title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: This talk show was taped in Studio 8G at NBC's Rockefeller Center studios in New York City, New York, and was produced and distributed by KidRo Productions, Telepictures Productions, and Warner Bros. Television. The talk show won five Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Talk Show.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: On June 10, 1996, "The Rosie O'Donnell Show" premiered, and proved successful. It was a replacement for "Carnie!", which aired from September 6, 1995, to February 23, 1996.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: In October 1996, a fire broke out at 30 Rockefeller Center in New York City. As a result, the show resumed taping for four days in the Ed Sullivan Theater (where David Letterman taped his show). The first episode resuming taping in the regular studio featured a beginning scene reminiscent of "The Wizard of Oz", in which Rosie awakens from a dream.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: O'Donnell often spoke of her admiration for Barbra Streisand, and in November 1997, Streisand (who rarely grants interviews) agreed to a full hour special. The set was covered in flowers and Streisand memorabilia. Streisand's husband, actor James Brolin, was also interviewed. Before this interview, O'Donnell received a brief letter from Streisand which she discussed on-air and held up very briefly. She described Streisand as being very caring in the letter, but would not read it on-air. It was too late, however, as a television camera caught a brief shot of the letter, and within days, savvy viewers distributed its contents. O'Donnell later expressed dismay that viewers would do that. Streisand was interviewed again in 1999 at her home, shortly before her Timeless tour.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: On May 19, 1999, a month after the Columbine shootings, which prompted O'Donnell to become an outspoken supporter of gun control and a major figure in the Million Mom March, O'Donnell interviewed actor Tom Selleck, who was promoting a film "The Love Letter". After a commercial break, O'Donnell confronted him about his recent commercial for the NRA and challenged him about the NRA's position on the use of assault rifles. According to Selleck, the two had agreed not to discuss the topic before his appearance on the show. O'Donnell maintains that Selleck and his publicist had been informed that the topic would be discussed. She later stated the interview had "not gone the way I had hoped it had gone. But, I would like to thank you for appearing anyway, knowing that we have differing views. I was happy that you decided to come on the show. And if you feel insulted by my questions, I apologize, because it was not a personal attack. It was meant to bring up the subject as it is in the consciousness of so many today."


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: In April 2001, Rosie had a two-week absence from her show because of a staph infection. She had guest hosts take her place, including Joy Behar, Meredith Vieira, Barbara Walters, Kathy Griffin, Marie Osmond, Jane Krakowski, Ana Gasteyer and Caroline Rhea.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: Throughout the final season O'Donnell called on Caroline Rhea to host the program every Friday. Rhea's growing popularity as a guest host gave her the green light to host her own daytime talk show the following year, supposedly succeeding O'Donnell. However, Rhea's program lasted for only one season.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: After a six-year run, the show ended in 2002 when Rosie chose to leave to spend more time with her children.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: The final live episode aired on May 22, 2002. It featured an opening musical ensemble number from Broadway, starring Vanessa Williams and John Lithgow (who were both appearing on Broadway at the time). The guests were Nathan Lane and Christine Ebersole. The show's final segment featured a retrospective video made by Rosie that blended scenes from her personal life with her talk show, accompanied by the song "Both Sides Now" sung by Joni Mitchell. The conclusion of the show featured a clip of Tom Cruise mowing a lawn, who then stops to look at the camera and says, ""Rosie, I cut your grass, and here is your lemonade."" (A reference to one of the show's running gags, O'Donnell declaring her adoration of Tom Cruise.)


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: Remaining new, but pre-taped, episodes continued to air until June 27, 2002, the last with guest host Caroline Rhea. Repeats aired until August 30, 2002, the last of which was a repeat of the broadcast from May 20, 2002.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: The show was revived for one night only March 22, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, with an all-star lineup of guests raising money for the Actors Fund of America. The special episode was live streamed on the Broadway.com YouTube channel.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: Topics often discussed on the show include Broadway, children, extended families and charitable works, people and organizations.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: The program was also known for featuring extended production numbers from Broadway shows which were often seen as too time-consuming on other shows. O'Donnell was known for keeping a light-hearted nature during the show as she playfully interviewed her guests and interacted with her audience. Commonly, O'Donnell would throw Koosh balls into the audience throughout the show; this gag expanded through the years to include automated Koosh-projecting devices in the ceiling, as well as O'Donnell firing at a moving target.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: Unique introductions by a member of the audience were made at the beginning of each episode. (Hi! I'm [insert audience member], from [insert resident's address] and this is "The Rosie O'Donnell Show". On today's show: [insert guests and/or topics]. Hit it, John!). After the animated intro, the audience member would then say, "And now, here's Rosie!" as O'Donnell made her entrance through the curtain. O'Donnell commented on the DVD release of first season highlights that producers were not keen on this opening but Rosie insisted upon it as she enjoyed being able to talk to a "real person" every show.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: A long-running segment of the show involved telling jokes that children from around the United States mailed into the studio. These jokes were eventually compiled into two books (and eventually a TV special) entitled "Kids Are Punny"; proceeds from the book went to children's charity programs.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: O'Donnell's endorsement of the Tickle Me Elmo played a large part in the huge popularity of the toy. Likewise when she served Drake's snack cakes to audience members on "The Rosie O'Donnell Show", which helped contribute to increased sales of Drake's cakes.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: In February of 1997, the mouthwash brand Scope released a list of the "least kissable celebrities," to which O'Donnell was ranked number one. O'Donnell responded by promoting rival mouthwash brand Listerine on her show. Listerine thanked O'Donnell by donating $1000 to O'Donnell's charity For All Kids every time a guest greeted O'Donnell with a kiss. Listerine donated more than $150,000.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: Early on O'Donnell was dubbed "The Queen of Nice" by Newsweek magazine for her sweet personality, which was in stark contrast to many other talk shows of the era.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: The show won multiple Emmys such as five times Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Talk Show (1998-2002) during its run.


title: The Rosie O'Donnell Show

text: A compilation of highlights of the show's first season was available for sale in September 2008, exclusively from the Home Shopping Network. The DVD runs 90 minutes and contains Rosie O'Donnell commenting while watching clips of archived footage. Included are Tom Cruise's first visit, Fran Drescher's parents reviewing Florida restaurants, and the incident in which Donny Osmond made a fat joke at Rosie's expense.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Police uniforms in the United States vary widely due to the nation's tradition of highly decentralized law enforcement. Over time, however, a number of general conventions and styles have become representative of American police fashion. Police officers wear uniforms to deter crime by establishing a visible presence while on patrol, to make themselves easily identifiable to non-police officers or to their colleagues who require assistance, and to quickly identify each other at crime scenes for ease of coordination.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Centralized, municipally-managed police departments were unknown in the United States prior to the 1830s. Early law enforcement functions were largely performed by volunteer watchmen as well as elected or appointed constables and sheriffs, who were paid by the fee system for warrants they served. The advent of professional police forces in the United States foreshadowed the introduction of standardized police uniforms. While uniforms for police had been introduced in the United Kingdom as early as 1828, adoption of standardized dress in the United States took longer, with many of the new police objecting to uniforms out of concern they would be subject to public ridicule. Nonetheless, in 1854, the New York City Police Department became the United States' first municipal police force to issue uniforms to its officers. New York City was followed, in 1858, by Boston, Chicago, and soon thereafter, other cities.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: The navy blue uniforms adopted by many police departments in this early period were simply surplus United States Army uniforms from the Civil War. Headwear typically took the form of stovepipe hats, a starched woolen head cover similar in appearance to a top hat but with a squatter dimension, or British-style custodian helmets. In rural areas, where preventative policing was limited or non-existent, sheriff's deputies continued to wear civilian attire, using only their badge as a mark of identification. In many states this practice continued well into the following century. The Orange County, California sheriff's office, for instance, did not adopt a uniform until 1938.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: By the early 20th century, the style and form of American police uniforms had essentially settled into its modern pattern of collared shirts, neckties, slacks and military-style jackets with open collars, all worn with peaked hats. Many early uniforms had loose-fitting jackets that would conceal a police officer's equipment, such as truncheon and sidearm. Beginning in the 1930s, officers more frequently began wearing their personal gear on a Sam Browne belt worn outside the coat, for ease of access.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: One of the biggest evolutionary experiments in police uniform design began in 1969, when the police department in Menlo Park, California moved away from typical police uniforms, opting instead for a dress style designed to better emulate civilian fashion trends and communicate a "softer" appearance. The new uniforms consisted of green blazers, black slacks, a white shirt and black necktie. Officers wore their weapons concealed under their coats. Many other police departments soon followed the Menlo Park lead. In psychological tests, it was discovered police - after using the new uniform - displayed less authoritarian personality characteristics. In addition, civilians and suspects injured during arrests by police dropped by 50-percent and assaults on officers by suspects also plummeted by nearly a third. Despite these initially promising signs, however, it was subsequently determined that other factors, including increased police recruitment of college graduates and adoption of more responsive management techniques, had probably accounted for the statistical shifts. By the eighth year of the uniform experiment, assaults on police had more than doubled from what they were prior to the dress change and the "civilian" style uniforms were subsequently dropped.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Despite the wide variety of uniforms used by United States police departments, virtually all incorporate the use of metallic badges as a means of primary identification. Unlike in the United Kingdom, where officers both in and out of uniform carry - but do not publicly display - paper or plastic warrant cards, US police badges are the official symbol of office and are prominently worn over the left chest of the uniform (or, in the case of plainclothes officers, displayed from a concealed badge carrier when necessary to establish authority). In Virginia, for instance, police only have the power to make arrests when "in uniform, or displaying a badge of office."


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Badges are typically engraved with a unique identification number matched to the officer to whom it is issued. Some departments - most notably the New York City Police Department (NYPD) - traditionally pass individual badges through several generations of police so that current officers can establish a symbolic connection with the retired and deceased officers to whom their badge had previously been issued. In the case of the NYPD, officers who misplace their badge are docked five days of vacation time and many officers wear replica badges to avoid losing their issued badge (though the practice is officially discouraged).


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Federal law prohibits the sale or purchase of counterfeit police badges and many states have laws regulating the wearing of metallic badges by persons other than law enforcement. Florida, for instance, prohibits unauthorized persons from wearing or displaying badges if their wear or display would be likely to deceive someone. New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine and New Jersey, meanwhile, allow private security guards to wear badges provided they are in the shape of a square and not the more traditional shield or star shape used by police.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Badges are usually constructed out of metal with an enamel finish in either a gold and/or silver. As a general rule, the badges issued by county sheriff's offices take the form of a five, six, or seven-pointed star, while municipal police have shield-like designs. Following the death of a police officer, other officers will typically cover their badges with a black mourning band. Mourning bands can also be seen worn on May 15, "National Peace Officers Memorial Day."


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Most police uniforms feature shoulder sleeve insignia in the form of cloth patches embroidered with the agency's name, logo or a heraldic device. These patches are displayed either on both shoulders, or one.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Individual municipal and county law enforcement agencies in the United States are typically responsible for designing their own uniforms, often with minimal state regulation. As a result, there is no universal form or pattern for American police uniforms.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: However, in general, most large police departments provide officers with two types of uniforms for wear, tactical (also called "Class B"), and traditional (or "Class A"). Tactical uniforms, similar in material and cut to the U.S. Army's former battle dress uniform, are generally worn while on patrol, or performing physically intense duties, while traditional-style uniforms are more often used for station assignments, high-profile events, and ceremonial functions. In addition to these two basic uniform types, a variety of specialized clothing may be deployed as necessary, including jumpsuits (sometimes called "Class C") and, in the case of police pipe bands, highland dress. Many police departments restrict the use of tactical uniforms to tactical units, such as SWAT teams, or for special assignments, such as riot control, in order to present a less militarized appearance in day-to-day operations.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Municipal police uniforms are typically colored in blue or black, while uniforms worn by sheriff's deputies are more often green, brown, or khaki. Unlike British police, American law enforcement agencies do not usually include white-colored apparel, such as shirts, in their uniforms due to the fact white reflects in the dark and can make police officers more prominent targets for armed criminals during building searches or standoffs. There are, however, many exceptions to this general rule; the Miami Police Department wears dark blue, bike division officers will wear white, and they may also wear polo shirts on some occasions, and senior officers in the New York City Police Department, Baltimore Police Department, Philadelphia Police Department, and Washington, D.C. Metropolitan Police Department wear uniforms that also feature white shirts. However, some departments like the Hillsborough County Sheriff's Office have white shirts as part of the universal standard uniform.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Unlike police in some Commonwealth nations, US police forces subsequently abandoned the custodian helmet by the early 20th century they had incorporated with their uniforms. Today, municipal police forces typically wear peaked hats or, in tactical uniforms, baseball caps. County sheriff's offices often issues their deputies with campaign hats or Stetsons for cover. Some departments permit the usage of the hijab for female Muslim police officers.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Several United States police forces are known for unique uniform items not commonly used by other departments.


title: Police uniforms in the United States

text: Since 1977, the North American Association of Uniforms, Manufacturers and Distributors have sponsored an annual award for the "best dressed" police department in the United States. The awards are currently awarded in several classes, depending on a department's size. In 2013 the Florida Highway Patrol was recognized as the "best dressed" police force among departments with more than 2,000 personnel.


title: Will Ropp

text: Will Ropp is an American actor. He first gained attention for his role as Kenny Dawes in "The Way Back" (2020).


title: Will Ropp

text: Will was born in Connecticut. After graduating from The Bolles School in Jacksonville, Florida, he went on to earn a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree at the University of Michigan. In 2020, He received his breakthrough role as Kenny Dawes on the sports drama film "The Way Back" by Warner Bros. Pictures. He next appeared in the 2021 releases "Silk Road" and "The Fallout".


title: George Lakoff

text: George Philip Lakoff (; born May 24, 1941) is an American cognitive linguist and philosopher, best known for his thesis that people's lives are significantly influenced by the conceptual metaphors they use to explain complex phenomena.


title: George Lakoff

text: The conceptual metaphor thesis, introduced in his and Mark Johnson's 1980 book "Metaphors We Live By" has found applications in a number of academic disciplines. Applying it to politics, literature, philosophy and mathematics has led Lakoff into territory normally considered basic to political science. In his 1996 book "Moral Politics", Lakoff described conservative voters as being influenced by the "strict father model" as a central metaphor for such a complex phenomenon as the state, and liberal/progressive voters as being influenced by the "nurturant parent model" as the folk psychological metaphor for this complex phenomenon. According to him, an individual's experience and attitude towards sociopolitical issues is influenced by being framed in linguistic constructions. In "Metaphor and War: The Metaphor System Used to Justify War in the Gulf" (1991), he argues that the American involvement in the Gulf war was obscured or "spun" by the metaphors which were used by the first Bush administration to justify it.


title: George Lakoff

text: Between 2003 and 2008, Lakoff was involved with a progressive think tank, the now defunct Rockridge Institute. He is a member of the scientific committee of the Fundación IDEAS (IDEAS Foundation), Spain's Socialist Party's think tank.


title: George Lakoff

text: The more general theory that elaborated his thesis is known as embodied mind. Lakoff served as a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley, from 1972 until his retirement in 2016.


title: George Lakoff

text: Although some of Lakoff's research involves questions traditionally pursued by linguists, such as the conditions under which a certain linguistic construction is grammatically viable, he is best known for his reappraisal of the role that metaphors play in the socio-political life of humans.


title: George Lakoff

text: Metaphor has been seen within the Western scientific tradition as a purely linguistic construction. The essential thrust of Lakoff's work has been the argument that metaphors are a primarily conceptual construction and are in fact central to the development of thought.


title: George Lakoff

text: According to Lakoff, non-metaphorical thought is possible only when we talk about purely physical reality; the greater the level of abstraction, the more layers of metaphor are required to express it. People do not notice these metaphors for various reasons, including that some metaphors become 'dead' in the sense that we no longer recognize their origin. Another reason is that we just do not "see" what is "going on".


title: George Lakoff

text: In intellectual debate, for instance, the underlying metaphor according to Lakoff is usually that argument is war (later revised to "argument is struggle"):


title: George Lakoff

text: According to Lakoff, the development of thought has been the process of developing better metaphors. He also points out that the application of one domain of knowledge to another offers new perceptions and understandings.


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff began his career as a student and later a teacher of the theory of transformational grammar developed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor Noam Chomsky. In the late 1960s, however, he joined with others to promote generative semantics as an alternative to Chomsky's generative syntax. In an interview he stated:


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff's claim that Chomsky asserts independence between syntax and semantics has been rejected by Chomsky, who holds the following view:


title: George Lakoff

text: In response to Lakoff's making the above claim about Chomsky's view, Chomsky claimed that Lakoff has "virtually no comprehension of the work he is discussing". Despite Lakoff's mischaracterization of Chomsky's view on the matter, their linguistic positions diverge significantly; this rift between Generative Grammar and Generative Semantics led to fierce, acrimonious debates among linguists that have come to be known as the "linguistics wars".


title: George Lakoff

text: When Lakoff claims the mind is "embodied", he is arguing that almost all of human cognition, up through the most abstract reasoning, depends on and makes use of such concrete and "low-level" facilities as the sensorimotor system and the emotions. Therefore, embodiment is a rejection not only of dualism vis-a-vis mind and matter, but also of claims that human reason can be basically understood without reference to the underlying "implementation details".


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff offers three complementary but distinct sorts of arguments in favor of embodiment. First, using evidence from neuroscience and neural network simulations, he argues that certain concepts, such as color and spatial relation concepts (e.g. "red" or "over"; see also "qualia"), can be almost entirely understood through the examination of how processes of perception or motor control work.


title: George Lakoff

text: Second, based on cognitive linguistics' analysis of figurative language, he argues that the reasoning we use for such abstract topics as warfare, economics, or morality is somehow rooted in the reasoning we use for such mundane topics as spatial relationships. (See conceptual metaphor.)


title: George Lakoff

text: Finally, based on research in cognitive psychology and some investigations in the philosophy of language, he argues that very few of the categories used by humans are actually of the black-and-white type amenable to analysis in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions. On the contrary, most categories are supposed to be much more complicated and messy, just like our bodies.


title: George Lakoff

text: "We are neural beings", Lakoff states, "Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything — only what our embodied brains permit."


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff believes consciousness to be neurally embodied, however he explicitly states that the mechanism is not just neural computation alone. Using the concept of disembodiment, Lakoff supports the physicalist approach to the afterlife. If the soul can not have any of the properties of the body, then Lakoff claims it can not feel, perceive, think, be conscious, or have a personality. If this is true, then Lakoff asks what would be the point of the afterlife?


title: George Lakoff

text: Many scientists share the belief that there are problems with falsifiability and foundation ontologies purporting to describe "what exists", to a sufficient degree of rigor to establish a reasonable method of empirical validation. But Lakoff takes this further to explain why hypotheses built with complex metaphors cannot be directly falsified. Instead, they can only be rejected based on interpretations of empirical observations guided by other complex metaphors. This is what he means when he says that falsifiability itself can never be established by any reasonable method that would not rely ultimately on a shared human bias. The bias he's referring to is the set of conceptual metaphors governing how people interpret observations.


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff is, with coauthors Mark Johnson and Rafael E. Núñez, one of the primary proponents of the embodied mind thesis. Lakoff discussed these themes in his 2001 Gifford Lectures at the University of Glasgow, published as "The Nature and Limits of Human Understanding". Others who have written about the embodied mind include philosopher Andy Clark (See his "Being There"), philosopher and neurobiologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela and his student Evan Thompson (See Varela, Thompson & Rosch's "The Embodied Mind"), roboticists such as Rodney Brooks, Rolf Pfeifer and Tom Ziemke, the physicist David Bohm (see his "Thought As A System"), Ray Gibbs (see his "Embodiment and Cognitive Science"), John Grinder and Richard Bandler in their neuro-linguistic programming, and Julian Jaynes. The work of these writers can be traced back to earlier philosophical writings, most notably in the phenomenological tradition, such as Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Heidegger. The basic thesis of "embodied mind" is also traceable to the American contextualist or pragmatist tradition, notably John Dewey in such works as "Art As Experience".


title: George Lakoff

text: According to Lakoff, even mathematics is subjective to the human species and its cultures: thus "any question of math's being inherent in physical reality is moot, since there is no way to know whether or not it is." By this, he is saying that there is nothing outside of the thought structures we derive from our embodied minds that we can use to "prove" that mathematics is somehow beyond biology. Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez (2000) argue at length that mathematical and philosophical ideas are best understood in light of the embodied mind. The philosophy of mathematics ought therefore to look to the current scientific understanding of the human body as a foundation ontology, and abandon self-referential attempts to ground the operational components of mathematics in anything other than "meat".


title: George Lakoff

text: Mathematical reviewers have generally been critical of Lakoff and Núñez, pointing to mathematical errors. Lakoff claims that these errors have been corrected in subsequent printings. Although their book attempts a refutation of some of the most widely accepted viewpoints in philosophy of mathematics and advice for how the field might proceed, they have yet to elicit much of a reaction from philosophers of mathematics themselves. The small community specializing in the psychology of mathematical learning, to which Núñez belongs, is paying attention.


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff has also claimed that we should remain agnostic about whether math is somehow wrapped up with the very nature of the universe. Early in 2001 Lakoff told the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): "Mathematics may or may not be out there in the world, but there's no way that we scientifically could possibly tell." This is because the structures of scientific knowledge are not "out there" but rather in our brains, based on the details of our anatomy. Therefore, we cannot "tell" that mathematics is "out there" without relying on conceptual metaphors rooted in our biology. This claim bothers those who believe that there really is a way we could "tell". The falsifiability of this claim is perhaps the central problem in the cognitive science of mathematics, a field that attempts to establish a foundation ontology based on the human cognitive and scientific process.


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff has publicly expressed some of his political views and his ideas about the conceptual structures that he views as central to understanding the political process. He almost always discusses the former in terms of the latter.


title: George Lakoff

text: "Moral Politics" (1996, revisited in 2002) gives book-length consideration to the conceptual metaphors that Lakoff sees as present in the minds of American "liberals" and "conservatives". The book is a blend of cognitive science and political analysis. Lakoff makes an attempt to keep his personal views confined to the last third of the book, where he explicitly argues for the superiority of the liberal vision.


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff argues that the differences in opinions between liberals and conservatives follow from the fact that they subscribe with different strength to two different central metaphors about the relationship of the state to its citizens. Both, he claims, see governance through metaphors of the family. Conservatives would subscribe more strongly and more often to a model that he calls the "strict father model" and has a family structured around a strong, dominant "father" (government), and assumes that the "children" (citizens) need to be disciplined to be made into responsible "adults" (morality, self-financing). Once the "children" are "adults", though, the "father" should not interfere with their lives: the government should stay out of the business of those in society who have proved their responsibility. In contrast, Lakoff argues that liberals place more support in a model of the family, which he calls the "nurturant parent model", based on "nurturant values", where both "mothers" and "fathers" work to keep the essentially good "children" away from "corrupting influences" (pollution, social injustice, poverty, etc.). Lakoff says that most people have a blend of both metaphors applied at different times, and that political speech works primarily by invoking these metaphors and urging the subscription of one over the other.


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff further argues that one of the reasons liberals have had difficulty since the 1980s is that they have not been as aware of their own guiding metaphors, and have too often accepted conservative terminology framed in a way to promote the strict father metaphor. Lakoff insists that liberals must cease using terms like "partial birth abortion" and "tax relief" because they are manufactured specifically to allow the possibilities of only certain types of opinions. "Tax relief" for example, implies explicitly that taxes are an affliction, something someone would want "relief" from. To use the terms of another metaphoric worldview, Lakoff insists, is to unconsciously support it. Liberals must support linguistic think tanks in the same way that conservatives do if they are going to succeed in appealing to those in the country who share their metaphors.


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff offers advice about how to counteract politicians' lies. He maintains that the act of stating that a lie is false reinforces the lie because it repeats the way the lie is framed. Instead, he recommends what he calls a "truth sandwich":


title: George Lakoff

text: Lakoff calls this a "truth sandwich" even though the baloney is in the middle. The position of the lie avoids both primacy and recency effects.


title: George Lakoff

text: Between 2003 and 2008, Lakoff was involved with a progressive think tank, the Rockridge Institute, an involvement that follows in part from his recommendations in "Moral Politics". Among his activities with the Institute, which concentrates in part on helping liberal candidates and politicians with re-framing political metaphors, Lakoff has given numerous public lectures and written accounts of his message from "Moral Politics." In 2008, Lakoff joined Fenton Communications, the nation's largest public interest communications firm, as a Senior Consultant.


title: George Lakoff

text: One of his political works, "Don't Think of an Elephant! Know Your Values and Frame the Debate", self-labeled as "the Essential Guide for Progressives", was published in September 2004 and features a foreword by former Democratic presidential candidate Howard Dean.


title: George Lakoff

text: In 2006 Steven Pinker wrote an unfavorable review of Lakoff's book "Whose Freedom?" in "The New Republic". Pinker argued that Lakoff's propositions are unsupported, and his prescriptions are a recipe for electoral failure. He wrote that Lakoff was condescending and deplored Lakoff's "shameless caricaturing of beliefs" and his "faith in the power of euphemism". Pinker portrayed Lakoff's arguments as "cognitive relativism, in which mathematics, science, and philosophy are beauty contests between rival frames rather than attempts to characterize the nature of reality." Lakoff wrote a rebuttal to the review stating that his position on many matters is the exact reverse of what Pinker attributes to him. Lakoff states that he explicitly rejects cognitive relativism, arguing that he is "a realist, both about how the mind works and how the world works. Given that the mind works by frames and metaphors, the challenge is to use such a mind to accurately characterize how the world works."


title: National Highway 27 (India)

text: National Highway 27 (NH 27), an East - West National highway in India that starts in Porbandar and ends in Silchar, the highway passes through the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam.


title: National Highway 27 (India)

text: NH-27 was laid and is maintained by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH). It is the second longest National Highway (after NH 44) in India and is a part of NS-EW Corridor of NHAI.


title: National Highway 27 (India)

text: Porbandar, Kutiyana, Upleta, Dhoraji, Jetpur, Gondal, Rajkot, Bamanbore, Morvi, Samakhiali, Radhanpur, Deesa, Palanpur


title: National Highway 27 (India)

text: Dalkhola, Islampur, Bagdogra, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri, Mainaguri, Dhupguri, Falakata, Sonapur, Alipurduar, Kamakhyaguri


title: National Highway 27 (India)

text: Bongaigaon, Bijni, Howly, Patacharkuchi, Nalbari, Rangiya, Guwahati, Nagaon, Hojai, Lanka, Lumding, Haflong, Silchar


title: Category (mathematics)

text: In mathematics, a category (sometimes called an abstract category to distinguish it from a concrete category) is a collection of "objects" that are linked by "arrows". A category has two basic properties: the ability to compose the arrows associatively and the existence of an identity arrow for each object. A simple example is the category of sets, whose objects are sets and whose arrows are functions.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: "Category theory" is a branch of mathematics that seeks to generalize all of mathematics in terms of categories, independent of what their objects and arrows represent. Virtually every branch of modern mathematics can be described in terms of categories, and doing so often reveals deep insights and similarities between seemingly different areas of mathematics. As such, category theory provides an alternative foundation for mathematics to set theory and other proposed axiomatic foundations. In general, the objects and arrows may be abstract entities of any kind, and the notion of category provides a fundamental and abstract way to describe mathematical entities and their relationships.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: In addition to formalizing mathematics, category theory is also used to formalize many other systems in computer science, such as the semantics of programming languages.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Two categories are the same if they have the same collection of objects, the same collection of arrows, and the same associative method of composing any pair of arrows. Two "different" categories may also be considered "equivalent" for purposes of category theory, even if they do not have precisely the same structure.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Well-known categories are denoted by a short capitalized word or abbreviation in bold or italics: examples include Set, the category of sets and set functions; Ring, the category of rings and ring homomorphisms; and Top, the category of topological spaces and continuous maps. All of the preceding categories have the identity map as identity arrows and composition as the associative operation on arrows.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: The classic and still much used text on category theory is "Categories for the Working Mathematician" by Saunders Mac Lane. Other references are given in the References below. The basic definitions in this article are contained within the first few chapters of any of these books.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Any monoid can be understood as a special sort of category (with a single object whose self-morphisms are represented by the elements of the monoid), and so can any preorder.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: There are many equivalent definitions of a category. One commonly used definition is as follows. A category "C" consists of


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Note: Here hom("a", "b") denotes the subclass of morphisms "f" in hom("C") such that formula_3 and formula_4. Such morphisms are often written as "f" : "a" → "b".


title: Category (mathematics)

text: We write "f": "a" → "b", and we say ""f" is a morphism from "a" to "b"". We write hom("a", "b") (or hom("a", "b") when there may be confusion about to which category hom("a", "b") refers) to denote the hom-class of all morphisms from "a" to "b". From these axioms, one can prove that there is exactly one identity morphism for every object. Some authors use a slight variation of the definition in which each object is identified with the corresponding identity morphism.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: A category "C" is called small if both ob("C") and hom("C") are actually sets and not proper classes, and large otherwise. A locally small category is a category such that for all objects "a" and "b", the hom-class hom("a", "b") is a set, called a homset. Many important categories in mathematics (such as the category of sets), although not small, are at least locally small. Since, in small categories, the objects form a set, a small category can be viewed as an algebraic structure similar to a monoid but without requiring closure properties. Large categories on the other hand can be used to create "structures" of algebraic structures.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: The class of all sets (as objects) together with all functions between them (as morphisms), where the composition of morphisms is the usual function composition, forms a large category, Set. It is the most basic and the most commonly used category in mathematics. The category Rel consists of all sets (as objects) with binary relations between them (as morphisms). Abstracting from relations instead of functions yields allegories, a special class of categories.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Any class can be viewed as a category whose only morphisms are the identity morphisms. Such categories are called discrete. For any given set "I", the "discrete category on I" is the small category that has the elements of "I" as objects and only the identity morphisms as morphisms. Discrete categories are the simplest kind of category.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Any preordered set ("P", ≤) forms a small category, where the objects are the members of "P", the morphisms are arrows pointing from "x" to "y" when "x" ≤ "y". Furthermore, if "≤" is antisymmetric, there can be at most one morphism between any two objects. The existence of identity morphisms and the composability of the morphisms are guaranteed by the reflexivity and the transitivity of the preorder. By the same argument, any partially ordered set and any equivalence relation can be seen as a small category. Any ordinal number can be seen as a category when viewed as an ordered set.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Any monoid (any algebraic structure with a single associative binary operation and an identity element) forms a small category with a single object "x". (Here, "x" is any fixed set.) The morphisms from "x" to "x" are precisely the elements of the monoid, the identity morphism of "x" is the identity of the monoid, and the categorical composition of morphisms is given by the monoid operation. Several definitions and theorems about monoids may be generalized for categories.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Similarly any group can be seen as a category with a single object in which every morphism is "invertible", that is, for every morphism "f" there is a morphism "g" that is both left and right inverse to "f" under composition. A morphism that is invertible in this sense is called an isomorphism.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: A groupoid is a category in which every morphism is an isomorphism. Groupoids are generalizations of groups, group actions and equivalence relations. Actually, in the view of category the only difference between groupoid and group is that a groupoid may have more than one object but the group must have only one. Consider a topological space "X" and fix a base point formula_5 of "X", then formula_6 is the fundamental group of the topological space "X" and the base point formula_5, and as a set it has the structure of group; if then let the base point formula_5 runs over all points of "X", and take the union of all formula_6, then the set we get has only the structure of groupoid (which is called as the fundamental groupoid of "X"): two loops (under equivalence relation of homotopy) may not have the same base point so they cannot multiply with each other. In the language of category, this means here two morphisms may not have the same source object (or target object, because in this case for any morphism the source object and the target object are same: the base point) so they can not compose with each other.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Any directed graph generates a small category: the objects are the vertices of the graph, and the morphisms are the paths in the graph (augmented with loops as needed) where composition of morphisms is concatenation of paths. Such a category is called the "free category" generated by the graph.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: The class of all preordered sets with monotonic functions as morphisms forms a category, Ord. It is a concrete category, i.e. a category obtained by adding some type of structure onto Set, and requiring that morphisms are functions that respect this added structure.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: The class of all groups with group homomorphisms as morphisms and function composition as the composition operation forms a large category, Grp. Like Ord, Grp is a concrete category. The category Ab, consisting of all abelian groups and their group homomorphisms, is a full subcategory of Grp, and the prototype of an abelian category. Other examples of concrete categories are given by the following table.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Any category "C" can itself be considered as a new category in a different way: the objects are the same as those in the original category but the arrows are those of the original category reversed. This is called the "dual" or "opposite category" and is denoted "C".


title: Category (mathematics)

text: If "C" and "D" are categories, one can form the "product category" "C" × "D": the objects are pairs consisting of one object from "C" and one from "D", and the morphisms are also pairs, consisting of one morphism in "C" and one in "D". Such pairs can be composed componentwise.


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Every retraction is an epimorphism. Every section is a monomorphism. The following three statements are equivalent:


title: Category (mathematics)

text: Relations among morphisms (such as "fg" = "h") can most conveniently be represented with commutative diagrams, where the objects are represented as points and the morphisms as arrows.


title: Mogilev

text: Mogilev (, ; , ) or Mahilyow (, ) is a city in eastern Belarus, on the Dnieper River, about from the border with Russia's Smolensk Oblast and from the border with Russia's Bryansk Oblast. , its population was 360,918, up from an estimated 106,000 in 1956. It is the administrative centre of Mogilev Region and the third-largest city in Belarus.


title: Mogilev

text: The city was first mentioned in historical records in 1267. From the 14th century, it was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and since the Union of Lublin (1569), part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, where it became known as "Mohylew". In the 16th-17th centuries, the city flourished as one of the main nodes of the east–west and north–south trading routes.


title: Mogilev

text: In 1577, Polish King Stefan Batory granted it city rights under Magdeburg law. In 1654, the townsmen negotiated a treaty of surrender to the Russians peacefully, if the Jews were to be expelled and their property divided up among Mogilev's inhabitants. Tsar Aleksei Mikhailovitch agreed. However, instead of expelling the Jews, the Russian troops massacred them after they had led them to the outskirts of the town. The city was set afire by Charles XII's forces in 1708, during the Great Northern War. After the First Partition of Poland in 1772, Mogilev became part of the Russian Empire and became the centre of the Mogilev Governorate. In 1938 it was decided Mogilev was to become the capital of Belarus because Minsk was too close to the then-Polish-Soviet border.


title: Mogilev

text: In the years 1915–1917, during World War I, the Stavka, the headquarters of the Russian Imperial Army, was based in the city and the Tsar, Nicholas II, spent long periods there as Commander-in-Chief.


title: Mogilev

text: Following the Russian Revolution, in 1918, the city was briefly occupied by Germany and placed under their short-lived Belarusian People's Republic. In 1919, Mogilev was captured by the forces of Soviet Russia and incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR. Up to World War II and the Holocaust, like many other cities in Europe, Mogilev had a significant Jewish population: according to the Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 41,100, 21,500 were Jews (i.e. over 50 percent). In 1938 the leadership of Soviet Belarus decided to move the capital of the country from Minsk to Mogilev. Due to that, the now- was built in 1938–1940 with the aim of being the government building. It was designed to resemble the Minsk Government building.


title: Mogilev

text: During Operation Barbarossa, the city was conquered by Wehrmacht forces on 26 July 1941 and remained under German occupation until 28 June 1944. Mogilev became the official residence of High SS and police leader (HSSPF) Erich von dem Bach. During that period, the Jews of Mogilev were ghettoized and systematically murdered by "Ordnungspolizei" and SS personnel. Heinrich Himmler personally witnessed the executions of 279 Jews on 23 October 1941. Later that month, a number of mentally disabled patients were poisoned with car exhaust fumes as an experiment; the method of killing was thereafter applied in several Nazi extermination camps. Initial plans for establishing a death camp in Mogilev were abandoned in favour of Maly Trostenets.


title: Mogilev

text: In 1944, with the Mogilev offensive, the devastated city was liberated by the Red Army and returned to Soviet control. Mogilev then was the site of a labour camp for German POW soldiers.


title: Mogilev

text: Mohilev was the episcopal see of the Latin Catholic Archdiocese of Mohilev until its 1991 merger into the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Minsk-Mohilev.


title: Mogilev

text: It remains the see of the Eparchy (Eastern diocese) of Mogilev and Mstsislaw in the Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church.


title: Mogilev

text: After World War II, a huge metallurgy centre with several major steel mills was built. Also, several major factories of cranes, cars, tractors and a chemical plant were established. By the 1950s, tanning was Mogilev's principal industry, and it was a major trading centre for cereal, leather, salt, sugar, fish, timber and flint: the city has been home to a major inland port on the Dnieper river since and an airport since. Since the fall of the Soviet Union and the establishment of Belarus as an independent country, Mogilev has become one of that country's main economic and industrial centres.


title: Mogilev

text: The town's most notable landmark is the late 17th-century town hall, named the Ratuša, that was built during the times of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The grand tower of the town hall sustained serious damage during the Great Northern War and the Great Patriotic War. It was eventually demolished in 1957 and rebuilt in its pre-war form in 2008.


title: Mogilev

text: Another important landmark of Mogilev is the six-pillared St. Stanisław's Cathedral, built in the Baroque style between 1738 and 1752 and distinguished by its frescoes.


title: Mogilev

text: The convent of St. Nicholas preserves its magnificent cathedral of 1668, as well as the original iconostasis, bell tower, walls, and gates. It is currently under consideration to become a UNESCO World Heritage site.


title: Mogilev

text: Minor landmarks include the archiepiscopal palace and memorial arch, both dating from the 1780s, and the enormous theater in a blend of the Neo-Renaissance and Russian Revival styles.


title: Mogilev

text: At Polykovichi, an urban part of Mogilev, there is a 350 metre tall guyed TV mast, one of the tallest structures in Belarus.


title: Mogilev

text: Mogilev has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfb") with warm summers and cold winters.


title: Jeff Mauro

text: Jeff Mauro (born July 24, 1978) is the co-host of the Food Network series "The Kitchen" and host of "Sandwich King" and "$24 in 24". Prior to this, he was the winner of the seventh season of the "Food Network Star" competition. Mauro, who is originally from Elmwood Park, Illinois, incorporates local Chicago restaurants into the context of his show.


title: Jeff Mauro

text: During "Food Network Star", where fifteen contestants competed for an opportunity to have their own cooking show, Mauro maintained a strict concentration on sandwiches throughout the competition. The judges on the show noted Mauro's humor and likable persona, which are focal points of his personality on "Sandwich King".


title: Jeff Mauro

text: Mauro rejected criticisms that there wasn't enough to say about sandwiches to fill out a season, noting that any handheld "meal" could be classified as a sandwich. In 2012, Mauro was nominated for a Daytime Emmy award for his show "Sandwich King" on the Food Network Channel. The award eventually went to Bobby Flay for his show "Bobby Flay's Barbecue Addiction".


title: Jeff Mauro

text: In January 2014, Mauro became a co-host on the Food Network series "The Kitchen" along with Sunny Anderson, Katie Lee, Marcela Valladolid and Geoffrey Zakarian.


title: Jeff Mauro

text: Mauro graduated from Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois, in 2000, where he studied radio and television. Jeff Mauro is also a Sigma Chi.


title: Jeff Mauro

text: In January, 2021 he began hosting Kitchen Crash on Food Network, an update of Gordon Elliott's Door Knock Dinners. Season two starts July 12, 2022.


title: Jeff Mauro

text: In 2022, Mauro co-hosted Season 24 of Worst Cooks in America, coaching a team of 1990’s celebrities against a team led by fellow co-host Anne Burrell, who won the contest with her "recruit" Tracey Gold.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: The Martin JRM Mars is a large, four-engined cargo transport flying boat designed and built by the Martin Company for the United States Navy during World War II. It was the largest Allied flying boat to enter production, although only seven were built. The United States Navy contracted the development of the XPB2M-1 Mars in 1938 as a long-range ocean patrol flying boat, which later entered production as the JRM Mars long-range transport.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: Four of the surviving aircraft were later converted for civilian use to firefighting water bombers. Two of the aircraft still remain based at Sproat Lake just outside of Port Alberni, British Columbia, although neither is operational.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: The Glenn L. Martin Company scaled up their PBM Mariner patrol bomber design to produce the prototype XPB2M-1 Mars. The XPB2M-1 was announced on 8 November 1941. Delayed by an engine fire during ground runs, the aircraft first flew on 23 June 1942. After flight tests with the XPB2M between 1942 and 1943, she was passed on to the Navy. The original patrol bomber concept was considered obsolete by this time, and the Mars was converted into a transport aircraft designated the XPB2M-1R. The Navy was satisfied with the performance and ordered 20 of the modified JRM-1 Mars. The first, named "Hawaii Mars", was delivered in June 1945, but with the end of World War II the Navy scaled back their order, buying only the five aircraft which were then on the production line. Though the original Hawaii Mars was lost in an accident on the Chesapeake Bay a few weeks after it first flew, the other five Mars were completed, and the last delivered in 1947.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: Named the "Marianas Mars", "Philippine Mars", "Marshall Mars", "Caroline Mars", and a second "Hawaii Mars", the five production Mars aircraft entered service ferrying cargo to Hawaii and the Pacific Islands on 23 January 1944. The last production airplane (the "Caroline Mars") was designated JRM-2, powered by Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engines, and featured a higher maximum weight and other improvements. On 4 March 1949, the "Caroline Mars" set a new world passenger load record by carrying 269 people from San Diego to San Francisco, CA. On 5 April 1950, the "Marshall Mars" was lost near Hawaii when an engine fire consumed the airplane after her crew had evacuated. The remaining "Big Four" flew record amounts of Naval cargo on the San Francisco-Honolulu route efficiently until 1956, when they were beached at NAS Alameda.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: In 1959, the remaining Mars aircraft were to be sold for scrap, but a Canadian company, Forest Industries Flying Tankers (FIFT), was formed and bid for the four aircraft and a large spares inventory. The company represented a consortium of British Columbia forest companies, and the bid was accepted and the sale completed in December 1959. The four aircraft were flown to Fairey Aviation at Victoria, British Columbia, for conversion into water bombers. The conversion involved the installation of a plywood tank in the cargo bay with retractable pick-up scoops to allow uploading of water while the aircraft was taxiing. The scoops allowed 30 tons of water to be taken on board in 22 seconds. Later some of the hull fuel tanks were replaced with water tanks.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: The "Marianas Mars" crashed near Northwest Bay, British Columbia, on 23 June 1961 during firefighting operations; all four crew members were lost. Just over a year later, on 12 October 1962 while parked onshore at the Victoria airport, the "Caroline Mars" was damaged beyond repair by Typhoon Freda when she was blown 200 yards, breaking her back. The "Hawaii Mars" and "Philippine Mars" had their conversion into water bombers advanced and entered service in 1963. They appeared at local airshows, demonstrating their water-dropping ability. Flying Tankers Inc. flew the water bombers to hot spots around the province when a need developed, such as in August 2003, when a large forest fire threatened the outskirts of Kelowna, British Columbia.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: On 10 November 2006, TimberWest Forest Ltd. announced they were looking for buyers of the Mars. A condition of sale was that the purchaser would have to donate one plane back to Port Alberni when they were retired, as a historic attraction. The Glenn L Martin Maryland Aviation Museum and British Columbia Aviation Council initiated a joint effort to preserve the aircraft, one for display in Maryland and the other at the current location in Canada. On 13 April 2007, TimberWest announced the sale of both aircraft to Coulson Forest Products, a local forestry company in Port Alberni, British Columbia. The two surviving tankers are presently operated by Coulson Flying Tankers and are based and maintained at Sproat Lake near Port Alberni. On 25 October 2007, the "Hawaii Mars" ("Redtail") arrived at Lake Elsinore in southern California, on a private contract, to assist with firefighting efforts at the California wildfires of October 2007. Meanwhile, the "Philippine Mars" had been undergoing "extensive maintenance and renovation" and was expected to be ready to fly again by 2010. , the "Hawaii Mars" was in service fighting the La Brea fire east of Santa Maria in Southern California.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: The aircraft can carry 7,200 U.S. gallons (27,276 litres) of water and each deployment can cover an area of up to 4 acres (1.6 hectares). The aircraft can also carry up to 600 U.S. gallons (2,270 litres) of foam concentrate for gelling the load drop. They are mainly used to fight fires along the coast of British Columbia and sometimes in the interior. As of July 29, 2010, the Martin Mars was being used to fight the Mason Lake/Bonaparte Lake fire north of Kamloops.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: On 23 August 2012, the Coulson Group announced that the "Philippine Mars", due to its lack of use for five years, would be retired and flown to the National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida to become a static exhibit. The aircraft was repainted to its original U.S. Navy colors and was to have been delivered to the museum in November 2012. After many delays, the trade deal of transferring the aircraft to the museum was put on hold by the Navy in June 2016, pending the outcome of the 2016 US Presidential election.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: On 10 May 2013, the B.C. provincial government announced that the "Hawaii Mars" would no longer be placed on contract after the 2013 season, due to not having been used to fight any B.C. fires for two years and the operation of newer and more versatile aircraft by the Coulson group including a Lockheed C-130 Hercules converted to firefighting use. Although Coulson has stated that the "Hawaii Mars" has been under numerous recent upgrades to make it safer and more reliable, no buyers have come forward to purchase the aircraft. Coulson also cautioned against any plans to open the aircraft as a tourist attraction, citing the 2013 closure of the Flying Tankers Bomber Base Museum from poor attendance.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: In May 2015, the "Hawaii Mars" received a small contract to be used briefly for training Chinese pilots. This was done using the Martin Mars to evaluate against civil certification regulations by the International Test Pilots School on how to handle such a large amphibious aircraft. The pilots would be involved with the Chinese state-owned Aviation Industry Corporation of China as they get ready to launch their forthcoming AVIC TA-600 airplane. Subsequently, in July 2015, the airplane was put back in service after public outcry, being awarded a 30-day contract from the BC Government to help with a particularly bad fire season.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: In 2016, the "Hawaii Mars" made its first appearance at EAA AirVenture Oshkosh in hopes of being sold or leased to a new home or business. One of the pilots on the way to Oshkosh was well-known Kermit Weeks.


title: Martin JRM Mars

text: In January 2022, the "Hawaii Mars" was the subject of multiple news articles when it was placed on sale by the company Platinum Fighter Sales for over $5 million.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth's atmosphere. Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere. Atmospheric methane is rising.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The 20-year global warming potential of methane is 84. That is, over a 20-year period, it traps 84 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide (CO) and 105 times the effect when accounting for aerosol interactions. Global methane concentrations rose from 722 parts per billion (ppb) in pre-industrial times to 1895 ppb by 2021, an increase by a factor of 2.6 and the highest value in at least 800,000 years. Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources (both natural and human) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass. The concentrations vary seasonally, with, for example, a minimum in the northern tropics during April−May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical. It remains in the atmosphere for 12 years.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Early in the Earth's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect. The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes. During this time, Earth's earliest life appeared. These first, ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water. Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth's history. With no oxygen, methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The known sources of methane are predominantly located near the Earth's surface. In combination with vertical atmospheric motions and methane's relatively long lifetime, methane is considered to be a well-mixed gas. In other words, the concentration of methane is taken to be constant with respect to height within the troposphere. The dominant sink of methane in the troposphere is reaction with hydroxyl radicals that are formed by reaction of singlet oxygen atoms with water vapor. Methane is also present in the stratosphere, where methane's concentration decreases with height.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Methane in the Earth's atmosphere is a strong greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) 84 times greater than CO in a 20-year time frame; methane is not as persistent a gas as CO (assuming no change in carbon sequestration rates) and tails off to about GWP of 28 for a 100-year time frame. This means that a methane emission is projected to have 28 times the impact on temperature of a carbon dioxide emission of the same mass over the following 100 years assuming no change in the rates of carbon sequestration. Methane has a large effect but for a relatively brief period, having an estimated mean lifetime of 9.1 years in the atmosphere, whereas carbon dioxide is currently given an estimated mean lifetime of over 100 years.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The globally averaged concentration of methane in Earth's atmosphere increased by about 150% from 722 ± 25 ppb in 1750 to 1803.1 ± 0.6 ppb in 2011. As of 2016, methane contributed radiative forcing of 0.62 ± 14% Wm, or about 20% of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases. According to NOAA, the atmospheric methane concentration has continued to increase since 2011 to an average global concentration of 1895.3 ± 0.6 ppb as of 2021. The May 2021 peak was 1891.6 ppb, while the April 2022 peak was 1909.6 ppb, a 0.9% increase.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The balance between sources and sinks of methane is not yet fully understood. The IPCC Working Group I stated in chapter 2 of the Fourth Assessment Report that there are "large uncertainties in the current bottom-up estimates of components of the global source", and the balance between sources and sinks is not yet well known. The most important sink in the methane cycle is reaction with the hydroxyl radical, which is produced photochemically in the atmosphere. Production of this radical is not fully understood and has a large effect on atmospheric concentrations. This uncertainty is exemplified by observations that have shown between the year 2000 and 2006 increases in atmospheric concentration of methane ceased, for reasons still being investigated.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Any process that results in the production of methane and its release into the atmosphere can be considered a "source". Two main processes that are responsible for methane production include microorganisms anaerobically converting organic compounds into methane (methanogenesis), which are widespread in aquatic ecosystems, and ruminant animals. Other natural sources include melting permafrost, wetlands, plants, and methane clathrates.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Most ecological emissions of methane relate directly to methanogens generating methane in warm, moist soils as well as in the digestive tracts of certain animals.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Methanogens are methane producing microorganisms. In order to produce energy, they use an anaerobic process called methanogenesis. This process is used in lieu of aerobic, or with oxygen, processes because methanogens are unable to metabolise in the presence of even small concentrations of oxygen. When acetate is broken down in methanogenesis, the result is the release of methane into the surrounding environment.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: "Methanogenesis", the scientific term for methane production, occurs primarily in anaerobic conditions because of the lack of availability of other oxidants. In these conditions, microscopic organisms called archaea use acetate and hydrogen to break down essential resources in a process called fermentation.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: "Acetoclastic methanogenesis" – certain archaea cleave acetate produced during anaerobic fermentation to yield methane and carbon dioxide.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: "Hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis" – archaea oxidize hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: While acetoclastic methanogenesis and hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis are the two major source reactions for atmospheric methane, other minor biological methane source reactions also occur. For example, it has been discovered that leaf surface wax exposed to UV radiation in the presence of oxygen is an aerobic source of methane.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Ruminant animals, particularly cows and sheep, contain bacteria in their gastrointestinal systems that help to break down plant material. Some of these microorganisms use the acetate from the plant material to produce methane, and because these bacteria live in the stomachs and intestines of ruminants, whenever the animal "burps" or defecates, it emits methane as well. Based upon a study in the Snowy Mountains region, the amount of methane emitted by one cow is equivalent to the amount of methane that around 3.4 hectares of methanotrophic bacteria can consume.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Termites also contain methanogenic microorganisms in their gut. However, some of these microorganisms are so unique that they live nowhere else in the world except in the third gut of termites. These microorganisms also break down biotic components to produce ethanol, as well as methane byproduct. However, unlike ruminants who lose 20 percent of the energy from the plants they eat, termites only lose 2 percent of their energy in the process. Thus comparatively, termites do not have to eat as much food as ruminants to obtain the same amount of energy, and give off proportionally less methane.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Living plants (e.g. forests) have recently been identified as a potentially important source of methane, possibly being responsible for approximately 10 to 30 percent of atmospheric methane. A 2006 paper calculated emissions of 62–236 Tg a, and "this newly identified source may have important implications". However the authors stress "our findings are preliminary with regard to the methane emission strength".


title: Atmospheric methane

text: These findings have been called into question in a 2007 paper which found "there is no evidence for substantial aerobic methane emission by terrestrial plants, maximally 0.3% of the previously published values".


title: Atmospheric methane

text: While the details of plant methane emissions have yet to be confirmed, plants as a significant methane source would help fill in the gaps of previous global methane budgets as well as explain large plumes of methane that have been observed over the tropics.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: In wetlands, where the rate of methane production is high, plants help methane travel into the atmosphere—acting like inverted lightning rods as they direct the gas up through the soil and into the air. They are also suspected to produce methane themselves, but because the plants would have to use aerobic conditions to produce methane, the process itself is still unidentified.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: At high pressures, such as are found on the bottom of the ocean, methane forms a solid clathrate with water, known as methane hydrate. An unknown, but possibly very large quantity of methane is trapped in this form in ocean sediments. The release of large volumes of methane gas from such sediments into the atmosphere has been suggested as a possible cause for rapid global warming events in the Earth's distant past, such as the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum of 55 million years ago, and the Great Dying.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Theories suggest that should global warming cause them to heat up sufficiently, all of this methane gas could again be released into the atmosphere. Since methane gas is twenty-five times stronger (for a given weight, averaged over 100 years) than as a greenhouse gas; this would immensely magnify the greenhouse effect. However, most of this reservoir of hydrates appears isolated from changes to the surface climate, so any such release is likely to happen over geological timescales of a millennium or more.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Natural and anthropogenic methane emissions from aquatic ecosystems are estimated to contribute about half of total global emissions. Urbanization and eutrophication are expected to lead to increased methane emissions from aquatic ecosystems.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Permafrost contains almost twice as much carbon as the atmosphere, with ~20 Gt of permafrost-associated methane trapped in methane clathrates. Permafrost thaw results in the formation of thermokarst lakes in ice-rich yedoma deposits. Methane frozen in permafrost is slowly released as permafrost melts. Radiocarbon dating of trace methane in lake bubbles and soil organic carbon concluded that 0.2 to 2.5 Pg of permafrost carbon has been released as methane and carbon dioxide over the last 60 years. The 2020 heat wave may have released significant methane from carbonate deposits in Siberian permafrost.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Methane emissions by the 'permafrost carbon feedback' -- amplification of surface warming due to enhanced radiative forcing by carbon release from permafrost—could contribute an estimated 205 Gt of carbon emissions, leading up to 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) of additional warming by the end of the 21st century. However, recent research based on the carbon isotopic composition of atmospheric methane trapped in bubbles in Antarctic ice suggests that methane emissions from permafrost and methane hydrates were minor during the last deglaciation, suggesting that future permafrost methane emissions may be lower than previously estimated.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Slightly over half of the total emission is due to human activity. Since the Industrial Revolution humans have had a major impact on concentrations of atmospheric methane, increasing atmospheric concentrations roughly 250%. According to the 2021 IPCC report, 30 - 50 percent of the current rise in temperatures is caused by emissions of methane, and reducing methane is a fast way of climate change mitigation. An alliance of 107 countries, including Brazil, the EU and the US, have joined the pact known as the Global Methane Pledge, committing to a collective goal of reducing global methane emissions by at least 30 percent from 2020 levels by 2030.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Conversion of forests and natural environments into agricultural plots increases the amount of nitrogen in the soil, which inhibits methane oxidation, weakening the ability of the methanotrophic bacteria in the soil to act as sinks. Additionally, by changing the level of the water table, humans can directly affect the soil's ability to act as a source or sink. The relationship between water table levels and methane emission is explained in the wetlands section of natural sources.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: A 2006 UN FAO report reported that livestock generate more greenhouse gases as measured in CO equivalents than the entire transportation sector. Livestock accounts for 9 percent of anthropogenic CO, 65 percent of anthropogenic nitrous oxide and 37 percent of anthropogenic methane. A senior UN official and co-author of the report, Henning Steinfeld, said "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems."


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Recent NASA research has confirmed the vital role of enteric fermentation in livestock on global warming. "We understand that other greenhouse gases apart from carbon dioxide are important for climate change today," said Gavin Schmidt, the lead author of the study and a researcher at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City and Columbia University's Center for Climate Systems Research. Other recent peer reviewed NASA research published in the journal "Science" has also indicated that the contribution of methane to global warming has been underestimated.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Nicholas Stern, the author of the 2006 Stern Review on climate change has stated "people will need to turn vegetarian if the world is to conquer climate change". President of the National Academy of Sciences Ralph Cicerone (an atmospheric scientist), has indicated the contribution of methane by livestock flatulence and eructation to global warming is a "serious topic". Cicerone states "Methane is the second-most-important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere now. The population of beef cattle and dairy cattle has grown so much that methane from cows now is big. This is not a trivial issue."


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Approximately 5% of the methane is released via the flatus, whereas the other 95% is released via eructation. Vaccines are under development to reduce the amount introduced through eructation. Asparagopsis seaweed as a livestock feed additive has reduced methane emissions by more than 80%.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Due to a continuously growing world population, rice agriculture has become one of the most significant anthropogenic sources of methane. With warm weather and water-logged soil, rice paddies act like wetlands, but are generated by humans for the purpose of food production. Due to the swamp-like environment of rice fields, these paddies yield 50–100 million metric tons of methane emission each year. This means that rice agriculture is responsible for approximately 15 to 20 percent of anthropogenic methane emissions. An article written by William F. Ruddiman explores the possibility that methane emissions began to rise as a result of anthropogenic activity 5000 years ago when ancient cultures started to settle and use agriculture, rice irrigation in particular, as a primary food source.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Due to the large collections of organic matter and availability of anaerobic conditions, landfills are the third largest source of atmospheric methane in the United States, accounting for roughly 18.2% of methane emissions globally in 2014. When waste is first added to a landfill, oxygen is abundant and thus undergoes aerobic decomposition; during which time very little methane is produced. However, generally within a year oxygen levels are depleted and anaerobic conditions dominate the landfill allowing methanogens to takeover the decomposition process. These methanogens emit methane into the atmosphere and even after the landfill is closed, the mass amount of decaying matter allows the methanogens to continue producing methane for years.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Waste water treatment facilities act to remove organic matter, solids, pathogens, and chemical hazards as a result of human contamination. Methane emission in waste treatment facilities occurs as a result of anaerobic treatments of organic compounds and anaerobic biodegradation of sludge.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Incomplete burning of both living and dead organic matter results in the emission of methane. While natural wildfires can contribute to methane emissions, the bulk majority of biomass burning occurs as a result of humans – including everything from accidental burnings by civilians to deliberate burnings used to clear out land to biomass burnings occurring as a result of destroying waste.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Methane is a primary component of natural gas, and thus during the production, processing, storage, transmission, and distribution of natural gas, a significant amount of methane is lost into the atmosphere.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: According to the EPA "Inventory of U.S Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2015" report, 2015 methane emissions from natural gas and petroleum systems totaled 8.1 Tg per year in the United States. Individually, the EPA estimates that the natural gas system emitted 6.5 Tg per year of methane while petroleum systems emitted 1.6 Tg per year of methane. Methane emissions occur in all sectors of the natural gas industry, from drilling and production, through gathering and processing and transmission, to distribution. These emissions occur through normal operation, routine maintenance, fugitive leaks, system upsets, and venting of equipment. In the oil industry, some underground crude contains natural gas that is entrained in the oil at high reservoir pressures. When oil is removed from the reservoir, associated gas is produced.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: However, a review of methane emissions studies reveals that the EPA "Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2015" report likely significantly underestimated 2015 methane emissions from the oil and natural gas supply chain. The review concluded that in 2015 the oil and natural gas supply chain emitted 13 Tg per year of methane, which is about 60% more than the EPA report for the same time period. The authors write that the most likely cause for the discrepancy is an under sampling by the EPA of so-called "abnormal operating conditions", during which large quantities of methane can be emitted.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The use of natural gas and biogas in ICE (Internal combustion engine) for such applications as electricity production / cogeneration / CHP (Combined Heat and Power) and heavy vehicles or marine vessels such as LNG carriers using the boil off gas for propulsion, emits a certain percentage of UHC, unburned hydrocarbon of which 85% is methane. The climate issues of using gas to fuel ICE may offset or even cancel out the advantages of less CO and particle emissions is described in this 2016 EU Issue Paper on methane slip from marine engines: "Emissions of unburnt methane (known as the 'methane slip') were around 7 g per kg LNG at higher engine loads, rising to 23–36 g at lower loads. This increase could be due to slow combustion at lower temperatures, which allows small quantities of gas to avoid the combustion process". Road vehicles run more on low load than marine engines causing relatively higher methane slip.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: In 2014 NASA researchers reported the discovery of a methane cloud floating over the Four Corners region of the south-west United States. The discovery was based on data from the European Space Agency's Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography instrument from 2002 to 2012.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The report concluded that "the source is likely from established gas, coal, and coalbed methane mining and processing." The region emitted 590,000 metric tons of methane every year between 2002 and 2012—almost 3.5 times the widely used estimates in the European Union's Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research. In 2019, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that the methane emissions leaking from the world's coalmines are warming the global climate at the same rate as the shipping and aviation industries combined.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Any process that consumes methane from the atmosphere can be considered a "sink" of atmospheric methane. The most prominent of these processes occur as a result of methane either being destroyed in the atmosphere or broken down in soil. Humans have yet to act as any significant sink of atmospheric methane.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: "Reaction with the hydroxyl radical" – The major removal mechanism of methane from the atmosphere involves radical chemistry; it reacts with the hydroxyl radical (·OH), initially formed from water vapor broken down by oxygen atoms that come from the cleavage of ozone by ultraviolet radiation. The reaction of methane with hydroxyl in the troposphere or stratosphere creates the methyl radical ·CH and water vapor. In addition to being the largest known sink for atmospheric methane, this reaction is one of the most important sources of water vapor in the upper atmosphere. Following the reaction of methane with the hydroxyl radical, two dominant pathways of methane oxidation exist: [A] which leads to a net production of ozone, and [B] which causes no net ozone change. For methane oxidation to take the pathway that leads to net ozone production, nitric oxide (NO) must be available to react with CHO·. (Nitric oxide can be formed from nitrogen dioxide by the action of sunlight.) Otherwise, CHO· reacts with the hydroperoxyl radical (HO·), and the oxidation takes the pathway with no net ozone change. Both oxidation pathways lead to a net production of formaldehyde and water vapor.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: M represents a random molecule that facilitates energy transfer during the reaction. Note that for the second reaction, there will be a net loss of radicals in the case where CHOH is lost to wet deposition before it can undergo photolysis such that: CHOH + HO → wet deposition. This reaction in the troposphere gives a methane mean lifetime of 9.6 years. Two more minor sinks are soil sinks (160-year mean lifetime) and stratospheric loss by reaction with ·OH, ·Cl and ·OD in the stratosphere (120-year mean lifetime), giving a net mean lifetime of 8.4 years. Oxidation of methane is the main source of water vapor in the upper stratosphere (beginning at pressure levels around 10 kPa).


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The methyl radical formed in the first step can, during normal daytime conditions in the troposphere, react with another hydroxyl radical to form formaldehyde. Though the mechanism is different, the result is the same as in the oxidative pyrolysis which is the first step in the combustion of methane:


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Formaldehyde can react again with a hydroxyl radical to form carbon dioxide and more water vapor. Sidechains in these reactions may interact with nitrogen compounds that will likely produce ozone, thus supplanting radicals required in the initial reaction.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Most natural sinks occur as a result of chemical reactions in the atmosphere as well as oxidation by methane consuming bacteria in Earth's soils.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Soils act as a major sink for atmospheric methane through the methanotrophic bacteria that reside within them. This occurs with two different types of bacteria. "High capacity-low affinity" methanotrophic bacteria grow in areas of high methane concentration, such as waterlogged soils in wetlands and other moist environments. And in areas of low methane concentration, "low capacity-high affinity" methanotrophic bacteria make use of the methane in the atmosphere to grow, rather than relying on methane in their immediate environment.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Forest soils act as good sinks for atmospheric methane because soils are optimally moist for methanotroph activity, and the movement of gases between soil and atmosphere (soil diffusivity) is high. With a lower water table, any methane in the soil has to make it past the methanotrophic bacteria before it can reach the atmosphere.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Wetland soils, however, are often sources of atmospheric methane rather than sinks because the water table is much higher, and the methane can be diffused fairly easily into the air without having to compete with the soil's methanotrophs.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: "Methanotrophic bacteria in soils" – Methanotrophic bacteria that reside within soil use methane as a source of carbon in methane oxidation. Methane oxidation allows methanotrophic bacteria to use methane as a source of energy, reacting methane with oxygen and as a result producing carbon dioxide and water.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The most effective sink of atmospheric methane is the hydroxyl radical in the troposphere, or the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. As methane rises into the air, it reacts with the hydroxyl radical to create water vapor and carbon dioxide. The mean lifespan of methane in the atmosphere was estimated at 9.6 years as of 2001; however, increasing emissions of methane over time reduce the concentration of the hydroxyl radical in the atmosphere. With less OH˚ to react with, the lifespan of methane could also increase, resulting in greater concentrations of atmospheric methane.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: If it is not destroyed in the troposphere, methane will last approximately 120 years before it is eventually destroyed in Earth's next atmospheric layer: the stratosphere. Destruction in the stratosphere occurs the same way that it does in the troposphere: methane is oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. Based on balloon-borne measurements since 1978, the abundance of stratospheric methane has increased by between 1978 and 2003.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The reaction of methane and chlorine atoms acts as a primary sink of Cl atoms and is a primary source of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stratosphere.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Removal of methane in the lower troposphere may be achieved by chlorine radicals produced by iron salt aerosols, which could be artificially increased without risk to stratospheric ozone.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Long term atmospheric measurements of methane by NOAA show that the build up of methane leveled off during the decade prior to 2006, after nearly tripling since pre-industrial times. Although scientists have yet to determine what caused this reduction in the rate of accumulation of atmospheric methane, it appears it could be due to reduced industrial emissions and drought in wetland areas.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Exceptions to this drop in growth rate occurred in 1991 and 1998 when growth rates increased suddenly to 14–15 nmol/mol per year for those years, nearly double the growth rates of the years before.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The 1991 spike is understood to be due to the volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June of that year. Volcanoes affect atmospheric methane emissions when they erupt, releasing ash and sulfur dioxide into the air. As a result, photochemistry of plants is affected and the removal of methane via the tropospheric hydroxyl radical is reduced. However, growth rates quickly fell due to lower temperatures and global reduction in rainfall.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The cause of the 1998 spike is unresolved, but scientists are currently attributing it to a combination of increased wetland and rice field emissions as well as an increased amount of biomass burning. 1998 was also the warmest year since surface temperatures were first recorded, suggesting that anomalously high temperatures can induce elevated methane emission.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Data from 2007 suggested methane concentrations were beginning to rise again. This was confirmed in 2010 when a study showed methane levels were on the rise for the 3 years 2007 to 2009. After a decade of near-zero growth in methane levels, "globally averaged atmospheric methane increased by [approximately] 7 nmol/mol per year during 2007 and 2008. During the first half of 2009, globally averaged atmospheric CH was [approximately] 7 nmol/mol greater than it was in 2008, suggesting that the increase will continue in 2009." From 2015 to 2019 sharp rises in levels of atmospheric methane have been recorded.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Methane emissions levels vary greatly depending on the local geography. For both natural and anthropogenic sources, higher temperatures and higher water levels result in the anaerobic environment that is necessary for methane production.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Emissions of methane into the atmosphere are directly related to temperature and moisture. Thus, the natural environmental changes that occur during seasonal change act as a major control of methane emission. Additionally, even changes in temperature during the day can affect the amount of methane that is produced and consumed.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: For example, plants that produce methane can emit as much as two to four times more methane during the day than during the night. This is directly related to the fact that plants tend to rely on solar energy to enact chemical processes.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Additionally, methane emissions are affected by the level of water sources. Seasonal flooding during the spring and summer naturally increases the amount of methane released into the air.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The most clearly identified rise in atmospheric methane as a result of human activity occurred in the 1700s during the industrial revolution. As technology increased at a considerable rate, humans began to build factories and plants, burn fossil fuels for energy, and clear out forests and other vegetation for the purpose of building and agriculture. This growth continued to rise at a rate of almost 1 percent per year until around 1990 when growth rates dropped to almost zero.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: A 2003 article from William F. Ruddiman, however, indicates that the anthropogenic change in methane may have started 5000 years prior to the industrial revolution. The methane insolation cycles of the ice core remained stable and predictable until 5000 years ago, most likely due to some anthropogenic effect. Ruddiman suggests that the transition of humans from hunter gatherers into agricultural farming was the first instance of humans affecting methane concentration in the atmosphere. Ruddiman's hypothesis is supported by the fact that early rice irrigation occurred approximately 5000 years ago—the same time the ice core cycles lost their predictability. Due to the inefficiency of humans first learning how to grow rice, extensive rice paddies would have been needed to feed even a small population. These, over-flooded and filled with weeds, would have resulted in huge methane emitting wetlands.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: One source of methane emissions has been identified as pipelines that transport natural gas; one example is pipelines from Russia to customers in Europe. Near Yamburg and Urengoy exist gas fields with a methane concentration of 97 percent. The gas obtained from these fields is taken and exported to Western and Central Europe through an extensive pipeline system known as the Trans-Siberian natural gas pipeline system. In accordance with the IPCC and other natural gas emissions control groups, measurements had to be taken throughout the pipeline to measure methane emissions from technological discharges and leaks at the pipeline fittings and vents. Although the majority of the natural gas leaks were carbon dioxide, a significant amount of methane was also being consistently released from the pipeline as a result of leaks and breakdowns. In 2001, natural gas emissions from the pipeline and natural gas transportation system accounted for 1 percent of the natural gas produced. Fortunately, between 2001 and 2005, this number reduced to 0.7 percent, and even the 2001 value is still significantly less than that of 1996.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: However, pipeline transportation is only one part of the problem. Howarth "et al." have argued that: We believe the preponderance of evidence indicates shale gas has a larger GHG [green house gas] footprint than conventional gas, considered over any time scale. The GHG footprint of shale gas also exceeds that of oil or coal when considered at decadal time scales, [...] For subsequent works confirming these results see Howarth's "A bridge to nowhere: methane emissions and the greenhouse gas footprint of natural gas", "Methane emissions and climatic warming risk from hydraulic fracturing and shale gas development: implications for policy".


title: Atmospheric methane

text: A 2013 study by Miller "et al." indicates that current greenhouse gas reduction policies in the US are based on what appear to be significant underestimates of anthropogenic methane emissions. The authors state: We find greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and fossil fuel extraction and processing ("i.e.," oil and/or natural gas) are likely a factor of two or greater than cited in existing studies.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Global warming due to fossil fuel emissions has caused Arctic methane release, i.e. the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic. Although in the long term, this is a natural process, methane release is being exacerbated and accelerated by global warming. This results in negative effects, as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane. Global warming accelerates its release, due to both release of methane from existing stores, and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass. Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits, permafrost, and as undersea clathrates. Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming, thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming. Other sources of methane include submarine taliks, river transport, ice complex retreat, submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Methane is a strong GHG with a global warming potential 84 times greater than CO in a 20-year time frame. Methane is not as persistent a gas and tails off to about 28 times greater than CO for a 100-year time frame.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: In addition to the direct heating effect and the normal feedbacks, the methane breaks down to carbon dioxide and water. This water is often above the tropopause where little water usually reaches. Ramanathan (1988) notes that both water and ice clouds, when formed at cold lower stratospheric temperatures, are extremely efficient in enhancing the atmospheric greenhouse effect. He also notes that there is a distinct possibility that large increases in future methane may lead to a surface warming that increases nonlinearly with the methane concentration.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: Methane also affects the degradation of the ozone layer, when methane is transformed into water in the stratosphere. This process is enhanced by global warming, because warmer air holds more water vapor than colder air, so the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increases as it is warmed by the greenhouse effect. Climate models also indicate that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane may enhance the transport of water into the stratosphere; though this is not fully understood.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: In an effort to mitigate climate change, humans have started to develop alternative methods and medicines.


title: Atmospheric methane

text: For example, in order to counteract the amount of methane that ruminants give off, a type of drug called monensin (marketed as rumensin) has been developed. This drug is classified as an ionophore, which is an antibiotic that is naturally produced by a harmless bacteria strain. This drug not only improves feed efficiency but also reduces the amount of methane gas emitted from the animal and its manure.