title: Isaac Albéniz

text: In 1876, after a short stay at the Leipzig Conservatory, he went to study at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels after King Alfonso's personal secretary, Guillermo Morphy, obtained him a royal grant. Count Morphy thought highly of Albéniz, who would later dedicate "Sevilla" to Morphy's wife when it premiered in Paris in January 1886.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: In 1880 Albéniz went to Budapest, Hungary, to study with Franz Liszt, only to find out that Liszt was in Weimar, Germany.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: In 1883 he met the teacher and composer Felip Pedrell, who inspired him to write Spanish music such as the "Chants d'Espagne". The first movement (Prelude) of that suite, later retitled after the composer's death as "Asturias (Leyenda)", is now part of the classical guitar repertoire, even though it was originally composed for piano. Many of Albéniz's other compositions were also transcribed for guitar by Francisco Tárrega. At the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition, the piano manufacturer Érard sponsored a series of 20 concerts featuring Albéniz's music.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: The apex of Albéniz's concert career is considered to be 1889 to 1892 when he had concert tours throughout Europe. During the 1890s Albéniz lived in London and Paris. For London he wrote some musical comedies which brought him to the attention of the wealthy Francis Money-Coutts, 5th Baron Latymer. Money-Coutts commissioned and provided him with librettos for the opera "Henry Clifford" and for a projected trilogy of Arthurian operas. The first of these, "Merlin" (1898–1902), was thought to have been lost but has recently been reconstructed and performed. Albéniz never completed "Lancelot" (only the first act is finished, as a vocal and piano score), and he never began "Guinevere", the final part.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: In 1900 he started to suffer from Bright's disease and returned to writing piano music. Between 1905 and 1908 he composed his final masterpiece, "Iberia" (1908), a suite of twelve piano "impressions".


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: In 1883 the composer married his student Rosina Jordana. They had two children who lived into adulthood: Laura (a painter) and Alfonso (who played for Real Madrid in the early 1900s before embarking on a career as a diplomat). Another child, Blanca, died in 1886, and two other children died in infancy. His great-granddaughter is Cécilia Attias, former wife of Nicolas Sarkozy.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: Albéniz died from his kidney disease on 18 May 1909 at age 48 in Cambo-les-Bains, in Labourd, south-western France. Only a few weeks before his death, the French Government bestowed upon Albéniz the Legion of Honour, its highest honour. He is buried at the Montjuïc Cemetery, Barcelona.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: Albéniz's early works were mostly "salon style" music. Albéniz's first published composition, "Marcha Militar", appeared in 1868. A number of works written before this are now lost. He continued composing in traditional styles ranging from Jean-Philippe Rameau, Johann Sebastian Bach, Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt until the mid-1880s. He also wrote at least five zarzuelas, of which all but two are now lost.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: Perhaps the best source on the works is Albéniz himself. He is quoted as commenting on his earlier period works as:There are among them a few things that are not completely worthless. The music is a bit infantile, plain, spirited; but in the end, the people, our Spanish people, are something of all that. I believe that the people are right when they continue to be moved by "Córdoba, Mallorca", by the copla of the "Sevillanas", by the "Serenata", and "Granada". In all of them I now note that there is less musical science, less of the grand idea, but more colour, sunlight, flavour of olives. That music of youth, with its little sins and absurdities that almost point out the sentimental affectation ... appears to me like the carvings in the Alhambra, those peculiar arabesques that say nothing with their turns and shapes, but which are like the air, like the sun, like the blackbirds or like the nightingales of its gardens. They are more valuable than all else of Moorish Spain, which though we may not like it, is the true Spain.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: During the late 1880s, the strong influence of Spanish style is evident in Albéniz's music. In 1883 Albéniz met the teacher and composer Felipe Pedrell. Pedrell was a leading figure in the development of nationalist Spanish music. In his book "The Music of Spain", Gilbert Chase describes Pedrell's influence on Albéniz: "What Albéniz derived from Pedrell was above all a spiritual orientation, the realization of the wonderful values inherent in Spanish music." Felipe Pedrell inspired Albéniz to write Spanish music such as the "Suite española", Op. 47, noted for its delicate, intricate melody and abrupt dynamic changes.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: In addition to the Spanish spirit infused in Albéniz's music, he incorporated other qualities as well. In her biography of Albéniz, Pola Baytelman discerns four characteristics of the music from the middle period as follows:


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: 1. The dance rhythms of Spain, of which there are a wide variety. 2. The use of cante jondo, which means deep or profound singing. It is the most serious and moving variety of flamenco or Spanish gypsy song, often dealing with themes of death, anguish, or religion. 3. The use of exotic scales also associated with flamenco music. The Phrygian mode is the most prominent in Albéniz's music, although he also used the Aeolian and Mixolydian modes as well as the whole-tone scale. 4. The transfer of guitar idioms into piano writing.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: Following his marriage, Albéniz settled in Madrid, Spain and produced a substantial quantity of music in a relatively short period. By 1886 he had written over 50 piano pieces. Albéniz biographer Walter A. Clark says that pieces from this period received enthusiastic reception in the composer's many concerts. Chase describes music from this period,


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: Taking the guitar as his instrumental model, and drawing his inspiration largely from the peculiar traits of Andalusian folk music—but without using actual folk themes—Albéniz achieves a stylization of Spanish traditional idioms that while thoroughly artistic, gives a captivating impression of spontaneous improvisation... "Córdoba" is the piece that best represents the style of Albéniz in this period, with its hauntingly beautiful melody, set against the acrid dissonances of the plucked accompaniment imitating the notes of the Moorish guslas. Here is the heady scent of jasmines amid the swaying palm trees, the dream fantasy of an Andalusian "Arabian Nights" in which Albéniz loved to let his imagination dwell.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: While Albéniz's crowning achievement, "Iberia", was written in the last years of his life in France, many of its preceding works are well-known and of great interest. The five pieces in "Chants d'Espagne", ("Songs of Spain", published in 1892) are a solid example of the compositional ideas he was exploring in the "middle period" of his life. The suite shows what Albéniz biographer Walter Aaron Clark describes as the "first flowering of his unique creative genius", and the beginnings of compositional exploration that became the hallmark of his later works. This period also includes his operatic works—"Merlin, Henry Clifford", and "Pepita Jiménez". His orchestral works of this period include "Spanish Rhapsody" (1887) and "Catalonia" (1899), dedicated to Ramon Casas, who had painted his full-length portrait in 1894.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: As one of the leading composers of his era, Albéniz's influences on both contemporary composers and on the future of Spanish music are profound. As a result of his extended stay in France and the friendship he formed with numerous composers there, his composition technique and harmonic language has influenced aspiring younger composers such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. His activities as conductor, performer and composer significantly raised the profile of Spanish music abroad and encouraged Spanish music and musicians in his own country.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: Albéniz's works have become an important part of the repertoire of the classical guitar, many of which have been transcribed by Francisco Tárrega, Miguel Llobet and others. "Asturias (Leyenda)" in particular is heard most often on the guitar, as are "Granada", "Sevilla", "Cadiz", "Cataluña", "Córdoba", "Mallorca", and "Tango in D". Gordon Crosskey and Cuban-born guitarist Manuel Barrueco have both made solo guitar arrangements of all the eight-movements in "Suite española". Selections from "Iberia" have rarely been attempted on solo guitar but have been very effectively performed by guitar ensembles, such as the performance by John Williams and Julian Bream of "Iberia's " opening "Evocation". The Doors incorporated "Asturias" into their song "Spanish Caravan"; also, Iron Maiden's "To Tame a Land" uses the introduction of the piece for the song bridge. More recently, a guitar version of "Granada" functions as something of a love theme in Woody Allen's 2008 film "Vicky Cristina Barcelona".


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: The theme from "Asturias" was incorporated or adapted in several soundtracks including the 2008 horror film "Mirrors", composed by Javier Navarrete, and the Netflix TV show "Godless", composed by Carlos Rafael Rivera.


title: Isaac Albéniz

text: In 1997 the "Fundación Isaac Albéniz" was founded to promote Spanish music and musicians and to act as a research centre for Albéniz and Spanish music in general.


title: Kate Firth

text: Kate Firth (born 1962) is a British professional voice coach and stage actress, and sister to actors Colin and Jonathan Firth. She has a therapeutic counsellor background in the field of human communication, and extensive experience in theatre, psychology and applied linguistics.


title: Kate Firth

text: She was born in Nigeria in 1962. Her parents, Shirley Jean (née Rolles) and David Norman Lewis Firth were both children of Methodist missionaries in India, and after their marriage worked as teachers in Nigeria and other cities. The family moved many times, from Essex to Billericay and Brentwood, and then to St. Louis, Missouri (USA) for a year when Kate was ten years old and her brother Colin was twelve. Upon returning to England the family settled in Winchester, where her father became a history lecturer at King Alfred's College and her mother was a comparative religion lecturer at King Alfred's College Winchester (now the University of Winchester).


title: Kate Firth

text: She attended Queen Mary College (1982–85), San Diego State University (1990–92), and Middlesex University (2011). She initially pursued a career in acting, studying drama at university. After an acting stint with the Royal National Theatre, she received a postgraduate diploma in Voice Studies from The Central School of Speech and Drama and a postgraduate certificate in Psychosynthesis Therapeutic Counselling. She married after university and moved to California.


title: Kate Firth

text: Upon returning to England in 1992, Firth joined the Bridge Theatre Company in Sherringham. She lives and works in London.


title: Kate Firth

text: For "The King's Speech" (2010), she coached her older brother Colin to prepare for his role as King George VI in the award-winning film and to master stammering.


title: Chlodio

text: Chlodio (probably died after 450), also Clodio, Clodius, Clodion, Cloio or Chlogio, was a Frankish king who attacked and then apparently ruled Roman-inhabited lands around Cambrai and Tournai, near the modern border of Belgium and France. He is known from very few records.


title: Chlodio

text: His influence probably reached as far south as the River Somme. He was therefore the first Frankish ruler to become established so deep within the Roman empire, and distant from the border regions where the Franks had already been established for a long time. He was possibly a descendant of the Salian Franks, who Roman sources report to have settled within Texandria in the 4th century.


title: Chlodio

text: Gregory of Tours reported that in his time people believed that the Merovingian dynasty, who were still ruling, were descended somehow from Chlodio.


title: Chlodio

text: "Chlodio" is a short form of Frankish names such as "*Hlodowig" (Clovis) or *"Hlodhari" (Chlothar), which are derived from the Germanic root *"hlod"- ('famous').


title: Chlodio

text: In later medieval chronicles, several different ancestries were given, naming Franks who were known from earlier Roman historical records. These pedigrees are considered unreliable today.


title: Chlodio

text: The non-contemporary "Liber Historiae Francorum" says his father was Pharamond, a Frankish King only known from medieval records. Pharamond in turn was said to be the son of a real Frankish king, known to have fought the Romans, named Marcomer.


title: Chlodio

text: The "Chronicle of Fredegar", on the other hand, makes Chlodio a son of Theudemeres, another real Frankish king who Gregory of Tours reported to have been executed with his mother by the Romans.


title: Chlodio

text: Gregory of Tours (II,9) reported that "Chlogio" (as he spells his name in Latin) attacked from a fort ("castrum") named "Dispargum" on the edge of the "Thoringian" land, which is described as being west of the Rhine. One translation of what Gregory wrote, adding some Latin key words in square brackets, is as follows:


title: Chlodio

text: This description of locations does not match the normal medieval and modern "Thuringia", which is far inland and east of the Rhine and distant from all known Frankish areas.


title: Chlodio

text: Dispargum has therefore been interpreted many ways, for example possibly as Duisburg on the Rhine itself, or Duisburg near Brussels, or Diest, which is also in Belgium. The latter two proposals would fit the geography well, because they are within striking distance of the "Silva Carbonaria", west of the Rhine, and close to Toxandria, which is known to have been settled by the Salians in the time of Julian the Apostate. It suggests that ""Thoringorum"" (genitive case) was actually referring to the ""Civitas Tungrorum"". This matches Gregory's previous mention in the same passage of how the Franks had earlier settled on the banks of the Rhine and then moved into ""Thoringia"" on the left side of the Rhine.


title: Chlodio

text: According to this account, Chlodio held power in the northernmost part of still-Romanized Northern Gaul, together with an area further northeast apparently already Frankish.


title: Chlodio

text: Two works written after Gregory of Tours, added details which are generally considered unreliable, but which may contain some facts derived from other sources. These are the "Liber Historiae Francorum" and the "Chronicle of Fredegar". It is the first of these which specifies that Chlodio first pushed west through Roman-inhabited territories of the "Silva Carbonaria", a large forested region which ran roughly from Brussels to the Sambre, and then took the Roman city of Turnacum (modern Tournai), before moving south to Cameracum (modern Cambrai). According to Lanting & van der Plicht (2010), the Frankish conquest of Turnacum and Cameracum probably happened in the period 445–450.


title: Chlodio

text: In about 448 AD, a marriage party of the Franks of Chlodio was attacked and defeated at a village named Vicus Helena by Flavius Aëtius, the commander of the Roman army in Gaul. This is known because the future emperor Majorian was present, and this incident was therefore celebrated in the panegyric written by Sidonius Apollinaris for him. The passage describes "Cloio" as having overrun the land of the Atrebates (Artois, a province north of the Somme, and partly between Tournai and Cambrai).


title: Chlodio

text: As explained above, Gregory of Tours mentions that "some people said" that Merovech, the ancestor of the 'Merovingian' dynasty, was descended from Chlodio. Merovech's supposed son Childeric I is known only from records associating him with Romanized northern Gaul. Only once his son Clovis I took power in that area did he turn to the Frankish kingdoms that were still ruling in more traditionally Frankish areas. According to Gregory's understanding, the Frankish regions had many kings, but they were all part of one specific noble family, which had included Chlodio. However, according to the "Gesta episcoporum Cameracensium", Clovis and his noble-blooded competitor King Ragnachar of Cambrai (the town Chlodio had put under Frankish control) were related not through the male line, but through Clovis's mother, Basina, a "Thuringian" princess whom his father met when exiled from Gaul. Gregory reports that Clovis asked Ragnachar: "Why have you humiliated our family in permitting yourself to be bound? It would have been better for you to die." He then killed him with an axe and told Radnachar's brother Ricchar, "If you had aided your brother, he would not have been bound", before killing Ricchar in the same way.


title: Chlodio

text: A contemporary Roman historian, Priscus writes of having witnessed in Rome, a "lad without down on his cheeks as yet and with fair hair so long that it poured down his shoulders, Aetius had made him his adopted son". Priscus writes that the excuse Attila used for waging war on the Franks was the death of their king and the disagreement of his children over the succession, the elder being allied with Attila and the younger with Aetius. It has been speculated that this Frankish succession dispute may involve the royal family which supposedly included Chlodio and Merovech. On the other hand, it has also been argued that the Franks in this story must be Rhineland Franks, with whom Aëtius was known to have had various interactions.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar is a large island in the Indian Ocean off the eastern coast of southern Africa, east of Mozambique. It has a total area of with of land and of water. Madagascar is the fourth largest island and the 2nd largest island country in the world. The highest point is Maromokotro, in the Tsaratanana Massif region in the north of the island, at . The capital Antananarivo is in the Central Highlands near the centre of the island. It has the 25th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of . Madagascar is 400 kilometres (250 miles) east of mainland Africa.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar can be divided into five general geographical regions: the east coast, the Tsaratanana Massif, the Central Highlands, the west coast, and the southwest. The highest elevations parallel the east coast. The total size is , which makes it the world's second largest island country.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The east coast consists of a narrow band of lowlands about fifty kilometers wide, formed from the sedimentation of alluvial soils, and an intermediate zone composed of steep bluffs alternating with ravines bordering an escarpment of about in elevation, which gives access to the Central Highlands. The coastal region roughly from north of Baie d'Antongil, the most prominent feature on the Masoala Peninsula, to the far north of the island. The coastline is straight, with the exception of a bay, offering less in the way of natural harbors than the west coast.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The Canal des Pangalanes, an -long lagoon formed naturally by the washing of sand up on the island by the Indian Ocean currents and by the silting of rivers, is a feature of the coast; it has been used both as a means of transportation up and down the coast and as a fishing area. The beach slopes steeply into deep water. The east coast is considered dangerous for swimmers and sailors because of the large number of sharks that frequent the shoreline.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The Tsaratanana Massif region at the north end of the island contains Maromokotro, the highest point on the island at . Further north is the Montagne d'Ambre (Ambohitra), which is of volcanic origin. The coastline is deeply indented; two prominent features are the natural harbor at Antsiranana (Diego Suárez), just south of the Cap d'Ambre (Tanjon' i Bobaomby), and the large island of Nosy Be to the west. The mountainous topography of the Tsaratanana Massif limits the potential of the port at Antsiranana by impeding the flow of traffic from other parts of the island.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The Central Highlands, which range from in altitude, contain a wide variety of topographies: rounded and eroded hills, massive granite outcrops, extinct volcanoes, eroded peneplains, and alluvial plains and marshes, which have been converted into irrigated rice fields. The Central Highlands extend from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to the Ivakoany Massif in the south. They are defined rather clearly by the escarpments along the east coast, and they slope gently to the west coast. The Central Highlands include the Anjafy High Plateaux; the volcanic formations of Itasy (Lake Itasy is in a volcanic crater) and the Ankaratra Massif, reaching a height of . The Isalo Roiniforme Massif lies between the central highlands and the west coast.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Antananarivo, the national capital, is located in the northern portion of the Central Highlands at above sea level. A prominent feature of the Central Highlands is a rift valley running north to south, located east of Antananarivo and including Lac Alaotra, the largest body of water on the island. The lake is located above sea level and is bordered by two cliffs, rising to the west and to the east, which form the walls of a valley. This region has experienced geological subsidence, and earth tremors are frequent.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The west coast, composed of sedimentary formations, is more indented than the east coast, thus offering a number of harbors sheltered from cyclones, such as the harbor at Mahajanga. Deep bays and well-protected harbors have attracted explorers, traders, and pirates from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East since ancient times; thus, the area has served as an important bridge between Madagascar and the outside world. Silting up of harbors on this coast, caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion suffered inland in Madagascar, is a major problem. The broad alluvial plains found on the coast between Mahajanga and Toliara, which are believed to have great agricultural potential, are thinly inhabited, in many places covered with swamps of Madagascar mangroves, and remain largely unexplored, although they are the subject of mineral and hydrocarbon exploration activity. The giant oil fields of Tsimiroro (heavy oil) and Bemolanga (ultra heavy oil) lie towards the west of the island.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The southwest is bordered on the east by the Ivakoany Massif and on the north by the Isala Roiniforme Massif. It includes two regions along the south coast, the Mahafaly Plateau and the desert region occupied by the Antandroy people.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The Mananara and Mangoro rivers flow from the Central Highlands to the east coast, as does the Maningory, which flows from Lake Alaotra. Other rivers flowing east into the Indian Ocean include the Bemarivo, the Ivondro, and the Mananjary. These rivers tend to be short because the watershed is located close to the east coast. Owing to the steep elevations, they flow rapidly, often over spectacular waterfalls.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The rivers flowing to the west coast discharge into the Mozambique Channel and tend to be lengthier and have a lesser gradient. The major rivers on the west coast are the Sambirano, the Mahajamba, the Betsiboka (part of Mahajanga is located at the mouth), the Mania, the North and South Mahavavy, the Mangoky, and the Onilahy. The Ikopa, which flows past Antananarivo, is a tributary of the Betsiboka. The Onilahy, located in the driest part of the island, occasionally dries up during droughts.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Important lakes, aside from Alaotra, include Lake Kinkony in the northwest, Lake Itasy in the center and Lake Ihotry in the southwest.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar originated as part of the Gondwana supercontinent. Its west coast was formed when Africa broke off from Gondwana around 165 million years ago. Madagascar eventually broke off from India about 88 million years ago. It is geologically located within the Somali plate.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar has been called the "Great Red Island" because of the prominence of red lateritic soils. The red soils predominate the Central Highlands, although there are much richer soils in the regions of former volcanic activity, Itasy and Ankaratra, and Tsaratanana to the north. A narrow band of alluvial soils is found all along the east coast and at the mouths of the major rivers on the west coast; clay, sand, and limestone mixtures are found in the west; and shallow or skeletal laterite and limestone are located in the south. Deforestation and grazing cause aggressive erosion in many locations.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 1,748km² of tidal flats in Madagascar, making it the 18th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The climate is tropical along the coast, temperate inland, and arid in the south. The weather is dominated by the southeastern trade winds that originate in the Indian Ocean anticyclone, a center of high atmospheric pressure that seasonally changes its position over the ocean. Madagascar has two seasons: a warm, wet season from November to April; and a cooler, dry season from May to October. There is, however, great variation in climate owing to elevation and position relative to dominant winds. Overall, surface water is most abundant along the east coast and in the far north (with the exception of the area around Cap d'Ambre, which has relatively little surface water). Amounts diminish to the west and south, and the driest regions are in the extreme south.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The east coast has a tropical rainforest climate; being most directly exposed to the trade winds, it has the highest rainfall, averaging as high as annually in some places. This region has a hot, humid climate in which tropical fevers are endemic. Destructive cyclones occur during the rainy season, coming in principally from the direction of the Mascarene Islands. Because rain clouds discharge much of their moisture east of the highest elevations on the island, the Central Highlands are drier and, owing to the altitude, also cooler. Thunderstorms are common during the rainy season in the Central Highlands and the eastern coastal lowlands.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Antananarivo receives practically all of its average annual of rainfall between November and April. The dry season is sunny, although somewhat chilly, especially in the mornings. Although frosts are rare in Antananarivo, they are common at higher elevations. Hail is common in many of the higher areas of the island (including Antananarivo), but there is no snowfall except on the Ankaratra massif where above it may occasionally fall and even remain for several days.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The west coast is drier than either the east coast or the Central Highlands because the trade winds lose their humidity by the time they reach this region. The southwest and the extreme south are semidesert; as little as of rain falls annually at Toliara.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar occasionally experiences the impact of cyclones. During February 2–4, 1994, Madagascar was struck by Cyclone Geralda. The cyclone killed seventy people and destroyed enough property to leave approximately 500,000 homeless, including 30,000 in Antananarivo and 80,000 in Toamasina. The cyclone also significantly damaged the country's infrastructure, most notably coastal roads, railroads, and telecommunications, as well as agriculture. The damage was estimated at US$45 million.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: During March 1-18, 2004, Madagascar was impacted by Cyclone Gafilo, the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the South-West Indian Ocean. The National Rescue Council in Antananarivo reported 237 dead, 181 missing, 879 injured, and 304,000 homeless (174,000 in Antalaha alone). More than 20,000 homes were destroyed, as well as 413 public buildings and 3,400 schools were damaged, including 1,400 schools completely destroyed. The Cyclone left an estimated damage of US$250 million.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed at least 10 people and caused floods, power outages, and structural damages, mere weeks after Cyclone Ana had killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The island of Madagascar has been described as an "alternate world" or a "world apart" because of the uniqueness and rarity of many of its plant and animal species. Their characteristics are believed to reflect the island's origins as a part of Gondwanaland and its many millions of years of isolation following the breakup of the landmass.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Many of the characteristic African species—large mammals such as the elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, and antelope and predators such as lions and leopards—do not exist in Madagascar. In addition, the island has been spared the great variety of venomous snakes indigenous to the African continent. Although it is assumed that most life forms on the island had an African (or South American) origin, isolation has allowed old species—elsewhere extinct—to survive and new species unique to the island to evolve. Thus, a great number of plant, insect, reptile, and fish species are endemic to Madagascar, and all indigenous land mammal species—66 in all—are unique to the island.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar was once covered almost completely by forests, but slash and burn practices for dry rice cultivation has denuded most of the landscape, especially in the Central Highlands. Rain forests are concentrated on the steep hillsides along a slender north-south axis bordering the east coast, from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to Tolagnaro in the south. Secondary growth, which has replaced the original forest and consists to a large extent of traveller's trees, raffia palm, and baobabs, is found in many places along the east coast and in the north. The vegetation of the Central Highlands and the west coast is for the most part savanna or steppe, and coarse prairie grass predominates where erosion has not exposed the orange-red lateritic soil. In the southwest, the vegetation is adapted to desert conditions.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The remaining rain forest contains a great number of unique plant species. The country has some 900 species of orchid. Bananas, mangoes, coconut, vanilla, and other tropical plants grow on the coasts, and the eucalyptus tree, brought from Australia, is widespread today.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Wood and charcoal from the forests are used to meet 80% of domestic fuel needs. As a result, wood has become scarce. In 1990, the World Bank launched an environmental program that has increased the planting of pine and eucalyptus to satisfy fuel needs.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar has a number of natural resources, including graphite, chromite, coal, bauxite, rare Earth elements, salt, quartz, tar sands, semi-precious stones and mica. There are also fishing areas offshore and potential for hydropower.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: In 2011, it was estimated that 5.96% of the land area was used for arable land and 1.02% had permanent crops. Twenty-six percent of the land is forested.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: The majority of the population depends on subsistence farming, largely rice and cattle. The manufacturing sector is small but growing.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: Madagascar is currently suffering in some areas from soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing, desertification, and contamination of surface water with raw sewage and organic waste. Several species of flora and fauna that are unique to the islands are endangered. Regular cyclones cause flooding in low-lying coastal regions.


title: Geography of Madagascar

text: This is a list of the extreme points of Madagascar, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: A lenticular galaxy (denoted S0) is a type of galaxy intermediate between an elliptical (denoted E) and a spiral galaxy in galaxy morphological classification schemes. It contains a large-scale disc but does not have large-scale spiral arms. Lenticular galaxies are disc galaxies that have used up or lost most of their interstellar matter and therefore have very little ongoing star formation. They may, however, retain significant dust in their disks. As a result, they consist mainly of aging stars (like elliptical galaxies). Despite the morphological differences, lenticular and elliptical galaxies share common properties like spectral features and scaling relations. Both can be considered early-type galaxies that are passively evolving, at least in the local part of the Universe. Connecting the E galaxies with the S0 galaxies are the ES galaxies with intermediate-scale discs.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: Lenticular galaxies are unique in that they have a visible disk component as well as a prominent bulge component. They have much higher bulge-to-disk ratios than typical spirals and do not have the canonical spiral arm structure of late-type galaxies, yet may exhibit a central bar. This bulge dominance can be seen in the axis ratio (i.e. the ratio between the observed minor and major axial of a disk galaxy) distribution of a lenticular galaxy sample. The distribution for lenticular galaxies rises steadily in the range 0.25 to 0.85 whereas the distribution for spirals is essentially flat in that same range. Larger axial ratios can be explained by observing face-on disk galaxies "or" by having a sample of spheroidal (bulge-dominated) galaxies. Imagine looking at two disk galaxies edge-on, one with a bulge and one without a bulge. The galaxy with a prominent bulge will have a larger edge-on axial ratio compared to the galaxy without a bulge based on the definition of axial ratio. Thus a sample of disk galaxies with prominent spheroidal components will have more galaxies at larger axial ratios. The fact that the lenticular galaxy distribution rises with increasing observed axial ratio implies that lenticulars are dominated by a central bulge component.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: Lenticular galaxies are often considered to be a poorly understood transition state between spiral and elliptical galaxies, which results in their intermediate placement on the Hubble sequence. This results from lenticulars having both prominent disk and bulge components. The disk component is usually featureless, which precludes a classification system similar to spiral galaxies. As the bulge component is usually spherical, elliptical galaxy classifications are also unsuitable. Lenticular galaxies are thus divided into subclasses based upon either the amount of dust present or the prominence of a central bar. The classes of lenticular galaxies with no bar are S0, S0, and S0 where the subscripted numbers indicate the amount of dust absorption in the disk component; the corresponding classes for lenticulars with a central bar are SB0, SB0, and SB0.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: The surface brightness profiles of lenticular galaxies are well described by the sum of a Sérsic model for the spheroidal component plus an exponentially declining model (Sérsic index of n ≈ 1) for the disk, and often a third component for the bar. Sometimes there is an observed truncation in the surface brightness profiles of lenticular galaxies at ~ 4 disk scalelengths. These features are consistent with the general structure of spiral galaxies. However, the bulge component of lenticulars is more closely related to elliptical galaxies in terms of morphological classification. This spheroidal region, which dominates the inner structure of lenticular galaxies, has a steeper surface brightness profile (Sérsic index typically ranging from n = 1 to 4) than the disk component. Lenticular galaxy samples are distinguishable from the diskless (excluding small nuclear disks) elliptical galaxy population through analysis of their surface brightness profiles.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: Like spiral galaxies, lenticular galaxies can possess a central bar structure. While the classification system for normal lenticulars depends on dust content, barred lenticular galaxies are classified by the prominence of the central bar. SB0 galaxies have the least defined bar structure and are only classified as having slightly enhanced surface brightness along opposite sides of the central bulge. The prominence of the bar increases with index number, thus SB0 galaxies, like the NGC 1460 have very well defined bars that can extend through the transition region between the bulge and disk. NGC 1460 is actually the galaxy with one of the largest bars seen among lenticular galaxies. Unfortunately, the properties of bars in lenticular galaxies have not been researched in great detail. Understanding these properties, as well as understanding the formation mechanism for bars, would help clarify the formation or evolution history of lenticular galaxies.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: NGC 1375 and NGC 1175 are examples of lenticular galaxies that have so-called box-shaped bulges. They are classified as SB0 pec. Box-shaped bulges are seen in edge-on galaxies, mostly spiral, but rarely lenticular.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: In many respects the composition of lenticular galaxies is like that of ellipticals. For example, they both consist of predominately older, hence redder, stars. All of their stars are thought to be older than about a billion years, in agreement with their offset from the Tully–Fisher relation (see below). In addition to these general stellar attributes, globular clusters are found more frequently in lenticular galaxies than in spiral galaxies of similar mass and luminosity. They also have little to no molecular gas (hence the lack of star formation) and no significant hydrogen α or 21-cm emission. Finally, unlike ellipticals, they may still possess significant dust.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: Lenticular galaxies share kinematic properties with both spiral and elliptical galaxies. This is due to the significant bulge and disk nature of lenticulars. The bulge component is similar to elliptical galaxies in that it is pressure supported by a central velocity dispersion. This situation is analogous to a balloon, where the motions of the air particles (stars in a bulge's case) are dominated by random motions. However, the kinematics of lenticular galaxies are dominated by the rotationally supported disk. Rotation support implies the average circular motion of stars in the disk is responsible for the stability of the galaxy. Thus, kinematics are often used to distinguish lenticular galaxies from elliptical galaxies. Determining the distinction between elliptical galaxies and lenticular galaxies often relies on the measurements of velocity dispersion (σ), rotational velocity (v), and ellipticity (ε). In order to differentiate between lenticulars and ellipticals, one typically looks at the v/σ ratio for a fixed ε. For example, a rough criterion for distinguishing between lenticular and elliptical galaxies is that elliptical galaxies have v/σ < 0.5 for ε = 0.3. The motivation behind this criterion is that lenticular galaxies do have prominent bulge and disk components whereas elliptical galaxies have no disk structure. Thus, lenticulars have much larger v/σ ratios than ellipticals due to their non-negligible rotational velocities (due to the disk component) in addition to not having as prominent of a bulge component compared to elliptical galaxies. However, this approach using a single ratio for each galaxy is problematic due to the dependence of the v/σ ratio on the radius out to which it is measured in some early-type galaxies. For example, the ES galaxies that bridge the E and S0 galaxies, with their intermediate-scale disks, have a high v/σ ratio at intermediate radii that then drops to a low ratio at large radii.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: The kinematics of disk galaxies are usually determined by Hα or 21-cm emission lines, which are typically not present in lenticular galaxies due to their general lack of cool gas. Thus kinematic information and rough mass estimates for lenticular galaxies often comes from stellar absorption lines, which are less reliable than emission line measurements. There is also a considerable amount of difficulty in deriving accurate rotational velocities for lenticular galaxies. This is a combined effect from lenticulars having difficult inclination measurements, projection effects in the bulge-disk interface region, and the random motions of stars affecting the true rotational velocities. These effects make kinematic measurements of lenticular galaxies considerably more difficult compared to normal disk galaxies.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: The kinematic connection between spiral and lenticular galaxies is most clear when analyzing the Tully–Fisher relation for spiral and lenticular samples. If lenticular galaxies are an evolved stage of spiral galaxies then they should have a similar Tully–Fisher relation with spirals, but with an offset in the luminosity / absolute magnitude axis. This would result from brighter, redder stars dominating the stellar populations of lenticulars. An example of this effect can be seen in the adjacent plot. One can clearly see that the best-fit lines for the spiral galaxy data and the lenticular galaxy have the same slope (and thus follow the same Tully–Fisher relation), but are offset by ΔI ≈ 1.5. This implies that lenticular galaxies were once spiral galaxies but are now dominated by old, red stars.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: The morphology and kinematics of lenticular galaxies each, to a degree, suggest a mode of galaxy formation. Their disk-like, possibly dusty, appearance suggests they come from faded spiral galaxies, whose arm features disappeared. However, some lenticular galaxies are more luminous than spiral galaxies, which suggests that they are not merely the faded remnants of spiral galaxies. Lenticular galaxies might result from a galaxy merger, which increase the total stellar mass and might give the newly merged galaxy a disk-like, arm-less appearance. Alternatively, it has been proposed that they grew their disks via (gas and minor merger) accretion events.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: It had previously been suggested that the evolution of luminous lenticular galaxies may be closely linked to that of elliptical galaxies, whereas fainter lenticulars might be more closely associated with ram-pressure stripped spiral galaxies, although this latter galaxy harassment scenario has since been queried due to the existence of extremely isolated, low-luminosity lenticular galaxies such as LEDA 2108986.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: The absence of gas, presence of dust, lack of recent star formation, and rotational support are all attributes one might expect of a spiral galaxy which had used up all of its gas in the formation of stars. This possibility is further enhanced by the existence of gas poor, or "anemic," spiral galaxies. If the spiral pattern then dissipated the resulting galaxy would be similar to many lenticulars. Moore et al. also document that tidal harassment - the gravitational effects from other, near-by galaxies - could aid this process in dense regions. The clearest support for this theory, however, is their adherence to slightly shifted version of Tully–Fisher relation, discussed above.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: A 2012 paper that suggests a new classification system, first proposed by the Canadian astronomer Sidney van den Bergh, for lenticular and dwarf spheroidal galaxies (S0a-S0b-S0c-dSph) that parallels the Hubble sequence for spirals and irregulars (Sa-Sb-Sc-Im) reinforces this idea showing how the spiral–irregular sequence is very similar to this new one for lenticulars and dwarf ellipticals.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: The analyses of Burstein and Sandage showed that lenticular galaxies typically have surface brightness much greater than other spiral classes. It is also thought that lenticular galaxies exhibit a larger bulge-to-disk ratio than spiral galaxies and this may be inconsistent with simple fading from a spiral. If S0s were formed by mergers of other spirals these observations would be fitting and it would also account for the increased frequency of globular clusters. It should be mentioned, however, that advanced models of the central bulge which include both a general Sersic profile and bar indicate a smaller bulge, and thus a lessened inconsistency. Mergers are also unable to account for the offset from the Tully–Fisher relation without assuming that the merged galaxies were quite different from those we see today.


title: Lenticular galaxy

text: The creation of disks in, at least some, lenticular galaxies via the accretion of gas, and small galaxies, around a pre-existing spheroidal structure was first suggested as an explanation to match the high-redshift compact massive spheroidal-shaped galaxies with the equally compact massive bulges seen in nearby massive lenticular galaxies. In a "downsizing" scenario, bigger lenticular galaxies may have been built first - in a younger universe when more gas was available - and the lower-mass galaxies may have been slower to attract their disk-building material, as in the case of the isolated early-type galaxy LEDA 2108986. Of course, within galaxy clusters, ram-pressure stripping removes gas and prevents the accretion of new gas that might be capable of furthering the development of the disk.


title: Spandan Chaturvedi

text: Spandan Chaturvedi (born 25 August 2007) is a former Indian television child actress, who has had one role in a film since she became a teenager. Chaturvedi started her career with the 2012 drama series "Ek Veer Ki Ardaas...Veera". After she appeared in several television advertisements. Later she was cast in "Sanskaar - Dharohar Apnon Ki". Thereafter she appeared as cameo in "The Suite Life of Karan & Kabir". In February 2014, Chaturvedi played the role of young Madhubala in Colors TV's show "Madhubala – Ek Ishq Ek Junoon". But In August 2014 - February 2016 she portrayed the role 'Chakor' in Colors TV show "Udaan", for which she became popular and won several awards, including the Zee Gold Award for Best Child Actor.


title: Spandan Chaturvedi

text: Spandan Chaturvedi was born on 25 August 2007 in Ulhasnagar, Mumbai, to Sunil Chaturvedi. She completed her first class studies in 2015. Chaturvedi is the cousin sister of Sparsh Khanchandani, who is also an actress.


title: Spandan Chaturvedi

text: Chaturvedi began her career with the 2012 Yash A Patnaik's drama series "Ek Veer Ki Ardaas...Veera", in it she appeared in first few episodes, played the role of young Gunjan. Thereafter Chaturvedi appeared in several television advertisements. Later she played in Colors TV's programme "Sanskaar - Dharohar Apnon Ki", where she played the role of Aarvi. Chaturvedi appeared as cameo in Disney Channel's comedy series "The Suite Life of Karan & Kabir". In February 2014, Chaturvedi roped to play the daughter of Drashti Dhami's character in Ravindra Gautam's soap opera "Madhubala – Ek Ishq Ek Junoon", in which she played the lead role of young Madhubala after twenty years leap in the show.


title: Spandan Chaturvedi

text: In August 2014, Chaturvedi featured to play the female protagonist in filmmaker Mahesh Bhatt's drama series "Udaan", in which she is portraying the lead role of Chakor, a bonded labourer by birth, who faces challenges at the hands of Kamal Narayan (played by Sai Bilal), Fighting to be freed from the bonds of slavery after being mortgaged by her parents Kasturi (played by Sai Deodhar) and Bhuvan (played by Rajiv Kumar). She received fame and critical acclaim for her performance in the series, and won the Zee Gold Award for Best Child Actor, Television Style Award for Most Stylish Nanhe Natkhat and Indian Television Academy Award for Most Promising Child Star - Female . While 100 episodes celebration, Chaturvedi injured herself when a marble table fell on her foot. She was hospitalised for at least ten days, and took one-and-a-half month to recover.


title: Spandan Chaturvedi

text: In February 2015, Chaturvedi appeared as a guest in K9 Productions comedy series "Comedy Nights with Kapil" on Colors TV.


title: Spandan Chaturvedi

text: In April 2015, Chaturvedi appeared in the print campaign of GR8! Television Magazine, she appeared along with Gautam Gulati on the cover of magazine with the hashtag "BeWithBeti".


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: Glenn Martin, DDS is a stop-motion adult animated sitcom that premiered on Nick at Nite on August 17, 2009. The series was produced by Tornante Animation and Cuppa Coffee Studios, in association with Rogers Communications. "Glenn Martin, DDS" was Nick at Nite's fourth original series (after "Hi Honey, I'm Home!", "Fatherhood" and "Hi-Jinks").


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: One of the show's creators was Eric Fogel, who had success creating the MTV claymation series "Celebrity Deathmatch".


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: The show premiered in Canada on October 3, 2009 on Citytv, and March 18, 2010 on Sky One in the UK and Ireland. Season two premiered on June 11, 2010. The show ended on November 7, 2011.


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: After accidentally burning down his house in Freeland, Pennsylvania, loving father and dentist Glenn Martin, DDS takes his family — his beautiful wife Jackie, their hormone-addled 13-year-old son Conor, their power suit-wearing 11-year-old daughter Courtney, Courtney's overachieving assistant Wendy, and Canine (the family's dog who has an oversized anus, which Glenn in the opening sequence calls a heart) — on a cross-country road trip in order to strengthen their family bond together.


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: Former Paramount and Disney chief executive Michael Eisner, who put up his own money to produce the pilot episode, pitched it to Nick at Nite rather than ABC. Eisner was quoted as saying the decision was based on Nick at Nite's record of nurturing shows.


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: The show has a 1970s sensibility including the design of the Winnebago which is driven across the country. It was reportedly inspired by the 1971 ABC made-for-TV movie "In Search of America", which starred Jeff Bridges as a college dropout who drove a Winnebago across the country with his family.


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: Unusual for a modern animated sitcom, the show featured a laugh track in early episodes intended to mimic 1970s sitcoms. This was later removed at the request of the series' creators, with Eric Fogel citing the show having "too much internal thinking". Part of the criticism was leveled at the overuse of laugh tracks (which were permanently removed a month after the show's premiere). Mike Hale of "The New York Times" wrote: ""Glenn Martin, DDS" is pretty much laugh-free (though it does have a laugh track)".


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "Ignore the stilted jokes [and] the limp characterization. [...] Just understand this: "Martin" is an animated show with a laugh track. Imagination comes in handy, though, in trying to figure out how someone approved this concept, labored on this and then let it free into the world."


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: In November 2010, the show won two Gemini Awards for Best Animated Series and Best Direction for an Animated Series (Cuppa Coffee/Ken Cunningham for "The Tooth Will Set You Free").


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: "Glenn Martin, DDS" received mixed to negative reviews from critics, garnering a 48/100 from Metacritic based on 9 reviews after the series premiere. "Variety" wrote: "Despite the contributions of Eric Fogel (MTV's "Celebrity Deathmatch"), "Glenn Martin" isn't as bad as visiting the dentist, but isn't much better than sitting in the waiting room. Positioned as a spoof of classic sitcoms, "Glenn Martin" gets off to a bad start by incorporating a laugh track, which only highlights some of the deficiencies in the writing."


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: The "Los Angeles Times" wrote: "Still, except for the dog's hindquarters, I like the look of it. (Eric Fogel of MTV's "Celebrity Deathmatch" oversees the animation.) Press materials indicate that the Martins will be visiting Las Vegas, Yellowstone, the Mall of America and Hollywood in future adventures, and as a fan of the form, I'm interested to see what the animators make of them."


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: "New York Daily News" writer David Hinkley gave the show 4 out of 5 stars, calling it "satire with biting wit".


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: "The Detroit News" wrote that the show is "full of enough end-of-the week laughs to help you giggle yourself into the weekend".


title: Glenn Martin, DDS

text: In November 2009, Maura Buete, a Florida mother, was outraged that the series contained sexual references despite airing in an 8 p.m. weekday slot, immediately following the children's show "SpongeBob SquarePants". In response to several complaints from parents, Nickelodeon (whose spokesman David Bittler had stated complaints were minimal) moved the show to Friday nights at 10:30 p.m.


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: The sixth season of "Futurama" originally aired on Comedy Central from June 24, 2010, to September 8, 2011, and consisted of 26 episodes. The season marks the change of networks from Fox to Comedy Central.


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: The first 13 episodes (known as Season 6-A) aired during 2010, and the remaining 13 episodes (known as Season 6-B) aired during 2011. This makes the episode "The Futurama Holiday Spectacular" the mid-season finale, despite airing almost twelve weeks after "Futurama" 100th episode. The final episode of the season, "Reincarnation", aired on September 8, 2011 as a three-segment non-canonical special after the official season finale.


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: The first 13 episodes of the season have been released on a box set called "Futurama: Volume 5", on DVD and Blu-ray Disc. It was released in the United States and Canada, on December 21, 2010, and on UK DVD on boxing day 2011. The remaining 13 episodes are available on a box set called "Futurama: Volume 6", which was released in the United States and Canada on December 20, 2011. Both volumes have all episodes ordered in production order as was the case with Volumes 1–4.


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: With the future of the series uncertain at the time of production, the final of the four film releases "" was designed to stand as the final episode of the "Futurama" series. However, both Matt Groening and David X. Cohen had expressed a desire to continue the franchise in some form, including as a theatrical film. In an interview with CNN, Groening said that "we have a great relationship with Comedy Central and we would love to do more episodes for them, but I don't know... We're having discussions and there is some enthusiasm but I can't tell if it's just me."


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: On June 9, 2009, 20th Century Fox announced that Comedy Central had picked up the show for 26 new half-hour episodes that began airing on June 24, 2010. Due to budget concessions, the number of returning writing staff had to be reduced.


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: Initial voice actor contract talks resulted in a dispute, with 20th Century Fox reportedly refusing to meet the cast's demands for $75,000 per episode. The claim was strenuously denied by members of the cast, and on July 17, 2009 Fox announced that auditions would be held to recast the characters. Groening and Cohen had no part in the discussions, with the former stating "we hope that Fox and the actors can come to an agreement as soon as possible." It was speculated by some in the media that this was merely a ploy in order to get the cast to agree to Fox's offer, citing a similar situation with the cast of "The Simpsons" as a previous example. The dispute resulted in the voice cast being unable to attend the "Futurama" booth at Comic Con 2009. However, a deal was struck and on July 31, 2009, it was announced that the full original voice cast would be returning.


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: Groening, Cohen and the cast expressed extreme optimism for the return of "Futurama", with Katey Sagal and Phil LaMarr claiming that the new season's episodes are "hysterical" and "the best yet". Commenting on the revival, Groening revealed that several plots for the upcoming episodes had actually been devised during or even before the original run of the series. Groening has also explained that he had been inspired by J. J. Abrams' "Star Trek" film, and had even considered rebooting "Futurama", before opting for a "rebirth".


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: "Overclockwise" was originally written to serve as an open-ended series finale, much in the way that the season 4 episode "The Devil's Hands Are Idle Playthings" and the film "Into the Wild Green Yonder" were produced, in case the show did not get renewed. It was eventually announced on March 24, 2011, that the show was renewed by Comedy Central for a seventh production season.


title: Futurama (season 6)

text: Comedy Central chose to air the second half of this season out of the intended production order. This list is depicted in production order as this is the order used in Volume 6 and intended by the producers.


title: Workers' self-management

text: Workers' self-management, also referred to as labor management and organizational self-management, is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organization's workforce. Self-management is a defining characteristic of socialism, with proposals for self-management having appeared many times throughout the history of the socialist movement, advocated variously by democratic, libertarian and market socialists as well as anarchists and communists.


title: Workers' self-management

text: There are many variations of self-management. In some variants, all the worker-members manage the enterprise directly through assemblies while in other forms workers exercise management functions indirectly through the election of specialist managers. Self-management may include worker supervision and oversight of an organization by elected bodies, the election of specialized managers, or self-directed management without any specialized managers as such. The goals of self-management are to improve performance by granting workers greater autonomy in their day-to-day operations, boosting morale, reducing alienation and eliminating exploitation when paired with employee ownership.


title: Workers' self-management

text: An enterprise that is self-managed is referred to as a labour-managed firm. Self-management refers to control rights within a productive organization, being distinct from the questions of ownership and what economic system the organization operates under. Self-management of an organization may coincide with employee ownership of that organization, but self-management can also exist in the context of organizations under public ownership and to a limited extent within private companies in the form of co-determination and worker representation on the board of directors.


title: Workers' self-management

text: An economic system consisting of self-managed enterprises is sometimes referred to as a participatory economy, self-managed economy, or cooperative economy. This economic model is a major version of market socialism and decentralized planned economy, stemming from the notion that people should be able to participate in making the decisions that affect their well-being. The major proponents of self-managed market socialism in the 20th century include the economists Benjamin N. Ward, Jaroslav Vanek and Branko Horvat. Horvat says that participation is not simply more desirable, but also more economically viable than traditional hierarchical and authoritarian management as demonstrated by econometric measurements which indicate an increase in efficiency with greater participation in decision-making. Writing from the perspective of socialist Yugoslavia in the early 1980s, Horvat suggested that the larger world was moving toward a self-governing socialistic mode of organization as well.


title: Workers' self-management

text: The theory of the labor managed firm explains the behavior, performance and nature of self-managed organizational forms. Although self-managed (or labor-managed) firms can coincide with worker ownership (employee ownership), the two are distinct concepts and one need not imply the other.


title: Workers' self-management

text: According to traditional neoclassical economic theory, in a competitive market economy ownership of capital assets by labor (the workforce of a given firm) should have no significant impact on firm performance.


title: Workers' self-management

text: Much of the research on labor-managed firms in the neoclassical tradition revolved around the question of the presumed maximand (objective function) of such firms (i.e. the answer to the question "what do labor-managed firms maximize?", e.g. income per worker or profits) and its implications. The first model of a labor-managed firm in this tradition has been suggested by American economist Benjamin Ward in 1958 who was interested in the analysis of Yugoslav firms. According to Ward, the labor-managed firm strives to maximize income per worker as contrasted with the traditional capitalist firms' objective function of maximizing profit for external owners. Based on this assumption, Ward presented an analysis that was critical of labor-managed firms. In particular, he argued that a supply curve of a labor-managed firm has a negative slope: an increase in the market price of the product produced by a labor-managed firm will not make it increase production and hire new members. It followed that an economy consisting of labor-managed firms would have a tendency to underutilize labor and tend toward higher rates of unemployment. Ward's model was developed further by Evsey Domar and generalized by Jaroslav Vaněk.


title: Workers' self-management

text: These purely theoretical analyses were criticized by Yugoslav economist Branko Horvat in 1971 who argued for empirical analysis of actually existing labor-managed Yugoslav firms and practices utilized by their members. In particular, he noted that workers fix wages at the beginning of a year and then adjust them based on the earnings of the enterprise. He noted that this behavioral rule, if made a part of the theoretical model, implies that the market behavior of a labor-managed firm is, contrary to theses by Ward and his followers, much more similar to the hypothetical behavior of a "traditional", profit-maximizing firm.


title: Workers' self-management

text: Building on a larger body of empirical studies, contemporary Canadian economist Gregory Dow has carried out extensive theoretical research on labor-managed firms from the neoclassical perspective, focussing on explaining the rarity of labor-managed firms relative to capital-managed ones.


title: Workers' self-management

text: In the 19th century, the idea of a self-managed economy was first fully articulated by the anarchist philosopher and economist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. This economic model was called mutualism to highlight the mutual relationship among individuals in this system and involved cooperatives operating in a free-market economy.


title: Workers' self-management

text: The classical liberal philosopher and economist John Stuart Mill believed that worker-run and owned cooperatives would eventually displace traditional capitalist (capital-managed) firms in the competitive market economy due to their superior efficiency and stronger incentive structure. While both Mill and Karl Marx thought that democratic worker management would be more efficient in the long run compared with hierarchical management, Marx was not hopeful about the prospects of labor-managed and owned firms as a means to displace traditional capitalist firms in the market economy. Despite their advantages in efficiency, in Western market economies the labor-managed firm is comparatively rare.


title: Workers' self-management

text: Karl Marx championed the idea of a free association of producers as a characteristic of communist society, where self-management processes replaced the traditional notion of the centralized state. This concept is related to the Marxist idea of transcending alienation.


title: Workers' self-management

text: The Soviet-type economic model as practiced in the former USSR and Eastern Bloc is criticized by socialists for its lack of widespread self-management and management input on the part of workers in enterprises.


title: Workers' self-management

text: In his book "", Daniel H. Pink argues on the basis of empirical evidence that self-management/self-directed processes, mastery, worker autonomy and purpose (defined as intrinsic rewards) are much more effective incentives than monetary gain (extrinsic rewards). According to Pink, for the vast majority of work in the 21st century self-management and related intrinsic incentives are far more crucial than outdated notions of hierarchical management and an overreliance on monetary compensation as reward.


title: Workers' self-management

text: More recent research suggests that incentives and bonuses can have positive effects on performance and autonomous motivation. According to this research, the key is aligning bonuses and incentives to reinforce, rather than hamper, a sense of autonomy, competence and relatedness (the three needs that self determination theory identifies for autonomous motivation).


title: Workers' self-management

text: Guild socialism is a political movement advocating workers' control of industry through the medium of trade-related guilds "in an implied contractual relationship with the public". It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century. It was strongly associated with G. D. H. Cole and influenced by the ideas of William Morris. One significant experiment with workers' self-management took place during the Spanish Revolution (1936–1939). In his book "Anarcho-Syndicalism" (1938), Rudolf Rocker stated: But by taking the land and the industrial plants under their own management they have taken the first and most important step on the road to Socialism. Above all, they (the Workers' and peasants self-management) have proved that the workers, even without the capitalists, are able to carry on production and to do it better than a lot of profit-hungry entrepreneurs.


title: Workers' self-management

text: After May 1968 in France, LIP factory, a clockwork factory based in Besançon, became self-managed starting in 1973 after the management's decision to liquidate it. The LIP experience was an emblematic social conflict of post-1968 in France. CFDT (the CCT as it was referred to in Northern Spain), trade-unionist Charles Piaget led the strike in which workers claimed the means of production. The Unified Socialist Party (PSU) which included former Radical Pierre Mendès-France was in favour of autogestión or self-management.


title: Workers' self-management

text: In the Basque Country of Spain, the Mondragon Cooperative Corporation represents perhaps the longest lasting and most successful example of workers' self-management in the world. It has been touted by a diverse group of people such as the Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff and the research book "Capital and the Debt Trap" by Claudia Sanchez Bajo and Bruno Roelants as an example of how the economy can be organized on an alternative to the capitalist mode of production.


title: Workers' self-management

text: Following the 2007–2008 financial crisis, a number of factories were occupied and became self-managed in Greece, France, Italy, Germany and Turkey.


title: Workers' self-management

text: In Greece, solidarity-based distribution is partially the result of austerity policies' privatization of public services, which exacerbates on-the-ground solidarity activities. These have mostly emerged as a consequence of ambitious politicized thinking and mobilization, as well as a practical formulation that ensures degrees of living by transforming informal solidarity networks into remunerative distribution cooperatives. This dialectic, echoes the idea of formally managing the crisis, which reproduces itself not in spite of, but because of, official policy initiatives to combat it. Workers' collectives and cooperatives, Self-Help Groups, Local Exchange Trade Systems (LETS), Freecycle networks and Timebanks, and the first worker-occupied factory are examples of non-capitalist social experiments and innovations that have emerged in Greece since 2012.


title: Workers' self-management

text: At the height of the Cold War, Yugoslavia, as a consequence of the Tito-Stalin split, pursued and advocated for, what was officially called, socialist self-management in distinction from the Eastern Bloc countries, all of which practiced central planning and centralized management of their economies. It replaced central planning with "planning basic proportions" that was supposed to stop "the chaos of social production and distribution that is innate to capitalism". It was organized according to the theories of Josip Broz Tito and more directly Edvard Kardelj. Yugoslav economist Branko Horvat also made a significant contribution to the theory of workers' self-management ("radničko samoupravljanje") as practiced in Yugoslavia. Due to Yugoslavia's neutrality and its leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement, Yugoslav companies exported to both Western and Eastern markets. Yugoslav companies carried out construction of numerous major infrastructural and industrial projects in Africa, Europe and Asia.


title: Workers' self-management

text: In 1950, the Law on self-management introduced worker's councils. The "beginning of the end of bureaucracy" was declared along the pretenses of the Marxist concept of withering away of the state under the "Factories to the workers'!" parole. According to Boris Kanzleiter, the inspiration for workers' councils came from the People's councils - the revolutionary governing bodies of the People's Liberation Army and the Paris Commune. The 1953 Yugoslav Constitutional Law, introduced self-management in the constitutional matter and transformed state property into social property. The 1963 Yugoslav Constitution, also called the Charter of Self-management, defined self-management and social property as supreme values and it defined Yugoslavia as a "socialist self-managed democratic community".


title: Workers' self-management

text: The Law of Associated Labor of 1976 represented the last stage of the development of Yugoslav self-management. On the grounds of the 1974 Yugoslav constitution, it created a completely autonomous system grounded in direct sovereignty of the worker and citizen. It foresaw the formation of Basic Organizations of Associated Labor (BOAL) as the basic economic units that every worker had to be a part of based on the precise role played by that worker in the production process. It associated with other BOALs to form an Organization of Associated Labour (OAL) that could, with other OALs form Complex Organizations of Associated Labor. The assembly that consisted of all the workers' of a BOAL elected a delegate, which was bound with an imperative mandate, into the workers' council of the OAL that decided on all matters: from electing the director, to decisions on salaries, investments, association, development and specific production goals. Another feature of Yugoslav self-management were Self-management agreements and Social compacts, these replaced classical contracts. The goal of OALs was not for-profit but a social goal - it was supposed to facilitate education, healthcare, employment and resolving the housing issue.


title: Workers' self-management

text: Macro-economic reforms and structural adjustment programs that were imposed by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank brought an end to workers' self-management in Yugoslavia.


title: Workers' self-management

text: English-language discussions of this phenomenon may employ several different translations of the original Spanish expression other than recovered factory. For example, worker-recuperated enterprise, recuperated/recovered factory/business/company, worker-recovered factory/business, worker-recuperated/recovered company, worker-reclaimed factory, and worker-run factory have been noted. The phenomenon is also known as autogestión.


title: Workers' self-management

text: Argentina's "empresas recuperadas" movement emerged in response to the run up and aftershocks of Argentina's 2001 economic crisis. "Empresas recuperadas" means "reclaimed/recovered/recuperated enterprises/factories/companies". The Spanish verb "recuperar" means not only "to get back", "to take back" or "to reclaim", but also "to put back into good condition".


title: Workers' self-management

text: The movement emerged as a response to the years of crisis leading up to and including Argentina's 2001 economic crisis. By 2001–2002, around 200 Argentine companies were recuperated by their workers and turned into worker co-operatives. Prominent examples include the Brukman factory, the Hotel Bauen and FaSinPat (formerly known as Zanon). As of 2020, around 16,000 Argentine workers run close to 400 recuperated factories.


title: Workers' self-management

text: The phenomenon of "empresas recuperadas" ("recovered enterprises") is not new in Argentina. Rather, such social movements were completely dismantled during the so-called Dirty War in the 1970s. Thus, during Héctor Cámpora's first months of government (May–July 1973), a rather moderate and left-wing Peronist, approximately 600 social conflicts, strikes and factory occupations had taken place.


title: Workers' self-management

text: The proliferation of these "recuperations" has led to the formation of a recuperated factory movement which has ties to a diverse political network including socialists, Peronists, anarchists and communists. Organizationally, this includes two major federations of recovered factories, the larger Movimiento Nacional de Empresas Recuperadas (National Movement of Recuperated Businesses, or MNER) on the left and the smaller National Movement of Recuperated Factories (MNFR) on the right.


title: Workers' self-management

text: The movement led in 2011 to a new bankruptcy law that facilitates take over by the workers. The legislation was signed into law by President Cristina Kirchner on June 29, 2011.


title: Killing of Timothy Russell and Malissa Williams

text: The shooting deaths of Timothy Russell and Malissa Williams, two Black American individuals, occurred in East Cleveland, Ohio on November 29, 2012, at the conclusion of a 22-minute police chase which started in downtown Cleveland. Police claimed shots were fired at them as Russell and Williams drove by a squad car; however, this was their vehicle backfiring. Over 60 officers participated in a 23-mile police chase that ended in Russell and Williams' vehicles being surrounded. The victims had no weapon on them and police claimed they fired due to being fired at. Thirteen police officers fired at Russell and Williams 137 times while they were in their car at a parking lot of a middle school, killing both. In May 2014, one of the officers involved, Michael Brelo, was charged with two counts of voluntary manslaughter, and was acquitted by a Cuyahoga County judge of the charges on May 23, 2015.


text: Five police supervisors were also charged with dereliction of duty, a misdemeanor. Their trial was set on July 27, 2015.


text: The families of Russell and Williams filed a lawsuit against the city of Cleveland, and received a settlement of $3 million in November 2014.


text: On January 26, 2016, it was reported that six Cleveland police officers were fired due to their connection with the car chase. They were identified as Michael Brelo, Wilfredo Diaz, Brian Sabolik, Erin O'Donnell, Michael Farley, and Chris Ereg.


text: Michael Brelo (born 1983–84) is an Iraq War USMC veteran. When he returned home, he became a correctional officer in Bedford Heights, Ohio. He then joined the Cleveland Police Department in 2007.


text: Russell had met Williams at the Bishop Cosgrove Center, where they both received free meals. He was living at the Metropolitan Ministry Center prior to his death.


text: Russell was driving his 1979 light-blue Chevrolet Malibu and Williams was seated in the passenger seat. A plainclothes police officer spotted Russell's car in an area known for drug deals. The officer checked the license plate which uncovered nothing notable. He then pulled the car over for a turn signal violation. Russell pulled over, but the car was not searched and the officer let them go. There is camera footage showing both cars pull off. Russell proceeded to speed by two officers, they believed that they heard shots being fired. As no firearm was found in the vehicle, the sound was caused by the car backfiring.


text: According to "The Plain Dealer", the chase went up to speeds of 100 mph and a total of 62 police cars were involved at one point. Officers from Cleveland, East Cleveland, Bratenahl, the Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Department, the Ohio State Highway Patrol, and the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority participated in the chase.


text: After a 22-mile chase, Russell turned into Heritage Middle School, located in East Cleveland. Police officers later said they believed they saw a firearm in the car and that Russell was planning on running them over. One officer subsequently opened fire, followed by others, killing both occupants. The amount of gunfire confused the officers into thinking they were being fired at from the vehicle . In the end, thirteen officers fired a total of 137 bullets into the car, with Officer Michael Brelo firing 49 of those shots. Russell was struck 23 times, and Williams was struck 24 times. No weapons were recovered from the vehicle.


text: On May 30, 2014, only one officer of the thirteen who fired at the car, Michael Brelo, was indicted on two counts of voluntary manslaughter in connection with the shooting. He was the only officer who continued to shoot even after the others stopped firing, and was said to have actually moved forward and jumped onto the hood of Russel's car, after which he reportedly shot approximately fifteen rounds. The two counts of voluntary manslaughter carried a maximum penalty of 22 years of prison if convicted. Five police supervisors were also indicted for dereliction of duty. According to Cuyahoga County prosecutors, Brelo stood on the hood of Russell and Williams' car and fired straight down at them through their windshield after the twelve other officers stopped firing. Prosecutors said that the actions were unreasonable and went past his duties as a police officer.


text: On May 23, 2015, Cuyahoga Common Pleas Judge John P. O'Donnell found Brelo not guilty of the charges. O'Donnell stated that while Brelo fired lethal shots at Russell and Williams, other officers did as well. O'Donnell also found Brelo not guilty of a lesser included charge of felonious assault, asserting that Brelo was legally justified in his use of deadly force. O'Donnell read his 35-page verdict in court, and said there was "beyond reasonable doubt" that the prosecution had to meet to get Brelo convicted.


text: On June 3, 2015, it was announced that an arrest warrant was filed against Brelo for an alleged assault on his twin brother, Mark R. Brelo, on May 27, in Bay Village, Ohio. The brothers turned themselves in on June 3, after Brelo's intoxicated brother had run to a neighbor's home to ask them to call 911 on his brother, Michael Brelo, by whom he was being chased and allegedly assaulted. They were released on their own recognizance.


text: On January 26, 2016 the six officers (Wilfredo Diaz, Brian Sabolik, Erin O'Donnell, Michael Farley, Chris Ereg and Michael Brelo) were fired from their jobs at the Cleveland Police. The Cleveland Police Patrolmen's Association said that they would work to get the six reinstated to their positions. Five of the six officers were reinstated in October 2017 as required by the ruling of an arbitrator.


text: The U.S. Department of Justice announced on May 24, 2015, that they would open an investigation in the deaths of Russell and Williams, and would review the testimony and evidence presented at Brelo's trial. This investigation was closed in January 2017.


text: Trial for the five police officers that Cuyahoga County charged with misdemeanor dereliction of duty was set for July 27, 2015. On July 2, 2015, the East Cleveland prosecutor filed its own dereliction of duty charges against the same five officers, and the County dismissed its charges on July 24, 2015. The officers objected to moving the trial to East Cleveland, and appealed the dismissal. In May 2016 an Ohio appeals court held that the dismissal was improper, but in April 2017 the Ohio Supreme Court reversed and left it up to the trial court judge, William Dawson, to decide where the trial would go forward. By October 2017, Judge Dawson had not yet put the case on the docket.


text: In March 2018, two defense attorneys reported that prosecutors had offered to drop all charges against the officers if they paid fines of $5,000 each. They declined the offer. On March 22, 2018, prosecutors filed a formal motion asking the court to set a trial date. All five officers pleaded not guilty. In July 2018, the defendants asked the court to dismiss the charges, arguing that the more than 5½ years that had passed since the 2012 shooting violated their constitutional right to a speedy trial. The court denied the motion on September 20; the defense attorneys announced their intent to appeal this ruling.


text: In January 2019, the prosecutors dismissed all charges against three of the five supervising officers.


text: In July 2019, the case concluded with the police supervisor in charge of the officers involved in the '137 shots' case not guilty. East Cleveland Municipal Court confirmed Sgt. Patricia Coleman not guilty after a 3-day long trial, ending a year-long battle. The Cleveland Division of Police continues to receive criticism from the public about the misdemeanor, claiming the actions were due to racism, as both fatalities were African-American. Only one member of the division, Officer Michael Brelo, was charged after the incident. Brelo fired 49 of the shots but was not found guilty of voluntary manslaughter. Brelo was the only officer to lose his job following the shooting.


text: After Brelo was acquitted, violent protests and unrest ensued in downtown Cleveland, which led to the arrests of at least 71 people as of May 25. Among those arrested were charged with felonious assault, rioting, and failure to disperse. At least 15 people were apprehended by riot police officers. The deaths of Russell and Williams were two of several killings of unarmed African Americans protested by the Black Lives Matter movement.


text: The families of Russell and Williams filed a lawsuit against the city of Cleveland, claiming they were liable for the wrongful deaths of the two. In November 2014, Cleveland paid $3 million to the two families, which was split evenly.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: Danielle Claudine Ortega Garcia-Crawford (born September 24, 1992), known professionally as Coleen Garcia (, is a Filipino actress, host, and model. Garcia started her career as a child and teenager appearing in several commercials. She was eventually signed by Star Magic, where she has starred in several television series and films produced by ABS-CBN. From 2012 to 2016, she co-hosted the channel's noontime variety show "It's Showtime", which she had left to focus solely on her acting career. Garcia's lead roles include the films "Ex with Benefits" (2015), "Love Me Tomorrow" (2016), and "Sin Island" (2018), as well as the "teleseryes" "Pasión de Amor" (2015–2016) and "Ikaw Lang ang Iibigin" (2017–2018).


title: Coleen Garcia

text: Garcia was born in Mandaluyong to a Spanish Filipino father, Jose Luis García, and Filipino mother, Maria Paz Ortega. Her paternal family is based in Barcelona. Garcia studied at the Southville International School and Colleges. She also took up college in Southville where she is taking up psychology through blended learning. Garcia is a third cousin of actor Arjo Atayde and actress Ria Atayde.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: Garcia started as a commercial model as early as age 2, when she and her mom appeared in a commercial for Johnson & Johnson. At nine years old, she was an image model for Just G, the teens line for "Gingersnaps". From 2009 to 2011, a teenage Garcia starred in several commercial endorsements. Some of those advertisements include Skin White alongside John Lloyd Cruz, Lewis & Pearl cologne alongside Enrique Gil, and Nestea alongside Neil Coleta as Matina.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: Garcia has been under contract with ABS-CBN's Star Magic group of talents since 2011. She first appeared in the episode "School I.D." of the anthology series "Maalaala Mo Kaya", and was cast alongside ex-Lewis & Pearl partner Enrique Gil and former "" contestants James Reid, Devon Seron, Fretzie Bercede and Yen Santos in a teen-oriented show "Good Vibes". She also made appearances in other ABS-CBN shows and "teleseryes" such as "My Binondo Girl", "Wansapanataym", "Oka Tokat", "Little Champ", among others. In 2012, Garcia became a co-host for the noontime variety show "It's Showtime". In 2013, she starred in her first feature film, "She's the One".


title: Coleen Garcia

text: In 2014, Garcia was cast in a supporting role in the Gino M. Santos-directed independent film "#Y". She played an extroverted adolescent named Janna, for which being part of the cast garnered her a Best Cast Ensemble citation at the 10th Cinemalaya Independent Film Festival.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: In June 2015, Garcia joined the main cast of the "teleserye" "Pasión de Amor", an adaptation of the 2003 Colombian telenovela "Pasión de Gavilanes", starring alongside Jake Cuenca, Arci Muñoz, Ejay Falcon, Ellen Adarna, and Joseph Marco. The series ran for almost nine months, ending in February 2016. In September, Garcia earned her first lead role in a feature film in the erotic film "Ex with Benefits", reuniting with Santos and starring opposite Derek Ramsay. While it was a box office success, the film received criticism from the medical community for misrepresentation of the profession, where Garcia plays a medical representative. Garcia responded that her role was more focused on highlighting "her individual flaws" rather than being a generalization of the profession.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: In January 2016, she announced that she had departed "It's Showtime" to prioritize her acting career. Later that year, she starred in an episode of "Maalaala Mo Kaya" entitled "Kadena". Her role as a mentally ill teenager was praised by critics and audiences for her portrayal of the character's several mental illnesses as a result of alcoholism and drug abuse, including auditory hallucination, antisocial personality disorder, and epilepsy. Garcia's performance in "Maalaala Mo Kaya" earned her the Best Actress award at the "Hiyas ng Sining" Awards organized by the Guild of Educators, Mentors, and Students. In 2017, Garcia starred in the action-comedy film "Extra Service", alongside Jessy Mendiola and her "Pasión de Amor" co-star Arci Muñoz. From May 2017 to January 2018, she starred as Isabel Reyes in "Ikaw Lang ang Iibigin", reuniting with Cuenca.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: Garcia collaborated with Santos for another erotic film, "Sin Island", in 2018, with Xian Lim as her on-screen partner. In an interview, she revealed that she suffered a face injury during filming that was accidentally inflicted upon by her co-star Nathalie Hart.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: She appeared in the 2020 romantic comedy film "Mia", playing the titular lead role of a doctor who resorted to alcoholism after the death of her fiancé.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: In 2014, Garcia began dating her "It's Showtime" co-host, Billy Crawford. The two became engaged on December 20, 2016, and married on April 20, 2018. Her cousin Ria Atayde served as her maid of honor during the wedding. On May 1, 2020, Garcia and Crawford announced on Instagram that they were expecting their first child. Their son, Amari, was born in September 2020 via water birth.


title: Coleen Garcia

text: In October 2020, Garcia's half-sister through her father was born, nearly a month after the birth of her own son.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: Interfaith marriage in Judaism (also called mixed marriage or intermarriage) was historically looked upon with very strong disfavor by Jewish leaders, and it remains a controversial issue among them today. In the Talmud and all of resulting Jewish law until the advent of new Jewish movements following the Jewish Enlightenment, the "Haskala", marriage between a Jew and a gentile is both prohibited, and also void under Jewish law.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: A 2013 survey conducted in the United States by the Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project found the intermarriage rate to be 58% among all Jews and 71% among non-Orthodox Jews.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: The Talmud holds that a marriage between a Jew and a non-Jew is both prohibited and also does not constitute a marriage under Jewish law. Furthermore, a Jewish man has no recognized paternal or parental relation to any offspring resulting from a relationship with a gentile woman.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: Christian rulers regarded unions between Jews and Christians unfavourably, and repeatedly prohibited them under penalty of death.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: Gradually, however, many countries removed these restrictions, and marriage between Jews and Christians (and Muslims) began to occur. In 1236, Moses of Coucy induced the Jews bespoused by such marriages to dissolve them. In 1807, Napoleon's Grand Sanhedrin declared that such marriages although not valid under Jewish law were civilly valid and should not be treated as anathema. In 1844, the 1807 ruling was extended by the Rabbinical Conference of Brunswick to include "any adherent of a monotheistic religion", but they also altered it to forbid marriages involving those who lived in states that would prevent children of the marriage from being raised Jewish. This conference was highly controversial; one of its resolutions called on its members to abolish the Kol Nidre prayer, which opens the Yom Kippur service. One member of the Brunswick Conference later changed his opinion, becoming an opponent of intermarriage.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: Traditional Judaism does not consider marriage between a Jew by birth and a convert as an intermarriage. Hence, all the Biblical passages that appear to support intermarriages, such as that of Joseph to Asenath, and that of Ruth to Boaz, were regarded by the classical rabbis as having occurred only after the foreign spouse had converted to Judaism. Some opinions, however, still considered Canaanites forbidden to marry even after conversion; this did not necessarily apply to their children. The Shulchan Aruch and its commentaries bring various opinions as to whether intermarriage is a Torah prohibition and when the prohibition is rabbinic.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: A foundling – a person who was abandoned as a child without their parents being identified – was classified as a non-Jew, in relation to intermarriage, if they had been found in an area where at least one non-Jew lived (even if there were hundreds of Jews in the area, and just one non-Jew); this drastically contrasts with the treatment by other areas of Jewish religion, in which a foundling was classified as Jewish if the majority of the people were Jewish in the area in which the foundling was found. If the mother was known, but not the father, the child was treated as a foundling, unless the mother claimed that the child was an Israelite (the claim would be given the benefit of the doubt).


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: Marriages between Jews and "German-blooded" people were banned in Nazi Germany under the Nuremberg Laws.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: The Talmud and later classical sources of Jewish law are clear that the institution of Jewish marriage, "kiddushin", can only be effected between Jews.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: The more liberal American Jewish movements—including Reform, Reconstructionist (collectively organized in the World Union for Progressive Judaism)—do not generally regard the historic corpus and process of Jewish law as intrinsically binding. Progressive rabbinical associations have no firm prohibition against intermarriage; according to a survey of rabbis, conducted in 1985, more than 87% of Reconstructionist rabbis were willing to officiate at interfaith marriages, and in 2003 at least 50% of Reform rabbis were willing to perform interfaith marriages. The Central Conference of American Rabbis, the Reform rabbinical association in North America and the largest Progressive rabbinical association, consistently opposed intermarriage at least until the 1980s, including their members officiating at them, through resolutions and responsa. In 2015, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College voted to accept rabbinical students in interfaith relationships, making Reconstructionist Judaism the first type of Judaism to officially allow rabbis in relationships with non-Jewish partners.


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: Humanistic Judaism is a Jewish movement that offers a nontheistic alternative in contemporary Jewish life, and defines Judaism as the cultural and historical experience of the Jewish people. The Society for Humanistic Judaism answers the question "Is intermarriage contributing to the demise of Judaism?" on its website, stating, "Intermarriage is the positive consequence of a free and open society. If the Jewish community is open, welcoming, embracing, and pluralistic, we will encourage more people to identify with the Jewish people rather than fewer. Intermarriage could contribute to the continuity of the Jewish people."


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: The largest Reform Synagogue in New York- Central Synagogue, performs "interfaith" marriages. Such marriages are conducted to strengthen Jewish continuity (with the aim that the non-Jewish spouse will convert to Judaism). The 2013 study by Pew Research "What happens when Jews intermarry?" found that children of intermarriage are much more likely to intermarry themselves and much more likely than people with two Jewish parents to describe themselves religiously as atheist, agnostic or just “nothing in particular.” The Study "also suggests" that an increasing percentage of the children of intermarriages are Jewish in adulthood. Among Americans age 65 and older who at the time of the survey said they had one Jewish parent, 25% were Jewish. By contrast, among adults under 30 with one Jewish parent, 59% were Jewish at the time of the survey. Therefore "in this sense, intermarriage may be transmitting Jewish identity to a growing number of Americans.". The survey qualifies that "it is snapshot in time and shows show associations, or linkages, rather than clear causal connections" and it is unknown "whether the large cohort of young adult children of intermarriage who are Jewish today will remain Jewish as they age, marry (and in some cases, intermarry), start families and move through the life cycle".


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: All branches of Orthodox Judaism follow the historic Jewish attitudes to intermarriage, and therefore refuse to accept that intermarriages would have any validity or legitimacy, and strictly forbid sexual intercourse with a member of a different faith. Orthodox rabbis refuse to officiate at interfaith weddings, and also try to avoid assisting them in other ways. Secular intermarriage is seen as a deliberate rejection of Judaism, and an intermarried person is effectively cut off from most of the Orthodox community, although some Chabad-Lubavitch and Modern Orthodox Jews do reach out to intermarried Jews, especially Jewish women (because Orthodox Jewish law considers the children of Jewish women to be Jews regardless of the father's status).


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: The Conservative Movement in Judaism does not sanction or recognize the Jewish legal validity of intermarriage, but encourages acceptance of the non-Jewish spouse within the family, hoping that such acceptance will lead to the spouse's conversion to Judaism. The Rabbinical Assembly Standards of Rabbinic Practice prohibit Conservative rabbis from officiating at intermarriages, and officially forbade Conservative rabbis from attending intermarriages until 2018. In 1995 the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism published the following statement on intermarriage:


title: Interfaith marriage in Judaism

text: Different movements in Judaism have different views on who is a Jew, and thus on what constitutes an "interfaith" marriage. Unlike Reform Judaism, the Orthodox stream does not accept as Jewish a person whose mother is not Jewish, nor a convert whose conversion was not performed according to classical Jewish law. Conservative Judaism does not accept patrilineal descent. A small minority of Conservative rabbis will accept Reform conversions even absent traditional halachic criteria.