title: Special Branch

text: In the face of a perceived direct Communist threat to Hong Kong, an Anti-Communist Squad was established in the Criminal Investigation Department of the then Hong Kong Police by 1930. It was named the "Political Department" in Chinese (政治部). In 1933, the squad's English name became "Special Branch" while its Chinese name remained unchanged. In addition to anti-subversion operations, its role during its first two decades also included immigration, passport control and registration of persons.


title: Special Branch

text: The division was disbanded in 1995, prior to the transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997. Units of SB were reassigned under the Security Wing (Department B) – Crime and Security.


title: Special Branch

text: The Special Branch is a separate wing in the state police forces in India. Like their counterparts in the United Kingdom, they deal with matters of state security. However, more serious espionage detection is the responsibility of the Intelligence Bureau (IB), India's federal internal security agency.


title: Special Branch

text: There have been many allegations that the Special Branch is used by the ruling government for setting up surveillance on their political opponents. The Special Branch has its own Detective Constables, Head Constables, Inspector rankings and superior police officer rankings. Every police station is to have a Special Branch head constable or Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI) (working plain clothes or "Mufti"), he would be observing the society in general, and also taking reports from the uniformed police constables on general patrol. The special branch staff play a very important role in collecting advance intelligence about law and order matters as well as illegal activities like cannabis plantation/transportation, illicit attacks, etc. They forward the information to the respective Superintendents of police for necessary action.


title: Special Branch

text: In Ireland, the 'Special Branch' is known officially as the Special Detective Unit (SDU). The counter-terrorist and counterintelligence unit operates under the auspices of the Crime & Security Branch (CSB) of the "Garda Síochána" (Irish National Police). The SDU is responsible for the investigation of threats to state security and the monitoring of persons and groups who pose a threat on both national and international fronts. The SDU works closely with other special units within the "Garda Síochána", such as the National Surveillance Unit (NSU) and Emergency Response Unit (ERU), and Ireland's national and military intelligence agency – the Defence Forces Directorate of Military Intelligence. The Special Detective Unit has a close working relationship with similar units in other western countries, particularly the United Kingdom, who share information to target, detect and disrupt the activities of terrorists.


title: Special Branch

text: The Malaysian Special Branch is an intelligence agency attached to the Royal Malaysian Police (RMP). The SB is empowered to acquire and develop intelligence on internal and external threats to the nation, subversive activities, extremist activities and activities of sabotage and spying. It is also empowered to analyse and advise on the necessary course of action to the various departments and agencies both within the Police Department and other related agencies.


title: Special Branch

text: The Special Branch under the control of the Myanmar Police Force is also known as the Special Intelligence Department.


title: Special Branch

text: The New Zealand Police Special Branch was formally created on 29 December 1949. At the time, the-then Police Commissioner Jim Cummings decided that the section of the Police Force dealing with subversive organisations would be designated the Special Branch, following a recent precedent established by a conference of Police Commissioners in Melbourne in November 1949. Its functions included dealing with subversive organisations and vetting public servants. Known targets of the Special Branch included the Communist Party of New Zealand, the Waterside Workers' Union, and the left-wing New Zealand diplomat and alleged KGB spy Desmond Patrick Costello and the civil servant and intellectual Bill Sutch. In November 1956, the Special Branch's functions were transferred to the New Zealand Security Service, which was later renamed the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.


title: Special Branch

text: Special Branch sections of the New Guinea Police Force and Royal Papuan Constabulary, in Australia-controlled Territory of Papua and Territory of New Guinea, were established in 1947. These were merged into the Royal Papua New Guinea Constabulary in 1950.


title: Special Branch

text: The British South Africa Police (BSAP) developed its Special Branch in the early 1950s amid growing political unrest in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. It remained active following the dissolution of the federation and was instrumental in creating the Selous Scouts during the Rhodesian Bush War. Following formal recognition of Zimbabwean independence in 1980, the Special Branch was succeeded in part by the Central Intelligence Organisation and later, the Police Internal Security and Intelligence division (PISI).


title: Special Branch

text: The Security and Intelligence Division (SID) is the foreign intelligence agency of Singapore responsible for gathering and analysing intelligence related to the country's external security.


title: Special Branch

text: Although it is under the purview of the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), it has a certain independence in that it is not under the control of either of the Permanent Secretaries for Defence.


title: Special Branch

text: During Apartheid, the South African Police's Security Branch, also known as the Special Branch was a police unit often used to attack anti-Apartheid groups using techniques and tactics including such as conducting surveillance, infiltrating meetings, recruiting informers, and obtaining documents and leaflets. They have also been linked to torture, extralegal detention, and forced disappearances and assassinations against anti-Apartheid activists in the ANC and SACP. They first gained this role in the 1960s, under the regime of Justice Minister "B.J." Vorster, who convened the Special Branch to target these groups. Controversially, they have also been linked to the bombing of anti-apartheid groups COSATU and SACC during the South African Truth & Reconciliation Committees. It is now the Crime Intelligence Unit which investigates crime but which continues to investigate groups perceived to be enemies of the state such as social movements.


title: Special Branch

text: The Special Branch of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) was created in late 1966 tasked with national security as an intelligence agency attached Ceylon Police Force. This was closed down in 1970.


title: Special Branch

text: The first Special Branch in the world was that of the Metropolitan Police, formed in London in 1883, with each British police force going on to form its own Special Branch. In Northern Ireland, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (1922–2001) had the RUC Special Branch. Many of those in county and city police forces have since been merged or converted into inter-force regional counter terrorism units and organised crime units.


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: The June sessions featured Wayne Shorter on tenor saxophone, Herbie Hancock on the electric Rhodes piano, Ron Carter on electric bass guitar, and Tony Williams on drums. The September sessions replaced Hancock with Corea, and Carter with Holland, making "Filles de Kilimanjaro" the last Miles album to feature his “Second Great Quintet”, although all except Carter would play on his next album, "In A Silent Way". During the September sessions, Holland played acoustic double bass and Corea played an RMI Electra-piano in addition to acoustic piano. These are Holland and Corea's first known recordings with Davis. The album was produced by Teo Macero and engineered by Frank Laico and Arthur Kendy. Shortly after the sessions for "Filles de Kilimanjaro", Davis led further sessions in November 1968 with additional personnel including Joe Zawinul (organ) and Jack DeJohnette (drums); however, these recordings were scrapped for several years until being released on compilations throughout the 1970s and 1980s. All of these, plus the September recordings from "Filles de Kilimanjaro", were eventually included on "The Complete In a Silent Way Sessions" box set in 2001.


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: The album title refers, in part, to Kilimanjaro African Coffee, a company in which Davis had made a financial investment. Davis decided to list all the song titles in French to give the album an exotic touch. Davis married Betty O. Mabry Davis in September 1968, and named " (Miss Mabry)" for her. The song itself was recorded during the same month as Davis's wedding and Betty appears on the album cover.


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: The album can be seen as a transitional work between Davis's mainly acoustic recordings with the Second Quintet and his later electric period (for example, "Bitches Brew"). It is suffused in the heady abstraction of the 1960s, but attentive to blues tonalities, electronic textures, and dancing rhythms of later jazz fusion. Davis apparently saw it as a transitional work for him, as the album was the first in what would become a series of his releases to bear the subtitle "Directions in music by Miles Davis". However, author Paul Tingen points out that while Carter and Hancock played electric instruments at the first recording session, the later session was a bit of a throwback, in which Holland played only acoustic bass and Corea played both acoustic and electric piano. Noted linguist and Miles Davis-biographer Jack Chambers later wrote that the band sought to expand beyond their usual minimal structure and find a common mood, wanting listeners to "discover the unity of the pieces instead of just locating it, as viewers must discover the unity in a painting with several simultaneous perspectives".


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: The melodic complexity of "Petits Machins (Little Stuff)" highlights Davis's interest in departing from post-bop structure towards the sounds and textures of his subsequent fusion work. Music writer Marcus Singletary commented on its complexity, "True to the general concept of "Filles de Kilimanjaro", a mosaic of controlled chaos becomes the defining sound of 'Little Stuff'". On the recording, the quintet expresses an meter with a repeating riff and chromatically ascending dominant harmonies in the recording first section. Section two moves to a contrasting 10-bar section in meter, with the opening six bars relying on an F pedal point in the bass, above which occur shifting harmonies each measure. The static F pedal section yields to a syncopated progression with meters seven to eight and a change of bass in meters nine to 10, as the quintet makes an alteration to section two during the improvisations. Music theorist Keith Waters cites this as an example of "Davis's—by now—well-worn practice of metric deletion", in which throughout the trumpet solo, the quintet maintains a repeated nine-bar cycle, rather than the 10 bars of section two heard during the first section. The quintet omits bar 10 of section two during the solos and maintains the harmonic progression of bars 1 through 9. As in the first section, the syncopated progression occurs in bar 7, but Carter does not participate in playing the syncopation of meters seven to eight during the improvisations, while Hancock interprets this progression more freely. Singletary said of its musical significance:


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: As with the album's title track, the quintet does not return to the first section and the recording concludes with a second Davis improvisation.


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: Gil Evans, with whom Davis had previously collaborated, helped compose, arrange, and produce the album, though he is not mentioned in the credits. Evans co-composed "", which he later recorded as "Eleven" with himself and Davis listed as co-composers. The song " (Miss Mabry)", while credited to Davis, is actually Gil Evans' reworking of "The Wind Cries Mary" by Jimi Hendrix (Davis and Evans had met with Hendrix several times to exchange ideas). At the same time, some portions of the song resemble Mann, Weil, Leiber and Stoller's "On Broadway".


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: In a contemporary review, "Rolling Stone" claimed that "no amount of track-by-track description here can begin to convey the beauty and intensity. There are five songs, but really they fit together as five expressions of the same basic piece, one sustained work". Stanley Crouch, a staunch critic of Davis's use of electric instruments, has described the album as "the trumpeter's last important jazz record". In a retrospective review of the album, "Uncut" called it "a masterpiece of tropical exoticism". Sputnikmusic staff writer Tyler Fisher commented that the rhythm section-players "sound entirely innovative and fresh" and "The whole band, in both quintets, has an extreme awareness about each other and knows exactly where each soloist is going". He attributed its "more avant-garde feel" to a "lack of form and the constant outlook of many measures ahead", while calling it "a full out enjoyable listen, showcasing enough variety and virtuosity to not make the 70-minute album a tiring listen". AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine called its music "unpretentiously adventurous, grounded in driving, mildly funky rhythms and bluesy growls from Miles, graced with weird, colorful flourishes from the band [...] Where "Miles in the Sky" meandered a bit, this is considerably more focused", dubbing it as "the swan song for his second classic quintet, arguably the finest collective of musicians he ever worked with". Erlewine also cited the album as "the beginning of a new phase for Miles, the place that he begins to dive headfirst into jazz-rock fusion", and commented on its significance in Davis's catalogue:


title: Filles de Kilimanjaro

text: "Down Beat" critic John Ephland called "Filles de Kilimanjaro" "the stylistic precursor to the ever-popular "In a Silent Way" of 1969", writing that ""Filles" is performed (and edited) like a suite, with a sense of flow unlike anything Davis had recorded up to that point. That flow is enhanced by a music played all in one key (F), with only five 'tunes,' and with a mood and rhythms that change gradually from start to finish". Ephland concluded in his review, "In passing, "Filles de Kilimanjaro" is a turning-point album unlike any other for Davis: For the first time, his bebop roots were essentially severed, rockier rhythms, electricity and ostinato-driven bass lines now holding sway". Jim Santella from "All About Jazz" wrote that the album's music "flows with a lyricism that remains highly regarded in today’s format", concluding in his review that ""Filles De Kilimanjaro" remains one of the classic albums from their collaboration, and represents a high point in modern jazz".


title: Great potoo

text: The great potoo (Nyctibius grandis) is the largest potoo species and is widely distributed in Central and South America.


title: Great potoo

text: Much like owls, this species is nocturnal. It preys on large insects and small vertebrates, which it captures in sallies from high perches.


title: Great potoo

text: Possibly its most well known characteristic is its unique moaning growl that the great potoo vocalizes throughout the night, creating an unsettling atmosphere in the Neotropics with its nocturnal sounds.


title: Great potoo

text: The great potoo was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's "Systema Naturae". He placed it with all the nightjar like species in the genus "Caprimulgus" and coined the binomial name "Caprimulgus grandis". The great potoo is now one of the seven potoos placed in the genus "Nyctibius" that was introduced in 1816 by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot. The genus name is from Ancient Greek "nuktibios " meaning "night-living", from "nux" "night" and "bios" "life". The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.


title: Great potoo

text: The great potoo has a large head in relation to its body. The eyes are also very large with a brown to yellow iris and has a short but broad beak. Their wings are elliptical in shape and the tail is elongated. The feather colors vary with white, gray, black, and burgundy. The tail colors match with that of the rest of the body with the exception of white bars that can be seen going across the tail laterally. (see references below)


title: Great potoo

text: They range from southern Mexico through northeastern Guatemala and through most of Central America down through South America as far as southeastern Brazil and Bolivia.


title: Great potoo

text: In general the great potoo are distributed from humid to semi-humid forested habitats. While this species is widely spreadout geographically there is little to no variation in their appearance such as size or plumage. The great potoo is found mostly in dense lowland forest, forest edges and clearings. It may also range into foothills (up to about 1,500 m elevation), second-growth, open woodlands (including plantations) and is sometimes seen around meadows, but they always require trees-etc., for their camouflaged imitative perch.


title: Great potoo

text: In the day they are normally found perching or nesting usually higher than 12 meters above ground level within big trees. The branches they choose to perch usually are nearly 20 to 30 centimeters in diameter. At night time, they may go to lower perches 1.5 meters above the ground, from which they hunt.


title: Great potoo

text: This nocturnal predator is usually seen perched high above the ground while foraging, hawking when prey is spotted. After the pounce, the potoo almost always returns to its previous perch. Normally, during the day it perches upright on a tree stump, and is overlooked because it resembles part of the stump; this is a camouflage, not just by coloration, but a camouflage by the setting. The Great Potoo can be located at night by the reflection of light from its eyes as it sits vertical on a post, roost, or angled-tree trunk. Great potoos are shy and solitary creatures.


title: Great potoo

text: Breeding has been recorded as typically February to August, but depending on the portion of this bird's range breeding birds can be met with almost year-round. The nest is a slight depression on a thick tree branch, at least above ground, with a single white (slightly spotted) egg measuring about . Few details are known of the brooding behavior, but about a month elapses before the offspring is seen alone at the nest. A chick of a few days old weighed . After about 5 weeks the nestling is a two-thirds version of the adult, but with a lighter build, paler plumage, shorter tail, and smaller bill with less rictal bristles. The fledging period must be at least 2 months. After this time span, the offspring do not return to the nest site.


title: Great potoo

text: Although the adult potoo likely has few natural predators, predation of eggs, nestlings and fledging is apparently not uncommon. Adults stay near the nest throughout the day and rely upon camouflage to protect their offspring. Predators, while not confirmed, of great potoo nests in Costa Rica have included monkeys such as mantled howlers, Geoffroy's spider monkeys and white-headed capuchins as well as tayras and collared forest falcons.


title: Great potoo

text: Their prey consists mostly of large flying insects, especially large beetles, katydids and Orthoptera (including crickets and grasshoppers). Bats and birds are taken occasionally as well. The great potoo takes advantage of the night and its natural camouflage by sitting on an exposed perch to wait until some prey flies by, at which point it darts out towards the prey and returns to the branch with it. Very often birds of this species will use the same hunting perch nightly.


title: Great potoo

text: Due to its large range, the great potoo is seen as a species of least concern, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The great potoo is normally described as "uncommon", but occurs frequently in areas of less disturbed forests and is often found to be rare along the edges of its range. The clearing of forest is the only conservation threat known to this bird.


title: Great potoo

text: The local people in the rural area of Brazil sometimes use potoo as a minor food source, as they do not offer much meat and are hard to locate. In these areas, their feathers are believed to have powers to provide chastity, so they are hunted down for their body parts, which are used to perform ceremonies. It is also believed that parts of their body ward off seduction. Potoos fear most locals due to being hunted.


title: Amy Pemberton

text: Amy Louise Pemberton is a British actress. She portrays Gideon in the television series "Legends of Tomorrow" and voiced Elaena Glenmore in the "Game of Thrones" video game. She voiced Slone from "Titanfall 2" (2016), and played Private Sally Morgan—a companion of the Seventh Doctor—in Big Finish Productions' "Doctor Who" audio plays.


title: Italian fiscal code

text: The Italian fiscal code, officially known in Italy as Codice fiscale, is the tax code in Italy, similar to a Social Security Number (SSN) in the United States or the National Insurance Number issued in the United Kingdom.


title: Italian fiscal code

text: It is an alphanumeric code of 16 characters. The code serves to unambiguously identify individuals irrespective of citizenship or residency status. Designed by and for the Italian tax office, it is now used for several other purposes, e.g. uniquely identifying individuals in the health system, or natural persons who act as parties in private contracts.


title: Italian fiscal code

text: In the past, each person in Italy was handed a paper or plastic card with a magnetic strip, bearing the tax code as well as the surname, given name(s), sex, place and province of birth (or country of birth if foreign), date of birth and date of issue. Today, the fiscal code card has been replaced by a combined Italian health insurance card for qualifying residents which shows an expiration date.


title: Italian fiscal code

text: The laws covering the calculation of a fiscal code were put in place by the Ministry of Economy and Finances on December 23, 1976.


title: Italian fiscal code

text: For natural persons, the fiscal code is made of 16 alphanumeric characters; for legal persons (e.g. corporations) it comprises 11 numeric-only characters.


title: Italian fiscal code

text: While it is possible to calculate one's tax code, the only official tax code is the one provided by the tax office, which avoids cases of identical tax codes (which is a frequent case for people not born in Italy, as in this case the 4-characters town code in the "codice fiscale" is replaced by "Z" followed by a 3-digit country code) as well as cases where a code is incorrect, but still valid (because provided by the tax office).


title: Italian fiscal code

text: Here is the fiscal code of a fictitious Samantha Miller (female), born in the USA on 25 September 1982, living in Italy:


title: Terbutaline

text: Terbutaline, sold under the brand names Bricanyl and Marex among others, is a β adrenergic receptor agonist, used as a "reliever" inhaler in the management of asthma symptoms and as a tocolytic (anti-contraction medication) to delay preterm labor for up to 48 hours. This time can then be used to administer steroid injections to the mother which help fetal lung maturity and reduce complications of prematurity. It should not be used to prevent preterm labor or delay labor more than 48–72 hours. In February 2011, the Food and Drug Administration began requiring a black box warning on the drug's label. Pregnant women should not be given injections of the drug terbutaline for the prevention of preterm labor or for long-term (beyond 48–72 hours) management of preterm labor, and should not be given oral terbutaline for any type of prevention or treatment of preterm labor "due to the potential for serious internal heart problems and death."


title: Terbutaline

text: It was patented in 1966 and came into medical use in 1970. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Terbutaline

text: Terbutaline is used as a fast-acting bronchodilator (often used as a short-term asthma treatment) and as a tocolytic to delay premature labor.


title: Terbutaline

text: As an asthma treatment, the inhaled form of terbutaline, starts working within 15 minutes and can last up to 6 hours. It is also sold as an injectable solution, an oral tablet, and as a syrup (in combination with guaifenesin).


title: Terbutaline

text: Terbutaline is a pregnancy category C medication and is prescribed to stop contractions. After successful intravenous tocolysis, little evidence exists that oral terbutaline is effective. Terbutaline as a treatment for premature labor is an off-label use not approved by the US FDA, who have warned that oral terbutaline is not effective and can cause severe heart problems or death, and while injectable terbutaline can be used for premature labor in emergency situations in a hospital setting, it should only be used for short periods of time.


title: Terbutaline

text: The tertiary butyl group in terbutaline makes it more selective for β receptors. Since there is no hydroxy group on position 4 of the benzene ring, the molecule is less susceptible to metabolism by the enzyme catechol-"O"-methyl transferase.


title: Terbutaline

text: Terbutaline is synthesized by brominating 3,5-dibenzyloxyacetophenone into 3,5-dibenzyloxybromoacetophenone, which is reacted with "N"-benzyl-"N"-"tert"-butylamine, giving a ketone intermediate. Reduction of this product with H₂ over Pd/C leads to terbutaline.


title: Terbutaline

text: Terbutaline contains a stereocenter and consists of two enantiomers. This is a racemate, ie a 1: 1 mixture of (R) - and the (S) - form:


title: Terbutaline

text: As with all β2-adrenergic receptor agonists, terbutaline is on the World Anti-Doping Agency's list of prohibited drugs, except when administered by inhalation and a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) has been obtained in advance.


title: Denny Dias

text: Dennis Dias (born December 12, 1946) is an American guitarist, best known for being a founding member of Steely Dan.


title: Denny Dias

text: Dias was working with his own band out of his basement in Hicksville, New York, when he placed an ad in "The Village Voice" in the summer of 1970 that read: "Looking for keyboardist and bassist. Must have jazz chops! Assholes need not apply". Donald Fagen and Walter Becker responded to the advertisement.


title: Denny Dias

text: They joined his band and immediately began playing their own material. Dias fired the rest of the band, and the three of them moved to California, adding drummer Jim Hodder, guitarist Jeff "Skunk" Baxter, and vocalist David Palmer before recording for ABC/Dunhill Records as Steely Dan. Dias recorded as a permanent member of the band on 1972's "Can't Buy a Thrill" (with an electric sitar solo on the song "Do It Again"), on 1973's "Countdown to Ecstasy", and on 1974's "Pretzel Logic".


title: Denny Dias

text: Following a tour promoting "Pretzel Logic", Becker and Fagen decided to break the band up and use session musicians on future albums. Though no longer a member of the band, Dias continued to work with them as a session guitarist, appearing on 1975's "Katy Lied", 1976's "The Royal Scam", and 1977's "Aja". In 1991 he joined Toto on their Summer Festival Tour. He also recorded with Wayne Shorter, Wilfrido Vargas and Pete Christlieb. Some of Dias's original material was recorded on a 1999 CD called "Matter of Time", with Lisa Jason (Vocals) and Andy Bergsten (Bass) as the core of the band.


title: Denny Dias

text: As of 2012, Dias was playing with Spanky and Our Gang. In 2014, he was playing with Denny Dias and Friends, a Boston-based band formed with Lisa Jason and Andy Bergsten with session musicians from around the country. In 2015, they planned a tour that included the Iridium in NYC.


title: Wheel of time

text: The wheel of time or wheel of history (also known as "Kalachakra") is a concept found in several religious traditions and philosophies, notably religions of Indian origin such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, which regard time as cyclical and consisting of repeating ages. Many other cultures contain belief in a similar concept: notably, the Q'ero Natives of Peru, as well as the Hopi Natives of Arizona.


title: Wheel of time

text: In Hindu cosmology, "kala" (time) is eternal, repeating general events in four types of cycles. The smallest cycle is a "maha-yuga" (great age), containing four "yugas" ("dharmic" ages): "Satya Yuga", "Treta Yuga", "Dvapara Yuga" and "Kali Yuga". A "manvantara" (age of Manu) contains 71 "maha-yugas". A "kalpa" (day of Brahma) contains 14 "manvantaras" and 15 "sandhyas" (connecting periods), which lasts for 1,000 "maha-yugas" and is followed by a "pralaya" (night of partial dissolution) of equal length, where a day and night make one full day. A "maha-kalpa" (life of Brahma) lasts for 100 of Brahma's years of 12 months of 30 full days (100 360-day years) or 72,000,000 "maha-yugas", which is followed by a "maha-pralaya" (full dissolution) of equal length.


title: Wheel of time

text: The Wheel of Time or Kalachakra is a Tantric deity that is associated with Tibetan Tantric Buddhism, which encompasses all four main schools of Sakya, Nyingma, Kagyu and Gelug, and is especially important within the lesser-known Jonang tradition.


title: Wheel of time

text: The Kalachakra tantra prophesies a world within which (religious) conflict is prevalent. A worldwide war will be waged which will see the expansion of the mystical Kingdom of Shambhala led by a messianic king.


title: Wheel of time

text: Within Jainism, time is thought to be a wheel that rotates for infinity without a beginning. This wheel of time holds twelve spokes that each symbolize a different phase in the universe's cosmological history. It is further divided into two equal halves having six eras in them. While in a downward motion, the wheel of time falls into what is known as Avasarpiṇī and when in an upward motion, enters a state called Utsarpini. During both motions of the wheel, 24 tirthankaras come forth to teach the three jewels or sacred Jain teachings of right faith, right knowledge, and right practice, then create a spiritual ford across the ocean of rebirth for humanity.


title: Wheel of time

text: The philosopher and emperor Marcus Aurelius saw time as extending forwards to infinity and backwards to infinity, while admitting the possibility (without arguing the case) that "the administration of the universe is organized into a succession of finite periods".


title: Wheel of time

text: In an interview included with the audiobook editions of his novels, author Robert Jordan has stated that his bestselling fantasy series "The Wheel of Time" borrows the titular concept from Hindu mythology.


title: Wheel of time

text: Several episodes of the American TV series "Lost" feature a wheel that can be physically turned in order to manipulate space and time. In a series of episodes during the fifth season, the island on which the show takes place begins to skip violently back and forth through time after the wheel is pulled off its axis.


title: No. 6

text: No. 6 is a Japanese novel series written by Atsuko Asano and published by Kodansha in nine volumes between October 2003 and June 2011. A manga adaptation drawn by Hinoki Kino was serialized in Kodansha's "Aria" magazine from January 2011 to November 2013. An 11-episode anime television series adaptation by Bones was broadcast on Fuji TV's Noitamina programming block from July to September 2011.


title: No. 6

text: The story takes place in a dystopian city known as "No.6". Shion, a boy raised in the elite and privileged environment of his home, gives shelter to another boy, who only gives his name as "Nezumi" (or "Rat") on the former's twelfth birthday. What Shion soon discovers is how drastically life will change after meeting with the mysterious Nezumi, with whom he had shared one unforgettable, stormy night.


title: No. 6

text: "No.6" began as a novel series written by Atsuko Asano. Nine "tankōbon" volumes were published by Kodansha between October 10, 2003, and June 14, 2011. A special volume called "No.6 beyond", which features stories from the lives of the characters before or after the main story, was published on November 22, 2012. Kodansha published nine "bunkobon" volumes from October 13, 2006, to July 15, 2014.


title: No. 6

text: A manga adaptation, illustrated by Hinoki Kino, was serialized in Kodansha's "shōjo" manga magazine "Aria" from January 28, 2011, to November 28, 2013. Kodansha USA licensed the series in North America, and released the first volume in June 2013.


title: No. 6

text: An anime television series adaptation produced by Bones and directed by Kenji Nagasaki, aired in Japan on Fuji TV's noitamina programming block from July 8 to September 16, 2011. The opening theme is "Spell" by Lama while the ending theme is by Aimer. Sentai Filmworks has licensed the anime for American audiences and it was released on both DVD and Blu-ray on August 21, 2012. Rights to the series expired in 2018.


title: White power music

text: White power music is music that promotes white nationalism. It encompasses various music styles, including rock, country, experimental music and folk. Ethnomusicologist Benjamin R. Teitelbaum argues that white power music "can be defined by lyrics that demonize variously conceived non-whites and advocate racial pride and solidarity. Most often, however, insiders conceptualized white power music as the combination of those themes with pounding rhythms and a charging punk or metal-based accompaniment." Genres include Nazi punk, Rock Against Communism, National Socialist black metal, and fashwave.


title: White power music

text: Barbara Perry writes that contemporary white supremacist groups include "subcultural factions that are largely organized around the promotion and distribution of racist music." According to the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission "racist music is principally derived from the far-right skinhead movement and, through the Internet, this music has become perhaps the most important tool of the international neo-Nazi movement to gain revenue and new recruits." An article in "Popular Music and Society" says "musicians believe not only that music could be a successful vehicle for their specific ideology but that it also could advance the movement by framing it in a positive manner."


title: White power music

text: Dominic J. Pulera writes that the music is more pervasive in some countries in Europe than it is in the United States, despite some European countries banning or curtailing its distribution. European governments regularly deport "extremist aliens", ban white power bands and raid "organizations" that produce and distribute the music. In the United States, racist music is protected freedom of speech in the United States by the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.


title: White power music

text: Several subgenres of white power music have been spawned, including country music — also referred to as "segregationist music" — which was developed in response to the American civil rights movement. The songs expressed resistance to the federal government and civil rights advocates who were challenging well-established white supremacist practices which were endemic in the American South. During the 1940s and 1950s, changes also occurred in the music recording industry that allowed regional recording companies to form across the United States, addressing small specialized markets. B.C. Malone writes: "the struggles waged by black Americans to attain economic dignity and racial justice provided one of the ugliest chapters in country music history, an outpouring of racist records on small labels, mostly from Crowley, Louisiana, which lauded the Ku Klux Klan and attacked African-Americans in the most vicious of stereotypical terms."


title: White power music

text: The artists often adopted pseudonyms, and some of their music was "highly confrontational, making explicit use of racial epithets, stereotypes and threats of violence against civil rights activists. Much of the music "featured blatantly racist stereotypes that dehumanized African Americans", equating them with animals or "using cartoonish imagery associated with "Jigaboos"". Lyrics warned of white violence on African Americans if they insisted on being treated as equals. Other songs were more subtle, couching racist messages behind social critiques and political action calls. The lyrics, in the tradition of right-wing populism, questioned the legitimacy of the federal government and rallied whites to protect "Southern rights" and traditions. The song "Black Power" includes the lyrics:


title: White power music

text: In 1966, businessman Jay "J.D." Miller created a niche record label for his company, the defiantly segregationist Reb Rebel Records. It was arguably the most notable of the racist country music record labels. Reb Rebel released 21 singles and "For Segregationists Only", an album of its ten bestselling songs, four of which were Johnny Rebel's. The label's first single, "Dear Mr. President" (referring to then-president Lyndon B. Johnson), by Happy Fats (Leroy Leblanc), sold more than 200,000 copies. The song parodied Johnson's Great Society programs, which aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice. Other songs were primarily about civil rights or the Vietnam War, "but they never really attacked black people." The studio's second release, "Flight NAACP 105" by "the Son of Mississippi" (Joe Norris), was the label's bestseller; the track was a "spontaneous skit in the vein of "Amos 'n' Andy"." It was the first in a series of "highly racist take-offs" of "Amos n' Andy". Few of Miller's racist records were played on the radio in Louisiana.


title: White power music

text: Johnny Rebel, the pseudonym that Cajun country musician Clifford Joseph Trahane used on racist recordings issued in the 1960s, became the "forefather of white power music." Johnny Rebel's six singles (12 songs altogether), frequently use the racial epithet "nigger", and often voiced sympathy for racial segregation and the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), such as his first B-side "Kajun Ku Klux Klan", which was a "cautionary tale centered on the story of 'Levi Coon' who dared to demand that he be served in a café." The songs were "vehemently anti-black, its pro-segregationist lyrics set to the twangs of the era's swampbilly craze."


title: White power music

text: Because of bootlegged records and Internet interest, Johnny Rebel's career continued; in the late 1990s he was rediscovered, and he re-released his music on CD and promoted it with his own website. The site, however, did not spark new interest outside his fanbase until September 11 attacks of 2001. Johnny Rebel recorded and released "Infidel Anthem", about "the whipping America should lay on Osama bin Laden," leading to an appearance on "The Howard Stern Show", where his new compilation CD and the new song were promoted. At the time, Stern's show had a peak audience of around 20 million.


title: White power music

text: Michael Wade argues that Johnny Rebel "influenced British racist musicians, notably the band Skrewdriver, which inspired other right-wing musicians".


title: White power music

text: Nazi punk music is stylistically similar to most forms of punk rock, although it differs by having lyrics that express hatred of Jews, homosexuals, communists, anarchists, anti-racists and people who are not considered white, as opposed to the often left-wing lyrics of punk rock. In 1978 in Britain, the white nationalist National Front (NF) had a punk-oriented youth organization called the Punk Front. Although the Punk Front only lasted one year, it included a number of white power punk bands such as The Dentists, The Ventz, Tragic Minds and White Boss. The Nazi punk subculture appeared in the United States by the early 1980s during the rise of the hardcore punk scene.


title: White power music

text: The Rock Against Communism movement originated in the British punk scene in late 1978 with activists associated with the NF. The most notable RAC band was Skrewdriver, which started out as a non-political punk band but evolved into a white power skinhead band after the original lineup broke up and a new lineup was formed. They were the "most dominant white racial extremist band" and were idealized in the "emerging movement that arose in response to perceptions of political liberalism, diversity, and the loss of a power in the white community." Skrewdriver advocated on behalf of extreme right-wing and racist politics, and its frontman Ian Stuart Donaldson identified himself as a neo-Nazi. The group performed mainly for other white power skinheads and "asserted the need for extremist political violence." Bands that followed their lead also "fused racist ideology, heavy metal and hard rock styles", embracing "aggressive racism and ethnic nationalism".


title: White power music

text: National Socialist black metal (NSBM) is black metal that promotes National Socialist (Nazi) beliefs through their lyrics and imagery. These beliefs often include: white supremacy, racial separatism, antisemitism, heterosexism, and Nazi interpretations of paganism or Satanism (Nazi mysticism). According to Mattias Gardell, NSBM musicians see "national socialism as a logical extension of the political and spiritual dissidence inherent in black metal. Bands whose members hold Nazi beliefs but do not express these through their lyrics are generally not considered NSBM by black metal musicians, but are labelled as such in media reports. Some black metal bands have made references to Nazi Germany purely for shock value, much like some punk rock and heavy metal bands. According to Christian Dornbusch and Hans-Peter Killguss, völkisch pagan metal and neo-Nazism are the current trends in the black metal scene, and are affecting the broader metal scene. Mattias Gardell, however, sees NSBM artists as a minority within black metal.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: The film takes place during a heatwave in the middle of summer in post-war Tokyo. Murakami (Toshiro Mifune), a newly-promoted homicide detective in the Tokyo police, has his Colt pistol stolen while riding on a crowded trolley. He chases the pickpocket, but loses him. A remorseful Murakami reports the theft to his superior, Nakajima, at police headquarters. After Nakajima encourages him to conduct an investigation into the theft, the inexperienced Murakami goes undercover in the city's backstreets for days, trying to infiltrate the illicit arms market. He eventually locates a dealer who agrees to sell him a stolen gun, but when Murakami arrests the dealer's girlfriend at the exchange, he is distraught to find that she doesn't know anything about his missing gun.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: Forensics experts determine that Murakami's Colt was used to mug a woman of ¥40,000, and Nakajima partners him up with veteran detective Satō (Takashi Shimura). After Satō skillfully questions the girlfriend, the two detectives learn that the dealer, who is using the alias of "Honda", is a fan of baseball. They stake-out a local high-attendance baseball game looking for Honda and manage to lure him away from the crowd before taking him into custody. A ration card found on his person reveals that the gun was "loaned" to Yusa, a disenchanted war veteran who has become involved with the yakuza to support himself. The detectives interview Yusa's sister, one of his yakuza associates, and his sweetheart, showgirl Harumi Namiki (Keiko Awaji); none of these visits produce any useful leads.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: Murakami's gun is used again, this time to murder another woman during a robbery. He and Satō continue to question Namiki at her mother's house. She is still reluctant to talk, so Satō leaves to trace Yusa's movements, while Murakami remains behind hoping that Namiki's mother can persuade her to begin cooperating. Satō finds the hotel where Yusa is staying. He tries to call Murakami, but just as he is about to reveal Yusa's location, the criminal (having overheard the hotel owners mention that a cop is present) shoots Satō twice before making his escape. Satō, badly wounded but alive, staggers out the door, passes out from blood loss, and is taken to the hospital. A distraught Murakami is forcibly removed from the hospital on Nakajima's orders when he becomes disruptive and starts wailing loudly.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: The following morning, Namiki has a change of heart and informs Murakami that Yusa called and asked her to meet him at a train station so they can skip town. Murakami races to the station and manages to get a positive identification on Yusa by taking into account his age, white suit stained with mud, and left-handedness, three tips he has collected over the past few days. Yusa tries to flee and Murakami pursues him into the forest; Yusa is able to wound him in the arm, but then panics, wastes his last two bullets, and throws the gun away. Murakami, in spite of his injury, wrestles Yusa down, handcuffs him, retrieves the gun, and takes him into custody. Days later at the hospital, Satō has recovered and congratulates Murakami on receiving his first citation. Murakami admits that he sympathizes with Yusa's situation, to which Satō replies that he will lose such sentimentality as he arrests more people and that he should focus on getting ready for the cases that he will need to solve in the future.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: Kurosawa mentioned in several interviews that his script was inspired by Jules Dassin’s "The Naked City" and the works of Georges Simenon. "Stray Dog" was the first time that Kurosawa collaborated with Ryuzo Kikushima, with the former sending the latter to the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department to collect cases that they could use as the basis for the script of the film, choosing a case where a young detective lost his pistol. It also takes inspiration from contemporary debates in Japan about the ""après-guerre"" generation with its apparent rise in delinquency and crime. Despite being one of Akira Kurosawa's most critically renowned postwar films, "Stray Dog" was not always held in such high regard by the director himself. Kurosawa initially said that he thought little of the film, calling it "too technical" and also remarking that it contains "all that technique and not one real thought in it." His attitude had changed by 1982, when he wrote in his autobiography that "no shooting ever went as smoothly," and that "the excellent pace of the shooting and the good feeling of the crew can be sensed in the finished film." However, Kurosawa was rankled when someone from the ASPCA accused him of infecting a dog with rabies for the movie's opening shot of a canine panting in the heat. He had to write a letter to American occupation officials denying the allegation, and he later said that he never felt "a stronger sense of regret over Japan's losing the war."


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: "Stray Dog" was mostly shot at a studio rented by Toho with more than thirty sets built. Ishirō Honda, who would go on to direct several monster movies such as "Godzilla" and "Mothra", served as Kurosawa's chief assistant, shooting second unit footage for the 10-minute long sequence of Murakami roaming through Tokyo, and often doubled for Toshiro Mifune in waist shots. Kurosawa later praised Honda for helping him capture the atmosphere of post-World War II Tokyo. The film marks the first appearances of Minoru Chiaki, Noriko Honma and Isao Kimura in a Kurosawa film. Chiaki would go on to appear in ten more movies by the director, Honma played the medium in "Rashomon" and Kimura played the youngest of the seven samurai in "Seven Samurai". The baseball game scene was shot at the actual Korakuen Stadium.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: The film was also the debut of then sixteen-year old Keiko Awaji, who plays Harumi Namiki, a dancer and the girlfriend of Yusa, the villain of the film. She was chosen over other actresses because of her mean looks. Kurosawa described her as being too spoiled and that she could not cry on cue, and never cast her again in another movie of his. Awaji would later regret her unprofessionalism during filming. Kurosawa became so close with his cast and crew during filming that he remarked later it was difficult for him to break up with them after filming was completed.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: "Stray Dog" was distributed theatrically by Toho in Japan on 17 October 1949. The film received a theatrical release in the United States by Toho International with English subtitles on August 31, 1963.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: "Stray Dog" holds a 95% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 20 reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. At the 1950 Mainichi Film Concours it won awards for Best Actor (Takashi Shimura), Best Film Score (Fumio Hayasaka), Best Cinematography (Asakazu Nakai) and Best Art Direction (Sō Matsuyama). The film was included on "Kinema Junpo" "Best Ten" of the year at third place. In 2009 the film was voted at No. 10 on the list of "The Greatest Japanese Films of All Time" by Japanese film magazine Kinema Junpo.


title: Stray Dog (film)

text: The film was remade in 1973, under the name "Nora inu", for Shochiku. It was later remade for television in 2013.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: Wingspan is a board game designed by Elizabeth Hargrave and published by Stonemaier Games in 2019. It is a card-driven, board game in which players compete to attract birds to their wildlife reserves. During the game's development process, Hargrave constructed personal charts of birds observed in Maryland, with statistics sourced from various biological databases; the special powers of birds were also selected to resemble real-life characteristics. Upon its release, "Wingspan" received critical and commercial acclaim for its gameplay, accurate thematic elements, and artwork. The game also won numerous awards, including the 2019 Kennerspiel des Jahres. Several expansions and a digital edition have been subsequently published.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: In "Wingspan", players spend food resources to add birds, which are represented by 170 individually illustrated cards, to the forest, prairie, and wetland habitats on their player boards. Each habitat is associated with a different player action: gaining food resources to pay for birds, laying eggs on birds, or drawing cards. Over the course of four rounds, players take turns activating the habitats on their player boards or adding new birds. As birds are added to a habitat, the basic action of gaining food, laying eggs, or drawing cards associated with that habitat is improved. Additionally, some birds have special abilities that are activated when a player uses their habitat.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: At the end of the game, players score points for the birds on their board, objectives achieved during each round and throughout the game, eggs accumulated, food stored on cards, and cards stored under cards. The player with the most points wins.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: "Wingspan" was designed by Elizabeth Hargrave, a health consultant in Silver Spring, an amateur birder, and a former policy analyst for NORC at the University of Chicago. The game was inspired by Hargrave's visits to Lake Artemesia near her home in Maryland. Hargrave stated that she selected the theme because "there were too many games about castles and space, and not enough games about things I'm interested in". During her visits, she would create personal charts of the birds she observed there, with the size of the dataset reaching 596 rows by 100 columns. The special powers afforded by the birds in the game closely resemble the unique characteristics of the actual birds documented by Hargrave's efforts, with statistics on the diet, habitat, status, and wingspan of birds sourced from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the IUCN Red List, and National Audubon Society.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: Hargrave pitched the concept for "Wingspan" to Stonemaier Games in 2016, a company from St. Louis which previously published "Viticulture" and "Scythe." The game concept for "Wingspan" interested Jamey Stegmaier, president of Stonemaier Games, who stated that "[there's] something about birds that instantly captures a human desire to collect, sort, and admire". Stegmaier also praised the engine building mechanism, describing that "[the] key for me wasn’t the birds, but the satisfying feeling of collecting beautiful things". The game's artwork, which included 170 cards, was hand-drawn by Ana Maria, Martinez Jaramillo, Natalia Rojas, and Beth Sobel.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: "Wingspan" received widespread acclaim upon release. The game's action system was praised by Matt Thrower from "IGN", who described it as "an excruciating balance between adding birds, feeding them and scoring points". The review also positively commented on the game's replayability as each bird card is unique. Stuart West from "Nature" agreed, noting the replay value of each game due to the unique powers of the bird cards and bonus cards. The strategic decisions for the game were also praised. The diverse interconnections of the bird abilities were commented on by Dan Kois from "Slate", which stated that the birds were "knitted together into a web of complex, mutually beneficial relationships" as the game progresses. Similarly, Angela Chuang from "Science" described the engine building mechanisms as "compelling", and their resemblance to community ecology. Writing for the "New Scientist", Dino Motti listed Wingspan as one of the nine best science-themed board games and described the game as containing "hundreds of beautifully illustrated bird cards with special abilities that synergise as they inhabit a range of environments".


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: "Wingspan's" accessibility was strongly praised, with Saif Al-Azzawi of the "Los Angeles Times" commenting on the game's accessibility, stating that it "strikes the perfect balance between strategy and ease". "The Guardian", in a review of STEM-based games, noted the game's accessibility, stating that "it deserves to be a hit". The game's theme was positively received as increasing accessibility, with Kois noting its appeal with a wide variety of demographics. Stuart West and Aaron Zimmerman from "Ars Technica" also praised the game's accessibility.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: The component quality of "Wingspan" and its theme were well received. Stuart West described it as "an obvious labour of love", describing the egg components as "dainty, pastel-hued" and the bird cards as "superbly drawn". "Vox" reviewer Brian Anderson praised the quality, describing the art as "field guide-caliber illustrations" and praised the "tactile elements" of the birdhouse. Similarly, Zimmerman praised the components and artwork as "lavishly produced". "The New York Times" also complimented the game's illustrations and components, including the pastel eggs, which was described as "enticing as Jordan almonds", and the birdhouse. The game's theme was described to "flow elegantly from the biology" by "Nature" and "committed to scientific integrity" according to Brian Anderson who also commented on the game's use of well-known bird guides and of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology database. In "The New York Times", Siobhan Roberts observed the "scientific integrity" of the game.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: However, not all aspects of "Wingspan" were positively received. Kois critiqued the balance, stating that towards the end of the game, laying eggs is the only preferable strategy. This sentiment was shared by Zimmerman, who criticised the possibly "overpowered" action of laying eggs that resulted in the game's ending to be "one-note". Furthermore, despite praising the accessibility, Zimmerman said that he preferred "a little more crunch in the decision-making", and also described the lack of player interaction.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: "Wingspan" was positively received commercially and sold 44,000 copies worldwide over three printings in its first two months of release, with the publisher issuing a public apology for not having more copies available. The game had sold around 200,000 copies worldwide by the end of 2019. By March 2021, sales of "Wingspan" had reached 600,000 and 1.3 million by September 2021, which is the highest number of copies sold for Stonemaier Games.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: "Wingspan European Expansion," the first expansion for "Wingspan", was published in 2019 and added 81 new bird cards, end of round goals, and bonus cards. This expansion also included new mechanisms and bird powers, such as birds which benefit from extra food and powers which trigger at the end of the round. A "swift-start promo pack" was also released in 2019, which added 10 new bird cards, intended for first time players.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: The second expansion, "Wingspan Oceania Expansion", which focuses on birds from Australia and New Zealand, was published in late 2020. The "Oceania Expansion" included 95 new bird cards, end of round goals, player mats, and a new food type called nectar.


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: The last expansion that came out, the "Wingspan Asia Expansion", focused on birds from China, India and Japan, was published by late 2022. This new expansion includes 90 new bird cards, 14 bonus cards, 18 Automa cards and even two more modes: the "Duet mode" (only for 2 players) and the "Flock mode" (for 6-7 players)


title: Wingspan (board game)

text: The first digital versions of the game were released in 2020 on Steam and Switch, with Android and iOS versions also released in 2021. According to "Slate", as of August 2021, "Wingspan" had sold 125,000 combined copies of digital editions on the platforms combined. A video game edition for "Wingspan European Expansion" was also later released. The adaptation received generally favourable reviews and was praised for its visuals and soundtrack.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: In dogs, hip dysplasia is an abnormal formation of the hip socket that, in its more severe form, can eventually cause lameness and arthritis of the joints. It is a genetic (polygenic) trait that is affected by environmental factors. It is common in many dog breeds, particularly the larger breeds, and is the most common single cause of arthritis of the hips.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: During growth, both the ball (the head of the femur, or thighbone) and the socket in the pelvis (acetabulum) must grow at equal rates. In hip dysplasia, this uniform growth during puppyhood does not occur. The result is laxity (looseness) of the joint, followed by degenerative joint disease (DJD) or osteoarthritis (OA), which is the body's attempt to stabilize the loose hip joint.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: In the normal anatomy of the hip joint, the almost spherical end of the femur head (the caput, or caput ossis femoris) fits into the acetabulum (a concave socket located in the pelvis). The bony surfaces of the femur head and of the acetabulum are covered by cartilage. While bones provide the strength necessary to support body weight, cartilage ensures a smooth fit and a wide range of motion. Normal hip function can be affected by congenital conditions such as dysplasia, trauma, and by acquired diseases such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: The hip could have major contractions from dysplasias. The caput is not deeply and tightly held by the acetabulum. Instead of being a snug fit, it is a loose fit, or a partial fit. Secondly, the caput or acetabulum are not smooth and round, but are misshapen, causing abnormal wear and tear or friction within the joint as it moves.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: The body reacts to this in several ways. First, the joint is continually repairing itself and laying down new cartilage. However, cartilage repair is a relatively slow process, the tissue being avascular, so the joint may suffer degradation due to the abnormal wear and tear, or may not support the body weight as intended. The joint becomes inflamed and a cycle of cartilage damage, inflammation and pain commences. This is a self-fueling process, in that the more the joint becomes damaged, the more damage it will cause to the surrounding tissues and bones. The inflammation also causes further damage. The bones of the joint may also develop osteoarthritis, visible on a radiograph as small outcrops of bone, which further degrade the joint. Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease marked by the breakdown of cartilage between joints resulting in painful bone-to-bone contact.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: The underlying deformity of the joint may get worse over time, or may remain static. A dog may have good radiographs and yet be in pain, or may have very poor radiographs and have no apparent pain issues. The hip condition is only one factor to determine the extent to which dysplasia is causing pain or affecting the quality of life. In mild to moderate dysplasia it is often the secondary effects of abnormal wear and tear or arthritis, rather than dysplasia itself, which is the direct causes of visible problems.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Hip dysplasia may be caused by a femur that does not fit correctly into the pelvic socket, or poorly developed muscles in the pelvic area. Large and giant breeds are most susceptible to hip dysplasia (possibly due to the body mass index (BMI) of the individual animal), though many other breeds can suffer from it. The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals maintains a list of top 100 breeds affected.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: To reduce pain, the animal will typically reduce its movement of that hip. This may be visible as "bunny hopping", where both legs move together, or less dynamic movement (running, jumping), or stiffness. Since the hip cannot move fully, the body compensates by adapting its use of the spine, often causing spinal, stifle (a dog's knee joint), or soft tissue problems to arise.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: The causes of hip dysplasia are considered heritable, but new research conclusively suggests that environment also plays a role. To what degree the causality is genetic and what portion environmental is a topic of current debate. Neutering a dog, especially before the dog has reached an age of full developmental maturity, has been shown to almost double the chance he or she will develop hip dysplasia versus intact dogs or dogs that were neutered after reaching adulthood. Other environmental influences include overweight condition, injury at a young age, overexertion on the hip joint at a young age, ligament tear at a young age, or repetitive motion on forming joint (e.g. jogging with puppy under the age of 1 year). As current studies progress, greater information may help provide procedures to effectively reduce the occurrence of this condition.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: It is most common in medium-large pure bred dogs, such as Newfoundlands, German Shepherd Dogs, retrievers (such as Labradors, Tollers, or Goldens), Rottweilers and Mastiffs, but also occurs in some smaller breeds such as spaniels and pugs.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Affected dogs can show clinical signs as early as seven months of age, but most do not until one to two years of age. In part this is because the underlying hip problem may be mild or severe, worsening or stable, and the body may be more or less able to keep the joint in repair well enough to cope.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Hip dysplasia is diagnosed with radiographs of the pelvis. There are several standardized systems for categorising dysplasia, set out by reputable bodies. The most widely used systems include the following:


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Radiographs can be sent to OFA for grading and certification. This system rates a dog's hip joint on a seven-point scoring system. The test relies on interpretation of a radiograph of the dog's hips, which are then assigned a score by three independent radiologists: Excellent, Good, Fair, Borderline, Mild, Moderate and Severe.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: PennHIP requires the dog to be anesthetized. Three radiographs are taken to measure the hip joint laxity. A score between 0-1 is assigned, with 0 being very tight hips and 1 being very loose. The score is based on a measurement of the hip's distraction index (DI). The distraction index is an indication of the "percent out of joint" that the femoral head is displaced from the acetabulum. For example, a DI of 0.15 means that the head of the femur is 15% out of joint.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Each hip joint is assessed by a BVA panel of experts that assign points based on nine aspects of the joint. The degree to which a dog is affected by hip dysplasia is represented by a score given to each hip. Scores for each hip are added together to get an overall hip score. Score ranges from zero to 106 (zero to 53 for each hip), with a score of zero representing the least degree of hip dysplasia and 53 representing the most.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: It is also common to X-ray the spine and legs, as well as the hips, since soft tissues can be affected by the extra strain of a dysplastic hip, or there may be other undetected factors such as neurological issues (e.g. nerve damage) involved.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: The following conditions can give symptoms very similar to hip dysplasia, and should be ruled out during diagnosis:


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: A dog may misuse its rear legs, or adapt its gait, to compensate for pain in the "forelimbs", notably osteoarthritis, osteochondritis (OCD) or shoulder or elbow dysplasia, as well as pain in the hocks and stifles or spinal issues. It is important to rule out other joint and bodily issues before concluding that only hip dysplasia is present. Even if some hip dysplasia is present, it is possible for other conditions to co-exist or be masked by it.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: There is no complete cure, although there are many options to alleviate the clinical signs. The aim of treatment is to enhance quality of life.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Most dogs with hip dysplasia do not need surgery as they do very well with a home physical therapy program, keeping trim and strong, and using pain medication as needed.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: If the problem cannot be controlled with medications, then often surgery is considered. There are traditionally two types of surgery - those which reshape the joint to reduce pain or help movement, and hip replacement which completely replaces the damaged hip with an artificial joint, similar to human hip replacements.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Non surgical intervention is dependent on many factors including age, weight, degree of hip laxity, lifestyle of the owner and their tolerance for the cost incurred for medication and physical therapy.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Weight control is often "the single most important thing that we can do to help a dog with arthritis," and "reducing the dog's weight is enough to control all of the symptoms of arthritis in many dogs." With weight control, the goal is to prevent the dog from becoming overweight to reduce mechanical stresses applied to the hip joints. In general terms, the ribs should be easily palpated and there should be an indentation in front of the hip bones.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Reasonable exercise stimulates cartilage growth and reduces degeneration, and also regular walks taken in the early stages of dysplasia can help prevent loss of muscle mass to the hips. Exercise should fit an individual dog's maximum intensity level with the goal to maintain muscle tone and cardiovascular function without causing pain, stiffness, and inflammation to the joint. Exercise also improves joint range of motion which in turn keeps the dog more comfortable. Swimming, because it is a non-weight bearing exercise, can be a very useful means of maintaining muscle tone and range of motion without placing concussive forces on the joint, though do know that swimming is primarily a front-legged exercise.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Medication can reduce pain and discomfort, and also reduce damaging inflammation. Most often, medication consists of a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), which doubles as an anti-inflammatory and painkiller. Typical NSAIDs used for hip dysplasia include carprofen and meloxicam (often sold as Rimadyl and Metacam respectively). Both are used to treat arthritis resulting from dysplasia, although other NSAIDs such as tepoxalin (Zubrin) and prednoleucotropin ("PLT", a combination of cinchophen and prednisolone) are sometimes prescribed.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Incorporating omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) into the diet can result in improved symptoms of the disease. Omega-3 fatty acids can help decrease inflammation that occurs from osteoarthritis, as well as improve the locomotion of dogs who have the disease. EPA and DHA can be supplemented into the diet through fish oils.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate are nutraceuticals that can also be added into the diet to help treat osteoarthritis caused by hip dysplasia. Both nutraceuticals help with improvement of cartilage, joint health and repairing of tissues. A glucosamine-based nutritional supplement may give the body additional raw materials used in joint repair. Glucosamine can take 3–4 weeks to start showing its effects, so the trial period for medication is usually at least 3–5 weeks. In vitro, glucosamine has been shown to have negative effects on cartilage cells.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Another nutrient that can help improve the structural support of the body is vitamin C. Vitamin C contributes to the building blocks of collagen that can help to strengthen the joints.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Canine massage may alleviate discomfort, decrease muscle soreness, and spasms, and help move lymph and nutrients through the system.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Some attempts have been made to treat the pain caused by arthritic changes through the use of laser therapy, in particular class IV laser therapy. Well-controlled clinical trials are unfortunately lacking, and much of the evidence for these procedures remains anecdotal.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: The use of pressure-reducing pet beds, ramps, stairs, and steps built with wood, plastic, metal, or foam prevent further damage. Hip hammocks have been tested and proven effective in aiding dogs suffering from hip dysplasia.


title: Hip dysplasia (canine)

text: Surgical procedures attempt to modify, repair, or replace the hip joint in order to allow pain-free usage.


title: Verily

text: Verily Life Sciences, also known as Verily (formerly Google Life Sciences), is Alphabet Inc.'s research organization devoted to the study of life sciences. The organization was formerly a division of Google X, until August 10, 2015, when Sergey Brin announced that the organization would become an independent subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. This restructuring process was completed on October 2, 2015. On December 7, 2015, Google Life Sciences was renamed Verily.


title: Verily

text: As of July 2014, members of the research team include Andrew Conrad, founder of LabCorp's National Genetics Institute; Vik Bajaj, an expert in nuclear magnetic resonance; Marija Pavlovic, who studies the effect of radiation on DNA; Alberto Vitari, a cancer biologist; Brian Otis, who worked on Google Venture's glucose-sensing contact lens; and Mark DePristo, who worked on the Genome Analysis Toolkit (GATK) at the Broad Institute.


title: Verily

text: At the end of 2019, Verily sold its stake in robot-assisted surgery joint venture Verb Surgical to development partner Johnson & Johnson.


title: Verily

text: In August 2020, Verily announced that it is entering into the insurance market with the launch of Coefficient Insurance Company. The new subsidiary will be backed by Swiss Re Group's commercial insurance unit.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The olfactory bulb (Latin: "bulbus olfactorius") is a neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the sense of smell. It sends olfactory information to be further processed in the amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the hippocampus where it plays a role in emotion, memory and learning. The bulb is divided into two distinct structures: the main olfactory bulb and the accessory olfactory bulb. The main olfactory bulb connects to the amygdala via the piriform cortex of the primary olfactory cortex and directly projects from the main olfactory bulb to specific amygdala areas. The accessory olfactory bulb resides on the dorsal-posterior region of the main olfactory bulb and forms a parallel pathway. Destruction of the olfactory bulb results in ipsilateral anosmia, while irritative lesions of the uncus can result in olfactory and gustatory hallucinations.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: In most vertebrates, the olfactory bulb is the most rostral (forward) part of the brain, as seen in rats. In humans, however, the olfactory bulb is on the inferior (bottom) side of the brain. The olfactory bulb is supported and protected by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, which in mammals separates it from the olfactory epithelium, and which is perforated by olfactory nerve axons. The bulb is divided into two distinct structures: the main olfactory bulb and the accessory olfactory bulb.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The main olfactory bulb has a multi-layered cellular architecture. In order from surface to the center the layers are:


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The olfactory bulb transmits smell information from the nose to the brain, and is thus necessary for a proper sense of smell. As a neural circuit, the glomerular layer receives direct input from afferent nerves, made up of the axons from approximately ten million olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory mucosa, a region of the nasal cavity. The ends of the axons cluster in spherical structures known as glomeruli such that each glomerulus receives input primarily from olfactory receptor neurons that express the same olfactory receptor. The glomeruli layer of the olfactory bulb is the first level of synaptic processing. The glomeruli layer represents a spatial odor map organized by chemical structure of odorants like functional group and carbon chain length. This spatial map is divided into zones and clusters, which represent similar glomeruli and therefore similar odors. One cluster in particular is associated with rank, spoiled smells which are represented by certain chemical characteristics. This classification may be evolutionary to help identify food that is no longer good to eat.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The spatial map of the glomeruli layer may be used for perception of odor in the olfactory cortex. The next level of synaptic processing in the olfactory bulb occurs in the external plexiform layer, between the glomerular layer and the mitral cell layer. The external plexiform layer contains astrocytes, interneurons and some mitral cells. It does not contain many cell bodies, rather mostly dendrites of mitral cells and GABAergic granule cells are also permeated by dendrites from neurons called mitral cells, which in turn output to the olfactory cortex. Numerous interneuron types exist in the olfactory bulb including periglomerular cells which synapse within and between glomeruli, and granule cells which synapse with mitral cells. The granule cell layer is the deepest layer in the olfactory bulb. It is made up of dendrodendritic granule cells that synapse to the mitral cell layer.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: As a neural circuit, the olfactory bulb has one source of sensory input (axons from olfactory receptor neurons of the olfactory epithelium), and one output (mitral cell axons). As a result, it is generally assumed that it functions as a filter, as opposed to an associative circuit that has many inputs and many outputs. However, the olfactory bulb also receives "top-down" information from such brain areas as the olfactory cortex, amygdala, neocortex, hippocampus, locus coeruleus, and substantia nigra.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: While all of these functions could theoretically arise from the olfactory bulb's circuit layout, it is unclear which, if any, of these functions are performed exclusively by the olfactory bulb. By analogy to similar parts of the brain such as the retina, many researchers have focused on how the olfactory bulb filters incoming information from receptor neurons in space, or how it filters incoming information in time. At the core of these proposed filters are the two classes of interneurons; the periglomerular cells, and the granule cells. Processing occurs at each level of the main olfactory bulb, beginning with the spatial maps that categorize odors in the glomeruli layer.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: Interneurons in the external plexiform layer are responsive to pre-synaptic action potentials and exhibit both excitatory postsynaptic potentials and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Neural firing varies temporally, there are periods of fast, spontaneous firing and slow modulation of firing. These patterns may be related to sniffing or change in intensity and concentration of odorant. Temporal patterns may have effect in later processing of spatial awareness of odorant. For example, synchronized mitral cell spike trains appear to help to discriminate similar odors better than when those spike trains are not synchronized. A well known model is that the bulbar neural circuit transforms the odor information in the receptors to a population pattern of neural oscillatory activities in the mitral cell population, and this pattern is then recognized by the associative memories of olfactory objects in the olfactory cortex. Top-down feedback from the olfactory cortex to the olfactory bulb modulates the bulbar responses, so that, for example, the bulb can adapt to a pre-existing olfactory background to single out a foreground odor from an odor mixture for recognition, or can enhance sensitivity to a target odor during odor search. Destruction to the olfactory bulb results in ipsilateral anosmia while irritative lesion of the uncus can result in olfactory and gustatory hallucinations.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The interneurons in the external plexiform layer perform feedback inhibition on the mitral cells to control back propagation. They also participate in lateral inhibition of the mitral cells. This inhibition is an important part of olfaction as it aids in odor discrimination by decreasing firing in response to background odors and differentiating the responses of olfactory nerve inputs in the mitral cell layer. Inhibition of the mitral cell layer by the other layers contributes to odor discrimination and higher level processing by modulating the output from the olfactory bulb. These hyperpolarizations during odor stimulation shape the responses of the mitral cells to make them more specific to an odor.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The basal dendrites of mitral cells are connected to interneurons known as granule cells, which by some theories produce lateral inhibition between mitral cells. The synapse between mitral and granule cells is of a rare class of synapses that are "dendro-dendritic" which means that both sides of the synapse are dendrites that release neurotransmitter. In this specific case, mitral cells release the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, and granule cells release the inhibitory neurotransmitter Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). As a result of its bi-directionality, the dendro-dendritic synapse can cause mitral cells to inhibit themselves (auto-inhibition), as well as neighboring mitral cells (lateral inhibition). More specifically, the granule cell layer receives excitatory glutamate signals from the basal dendrites of the mitral and tufted cells. The granule cell in turn releases GABA to cause an inhibitory effect on the mitral cell. More neurotransmitter is released from the activated mitral cell to the connected dendrite of the granule cell, making the inhibitory effect from the granule cell to the activated mitral cell stronger than the surrounding mitral cells. It is not clear what the functional role of lateral inhibition would be, though it may be involved in boosting the signal-to-noise ratio of odor signals by silencing the basal firing rate of surrounding non-activated neurons. This in turn aids in odor discrimination. Other research suggest that the lateral inhibition contributes to differentiated odor responses, which aids in the processing and perception of distinct odors. There is also evidence of cholinergic effects on granule cells that enhance depolarization of granule cells making them more excitable which in turn increases inhibition of mitral cells. This may contribute to a more specific output from the olfactory bulb that would closer resemble the glomerular odor map.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: In vertebrates, the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), which resides on the dorsal-posterior region of the main olfactory bulb, forms a parallel pathway independent from the main olfactory bulb. The vomeronasal organ sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb making it the second processing stage of the accessory olfactory system. As in the main olfactory bulb, axonal input to the accessory olfactory bulb forms synapses with mitral cells within glomeruli. The accessory olfactory bulb receives axonal input from the vomeronasal organ, a distinct sensory epithelium from the main olfactory epithelium that detects chemical stimuli relevant for social and reproductive behaviors, but probably also generic odorants. It has been hypothesized that, in order for the vomernasal pump to turn on, the main olfactory epithelium must first detect the appropriate odor. However, the possibility that the vomeronasal system works in parallel or independently from generic olfactory inputs has not been ruled out yet.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: Vomeronasal sensory neurons provide direct excitatory inputs to AOB principle neurons called mitral cells which are transmitted to the amygdala and hypothalamus and therefore are directly involved in sex hormone activity and may influence aggressiveness and mating behavior. Axons of the vomeronasal sensory neurons express a given receptor type which, differently from what occurs in the main olfactory bulb, diverge between 6 and 30 AOB glomeruli. Mitral cell dendritic endings go through a dramatic period of targeting and clustering just after presynaptic unification of the sensory neuron axons. The connectivity of the vomernasal sensorglomery neurons to mitral cells is precise, with mitral cell dendrites targeting the glomeruli. There is evidence against the presence of a functional accessory olfactory bulb in humans and other higher primates.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The AOB is divided into two main subregions, anterior and posterior, which receive segregated synaptic inputs from two main categories of vomeronasal sensory neurons, V1R and V2R, respectively. This appears as a clear functional specialization, given the differential role of the two populations of sensory neurons in detecting chemical stimuli of different type and molecular weight. Although it doesn't seem to be maintained centrally, where mitral cell projections from both sides of the AOB converge. A clear difference of the AOB circuitry, compared to the rest of the bulb, is its heterogeneous connectivity between mitral cells and vomeronasal sensory afferents within neuropil glomeruli. AOB mitral cells indeed contact through apical dendritic processes glomeruli formed by afferents of different receptor neurons, thus breaking the one-receptor-one-neuron rule which generally holds for the main olfactory system. This implies that stimuli sensed through the VNO and elaborated in the AOB are subjected to a different and probably more complex level of elaboration. Accordingly, AOB mitral cells show clearly different firing patterns compared to other bulbar projection neurons. Additionally, top down input to the olfactory bulb differentially affects olfactory outputs.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The olfactory bulb sends olfactory information to be further processed in the amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the hippocampus where it plays a role in emotion, memory and learning. The main olfactory bulb connects to the amygdala via the piriform cortex of the primary olfactory cortex and directly projects from the main olfactory bulb to specific amygdala areas. The amygdala passes olfactory information on to the hippocampus. The orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and olfactory bulb have many interconnections directly and indirectly through the cortices of the primary olfactory cortex. These connections are indicative of the association between the olfactory bulb and higher areas of processing, specifically those related to emotion and memory.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: Associative learning between odors and behavioral responses takes place in the amygdala. The odors serve as the reinforcers or the punishers during the associative learning process; odors that occur with positive states reinforce the behavior that resulted in the positive state while odors that occur with negative states do the opposite. Odor cues are coded by neurons in the amygdala with the behavioral effect or emotion that they produce. In this way odors reflect certain emotions or physiological states. Odors become associated with pleasant and unpleasant responses, and eventually the odor becomes a cue and can cause an emotional response. These odor associations contribute to emotional states such as fear. Brain imaging shows amygdala activation correlated with pleasant and unpleasant odors, reflecting the association between odors and emotions.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The hippocampus aids in olfactory memory and learning as well. Several olfaction-memory processes occur in the hippocampus. Similar to the process in the amygdala, an odor is associated with a particular reward, i.e. the smell of food with receiving sustenance. Odor in the hippocampus also contributes to the formation of episodic memory; the memories of events at a specific place or time. The time at which certain neurons fire in the hippocampus is associated by neurons with a stimulus such as an odor. Presentation of the odor at a different time may cause recall of the memory, therefore odor aids in recall of episodic memories.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: In lower vertebrates (lampreys and teleost fishes), mitral cell (principal olfactory neurons) axons project exclusively to the right hemisphere of Habenula in an asymmetric manner. It is reported that dorsal Habenula (Hb) are functional asymmetric with predominant odor responses in right hemisphere. It was also shown that Hb neurons are spontaneous active even in absence of olfactory stimulation. These spontaneous active Hb neurons are organized into functional clusters which were proposed to govern olfactory responses. (Jetti, SK. et al. 2014, Current Biology)


title: Olfactory bulb

text: Further evidence of the link between the olfactory bulb and emotion and memory is shown through animal depression models. Olfactory bulb removal in rats effectively causes structural changes in the amygdala and hippocampus and behavioral changes similar to that of a person with depression. Researchers use rats with olfactory bulbectomies to research antidepressants. Research has shown that removal of the olfactory bulb in rats leads to dendrite reorganization, disrupted cell growth in the hippocampus, and decreased neuroplasticity in the hippocampus. These hippocampal changes due to olfactory bulb removal are associated with behavioral changes characteristic of depression, demonstrating the correlation between the olfactory bulb and emotion. The hippocampus and amygdala affect odor perception. During certain physiological states such as hunger a food odor may seem more pleasant and rewarding due to the associations in the amygdala and hippocampus of the food odor stimulus with the reward of eating.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: Olfactory information is sent to the primary olfactory cortex, where projections are sent to the orbitofrontal cortex. The OFC contributes to this odor-reward association as well as it assesses the value of a reward, i.e. the nutritional value of a food. The OFC receives projections from the piriform cortex, amygdala, and parahippocampal cortices. Neurons in the OFC that encode food reward information activate the reward system when stimulated, associating the act of eating with reward. The OFC further projects to the anterior cingulate cortex where it plays a role in appetite. The OFC also associates odors with other stimuli, such as taste. Odor perception and discrimination also involve the OFC. The spatial odor map in the glomeruli layer of the olfactory bulb may contribute to these functions. The odor map begins processing of olfactory information by spatially organizing the glomeruli. This organizing aids the olfactory cortices in its functions of perceiving and discriminating odors.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The olfactory bulb is, along with both the subventricular zone and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, one of only three structures in the brain observed to undergo continuing neurogenesis in adult mammals. In most mammals, new neurons are born from neural stem cells in the sub-ventricular zone and migrate rostrally towards the main and accessory olfactory bulbs. Within the olfactory bulb these immature neuroblasts develop into fully functional granule cell interneurons and periglomerular cell interneurons that reside in the granule cell layer and glomerular layers, respectively. The olfactory sensory neuron axons that form synapses in olfactory bulb glomeruli are also capable of regeneration following regrowth of an olfactory sensory neuron residing in the olfactory epithelium. Despite dynamic turnover of sensory axons and interneurons, the projection neurons (mitral and tufted neurons) that form synapses with these axons are not structurally plastic.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The function of adult neurogenesis in this region remains a matter of study. The survival of immature neurons as they enter the circuit is highly sensitive to olfactory activity and in particular associative learning tasks. This has led to the hypothesis that new neurons participate in learning processes. No definitive behavioral effect has been observed in loss-of-function experiments suggesting that the function of this process, if at all related to olfactory processing, may be subtle.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: The olfactory lobe is a structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, or sense of smell. Destruction of the olfactory bulb results in ipsilateral anosmia.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: Comparing the structure of the olfactory bulb among vertebrate species, such as the leopard frog and the lab mouse, reveals that they all share the same fundamental layout (five layers containing the nuclei of three major cell types; see "Anatomy" for details), despite being dissimilar in shape and size. A similar structure is shared by the analogous olfactory center in the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster", the antennal lobe. One possibility is that vertebrate olfactory bulb and insect antennal lobe structure may be similar because they contain an optimal solution to a computational problem experienced by all olfactory systems and thus may have evolved independently in different phyla – a phenomenon generally known as convergent evolution.


title: Olfactory bulb

text: "The increase of brain size relative to body size—encephalization—is intimately linked with human evolution. However, two genetically different evolutionary lineages, Neanderthals and modern humans, have produced similarly large-brained human species. Thus, understanding human brain evolution should include research into specific cerebral reorganization, possibly reflected by brain shape changes. Here we exploit developmental integration between the brain and its underlying skeletal base to test hypotheses about brain evolution in "Homo". Three-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses of endobasicranial shape reveal previously undocumented details of evolutionary changes in "Homo sapiens". Larger olfactory bulbs, relatively wider orbitofrontal cortex, relatively increased and forward projecting temporal lobe poles appear unique to modern humans. Such brain reorganization, beside physical consequences for overall skull shape, might have contributed to the evolution of "H. sapiens"' learning and social capacities, in which higher olfactory functions and its cognitive, neurological behavioral implications could have been hitherto underestimated factors."


title: Nyonoksa radiation accident

text: The Nyonoksa radiation accident, Arkhangelsk explosion or Nyonoksa explosion () occurred on 8 August 2019 near Nyonoksa, a village under the administrative jurisdiction of Severodvinsk, Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russian Federation. Five military and civilian specialists were killed and three (or six, depending on the source) were injured.


title: Nyonoksa radiation accident

text: Between November 2017 and 26 February 2018, Russia conducted four tests of the 9M730 Burevestnik nuclear-powered cruise missile, launched from other test sites. According to the United States intelligence community, only the flight test in November 2017 from Pankovo test site was moderately successful with all of the others ending in failure. According to Russia, none of the tests ended in failure. During recovery efforts later in 2018, Russia used three ships, one capable of handling radioactive material from the weapon nuclear core, to bring the missile tested in November 2017 from the seabed of Barents Sea back to the surface. Based on satellite images, the Nyonoksa test site copies those at Kapustin Yar and Pankovo, where 9M730 Burevestnik was tested.


title: Nyonoksa radiation accident

text: The accident occurred at the State Central Navy Testing Range () which is the main rocket launching site of the Russian Navy and is also called Nyonoksa. According to the version presented by Russian officials, it was a result of a failed test of an "isotope power source for a liquid-fuelled rocket engine". Nonproliferation expert Jeffrey Lewis and Federation of American Scientists fellow Ankit Panda suspect the incident resulted from a Burevestnik cruise missile test. However, other arms control experts disputed the assertions: Ian Williams of the Center for Strategic and International Studies and James Acton of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace expressed skepticism over Moscow's financial and technical capabilities to field the weapon, while Michael Kofman of the Wilson Center concluded that the explosion was probably not related to Burevestnik but instead to the testing of another military platform. According to CNBC, the Russians were trying to recover a missile from the seabed which was lost during a previously failed test. No NOTAMs were filed prior to the explosion to warn pilots of a possible missile test. In the past, the residents of Nyonoksa had been warned and evacuated prior to the missile tests. Also, two Russian special purpose ships were at the Nyonoksa test range when the explosion occurred: the "Serebryanka" (Rosatom Flot vessel used for handling nuclear waste from nuclear reactors) and the "Zvezdochka" (used for underwater salvage operations and is equipped with two heavy lift sea cranes and two underwater unmanned robots).


title: Nyonoksa radiation accident

text: An event of explosive nature was registered on 8 August at 06:00 UTC (local time 09:00) at the infrasound station in Bardufoss (Troms, Norway). As the event was also registered on seismic data, it must have been coupled to the ground, meaning that it took place either at the ground or in contact with it; for example on water. The timing and location of the event coincides with the reported accident in Archangelsk. Several fishermen stated on sanatatur.ru that they witnessed the accident: one saw a 100-meter column of water rise into the air after the explosion and another saw a large hole in the side of a ship which had been at the site of the explosion.


title: Nyonoksa radiation accident

text: In the aftermath of the explosion, three of the victims were treated at the Semashko Medical Center in Arkhangelsk, which had radiation treatment expertise and employed the use of hazmat suits, while three others were taken to the Arkhangelsk Regional Clinical Hospital, arriving at 4:35 p.m. on 8 August, where the hospital staff were not warned of the radiation exposure. Several Arkhangelsk Regional Hospital staff were later flown to Moscow for radiation testing. One doctor was found to test positive for Cesium-137, though the levels remain unknown, as the medical staff involved were forced to sign non-disclosure agreements.


title: Nyonoksa radiation accident

text: According to an unnamed medical worker, two injured by the explosion died of radiation sickness en route from Arkhangelsk Regional Clinical Hospital (AOKB) () to treatment in Moscow. Their bodies were sent to Moscow's Burnazyan Federal Medical and Biophysical Center (FMBC) (). Six persons with severe injuries from the explosion and radiation exposure were delivered to Burnazyan by two medivac flights and ambulances with special plastic seals, with paramedics wearing chemical protective suits, and, because an operating room apron was highly contaminated after an operation, all Arkhangelsk Regional Hospital doctors, nurses, and staff who came into contact with the injured were sent to Burnazyan, too. The rooms at the Arkangelsk hospital, where injured victims had been treated, were sealed after treatment but none of the hospital workers and staff had worn anti-contamination clothing.