title: Baryon asymmetry

text: Currently, there is no experimental evidence of particle interactions where the conservation of baryon number is broken perturbatively: this would appear to suggest that all observed particle reactions have equal baryon number before and after. Mathematically, the commutator of the baryon number quantum operator with the (perturbative) Standard Model hamiltonian is zero: formula_2. However, the Standard Model is known to violate the conservation of baryon number only non-perturbatively: a global U(1) anomaly. To account for baryon violation in baryogenesis, such events (including proton decay) can occur in Grand Unification Theories (GUTs) and supersymmetric (SUSY) models via hypothetical massive bosons such as the X boson.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: The second condition for generating baryon asymmetry—violation of charge-parity symmetry—is that a process is able to happen at a different rate to its antimatter counterpart. In the Standard Model, CP violation appears as a complex phase in the quark mixing matrix of the weak interaction. There may also be a non-zero CP-violating phase in the neutrino mixing matrix, but this is currently unmeasured. The first in a series of basic physics principles to be violated was parity through Chien-Shiung Wu's experiment. This led to CP violation being verified in the 1964 Fitch–Cronin experiment with neutral kaons, which resulted in the 1980 Nobel Prize in physics (direct CP violation, that is violation of CP symmetry in a decay process, was discovered later, in 1999). Due to CPT symmetry, violation of CP symmetry demands violation of time inversion symmetry, or T-symmetry. Despite the allowance for CP violation in the Standard Model, it is insufficient to account for the observed baryon asymmetry of the universe (BAU) given the limits on baryon number violation, meaning that beyond-Standard Model sources are needed.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: A possible new source of CP violation was found at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) by the LHCb collaboration during the first three years of LHC operations (beginning March 2010). The experiment analyzed the decays of two particles, the bottom Lambda (Λ) and its antiparticle, and compared the distributions of decay products. The data showed an asymmetry of up to 20% of CP-violation sensitive quantities, implying a breaking of CP-symmetry. This analysis will need to be confirmed by more data from subsequent runs of the LHC.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: In the out-of-equilibrium decay scenario, the last condition states that the rate of a reaction which generates baryon-asymmetry must be less than the rate of expansion of the universe. In this situation the particles and their corresponding antiparticles do not achieve thermal equilibrium due to rapid expansion decreasing the occurrence of pair-annihilation.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: Another possible explanation of the apparent baryon asymmetry is that matter and antimatter are essentially separated into different, widely distant regions of the universe. The formation of antimatter galaxies was originally thought to explain the baryon asymmetry, as from a distance, antimatter atoms are indistinguishable from matter atoms; both produce light (photons) in the same way. Along the boundary between matter and antimatter regions, however, annihilation (and the subsequent production of gamma radiation) would be detectable, depending on its distance and the density of matter and antimatter. Such boundaries, if they exist, would likely lie in deep intergalactic space. The density of matter in intergalactic space is reasonably well established at about one atom per cubic meter. Assuming this is a typical density near a boundary, the gamma ray luminosity of the boundary interaction zone can be calculated. No such zones have been detected, but 30 years of research have placed bounds on how far they might be. On the basis of such analyses, it is now deemed unlikely that any region within the observable universe is dominated by antimatter.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: The presence of an electric dipole moment (EDM) in any fundamental particle would violate both parity (P) and time (T) symmetries. As such, an EDM would allow matter and antimatter to decay at different rates leading to a possible matter–antimatter asymmetry as observed today. Many experiments are currently being conducted to measure the EDM of various physical particles. All measurements are currently consistent with no dipole moment. However, the results do place rigorous constraints on the amount of symmetry violation that a physical model can permit. The most recent EDM limit, published in 2014, was that of the ACME Collaboration, which measured the EDM of the electron using a pulsed beam of thorium monoxide (ThO) molecules.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: The state of the universe, as it is, does not violate the CPT symmetry, because the Big Bang could be considered as a double sided event, both classically and quantum mechanically, consisting of a universe-antiuniverse pair. This means that this universe is the charge (C), parity (P) and time (T) image of the anti-universe. This pair emerged from the Big Bang epochs not directly into a hot, radiation-dominated era. The antiuniverse would flow back in time from the Big Bang, becoming bigger as it does so, and would be also dominated by antimatter. Its spatial properties are inverted if compared to those in our universe, a situation analogous to creating electron–positron pairs in a vacuum. This model, devised by physicists from the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Canada, proposes that temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) are due to the quantum-mechanical nature of space-time near the Big Bang singularity. This means that a point in the future of our universe and a point in the distant past of the antiuniverse would provide fixed classical points, while all possible quantum-based permutations would exist in between. Quantum uncertainty causes the universe and antiuniverse to not be exact mirror images of each other.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: This model has not shown if it can reproduce certain observations regarding the inflation scenario, such as explaining the uniformity of the cosmos on large scales. However, it provides a natural and straightforward explanation for dark matter. Such a universe-antiuniverse pair would produce large numbers of superheavy neutrinos, also known as sterile neutrinos. These neutrinos might also be the source of recently observed bursts of high-energy cosmic rays.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: The challenges to the physics theories are then to explain "how" to produce the predominance of matter over antimatter, and also the "magnitude" of this asymmetry. An important quantifier is the "asymmetry parameter",


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: This quantity relates the overall number density difference between baryons and antibaryons ("n" and "n", respectively) and the number density of cosmic background radiation photons "n".


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: According to the Big Bang model, matter decoupled from the cosmic background radiation (CBR) at a temperature of roughly kelvin, corresponding to an average kinetic energy of / () = . After the decoupling, the "total" number of CBR photons remains constant. Therefore, due to space-time expansion, the photon density decreases. The photon density at equilibrium temperature "T" per cubic centimeter, is given by


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: with "k" as the Boltzmann constant, "ħ" as the Planck constant divided by 2 and "c" as the speed of light in vacuum, and "ζ"(3) as Apéry's constant. At the current CBR photon temperature of , this corresponds to a photon density n of around 411 CBR photons per cubic centimeter.


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: Therefore, the asymmetry parameter "η", as defined above, is "not" the "good" parameter. Instead, the preferred asymmetry parameter uses the entropy density "s",


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: because the entropy density of the universe remained reasonably constant throughout most of its evolution. The entropy density is


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: with "p" and "ρ" as the pressure and density from the energy density tensor "T", and "g" as the effective number of degrees of freedom for "massless" particles (inasmuch as "mc" ≪ "k""T" holds) at temperature "T",


title: Baryon asymmetry

text: for bosons and fermions with "g" and "g" degrees of freedom at temperatures "T" and "T" respectively. Presently, "s" = .


title: Incubus discography

text: This is a comprehensive discography of official recordings by Incubus, an American rock band from Calabasas, California. To date, they have sold over 13 million albums worldwide, with over 8 million in the United States alone.


title: Retr0bright

text: Retrobright (stylized as retr0bright or Retrobrite), is a chemical process used to remove 'yellowing' from acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastics.


title: Retr0bright

text: The original meaning has been expanded, so now "retrobright" often refers to indicate any HO based process used to remove yellowing from ABS plastics. The usage has also expanded to other retro restoration applications, such as classic and collectible sneaker restoration.


title: Retr0bright

text: Yellowing in ABS plastic occurs when it is exposed to UV light or excessive heat, which causes photo-oxidation of polymers that breaks polymer chains and causes the plastic to yellow and become brittle. The method of reversing the yellowed discoloration was first discovered in 2007 in a German retrocomputing forum, before spreading to an English blog where it was further detailed. The process has been continually refined since.


title: Retr0bright

text: There is still some debate over the long-term effectiveness of this technique. Some have discovered the yellowing reappears, and there are concerns that the process weakens and only bleaches the already damaged plastic.


title: Retr0bright

text: Retrobright consists of hydrogen peroxide, a small amount of the "active oxygen" laundry booster TAED as a catalyst, and a source of UV.


title: Retr0bright

text: Xanthan gum or arrowroot can be added to the mixture, creating an easier-to-apply gel. In addition to homemade gel mixtures, hydrogen peroxide-based hair bleaching creams available at beauty supply stores can also be used as a ready-made mix.


title: Retr0bright

text: Certain beauty salon products that are primarily composed of hydrogen peroxide can also be used as an alternative to retrobright, as it has been discovered to be almost identical in effect, and already viscous so that it can be applied less wastefully to yellowed plastics (especially large devices such as computer panels or monitors). While this eliminates the difficulty of having to put together a batch directly from the instructions, one must be careful to apply the cream and wrap consistently and evenly to avoid streaks in the final product.


title: Retr0bright

text: Sodium percarbonate may also be used by dissolving it in water and following the usual steps for hydrogen peroxide, as it is sodium carbonate and hydrogen peroxide in a crystalline form.


title: Retr0bright

text: Ozone gas can also be used for retrobrighting, as long as an ozone generator, a suitable container of sufficient size and a source of UV are available, but can take longer than other methods. It must also be noted that ozone is a dangerous substance and knowledge and understanding of proper handling protocols as per the MSDS are critical.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Heartland is a 26-novel series created by Lauren Brooke, and begun in 2000 with the novel "Coming Home". The series is about a girl named Amy Fleming, who lives on a horse ranch called Heartland in Virginia, where she, family, and friends heal and help abused or mistreated horses. They attempt to help the abused horses by using psychologically based therapies instead of more traditional training methods. Throughout the series, the main character, Amy, finds healing along with the horses that she treats. Eventually, Amy is faced with tough decisions that put Heartland's future and fate in her hands. The target readership is ages 8 to 14. In 2007, a TV series based on the novels, but set in the Canadian province of Alberta, debuted in Canada on the CBC network.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Amy Fleming - The main character of the series. After the death of her mother and the injuries of Amy in an accident during a storm when Amy and her mother went to rescue an abused horse they had named Spartan, Amy is challenged with both her runaway emotions and managing the equine sanctuary, Heartland, she calls home. With the help of her friends and family, she pulls through and decides to take over her mother's legacy. Her natural talent with horses helped her to cure and save many otherwise neglected animals, and despite the doubts of many, she stays strong to her beliefs. Over the years, her relationship with Ty, the stable hand, develops and they grow closer to each other. Amy faces hard challenges in her life, especially when it comes to deciding her future: college or Heartland. Amy has a brief cameo appearance in the "Chestnut Hill" series, also by Lauren Brooke.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Jack Bartlett - Amy and Lou's grandfather. He is a kind, yet stubborn, man and often helps the girls with the horses and acts as a counselor to characters in the books. He helps the girls process their grief after their mother's death, and re-introduces Tim Fleming, Amy and Lou's father, into their life. Jack has never forgiven Tim for leaving Marion after his accident.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Samantha Louise "Lou" Fleming-Trewin - Amy's 23-year-old sister. Lou is organized and runs the business side of Heartland after her mother's death. Amy looks up to Lou; she is practical and brave, like Tim. Lou is very close to her dad and they were inseparable during her childhood, and eventually adulthood. She marries Scott and has a daughter, Holly Marion.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Ty Baldwin - The stable hand at Heartland, Ty dropped out of high school to pursue a permanent position at Heartland. He helps cure the horses. Ty is one of Amy's closest friends throughout the series, and eventually her boyfriend. He helps her through personal and professional challenges, and he often understands her when no one else can. Ty and Amy have a close relationship, and they become boyfriend & girlfriend later in the series. However, they break up when Amy leaves for college, but remain friends as of "A Winter's Gift".


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Scott Trewin - The local vet for Heartland. Scott agrees with Heartland's alternative methods of treating horses. He is also Matt's older brother. He marries Lou and thus is Amy's brother-in-law, as well as a half-brother-in-law to Lily, Tim's daughter with Helena. He and Lou have a daughter named Holly Marion.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Soraya Martian - Amy's best friend since the 3rd grade. She helps Amy through hard times and, as a horse lover her herself, occasionally helps at Heartland as well as going on countless trail rides with Amy. During the series, she becomes romantically involved with Matt Trewin, and later, a boy named Anthony .


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Ashley Grant - Amy's rival in the series. Ashley's parents own Green Briar Stables, a stable for competition horses. Ashley often competes against Amy in jumping competitions. Perhaps as a result of her parents' constant pressure and high expectations, Ashley is extremely competitive and hostile towards Amy and her peers.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Valerie "Val" Grant - The owner of Green Briar, Heartland's rival, Val is described as overbearing and snobby. Val believes in using very firm discipline- for example, whips and riding crops- on her horses; many of her students agree with her techniques. Val considers it a waste of time to develop a relationship with horses. Val schools her ponies to respond to the commands of any rider and her horses learn to "excel in one area and complete a course to win". Val, Ted and Ashley periodically attempt to shut Heartland down. Val is often an antagonist in the Heartland novels.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Timothy "Tim" Fleming - Lou and Amy's father. Tim and Amy have not seen each other since Amy was 3, but their relationship evolves as the series progresses. He left Amy's mother and her family after he was hurt in a riding accident. Tim was paralysed in his accident; he is now in a wheel chair. After some time, Tim evidently began to regret leaving Marion, Amy and Lou. He found out where they were living and he sent a letter asking forgiveness, which Marion did not respond to. After Marion's death, he comes to visit Lou and Amy ("Thicker Than Water") and Amy finds out she is closer to her father than she thinks. He is now married to Helena and has another daughter, Lily.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Benjamin "Ben" Stillman - Ben's aunt sent him to work at Heartland. However, he realized that he wanted to focus more on his riding skills than his skill with troubled horses. He went to work for Nick Halliwell along with Daniel. They both compete in riding, Ben with his horse, Red, and Daniel with Storm.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Marion Bartlett-Fleming - Jack's daughter, a horse listener. Lou and Amy's mother and Tim's ex-wife. Heartland, and its alternative therapeutic methods, are described in the series as having been Marion's vision; Amy credits her knowledge of herbal remedies and training techniques to her mother. Marion dies in the beginning of the series from a trailer accident as she and Amy are trying to rescue an abandoned horse.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Amy and the staff at Heartland are depicted over the course of the series using several alternative treatment methods for horses. One of the most common of these is the Bach flower essences, used to treat anxiety and induce calm.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: Amy also uses behavioral techniques to help skittish or abused horses; for example, "join-up" or "hooking on", a technique utilized by many natural horsemanship trainers.


title: Heartland (novel series)

text: One of the types of body work Amy uses is called Tellington TTouch, created by Linda Tellington-Jones. Amy uses other aspects of the Tellington Method to help horses learn to trailer safely, and to learn improved confidence on the ground and under saddle. Amy's references to physical characteristics of horses to analyze equine personality are based on Tellington-Jones' book "Getting in TTouch: Understand and Influence Your Horse's Personality."


title: Dorayaki

text: The original dorayaki consisted of only one layer. Its current shape was invented in 1914 by "Usagiya" in the Ueno district of Tokyo.


title: Dorayaki

text: In Japanese, "dora" means "gong", and because of the similarity of the shapes, this is probably the origin of the name of the sweet. Legend has it that the first dorayaki were made when a samurai named Benkei forgot his gong ("dora") upon leaving a farmer's home where he was hiding, and the farmer subsequently used the gong to fry the pancakes.


title: Dorayaki

text: In the Kansai area, this sweet is often called "mikasa" (). The word originally means triple straw hat, but is also an alternative name of Mount Wakakusa, a low hill with gentle slopes located in Nara. In Nara, a larger mikasa of about 30 cm in diameter is made.


title: Dorayaki

text: The Japanese manga and anime character Doraemon loves dorayaki and so it is depicted as his favourite food (in the English dub, Nobita (Noby) calls it "yummy buns" as an alternative), and it has been a plot device several times throughout the series. Doraemon is addicted to dorayaki and falls for any trap involving them. Since 2000, the company Bunmeido has been selling a limited version of dorayaki called "Doraemon Dorayaki" every year around March and September. Since 2015, JFC International has produced Doraemon Dorayaki for the North American market.


title: Dorayaki

text: In 2015 filmmaker Naomi Kawase released the film "An" ("Sweet Bean"), based on a novel by Durian Sukegawa, about an elderly woman who has a secret recipe for truly transcendent dorayaki anko.


title: Flag of Paraguay

text: The flag of Paraguay () was first adopted in 1842. Its design, a red–white–blue triband, was inspired by the colours of the French Tricolour, believed to signify independence and liberty. The flag is unusual because it differs on its obverse and reverse sides: the obverse of the flag shows the national coat of arms, and the reverse shows the seal of the treasury. It was revised in 2013 to bring the flag towards its original design. It has a ratio of 11:20.


title: Flag of Paraguay

text: Officially adopted in 1842 (following the Recomendación, i. e. : address, de la Junta gubernativa de Asunción), each side of this tricolour flag contains a horizontal tricolor of red, white and blue with the National Emblem centered on the white band. The emblem on the obverse side is the national coat of arms of Paraguay: a yellow five-pointed star surrounded by a green wreath of palm and olive leaves tied with ribbons of the colour of the stripes, and capped by the words ("Republic of Paraguay" in Spanish), all within two concentric circles).


title: Flag of Paraguay

text: The colours of the flag are believed to be inspired from the flag of France to show independence and liberty, and the coat of arms represents the independence of Paraguay. The emblem on the reverse side is the seal of the treasury: a yellow lion below a red Phrygian cap on the top of a pole (symbolising courage) and the words "Paz y Justicia" ("Peace and Justice"). The differences in the obverse and reverse sides comes from the period when José de Francia was in power (1814–1840). On July 15, 2013, the flag was revised. The coat of arms was simplified and the design was brought closer to its original form.


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: Immoral Tales () is a 1973 French anthology film directed by Walerian Borowczyk. The film was Borowczyk's most sexually explicit at the time. The film is split into four erotic-themed stories that involve the loss of virginity, masturbation, bloodlust, and incest.


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: After the release of "Immoral Tales," Borowczyk began to fall out of favor with film critics. Modern critical reception to the film is that it is not one of Borowczyk's strongest works.


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: By 1972, Walerian Borowczyk was known predominantly for his various short films which were made to support feature-length releases. Borowczyk's feature films had made very little income from their theatrical releases while short films were not in demand as much as supporting features in cinemas. At this time, Borowczyk met with producer Anatole Dauman, who suggested that because France's film censors had relaxed the laws concerning censorship, Borowczyk should make an erotic feature to gain an audience.


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: The film's stories are taken from various sources, including surrealist writers and poets. The first story in the film is taken from surrealist writer André Pieyre de Mandiargues. The title of the second story is taken from an anonymous sacrilegious novel from the 18th century. The third story is a re-telling of the case of Elizabeth Báthory from the study of surrealist poet Valentine Penrose.


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: A fifth story in the "Immoral Tales" was originally planned, but was taken out of the film and developed into the feature film "La Bête" (1975).


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: "Immoral Tales" was screened in Britain in September 1973 as an incomplete work. This version included the short film "A Private Collection", "The Tide" and "The Beast of Gévaudan."


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: "Immoral Tales" was released in French theaters in 1974. The French film magazine "Le Film français" stated in 1974, 128 films that were classified as "erotic" were screened in Paris. This accounted for 16% of the total French box office. "Immoral Tales" sold 359,748 tickets, making it the second most popular release of these films, the most popular being "Emmanuelle".


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: It was shown at the 17th Regus London Film Festival held in November and December 1973. The film won the London Festival Choice award at the festival.


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: In 1974, "Immoral Tales" won the Prix de L'Âge d'or, an award intended to commemorate the spirit of surrealism. After the release of "Immoral Tales," Borowczyk began to fall out of favor with film critics. "New York Magazine" wrote an unfavourable review, referring to the film as "episodic and disjointed, but also written with a great deal of stupidity" and describing the story-telling, directing, acting and photography in the film as "wretched."


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: Among modern reviews, AllMovie gave the film three stars out of five, feeling that first two stories did not work as well as the second two as well as saying that it was Borowczyk's move from "art house material and toward softcore; as such, the material displays its director's characteristic intelligence but lapses into exploitation a little too often." In an overview of Borowczyk's work in the film magazine Senses of Cinema, "Immoral Tales" is referred to as his weakest amongst his first five feature films and that "an unsensational approach to the material and detached gaze of the camera make it closer to a surrealist text than a pornographic movie." Dave Kehr wrote a review for the "Chicago Reader" praising that the film "contains some very elegant images" but compared it negatively to Borowczyk's followup "The Story of Sin," which Kehr proclaimed "avoided the trap of superficiality by adopting an ironic mode. Here, he seems entirely too sincere—and more than a little dull."


title: Immoral Tales (film)

text: In his 2014 review for "The Guardian", Peter Bradshaw praises the film, citing the influence of Ken Russell and Pier Paolo Pasolini.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: Rana Sanaullah Khan (Punjabi, born 1 January 1955) is a Pakistani politician serving as the 39th Interior Minister of Pakistan. He has been a member of the National Assembly of Pakistan since August 2018. He is a senior member of PML-N and the President of PML-N in Punjab province since 4 May 2019. Before getting elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan, Sanaullah had been elected to the Provincial Assembly of Punjab five times and had served in high-ranking ministries of the province.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: Previously, he has served as the Law and Parliamentary Affairs Minister of Punjab from 2008 to 2018, Local Governments and Community Development Minister of Punjab from 2008 to 2014, Revenue Minister of Punjab from 2008 to 2013, Public Prosecution Minister of Punjab from 2008 to 2013, and the Deputy Leader of the Opposition (Punjab) from 1990 to 1993 and again from 2002 to 2007.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: He was born on 1 January 1955 in Faisalabad and is a cousin of former Chief Justice of Pakistan Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: He was elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as a candidate of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) in 1990 Pakistani general election.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: He was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as a candidate of Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) (PML-N) in 1997 Pakistani general election.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: He was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab from PP-70 (Faisalabad-XX) as a candidate of (PML-N) in 2002 Pakistani general election. He was also elected as the leader of opposition of the Punjab Provincial Assembly. In 2003, he was abducted by alleged intelligence agency Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and was badly tortured for speaking against military regime. Different pictures published in different newspaper showed Rana without his signature moustache and a shaved head. His acquaintances claim that the torture resulted in such an everlasting effect that interrupted the natural process of hair growth and since then his hair didn't grow that bushy as they were before. When freed, he was subsequently shifted to DHQ hospital.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: He was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab from PP-70 (Faisalabad-XX) as a candidate of (PML-N) in 2008 Pakistani general election.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: He was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab from PP-70 (Faisalabad-XX) as a candidate of (PML-N) in 2013 Pakistani general election.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: He was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan from NA-106 (Faisalabad-VI) as a candidate of (PML-N) in 2018 Pakistani general election.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: In August 2011, he accused an American contractor in Pakistan Warren Weinstein of being an American spy although Weinstein had lived in Pakistan for seven years and there was no evidence that he was a spy. Weinstein went missing a week later and was accidentally killed in a January 2015 US drone strike on the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, as announced by U.S. President Barack Obama at a White House press conference on April 23, 2015.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: On 17 June 2014, Punjab Police raided the Minhaj-ul-Quran International's lahore secretariat on the pretext of removing security barriers from its surroundings. Tahir-ul-Qadri's followers, who were preparing for his arrival from Canada to launch an anti-government movement on 23 June 2014, protested and deadly skirmishes started. A dozen of Tahir-ul-Qadri's devotees were killed including three women and around hundred got seriously wounded from bullet shots. Rana Sanaullah, who is considered only second to the Chief Minister, remained adamant that the police action was justified which added to the public fury.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: In the wake of public reaction and opposition's criticism, Shahbaz Sharif sacked Rana Sanaullah Khan as law minister, and Punjab's top bureaucrat. However, Qadri and other opposition leaders including Imran Khan held Shahbaz Sharif, Chief Minister of Punjab, responsible for the civilian deaths at the hands of police and demanded his resignation. FIR of Model Town tragedy was registered against key figures of the present government including the Prime Minister, the Chief Minister and Rana Sanaullah Khan.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: A joint-investigation-team (JIT) was later formed to investigate the incident. The government led JIT he was sworn in as Punjab Law Minister again in May 2015.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: When Sanaullah was travelling from Faisalabad to Lahore in July 2019, the Anti Narcotics Force (ANF) Lahore team detained him close to the Ravi Toll Plaza on the highway. Under Section 9(C) of the Control of Narcotic Substances Act of 1997, which contains the death penalty, life in prison, or a sentence that may last up to 14 years in jail, as well as a fine of up to Rs1 million, a first information report was filed.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: According to the First Information Report (FIR), Sanaullah was allegedly involved in drug trafficking and was transporting heroin to Lahore. This information had been provided to the force. He was twice denied bail by the trial court, but on December 24, 2019, the Lahore High Court granted him liberty.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: Sanaullah claimed on 10 December 2022 that the case against him was "concocted, designed, and created" after the multiple hearings. In the name of justice, equity, and fair play, he pleaded with the court to drop the charges against him. Sanaullah's lawyer informed the court that "Sanaullah had nothing to do with narcotics" and that "the case was a political ploy." He added that there were contradictions between the witness testimony and the camera footage.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: Imtiaz Ahmed, Assistant Director of the ANF, and Inspector Ehsaan Azam rejected the accusations against him during the final hearing, calling them "false." Along with other petitioners, Sanaullah asserted that this was an instance of political victimization. They said that Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) leader Fawad Chaudhry had explicitly stated that this case had not been filed during the administration of ousted primer minister Imran Khan and had instead been brought by "influential people" in the country.


title: Rana Sanaullah

text: Interior Minister Rana Sanaullah was exonerated on December 10th, 2022 by a special court in Lahore following multiple hearing and his submission of a plea.


title: César Pelli

text: César Pelli (October 12, 1926 – July 19, 2019) was an Argentine-American architect who designed some of the world's tallest buildings and other major urban landmarks. Two of his most notable buildings are the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur and the World Financial Center in New York City. The American Institute of Architects named him one of the ten most influential living American architects in 1991 and awarded him the AIA Gold Medal in 1995. In 2008, the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat presented him with The Lynn S. Beedle Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: César Pelli

text: Pelli was born October 12, 1926, in San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina. His father was a civil servant, who had been reduced to doing odd jobs due to the Depression, while his mother worked as a teacher. Pelli studied architecture at the Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. He graduated in 1949, after which he designed low-cost housing projects. In 1952, he attended the University of Illinois School of Architecture in the United States for advanced study in architecture, and received his Master of Science in Architecture degree in 1954.


title: César Pelli

text: He married acclaimed landscape architect Diana Balmori, who worked as a partner at his company. They had two children: Denis, a neurobiologist and Professor of Psychology and Neural Science at New York University and Rafael Pelli, like his father also a well-known architect. The couple resided in an apartment in The San Remo on Manhattan's Upper West Side.


title: César Pelli

text: In 1952, Pelli moved to the United States with his wife, Diana Balmori (1932–2016), and became a naturalized citizen in 1964. After his graduation from the University of Illinois School of Architecture, Pelli worked for Eero Saarinen in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, for ten years. While with Eero, he worked on the TWA terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport and the Morse and Stiles colleges at Yale University.


title: César Pelli

text: In 1964, he became director of design at Daniel, Mann, Johnson and Mendenhall in Los Angeles. In 1965, Pelli designed the Sunset Mountain Park Urban Nucleus (an unbuilt project). In 1968 Pelli became partner for design at Gruen Associates in Los Angeles. In 1969, Pelli designed the COMSAT research and development laboratories in Clarksburg, Maryland. Pelli designed his first landmark building with the Pacific Design Center in West Hollywood, California, which was completed 1975 and became known by the locals as the "Blue Whale". The United States Embassy in Tokyo, Japan, was designed by Pelli in 1972 and completed in 1975. While practicing in Los Angeles, Pelli taught in the architecture program at UCLA.


title: César Pelli

text: In 1977, Pelli was selected to be the dean of the Yale School of Architecture in New Haven, Connecticut, and served in that post until 1984. Shortly after Pelli arrived at Yale, he won the commission to design the expansion and renovation of the Museum of Modern Art in New York, which resulted in the establishment of his own firm, Cesar Pelli & Associates. The museum's expansion/renovation and the Museum of Modern Art Residential Tower were completed 1984; the World Financial Center in New York, which includes the grand public space of the Winter Garden, was completed in 1988. Among other significant projects during this period are the Crile Clinic Building in Cleveland, Ohio, completed 1984; Herring Hall at Rice University in Houston, Texas (also completed 1984); completion in 1988 of the Green Building at the Pacific Design Center in West Hollywood, California; completion of the Bank of America Corporate Center in Charlotte, North Carolina in 1989; and the construction of the Wells Fargo Center in Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1989.


title: César Pelli

text: Pelli was named one of the ten most influential living American Architects by the American Institute of Architects in 1991. In 1995, he was awarded the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal. In May 2004, Pelli was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from the University of Minnesota Duluth where he designed Weber Music Hall. In 2005, Pelli was honored with the Connecticut Architecture Foundation's Distinguished Leadership Award.


title: César Pelli

text: Buildings designed by Pelli during this period are marked by further experimentation with a variety of materials (most prominently stainless steel) and his evolution of the skyscraper. One Canada Square at Canary Wharf in London (opened in 1991); Plaza Tower in Costa Mesa, California (completed 1991); and the NTT Headquarters in Tokyo (finished 1995) were preludes to a landmark project that Pelli designed for Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The Petronas Towers were completed in 1997, sheathed in stainless steel and reflecting Islamic design motifs. The dual towers were the world's tallest buildings until 2004. That year, Pelli received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture for the design of the Petronas Towers Pelli's design for the National Museum of Art in Osaka, Japan, was completed 2005, the same year that Pelli's firm changed its name to Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects to reflect the growing roles of senior principals Fred W. Clarke and Pelli's son Rafael.


title: César Pelli

text: The Cira Centre on the Schuylkill River, designed by Pelli, opened in January 2006. Pelli also designed the master plan for Cira Centre South, near the University of Pennsylvania which was completed in 2014. He was also architect of the 730-foot luxury mixed-use skyscraper FMC Tower as part of the Cira Centre South development.


title: César Pelli

text: This period saw the completion of several cultural/civic projects designed by Pelli. The Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts in Miami, Florida, opened in 2006, the same year that Pelli's design for the Minneapolis Central Library completed construction, as well as the Renee and Henry Segerstrom Concert Hall and Samueli Theater in Costa Mesa, California. Pelli designs for office towers and developments throughout Asia and South America have been completed in the past decade. In 2012, the three-building Pacific Design Center, which Pelli designed 40 years earlier while at Gruen Associates, was completed with the addition of the Red Building.


title: César Pelli

text: In May 2008, Pelli was given an honorary Doctor of Arts degree by Yale University. That same year, he received the Lynn S. Beedle Lifetime Achievement Award from the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH). In 2012, Pelli was honored with the platinum Konex Award for architecture and the diamond Konex Award for visual arts.


title: César Pelli

text: Major projects completed in the 2010s included The Landmark in Abu Dhabi and Sevilla Tower in Seville, Spain. In 2018, the Salesforce Tower and the first phase of the adjacent Transbay Transit Center in San Francisco were completed. The Salesforce Tower was named the world's best tall building by CTBUH in 2019 which is the year when Pelli died.


title: César Pelli

text: On July 19, 2019, it was reported that Pelli had died at the age of 92 at his home in New Haven, Connecticut. No cause was given.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The Netherlands Antilles was an autonomous Caribbean country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It was dissolved on 10 October 2010.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: After dissolution, the "BES islands" of the Dutch Caribbean—Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba—became the Caribbean Netherlands, "special municipalities" of the Netherlands proper—a structure that only exists in the Caribbean. Meanwhile Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along the lines of Aruba, which separated from the Netherlands Antilles on 1 January 1986.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The idea of the Netherlands Antilles as a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands never enjoyed the full support of all islands, and political relations between islands were often strained. Geographically, the Leeward Antilles islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire, and the Leeward Islands of Saba, Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten lie almost apart. Culturally, the Leeward Antilles have deep connections with the South American mainland, especially Venezuela, and its population speaks a Portuguese-Dutch creole language called Papiamento; the other three islands are part of the English-speaking Caribbean.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: When the new constitutional relationship between the Netherlands and its former West Indian colonies was enshrined in the Kingdom Charter of 1954, the colonial administrative division of the Netherlands Antilles, which was derived from the colony of Curaçao and Dependencies and grouped all six Caribbean islands together under one administration, was taken for granted. Despite the fact that Aruban calls for secession from the Netherlands Antilles originated in the 1930s, the governments of the Netherlands and the Netherlands Antilles did everything in their power to keep the six islands together. The Netherlands did this so as to make sure that the Netherlands Antilles could become independent as soon as possible, a call that became increasingly louder in the Netherlands after the Willemstad riots of 1969 in Curaçao. The government of the Netherlands Antilles feared that the whole Netherlands Antilles would disintegrate if one of the islands seceded; Antillean Prime Minister Juancho Evertsz famously remarked that "six minus one equals zero".


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: Increasing unrest on Aruba, especially after a consultative referendum on secession was organized by the island government in 1977, meant that the issue of Aruban secession had to be taken into consideration. After long negotiations, it was agreed that Aruba could get its "status aparte" and become a separate country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1986, but only on the condition that it would become fully independent in 1996. The People's Electoral Movement, which led the Aruban island government in the years to 1986, reluctantly agreed to this, but the Aruban People's Party, which came to power after 1986, refused all cooperation with the Netherlands on the issue of independence.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: On the other hand, the Netherlands became more and more aware that the ties with the Caribbean parts of the Kingdom would probably endure for a longer period of time. Suriname, the other partner of the Kingdom that attained independence in 1975, had gone through a period of dictatorship and civil war, which weakened the pro-independence ideology of the Dutch government. Aruba and the Netherlands agreed in July 1990 to delete Article 62, which foresaw Aruban independence in 1996, from the Charter. This was finalized in 1994, with some conditions about cooperation in the fields of justice, good governance and finance.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: Meanwhile, the permanent position of Aruba as a separate country within the Kingdom led to calls for a similar arrangement for the other islands, especially on Sint Maarten. In the early 1990s, the five remaining islands entered into a period of reflection about whether or not to remain part of the Netherlands Antilles. In March 1990, Dutch Minister of Aruban and Antillean Affairs Ernst Hirsch Ballin came up with a draft for a new Kingdom Charter, in which the Leeward Antilles islands of Curaçao and Bonaire, and the Leeward Islands of Saba, Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten would form two new countries within the Kingdom. This proposal met with mixed responses on the islands.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: After a committee was installed investigating the future of the Netherlands Antilles, a "Conference on the Future" (""Toekomstconferentie"" in Dutch, litt. "Future-Conference") was held in 1993. The Netherlands proposed to take over the federal tasks of the Netherlands Antilles, with each of the islands remaining autonomous to the extent granted by the Islands Regulation of the Netherlands Antilles. Curaçao would be exempted and would attain country status like Aruba; Bonaire and Sint Maarten would be supported to help attain country status in the future; Saba and Sint Eustatius would not have this perspective and would remain what was called "Kingdom islands". The fact that the Kingdom affairs would also be broadened to include law enforcement to reduce international crime (thus reducing the autonomy of Aruba and Curaçao), and that Sint Maarten would not attain country status right away, meant that the Conference could only result in a failure.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: It was decided to postpone the next meeting of the conference until after a status referendum was held on Curaçao. The referendum's result was in favour of maintaining and restructuring the Netherlands Antilles, in spite of the island government and the Netherlands Antillean government campaigning for country status. The other islands also voted for maintaining the Netherlands Antilles. The Party for the Restructured Antilles, composed of campaigners in favour of maintaining and restructuring the Netherlands Antilles, came to power.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: In the end, restructuring the Netherlands Antilles did not get very far. Probably the most symbolic change was the adoption of an anthem of the Netherlands Antilles in 2000. In the same year another status vote was held on Sint Maarten, this time in favour of becoming a country of its own within the Kingdom. This sparked a new referendum cycle across the Netherlands Antilles. At the same time, a commission composed of representatives from the Netherlands and all the islands of the Netherlands Antilles investigated the future of the Netherlands Antilles. In its 2004 report, the commission advised a revision of the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands in order to dissolve the Netherlands Antilles, so that Curaçao and Sint Maarten would become countries of their own within the Kingdom, while Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba would become "Kingdom islands."


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The referendum held on Curaçao in 2005 also came out in favour of country status. All other islands voted for closer ties with the Netherlands, except for Sint Eustatius, which wanted to retain the Netherlands Antilles.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: Following the referendums on all islands, the first Round Table Conference between the islands, the Netherlands Antillean government, and the Netherlands was organized on 26 November 2005. It was agreed that Curaçao and Sint Maarten should become countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, while the three other islands should become directly part of the Netherlands. Agreement was reached that the Netherlands would take over the debts of the Netherlands Antilles, on condition that the islands would commit themselves to producing balanced budgets, so as to prevent future buildups of debt. A Board for Financial Supervision (Dutch: "College financieel toezicht (Cft)"), composed of members from both the Netherlands Antilles and the Netherlands, would be installed to supervise the budgets of the islands and of the Netherlands Antillean government.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: These agreements were worked out in the following year. At a Mini Round Table held on 11 October 2006, a closing agreement (Dutch: "slotakkoord") was signed, which stated that Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius would become public bodies of the Netherlands. A closing agreement was reached with Curaçao and Sint Maarten on 2 November. This agreement included specifics on the workings of the Board for Financial Supervision.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The closing agreements were ratified by the Netherlands and the individual islands, except by Curaçao, which rejected them on 29 November 2006. The other parties decided to continue negotiating without Curaçao. A transitional agreement was reached on 12 February 2007, which aimed at 15 December 2008, Koninkrijksdag, as the date of dissolution.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The island council of Curaçao later in 2007 adopted the closing agreement, but in 2009 decided to put the agreement to a referendum. This referendum was narrowly in favour of the closing agreement. A similar referendum on Bonaire was annulled by the Governor of the Netherlands Antilles because the question posed was considered too vague.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: 15 December 2008 turned out to be an unfeasible date for dissolution. Instead a Round Table Conference was held on that day, in which the agreements were once again put on paper. In October 2009, it was agreed that the dissolution would take place on 10 October 2010, and on 9 September 2010 a closing Round Table was organized in which the Act of Parliament amending the Charter was ceremonially signed by the parties.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: Curaçao and Sint Maarten became two new "landen" (literally: countries) within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along the lines of Aruba and the Netherlands. Their planned new joint currency is the Caribbean guilder, which was expected to be brought in by 2012 but has been delayed. Aruba's right to secede from the Kingdom was not extended to Curaçao and Sint Maarten.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The BES islands (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba) have become direct parts of the Netherlands as special municipalities (""), a form of "public body" ("openbaar lichaam") as outlined in article 134 of the Dutch Constitution. The special municipalities do not constitute part of a province.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: These municipalities resemble ordinary Dutch municipalities in most ways (they have a mayor, aldermen and a municipal council, for example) and will have to introduce most Dutch law. Residents will be able to vote in Dutch national and European elections. There are, however, some derogations: social security, for example, is not on the same level as it is in the continental Netherlands.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The three islands will have to involve the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs before they can make agreements with countries in the region. The special municipalities would be represented in the Kingdom Government by the Netherlands, as they can vote for the States-General (the Dutch parliament).


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: On 1 January 2011, the three islands switched to the US dollar rather than the euro that is used in the European Netherlands.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: All six islands may also continue to access the Joint Court of Justice of Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, and of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, the court of appeal superior to the islands' own courts of first instance. The islands share the Supreme Court of the Netherlands in The Hague with the entire Kingdom, including the European Netherlands.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The Kingdom of the Netherlands is a member of the European Union. However, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten have the status of overseas countries and territories (OCTs) and are not part of the EU. Nevertheless, only one type of citizenship exists within the Kingdom (Dutch), and all Dutch citizens are EU citizens (including those in the OCTs).


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands agreed not to change the status of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba with regard to the EU in the first five years of integration of these islands into the Netherlands, after which a re-evaluation of the islands' EU status is to take place. The islands were thus to remain OCTs at least until 2015, and remained in this status as of 2022.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The Netherlands secured a provision in the Treaty of Lisbon that says that any Caribbean part of the Netherlands can opt for a change of status to Outermost Region (OMR) if it so wishes, without having to change the Treaties of the European Union.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: On 1 September 2009, Saba announced that it wished to withdraw from the Netherlands Antilles immediately, rather than wait until October 2010. However, according to Dutch State Secretary Bijleveld for Kingdom Relations, it was not legally possible for Saba to become separate from the Antilles earlier.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The transition took place at midnight (00:00) on 10 October 2010 ("10/10/10") in the Netherlands Antilles (), 06:00 in the European part of the Netherlands ().


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The Kingdom Act amending the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands was drafted on 2009. It consists of six articles, with the changes to the Charter included in articles one to three. The Kingdom law provides for article 3 to take effect on the date of publication of the law in the official journal of the Netherlands, and articles 1 and 2 at a later date to be specified by royal decree. In this way the future countries of Sint Maarten and Curaçao will be able to draft their constitutions and fundamental legislation before the new relations within the Kingdom are to take effect.


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: The House of Representatives adopted the bill on 2010, and the Senate on 2010. The Estates of the Netherlands Antilles adopted the bill on and the Estates of Aruba did the same on .


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: On 21 November 2008, five draft acts for the integration of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba into the Netherlands were accepted by the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom. These acts are the "Act on the public bodies of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba" (, abbreviated to WOLBES), the "Act on financial relations of Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius", the "Amendment to the election act with regard to Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius", the "Introduction act on the public bodies of Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius", and the "Adaptation act on the public bodies of Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius".


title: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles

text: WOLBES defines the administrative organization of the public bodies and is modeled on Dutch municipality law. The Introduction act specifies that Netherlands Antilles law will remain in force after the transition of the three islands to the Dutch polity, and defines the process in which Dutch law will slowly take over from Netherlands Antilles law in the islands. The Adaptation act adapts Netherlands Antilles law and Dutch law and is to take effect immediately.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: Aaron Ray Long (born October 12, 1992) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a center-back for the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer and the United States national team. Born in Oak Hills, California, Long played four seasons of college soccer for the UC Riverside Highlanders before being drafted in the second round of the 2014 MLS SuperDraft by the Portland Timbers with the 36th overall pick. After loan spells with USL Pro clubs Sacramento Republic and Orange County Blues, Long was released by the Timbers and subsequently signed by rivals Seattle Sounders FC.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: Long was part of the Sounders organization for two seasons. After not making an appearance for the senior team, Long signed a contract with their reserve side, Seattle Sounders 2. He spent a season with Sounders 2 before joining the New York Red Bulls II in 2016. During his one season with Red Bulls II, Long helped the side win the USL championship and was named the USL Defender of the Year. Long then established himself as a starting center-back for the New York Red Bulls in 2017. In 2018, Long had a career breakout season, earning a spot as a MLS All-Star, winning MLS Defender of the Year Award, and helping the Red Bulls win the Supporters' Shield. His performance that season helped earn Long his debut for the United States against Peru.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: Long graduated from Serrano High School where he lettered in both football and soccer. Long played four years of college soccer at UC Riverside between 2010 and 2013, recording 13 goals and 5 assists during those years. While at college, Long also appeared for USL PDL club FC Tucson during their 2012 and 2013 seasons.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: Long was drafted by Portland Timbers in the second round (36th overall) of the 2014 MLS SuperDraft. After signing with Portland, Long was loaned to their USL Pro affiliate Sacramento Republic, where he made his debut on March 29, 2014, in a 1–1 draw against LA Galaxy II. He also played for Orange County Blues during the 2014 season on a short-term loan.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: Long joined Seattle Sounders FC during the 2014 season, but did not make an appearance with the first team. On March 14, 2015, Long signed with Seattle Sounders FC 2. On July 12, 2015, Long scored his first goal as a professional in a 4–0 victory over Arizona United SC. He was a regular starter for Sounders 2 playing as a midfielder before being converted to centerback, appearing in 28 matches and recording one goal and two assists.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: Long went on trial with New York Red Bulls during the 2016 pre-season, and on March 10, 2016, signed with affiliate club New York Red Bulls II. Long made his official debut for the club appearing as a starter in a 2–2 draw against Toronto FC II. On June 19, 2016, Long scored his first goal for the club helping them to a 2–2 draw at Orlando City B. On June 26, 2016, Long helped New York to a 4–1 victory against the Wilmington Hammerheads scoring the club's second goal of the match.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: On August 16, 2016, Long made his debut for the Red Bulls first team, appearing as a starter in a 1–1 draw against Alianza F.C. in the CONCACAF Champions League. On October 2, 2016, Long scored two goals to help New York Red Bulls II advance to the Eastern Conference Semifinals of the 2016 USL Playoffs in a 4–0 victory over Orlando City B.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: On September 2, 2017, Long scored his first goal with New York Red Bulls in a 2–2 draw at FC Dallas. He ended his first full season with the first team appearing in 41 matches and scoring 1 goal, establishing himself as a first choice center-back.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: On March 31, 2018, Long scored his first goal of the 2018 season for the New York Red Bulls in a 4–3 loss to Orlando City SC. On June 6, 2018, Long scored the second goal of the match in New York's 4–0 derby win over New York City FC in the fourth round of the 2018 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup. On June 23, 2018, Long scored another goal in a 3–0 victory over FC Dallas. On July 29, 2018, Long was named to the MLS All-Star Team for their 2018 friendly against Juventus F.C.. Long was named 2018 MLS defender of the year after leading the Red Bull's defense in conceding only 33 goals all season long as the club captured the 2018 MLS Supporters' Shield.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: In May during the 2021 MLS season, Long ruptured his Achilles tendon, which ruled him out for the remainder of the season. On February 26, 2022, after a long absence due to injury, Long appeared as a starter in a 3-1 victory over San Jose Earthquakes in the opening match of the 2022 season. On March 5, 2022, Long scored his first goal of the season in a 4-1 victory over Toronto FC. On July 12, 2022, Long was named to the MLS All-Star Team for the second time in his career, this time for their 2022 friendly against the Liga MX All-Stars.


title: Aaron Long (soccer)

text: On September 2, 2018, Long received his first call up to the United States national team. He made his first international appearance in a 1–1 draw against Peru. The following year, he captained the national team in a 3–0 friendly victory against Panama on January 27, 2019. In June 2019, Long was called up to his first international tournament when Gregg Berhalter named him to the final roster for the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup. On June 22, Long scored his first two international goals in a Gold Cup victory over Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Double bond

text: In chemistry, a double bond is a covalent bond between two atoms involving four bonding electrons as opposed to two in a single bond. Double bonds occur most commonly between two carbon atoms, for example in alkenes. Many double bonds exist between two different elements: for example, in a carbonyl group between a carbon atom and an oxygen atom. Other common double bonds are found in azo compounds (N=N), imines (C=N), and sulfoxides (S=O). In a skeletal formula, a double bond is drawn as two parallel lines (=) between the two connected atoms; typographically, the equals sign is used for this. Double bonds were first introduced in chemical notation by Russian chemist Alexander Butlerov.


title: Double bond

text: Double bonds involving carbon are stronger and shorter than single bonds. The bond order is two. Double bonds are also electron-rich, which makes them potentially more reactive in the presence of a strong electron acceptor (as in addition reactions of the halogens).


title: Double bond

text: The type of bonding can be explained in terms of orbital hybridisation. In ethylene each carbon atom has three sp orbitals and one p-orbital. The three sp orbitals lie in a plane with ~120° angles. The p-orbital is perpendicular to this plane. When the carbon atoms approach each other, two of the sp orbitals overlap to form a sigma bond. At the same time, the two p-orbitals approach (again in the same plane) and together they form a pi bond. For maximum overlap, the p-orbitals have to remain parallel, and, therefore, rotation around the central bond is not possible. This property gives rise to cis-trans isomerism. Double bonds are shorter than single bonds because p-orbital overlap is maximized.


title: Double bond

text: With 133 pm, the ethylene C=C bond length is shorter than the C−C length in ethane with 154 pm. The double bond is also stronger, 636 kJ mol versus 368 kJ mol but not twice as much as the pi-bond is weaker than the sigma bond due to less effective pi-overlap.


title: Double bond

text: In an alternative representation, the double bond results from two overlapping sp orbitals as in a bent bond.


title: Double bond

text: In molecules with alternating double bonds and single bonds, p-orbital overlap can exist over multiple atoms in a chain, giving rise to a conjugated system. Conjugation can be found in systems such as dienes and enones. In cyclic molecules, conjugation can lead to aromaticity. In cumulenes, two double bonds are adjacent.


title: Double bond

text: Double bonds are common for period 2 elements carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, and less common with elements of higher periods. Metals, too, can engage in multiple bonding in a metal ligand multiple bond.


title: Double bond

text: Double bonded compounds, alkene homologs, RE=ER are now known for all of the heavier group 14 elements. Unlike the alkenes these compounds are not planar but adopt twisted and/or trans bent structures. These effects become more pronounced for the heavier elements. The distannene (MeSi)CHSn=SnCH(SiMe) has a tin-tin bond length just a little shorter than a single bond, a trans bent structure with pyramidal coordination at each tin atom, and readily dissociates in solution to form (MeSi)CHSn: (stannanediyl, a carbene analog). The bonding comprises two weak donor acceptor bonds, the lone pair on each tin atom overlapping with the empty p orbital on the other. In contrast, in disilenes each silicon atom has planar coordination but the substituents are twisted so that the molecule as a whole is not planar. In diplumbenes the Pb=Pb bond length can be longer than that of many corresponding single bonds Plumbenes and stannenes generally dissociate in solution into monomers with bond enthalpies that are just a fraction of the corresponding single bonds. Some double bonds plumbenes and stannenes are similar in strength to hydrogen bonds. The Carter-Goddard-Malrieu-Trinquier model can be used to predict the nature of the bonding.


title: Curlew

text: The curlews () are a group of nine species of birds in the genus Numenius, characterised by their long, slender, downcurved bills and mottled brown plumage. The English name is imitative of the Eurasian curlew's call, but may have been influenced by the Old French "corliu", "messenger", from "courir ", "to run". It was first recorded in 1377 in Langland's Piers Plowman ""Fissch to lyue in þe flode..Þe corlue by kynde of þe eyre"". In Europe "curlew" usually refers to one species, the Eurasian curlew ("Numenius arquata").


title: Curlew

text: They are one of the most ancient lineages of scolopacid waders, together with the godwits which look similar but have straight bills. Curlews feed on mud or very soft ground, searching for worms and other invertebrates with their long bills. They will also take crabs and similar items.


title: Curlew

text: Curlews enjoy a worldwide distribution. Most species show strong migratory habits and consequently one or more species can be encountered at different times of the year in Europe, Ireland, Britain, Iberia, Iceland, Africa, Southeast Asia, Siberia, North America, South America and Australasia. The distribution of curlews has altered considerably in the past hundred years as a result of changing agricultural practices. Reclamation and drainage of marshy fields and moorland, and afforestation of the latter, have led to local decreases, while conversion of forest to grassland in some parts of Scandinavia has led to increases there. There are now only a small number of curlews in Ireland and Britain raising concerns that the bird will go extinct in those countries.


title: Curlew

text: The stone-curlews are not true curlews (family Scolopacidae) but members of the family Burhinidae, which is in the same order Charadriiformes, but only distantly related within that.


title: Curlew

text: The genus "Numenius" was erected by the French scientist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his "Ornithologie" published in 1760. The type species is the Eurasian curlew ("Numenius arquata"). The Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus had introduced the genus "Numenius" in the 6th edition of his "Systema Naturae" published in 1748, but Linnaeus dropped the genus in the important tenth edition of 1758 and put the curlews together with the woodcocks in the genus "Scolopax". As the publication date of Linnaeus's sixth edition was before the 1758 starting point of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, Brisson and not Linnaeus is considered as the authority for the genus. The name "Numenius" is from Ancient Greek "noumenios", a bird mentioned by Hesychius. It is associated with the curlews because it appears to be derived from "neos", "new" and "mene" "moon", referring to the crescent-shaped bill.


title: Curlew

text: The Late Eocene (Montmartre Formation, some 35 mya) fossil "Limosa gypsorum" of France was originally placed in "Numenius" and may in fact belong there. Apart from that, a Late Pleistocene curlew from San Josecito Cave, Mexico has been described. This fossil was initially placed in a distinct genus, "Palnumenius", but was actually a chronospecies or paleosubspecies related to the long-billed curlew.


title: Curlew

text: The upland sandpiper ("Bartramia longicauda") is an odd bird which is the closest relative of the curlews. It is distinguished from them by its yellow legs, long tail, and shorter, less curved bill.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli is a manuscript of the "Divine Comedy" by Dante, illustrated by 92 full-page pictures by Sandro Botticelli that are considered masterpieces and amongst the best works of the Renaissance painter. The images are mostly not taken beyond silverpoint drawings, many worked over in ink, but four pages are fully coloured. The manuscript eventually disappeared and most of it was rediscovered in the late nineteenth century, having been detected in the collection of the Duke of Hamilton by Gustav Friedrich Waagen, with a few other pages being found in the Vatican Library. Botticelli had earlier produced drawings, now lost, to be turned into engravings for a printed edition, although only the first nineteen of the hundred cantos were illustrated.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: In 1882 the main part of the manuscript was added to the collection of the Kupferstichkabinett Berlin (Museum of Prints and Drawings) when the director Friedrich Lippmann bought 85 of Botticelli's drawings. Lippmann had moved swiftly and quietly, and when the sale was announced there was a considerable outcry in the British press and Parliament. Soon after that, it was revealed that another eight drawings from the same manuscript were in the Vatican Library. The bound drawings had been in the collection of Queen Christina of Sweden and after her death in Rome in 1689, had been bought by Pope Alexander VIII for the Vatican collection. The time of separation of these drawings is unknown. The "Map of Hell" is in the Vatican collection.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The exact arrangement of text and illustrations is not known, but a vertical arrangement — placing the illustration page on top of the text page — is agreed on by scholars as a more efficient way of combining the text-illustration pairs. A volume designed to open vertically would be approximately 47 cm wide by 64 cm high, and would incorporate both the text and the illustration for each canto on a single page.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The Berlin drawings and those in the Vatican collection were assembled together, for the first time in centuries, in an exhibition showing all 92 of them in Berlin, Rome, and London's Royal Academy, in 2000–01.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The drawings in the manuscript were not the first to be created by Botticelli for the "Divine Comedy". He also illustrated another "Commedia", this time a printed edition with engravings as illustrations, that was published by Nicholo di Lorenzo della Magna in Florence in 1481, and is mentioned by Vasari. Scholars agree that the engravings by Baccio Baldini follow drawn designs by Botticelli, though unfortunately Baldini was unable to render Botticelli's style very effectively.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Botticelli's attempt to design the illustrations for a printed book was unprecedented for a leading painter, and though it seems to have been something of a flop, this was a role for artists that had an important future. Vasari wrote disapprovingly of the edition: "being of a sophistical turn of mind, he there wrote a commentary on a portion of Dante and illustrated the Inferno which he printed, spending much time over it, and this abstention from work led to serious disorders in his living." Vasari, who lived when printmaking had become far more important than in Botticelli's day, never takes it seriously, perhaps because his own paintings did not sell well in reproduction.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The "Divine Comedy" consists of 100 cantos, and the printed text left space for one engraving for each canto. However, only 19 illustrations were engraved, and most copies of the book have only the first two or three. The first two, and sometimes three, are usually printed on the book page, while the later ones are printed on separate sheets that are pasted into place. This suggests that the production of the engravings lagged behind the printing, and the later illustrations were pasted into the stock of printed and bound books, and perhaps sold to those who had already bought the book. Unfortunately Baldini was neither very experienced nor talented as an engraver, and was unable to express the delicacy of Botticelli's style in his plates. The project may have been disrupted by Botticelli's summons to Rome to take part in the project to fresco the Sistine Chapel. He was perhaps away from July 1481 to at the latest May 1482.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: It is often thought that Botticelli's drawings were commissioned by Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, an important patron of the artist. The early 16th-century writer known as the Anonimo Magliabecchiano says that Botticelli painted a Dante on parchment for Lorenzo, but makes it sound as if this was a completed work. Alternatively the drawings we have may have been a different set for Botticelli's own use and pleasure, which is the conclusion of Ronald Lightbown.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Although the printed and illustrated book was rapidly replacing the traditional and very expensive illuminated manuscript in the last decades of the 15th century, the grandest bibliophiles were still commissioning manuscripts, and continued to do so well into the next century, from artists such as Giulio Clovio (1498–1578), perhaps the last major artist to be mainly a manuscript illuminator.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The drawings illustrate a manuscript of Dante's "Divine Comedy". The entire thematic sequence of each canto was supposed to be illustrated by its own full-page drawing by Botticelli, an unprecedentedly ambitious conception. Normally, by the 15th century, a single incident was shown in each framed illustration in illustrated Dantes, as for other narrative works. Botticelli was combining this tradition with another, continuous narrative, where recurrent incidents were shown, usually unframed and in the margin below the text. Thus the principal figures of Dante, Virgil and Beatrice often appear several times in an image.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: There are two additional drawings, a map of Hell preceding "Inferno", and a double-page drawing of Lucifer that depicts Dante's and Virgil's descent to Hell. The text is written on the reverse of the drawings, so that it was on the same page as the next drawing. As was usual, the text was completed before the illustrations were begun, omitting the major capital letters which were to be illuminated.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The exact date of creation of the drawings is unknown but it is agreed that they were produced over a period of several years, and a stylistic development has been detected. Estimates vary between a start around the mid-1480s with the last approximately a decade later, and a period extending between about 1480 and 1505 (by which time Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco was dead). Botticelli never completed the task. Many of the images are not fully drawn and illumination is completed for only four of them. However, the drawings are of such artistry and beauty, that they have been described as "central to Botticelli's artistic achievement" and no less important than the "Primavera". They represent by far the bulk of surviving drawings by Botticelli. Of the small number of other sheets surviving, none relate directly to surviving paintings.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Botticelli is thought to have started the drawings at least roughly following the text sequence. The drawing for Canto I of "Inferno" has the figures at a larger scale than that used in later cantos, up to the end of the "Purgatorio". The earlier drawings for the "Inferno" are generally the most completed, and the most detailed, but cantos II to VII, XI and XIV are missing, though probably made by Botticelli. We have the text pages for the last cantos, "Paradiso", XXXI to XXXIII, but the drawings were never begun. The differing degrees of completion, and the canto numbers and first lines of the matching text inscribed on some sequences of pages but not others, all complicate understanding Botticelli's progress, and have been extensively debated.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Each page was first drawn with a metal stylus, leaving lines that are now very faint. There are numerous changes evident, which are easy to make in this technique. The next stage was to go over these lines with a pen and black or brown ink. Most of the pages were not taken beyond these stages, which are often found together on a page, with only some areas inked over. Other pages have not yet been inked at all. Only four pages fully received the final stage of colouring in tempera, though others are part-coloured, usually just the main figures. It has been argued that Botticelli, or his patron, came to prefer the uncoloured drawings, and deliberately left the rest, but this is not accepted by most scholars.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Botticelli's manuscripts incorporate several innovations in the way text and images are presented in the volume. In other similar illustrated manuscripts of Dante's Inferno, multiple illustrations were used to depict the events described in a canto. In addition, most of the space in a page was given to the illustration and associated commentary while the text portion was smaller in comparison. Therefore, a single canto spread over multiple pages. Botticelli's text and illustration arrangement innovates by presenting the text on a single page in four vertical columns.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: In addition, unlike similar works, Botticelli's manuscript uses but a single illustration per canto, which occupied a whole page, presenting a unified depiction of the sequence of events of a canto in a vertical format. This way, the readers know that when they advance to a new page, they enter the thematic sequence of a new canto. The text of each canto, from left to right, matches, to a high degree, the pictorial representation as the reader views the illustration from the upper left corner and then proceeds downwards. This reflects the vertical structure of the descent of the two poets through the nine circles of Hell. The additional two illustrations of the "Map of Hell" and "Lucifer" lie outside this canto-text structure, thus providing an element of continuity which unifies the work. Lucifer's second drawing by Botticelli from "Inferno" XXXIV spans across two pages, and lies outside the text-illustration structure, unifying the narrative of the series. It also illustrates the full story of "Inferno" canto XXXIV and shows Lucifer's geographical position in Hell.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Botticelli renders vertically the ground planes of the illustrations of the second and third rounds of Inferno. Although the illustrations for the first three rounds depict different imagery, the vertical perspective links them into a single unit. The third round consists of the illustrations for cantos XV, XVI and XVII, which depict the punishment of those who sinned by violence against God, nature and art.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Botticelli uses thirteen drawings to illustrate the eighth circle of Hell, depicting ten chasms that Dante and Virgil descend through a ridge.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: Each page of the manuscript was approximately 32 cm high by 47 cm wide. Since the text of each canto was written on a single page and the accompanying illustration was on a separate page, arranging the two pages in a horizontal format would have been impractical as it would be approximately wide. This would entail the readers turning their heads from left to right while trying to connect the text columns on the left to the illustration on the right. A vertical arrangement, stacking the illustration page on top of the text page, is a more efficient way of combining the text-illustration pair; a volume designed to open vertically is a more probable scenario for Botticelli's manuscript. If the manuscript's binding were to open vertically, the dimensions would be approximately wide by high, and would incorporate both the text and the illustration on a single page. This would have made reading the text and looking at the drawing of each canto easier and more efficient.


title: Divine Comedy Illustrated by Botticelli

text: The Vatican Library has the drawing of the "Map of Hell", and the illustrations for cantos I, IX, X, XII, XIII, XV and XVI of the "Inferno". The "Map of Hell" and the drawing for canto I are drawn on each side of the same goat-skin parchment. The drawings that were in the Berlin Museum were separated post-war after the division of Germany, but the collection was re-integrated following reunification. The Berlin Museum houses the rest of the extant illustrations, including the drawing for canto VIII. The sequence of the "Inferno" drawings for cantos XVII to canto XXX for "Paradiso" is without gaps. The page for the drawing of canto XXXI appears blank, and the sequence ends with the unfinished drawing for canto XXXII.


title: Kanzi

text: Kanzi (born October 28, 1980), also known by the lexigram (from the character 太), is a male bonobo who has been the subject of several studies on great ape language. According to Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, a primatologist who has studied the bonobo throughout her life, Kanzi has exhibited advanced linguistic aptitude. Despite his achievements in the use of language, Kanzi could still not approach the levels of an average 3-year-old child.


title: Kanzi

text: Kanzi was born to Lorel and Bosandjo at Yerkes Field Station at Emory University in 1980. Shortly after birth Kanzi was stolen and adopted by a more dominant female, Matata, the matriarch of the group.


title: Kanzi

text: In 1985, Kanzi was moved to the Language Research Center at Georgia State University. He was later relocated, along with his sister, Panbanisha, to the Great Ape Trust, in Des Moines, Iowa. The ill-fated facility, founded in 2004 by local businessman, Ted Townsend, closed after losing funding, experiencing allegations of neglect, and a flood.


title: Kanzi

text: In 2013, the Ape Cognition and Conservation Initiative (ACCI), under the direction of Jared Taglialatela, a professor at Kennesaw State University in Georgia, and Bill Hopkins, a professor at Georgia State University, took over the facility.


title: Kanzi

text: When the ACCI took over Kanzi's care in 2013, he was severely obese due to mismanagement of his diet and activity. His new caretakers changed Kanzi's diet to a more species-appropriate one and increased his opportunities for physical activity. Kanzi has since lost over seventy-five pounds.


title: Kanzi

text: As an infant, Kanzi accompanied Matata to sessions where Matata was taught language through keyboard lexigrams, but showed little interest in the lessons. It was a great surprise to researchers then when one day, while Matata was away, Kanzi began competently using the lexigrams, becoming not only the first observed ape to have learned aspects of language naturalistically rather than through direct training, but also the first observed bonobo to appear to use some elements of language at all. Within a short time, Kanzi had mastered the ten words that researchers had been struggling to teach his adoptive mother, and he has since learned more than 348, which he can also combine for new meaning. When he hears a spoken word (through headphones, to filter out nonverbal clues), he points to the correct lexigram. He can initiate communication using the lexigrams. Sue Savage Rumbaugh, in 2006, claimed Kanzi understands about 3,000 spoken words.


title: Kanzi

text: Kanzi's adoptive mother, Matata, was believed to be in her mid- to late- 40s when she died in June 2014. In the matriarchal society of bonobos, a male's position is primarily determined by the position of the females he is related to. Matata was the group's chief leader so his status as the highest ranking male was established by being adopted as her "son". According to Smithsonian Magazine, Kanzi "has the mien of an aging patriarch – he's balding and paunchy with serious, deep-set eyes." This description is confirmed by a full-page color photograph of Kanzi in the March 2008 "National Geographic", and a full-page black-and-white photograph in "Time" magazine.


title: Kanzi

text: Kanzi's behavior and abilities have been the topic of research published in scientific journals, as well as reports in popular media.


title: Kanzi

text: When he was eight years old, Kanzi was a subject of a research program in which his ability to respond to spoken requests was compared with that of a two-year-old human child called Alia. The study took nine months to complete. Kanzi and Alia were given 660 spoken instructions, asking them to deal with familiar objects in novel ways. Kanzi responded correctly to 74 percent of the instructions, Alia to 65 percent.


title: Kanzi

text: Another study, designed and carried out by archaeologists Kathy Schick and Nicholas Toth, aimed to compare Kanzi's cognitive and mechanical abilities with those of early human ancestors who made and used Early Stone Age tools (probably Homo habilis), such as Oldowan stone flakes and cores (a core is the rock from which a flake has been removed). In this study, Schick and Toth showed Kanzi how to flake stone, producing a sharp edge that could be used to cut through a rope in order to gain access to a food reward. After modeling the flaking behavior on a variety of occasions, the researchers set up each experiment by placing a food reward inside a box with a transparent lid which was held closed by a length of rope. Kanzi would then be led into an enclosure where the box was located and provided with the stones needed for flaking (known as chert or flint). Over the course of this multi-year study, Kanzi not only learned how to flake, he also developed his own method by throwing the cobbles onto hard surfaces to make a flake, as opposed to the hand-held percussion method that was modeled for him. With the many sharp flakes he produced, Kanzi was able to cut through the rope to gain access to the food reward. However, the flakes he produced and used were more crude than those produced by Early Stone Age humans.


title: Kanzi

text: A similar study on the flaking abilities of chimpanzees failed to recreate the findings with Kanzi. The authors suggest that the discrepancies in findings are due to the differences in rearing backgrounds of the subjects. Whilst Kanzi spent a significant portion of his life around humans and being trained by them (leading to a high level of enculturation), the chimpanzees in the recent study were not trained or demonstrated how to make or use flakes (or in any other human behaviours). This may explain why Kanzi was able to develop flaking after observing humans, and the chimpanzees in the recent study were not.


title: Kanzi

text: Although Kanzi learned to communicate using a keyboard with lexigrams, Kanzi also picked up some American Sign Language from watching videos of Koko the gorilla, who communicated using sign language to her keeper Penny Patterson; Savage-Rumbaugh did not realize Kanzi could sign until he signed, "You, Gorilla, Question", to anthropologist Dawn Prince-Hughes, who had previously worked closely with gorillas. Based on trials performed at Yerkes Primate Research Center, Kanzi was able to identify symbols correctly 89–95% of the time.


title: Kanzi

text: Kanzi cannot speak in a manner that is comprehensible to most humans, as bonobos have different vocal tracts than humans, which makes them incapable of reproducing most of the vocal sounds humans can make. Nonetheless, it was noticed that every time Kanzi communicated with humans with specially-designed graphic symbols, he also produced some vocalization. Later, it was discovered that Kanzi was producing the articulatory equivalent of the symbols he was indicating, although in a very high pitch and with distortions.


title: Kanzi

text: According to the research of Dr. Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, Kanzi "can understand individual spoken words and how they are used in novel sentences". For example, the researcher asked Kanzi to go get the carrot in the microwave, Kanzi went directly to the microwave and completely ignored the carrot that was closer to him, but not in the microwave. In another example, a researcher gave the task, "feed your ball some tomato". Alia, a human 2-year-old, did not know what to do, but Kanzi immediately used a spongy toy Halloween pumpkin as a ball and began to feed the toy.


title: Kanzi

text: Although Kanzi is considered to be the best case for apes acquiring language-like capabilities, his sentences were not equivalent to that of a 3-year old child. His semantic, syntactic and morphological abilities showed significant differences. For example, Kanzi did not use the word "strawberry" the same way a human child would. When he used "strawberry" it could mean a request to go to where the strawberries grow, a request to eat some, it could also have been as a name, and so on.


title: Kanzi

text: Kanzi also showed no ability in the use of function words, nor could he make use of morphology, such as indicating the plural form of a noun. Lastly, Kanzi did not display recursion, meaning that there was an upper bound to the length of his sentences that cannot be exceeded.


title: Ottoman claim to Roman succession

text: After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the sultans of the Ottoman Empire laid claim to be the legitimate Roman emperors, in succession to the Byzantine emperors who had previously ruled from Constantinople. Based on the concept of right of conquest, the sultans at times assumed the styles "kayser-i Rûm" (""Caesar" of Rome", one of the titles applied to the Byzantine emperors in earlier Ottoman writings) and "basileus" (the ruling title of the Byzantine emperors). The assumption of the heritage of the Roman Empire also led the Ottoman sultans to claim to be universal monarchs, the rightful rulers of the entire world.


title: Ottoman claim to Roman succession

text: The early sultans after the conquest of Constantinople–Mehmed II, Bayezid II, Selim I and Suleiman I–staunchly maintained that they were Roman emperors and went to great lengths to legitimize themselves as such. Greek aristocrats, i.e. former Byzantine nobility, were often promoted to senior administrative positions and Constantinople was maintained as the capital, rebuilt and considerably expanded under Ottoman rule. The administration, architecture and court ceremonies of the early post-1453 Ottoman Empire were heavily influenced by the former Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman sultan also used their claim to be Roman emperors to justify campaigns of conquest against Western Europe. Both Mehmed II and Suleiman I dreamt of conquering Italy, which they believed was rightfully theirs due to once having been the Roman heartland.


title: Ottoman claim to Roman succession

text: Although the claim to Roman imperial succession never formally stopped and titles such as "kayser-i Rûm" and "basileus" were never formally abandoned, the claim gradually faded away and ceased to be stressed by the sultans. The primary reason for the break with claiming Greco-Roman legitimacy was the increased transformation of the Ottoman Empire to claiming Islamic political legitimacy from the 16th century onwards. This was the result of Ottoman conquests in the Levant, Arabia and North Africa having turned the empire from a multi-religious state to a state with a clear Muslim majority population, which necessitated a claim to legitimate political power rooted in Islamic rather than Roman tradition. The shift in Ottoman identity also resulted from conflict with the Safavid Empire in Iran, which followed Shia Islam, leading to the sultans more strongly embracing and stressing their Sunni Islam faith. "Kayser-i Rûm" was last used officially in the 18th century and Greek-language documents ceased to refer to the sultan as "basileus" at the latest in 1876, whereafter the Ottoman rulers were titled in Greek as "soultanos" and "padisach".


title: Ottoman claim to Roman succession

text: Recognition of the Ottoman claim to be Roman emperors was variable, both outside and within the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans were widely accepted as Romans in the Islamic world, with the sultans being recognized as Roman emperors. The majority of the Christian populace of the Ottoman Empire also recognized the sultans as their new emperors, but views differed among the cultural elite. Some saw the Ottomans as infidels, barbarians and illegitimate tyrants, others saw them as divinely ordained as punishment for the sins of the Byzantine people and others yet accepted them as the new emperors. From at least 1474 onwards, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople recognized the sultans by the title "basileus". Whereas views were variable in regards to the legitimacy of the Ottomans as sovereigns, they were consistent in that the Ottoman Empire as a state was not seen as the seamless continuation of the Roman Empire, but rather its heir and successor, as the former empire had far too deep theological roots to be compatible with a foreign Muslim ruler. Thus, the former Byzantines saw the Ottoman Empire as inheriting the political legitimacy and right to universal rule of the preceding empire, but not its other theological implications. In Western Europe, where the Byzantine emperors had not been recognized as Roman either, the Ottomans were generally seen as emperors, but not Roman emperors. Views on whether the Ottoman sultans were the successors of the Byzantine emperors or a completely new set of rulers varied among westerners. The right of the Ottoman sultans to style themselves as Roman emperors and claim universal rule was challenged for centuries by the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and the Russian Empire, both of whom claimed this dignity for themselves. The different emperors sometimes recognized the others as being of equal rank or higher rank, such as the Holy Roman recognition of the Ottoman sultan as superior in the 1533 Treaty of Constantinople and a more equal mutual recognition between the two in the 1606 Peace of Zsitvatorok.


title: Ottoman claim to Roman succession

text: The Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire traced its origin as an institution to the foundation of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire in 330 by Constantine the Great. The Byzantine Empire survived the 5th century, when the Western Roman Empire fell, more or less intact. The Byzantine populace continually maintained that they were "Romaioi" (Romans), not "Hellenes" (Greeks), even as the empire's borders gradually became reduced to in the end only encompassing Greek-speaking lands. By the 15th century, the Byzantine emperors ruled a disintegrating and dwindling empire. Over the course of the 14th century, the Ottoman Empire conquered vast swaths of territories and by the beginning of the 15th century, they ruled much of Anatolia, Bulgaria, central Greece, Serbia, Macedonia and Thessaly. The Byzantine Empire, once extending throughout the eastern Mediterranean, was more or less reduced to the imperial capital of Constantinople itself, the Peloponnese and a handful of islands in the Aegean Sea, and was forced to pay tribute to the Ottomans.Under Sultan Mehmed II, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople in 1453, an event generally regarded to have marked the definitive end of the Roman Empire, as well as the final and decisive step in the Ottoman conquest of the former empire's core lands and subjects. 1453 also marked the true birth of the Ottoman Empire, which would come to dominate much of the eastern Mediterranean until its fall in 1922. The conquest of Constantinople had been a dream of Islamic armies since the 8th century and through its possession, Mehmed II and his successors were able to claim to be the heirs of the Roman emperors. Mehmed had great interest in Roman and classical Greek history, a topic he had been taught on extensively by court teachers in his youth. He emulated himself on Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great, at one point visited the city of Troy to see the graves of the mythological Greek heroes Achilles and Ajax, and kept a copy of the "Iliad" in his personal library.