title: Edward England

text: By 1720, England had reached the Indian Ocean, where he met with fellow pirate Captain Oliver la Buse. England captured a thirty-four gun Dutch ship, which he named "Fancy" in honour of English pirate Henry Every, and he made the "Fancy" his new flagship. England decided to attack an East Indiaman under the command of James Macrae, the "Cassandra", near the island of Comoros. A long and bloody battle ensued, and both ships ran aground. Macrae and his surviving crew escaped and hid on the island for ten days. Finally Macrae, who was injured, tired, and hungry, went aboard England's consort the "Victory", hoping for mercy, and surrendered to the pirates. The cargo of the "Cassandra" was valued at £75,000. Ninety of the "Fancy's" crew died in the attack on the "Cassandra". England had a good nature and unusual kindness, in that he did not believe in torturing captives unless they could not otherwise be persuaded. England ordered Macrae's life spared, and the pirates kept the "Cassandra" and gave the heavily damaged "Fancy" to Macrae. England's quartermaster, John Taylor, who was now captain of the "Victory", resented this choice, and only agreed after England got him drunk.


title: Edward England

text: England then captured a small English ship near Cochin, the drunk captain reporting a false rumour that Macrae was preparing a fleet to chase the pirates. This enraged the pirates, particularly Taylor, who had wanted to kill Macrae. Around this time, Taylor organised a vote to remove England from command. The new captain a former member of the "Fancy" crew named Jasper Seator marooned England and three others on the coast of Mauritius, before taking "Cassandra" and "Victory" north in the hunt for more prizes. Seator died in 1721, with "Cassandra" eventually passing to Taylor who took her to the Caribbean.


title: Edward England

text: England and his three companions were put ashore without adequate provisions, and were forced to scavenge. After about four months, the men built a small boat and managed to sail to the pirate haven of St. Augustine's Bay in Madagascar.


title: Edward England

text: After arriving at St. Augustine's Bay, England survived for a while on the charity of other pirates, possibly some of Henry Every's old crew. He died in late 1720 or early 1721, possibly from a tropical disease.


title: Edward England

text: England's son John eventually did as his father had wished and named his son John as well. This tradition continued among England's descendants.


title: Edward England

text: Edward England is known today as one of the more humane pirate captains of the Golden Age of Piracy. According to Captain Charles Johnson,


title: Edward England

text: He had a great deal of good Nature, and did not want for Courage ; he was not avaritious, and always averse to the ill Usage of Prisoners received : He would have been contented with moderate Plunder, and less mischievous Pranks, could his Companions have been brought to the same Temper, but he was generally over-rul'd, and as he was engaged in that abominable Society, he was obliged to be a Partner in all their vile Actions.


title: Brothers (2004 film)

text: Brothers () is a 2004 Danish psychological thriller war film directed by Susanne Bier and written by Bier and Anders Thomas Jensen. It stars Nikolaj Lie Kaas, Connie Nielsen and Ulrich Thomsen.


title: Brothers (2004 film)

text: A Danish army officer, Michael (Thomsen), is sent to the International Security Assistance Force operation in Afghanistan for three months. His first mission there is to find a young radar technician who had been separated from his squad some days earlier. While on the search, his helicopter is shot down and he is taken as a prisoner of war, but is assumed to have been killed in action and is reported dead to his family. His wife Sarah (Nielsen) and younger brother Jannik (Kaas) both deeply mourn him, and that brings them closer together. They kiss once, but pass it off as grief and do not pursue the relationship.


title: Brothers (2004 film)

text: Meanwhile, both the officer and a young technician are locked up in a warehouse, kept without food or water. After Michael shows them how to arm and disarm an anti-aircraft missile, his captors decide the technician is no longer useful and have Michael bludgeon him to death with a lead pipe in order to save his own life. Eventually he is rescued and brought back to Denmark. The guilt of what he did forces him to lie and provide false hope that the technician may still be alive.


title: Brothers (2004 film)

text: Michael becomes unstable, spiraling down into a pit of guilt and rage, and begins to threaten and abuse his wife and tear the house apart. It finally becomes necessary for the police to intervene. Michael overreacts, pointing a policeman's pistol at the officers. After Michael is taken into custody, Jannik helps Sarah begin the repairs on the house. Later, Sarah visits Michael in prison, where he breaks down and finally admits the truth about what he did in Afghanistan.


title: Brothers (2004 film)

text: The film was produced by Zentropa in co-production with companies in the United Kingdom, Sweden and Norway. It received support from the Danish Film Institute, Swedish Film Institute and Nordisk Film- & TV-Fond (Nordic Film and TV Foundation). It was primarily shot on location in Copenhagen, Denmark; Almería, Spain, was used for the Afghanistan locales.


title: Brothers (2004 film)

text: An opera entitled "Brothers", based on the story of the film, was composed by Icelandic composer Daníel Bjarnason. It was premiered at the Musikhuset Aarhus in Denmark on 16 August 2017. It was commissioned by Den Jyske Opera. The libretto was written in English by ; the director was Kasper Holten. To celebrate Aarhus as the European Capital of Culture 2017, three stage works – a musical, dance, and an opera all based on films by Susanne Bier – were commissioned and performed in Musikhuset.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Catherine Willows is a fictional character, portrayed by Marg Helgenberger, from the CBS crime drama "" and its sequel, "". Helgenberger made her franchise debut in the episode "Pilot". Helgenberger received several award nominations for her portrayal of Catherine, including two Primetime Emmy Award nominations and two Golden Globe Award nominations.


title: Catherine Willows

text: On March 16, 2000, Raymond A. Edel from "The Record" reported that actress Marg Helgenberger had been cast in the pilot episode of "CSI: Crime Scene Investigation", a drama that centers on Las Vegas crime scene investigators. Helgenberger's character was billed as "a stripper-turned-investigator who is also a single mom".


title: Catherine Willows

text: The character of Catherine is based on real-life forensics officer Yolanda McClary of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police. Helgenberger met with McClary and talked about her job in forensics in preparation for the role. The actress stated that McClary helped her understand why she enjoyed working the job. Starting in 2013, McClary appeared prominently on "Cold Justice", a reality series devoted to reexamination of unsolved cold case murders usually alongside small-town police who have limited investigative resources.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Helgenberger announced her departure in 2011, with Catherine making her last appearance in the episode "", which aired on January 25, 2012. In August 2013, it was announced that Helgenberger would make a guest appearance in the show's 300th episode "". Catherine appeared in a series of newly recorded flashbacks to a case that occurred in the timeframe of the first season.


title: Catherine Willows

text: In the first eleven seasons, Helgenberger appeared in all but six episodes: "Random Acts of Violence" in season three, "Hollywood Brass" and "Committed" in season five, and "House of Hoarders," "All That Cremains," and "Unleashed" in season eleven. She also appeared in the first twelve episodes of season twelve before departing the main cast. She is part of the main cast for the second season of the sequel series, "CSI: Vegas".


title: Catherine Willows

text: Helgenberger appeared as a guest star in the season fourteen episode "Frame by Frame", before returning for the feature length finale "Immortality".


title: Catherine Willows

text: Catherine Willows was raised by her single mother, Lily Flynn, a cocktail waitress and showgirl. Due to the nature of her mother's jobs, Catherine was constantly moved around the West Coast of America as a child, and because of this, she found it difficult to settle in school. Consequently, she failed to excel to her full potential in school, despite her high intelligence and razor-sharp mind. Catherine left school and began work as an exotic dancer in order to support her boyfriend's music career. She became interested in police work when she befriended a regular at the dance club, Detective Tadero, who also encouraged her to return to school. She attended West Las Vegas University, where she graduated with a degree in Medical Science. Catherine joined the CSI team at LVPD as a lab technician, after which she worked her way up to the role of supervisor under the watchful eye of Gil Grissom.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Catherine has one daughter, Lindsey Willows (originally played by Madison McReynolds, then played by Kay Panabaker, and finally played by Katie Stevens in the series finale), who frequently appears in episodes of "CSI". Lindsey's father and Catherine's ex-husband, Eddie Willows (Timothy Carhart), also falls into storylines before being murdered. Catherine also discovers that her absent father was, in fact, her old family friend and big casino boss, Sam Braun (Scott Wilson). After coming to terms with the revelation, she lost Braun when he was gunned down.


title: Catherine Willows

text: In Season 10, Catherine began a relationship with LVPD Detective Vartann (Alex Carter). It was revealed in season 11 that Sam Braun had left her a portion of his casino business in his will. She also had a best friend Laura Gabriel (who, in "Willows in the Wind", is revealed to be the person behind all the killings) whom she met up with in the episode "Zippered".


title: Catherine Willows

text: After Catherine's friend is killed (which is revealed to have been staged by Laura and a former FBI agent in "Willows in the Wind") along with four FBI agents, Russell receives an e-mail apparently from her saying that she wants to resign. She is then shot in her home, although she is able to escape with the help of Russell. In the following episode (in which it is revealed the resignation e-mail was fake), she and Russell make it through the firefight, and she is covertly nursed back to health by Doc Robbins with help from others, including the son of Catherine's former boss at the strip club.


title: Catherine Willows

text: The character's original CBS biography (which has since been removed) stated that she was born in Bozeman, Montana on March 26, 1963 and raised by her mother, Lily Flynn (Anita Gillette), a former show girl ("Weeping Willows", "Kiss-Kiss, Bye-Bye"). This biography was later revised. The new version states that the character was born in Las Vegas and raised by her single mother, who worked as a cocktail waitress and showgirl at various jobs along the West Coast.


title: Catherine Willows

text: The seventh-season episode "Living Legend" established that Willows was 16 years old (portrayed by Amy Scott) in 1975, the year the movie "Jaws" was released, which places her year of birth in either 1958 or 1959. She had occasional contact with her biological father, casino owner Sam Braun, but knew him only as a family friend. Sam Braun nicknamed her "Muggs". She did not learn he had fathered her until she was an adult and compared his DNA sample with her own as part of a murder investigation in the episode "Inside the Box". Willows herself worked for a time as a dancer/stripper and briefly had a cocaine habit, dropping it before pursuing a Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology from UNLV. Like the other characters on "CSI", she has a wide knowledge of odd facts that help in their investigations of crime scenes.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Willows has one daughter, Lindsey Willows, and had a stormy relationship with ex-husband Eddie until his murder ("Lady Heather's Box"). Prosecution of Eddie's killer proved impossible due to ambiguous evidence, something she took rather hard.


title: Catherine Willows

text: The show's writers advanced Lindsey's age several years after the death of Eddie, turning the character from preteen to teenager. Willows's relationship with Lindsey soured somewhat after Eddie's murder, and the girl's behavior took a turn for the worse; she would get in fights at school and was once picked up for hitchhiking. Willows took Lindsey to the morgue and showed her the body of a murder victim to impress upon Lindsey the danger of her behavior. Willows later enrolled Lindsey in Butterfield ("4 x 4"), a private school that would keep a tighter rein on her. Lindsay's birthday was mentioned in "Crate 'N' Burial" on October 20, 2000.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Willows's relationship with Sam Braun occasionally created conflicts in cases where he was involved in some way with an ongoing investigation (i.e., "Inside the Box"). Willows however accepted a large monetary gift from Braun, despite some ethical qualms, and became more financially stable. Grissom expressed some misgivings when he learned of this, but no lasting negative repercussions occur.


title: Catherine Willows

text: In episode 702 ("Built to Kill, Part 2"), Sam Braun is shot and dies moments later in Willows's arms. In episode 705 ("Double-Cross"), she lights a candle in a Roman Catholic church in Braun's memory, crosses herself, and whispers, "This one is for you, Sam." It remains to be seen what Willows will inherit from Braun (she was asked about it by fellow investigator Nick Stokes in episode 711 ("Leaving Las Vegas") but beyond describing Braun's large estate as being tied up in land development, she seemed indifferent and not anticipating a large legacy) as he cared very deeply for her, even when she was his legal opponent. At the beginning of episode 1109 ("Wild Life") it is revealed that she owns "a little piece" of the Eclipse Casino, but details are not given.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Willows dates in several episodes. The earliest occurrence was a brief fling with city engineer Paul Newsome (played by Brad Johnson) across three episodes ("$35K O.B.O.", "Justice Is Served" and "Scuba Doobie-Doo"). A later brief flirtation, in the episode "Weeping Willows" (Season 5), ended when the man (Adam Novak, played by Marg Helgenberger's real-life husband, Alan Rosenberg) became overly aggressive.


title: Catherine Willows

text: In Seasons 4 and 5, she dates nightclub owner Chris Bezich (played by Nicholas Lea) whom she meets while investigating a murder that occurred at his night club. Their relationship ends when she discovers him fooling around with one of the club girls. No long-term romantic relationships have otherwise been established, though there was a brief flirtation with fellow CSI Warrick Brown, ending with his marriage, which she described as the end of a "fantasy". She also has flirted with Grissom in a friendly way, he has returned the flirt, especially when he returns from a conference saying he "missed her tush". Willows maintains a close friendship with the other investigators on the night shift, especially Grissom, though she has occasionally criticized him for his lax attitude towards paperwork and office politics. When newcomer Sara Sidle arrived they briefly butted heads, but have become friends since then.


title: Catherine Willows

text: After Greg Sanders is injured in an explosion in the lab in "Play with Fire", Willows visits him in the hospital so that she can tell him personally that she was partially responsible for the accident. Several years later, she also expresses a deal of concern for Sanders when he returns to work not too long after being the victim of a brutal beating in the episode "Fannysmackin'.


title: Catherine Willows

text: After Grissom goes on sabbatical, Willows welcomes his temporary replacement Michael Keppler, accepting Keppler quite quickly into his new role on the team (episode 712, "Sweet Jane"). Despite some misgivings on her part, she is ordered by the Undersheriff McKeen to follow his suggestions in performing an unorthodox investigative style known as "reverse forensics", which, although successful in luring out the suspect, fails to produce charges because of a lack of communication between the undersheriff and the district attorney. It also serves to create a great deal of hard feelings when the other members of her team discover that she and Keppler deceived them and created a false crime scene (episode 713, "Redrum"). After Keppler goes rogue during an investigation, she is the first to express concern to and about him. Unfortunately, she locates him just moments too late, after he takes a fatal bullet meant for a murder witness. When the paramedics declare Keppler to be dead, Willows collapses in tears into (the recently returned) Grissom's arms (episode 715, "Law of Gravity"). Catherine takes Warrick's death in "For Warrick" rather hard, and is possibly the character to show her pain the most, as she breaks down when she sees his body, whereas the others try to keep calm. She told Nick that after Warrick's death she had attended counselling sessions (episode 1101, "Shockwaves"). After Grissom's retirement, Catherine succeeded him as supervisor of the night shift. As Grissom leaves in "One to Go", she is the only one to look up as he leaves; she winks at him as she realizes where he's headed (to Costa Rica to be with Sara), showing the close friendship they share. As supervisor, Catherine oversees a rogue operation that takes Raymond Langston and Nick Stokes to Los Angeles. Ray later murders a suspect, and Catherine is held personally accountable. She is demoted as a result, and spends her final months at CSI working under D.B. Russell.


title: Catherine Willows

text: During a particularly difficult case involving her old school friend, Catherine is offered a job with the FBI. She accepts, and, before leaving Las Vegas, instills some sage advice upon Morgan Brody, paralleling her first conversation with Holly Gribbs in the pilot episode. Catherine returns to CSI in 2015, after three years working at the Los Angeles FBI Field Office. She is given the position of Director of the Las Vegas Crime Lab.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Catherine is mentioned in "CSI: Vegas" as having taken over one of her dad's casinos as a CEO and that she was in Ireland visiting Lindsay and her grandchild ("Legacy").


title: Catherine Willows

text: Catherine would return to CSI to help out when Grissom and Sara left but also because she had another reason - a friend of hers (Grace) went missing after her shift at the Eclipse. She would reveal to Maxine that the company shut her out and that she suspects they know what happened to Grace.


title: Catherine Willows

text: It would be revealed that Lindsey left CSI since she was doing it to “fulfill her mom’s dream” and that she has a daughter. There would be some tension since Catherine wasn’t happy with Lindsey’s job (“Koala”).


title: Catherine Willows

text: For her portrayal of Catherine, Helgenberger received two Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actress in a Television Series Drama in 2001 and 2002. At the 6th Golden Satellite Awards, Helgenberger was nominated for Best Actress in a Drama Series. She also earned two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. In 2005, Helgenberger won Favorite Female TV Performer at the 31st People's Choice Awards.


title: Catherine Willows

text: Catherine was listed at number 82 on Bravo's 100 Greatest TV Characters, along with Gil Grissom. She was also included in "TV Guide"s list of "TV's Sexiest Crime Fighters". A writer for the publication commented "It's not difficult to believe that Catherine Willows was once an exotic dancer at a Vegas strip club. Thankfully, it's "because" of a regular at that gig that led her to pursuing higher education and eventually snare a CSI job."


title: Catherine Willows

text: While reviewing the pilot episode, Mark A. Perigard from "The Boston Herald" thought that Catherine was an exception to the show's "revolting characters", calling her "harried but compassionate". Mia Jones from After Ellen praised the character, commenting ""CSI"'s Catherine Willows oozes feminine sex appeal even when she's bogged down with a bullet-proof vest, a gigantic utility belt, baseball cap and aviators. She is the anti-Debra Morgan."


title: Catherine Willows

text: Catherine has held numerous positions during the series' run, first appearing as a CSI Level III in the series pilot episode. She is replaced in this position by Nick Stokes. She later features in the following roles:


title: Madison Reyes

text: Madison Reyes (born June 25, 2004) is an American actress and singer, who is known for playing the character Julie Molina in the Netflix musical series "Julie and the Phantoms" (2020), for which she won an MTV Award and received a nomination for a Daytime Emmy Award.


title: Madison Reyes

text: Reyes was born to Puerto Rican parents in Brooklyn, New York, where she was raised. She moved to Allentown, Pennsylvania at age 10.


title: Madison Reyes

text: In 2020, she made her on-screen debut as Julie Molina in the Netflix series, "Julie and the Phantoms". Scouted by director Kenny Ortega, she was cast at age 14 to portray the main character in the series. Reyes also performs in the , which includes "Perfect Harmony""," written and performed with co-star Charlie Gillespie. Reyes and her fellow cast members won an MTV Movie Award for Best Musical Moment. She received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Younger Performer in a Daytime Fiction Program in 2021.


title: Madison Reyes

text: On July 16, 2021, Reyes released her first song, "Te Amo". On June 3, 2022, she released her debut EP, "All Kinds of Love".


title: Vampire film

text: Vampire films have been a staple in world cinema since the era of silent films, so much so that the depiction of vampires in popular culture is strongly based upon their depiction in films throughout the years. The most popular cinematic adaptation of vampire fiction has been from Bram Stoker's 1897 novel "Dracula", with over 170 versions to date. Running a distant second are adaptations of the 1872 novel "Carmilla" by Sheridan Le Fanu. By 2005, the Dracula character had been the subject of more films than any other fictional character except Sherlock Holmes.


title: Vampire film

text: As folklore, vampires are defined by their need to feed on blood and on their manipulative nature; this theme has been held in common throughout the many adaptations. Although vampires are usually associated with the horror (and sometimes the zombie genre), vampire films may also fall into the drama, action, science fiction, romance, comedy, or fantasy genres, amongst others.


title: Vampire film

text: Early cinematic vampires in other such films as "The Vampire" (1913), directed by Robert G. Vignola, were not undead bloodsucking fiends, but 'vamps'. Such femmes fatales were inspired by a poem by Rudyard Kipling called "The Vampire", composed in 1897. This poem was written as kind of commentary on a painting of a female vampire by Philip Burne-Jones exhibited in the same year. Lyrics from Kipling's poem: "A fool there was ... ", describing a seduced man, were used as the title of the film "A Fool There Was" (1915) starring Theda Bara as the 'vamp' in question and the poem was used in the publicity for the film.


title: Vampire film

text: An early adaptation of the immortal aristocrat may have been the Hungarian feature film "Drakula halála" (Károly Lajthay, 1921), which is now thought to be a lost film.


title: Vampire film

text: An authentic supernatural vampire features in the landmark "Nosferatu" (1922 Germany, directed by F. W. Murnau) starring Max Schreck as the hideous Count Orlok. This was an unlicensed version of Bram Stoker's "Dracula", based so closely on the novel that the estate sued and won, with all copies ordered to be destroyed. It would be painstakingly restored in 1994 by a team of European scholars from the five surviving prints that had escaped destruction. The destruction of the vampire, in the closing sequence of the film, by sunlight rather than the traditional stake through the heart proved very influential on later films and became an accepted part of vampire lore.


title: Vampire film

text: The next classic treatment of the vampire legend was an adaptation of the stage play based on Bram Stoker's novel "Dracula", Universal's "Dracula" (1931) starring Bela Lugosi as Count Dracula. Lugosi's performance was so popular that his Hungarian accent and sweeping gestures became characteristics now commonly associated with Dracula. Five years after the release of the film, Universal released "Dracula's Daughter" (1936), a direct sequel that starts immediately after the end of the first film. A second sequel, "Son of Dracula" starring Lon Chaney Jr., followed in 1943. Despite his apparent death in the 1931 film, the Count returned to life in three more Universal films of the mid-1940s: "House of Frankenstein" (1944) and "House of Dracula" (1945)—both starring John Carradine—and "Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein" (1948). While Lugosi had played a vampire in two other films during the 1930s and 1940s, it was only in this final film that he played Count Dracula on-screen for the second (and last) time.


title: Vampire film

text: Dracula was reincarnated for a new generation in the Hammer Films series starring Christopher Lee as the Count. In the first of these films "Dracula" (1958) the spectacular death of the title character through being exposed to the sun reinforced this part of vampire lore, first established in "Nosferatu", and made it virtually axiomatic in succeeding films. Lee returned as Dracula in all but two of the seven sequels. A more faithful adaptation of Stoker's novel appeared as "Bram Stoker's Dracula" (1992), directed by Francis Ford Coppola, though also identifying Count Dracula with the notorious medieval Balkan ruler Vlad III the Impaler.


title: Vampire film

text: A distinct subgenre of vampire films, ultimately inspired by Le Fanu's "Carmilla", explored the topic of the lesbian vampire. Although implied in "Dracula's Daughter", the first openly lesbian vampire was in "Blood and Roses" (1960) by Roger Vadim. More explicit lesbian content was provided in Hammer's Karnstein Trilogy. The first of these, "The Vampire Lovers" (1970), starring Ingrid Pitt and Madeline Smith, was a relatively straightforward re-telling of LeFanu's novella, but with more overt violence and sexuality. Later films in this subgenre such as "Vampyres" (1974) became even more explicit in their depiction of sex, nudity and violence.


title: Vampire film

text: Beginning with "Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein" (1948) the vampire has often been the subject of comedy. "The Fearless Vampire Killers" (1967) by Roman Polanski was a notable parody of the genre. Other comedic treatments, of variable quality, include "Vampira" (1974) featuring David Niven as a lovelorn Dracula, "Love at First Bite" (1979) featuring George Hamilton, "My Best Friend Is a Vampire" (1988), "Innocent Blood" (1992), "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (1992), "" (1995), directed by Mel Brooks with Leslie Nielsen, and, more recently, Taika Waititi and Jemaine Clement's mockumentary take on the subject, "What We Do in the Shadows" (2014).


title: Vampire film

text: Another development in some vampire films has been a change from supernatural horror to science fictional explanations of vampirism. "The Last Man on Earth" (1964, directed by Sidney Salkow), "The Omega Man" (1971 US, directed by Boris Sagal) and two other films were all based on Richard Matheson's novel "I Am Legend". They explain the condition as having a natural cause. Vampirism is explained as a kind of virus in David Cronenberg's "Rabid" (1976), "The Hunger with an international cast directed by Tony Scott and "Red-Blooded American Girl" (1990) directed by David Blyth, as well as in the "Blade" trilogy to a limited extent.


title: Vampire film

text: Race has been another theme, as exemplified by the blaxploitation picture "Blacula" (1972) and its sequel "Scream Blacula Scream".


title: Vampire film

text: Though always a representation of passion and desire, since the time of Béla Lugosi's "Dracula" (1931) the vampire, male or female, has usually been portrayed as an alluring sex symbol. Christopher Lee, Delphine Seyrig, Frank Langella, Lauren Hutton, Catherine Deneuve and Aaliyah are just a few examples of actors who brought great sex appeal into their portrayal of the vampire. Latterly, the implicit sexual themes of vampire film have become much more overt, culminating in such films as "Gayracula" (1983) and "The Vampire of Budapest" (1995), two pornographic all-male vampire films, and "Lust for Dracula" (2005), a softcore pornography all-lesbian adaptation of Bram Stoker's novel.


title: Vampire film

text: There is, however, a very small subgenre, pioneered in Murnau's seminal "Nosferatu" (1922) in which the portrayal of the vampire is similar to the hideous creature of European folklore. Max Schreck's portrayal of this role in Murnau's film was copied by Klaus Kinski in Werner Herzog's remake "Nosferatu the Vampyre" (1979). In "Shadow of the Vampire" (2000) (directed by E. Elias Merhige) Willem Dafoe plays Max Schreck, himself, though portrayed here as an actual vampire. Stephen King's "Salem's Lot" (1979) notably depicts vampires as terrifying, simple-minded creatures, without eroticism, and with the only desire to feed on the blood of others. The main vampire in the "Subspecies" films, Radu, also exhibits similar aesthetic influences, such as long fingers and nails and generally grotesque facial features. This type of vampire is also featured in the film "30 Days of Night". The 2011 remake of "Fright Night" is notable for such a hideous depiction of the vampire when manifesting.


title: Vampire film

text: A major character in most vampire films is the vampire hunter, of which Stoker's Abraham Van Helsing is a prototype. Peter Vincent (Roddy McDowell) in "Fright Night" (1985) and the Frog brothers in "The Lost Boys" (1987) were all vampire hunters. However, killing vampires has changed. Where Van Helsing relied on a stake through the heart, in "Vampires" (1998), directed by John Carpenter, Jack Crow (James Woods) has a heavily armed squad of vampire hunters and in "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (1992, directed by Fran Rubel Kuzui), writer Joss Whedon (who created TV's "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and spin-off "Angel") attached the Slayer, Buffy Summers (Kristy Swanson in the film, Sarah Michelle Gellar in the TV series), to a network of Watchers and mystically endowed her with superhuman powers.


title: Vampire film

text: By far, the most well-known and popular vampire in the films is Count Dracula. A large number of films have been filmed over the years depicting the evil Count, some of which are ranked among the greatest depictions of vampires on film. Dracula has over 170 film representations to date, making him the most frequently portrayed character in horror films; also he has the highest number of film appearances overall, surpassed only by Sherlock Holmes.


title: Vampire film

text: In his documentary "Vampire Princess" (2007) the investigative Austrian author and director Klaus T. Steindl discovered in 2007 the historical inspiration for Bram Stoker's legendary Dracula character (see also Literature - Bram Stoker: Dracula's Guest): ""Many experts believe, the deleted opening was actually based on a woman. Archaeologists, historians, and forensic scientists revisit the days of vampire hysteria in the eighteenth-century Czech Republic and re-open the unholy grave of dark princess Eleonore von Schwarzenberg. They uncover her story, once buried and long forgotten, now raised from the dead.""


title: Vampire film

text: One of the first television series with a vampire as a main character was the 1964 comedy series "The Munsters". Lily Munster and Grandpa (also known as Vladimir Dracula, Count of Transylvania) are vampires.


title: Vampire film

text: "The Munsters" was followed in 1966 by the Gothic soap opera "Dark Shadows", in which the reluctant vampire Barnabas Collins became a main character.


title: Vampire film

text: In 1985, "The Little Vampire" was a television series made for children. It tells the adventures of the vampire child Rüdiger and his human friend Anton.


title: Vampire film

text: "Forever Knight" (1992–1996) was the first vampire detective story, later followed by many similar series like "Angel", "Moonlight", "Blood Ties" and "Vampire Prosecutor".


title: Vampire film

text: In 1997 the teenage vampire series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" became popular around the world. Buffy is a teenage girl who finds out that she is a vampire slayer. She also finds herself drawn to a vampire.


title: Vampire film

text: "True Blood" (2008) centers on the adventures of the telepathic waitress Sookie Stackhouse, who falls in love with a vampire. In the same year BBC Three series "Being Human" became popular in Britain. It features an unconventional trio of a vampire, a werewolf and a ghost who are sharing a flat in Bristol.


title: Vampire film

text: In 2009 "The Vampire Diaries" told the story of the school girl Elena Gilbert, who falls in love with vampire Stefan Salvatore, but finds herself also drawn to Stefan's brother Damon Salvatore.


title: Vampire film

text: What We Do In the Shadows is a continuation of the 2014 movie. Set in the same universe with the same mocumentary style, but following a different group of vampires.


title: Vampire film

text: One of the first animated vampire series was the 1988 series "Count Duckula", a parody of Dracula. In 1985, the anime film adaptation of the inaugural "Vampire Hunter D" novel was released direct-to-video and became popular in both Japan and the United States, prompting an adaptation of the third novel into the also direct to video film "" in 2000. The two films and the novels they are based on revolve around the eponymous D, a vampire hunter who is the apparent half-vampire/half-human son of Dracula who battles vampires in the year AD 12,090. In 1997 the anime series "Vampire Princess Miyu" became popular in Japan, many other anime followed. JoJo's Bizarre Adventure was released in 2012, featuring several vampiric villains. Also in 2012, "Hotel Transylvania" was released, followed by a sequel in 2015, "Hotel Transylvania 2" and in 2018 by "".


title: Vampire film

text: Another Japanese anime series, "Rosario + Vampire", portrays one of the leading female characters, Moka Akashiya, as a vampire, whose demonic powers are sealed inside her with a rosary seal around her neck. The series portrays other kinds of fictional monsters as well, including a witch and a snowwoman.


title: Vampire film

text: From 2001 onward vampire web series became popular around the world. One of the first web series was the 2001 series "The Hunted". It is about a group of vampire slayers who have been bitten by vampires (but not yet turned into vampires) and try to fight the bloodsucking vampires. "The Hunted" was followed by "" (2007) and "" (2008) who were based on the films "30 Days of Night" and "". In 2009 the MTV online series "Valemont" follows Maggie Gracen, who decides to infiltrate Valemont University, because her brother Eric has vanished. She soon finds out that the University is full of vampires. The 2009 web series "I Heart Vampires" focuses on two teenage vampire fans, who find out that vampires are more than real. In 2011 the "Being Human" spin-off "Becoming Human" was released online. It is about a vampire, a werewolf and a ghost who go to a school together and try to solve a murder. The 2014 vampire series "Carmilla" features a retelling of the story of the vampire Carmilla Karnstein, who attends a university in the modern day and falls in love with a human girl.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: Injustice is a series of fighting video games developed by NetherRealm Studios and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, featuring characters from the DC Comics universe. The games were directed by "Mortal Kombat" creator and industry veteran, Ed Boon, whose team had previously developed "Mortal Kombat vs DC Universe" for Midway Games, and written by Brian Chard, Dominic Cianciolo and John Vogel and Jon Greenberg. The series features the voice talents of Kevin Conroy, George Newbern, Susan Eisenberg, Phil LaMarr, Alan Tudyk, Grey Griffin, Fred Tatasciore, Tara Strong, Khary Payton and Richard Epcar, reprising their roles from various DC Comics based media.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: The series' plot and premise take place within an alternate reality to the main DC Universe continuity, where Superman becomes a tyrant and establishes a new world order after the Joker tricks him into killing Lois Lane and destroying Metropolis, causing Batman to form an insurgency in an effort to stop his regime. The first game, "Injustice: Gods Among Us" (2013), focuses on Batman receiving aid from an alternate universe where he summons counterparts of the Justice League's members from another universe to join his insurgency and end the regime. The second game, "Injustice 2" (2017), follows the same narrative five years later after the events of the first game set in the same universe of the Regime where Batman's insurgency rebuilds society after Superman's fall while dealing with a Society of Super Villains led by Gorilla Grodd and the alien collector Brainiac, forcing Batman to consider freeing Superman to help combat the threats.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: In the first game of the series, set in an alternate reality, Superman establishes a new world order after the Joker tricks him into killing Lois Lane and destroying Metropolis with a nuclear bomb. In an effort to stop this, Batman summons counterparts from another universe to end the regime.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: Set five years after the events of "Injustice: Gods Among Us", "Injustice 2" features a bigger cast of characters and set in the same universe where Batman and his Insurgency rebuilds society after Superman's fall while dealing with a Society of Super Villains led by Gorilla Grodd and a collector of worlds called Brainiac, where Batman has no choice but to consider freeing Superman to even out the odds.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: The "" comic book series was announced by Ed Boon on October 5, 2012, during the EB Games Expo. The series serves as a prequel detailing the events leading up to the game, as well as those that happen in the interregnum between Superman's murder of the Joker and the discovery of the primary universe. The series was first written by Tom Taylor and illustrated by a number of artists, including Jheremy Raapack, Mike S. Miller, Bruno Redondo, Tom Derenick, and others. The comic was released digitally beginning on January 15, 2013. The series was later issued in regular comic book form, and eventually a collected edition. In December 2014, Tom Taylor announced that he would be leaving the series and left after writing "Injustice: Year Three #14", with Brian Buccellato replacing him by continuing the story into "Year Four" and "Five". The final chapter of the series was released in September 2016, leaving the story incomplete; another comic book series, titled "Injustice: Ground Zero", followed afterwards, which picked up the story and concluded the retelling of the game's events from Harley Quinn's perspective.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: During NetherRealm Studios' "Injustice 2" panel at San Diego Comic-Con International on July 22, 2016, Boon announced a digital comic book series which will detail the backstory to the events of the game. The series is written by Tom Taylor, who had previously worked on the tie-in comic books for "Injustice: Gods Among Us". Bruno Redondo is its lead artist, with contributing artwork from Juan Albarran, Daniel Sempere, and Mike S. Miller. Beginning on April 11, 2017, the series was released in weekly chapters through various digital retailers, including ComiXology, Google Play Books, the Kindle Store, and DC Comics' own mobile app. Print versions became available for purchase on May 3, 2017, each containing multiple digital chapters.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: A miniseries known as "Injustice vs. Masters of the Universe" featuring a crossover with Mattel's "Masters of the Universe" franchise was first published on July 18, 2018, by DC Comics. It is written by Tim Seeley with art by Freddie Williams II, and follows the second game's alternate ending, where Superman wins out over Batman. After killing Braniac and combining himself with Braniac ship, Superman has turned Batman with the help of Braniac technology into the Black Oracle, who can predict crimes before they happen, very similar to Minority Report style. Damian Wayne, who has become an adult finally realise with Cyborg that they have been fighting for the wrong side the entire time and then reform seeking the help of the Masters of the Universe in stopping Superman for good. Damian manages to free Batman from Superman's control but is killed by Wonder Woman for his betrayal which triggers Batman's release from Superman's programming. After Darkseid and Skeletor forces invades Earth and Eternia, they all needs to co-operate to save the world.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: On May 19, 2021, it was announced that an animated "Injustice" film is in the works as part of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies line. On July 21, 2021, more details for the film were revealed as it will be an adaptation of the "Year One" comic series, featuring a very whole different voice cast instead of the regular cast from the games. The film was released for digital and physical formats on October 19, 2021.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: The series has been a critical and commercial success, with praise going to its story, gameplay mechanics, presentation, an abundance of in-game content, character customization options, and use of the DC Comics license.


title: Injustice (franchise)

text: The animated "Injustice" movie, however, received mixed reviews. Criticism was leveled at the unceremonious character deaths, poor character development, unfaithfulness to the source material, and overstuffed plot. Some reviewers, however, praised the voice acting and animation.


title: Cadillac CT4

text: The Cadillac CT4 is a compact executive sedan manufactured and marketed by Cadillac. It replaced the Cadillac ATS sedan and sits below the CT5 in Cadillac's lineup. The CT4-V was unveiled first on May 30, 2019, followed by the standard CT4 four months later. Cadillac assembles the CT4 at the Lansing Grand River Assembly plant in Lansing, Michigan, as well as in SAIC-GM Jinqiao plant in China.


title: Cadillac CT4

text: The CT4 went on sale in the second quarter of 2020. Following Cadillac's new "Y" trim strategy, the CT4 is offered in base "Luxury" trim, as well as Sport and Premium Luxury trims. The base engine is a 2.0-liter turbocharged four-cylinder, producing and torque. Optional with the Premium Luxury is a 2.7-liter turbo inline-four, producing and of torque.


title: Cadillac CT4

text: Cadillac unveiled a high performance variant, the CT4-V, on May 30, 2019 alongside the CT5-V to replace the ATS-V. It is powered by a 2.7-liter turbocharged inline-four producing and of torque.


title: Cadillac CT4

text: The CT4-V Blackwing is a higher performance version of the CT4-V, which is powered by a 3.6-liter twin-turbocharged V6 engine, producing and of torque. It comes standard with a 6-speed Tremec manual transmission and is also available with an optional 10-speed automatic. Cadillac claims a time of 3.9 seconds with the automatic and 4.2 with the manual gearbox, a top speed of , and a 1/4 mile time of 12.14 at . The CT4-V Blackwing went on sale in early 2021 with a limited number of pre-orders.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India Secretary Ministry of Law and Justice (2018) is a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of India that decriminalised all consensual sex among adults, including homosexual sex.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The court was asked to determine the constitutionality of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, a colonial-era law which, among other things, criminalised homosexual acts as an "unnatural offence". While the statute criminalises all anal sex and oral sex, including between opposite-sex couples, it largely affected same-sex relationships. On 6 September 2018, the court unanimously declared the law unconstitutional "in so far as it criminalises consensual sexual conduct between adults of the same sex". The verdict was hailed as a landmark decision for LGBT rights in India, with campaigners waiting outside the court cheering after the verdict was pronounced.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: Elements of Section 377 relating to sex with minors, non-consensual sexual acts such as rape, and bestiality remain in force.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: On 27 April 2016, five people filed a new writ petition in the Supreme Court challenging the constitutionality of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code. The petitioners claimed that the issues which they raised in their petition were varied and diverse from those raised in the pending curative petition in the 2013 "Koushal v. Naz" case, in which the Supreme Court had upheld the constitutionality of Section 377. The "Naz" had been earlier referred to a five-judge bench in order to decide whether the curative petition could be accepted for consideration. The petitioners were dancer Navtej Singh Johar, journalist Sunil Mehra, chef Ritu Dalmia, hoteliers Aman Nath and Keshav Suri, and businesswoman Ayesha Kapur. This case was the first instance wherein the petitioners argued that they had all been directly aggrieved because of Section 377, alleging it to be a direct violation of fundamental rights. The opposition to decriminalisation petitions was led by Apostolic Alliance of Churches, Utkal Christian Council and Trust God Ministries. Advocate Manoj George represented the first two and Senior Advocate KS Radhakrishnan the third. The NDA government took a neutral stance, leaving the decision to the “wisdom of the court” as long as it applies to “consensual acts of adults in private”.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The petition was first placed before the former Chief Justice of India, Justice S. A. Bobde and Justice A. K. Bhushan on 29 June 2016. An order was passed to post the matter before Justice Dipak Misra for appropriate orders since a curative petition was already pending before the constitution bench. On 8 January 2018, the case ("Navtej Singh Johar and others v. Union of India") was listed to be heard by the Chief Justice's bench, which passed an order stating that the case would be heard by a constitution bench.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The matter was heard from 17 January 2018 by a five-judge constitution bench of the Supreme Court. On 10 July 2018, the SC commenced hearing of the pleas challenging the constitutionality of section 377. The bench ended its hearing on 17 July and reserved its verdict, asking for both sides to submit written submissions for their claims by 20 July.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: On 6 September 2018, the court delivered its unanimous verdict, declaring portions of the law relating to consensual sexual acts between adults unconstitutional. This decision overturns the 2013 ruling in "Suresh Kumar Koushal v. Naz Foundation" in which the court upheld the law. However, other portions of Section 377 relating to sex with minors, non-consensual sexual acts, and bestiality remain in force.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The court found that the criminalisation of sexual acts between consenting adults violated the right to equality guaranteed by the Constitution of India. While reading the judgment, the then Chief Justice of India Dipak Misra pronounced that the court found "criminalising carnal intercourse" to be "irrational, arbitrary and manifestly unconstitutional". The court ruled that LGBT people in India are entitled to all constitutional rights, including the liberties protected by the Constitution of India. It held that "the choice of whom to partner, the ability to find fulfilment in sexual intimacies and the right not to be subjected to discriminatory behaviour are intrinsic to the constitutional protection of sexual orientation". "History owes an apology to the members of this community and their families, for the delay in providing redressal for the ignominy and ostracism that they have suffered through the centuries. The members of this community were compelled to live a life full of fear of reprisal and persecution. This was on account of the ignorance of the majority to recognise that homosexuality is a completely natural condition, part of a range of human sexuality." said Hon'ble Justice Indu Malhotra. The judgement also made note that LGBT community is entitled to equal citizenship and protection under law, without discrimination.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The Government of India decided to abstain from the hearings and had left the matter to the "[w]isdom of the [c]ourt".


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The largest constituent party of the National Democratic Alliance, a right-wing coalition, currently having a majority in the Lok Sabha (House of the People), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), was one of the few parties which officially stayed silent on the verdict. Several party members did express their personal opinions on the subject, including the BJP spokesperson G. V. L. Narasimha Rao, who said that any decision on the matter "takes in sync with the jurisprudential developments on gay rights the world over would be welcome". Meanwhile, Subramanian Swamy, a Rajya Sabha (Council of the States) member of the BJP, attacked the decision, questioning if the court will legalise sexual intercourse with animals in the name of personal liberty. He was of the view that the decision could be overruled "[i]f it leads to excesses, including paedophilia, gay bars, increase in HIV cases, etc." The Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, has a record of saying relatively little about LGBT rights compared to other socio-political issues, and refused to comment on the same.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The right-wing organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh conveyed its agreement with the court's verdict as it didn't believe homosexuality was a crime, but did label the orientation as "unnatural". In January 2018, the BJP's coalition partner, the Shiv Sena had supported legalisation, with its member and a member of parliament in Lok Sabha for Mumbai South, Arvind Sawant Ganpat saying, "They have the right to live the way they want. What can we say on it."


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: The largest opposition party in India, the Indian National Congress of the United Progressive Alliance, issued a statement welcoming the ruling. The organisation remarked that the judgement should bring about "the beginning of a more equal and inclusive society". This was in contrast to its previous objection in the same case in 2009 when it was in government during the initial Naz Foundation case, stating that gay sex was 'immoral' and that it cannot be decriminalised.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: In terms of non-governmental organisations, the group Human Rights Watch welcomed what happened, with its South Asia director labelling the judgement as "hugely significant". Amnesty International also praised the ruling. The United Nations welcomed the judgement, hoping that it will be the first step towards guaranteeing the full range of fundamental rights to LGBTI persons.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: Global News suggested that similar colonial laws in South Asia, modelled on India's Section 377, could be declared unconstitutional following this verdict. The agency stated that the ruling "emboldened activists in neighbouring countries". In terms of LGBT rights in Sri Lanka, a similar law in that nation, which has not been enforced in decades, was declared unenforceable by its Supreme Court and is effectively dormant. However, differences in how constitutional matters are handled mean that the law cannot be removed without the consent of the electorate. Global News also noted that the nations of Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Pakistan face problems with LGBT people suffering from public discrimination, outside of the context of laws restricting homosexuality.


title: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India

text: Simon Chesterman, dean of the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law, congratulated India on the verdict in a Facebook post. In response to Chesterman's post, Singaporean diplomat Tommy Koh wrote on Facebook that Singaporean LGBT activists should take the opportunity to overturn Section 377A of the Penal Code, a position supported by Chief of Government Communications Janadas Devan. Later, on September 10, disc jockey and producer Johnson Ong Ming filed a lawsuit in court against Section 377A. However, Law and Home Affairs Minister K. Shanmugam stated that “[t]his issue relates to social mores, values - so can you impose viewpoints on a majority when it so closely relates to a social value system?”


title: Body of Christ

text: In Christian theology, the term Body of Christ () has two main but separate meanings: it may refer to Jesus' words over the bread at the celebration of the Jewish feast of Passover that "This is my body" in (see Last Supper), or it may refer to all individuals who are "in Christ" (see Christian Church).


title: Body of Christ

text: As used by Saint Paul in the Pauline epistles "Body of Christ" refers to all individuals who "heard the word of truth, the gospel of your salvation, believed in him, were sealed with the promised Holy Spirit" , "are being built together into a dwelling place for God by the Spirit" , are "joined and held together by every joint with which it is equipped, when each part is working properly, makes the body grow so that it builds itself up in love" .


title: Body of Christ

text: There are significant differences in how Christians understand the term as used by Christ at the Last Supper and as developed in Christian theology of the Eucharist. For some it may be symbolic, for others it becomes a more literal or mystical understanding.


title: Body of Christ

text: In Roman Catholic theology the use of the phrase "mystical body" distinguishes the mystical body of Christ, i.e. the Church, from the physical body of Christ, and from a "moral body" such as any club with a common purpose. In Eastern Orthodoxy, the term "mystical body of Christ" is also applied to the Eastern Orthodox Church in the sense that "mystical union with Christ is a reality in his Church".


title: Body of Christ

text: A belief in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist is taught in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Church of the East, the Moravian Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Methodism and Reformed Christianity, though each tradition teaches a unique view of the doctrine. Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of beliefs by these Churches led in the 1980s to consultations on "Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry" by the World Council of Churches.


title: Body of Christ

text: While teaching that in the bread consecrated in the Eucharist there is absolutely no change open to the senses or to scientific investigation, the Catholic Church supports the real presence, i.e. that the reality of the bread is changed into that of the body of Christ. The Church teachings refer to this change as one of the "substance" or "transubstantiation". It rejects the Lollard doctrine of "consubstantiation", which suggests that the substance or reality of the bread remains after the consecration, instead of being converted or changed into that of the body of Christ. At the same time, the Church holds that all that can be examined either directly or by scientific investigation  what in Aristotelean philosophy are called the "accidents" (as opposed to the reality)  remains quite unchanged.


title: Body of Christ

text: In the Roman Rite, the priest or other minister who gives the consecrated host to a communicant says: "The body of Christ".


title: Body of Christ

text: Since the consecrated bread is believed to be the body of Christ and sacred, what remains of the host after celebration of Mass is kept in the church tabernacle. This is primarily for the purpose of taking Communion to the sick, but also to serve as a focal point for private devotion and prayer. On appropriate occasions, there may be public Eucharistic adoration.


title: Body of Christ

text: Christ also associated himself with the poor of the world and this is also called the Body of Christ. "If we truly wish to encounter Christ, we have to touch his body in the suffering bodies of the poor, as a response to the sacramental communion bestowed in the Eucharist. The Body of Christ, broken in the sacred liturgy, can be seen, through charity and sharing, in the faces and persons of the most vulnerable of our brothers and sisters", said Pope Francis on launching the World Day of the Poor.


title: Body of Christ

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church also believes that the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ. It has authoritatively used the term "Transubstantiation" to describe this change, as in "The Longer Catechism of The Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church" (Catechism of St. Filaret of Moscow) and in the decrees of the 1672 Synod of Jerusalem.


title: Body of Christ

text: Martin Luther reasoned that because divinity involves omnipresence, the body of Christ can be present in the Eucharist because of its participation in the divine nature.


title: Body of Christ

text: In current Lutheran teachings, the Body of Christ is used in a somewhat similar form to the Catholic teachings, but the Lutherans reject the Catholic teaching of transubstantiation, instead teaching the doctrine of the sacramental union. For the Lutheran, the Body of Christ is the formal title of the sacramental bread in the Eucharist, as seen in the Lutheran Divine Service.


title: Body of Christ

text: Nicolaus Zinzendorf, a bishop of the Moravian Church, stated that Holy Communion is the "most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour." The Moravian Church adheres to a view known as the "sacramental presence", teaching that in the sacrament of Holy Communion:


title: Body of Christ

text: The Reformed Churches, which include the Continental Reformed, Reformed Anglican, Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Reformed Baptist traditions, teach the pneumatic presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper—that Christ is really spiritually present in the sacrament of Holy Communion. The Congregationalist theologian Alfred Ernest Garvie explicated the Congregationalist belief regarding the pneumatic presence in "The Holy Catholic Church from the Congregational Point of View":


title: Body of Christ

text: Methodists teach the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but maintain that the way He is made present to be a Holy Mystery. The "Discipline" of the Free Methodist Church thus teaches:


title: Body of Christ

text: The first meaning that Catholics attach to the expression "Body of Christ" is the Catholic Church. The Catechism of the Catholic Church quotes with approval, as "summing up the faith of the holy doctors and the good sense of the believer", the reply of Saint Joan of Arc to her judges: "About Jesus Christ and the Church, I simply know they're just one thing, and we shouldn't complicate the matter." In the same passage, it also quotes Saint Augustine: "Let us rejoice then and give thanks that we have become not only Christians, but Christ himself. Do you understand and grasp, brethren, God's grace toward us? Marvel and rejoice: we have become Christ. For if he is the head, we are the members; he and we together are the whole man... the fullness of Christ then is the head and the members. But what does 'head and members' mean? Christ and the Church." In light of all this, the Catholic Church calls itself the "universal sacrament of salvation" for the whole world, as it dispenses the sacraments which give the grace of Christ to the recipient.


title: Body of Christ

text: Saint Paul the Apostle spoke of this unity of Christians with Christ, referred to in the New Testament also in images such as that of the vine and the branches, in terms of a single body that has Christ as its head in , and , and .


title: Body of Christ

text: According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, "the comparison of the Church with the body casts light on the intimate bond between Christ and his Church. Not only is she gathered around him; she is united in him, in his body. Three aspects of the Church as the Body of Christ are to be more specifically noted: the unity of all her members with each other as a result of their union with Christ; Christ as head of the Body; and the Church as bride of Christ." The Catechism spells out the significance of each of these three aspects.


title: Body of Christ

text: To distinguish the Body of Christ in this sense from his physical body, the term "Mystical Body of Christ" is often used. This term was used as the first words, and so as the title, of the encyclical "Mystici Corporis Christi" of Pope Pius XII. In that document, Pope Pius XII in 1943 states, "the mystical Body of Christ... is the Catholic Church." But in 1964 the Catholic bishops gathered at the Second Vatican Council, while acknowledging that “full incorporation” in the Church required union with the Sovereign Pontiff, described various degrees of being “conjoined” or “related” to the Church including all persons of good will, which was not something new. The council's decree on Ecumenism stated that "all who have been justified by faith in Baptism are members of Christ's body" (3). That is, those who do not present an obstacle ("obex") to the reality of the Sacrament taking place, such as formal schism or formal heresy.


title: Body of Christ

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church considers itself to be the body of Christ Paul of Tarsus speaks about in his letters. It considers itself to be sinless, since it is the body of Christ, but that its members are "fallible and sinful."


title: Body of Christ

text: It is also believed in Eastern Orthodoxy that the Eastern Orthodox Church is the "mystical body of Christ", in the sense that "mystical union with Christ is a reality in his Church".


title: Body of Christ

text: In modern teachings, the "Body of Christ" is used by other Protestants to collectively describe believers in Christ, as opposed to only those who are members of the Catholic Church. In this sense, Christians are members of the universal body of Christ not because of identification with the institution of the Church, but through identification with Christ directly through faith. This theology is based on several passages in the Bible, including , , and , and . Jesus Christ is seen as the "head" of the body, which is the church, while the "members" of the body are seen as members of the Church. In this way, Protestantism defines the "Body of Christ" in a much broader way than does the Catholic Church. This has allowed for a broad base within Christianity to call themselves part of the "Body of Christ."


title: 1965 Philippine presidential election

text: The 1965 Philippine presidential and vice presidential elections were held on November 9, 1965. Incumbent President Diosdado Macapagal lost his opportunity to get a second full term as president of the Philippines to Senate President Ferdinand Marcos. His running mate, Senator Gerardo Roxas, lost to former vice president Fernando Lopez. Emmanuel Pelaez, who resigned in the Cabinet and from the Liberal Party, then sought the Nacionalista Party presidential nomination and lost it to Marcos, did not run for vice president and instead ran in the House of Representatives as an independent. An unprecedented twelve candidates ran for president; however, nine of those won 200 votes or less.


title: 1965 Philippine presidential election

text: This was the first election where all of the major presidential candidates were born after the end of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines.


title: German mediatisation

text: German mediatisation (; ) was the major territorial restructuring that took place between 1802 and 1814 in Germany and the surrounding region by means of the mass mediatisation and secularisation of a large number of Imperial Estates. Most ecclesiastical principalities, free imperial cities, secular principalities, and other minor self-ruling entities of the Holy Roman Empire lost their independent status and were absorbed into the remaining states. By the end of the mediatisation process, the number of German states had been reduced from almost 300 to just 39.


title: German mediatisation

text: In the strict sense of the word, mediatisation consists in the subsumption of an immediate () state into another state, thus becoming "mediate" (), while generally leaving the dispossessed ruler with his private estates and a number of privileges and feudal rights, such as low justice. For convenience, historians use the term "mediatisation" for the entire restructuring process that took place at the time, whether the mediatised states survived in some form or lost all individuality. The secularisation of ecclesiastical states took place concurrently with the mediatisation of free imperial cities and other secular states.


title: German mediatisation

text: The mass mediatisation and secularisation of German states that took place at the time was not initiated by Germans. It came under relentless military and diplomatic pressure from revolutionary France and Napoleon. It constituted the most extensive redistribution of property and territories in German history prior to 1945.


title: German mediatisation

text: Although most of its neighbors coalesced into relatively centralized states before the 19th century, Germany did not follow that path. Instead, the Holy Roman Empire largely maintained its medieval political structure as a "polyglot congeries of literally hundreds of nearly sovereign states and territories ranging in size from considerable to minuscule". From a high of nearly four hundred – 136 ecclesiastical and 173 secular lords plus 85 free imperial cities – on the eve of the Reformation, this number had only reduced to a little less than 300 by the late-18th century. The traditional explanation for this fragmentation () has focused on the gradual usurpation by the princes of the powers of the Holy Roman Emperor during the Staufen period (1138–1254), to the point that by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the Emperor had become a mere "primus inter pares". In recent decades, many historians have maintained that the fragmentation of Germany – which started out as a large polity while its neighbors started small – can be traced back to the geographical extent of the Empire – the German part of the Empire being about twice the size of the realm controlled by the king of France in the second half of the 11th century – and to the vigor of local aristocratic and ecclesiastical rule from early on in the medieval era. Already in the 12th century, the secular and spiritual princes did not regard themselves as the Emperor's subordinates, still less his subjects, but as rulers in their own right - and they jealously defended their established sphere of predominance. At the time of Emperor Frederick II's death in 1250, it had already been decided that the "regnum Teutonicum" was "an aristocracy with a monarchical head".


title: German mediatisation

text: Among those states and territories, the ecclesiastical principalities were unique to Germany. Historically, the Ottonian and early Salian Emperors, who appointed the bishops and abbots, used them as agents of the imperial crown - as they considered them more dependable than the dukes they appointed and who often attempted to establish independent hereditary principalities. The emperors expanded the power of the Church, and especially of the bishops, with land grants and numerous privileges of immunity and protection as well as extensive judicial rights, which eventually coalesced into a distinctive temporal principality: the Hochstift. The German bishop became a "prince of the Empire" and direct vassal of the Emperor for his "Hochstift", while continuing to exercise only pastoral authority over his larger diocese. The personal appointment of bishops by the Emperors had sparked the investiture controversy in the 11th century, and in its aftermath the emperor's control over the bishops' selection and rule diminished considerably. The bishops, now elected by independent-minded cathedral chapters rather than chosen by the emperor or the pope, were confirmed as territorial lords equal to the secular princes.


title: German mediatisation

text: Having to face the territorial expansionism of the increasingly powerful secular princes, the position of the prince-bishops became more precarious with time. In the course of the Reformation, several of the bishoprics in the north and northeast were secularized, mostly to the benefit of Protestant princes. In the later sixteenth century the Counter-Reformation attempted to reverse some of these secularisations, and the question of the fates of secularized territories became an important one in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). In the end, the Peace of Westphalia confirmed the secularisation of a score of prince-bishoprics, including the archbishoprics of Bremen and Magdeburg and six bishoprics with full political powers, which were assigned to Sweden, Brandenburg and Mecklenburg. On the other hand, Hildesheim and Paderborn – under Protestant administration for decades and given up for lost – were restored as prince-bishoprics. In addition, the Peace conclusively reaffirmed the imperial immediacy, and therefore the de facto independence, of the prince-bishops and imperial abbots, free imperial cities, imperial counts, as well as the imperial knights. According to one authority, the sixty-five ecclesiastical rulers then controlled one-seventh of the total land area and approximately 12% of the Empire's population, perhaps three and a half million subjects.


title: German mediatisation

text: Due to the traumatic experience of the Thirty Years' War and in order to avoid a repetition of this catastrophe, the German rulers great or small were now inclined to value law and legal structures more highly than ever before in the history of the Empire. This explains in good part why medium and small states, both ecclesiastical and secular, were able to survive and even prosper in the vicinity of powerful states with standing armies such as Brandenburg/Prussia, Bavaria and Austria.


title: German mediatisation

text: While no actual secularisation took place during the century and a half that followed the Peace of Westphalia, there was a long history of rumors and half-baked plans on possible secularisations. The continued existence of independent prince-bishoprics, an anomalous phenomenon unique to the Holy Roman Empire, was increasingly considered an anachronism especially, but not exclusively, by the Protestant princes, who also coveted these defenseless territories. Thus, secret proposals by Prussia to end the War of the Austrian Succession called for increasing the insufficient territorial base of the Wittelsbach Emperor Charles VII through his annexation of some prince-bishoprics. In 1743, Frederick II's minister Heinrich von Podewils wrote a memorandum that suggested giving to the Wittelsbach Emperor the bishoprics of Passau, Augsburg and Regensburg, as well as the imperial cities of Augsburg, Regensburg and Ulm. Frederick II added the archbishopric of Salzburg to the list and Charles VII went as far as adding the bishoprics of Eichstätt and Freising. The plan caused a sensation, and outrage among the prince-bishops, the free imperial cities and the other minor imperial estates, and the bishops discussed raising an army of 40,000 to defend themselves against the Emperor who contemplated grabbing ecclesiastical land that his coronation oath committed him to protect. Although the sudden death of Charles VII put an end to this scheming, the idea of secularisation did not fade away. It was actively discussed during the Seven Years' War, and again during Joseph II's maneuverings over the Bavarian inheritance and during his later exchange plan to swap Bavaria for the Austrian Netherlands, which included a secret provision for the secularisation of the Archbishopric of Salzburg and the Provostry of Berchtesgaden. Yet, none of these projects ever came close to be implemented because, in the end, key actors appreciated that the secularisation of one single prince-bishopric would open a Pandora's box and have severe repercussions on the institutional stability of the Empire.


title: German mediatisation

text: In the late 18th century, the continued existence of the Holy Roman Empire, despite its archaic constitution, was not seriously threatened from the inside. It took an external factor – the French Revolution – to shake the Empire to its foundation and bring its demise.


title: German mediatisation

text: After Revolutionary France had declared war on Prussia and Austria in April 1792, its armies had invaded and eventually consolidated their hold over the Austrian Netherlands and the rest of the left bank of the Rhine by the end of 1794. By then, the French leaders had already resolved more or less openly to annex those lands to the Republic as soon as circumstances permitted. Persuading the German states and princes that were fated to lose their possessions west of the Rhine to come to terms with what amounted to massive French spoliation of German land by compensating themselves with land on the right bank became a constant objective of the French revolutionaries and later Napoleon Bonaparte. Moreover, given that the German Catholic clergy at all levels were the most implacable enemies of the "godless" Republic, and had actually provided the first cause of war between France and the Holy Roman Empire through provocative action such as allowing émigré French nobles to carry on counterrevolutionary activities from their land, the French leaders estimated that the ecclesiastical rulers and other clerics – who collectively were the ones who were losing the most on the left bank – should be excluded from any future compensation. On the other hand, the secular rulers entitled to compensation should be compensated with secularized ecclesiastical land and property located on the right bank.


title: German mediatisation

text: Already, the Franco-Prussian Treaty of Basel of April 1795 spoke of "a compensation" in case a future general peace with the Holy Roman Empire surrendered to France the German territories west of the Rhine, including the Prussian provinces. A secret Franco-Prussian convention signed in August 1796 spelled out that such a compensation would be the Prince-Bishopric of Münster and Vest Recklinghausen. In addition, article 3 provided that the Prince of Orange-Nassau, dynastically related to the king of Prussia, who actively defended his interests, would be compensated with the Prince-Bishoprics of Würzburg and Bamberg if his loss of the Dutch hereditary stadtholdership, which followed the creation of the French-backed Batavian Republic, was to become permanent. Likewise, the peace treaties France signed with Württemberg and Baden the same month contained secret articles whereby France committed to intercede to obtain the cession of specific ecclesiastical territories as their compensation in case their losses became permanent.


title: German mediatisation

text: Signed in the wake of major French victories over the Austrian armies, the Treaty of Campo Formio of October 1797, dictated by General Bonaparte, provided that Austria would be compensated for the loss of the Austrian Netherlands and Austrian Lombardy with Venice and Dalmatia. A secret article, not implemented at the time, added the Archbishopric of Salzburg and a portion of Bavaria as additional compensation. The treaty also provided for the holding of a congress at Rastatt where delegates of the Imperial Diet would negotiate a general peace with France. It was widely and correctly anticipated that France would demand the formal cession of the entire west bank, that the dispossessed secular princes be compensated with ecclesiastical territories east of the Rhine, and that a specific compensation plan be discussed and adopted. Indeed, on 9 March 1798, the delegates at the congress at Rastatt formally accepted the sacrifice of the entire left bank and, on 4 April 1798, approved the secularisation of all the ecclesiastical states save the three Electorates of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, whose continued existence was an absolute red line for Emperor Francis II. The congress, which lingered on well into 1799, failed in its other goals due to disagreement among the delegates on the repartition of the secularized territories and insufficient French control over the process caused by the mounting power struggle in Paris.


title: German mediatisation

text: In March 1799, Austria, allied with Russia, resumed the war against France. A series of military defeats and the withdrawal of Russia from the war forced Austria to seek an armistice and, on 9 February 1801 to sign the Treaty of Lunéville which mostly reconfirmed the Treaty of Campo Formio and the guidelines set at Rastatt. Article 7 of the treaty provided that "in conformity with the principles formally established at the congress of Rastatt, the empire shall be bound to give to the hereditary Princes who shall be dispossessed on the left bank of the Rhine, an indemnity, which shall be taken from the whole of the empire, according to arrangements which on these bases shall be ultimately determined upon." This time, Francis II signed the treaty not only on Austria's behalf but also on behalf of the Empire, which officially conceded the loss of the Austrian Netherlands and the left bank of the Rhine.


title: German mediatisation

text: The sudden realization in wake of Campo Formio that the Empire was on the threshold of radical changes triggered a heated debate on the issues of compensation and secularisation conducted in pamphlets, in the press, in the political correspondence within and between the territories and at the Imperial Diet. Among other arguments, the defenders of the ecclesiastical states insisted that it was fundamentally illegal and unconstitutional to dissolve any imperial estates, and that the notion of compensating rulers for lost territory was contrary to all past treaties, where "each had to bear his own fate". They contended that even if circumstances now made it necessary, the amount of compensation should be limited to the amount of territory, or income, lost, and that all the Estates of the Empire, and not just the ecclesiastical states, should bear the burden. They warned that a complete secularisation would be such a blow to the Empire that it would lead to its demise. Generally, the proponents of secularisation were less vocal and passionate, in good part because they realized that the course of events was in their favor. Even when they were in agreement with some of the anti-secularisation arguments, they contended that "Notrecht" (the law of necessity) made secularisation unavoidable: the victorious French unequivocally demanded it and since peace was essential to the preservation of the state, sacrificing part of the state to preserve the whole was not only permissible but necessary.


title: German mediatisation

text: For its part, Austria was to be consistently hostile to secularisation, particularly in its wholesale form, since it realized it had more to lose than to gain from it as it would result in the disappearance of the ecclesiastical princes and prelates from the Imperial Diet and the loss of their traditional support for the Emperor. Likewise, the Electors of Hanover and Saxony opposed the principles of compensation and secularization, not out of sympathy for the Catholic Church, but because they feared it would lead to the aggrandizement of Prussia, Austria and Bavaria.


title: German mediatisation

text: The Final Recess of the Imperial Deputation (German: "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss") of 25 February 1803 is commonly referred to as the Imperial law that brought about the territorial restructuring of the Empire by reallocating the ecclesiastical states and the imperial cities to other imperial estates. In reality, neither the Final Recess nor the Imperial Deputation which drafted it played a significant role in the process since many key decisions had already been taken behind closed doors in Paris before the Deputation even started its work. The Final Recess was nevertheless indispensable since it bestowed a constitutional seal of approval on the major territorial and political restructuring that would otherwise have lacked legitimacy.


title: German mediatisation

text: Hard pressed by Bonaparte, now firmly at the helm in France as First Consul, the Empire was obliged soon after Lunéville to take on the task of drawing up a definitive compensation plan (). The Imperial Diet resolved to entrust that task to the Emperor, as plenipotentiary of the Empire, while it intended to reserve the final decision to itself. Not wanting to bear the full onus of the changes that were bound to occur under French dictate, Francis II declined. After months of deliberations, a compromise was reached in November 1801 to delegate the compensation task to an Imperial Deputation (), with France to act as 'mediator'. The Deputation consisted of the plenipotentiaries of the Electors of Mainz, Saxony, Brandenburg/Prussia, Bohemia and Bavaria, and of the Duke of Württemberg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order.


title: German mediatisation

text: Soon after Lunéville, the key German rulers entitled to compensation moved quickly to secure their compensation directly with France, and Paris was soon flooded with envoys bearing shopping lists of coveted territories. The French government encouraged the movement. Bonaparte left the details to his foreign minister Talleyrand, who famously lined his pockets with bribes. Meanwhile, Bonaparte, who had been courting the new Tsar Alexander I, replied favourably to the latter's wish to become involved in the process as co-mediator. On 19 October 1801 the two countries signed an agreement to act jointly as the "mediating Powers". Essentially, Alexander, whose wife and mother belonged to the princely houses of Baden and Württemberg, wanted to favor his various German relatives and this concurred with France's long-standing aim to strengthen the southern states of Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Bavaria, strategically located between France and Austria, the arch-foe. Hectic discussions and dealings went on, not only with the mediating Powers and between the various princes, but within the various governments as well. Inside the Prussian cabinet, one group pushed for expansion westward into Westphalia while another favored expansion southward into Franconia, with the pro-Westphalian group finally prevailing. Between July 1801 and May 1802, preliminary compensation agreements were signed with Bavaria, Württemberg, and Prussia and others were concluded less formally with Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Cassel and other mid-level states.


title: German mediatisation

text: Frantic discussions and dealings went on simultaneously in Regensburg, where the Imperial Diet and its Deputation were in session. In particular, many mid and lower ranking rulers who lacked influence in Paris – the dukes of Arenberg, Croy and Looz, the prince of Salm-Kyrburg, the counts of Sickingen and Wartenberg, among others – tried their chances with the French diplomats posted at Regensburg, who could recommend additions or amendments to the general compensation plan, generally in exchange for bribes. Nevertheless, all claims were examined and there was an effort to detect fictitious or exaggerated claims. The Imperial Deputation very seldom examined the claims and grievances, which were almost automatically transferred to the local French officials for decision or referral to Talleyrand in Paris.


title: German mediatisation

text: A "general compensation plan" combining the various formal and informal accords concluded in Paris was drafted by Talleyrand in June 1802, approved by Russia with minor changes, and submitted almost as an ultimatum to the Imperial Deputation when it finally convened at Regensburg for its first meeting on 24 August 1802. It was stated in the preamble that the mediating Powers had been forced to come up with a compensation plan due to the "irreconcilable differences between the German Princes" regarding the details of compensation, and the Imperial Deputation's delay in starting its work. It was said that the plan, "based on calculations of unquestionable impartiality" endeavored to effect compensation for recognized losses while “maintaining the pre-war balance of power between the key German rulers", two goals that were somewhat contradictory. The original rationale for compensation, which had been to compensate strictly for territory lost, had been replaced by political objectives: to favor powerful or well-connected rulers and to woo potential allies.


title: German mediatisation

text: As Austria had been excluded from the discussions, its envoy at Paris only learned of the plan when he read it in "Le Moniteur". He swiftly negotiated revisions which confirmed both Francis II's Imperial prerogatives and his rights as ruler of Austria. The Habsburgs' compensation package was also augmented with additional secularized bishoprics. Francis II had been hostile to secularisation, but once it became clear that near complete secularisation was unavoidable, he fought as hard as any other ruler to obtain his share of the spoils. He was particularly adamant that his younger brother Ferdinand, who had been dispossessed of his secundogeniture Grand Duchy of Tuscany by the invading French, be adequately compensated.


title: German mediatisation

text: The Imperial Deputation, originally entrusted with the compensation process but now reduced to a subordinate role, tended to be seen by the mediating Powers and the key German States as mere constitutional window dressing. This was demonstrated with the Franco-Prussian agreement of 23 May 1802 which, ignoring the Imperial Deputation that has not yet convened, stated that both the King of Prussia and the Prince of Orange-Nassau could take possession of the territories allotted to them immediately after ratification. Two weeks later, the King issued a proclamation listing all the compensation territories awarded to Prussia but he waited until the first week of August 1802 before occupying the bishoprics of Paderborn and Hildesheim and its share of Münster, as well as the other territories that had been allotted to Prussia. The same month, Bavarian troops entered Bamberg and Würzburg a week after Elector Maximilian IV Joseph had written to their respective prince-bishops to inform them of the imminent occupation of their principalities. During the autumn, Bavaria, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Württemberg, and even Austria, proceeded to occupy the prince-bishoprics, imperial abbeys, and free Imperial cities that had been allotted to them. Formal annexation and the establishment of a civil administration usually followed within a few weeks. Such haste was due in good part to the fear that the June plan might not be definitive and therefore it was thought safer to occupy the allotted territories and place everyone before a "fait accompli". That strategy was not foolproof however and Bavaria, which had been in occupation of the bishopric of Eichstätt since September, was forced to evacuate it when the Franco-Austrian convention of 26 December 1802 reallocated most of Eichstätt to the Habsburg compensation package. For their parts, the lesser princes and the counts, with little manpower and resources, generally had to wait until the Final Recess was issued before they could take possession of the territories – if any – that were awarded to them as compensation, usually a secularized abbey or one of the smaller imperial cities.


title: German mediatisation

text: On 8 October 1802, the mediating Powers transmitted to the Deputation their second general compensation plan whose many modifications reflected the considerable number of claims, memoirs, petitions and observations they had received from all quarters. A third plan was transmitted in November and a final one in mid-February 1803. It served as the basis for the Final Recess that the Deputation issued at its 46th meeting on 25 February 1803. The Imperial Diet approved it on 24 March and the Emperor ratified it on 27 April. The Emperor however made a formal reservation with respect to the reallocation of seats and votes within the Imperial Diet. While he accepted the new ten-member College of Electors, which would for the first time have a Protestant majority, he objected to the strong Protestant majority within the new College of Princes (77 Protestant vs 53 Catholic votes, plus 4 alternating votes), where traditionally the Emperor's influence had been the most strongly felt, and he proposed religious parity instead. Discussions regarding this matter were still ongoing when the Empire was dissolved in 1806.


title: German mediatisation

text: Under the terms of the Final Recess, all the ecclesiastical principalities – archbishoprics, bishoprics and abbeys – were dissolved except for the Archbishopric-Electorate of Mainz, the Teutonic Order and the Order of Malta. Archbishop Karl Theodor von Dalberg of Mainz had salvaged his Electorate by convincing Bonaparte that his position as Imperial Archchancellor was essential to the functioning of the Empire. As much of his Electorate, including the cathedral city of Mainz, has been annexed by France, the archbishopric was translated to Regensburg and augmented with some remnants of the Electorate east of the Rhine, and Wetzlar. Dalberg, who was confirmed as Elector and Imperial Archchancellor and gained the new title of Primate of Germany, was to prove a constant and useful ally of Napoleon during the coming years. In addition, under the dogged insistence of the Emperor, the Teutonic Order, whose Grand Master was generally an Austrian archduke, as well as the Knights of St John (Knights of Malta), were also spared and their scattered small domains were augmented with several nearby abbeys. The intent here was to provide livings for some of the 700 noble members of the cathedral chapters whose property and estates had been expropriated when the prince-bishoprics were secularized.


title: German mediatisation

text: Some prince-bishoprics were transferred whole to a new owner while others, such as Münster, Trier, Cologne, Würzburg, Augsburg, Freising, Eichstätt, Passau and Constance, were either split between two or several new owners or had some districts or exclaves allotted to different new owners. The substantial property and estates of the bishoprics' cathedral chapters were also expropriated.


title: German mediatisation

text: The Final Recess detailed the financial and other obligations of the new rulers toward the former rulers, dignitaries, administrators and other civilian and military personnel of the abolished ecclesiastical principalities. The former prince-bishops and prince-abbots remained immediate to the emperor for their own person. They retained extensive authority, including judicial jurisdiction in civil and some criminal matters over their servants (art. 49). They retained the title and ranking of prince-bishop or prince-abbot for life and were entitled to a number of honors and privileges (art. 50). However, the prince-bishops' palatial residences, such as the Würzburg Residence and Schloss Nordkirchen, passed to new owners and the bishops were granted more modest lodgings as well as the use of a summer residence. The former prince-bishops, prince-abbots and imperial abbots and abbesses were entitled to an annual pension ranging from 20,000 to 60,000 gulden, 6,000 to 12,000 gulden and 3,000 to 6,000 gulden respectively, depending on their past earnings (art. 51). While secularisation stripped the prince-bishops of their political power and abolished their principality, they were still bishops and they retained normal pastoral authority over their diocese, parishes and clergy. Some, such as Bishop Christoph Franz von Buseck of Bamberg, adjusted to their diminished circumstances and stayed in their diocese to carry on their pastoral duties; others, such as Archbishop Hieronymus von Colloredo of Salzburg, abandoned their pastoral duties to auxiliary bishops and went to live in Vienna or on their family estates.


title: German mediatisation

text: The 51 free imperial cities had less to offer in the way of territory () or population (815,000) than the ecclesiastical states but the secular princes had long resented the independence of the ones enclaved within their territory. With a few exceptions, they suffered from an even worse reputation of decay and mismanagement than the ecclesiastical states.


title: German mediatisation

text: A few imperial cities had been included in some of 18th century stillborn secularisation plans, chiefly because they were either contiguous to or enclaved within a prince-bishopric targeted for secularisation. While the secret compensation provisions of the treaties of 1796 with Prussia, Baden and Württemberg targeted only ecclesiastical territories, by the time the Congress of Rastatt opened in late 1797, there were widespread rumors about the abolition of at least some cities. Alarmed by such rumors, the imperial cities of the Swabian Circle, where about half of all the imperial cities were located, held a special conference at Ulm in early March 1798 to examine the situation, for which they felt helpless. However, given that it was expected from the start that the handful of the largest and wealthiest cities would maintain their independence, the expected mediatisation of the imperial cities did not raise much public interest. The survival of an imperial city often hung by a thread: while Regensburg and Wetzlar, seats of the Imperial Diet and the Imperial Cameral Tribunal respectively, were still on the short list of imperial cities that were to survive in the June 1802 general compensation plan, they were secularized a few months later in order to beef up the newly created Principality of Aschaffenburg that was to constitute the territorial base of Archbishop von Dalberg, the Imperial Archchancellor. In the end, only Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, Frankfurt, Augsburg, and Nuremberg survived mediatisation in 1803.


title: German mediatisation

text: Following the Final Recess, the scattered estates of approximately 300 free imperial knights and 99 imperial counts, totaling perhaps 4,500 square miles, should have remained untouched. But by the winter of 1803, the rulers of Bavaria, Hesse-Kassel, and Württemberg began to take possession of these tiny enclaves through a combination of Surrender and Transfer Edicts (Abtretungs- und Überweisungspatenten) and military force. Other smaller rulers, such as the Prince of Leiningen, followed suit. This came to be known as the Rittersturm.


title: German mediatisation

text: By autumn 1803, the majority of the knightly estates were de facto annexed by their larger neighbors. In January 1804, the seizures were declared illegal by the Emperor Francis II. Although the Emperor was unable to reverse the annexations, the threat of force put a stop to further seizures. Still, this violence was to have grave consequences for the small princes of the Empire. With the effective end of imperial governance following the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805, the violence done unto the knights and counts was extended to these defenseless princes, resulting in a second great mediatisation in 1806.


title: German mediatisation

text: The formal mediatisation of the imperial knights and counts was legalized by Article 25 of the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbundakte), which sanctioned unilateral action by territorial states.


title: German mediatisation

text: While the original intent had been to compensate the dispossessed secular rulers only for lost territory, that criterion was to be applied only to the minor princes and the counts who sometimes only received an annuity or a territorial compensation so modest that it had to be augmented with an annuity paid by better provided princes in order that their total income would not be less than their former income.


title: German mediatisation

text: In the case of the larger states, they generally received more than the territory they had lost. Baden received over seven times as much territory as it had lost, Prussia nearly five times. Hanover gained the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück, even though it had lost nothing. The Duchy of Oldenburg, closely connected to Tsar Alexander I, received a sizeable chunk of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster although it had lost only the income of a toll station. Austria also did relatively well. In addition, the two Habsburg archdukes who had been dispossessed of their Italian realms (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena) were also compensated even though their realms were not part of the Holy Roman Empire. Likewise, the King of Prussia was able to obtain a generous territorial compensation for the dynastically related Prince of Orange-Nassau whose losses had been in the defunct Dutch Republic.


title: German mediatisation

text: In all, 112 imperial estates disappeared. Apart from the territory ceded to France, their land and properties were distributed among the seventy-two rulers entitled to compensation.