinnova, Sweden's innovation agency. In 2020, Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte appointed Mazzucato as a Special Advisor on economic policy and made her Italy's representative economist on the G7 Panel on Economic Resilience which advised the G7 leaders at the 2021 G7 Summit in Cornwall, UK. She is currently a member of the Council of Economic Advisors to the Scottish Government, a role she has held since 2015. She worked closely with the Scottish Government and First Minister in establishing the Scottish National Investment Bank in 2018. Between 2015 and 2016, she served on the British Labour Party's Economic Advisory Committee providing advice to the Shadow Cabinet.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: As well as national governments, Mazzucato has also served as an economic advisor to international institutions, including the World Economic Forum, the European Commission, the World Health Organization, the OECD, and the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. She was a member of the European Commission's Task Force on Public Sector Innovation and their expert group on Innovation for Growth (RISE). From 2018-2019, she was Special Advisor to the European Commission's Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation, Carlos Moedas. In 2020, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, the Director-General of the World Health Organization, appointed Mazzucato as Chair of the World Health Organization's Council on the Economics of Health for All. Currently, she also serves on the United Nation's High-Level Advisory Board on Economic and Social Affairs, the United Nation's Sustainable Development Solutions Network Leadership Council, the United Nation's Committee for Development Policy and the Commission for Universal Health convened by Chatham House.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: In 2016, Mazzucato became the first woman to give the Raúl Prebisch Lecture organised by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean in Santiago, Chile.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mazzucato has authored a number of policy reports, including "Mission-Oriented Research & Innovation in the European Union", which directly informed the EU's Horizon Europe research and innovation programme, and a report in 2016 commissioned by the Brazilian Ministry for Science, Technology & Innovation on Brazil's innovation policy.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mazzucato's research has addressed the relationship between innovation, government policy, financial markets and economic growth, spanning the company, industry and national level. Much of her work has been inspired by the Schumpeterian framework of evolutionary economics. Her early research was on the origin and evolution of persistent differences between firms and the implications of this for industry life-cycles and differences in sector structure.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: A major area of contribution has been the interaction between financial markets in technological change addressing both the positive and negative influences of financial actors on innovation. Earlier work had found that stock price volatility tends to be highest, at the firm and industry level, when technological innovation is the most radical. From 2009-2012, she was the Director of the FINNOV: Finance, Innovation & Growth research project, funded by the European Commission. Recent research of Mazzucato has highlighted the heterogeneity in the type of corporate finance offered by different institutional actors and the failure of private actors to provide sufficient "patient finance" that takes long term risk in areas such as renewable energy.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: In 2013, Mazzucato published her most famous work, "The Entrepreneurial State". The book pointed to the key role that government actors has played in driving radical innovations in their early stages, especially in the US. It outlined a number of case studies across different sectors - including biotech, pharmaceuticals and clean technology - to show that the high-risk investments have been made by the state before the private sector gets involved. In a well known chapter examining the iPhone, she outlines how the technologies that make it 'smart' – the internet, GPS, its touchscreen display and the voice-activated Siri – were all government-funded. She argues in the book that public funds are laying the groundwork for the green revolution in a similar way to biotech and nanotech.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Later work has built on the conclusion of "The Entrepreneurial State" that the socialisation of risks for radical innovation requires rethinking how the rewards are privatised with the aim of producing more inclusive growth. In a joint 2013 article with William Lazonick, "The Risk-Reward Nexus: Who takes the risks? Who gets the rewards?", she further described the tension between how value is created and how value is extracted in modern-day capitalism, producing a narrowing distribution of the rewards.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: In 2018, Mazzucato published a second major book, "The Value of Everything: making and taking in the global economy", which addressed the fundamental concept of value in economic theory. It traced the long and diverse history of theories of economic value and argued against the circular reasoning that emerged with Neoclassical economics where financial reward was seen as commensurate with creating real value. The book argues that some private companies act as rent-seekers rather than creating value themselves, and that current legislation encourages that type of behaviour.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mazzucato has developed a critique of market failure theory and argued for a concept that better captures the value that the state can create. This has led her to propose the state's role in the economy as one of creating and shaping new markets, especially in a "mission-oriented" way that addresses key societal challenges. Her third major book, "Mission Economy: A Moonshot Guide to Changing Capitalism", summarises her arguments for improving state capabilities and re-orientating economic policy around ambitious missions with societal objectives.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: "The Entrepreneurial State" had a significant impact on the public debate around growth and innovation and brought a wider acceptance of the importance of the public sector's role, despite pushback from more right-wing commentators. Martin Wolf wrote in the "Financial Times" that "The Entrepreneurial State" offers "a controversial thesis" but "is basically right" and warns that the "failure to recognise the role of the government in driving innovation may well be the greatest threat to rising prosperity". The Economist also praised Mazzucato for highlighting the state's "central role in producing game-changing breakthroughs" and "contribution to the success of technology-based businesses", although it argued that in general she was "too hard on business". The book was listed in the Financial Times Selection of Books of the Year in 2013 and won her the New Statesman/SPERI Prize in Political Economy in 2014.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: "The Value of Everything" was also well received by reviewers and was shortlisted for that the 2018 Financial Times and McKinsey Business Book of the Year prize. The book was read by Pope Francis who commented "I believe [her vision] can help to think about the future".


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: "Mission Economy" received a more mixed reception and some commentators and fellow economists have been sceptical of Mazzucato's idealism on big government intervention. Diane Coyle argued that Mazzucato underplayed the risk of government failure and ignored potential issues with the incentives which govern public actors. John Kay wrote in the "Financial Times" that ""Mission Economy" proposals would lead to powerful governments driving and co-ordinated every stage of innovation to solve issues from cancer to climate change", but argues that such projects tend to be failures because political direction of innovation would have led to absence of objective feedback, whereas efficient progress tends to require very competitive markets with incremental innovation and power decentralized to individual entrepreneurs with their independent visions. Other economists have been more supportive of Mazzucato's faith in public policy and praised the application of the Apollo 11 archetype to modern challenges. Jayati Ghosh, writing for "Nature", wrote that "Mission Economy" is a "timely and optimistic vision" of solving major problems through directed private and public investment which may seem simple and obvious, but implies revolutionising the role for governments.


title: Mariana Mazzucato

text: Mazzucato writes op-eds for various national newspapers, including The Guardian, Financial Times, and The New York Times, and is a regular contributor of commentaries to Project Syndicate. Mazzucato frequently appears on news and current affairs programmes and gives keynote talks at conferences. These include a number of highly viewed TED talks and a recent talk on her book "Mission Economy" for Talks at Google.


title: Astrid

text: Astrid is a feminine given name of Scandinavian origin, a modern form of the name Ástríðr. Derived from the Old Norse Ássfriðr, a compound name composed of the elements (a god) and (beautiful, fair).


title: Snap pea

text: The snap pea, also known as the sugar snap pea, is an edible-pod pea with rounded pods and thick pod walls, in contrast to snow pea pods, which are flat with thin walls. The name mangetout (French for "eat all") can apply to snap peas and snow peas.


title: Snap pea

text: A snap pea named "butter pea" was described in French literature in the 19th century, but the old snap pea was lost in cultivation by the mid-20th century. The present snap pea originated from Calvin Lamborn's cross between a shelling pea mutant found in 1952 by Dr. M.C. Parker and a snow pea cultivar. Researchers at Twin Falls, Idaho hoped that the cross might counteract twisting and buckling seen in varieties at the time. With this cross, snap pea was recreated and the first new snap pea was released in 1979 under the name ‘Sugar Snap’.


title: Snap pea

text: Snap peas, like all other peas, are pod fruits. An edible-podded pea is similar to a garden, or English, pea, but the pod is less fibrous, and is edible when young. Pods of the edible-podded pea, including snap peas, do not have a membrane and do not open when ripe. At maturity, the pods grow to around in length. Pods contain three to eight peas. The plants are climbing, and pea sticks or a trellis or other support system is required for optimal growth. Some cultivars are capable of climbing to high but plants are more commonly around high, for ease of harvest and cultivation.


title: Snap pea

text: The snap pea is a cool season legume. It may be planted in spring as early as the soil can be worked. Seeds should be planted apart and deep in a band. It tolerates light frost when young; it also has a wider adaptation and tolerance of higher temperatures than some other pea cultivars. Snap peas may grow to or more, but more typically are about . They have a vining habit and require a trellis or similar support structure. They should get 4–6 hours of sunlight each day.


title: Snap pea

text: Below is a list of several snap pea cultivars currently available, ordered by days to maturity. Days to maturity is from germination to edible pod stage; add about 7 days to estimate shell pea stage. "Amish Snap" is the only true heirloom snap pea. "PMR" indicates some degree of powdery mildew resistance; "afila" types, also called semi-leafless, maintain an erect, interlocked, plant habit that allows good air movement through the canopy and reduces risk from lodging and mold.


title: Snap pea

text: Commercial snap peas for export are produced in Peru, Guatemala, Colombia, Zimbabwe, Kenya and China.


title: Snap pea

text: Snap peas are often served in salads or eaten whole. They may also be stir-fried or steamed. Before being eaten, mature snap pea pods may need to be "stringed," which means the membranous string running along the top of the pod from base to tip is removed. Over-cooking the pods will make them come apart.


title: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge

text: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge is a 2001 Disney Channel Original Movie released for the Halloween season. It is the second installment in the "Halloweentown" series.


title: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge

text: Marnie has just spent two years with her grandmother Aggie. While hosting a mortal neighborhood Halloween party at their house, Marnie tries to impress a cute new boy, Kal, by showing him Aggie's magically-hidden room with a spellbook in it . Soon Aggie notices unwelcome magical symptoms. She and Marnie travel to Halloweentown to investigate and to fix the problem before the portal between Halloweentown and the mortal world, open only on Halloween, closes at midnight.


title: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge

text: They discover that the whole town has been turned into a black-and-white world, and that the inhabitants have been turned into dreary, discolored, monotonous humans. The victims include Marnie's goblin friend Luke. Aggie diagnoses this as the "Grey Spell". Aggie contacts her grandson Dylan back home for a spell from her spell book. Dylan and Sophie discover the book is missing. Marnie and Aggie learn that Kal is actually a warlock and the son of their enemy Kalabar (from the previous film). They learn that Kal stole Aggie's spell book to limit her ability to hinder his attempt to complete his father's revenge both on Halloweentown and on the mortal world. Aggie searches for a spare copy of her spell book at her house in Halloweentown, but it is missing and she despairs. During a conversation with Aggie, Marnie inadvertently reverts Luke back to his goblin form. Unable to explain the spell's reversal, the group soon believes that it is temporary.


title: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge

text: The trio travel to the lair of the well-known junk-magnet of the universe, Gort, who acquires lost items from both realms. He had been discolored by the Grey Spell and sold most of his junk. The group becomes trapped in Gort's house. Aggie loses her color as well and sorts through missing socks with Gort. Marnie uses time travel to go back to Gort's house before the Grey Spell happened. When Marnie and Luke arrive, they learn that Gort had sold the spare spell book to Kalabar about 50 years prior. By remembering what things Marnie had been hastefully saying back when Luke returned to his normal goblin form, they realize that the Grey Spell can be reverted by saying "Trapa", which is "Apart" spelled backwards.


title: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge

text: Kal, having enspelled Halloweentown into a monochrome caricature of the mortal world, is now at work enspelling the mortal world into a monster movie caricature of Halloweentown. Sophie and Dylan realize that Alex, believed to be Kal's father, is actually a golem intended to distract their mother Gwen at a high-school Halloween party. Kal puts his spell into effect, turning the party guests into the monsters they are dressed as, resulting in chaos. Dylan and Sophie hide from the monster humans including their mother.


title: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge

text: Marnie frees Aggie, but they are too late - the portal to the mortal world closes, trapping them in Halloweentown. Marnie refuses to accept they are locked in. She contacts her siblings and they develop a new spell that forces the portal between Halloweentown and the mortal world to reopen permanently. Kal angrily confronts Marnie, who mocks him and demands the spell book. Kal produces slimy living-serpent vines of dark magic and uses them to take both spell books in an attempt to prove his own superiority, which fails when Marnie takes them from him. Kal is sent away by the vines and the family breaks his spells in the mortal world and in Halloweentown. Kal will return for his revenge.


title: Halloweentown II: Kalabar's Revenge

text: In a 2020 Galaxy Con question-and answer panel, Daniel Kountz revealed he had four or five auditions for the film.


title: High-pressure area

text: A high-pressure area, high, or anticyclone, is an area near the surface of a planet where the atmospheric pressure is greater than the pressure in the surrounding regions. Highs are middle-scale meteorological features that result from interplays between the relatively larger-scale dynamics of an entire planet's atmospheric circulation.


title: High-pressure area

text: The strongest high-pressure areas result from masses of cold air which spread out from polar regions into cool neighboring regions. These highs weaken once they extend out over warmer bodies of water.


title: High-pressure area

text: Weaker—but more frequently occurring—are high-pressure areas caused by atmospheric subsidence: Air becomes cool enough to precipitate out its water vapor, and large masses of cooler, drier air descend from above.


title: High-pressure area

text: Within high-pressure areas, winds flow from where the pressure is highest, at the center of the area, toward the periphery where the pressure is lower. However, if the planet is rotating, the straight direction of the air flow from the center to the periphery is bent by the Coriolis effect. Viewed from above, the wind direction is bent in the direction opposite to the planet's rotation; this causes the characteristic spiral shape of the tropical cyclones otherwise known as hurricanes and typhoons.


title: High-pressure area

text: On English-language weather maps, high-pressure centers are identified by the letter "H". Weather maps in other languages may use different letters or symbols.


title: High-pressure area

text: The direction of wind flow around an atmospheric high-pressure area and a low-pressure area, as seen from above, depends on the hemisphere. High-pressure systems rotate clockwise in the northern Hemisphere; low-pressure systems rotate clockwise in the southern hemisphere.


title: High-pressure area

text: High pressure systems may be either warm or cold types, the former originating in the subtropics and the latter at high latitudes, the time of year dictating which type is more dominant. Humidity and temperature of the high pressure system will depend on its source of origin. Warm high pressure systems from the horse latitudes (see below) create typical summer heat waves while cold high pressure systems bring freezing spells in winter and cooler, lower humidity in summer. If a high sits over the same area for several days it will take on the characteristics of that terrain. Cold high pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere originate from Siberia, interior Canada, or the north Atlantic or Pacific, the latter two types trailing behind cyclonic systems. In the Southern Hemisphere, which is mostly water, these originate principally from the southern oceans.


title: High-pressure area

text: The latitudes of 30N and 30S have semi-permanent high pressure around them known as the subtropical ridge, although their size and exact location varies with the seasons. On the West Coast of the United States, the subtropical ridge expands in spring and brings the region's characteristic rainless summer weather. As it shrinks in fall, the West Coast is subject to cold fronts from the Pacific which bring rain during the cool months. On the East Coast, it brings warm, humid air in late spring and throughout summer. In fall, as the subtropical ridge retreats, cold air from Canada takes over. In Europe, the effect is similar as the subtropical ridge brings the Mediterranean hot, dry summer weather and cool, wet winters. Europe north of the Pyrenees is at a higher latitude so the effect of the ridge is somewhat less significant and this region is mainly characterized by a cooler maritime climate. However, a particularly hot summer such as 2003 or 2019 which sees the subtropical ridge expand more than usual can bring heat waves as far north as Scandinavia--conversely, while Europe had record-breaking summer heat in 2003 due to a particularly strong subtropical ridge, its counterpart in North America was unusually weak and temperatures across the continent that spring and summer were wet and well below normal.


title: High-pressure area

text: In the Southern Hemisphere the result is similar. Australia and the southern cone of South America get hot, dry summer weather from the subtropical ridge and cooler wetter winter weather as cold fronts from the southern oceans take over.


title: High-pressure area

text: Winter sees the dominance of cold highs from the sub-Arctic. In Western Europe and the West Coast of North America, these originate in the Gulf of Alaska or the Greenland/Iceland area and move south to southeast. Since they are principally masses of ocean air, they will bring cool, damp conditions with widespread fog. In East Asia and interior North America, these air masses come from Siberia or Canada and bring very cold, dry air in their wake.


title: High-pressure area

text: The scientific terms in English used to describe the weather systems generated by highs and lows were introduced in the mid-19th century, mostly by the British. The scientific theories which explain the general phenomena originated about two centuries earlier.


title: High-pressure area

text: The term cyclone was coined by Henry Piddington of the British East India Company to describe the devastating storm of December 1789 in Coringa, India. A cyclone forms around a low-pressure area. Anticyclone, the term for the kind of weather around a high-pressure area, was coined in 1877 by Francis Galton to indicate an area whose winds revolved in the opposite direction of a cyclone. In British English, the opposite direction of clockwise is referred to as anticlockwise, making the label "anticyclones" a logical extension.


title: High-pressure area

text: A simple rule is that for high-pressure areas, where generally air flows from the center outward, the coriolis force given by the earth's rotation to the air circulation is in the opposite direction of earth's apparent rotation if viewed from above the hemisphere's pole. So, both the earth and winds around a low-pressure area rotate counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern. The opposite to these two cases occurs in the case of a high. These results derive from the Coriolis effect; that article explains in detail the physics, and provides an animation of a model to aid understanding.


title: High-pressure area

text: High-pressure areas form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs. Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.


title: High-pressure area

text: On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as convergence, near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere, and about half the atmospheric pressure at the surface.


title: High-pressure area

text: High-pressure systems are alternatively referred to as anticyclones. On English-language weather maps, high-pressure centers are identified by the letter H in English, within the isobar with the highest pressure value. On constant pressure upper level charts, it is located within the highest height line contour.


title: High-pressure area

text: Highs are frequently associated with light winds at the surface and subsidence through the lower portion of the troposphere. In general, subsidence will dry out an air mass by adiabatic, or compressional, heating. Thus, high pressure typically brings clear skies. During the day, since no clouds are present to reflect sunlight, there is more incoming shortwave solar radiation and temperatures rise. At night, the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation (i.e. heat energy from the surface) is not absorbed, giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons. When surface winds become light, the subsidence produced directly under a high-pressure system can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to widespread haze. If the low level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight, fog can form.


title: High-pressure area

text: Strong, vertically shallow high-pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses. Once arctic air moves over an unfrozen ocean, the air mass modifies greatly over the warmer water and takes on the character of a maritime air mass, which reduces the strength of the high-pressure system. When extremely cold air moves over relatively warm oceans, polar lows can develop. However, warm and moist (or maritime tropical) air masses that move poleward from tropical sources are slower to modify than arctic air masses.


title: High-pressure area

text: The horse latitudes, or torrid zone, is roughly at the 30th parallel and is the source of warm high pressure systems. As the hot air rises it cools, losing moisture; it is then transported poleward where it descends, creating the high-pressure area. This is part of the Hadley cell circulation and is known as the subtropical ridge or subtropical high. It follows the track of the sun over the year, expanding north (south in the Southern Hemisphere) in spring and retreating south (north in the Southern Hemisphere) in fall. The subtropical ridge is a warm core high-pressure system, meaning it strengthens with height. Many of the world's deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure systems.


title: High-pressure area

text: Some climatological high-pressure areas acquire regionally based names. The land-based Siberian High often remains quasi-stationary for more than a month during the most frigid time of the year, making it unique in that regard. It is also a bit larger and more persistent than its counterpart in North America. Surface winds accelerating down valleys down the western Pacific Ocean coastline, causing the winter monsoon. Arctic high-pressure systems such as the Siberian High are cold core, meaning that they weaken with height. The influence of the Azores High, also known as the Bermuda High, brings fair weather over much of the North Atlantic Ocean and mid to late summer heat waves in western Europe. Along its southerly periphery, the clockwise circulation often impels easterly waves, and tropical cyclones that develop from them, across the ocean towards landmasses in the western portion of ocean basins during the hurricane season. The highest barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth was measured in Tosontsengel, Zavkhan, Mongolia on 19 December 2001.


title: High-pressure area

text: Wind flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. This is due to density differences between the two air masses. Since stronger high-pressure systems contain cooler or drier air, the air mass is more dense and flows towards areas that are warm or moist, which are in the vicinity of low pressure areas in advance of their associated cold fronts. The stronger the pressure difference, or pressure gradient, between a high-pressure system and a low-pressure system, the stronger the wind. The coriolis force caused by the Earth's rotation is what gives winds within high-pressure systems their clockwise circulation in the northern hemisphere (as the wind moves outward and is deflected right from the center of high pressure) and counterclockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere (as the wind moves outward and is deflected left from the center of high pressure). Friction with land slows down the wind flowing out of high-pressure systems and causes wind to flow more outward than would be the case in the absence of friction. This is known as a geostrophic wind.


title: Jump blues

text: Jump blues is an up-tempo style of blues, usually played by small groups and featuring horn instruments. It was popular in the 1940s and was a precursor of rhythm and blues and rock and roll. Appreciation of jump blues was renewed in the 1990s as part of the swing revival.


title: Jump blues

text: Jump blues evolved from the music of big bands such as those of Lionel Hampton and Lucky Millinder in the early 1940s which produced musicians such as Louis Jordan, Jack McVea, Earl Bostic, and Arnett Cobb. Jordan was the most popular of the jump blues stars; other artists who played the genre include Roy Brown, Amos Milburn, and Joe Liggins, as well as sax soloists Jack McVea, Big Jay McNeely, and Bull Moose Jackson. Hits included singles such as Jordan's "Saturday Night Fish Fry", Roy Brown's "Good Rockin' Tonight" and Big Jay McNeely's "Deacon's Hop".


title: Jump blues

text: One important stylistic prototype in the development of R&B was jump blues, pioneered by Louis Jordan, with ... His Tympany Five ... three horns and a rhythm section, while stylistically his music melded elements of swing and blues, incorporating the shuffle rhythm, boogie-woogie bass lines, and short horn patterns or riffs. The songs featured the use of African American vernacular language, humor, and vocal call-and-response sections between Jordan and the band. Jordan’s music appealed to both African American and white audiences, and he had broad success with hit songs like "Is You Is or Is You Ain’t My Baby" (1944).


title: Jump blues

text: Blues and jazz were part of the same musical world, with many musicians straddling both genres. Jump bands such as the Tympany Five, which came into being at the same time as the boogie-woogie revival, achieved maximum effect with an eight-to-the-bar boogie-woogie style.


title: Jump blues

text: Jordan's "raucous recordings" with the Tympany Five like "Saturday Night Fish Fry", one of the first to feature a distorted electric guitar, "literally made its listeners jump to its pulsing beat". Jordan's jump blues combined good-natured novelty lyrics (some with suggestive double meanings); pushing the tempo; strengthening the beat; layering the sound with his bluesy saxophone and playful melodies.


title: Jump blues

text: Lionel Hampton recorded the stomping big-band blues song "Flying Home" in 1942. Featuring a choked, screaming tenor sax performance by Illinois Jacquet, the song was a hit in the "race" category. "Billboard" described "Flying Home" as "an unusually swingy side...with a bright bounce in the medium tempo and a steady drive maintained, it's a jumper that defies standing still".


title: Jump blues

text: Both Hampton and Jordan combined the popular boogie-woogie rhythm, a grittier version of swing-era saxophone styles as exemplified by Coleman Hawkins and Ben Webster, and playful, humorous lyrics or verbal asides laced with jive talk.


title: Jump blues

text: As this urban, jazz-based music became more popular, musicians who wanted to "play for the people" began favoring a heavy, insistent beat. which appealed to black listeners who no longer wished to be identified with "life down home".


title: Jump blues

text: Jump groups, employed to play for jitterbug dances at a much lower cost than big bands, became popular with agents and ballroom owners. The saxophonist Art Chaney said "[w]e were insulted when an audience wouldn't dance".


title: Jump blues

text: Jump was especially popular in the late 1940s and early 1950s, through artists such as Louis Jordan, Big Joe Turner, Roy Brown, Charles Brown, Helen Humes, T-Bone Walker, Roy Milton, Billy Wright, Wynonie Harris, Louis Prima, and Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee.


title: Jump blues

text: The term "rock and roll" had a strong sexual connotation in jump blues and R&B, but by the time DJ Alan Freed referred to rock and roll in the mid 50s, "the sexual component had been dialled down enough that it simply became an acceptable term for dancing".


title: Perkele

text: Perkele () is a Finnish word meaning "evil spirit" and a popular Finnish profanity, used similarly to English "god damn", although it is considered much more profane. It is most likely the most internationally known Finnish curse word.


title: Perkele

text: Some researchers consider "Perkele" to be an original name of the thunder god Ukko, the chief god of the Finnish pagan pantheon, but this view is not shared by all researchers. There are related words in other Finnic languages: in Estonian, "põrgu" means hell, in Karelian "perkeleh" means an evil spirit.


title: Perkele

text: As Finland was Christianized, the old Finnish deities were regarded as demons. This led to the use of ""Perkele"" as a translation for "Devil" in the Finnish translation of the Bible. Later, in other translations, the word was rendered as "paholainen" (the evil one).


title: Zollverein

text: The (), or German Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. Organized by the 1833 treaties, it formally started on 1 January 1834. However, its foundations had been in development from 1818 with the creation of a variety of custom unions among the German states. By 1866, the included most of the German states. The Zollverein was not part of the German Confederation (1815-1866).


title: Zollverein

text: The foundation of the was the first instance in history in which independent states consummated a full economic union without the simultaneous creation of a political federation or union.


title: Zollverein

text: Prussia was the primary driver behind the creation of the customs union. Austria was excluded from the because of its highly protectionist trade policy, the unwillingness to split its customs territory into the separate Austrian, Hungarian and Galician-Lodomerian ones, as well as due to opposition of Prince von Metternich to the idea. By the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867, the covered states of approximately , and had produced economic agreements with several non-German states, including Sweden–Norway. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Empire assumed the control of the customs union. However, not all states within the Empire were part of the until 1888 (Hamburg for example). Conversely, though Luxembourg was a state independent of the German Reich, it remained in the until 1919.


title: Zollverein

text: The splintering of territory and states over generations meant that by the 1790s in the German-speaking Holy Roman Empire in Central Europe, there were approximately 1800 customs barriers. Even within the Prussian state itself, there were, at the beginning of the 19th century, more than 67 local customs and tariffs, with as many customs borders. To travel from Königsberg in East Prussia to Cologne, for example, a shipment was inspected and taxed about 80 times. Each customs inspection at each border slowed the shipment's progress from source to destination, and each assessment on the shipment reduced profit and increased the price of goods, dramatically stifling trade.


title: Zollverein

text: When France defeated the Second Coalition, made up of Russian, Austrian and German forces, and annexed territories up to the Rhine, there was a general consolidation of the myriad of tiny states in Germany in the Mediatization of 1803. This was also called the "Principal Conclusion of the Extraordinary Imperial Delegation" (or, in German, , usually called the ). This last piece of major legislation enacted by the Holy Roman Empire re-arranged the map of Central Europe, especially in the southwestern territories. The resulted in the secularization of many ecclesiastical territories, and the so-called "mediatization", i.e. the annexation to larger neighboring territories, of many of the formerly free imperial territories, including most of the imperial cities. Considerable portions of the Habsburg family territories in southwestern Central Europe were "mediatized", or given as compensation, to the princes and dukes who had lost territories in the French expansion. Most of the imperial cities, imperial abbeys, and ecclesiastical states and cities were mediatized or secularized in 1803. With the final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, most of the remaining tiny principalities were annexed by larger neighbors.


title: Zollverein

text: Historians have analyzed three Prussian goals in the development of the : first, as a political tool to eliminate Austrian influence in Germany; second, as a way to improve the economies; and third, to strengthen Germany against potential French aggression while reducing the economic independence of smaller states. The created a larger market for German-made farm and handicraft products and promoted commercial unification under fiscally sound economic parameters. While the Union sought to limit trade and commercial barriers between and among member states, it continued to uphold the protectionist barriers against outsiders.


title: Zollverein

text: According to economic historian Florian Ploeckl, the commonly accepted view among economic historians is that Prussia was motivated to create Zollverein in order to achieve economies of scale in customs administration, thus leading to substantial fiscal savings.


title: Zollverein

text: During the Napoleonic Era, efforts in the Rhineland toward economic unity had mixed success. The Confederation of the Rhine, and the other satellite creations of Napoleonic France, sought to establish economic autarky in European trade. By 1806, as Napoleon I sought to secure his hegemony in Europe, the Continental System offered a semblance of unified effort toward a widespread domestic market for European goods. However, the main purpose of the Continental System was military, not economic. Napoleon wanted a trade embargo against Britain, through which he hoped to wreck the British economy. The combination of war and isolation from Britain's trading system destroyed markets for external raw materials and for manufactured goods, resulting in the near ruin of the Central European economy. Especially hard hit were the trading economies of the Lowlands and Rhineland states, which had relied heavily upon imports of raw materials from throughout the world, and on the export of finished products. The domestic markets in Central Europe were not large enough to sustain consumption of their own production. These problems were dramatically exacerbated by the numerous excise taxes and tolls which were the main source of state income. Reduction in trade meant the near bankruptcy of the smaller states.


title: Zollverein

text: At the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815, diplomatsprincipally those from the Great Powersconfirmed the remapping of Europe, and broadly, the rest of the world, into spheres of influence. Central Europe, or German-speaking Europe, remained largely within the influence of the Austrian Habsburgs, balanced at the periphery by the Russian empire in the east, and the French in the west. Prussia was expected to play some role in these spheres of influence, but the ambiguities of the Austrian and Prussian relationship were unresolved. The German states retained autonomy; however, the old imperial institution of the "Reichstag" was converted to the form of a Confederation "Diet," to meet in Frankfurt. The Habsburg archdukes, now Emperors of Austria, were to serve as permanent presidents of this institution. Isolated voices, such as Joseph Görres and Freiherr vom Stein, called for the abolition of domestic tolls and the creation of a German tariff on imports. The mandate from the Vienna Congress, however, established the German Confederation, but did not deal with the economic circumstances, nor did it make any effort to achieve economic and trade standardization. Instead, the articles that established the Confederation suggested that trade and transportation questions be discussed at a later date.


title: Zollverein

text: Prussia and the central and southwestern states of Hesse-Kassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, Württemberg, Baden, and Bavaria were leaders in the modernization of the toll system within the German states. In the Prussian case, the experience of the Confederation of the Rhine in removing customs barriers offered an example of how it could be done, and Hans, Count von Bülow, who until 1811 had been the Finance Minister in Westphalia, and who had accepted this position in 1813 in Prussia, modeled the Prussian customs statutes on those of the former states of the Confederation. The addition of territory to the existing Prussian state made elimination of customs barriers a powerful factor in Prussian politics. The significant differences between "old" Prussia and the newly acquired territories complicated the debate. The "newer" Prussian provinces in the Rhineland and Westphalia, with their developing manufacturing sectors, contended with the heavily agricultural territories of "old" Prussia. The dissimilarities in the two sides of Prussia confirmed regional perceptions for the need for their own political and administrative units, which became an important element of the customs debate. Within "old" Prussia itself, the customs statutes from 1818 reduced domestic customs barriers. After 1818, goods coming into Prussia and leaving Prussia were charged a high tariff. Goods moved freely within the state itself. The Prussian toll was therefore very simple and efficient. Manufactured goods were heavily taxed, especially textiles, and the most important taxes were for food, necessities and luxury goods.


title: Zollverein

text: Similarly, in the southwest German states, it became urgent to integrate the newly acquired territories into the states' existing economic systems. The territorial growth of the southwestern middle-sized states, in particular the two Hessian principalities, but also the growth of Baden and Württemberg, had split the territorial continuity of Prussia; the Prussian state was no longer linked entirely by territory, but rather was separated from many of its "newer" acquisitions by territories newly acquired by other states. These states often saw their own interests as conflicting generally and specifically with Prussian expansionism, and resented Prussian dominance and authority. Furthermore, these newly expanded states, usually referred as "middle-sized states" (or, in German, ), faced problems in integrating their newly acquired territories and populations into an existing political, economic and legal structure.


title: Zollverein

text: These problems were exacerbated by European wide economic woes following the Napoleonic Wars. Unemployment and high prices, especially for foodstuffs, characterized an economy not yet converted back to peacetime needs. The problem in Britain was particularly severe and the British response created a ripple effect that worsened problems in the German states: In trying to manage the post-war economy, the British government was caught between the Malthusian understanding of the relationship of wages, prices, and population, and the Ricardian model. On the one hand, adherents to the Malthusian model believed it was dangerous for Britain to rely on imported corn, because lower prices would reduce wages, and landlords and farmers would lose purchasing power. On the other hand, adherents to the Ricardian model thought that Britain could use its capital and population to advantage in a system of free trade. The problems in Britain established precedent for problems in the German states; the British limitation on grain imports, through the Corn Laws, blocked economic recovery in the German states, particularly in eastern Prussia, by limiting the amount of grain that could be imported into Britain. Not only did the Corn Laws keep the price of grain in Britain high, they undermined the viability of "Junker" producers in east Prussia, and limited their access to external markets.


title: Zollverein

text: The commercial reform efforts sponsored by Bavaria in 1856 led to the General German Commercial Code in 1861 that was quickly approved by a majority of the confederation. It proved highly successful in reducing barriers and increasing trade.


title: Zollverein

text: At the close of the Napoleonic Wars, Germany was made up of 39 states, among them four city-states. Having abolished its own internal tariffs in 1818, Prussia began inviting individual states to eliminate tariffs, with the agreements setting the foundation for "Zollverein" cementing strong economic ties between the various Prussian and Hohenzollern territories, and ensuring economic contact between non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern family, also the ruling family of Prussia. It was formed to remove the various obstacles (such as different weights and measures in German states) to economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes, creating a national unity in economic matter at a time when Germany was divided.


title: Zollverein

text: Surmounting the domestic customs, and the individual states' dependence on those customs as their primary source of income, proved to be a difficult problem. The myriad of customs barriers restricted trade and hampered the industrial development, but the rulers of the states were reluctant to forgo their income from the customs. The impasse was overcome through external forces. With the repeal of the Continental System, the German tradesmen stood in direct conflict with the English industry. A united German Trade and Tradesmens Union demanded protection from English exports. Their spokesman, the economist Friedrich List, feared that the German people would end up as "drawers of water and hewers of wood for Britain". Similarly, Karl Friedrich Nebenius, later president of the Ducal Ministry in the Grand Duchy of Baden and the author of Baden's 1819 proposed customs initiative with the German Confederation, offered a widely publicized description about the difficulties of surmounting such protections:


title: Zollverein

text: In 1820, Württemberg planned to start a customs union among the so-called Third Germany: the middle-sized German states, including itself, Baden, Bavaria, and the two Hessian states (Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Kassel). This customs union excluded both Austria and Prussia, primarily because the two major German powers were considered too overbearing. Plans foundered on the differing interests of the affected states. While the economic development in Baden proceeded relatively well, with its long borders and well entrenched infrastructure for trade, economic development in Bavaria lagged well behind it, and the Bavarian regime enacted a protective tariff on goods produced outside its border. The result was a short lived trade agreement between Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. Nevertheless, a second agreement, reached in Stuttgart in 1825, established rapport between Württemberg and Bavaria, with the foundation of the South German Customs Union. In opposition to the Prussian activities, Hanover, Saxony, Hesse, and other states (Austria, France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands), developed their own economic agreements. While they promised one another not to join the Prussian union, they did develop trade agreements of their own. The Union remained unsuccessful, because it only sought to maintain the "status quo", not to fix the problems created by toll barriers. In 1834, Baden and Württemberg joined the Prussian union, which was renamed the German Customs Union. The "Tax Union" or Steuerverein was formed in 1834 as a customs union first of the Duchy of Brunswick and the Kingdom of Hanover, then with the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg in 1836.


title: Zollverein

text: By 1835, the German Customs Union had expanded to include the majority of the states of the German Confederation, even Saxony, the Thuringian states, Württemberg and Baden, Bavaria, and the Hessian states. Functionally, it removed many internal customs barriers, while upholding a protectionist tariff system with foreign trade partners.


title: Zollverein

text: The original customs union was not ended in 1866 with outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, but a substantial reorganization emerged in 1867. The new "Zollverein" was stronger, in that no individual state had a veto. When eventually Hamburg acceded to the Customs Union in 1888 it negotiated the exemption of an area of 4 square miles at the centre of its port, which remained outside of the Zollverein. Bremen (which includes Bremerhaven) had a similar agreement.


title: Zollverein

text: According to one study, "The Zollverein was the most important institutional development for Germany's economic unification during the middle of the 19th century. It had a strong impact on regional development, changing regional fortunes by the opening and closing of markets."


title: Zollverein

text: According to economic historians Helmut Böhme and H.-U. Wehler, the "Zollverein" set the groundwork for the unification of Germany under Prussian guidance. This traditional view is disputed by historians such as Hans-Joachim Voth who contend that far from allowing Prussia to increase its political influence over the smaller states, the customs union may have had the contrary effect: many governments used the increased revenue brought by the customs union to try to consolidate their independence. The smaller states entered the customs union for purely fiscal reasons, and as the events of 1866 were to demonstrate, membership in the "Zollverein" did not in the least lead to any form of political commitment toward Berlin, as many states remained suspicious of Prussia and generally pro-Austrian.


title: Zollverein

text: The impact of the "Zollverein" on German unification may have been more incidental because it never intended to be a political platform but focused on the economy. As it constituted the main feature of Berlin's "German policy" for many years, Prussian ministers and other government officials became accustomed to think in terms of Germany as a whole and to look beyond specifically Prussian benefits when looking for a consensus across Germany.


title: Zollverein

text: According to revisionist historians, the "Zollverein" may not even have been instrumental in bringing about Prussia's economic preeminence in Germany. They argue that nothing seems to indicate that industrial investments increased decisively during the period in Prussia, or that the customs union played a significant role in reducing the dominance of agriculture in the kingdom's economy.


title: Zollverein

text: In 1840 the poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben published, in his "Unpolitische Lieder", a song entitled "" which ironically compares the economic advantages of a customs union to the political unity which the German Confederation had failed to achieve.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field , also known as Snohomish County Airport, is a commercial and general aviation airport serving the Seattle metropolitan area in the U.S. state of Washington. It is located in unincorporated Snohomish County, Washington, between the cities of Mukilteo and Everett, about north of Seattle. PAE covers of land.


title: Paine Field

text: The airport was built in 1936 by the Works Progress Administration and began commercial service in 1939. It was named for Topliff Olin Paine in 1941, shortly before the Army Air Corps began the occupation of Paine Field for military use. The airport briefly returned to civilian use in the late 1940s, before conversion into an air force base during the Korean War. In 1966, the Boeing Company selected Paine Field for the site of its Everett assembly plant as part of the Boeing 747 program. By the 1970s, the airport had grown into a hub for light aviation and manufacturing, lacking commercial service. The county government sought to begin commercial service at Paine Field as early as the 1980s but was halted by opposition from neighboring cities.


title: Paine Field

text: In March 2019, Paine Field resumed commercial service at a newly constructed terminal. It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2019–2023, in which it is categorized as a national reliever airport facility.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field has two runways: 16R-34L and 16L-34R. 16R-34L, at in length, is suited for the majority of aircraft and sees occasional heavy traffic. The first 1,000 feet of runway 16R is concrete, while the remainder is asphalt. It is in very good condition. Runway 16L-34R is in length, and suitable only for small aircraft. Its pavement is in fair condition, with a noticeable rise in elevation mid-field, when compared with the ends. Runway 11-29 was decommissioned on September 10, 2020, and Boeing is leasing some of the former runway space to park partially completed aircraft. The Paine (PAE) VOR/DME is located on the field. It is unusually mounted on top of a Boeing hangar.


title: Paine Field

text: The airport has 456 general aviation hangars, of which 326 are leased by the County, and 130 are "condominium" hangars. Wait time for a hangar currently ranges between 6 months and 5 years, depending on type.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field is home to the Boeing Everett Factory, the world's largest building by volume, and the primary assembly location for Boeing's wide-body 747, 767 and 777 aircraft.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field is also home to Aviation Technical Services (ATS), one of the nation's largest aviation maintenance facilities. ATS operates a facility, formerly operated by Goodrich (formerly known as Tramco), and sold to ATS in the fall of 2007. ATS does 'heavy' checks for a number of airlines and cargo companies. According to their web page, they average 443 aircraft redeliveries each year.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field is home to four flight schools – Chinook Flight Simulations, Regal Air, Northway Aviation, and Everett Helicopters – making it a popular destination for flight training. There are also a number of flying clubs on the field.


title: Paine Field

text: The FAA-operated control tower maintains limited hours, operating only between 7 AM and 9 PM local time. During times that the tower is operational, both runways are active, but after hours, only runway 16R-34L is open.


title: Paine Field

text: The airport has several natural reserves and sanctuaries around its perimeter, including ponds that were certified in 2019 as Salmon-Safe.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field was originally constructed in 1936 as a Works Progress Administration project. At the time of development, it was envisioned that the Airport would create jobs and economic growth in the region by becoming one of the ten new "super airports" around the country.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field was taken over by the U.S. Army Air Corps prior to entry into World War II as a patrol, air defense, and fighter training base and was later controlled by the U.S. Army Air Forces. With the end of the war, the airfield began to be returned to the civilian control of Snohomish County. In 1947, as transition activities were still underway, military control of the then-Paine Army Airfield was transferred to the newly established U.S. Air Force, with the facility renamed Paine Field. Transfer of the property to the Snohomish County government was completed in 1948, however, the Air Force continued to maintain various Air Defense Command units at the airport as military tenants.


title: Paine Field

text: Before Snohomish County could start planning for the continued development of a "super airport", the United States was again involved in an armed conflict—this time in Korea and also the breakout of the Cold War with the Soviet Union. When the Pacific Northwest defense installations were reviewed House Representative Henry M. Jackson recommended more military presence in the area and Paine Field was reactivated as a military airbase.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine Field was returned to USAF control in 1951, renamed Paine Air Force Base, and placed under the jurisdiction of the Air Defense Command (ADC). While the county relinquished most of its commercial facilities to house USAF personnel, units, and assets, the site did not have an exclusive military presence. The airfield remained a joint civil-military airport with the Air Force operating the control tower and other air traffic control facilities, while the county, in a shared-use agreement, rented commercial leasehold areas to businesses such as Alaska Airlines. The 4753rd Air Base Squadron (later re-designated the 86th Air Base Squadron) was activated on the new Air Force base on February 1, 1952, as a placeholder unit.


title: Paine Field

text: Although inactive for only six years, significant military construction (MILCON) was necessary to bring the World War II training base up to postwar USAF standards. In 1951, additional land surrounding the Paine AFB site was appropriated for military facilities and extended runways. A 9,000-foot jet runway (Rwy 16/34) was constructed along with accompanying taxiways, permanent concrete buildings, and other support facilities to replace the temporary wartime wooden structures that were viewed as substandard for a permanent USAF base. The 529th Air Defense Group was activated on February 16, 1953, and became the permanent host unit at Paine AFB until redesigned as the 326th Fighter Group in 1955.


title: Paine Field

text: Various Regular Air Force fighter-interceptor units and Air Force Reserve troop carrier units operated at Paine AFB from 1951 until the mid-1960s. In 1966, USAF identified Paine AFB for closure due to budgetary constraints caused by the cost of the Vietnam War. The by then-host unit, the 57th Fighter Group phased down operations with the departure of the interceptors and was inactivated in place on September 30, 1968. Paine AFB has inactivated on the same date and the facility was returned to full civilian control as Paine Field / Snohomish County Airport. The (215 EIS) of the Washington Air National Guard, formerly situated at Paine Field, was deactivated in 2013.


title: Paine Field

text: Paine AFB / Paine Field had also been under consideration in the 1960s by the U.S. Army Air Defense Command as one of several sites for the Sentinel Anti-Ballistic Missile System due to its central location to several other major military bases and defense industries in the Puget Sound Region. That program was eventually dropped in favor of the limited Safeguard system.


title: Paine Field

text: On July 25, 1966, Boeing announced that it would build the Boeing 747, a jet airliner capable of carrying nearly twice as many passengers as previous models. To build the giant jet, Boeing had to construct a facility large enough to handle the world's largest commercial jetliner. The land just north of Paine Field was chosen to construct the new facilities, including some development on the airport itself. Both the local government and the FAA concurred with the development. Work on the massive building began in August 1966 and the first employees arrived in early 1967. The 747 made its first flight at Paine Field on February 9, 1969.


title: Paine Field

text: In late 2005, construction of the Future of Flight Aviation Center & Boeing Tour building was completed. The project, formerly known as the National Flight Interpretive Center, includes the Boeing factory tour as well as a gallery that highlights the newest developments in aviation, including both parts and components of airplanes, manufactured by Airbus and Boeing. The facility was opened to a private audience on December 16, 2005, and the following day the facility was open to the public. The Museum of Flight also has a restoration center at the airport's main gate; located further south is the Me 262 Project. Paul Allen's Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum has a large, refurbished hangar at the south end of the field, which opened as a museum in June 2008. The Historic Flight Foundation also housed and maintained early military aircraft. However, the Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum closed in May 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and in April 2022 it was reported that the collection was sold and the museum would not re-open. The Historic Flight Foundation closed their museum at Paine Field in 2020 as well, with their museum at Felts Field in Spokane, Washington now being their only location.


title: Paine Field

text: Several local governments have adopted resolutions against the use of Paine Field for commercial flights including Snohomish County (the airport's operator), the neighboring cities of Brier, Edmonds, Lynnwood, Mountlake Terrace, Mukilteo, and Woodway. Additionally, a local citizens group called "Save Our Communities" has worked to oppose any commercial flights at the airport.


title: Paine Field

text: Notably, the city of Everett, the largest in the county and the county seat, has adopted a resolution in favor of the use of Paine Field for commercial air service.


title: Paine Field

text: The use and expansion of the airport is currently governed by an agreement that was forged during 1978–1979 negotiations, called the Mediated Role Determination (MRD). The MRD recommends the role of Paine Field to be as a general aviation and aerospace manufacturing airport, while discouraging other types of activities including supplemental/charter air passenger service. In 2005, Snohomish County commissioned a panel to review the MRD. That panel recommended that the MRD "should not be ratified or revised, but should be retired as a policy document". In June 2008, the Snohomish County Council rejected the findings of its panel, and as in 1989, 1992, and 2001, restated its opposition to commercial air passenger services operating from Paine Field with this resolution:


title: Paine Field

text: Reaffirm our county's commitment to preserving the existing general aviation role of Paine Field, and [to] pursue any and all lawful and appropriate means to discourage any action that would facilitate, directly or indirectly, use of Paine Field for scheduled air passenger service or air cargo service, which may include an interlocal agreement.


title: Paine Field

text: Further reflecting its opposition to commercial air service, Snohomish County has adopted a policy of not spending funds to subsidize airlines or to pay for the infrastructure needed to support commercial air service.


title: Paine Field

text: In 2008, two airlines, Allegiant Air and Horizon Air, expressed interest in establishing passenger flights to Paine Field to the airport authority. In May 2008, in response to these requests, the Chairman of the Snohomish County Council sent Allegiant Air a letter stating their opposition to the request to start air service. The FAA wrote to the airport authority in June 2008 to reiterate that as a recipient of federal FAA grants, the County may not prohibit commercial aeronautical activities offering services to the public. If the County blocked commercial flights, it would risk an enforcement action under Federal Aviation Regulation 16.


title: Paine Field

text: The airport completed a draft environmental assessment of the effects of commercial aviation at Paine Field in December 2009, and the public comment period ended on February 5, 2010. Opposition to Paine Field hosting commercial air service was overwhelming in meetings held for comments on the draft environmental assessment. The neighboring city of Mukilteo hired an aviation attorney to represent the interests of the city during the environmental assessment process and promised to "make it time consuming, expensive and stretch it out. We'll fight the terminal legally."


title: Paine Field

text: On December 4, 2012, the FAA concluded that commercial airplanes could fly out of Paine Field without significantly adding to local noise and traffic. The findings cleared the way for commercial operations along with the construction of a terminal building. On February 5, 2013, the cities of Edmonds and Mukilteo, along with two individuals, filed notice with the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco that they intend to challenge the results of the Environmental Assessment.