title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Aside from the obvious threat of addiction, opium production is changing the dynamic of many Afghan villages. Wealth distribution, for example, has changed significantly as the opium economy has created a "new rich" in which young men have control. This newfound wealth for the young men of Afghanistan is troubling to many of the village leaders as before they were revered for their wisdom, and now are given little if any respect. It has also been noted that relationships among fathers and sons, neighbours, and family in general, are drastically changing as leadership roles in the economy continue to shift. As the young men have increased contact with the outer world, they have become aware of different methods of performing traditional tasks, which have created tensions between the young men and the white beards. Also, there has been a shift from the level of co-operation, trust, and reciprocity within villages to a move of self-interest, all of which have been adversely affected by the war.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Between 2013 and 2020 many producers in the Helmand Valley installed solar powered water pumps. The irrigation, from artesian wells, has allowed the amount of land under irrigation to increase several fold. However the water table had lowered 3 metres by mid 2020, and there is concern that large numbers of people will be displaced if this continues.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: While the Taliban were considered a threat both to the human rights of Afghans, and to other areas of the world by providing a sanctuary for transnational terrorists, they also demonstrated an ability to strictly enforce a moratorium on opium production. Since their overthrow in 2001, stopping their enforcement with methods including beheading, opium poppy cultivation has been steadily increasing over the past two decades. There is evidence that the Taliban ban carried the seeds of its own lack of sustainability, due to a many-fold increase in the burden of opium-related debt (locking many households into dependence on future opium poppy cultivation), forcing asset sales to make ends meet, etc. It also appears that the opium ban weakened the Taliban politically. Thus the sustainability of the ban beyond the first year was highly doubtful, even if the


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: "Even though the Karzai government made opium poppy cultivation and trafficking illegal in 2002, many farmers, driven by poverty, continue to cultivate opium poppy to provide for their families. Indeed, poverty is the primary reason given by Afghan farmers for choosing to cultivate opium poppy." With Afghanistan's limited irrigation, in which qanats (karez) still play a big role, transportation and other agricultural infrastructure, growing alternative crops is not only less profitable, but more difficult.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: In 2006, opium production in the province increased over 162 percent and now accounts for 42 percent of Afghan's total opium output. According to the UNODC, the opium situation in the southern provinces is "out of control."


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: The Department of State (DoS), the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the Department of Defense (DoD), and the Department of Justice (DoJ) are the primary organizations involved in carrying out this counternarcotics strategy for the US. The role of the CIA has not been mentioned. UNODC's executive director believes these measures are insufficient: "What can be done? Since NATO forces are wary of making enemies out of opium farmers by being associated with eradication, and since the Afghan government is opposed to spraying poppy fields, rounding up the major traffickers may be the best available option for disrupting Afghanistan's lucrative opium market."


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Both demand and supply reduction are important. "the consuming countries need to get serious about curbing drug addiction. If there was less demand for heroin, the bottom really would fall out of the opium market." Farmers economically dependent on opium must have viable alternatives that give sustainable income. On the supply side, identifying the most-wanted traffickers and subjecting them to international arrest warrants with extradition, asset seizure, and travel bans could help. While it is not easy to destroy opium storage and heroin production laboratories, it is far easier to destroy drugs at the source than in transit.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Opium production in Afghanistan is now estimated to account for 7% of the Afghan GDP leading to US and NATO counternarcotics operations facing stiff opposition from both Afghan farmers as well as government officials who directly benefit from the drug trade. The drug trade finances both the Taliban and its allies as well as Afghan government officials putting US efforts to promote centralized rule of law at risk.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: There is an important nexus between drugs and hawala (informal money transfer system) in Afghanistan. The UN analysis is based on interviews with a sample of 54 hawala dealers in the main centers of hawala activity of Afghanistan as well as during a visit to Peshawar, Pakistan. In addition, interviews were conducted with users of the hawala system (drug dealers, businessmen, traders, international aid workers), regulators (government officials, central bank personnel), and formal


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: service providers (bankers, accountants). In addition to hawala, they found protection payments and connections, by which the drug industry has major linkages with local administration as well as high levels of the national government.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: See informal money transfer systems to support clandestine activity, including terrorism, drug trade, and intelligence collection.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Different localities studied by the UNODC give different views of the laundering of drug funds. It is difficult to get a solid sense of the overall economy. In Faizabad, for example, it has been indicated that during certain times of the year close to 100% of the liquidity of the hawala system in the province is derived from drugs, whereas in Herat, the Northern Alliance stronghold, it was estimated that only 30% of the hawala market's overall transaction volume is directly linked to drugs. Analysis of data gathered in places like Herat was complicated by confirmed links between drug money and legitimate imports. The southern region (Helmand and Kandahar provinces) is also a key centre for money laundering in Afghanistan (about 60% of the funds are drug related and 80–90% of the hawala dealers in Kandahar [the former Taliban stronghold] and Helmand are involved in money transfers related to narcotics).


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Helmand has emerged as a key facilitator of the opium trade, both between provinces and exports, while overall estimates of the local hawala markets' drug-related component are of a similar order of magnitude to those in Kandahar. This finding adds weight to the notion that the major trading centers in these two neighboring provinces should be treated as essentially one market. Bearing this in mind, the study calculated that Helmand could account for roughly US$800 million of Afghanistan's drug-related hawala business and that Herat is the second largest contributor, with in the range of US$


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Furthermore, Dubai appears to be a central clearing house for international hawala activities. In addition, various cities in Pakistan, notably Peshawar, Quetta, and Karachi, are major transaction centers. It appears that even in the case of drug shipments to Iran, payments for them come into Afghanistan from Pakistan ... the hawala system has been key to the deepening and widening of the "informal economy" in Afghanistan, where there is anonymity and the opportunity to launder money.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Hawala, however, also contributes positively to the regional economy. It has been central to the survival of Afghanistan's financial system through war. According to Maimbo (2003), "integral to processes of early development and vital for the continued delivery of funds to the provinces." "The hawala system also plays an important role in currency exchange. It participates in the Central Bank's regular foreign currency auctions, and was instrumental in the successful introduction of a new currency for Afghanistan in 2002–2003."


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: While Herat is not the highest-volume area of opium trade, Herat, and the other Iranian border areas of Farah, and Nimroz, have some of the highest prices, presumably due to demand from the Iranian market. "Opium prices are especially high in Iran, where law enforcement is strict and where a large share of the opiate consumption market is still for opium rather than heroin. Not surprisingly, it appears that very significant profits can be made by crossing the Iranian border or by entering Central Asian countries like Tajikistan." According to UNODC estimates bulk of Afghanistan's opium production goes to Iran either for consumption or for on-ward export to other countries in the region and Europe. Iran currently has the largest prevalence of opiate consumption in its population globally. Iran also accounts for 84% of total opiate seizures by law enforcement agencies in the world, interdicting tens of thousands of tons of opiates annually. The Iranian government has gone through several phases in dealing with its drug problem.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: First, during the 1980s, its approach was supply-sided: "Law-and-order policies with zero tolerance led to the arrest of tens of thousands of addicts and the execution of thousands of narcotics traffickers." "There are an estimated 68,000 Iranians imprisoned for drug trafficking and another 32,000 for drug addiction (out of a total prison population of 170,000, based on 2001 statistics)"


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Beehner said "Tehran also has spent millions of dollars and deployed thousands of troops to secure its porous border with Afghanistan and Pakistan... a few hundred Iranian drug police die each year in battles with smugglers. Referring to the head of the UNODC office in Iran, Roberto Arbitrio, Beehner quoted Arbitrio in an interview with "The Times." "You have drug groups like guerrilla forces, [who] ... shoot with rocket launchers, heavy machine guns, and Kalashnikovs."


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: A second-phase strategy came under then-President Mohammad Khatami, focused more on prevention and treatment. Drug traffic is considered a security problem, and much of it is associated with Baluchi tribesmen, who recognize traditional tribal rather than national borders. Current (2007) reports cite Iranian concern with ethnic guerillas on the borders, possibly supported by the CIA.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Iranian drug strategy changed again under President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who took office in 2005. Iran's drug policy has been reconsidered and shifted back toward supply interdiction and boosting border security. It is unclear if this is connected to more wide-ranging concerns with border security, perhaps in relation to Baluchi guerillas in Iran.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Samii's 2003 paper described Iran's "primary approach to the narcotics threat [as] interdiction. Iran shares a 936-kilometer border with Afghanistan and a 909-kilometer border with Pakistan, and the terrain in the two eastern provinces—Sistan va Baluchistan and Khorasan—is very rough. The Iranian government has set up static defenses along this border. This includes concrete dams, berms, trenches, and minefields".


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: As per UN drug report of 2011, Iran accounts for highest rate of opium and heroin seizure rates in the world, intercepting 89% of all seized opium in the world. Within a span of thirty years, 3700 Iranian police officers have been killed and tens of thousands more injured in counter narcotics operations mostly on Afghan and Pakistan borders.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Given the fact that a third of the combined legal and illegal Afghan economy is based on the illegal opium industry, counter-narcotics policy is currently one of the most important elements of domestic politics. Despite law enforcement measures with a dominant focus on crop eradication programs, Afghan opium production has doubled in just two years. This has shown that currently there is no correlation between poppy crop eradication and the level of poppy cultivation or opium production. The reason for this is the underlying economic nature of the opium problem. Poverty and structural unemployment are the main reason for 3.3 million Afghans' full dependence on poppies.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Poppy crop eradication could even have damaging side-effects for Afghanistan's process of stabilization and reconstruction. Director of policy research for the Senlis Council, Jorrit Kamminga, says:


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: He is referring to US-inspired aerial fumigation campaigns, planned for spring 2008 but never initiated. So far, crop eradication is done manually or mechanically from the ground. Chemical spraying could further destabilize rural areas and risk losing support for NATO's stabilization mission.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: In 2005, the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), along with its Afghan partners, shut down the operations of Hajj Bazz Mohammad, a Taliban-linked narco-terrorist.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Since the Taliban allegedly made Afghanistan's opium business easy, offering credit, seeds and fertilizer to farmers to grow the drugs that fuel the Taliban insurgency, the US authorities were determined to change that momentum by offering similar incentives to steer farmers away from the drug trade and toward alternative, legitimate crops, like grapes, wheat and saffron.


title: Opium production in Afghanistan

text: Domestic production of ephedrine from ephedra bushes growing wild in the mountains and its subsequent chemical conversion to methamphetamine has also emerged in recent years, and has grown to rival opium production in some areas.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: Born Rich is a 2003 documentary film about the experience of growing up in wealthy families. It was created by Jamie Johnson, an heir to the Johnson & Johnson fortune, and filmed primarily between 1999 and 2001. The film consists primarily of Johnson interviewing 10 other young heirs. These interviews are offset by Johnson's exploration of his own experience and family as he comes into a large inheritance on his 21st birthday. He seeks out how to be a productive person, avoiding the dysfunction that he sees affecting many of the very rich. The film explores the taboo the ultra rich have against talking about their wealth. Johnson believes this secrecy about wealth causes the wealthy to be dysfunctional, and exists because the discussion of their wealth challenges the notion that America is a meritocracy and their right to have their wealth.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: Made over a three-year period while he was a history student at NYU, the documentary started out as his graduation thesis. At the age of 20, Johnson came up with the idea for the film through conversations with his uncle, Dirk Wittenborn, a novelist and screenwriter, who is also a producer of the film. Having been brought up reading Scott Fitzgerald, Johnson noted that no one of his class or background had attempted to examine issues of social class in America today. He was also personally motivated to make this film by his approaching inheritance on his 21st birthday, having observed that a lot of people with inherited wealth, including members of his family, “live unproductive lives, and even in some cases tragic and miserable lives.” He wanted to figure out why this occurs to avoid that fate. The film makes reference to his grandfather, Seward Johnson, noting the conflicts from his third, late in life marriage to his chambermaid, and the longest, most expensive contested will trial in U.S. history that ensued after his death in 1983. During the trial there were ongoing headlines in "The New York Times" about the estate battle and lurid tales were revealed that humiliated his family. Johnson said, “My grandfather made some serious mistakes, he was born rich and I really didn’t want to be in the same situation that he found himself in at the end of his life.”


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: It took three years to make as most of the young heirs contacted to participate in the film turned him down, sometimes harshly, due to parental objection, fear of losing their inheritance, or fear of violating social taboo. A Campbell's soup heir and a Rockefeller initially agreed to participate but both of them backed out due to a parent's objections. The pre-production took two years and involved hundreds of phone calls to line up the "young inheritors". Johnson enlisted Bingo Gubelmann, a childhood friend who is a cousin of socialite Marjorie Gubelmann, to be a co-producer and to help recruit "inheritors" in their late teens to mid-20s who could live lavishly without ever having to work. 11 heirs ended up being interviewed.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: By summer of 2000, after a year of filming, most of those interviewed were asking Johnson to take them out of the movie. Carlo von Zeitschel threatened a lawsuit but never filed. Johnson recalls people approaching him at parties telling him that he was a traitor to his class, that making the documentary was the "stupidest thing" he could do, it would not benefit anyone, and he would regret it and lose all his friends. When they were no longer able to get permission to film at parties, Johnson and Bingo had a "Roaring Twenties" themed joint 21st-birthday party for themselves at the East Hampton house of Johnson's parents. A sign posted at the entrance informed the guests they would be filmed for a documentary. They were worried that no one would come to the party because of their unpopularity with the rich due to the film, but four film subjects and 150 other guests attended. The movie ends at the party with Johnson's voice-over about living outside the American dream that was achieved by his great-grandfather. According to Johnson, the decadence of the party was intentional. He had always wanted to film the final scene, where he and Bingo pour Veuve Clicquot into a tower of champagne glasses, "as part of the movie about the unequal distribution of wealth in America."


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: The editing process took over a year, with 45 hours of footage to edit. While the film was being edited, Wittenborn wrote an article about the film that appeared in the September 2002 issue of "W magazine". After hearing early reports about the film, Luke Weil filed a lawsuit on September 4, 2002, demanding that his scenes be removed. The lawsuit was featured in the film. Other film subjects were also apprehensive when the press started reporting about the movie.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: Weil alleged in the lawsuit that he had been "tricked" into participating in what he thought would solely be a school project. Witternborn recalls that when he was questioned by Weil during the filming, he told Weil about his work in film and television, and that they hoped to sell the film to HBO. Johnson recalls Weil constantly vacillated during the making of the movie between being the most enthusiastic film participant, who expressed his ideas for film scenes, to being nervous about the criticism from his friends regarding his participation. Other film subjects also had regrets about participating and some also claimed they were told that it was a student film and thought it would never be seen by a large audience. Johnson denied any deception, saying they all signed releases that were fully explained to them. In a decision dated September 27, 2002, the New York Supreme Court dismissed Weil's lawsuit, ruling that the subject matter of the film was newsworthy, and that the releases Weil had signed in 2000 clearly identified the film as a commercial production.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: The film had been submitted to the Sundance Film Festival when the court ruling was reported by the press in October 2002. Changes were apparently made to the film after Weil became incensed after the film's debut at Sundance. Wittenborn remarked on Weil's reaction to the film, "We could have made him [Weil] look worse. We were being kind." Johnson concurred that there was "some reservation on our part in terms of editing". Johnson thought that Weil was "the most honest person in the film", who was "willing to say things...that may reflect what our peers are thinking all the time."


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: "Born Rich" was selected for a noncompetition screening at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival, where it was a hit. The film premiered at Sundance on January 19, 2003 in the "American Spectrum" category. Every seat at the screening was occupied and a couple dozen people were turned away. Sheila Nevins, executive vice president for original programming at HBO, decided to see the film at Sundance when she saw a line around the block for it. An edited version of the film was produced after it was acquired by HBO. In July 2003, it was promoted at the HBO presentation at the Television Critics Association convention in Los Angeles by Johnson and three film subjects.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: Johnson was on "The Oprah Winfrey Show" to discuss "Born Rich" in a namesake episode that also featured Paris Hilton and Nicky Hilton, two days before HBO's big screen premiere of the film in New York City on October 15, 2003. Five heirs from the film attended the premiere with Johnson. According to Johnson, although Georgina Bloomberg did not attend the opening, she sent him a note afterwards saying she was happy with the film's success and the wide audiences that were able to see it. A week before the premiere, some of Georgina's remarks in the film were reported in a "New York Daily News" article that included a response from a spokesperson for her father, the then mayor of New York. There were sold-out screenings of the film in New York for weeks. Johnson appeared with S.I. Newhouse IV on "Paula Zahn Now" on CNN to discuss the film the day before its October 24, 2003 premiere at the Hamptons International Film Festival.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: Johnson was also interviewed about the film on "CNN Sunday Morning" the day before the film's television debut and on NPR's "All Things Considered" on the day of the television debut on HBO on October 27, 2003. The film was broadcast as part of the HBO's "America Undercover" series, where it was on a regular rotation. Johnson noted that some film subjects were very supportive of the film and happy about what they said on camera, while other subjects were anxious about the film due to the criticism from friends and family for violating the code of secrecy about wealth. Johnson felt this secrecy about wealth arises from fear of contradicting the belief that their society is a meritocracy, and enables the wealthy to avoid having to justify the power and privilege bestowed by their wealth.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: "Born Rich" was the first of several television shows about the wealthy that fall season. A number of shows on the rich had started airing or were in production. "Born Rich" was considered more substantive viewing. Johnson believed that the television networks were influenced by the amount of press the film received, as it went to Sundance right before the networks started to develop and market shows for next two television seasons. He also believed the fascination with wealth in popular culture at the time of the release "is deeply influenced by the administration that's running the country." In 2004, Johnson and Cody Franchetti were interviewed about the film on Australia's Channel 9 news show "60 Minutes".


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: In an "Avenue Magazine" interview about the film ten years after its release, Johnson said, "Now, reality television about wealth is a staple genre on TV, whereas there wasn't a single show about that at the time...so it had more of an impact and people weren't as guarded." In 2013, "Born Rich" was alluded to on MSNBC's "All In with Chris Hayes" where Johnson commented on meritocracy in America on the day Prince George of Wales was born. "Born Rich" was also broadcast in 2013 on Australia's public television channel ABC2. ABC2 published an update from Johnson where he said that privacy around wealth has recently begun to ease, and that he remains close to at least half of the film's subjects and friendly with all of them. He also noted that now as economies are more globalized, he sees the film as an early step in the growing fascination with family wealth as great fortunes continue to grow in developing economies e.g. the influx of wealthy families into Australia with the expansion of the Chinese economy.


title: Born Rich (2003 film)

text: The documentary was nominated for two Emmy Awards in 2004: Outstanding Directing for Nonfiction Programming for Jamie Johnson; and Outstanding Nonfiction Special for Sheila Nevins (executive producer), Dirk Wittenborn (produced by), and Jamie Johnson (producer).


title: CNN Center

text: The CNN Center in Atlanta, Georgia, is the world headquarters of the Cable News Network (CNN). The main newsrooms and studios for several of CNN's news channels are located in the building. The facility's commercial office space is occupied by various units of the former Turner Broadcasting System, now part of Warner Bros. Discovery. The CNN Center is located in downtown Atlanta adjacent to Centennial Olympic Park. The One CNN Center office building was acquired by CP Group, formerly Crocker Partners, and Rialto Capital Management in 2021.


title: CNN Center

text: The building now occupied by the CNN Center opened in 1976 as the Omni Complex, a development by Cousins Properties. The Omni Coliseum, an NBA and NHL arena directly connected to the Omni Complex, had opened three years earlier, on October 14, 1972. The Omni Complex office building was largely vacant until CNN moved its headquarters there in 1987 from its Midtown Atlanta site (old home of the Progressive Club on 1050 Techwood Drive and home to Turner Broadcasting System).


title: CNN Center

text: Over the years, the building had provided office space to various business tenants, as well as foreign consulates. The main floor featured an indoor ice skating rink, as well as a small number of restaurants and a Gold Mine video arcade. Sid and Marty Krofft built an indoor amusement park called The World of Sid and Marty Krofft, inspired by the creations of these popular children's television producers. Opened in 1976, this park was the first indoor theme park in the United States, but it closed within six months. The complex also featured a multi-screen movie theater. For years, the theater offered showings of the 1939 film "Gone with the Wind", which Ted Turner called "The greatest movie ever made".


title: CNN Center

text: During renovations to install a new newsroom for CNN's website operations, the movie theater was replaced. The ice skating rink was filled in and replaced by a mosaic map of the world (the map featured brass markers indicating the locations of CNN bureaus around the world). Prior to moving to the new location, CNN and Headline News were based in a former country club on Techwood Drive in Midtown Atlanta. They shared the facility with WTBS. Since the late 20th century, this facility has served as the campus for nearly all other Turner networks and Turner Studios. During the 1990s, the mansion facade was used as the logo for Turner's theatrical and home video arms.


title: CNN Center

text: When CNN networks moved to the CNN Center on July 13, 1987, CNN Headline News (now known as HLN) was the first network to broadcast a show from it. Their sister channel started live programming at 6.00 a.m. ET of that day.


title: CNN Center

text: On May 11, 1997, the Omni Coliseum closed. Its replacement, Philips Arena (now State Farm Arena), broke ground on June 5, 1997. The Omni Coliseum was imploded on July 26, 1997, with CNN Center taking on minor exterior window damage due to its close distance to Omni Coliseum. Because of this, CNN Center was expected to be damaged. Philips Arena opened on September 18, 1999.


title: CNN Center

text: On April 4, 2007, Arthur Mann, an employee at the Omni Hotel, shot and severely injured his ex-girlfriend Clara Riddles inside the CNN center. The adjacent CNN.com newsroom was evacuated shortly after the first shots were heard. Mann was confronted and shot by a Turner Security Officer, and both Riddles and Mann were taken to a nearby hospital for treatment. Riddles later died of her injuries. An autopsy showed that Riddles was shot three times by Mann. The motive of the shooting is unknown.


title: CNN Center

text: On March 14, 2008, an EF-2 tornado passed through downtown Atlanta, damaging the CNN Center and leaving water and dust in the upper floors. The ceiling of the atrium was also damaged, allowing water to pour in and partially flood the food court. CNN's library was damaged, although it was not immediately known how much of its archives were damaged. Numerous injuries and widespread damage were reported overall. The Omni Hotel, attached to the CNN Center, was evacuated as a precaution, and more than 400 rooms had to be emptied of occupancy for two weeks.


title: CNN Center

text: On June 13, 2014, a car crashed into the CNN Center, causing minor structural damage. The driver of the car claimed to have fallen asleep at the wheel, and was charged with driving under the influence (DUI) and possession of marijuana.


title: CNN Center

text: In 2016, the chief financial officer (CFO) Pascal Desroches of Turner said the company would divest its 50% stake in the center's Omni Hotel in favor of redeveloping its Techwood campus in Atlanta. This is where other Turner broadcast operations are based.


title: CNN Center

text: On May 29, 2020, the CNN Center became the scene of rioting in response to the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis, Minnesota, four days earlier, as the building also houses a Zone 5 police precinct for the Atlanta Police Department. Rioters graffitied the CNN logo in the front of the building and caused property damage to the building's entrance glass curtain wall and APD vehicles; the front lobby was damaged, though protesters never breached into the core common area of the building, with the logo sign repainted shortly thereafter.


title: CNN Center

text: On June 29, 2020, exactly a month after the incident, WarnerMedia announced plans to sell the CNN Center. Once sold, WarnerMedia will continue to lease their existing space for several years until the Techwood WarnerMedia campus is expanded to accommodate CNN's Atlanta operations.


title: CNN Center

text: On November 21, 2020, a group of right-wing activists organized by the WalkAway campaign gathered in front of CNN Center. In the 2020 presidential election, Joe Biden won the state's 16 electoral votes, the first Democrat to win the state since Bill Clinton in 1992. The protesters were inspired by unfounded claims of voter fraud.


title: CNN Center

text: The CNN Center also houses an Omni Hotel and features a large atrium food court frequented by local business employees, tourists, attendees at State Farm Arena and Mercedes-Benz Stadium events, and conference attendees from the nearby Georgia World Congress Center.


title: CNN Center

text: CNN's multi-channel output to the world is broadcast on large screens around the center. Studio tours are available and include demonstrations of technologies, such as Chroma key and teleprompters, as well as visits to viewing galleries overlooking the newsrooms and anchors of CNN International, HLN, CNN 10, and CNN en Español.


title: CNN Center

text: The atrium escalator used to transport visitors on the CNN tour has been listed in the "Guinness Book of World Records" as the "longest freestanding (supported only at the ends) escalator in the world"; it is long. Built for the theme park that once occupied the building, this escalator is part of the building's original structure, making it very hard to remove.


title: CNN Center

text: MARTA rail service is provided to the CNN Center at the Dome/GWCC/Philips Arena/CNN Center station. Access to the Red and Gold lines may be gained by a ten-fifteen minute walk to Peachtree Center Station.


title: Caffè crema

text: As a colorful term it generally means "espresso", while in technical discussions, referring to the long drink, it may more narrowly be referred to as "Swiss" caffè crema. In addition, there is also Italian iced crema caffè.


title: Caffè crema

text: Variant terms include "crema caffè" and the hyperforeignism "café crema" – is French, while and are Italian; thus "café crema" mixes French and Italian.


title: Caffè crema

text: "Caffè crema", and the English calque "cream coffee", was the original term for modern espresso, produced by hot water under pressure, coined in 1948 by Gaggia to describe the light brown foam ("crema") on espresso. The term has fallen out of use in favor of "espresso".


title: Caffè crema

text: As a colorful synonym for "espresso", the term and variants find occasional use in coffee branding, as in "Jacobs Caffè Crema" and "Kenco Café Crema".


title: Caffè crema

text: The term "caffè crema" also refers to a long espresso drink, popular since the 1980s in Switzerland and northern Italy. It is generally served as the standard "café traditionnel" in Belgium. It is produced by running of water when brewing an espresso, primarily by using a coarser grind. It is similar to a caffè Americano or a long black, except that these latter are diluted espresso, and consist of making ("pulling") a normal (short) espresso shot and combining it with hot water. By contrast, a caffè crema extracts differently, and thus has a different flavor profile.


title: Caffè crema

text: As a long, brewed rather than diluted, espresso, caffè crema is the long end of the ristretto – normale – lungo – caffè crema range, and is significantly longer than a lungo, generally twice as long. Rough brewing ratios of ristretto, normale, lungo, and caffè crema are 1:2:3:6 – a doppio ristretto will be approximately 1 oz/30 ml (crema increases the volume), normale 2 oz/60 ml, lungo 3 oz/90 ml, and caffè crema 6 oz/180 ml. However, volumes of caffè crema can vary significantly, from 4–8 oz (120 ml–240 ml) for a double shot, depending on how it is brewed and taste, and there is no widely agreed standard measure in the English-speaking world. In terms of solubles concentration, a caffè crema is approximately midway between a lungo and non-pressure brewed coffee, such as drip or press.


title: Caffè crema

text: The motivation for the caffè crema is that it produces a traditional large cup of coffee, just as brewed coffee does: the small size of espresso is due to the original Gaggia lever espresso machine of 1948 requiring manual pressure, and thus a single (solo) espresso of was the maximum that could practically be extracted. The development of pump-driven espresso in the 1961 Faema removed this restriction, but by then a taste had developed for the short espresso, and these continued to be produced on the new machines, long caffè crema only emerging in the 1980s.


title: Caffè crema

text: The caffè crema is not a common drink in the English-speaking world and is virtually never available in cafés because of the need to significantly change the grind compared to standard espresso. Cafés instead serve Americanos or long blacks. The caffè crema was briefly used in Australia in the 1980s, but was replaced by the long black.


title: Caffè crema

text: As the caffè crema is very uncommon in the English-speaking world, and not widely available outside of home brewing, there are few English-language resources on how to brew it, nor consistency in what precisely is understood by this. What is generally done is to coarsen the grind, but otherwise extract in much the same way as espresso, stopping the shot when it blonds, as is usual for espresso – the coarser grind resulting in greater volume, but the extraction taking approximately the same time (25–30 seconds). Some variants include tamping less or extracting for slightly longer (35–40 seconds), and coarser grinds generally result in less mass of grinds fitting into a given filter basket, leading some to prefer using triple-shot baskets to allow sufficient coffee.


title: Caffè crema

text: One can make a caffè crema in a commercial setting by using the existing filter grind, which is approximately correct, in the espresso machine and otherwise brewing normally, but this would be a very unusual request.


title: Caffè crema

text: In Italy, during the summer, traditional cafés (called , without final "s", in Italian) commonly serve an iced, creamy variant of espresso called "crema caffè", "crema fredda di caffè", "Caffè del nonno" and so on. This requires a special spinning apparatus making it constantly creamy, without ice scales. It can be served straight or with "panna" (milk cream).


title: Haakon the Good

text: Haakon Haraldsson (c. 920–961), also Haakon the Good (Old Norse: "Hákon góði", Norwegian: "Håkon den gode") and Haakon Adalsteinfostre (Old Norse: "Hákon Aðalsteinsfóstri", Norwegian: "Håkon Adalsteinsfostre"), was the king of Norway from 934 to 961. He was noted for his attempts to introduce Christianity into Norway.


title: Haakon the Good

text: Haakon is not mentioned in any narrative sources earlier than the late 12th century. According to this late saga tradition, Haakon was the youngest son of King Harald Fairhair and Thora Mosterstang. He was born on the Håkonshella peninsula in Hordaland. King Harald determined to remove his youngest son out of harm's way and accordingly sent him to the court of King Athelstan of England. Haakon was fostered by King Athelstan, as part of an agreement made by his father, for which reason Haakon was nicknamed "Adalsteinfostre". According to the Sagas, Athelstan was tricked into fostering Haakon when Harald's envoy used the custom of knésetja, whereby a child was formally adopted if it was set on the knees of the foster-parent. Becoming someone's foster-parent reportedly meant that they were subordinate to the child's parent.


title: Haakon the Good

text: Haakon is not mentioned in any contemporary Anglo-Saxon sources, and later historians of Athelstan, such as William of Malmesbury, make no reference to Haakon. According to Norwegian royal biographies from the late 12th century, the English court introduced him to the Christian religion. On the news of his father's death, King Athelstan provided Haakon with ships and men for an expedition against his half-brother Eric Bloodaxe, who had been proclaimed king of Norway. "Historia Norwegiæ" describes Haakon as an apostate who observed both pagan and Christian rites.


title: Haakon the Good

text: At his arrival back in Norway, Haakon gained the support of the landowners by promising to give up the rights of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real property. Eric Bloodaxe soon found himself deserted on all sides, and saved his own and his family's lives by fleeing from the country. Eric fled to the Orkney Islands and later to the Kingdom of Jorvik, eventually meeting a violent death at Stainmore, Westmorland, in 954 along with his son, Haeric.


title: Haakon the Good

text: In 953, Haakon had to fight a fierce battle ("Slaget på Blodeheia ved Avaldsnes") at Avaldsnes against the sons of Eric Bloodaxe ("Eirikssønnene"). Haakon won the battle, at which Eric's son Guttorm died. One of Haakon's most famous victories was the Battle of Rastarkalv ("Slaget på Rastarkalv") near Frei in 955 at which Eric's son, Gamle, died. By placing ten standards far apart along a low ridge, he gave the impression that his army was bigger than it actually was. He managed to fool Eric's sons into believing that they were out-numbered. The Danes fled and were slaughtered by Haakon's army. The sons of Eric returned in 957, with support from King Gorm the Old, King of Denmark, but were again defeated by Haakon's effective army system.


title: Haakon the Good

text: Skaldic poems and the Icelandic sagas link the introduction of the leiðangr naval system in Norway to Haakon. Haakon may have emulated King Æthelstan's naval system.


title: Haakon the Good

text: Three of the surviving sons of Eric Bloodaxe landed undetected on the coast of Hordaland in 961 and surprised the king at his residence in Fitjar. Haakon was mortally wounded at the Battle of Fitjar ("Slaget ved Fitjar") after a final victory over Eric's sons. The King's arm was pierced by an arrow and he died later from his wounds. He was buried in the burial mound ("Håkonshaugen") in the village of Seim in Lindås municipality in the county of Hordaland. Upon his death his court poet, Eyvindr Skáldaspillir, composed a skaldic poem "Hákonarmál" about the fall of the King in battle and his reception into Valhalla.


title: Haakon the Good

text: After Haakon's death, Harald Greycloak, the eldest surviving son of Eric Bloodaxe, ascended the throne as King Harald II, although he had little authority outside western Norway. Subsequently, the Norwegians were tormented by years of war. In 970, King Harald was tricked into coming to Denmark and killed in a plot planned by Haakon Sigurdsson, who had become an ally of King Harald Bluetooth.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Keezhadi (also as Keeladi) excavation site is a Sangam age settlement that is being excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India and the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology. This site is located 12 km southeast of Madurai in Tamil Nadu, near the town of Keezhadi in Sivagangai district. It comes under the Thiruppuvanam Taluk of Sivagangai district. This is a large-scale excavation carried out in Tamil Nadu after the Adichanallur archaeological site. The settlement lies on the bank of the Vaigai River and it reflects the ancient culture of Tamil people. Epigraphist V. Vedachalam, who served as a domain expert for the excavation, dated the excavated remains between 6th century BCE and 3rd century CE.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The excavation was first started in Pallisanthai Thidal which is in the north of Manalur, about a kilometer east of the town of Keezhadi in Sivagangai district. Various archaeological residues were found when plowing the land around the site. A survey was conducted for the study, which found that this ancient settlement was less than two and a half meters below the ground level. The area currently being excavated is spread over 80 acres with a 3.5 km radius. The ancient towns of Kondagai and Manalur are also said to be associated with this region.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Initially, this site was estimated to be from the period between 5th century BCE and 3rd century CE. Two samples were sent for carbon dating from this excavation site for confirmation in 2017. The results that came in July 2017 confirmed that the samples were from about 2,200 years ago (3rd century BCE). Radiocarbon dating of samples obtained from the fourth phase of excavation revealed that one of the artifacts was from 6th century BCE. In 2017, the ASI sent two samples from Keezhadi to Beta Analytic, a Miami-based radiocarbon dating laboratory. The laboratory dated the samples to be about 2,300 – 2600 years old (from 3rd century BCE). In 2018, six carbon samples collected from the fourth phase of excavation were sent to Beta Analytic in the United States for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating. It was found that one sample collected at a depth of 353 cm goes back to 580 BCE.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: An archaeological survey was first conducted in 2013, by Archaeological Survey of India, in the vicinity of the Vaigai river from Theni district to Ramanathapuram district where the river meets the sea. During the study, 293 sites, including Keezhadi, were identified to have archaeological residues. The first three phases of excavation at Keezhadi were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India while the phases after that were conducted by the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: In June 2015, an Archaeological Survey of India group led by Amarnath Ramakrishnan started the first phase of the excavation in the area near the Vaigai river in Keezhadi.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The second phase began on 2 January 2016. Various documents, including medical jars, antique kitchen wells, and factory and government seals, were found. At the end of the second phase, more than six thousand artifacts were found. It was confirmed that these artifacts were 2,200 years old when they were tested by radiocarbon dating.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The third phase of the excavation was conducted under the chairmanship of Sri Ramanan of the Archaeological Survey of India from January 2017. The work ended on 30 September 2017. In the third phase, 16 digging sites were selected, taking up a total area of 400 square meters, which is 80 acres of land.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The fourth phase of the excavation was conducted between 2017 and 2018, bringing out 5,820 artifacts. This phase was conducted by the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department while the first three phases were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India. Six carbon samples collected from the fourth phase of excavation at Keezhadi were sent to Beta Analytic, Miami, Florida, USA for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating; samples collected at a depth of 353 cm, were dated between 580 BCE and the 1st century CE. The graffiti marks on the artifacts obtained from the excavation site were said to be similar to the Indus Valley script by the excavators. Bisnupriya Basak questioned whether the sherds actually came from the same level that was dated to the 6th century BCE. Some of the marks might have been made during the pottery-making process. Archaeologist E. Harsha Vardhan commented that “we cannot state scientifically that the Tamil-Brahmi script belongs to the sixth century BC” on the basis of this report.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: In June 2019, the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department began the fifth phase of the excavation led by Dr R Sivanantham. This phase was completed in four to five months in which 15 trenches was planned to be dug. In the 5th stage of excavation, Sangam-era bricks and more than 700 objects were found and these have been sent for testing. , the preliminary report of the fifth phase of excavations was nearing completion.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Sixth phase of excavation along with simultaneous excavation in neighbouring villages (Manalur, Kondhagai, and Agaram) began on 19 February 2020.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Almost 48 square pits have been cut and various structures and artifacts have been found, including frosts, brick walls, roof tiles, pottery, mimic accessories, skeletal tools, iron Vel, and Tamil-Brahmi letter-etched plates. This place is considered to be Pandyan dynasty's city called "Perumanalur", the pioneer of literature. The use of fired brick, the size of the building complex, an array of pots placed in such a way that it must have been used either as a lamp or for painting, and other findings suggest that the settlement is of a more civilized population than was previously suspected during the Sangam period.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Water supply and wastewater are considered as important landmarks of civil development. At the bottom of the settlement, there are buildings with a sewage canal facility made of ceramic tubes.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Ancient earthenware and ring wells have been found. Archaeologist Velappan said that this proves the ancient tradition of Tamils indicating that they used these wells in river shores and ponds for water. Brick buildings are considered rare in ancient times but a large number of brick buildings have been found.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The rouletted, arretine-type ceramics brought by merchants demonstrate business connections with the Roman Empire. It is noteworthy that such products have been discovered. Furthermore, black and red parchment fragments and white-colored black, red papillae and reddish-pitted pieces have also been unearthed. There are Tamil words engraved on the potteries that mention the names of individuals like 'Aathan', 'Uthiran' and 'Thiesan'.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: In the fourth phase of excavations at Keezhadi, 72 potsherds with Tamil-Brahmi script were discovered at the site. Some of these artifacts have inscribed graffiti marks, similar to graffiti marks which some believe to have evolved from the Indus script. According to T. Udhayachandran, the artifacts found at Keezhadi excavation site may point to a link between the scripts of the Indus Valley civilization and Tamil-Brahmi. Based on these marks, and one Keezhadi findings of the fourth phase which was dated to 580 BCE, R. Sivanantham and M. Seran argue that the date of the earliest attestation of Tamil-Brahmi can be pushed back to the 6th century BCE, a few centuries older than Dhamma Lipi (Prakrit in the Brahmi Script) of Ashokan Edicts, which is stated to be dated from 268 BC to 232 BC. These claims have been challenged. It is not clear whether the potsherds containing inscriptions were found in the same archaeological layer as the 6th century samples, and University of Calcutta archaeologist Bishnupriya Basak said that "This unfortunately is not clear from the report and is very crucial," adding that the issues of "layer, period and absolute dates" needed clarity. Dravidian University archaeologist E. Harsha Vardhan said that a single report was not enough to "state scientifically that the Tamil-Brahmi script belongs to the sixth century BC”.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Ornaments have been found including sponges, marble, agate beads, green, yellow and blue glass beads. The findings also include elephant tusks, copper ointment and sheets of wire. Rare artifacts including iron edged corners, gold ornaments,stylus, terracotta stamps, diaphragm tiles, firefly toys have been found as well, along with other tools.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Keeladi was initially chosen by Amarnath Ramakrishnan and his team at ASI in a search along the banks of Vaigai for the most promising site for a river bank civilization near Madurai and was chosen because of many nearby mounds.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: Other sites near Keeladi was jointly brought together with Keeladi as the main site. The Keeladi Cluster includes, Keeladi, Agaram, Manalur, Konthagai (a burial site) and Pasiapuram.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: In 2017, some Tamil academicians, including V Arasu (the former head of the Department of Tamil Literature at the University of Madras), alleged that the Bharatiya Janata Party-led central government had made deliberate attempts to stall the excavations at Keezhadi. Arasu claimed that the BJP government had a Hindutva agenda, and wanted to stop the Keezhadi project because the excavations at the site provided an "undeniable evidence of a secular culture in South India".


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The ASI normally conducts excavations at a major archaeological site for five seasons (years). In 2016–17, after the conclusion of the second season at Keezhadi, the ASI transferred the Superintending Archaeologist (SA) K. Amarnath Ramakrishna to its Guwahati circle. This caused a controversy in Tamil Nadu, leading to allegations that the ASI had deliberately transferred the SA to stall the project. K. Amarnath Ramakrishna stated that he wanted to complete the excavation work at Keezhadi, and challenged his transfer order before the Central Administrative Tribunal.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The ASI clarified that the transfer was ordered in accordance with the organization's policy, which mandates that the maximum tenure of an SA in a particular circle is only for two years. K Amarnath Ramakrishna had completed more than three years at the Excavation Branch VI, located in Bengaluru, under which the Keezhadi site has been excavated. So, the ASI decided to replace him with P S Sriraman, who had earlier served as a Deputy SA in the Jodhpur circle. K Amarnath Ramakrishna was not the only officer to be transferred; 26 other officers had been transferred all over India. Moreover, the newly appointed SA P S Sriraman was a native of Tamil Nadu.


title: Keezhadi excavation site

text: The Union Ministry also clarified that it had no intention to stop or delay the excavations at Keezhadi. It also explained that there was a delay in allocation of funds for the third season of excavation, because the ministry had not received the report for the work done in the past two years on time. Once the report was submitted, the ministry immediately cleared the funds for the third season of excavations at Keezhadi. The reports of the first two years of research will be released as a book.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The Chrysler Cordoba is a full-sized luxury car based on the Chrysler Newport that was marketed during the 1970 model year only and two generations as an intermediate-sized two-door personal luxury model manufactured by Chrysler in North America from 1975 until 1983 model years.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The personal luxury version was the company's first model produced specifically for that market and the first Chrysler-branded vehicle that was smaller than full-size.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: In the early 1960s, when other upmarket brands were expanding into smaller cars with such models as the Mercury Comet and Buick Skylark, Chrysler very publicly declared that there would "never" be a smaller Chrysler. The 1963 Chrysler deluxe catalog says of the New Yorker, "This is no jr. edition car." The 1962 deluxe catalog goes even further, proclaiming on the rear cover: "there's not a jr. edition in the whole family!".


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The Chrysler Newport Cordoba name was introduced in the spring of 1970 as a specially trimmed individual model based on the Chrysler Newport hardtop (two-door and four-door). This full-size model was a "limited edition luxury car, designed to introduce you to Chrysler" and consisted of an exclusive "Cordoba Gold" paint with matching wheels, wheel covers, and side molding with vinyl inserts. Chrysler described this model's textured antique gold all-vinyl interior, matching vinyl roof cover, and the hood ornament with an Aztec eagle as "quiet Spanish motif". Included in the base price were the two-barrel carburetor V8 engine, vinyl roof and trim, and protective body side moldings. Adding an automatic transmission, power steering, H78x15 fiberglass-belted whitewall tires, and a "golden tone" AM radio raised price to $4,241.65.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The 1974 Cordoba was originally designed by Chrysler to be the all-new Plymouth Sebring for 1975, which was to share bodies with the Dodge Charger SE. Instead, a decision was made to position the model as a personal luxury car and introduce it as the first small Chrysler. The Cordoba was available with smaller, more economical engines than other Chryslers, and rode on a wheelbase, less than its next largest sibling. This single body style coupe was one of Chrysler's few genuine hits of the 1970s. At a time when the automaker was teetering on bankruptcy, demand for Cordobas exceeded supply for its first years, with the production of over 150,000 units for the inaugural 1975 models, and the highest number built in 1977, with 183,000 units. Half of Chrysler division production during this period (and occasionally more) was composed of Cordobas, and they helped to revive the division. All Cordobas were built in Windsor, Ontario.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: Although Córdoba is the name of a city in Spain, which it was intended to evoke, the car's emblem was actually a stylized version of the Argentine cordoba coin and there is a Córdoba Province, Argentina. That theme was carried out with somewhat baroque trim inside the vehicle. The first spokesperson for the car was Richard Basehart; however, Chrysler secured movie and television actor Ricardo Montalbán as the car's advertising spokesman through its entire run. Notable was his eloquent praise of its "rich Corinthian leather" interior.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: Chrysler had previously sought to evoke a Spanish exotic flair in their products when they introduced the 1929 DeSoto Six with model names of "cupe", "coche" and "de Lujo", or spanish for "coupe", "coach" and "deluxe", while the roadster was called the "Roadster Espanol".


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The Cordoba was introduced by Chrysler for the 1975 model year as an upscale personal luxury car, competing with the Oldsmobile Cutlass, Buick Regal, and Mercury Cougar. The Cordoba was originally intended to be a Plymouth—the names Mirada, Premier, Sebring, and Grand Era were associated with the project; all except Grand Era would be used on later Chrysler, Dodge, and Eagle vehicles, though only the Dodge Mirada would be related to the Cordoba. However, losses from the newly introduced full-size C-body models due to the 1973 oil crisis encouraged Chrysler executives to seek higher profits by marketing the model under the more upscale Chrysler brand.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The car was a success, with over 150,000 units sold in 1975, a sales year that was otherwise dismal for the company. Gauges, except the tachometer, were standard. For the 1976 model year, sales increased slightly to 165,000. The mildly revised 1977 version also sold well, with just under 140,000 cars. The success of using the Chrysler nameplate strategy is contrasted to the far fewer sales of its similar and somewhat cheaper corporate cousin, the Dodge Charger SE.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: Interiors were more luxurious than the Dodge Charger SE and much more than the top-line standard intermediates (Plymouth Fury, Dodge Coronet) with a velour cloth notchback bench seat and folding armrest standard. Optionally available were bucket seats upholstered in Corinthian leather with a center armrest and cushion, or at extra cost, a center console with floor shifter and storage compartment. The dashboard and door panels featured simulated burled elm trim and metal stampings in 1975, while 1976–1979 models featured simulated rosewood trim. A 60/40 bench seat was introduced in 1976 and other seating/upholstery options were added each year through 1979.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The original design endured with only small changes for three years before a variety of factors contributed to a decline in sales. For 1978, there was a modest restyling with the then-popular rectangular headlights in a stacked configuration (the Dodge Charger SE kept its round headlamps for 1978 rather than the rectangular stacked design of the Cordoba). A Chrysler designer, Jeffrey Godshall, wrote in "Collectible Automobile" magazine that this restyling was viewed as "somewhat tacky" and eliminated much of the visual appeal that the 1975 to 1977 Cordobas had been known for. The restyle also made the car appear heavier than its 1975–1977 predecessor at a time when other cars in this class were being downsized to smaller dimensions such as the Ford Thunderbird in 1977 as well as the Chevrolet Monte Carlo and Pontiac Grand Prix in 1978.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The Cordoba's sales decline in 1978 and 1979 could also be attributed to the introduction of the smaller Chrysler LeBaron in mid-1977 that was available in both sedan and coupe models, and offered similar personal-luxury styling and options. At the same time, Chrysler's financial position and quality reputation was in steady decline. Rising gas prices and tightening fuel economy standards made the Cordoba's nearly weight with or V8 engines obsolete. For 1979 a $2,040 "300" option package was offered on the Cordoba, featuring an all-white exterior, "Chrysler 300"-style grille and a four-barrel 360 V-8 engine. The Chrysler 300 was advertised and marketed as its own model, not as a "Cordoba 300."


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The Cordoba was downsized for the 1980 model year. The smaller, second-generation model used the J-platform dating to the 1976 F-body Plymouth Volaré, along with its rebadged variant, the Dodge Mirada. Chrysler also revived the Imperial for 1981 as a third variant of the J-platform.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The Cordoba and Mirada featured a standard six-cylinder engine (the 225 Slant Six) that, while very reliable, did not seem to be suitable power (95 hp) for these slightly upmarket coupes. The much-detuned 130 hp V8 was an option (standard on the Imperial, with EFI), as was the performance oriented code E58 185 hp V8, though it would be dropped off the option list for 1981 and on.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The 1980 and 1981 LS model (which was originally intended to be the "300") featured an aerodynamic-appearing nosecone (nearly identical to that on the "Mirada") with a "crosshair" grille. Other features of this model were the deletion of the vinyl roof cover and a monotone color exterior.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: The second-generation Cordoba sales were down substantially. The industry downsizing of vehicles also affected the personal luxury models. Both the Chevrolet Monte Carlo in 1978 and the 1980 Ford Thunderbird shrank in size.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: With changes in the marketplace, Chrysler increasingly concentrated on its compact, front wheel drive models with four and six-cylinder engines. The Cordoba was discontinued in 1983.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: With fewer than 100 cars equipped with the E58 185 hp V8, the engine option was discontinued after the 1980 model year due to low demand. Only two engines were available with the Slant-6 being standard and the V8 optional for the 1981–1983 model years.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: Both the first generation and second generation Cordobas made appearances in NASCAR. Ed Negre campaigned one occasionally in 1978–1979 seasons, and Buddy Arrington ran a second generation car in the 1982–1984 seasons, alternating with Dodge Miradas and Chrysler Imperials. The Cordoba was no more aerodynamic than the other Mopars and never finished higher than 13th in any race entered.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: Today the "'Cordoba", as it is known to its fans, maintains a fairly loyal owner base, and some models are considered collectible. The very early production 1975s, particularly with the optional four-barrel carburetor, and the Cordoba-based 300 of 1979 are the most valuable.


title: Chrysler Cordoba

text: Regarding the 300 version, "Consumer Guide" said in 2007 "the '79 could become a minor collectible in the distant future, but LS prospects seem slim to non-existent at this time."


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: TiMi Studio Group (), a subsidiary of Tencent Games, is a video game development studio group headquartered in Shenzhen, China and offices in Singapore, Montréal, Seattle, Los Angeles, Chengdu, and Shanghai. TiMi generated an estimated revenue of $10 billion USD in 2020. Reportedly, TiMi is the largest video game operator and developer in the world by revenue. Founded in 2008 as Jade Studio, TiMi comprises several development divisions with different areas of expertise and develops games in different genres for PC, mobile, and Nintendo Switch, including "Honor of Kings", "Arena of Valor", "", "Speed Drifters", and "Pokémon Unite".


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: TiMi began in 2008 as Jade Studio in Shenzhen, China. The studio debuted into the Chinese PC gaming market with "QQ Speed" (known as "GKART" and "Speed Drifters" in Western markets), China's most successful racing game. As of July 2, 2019, "Speed Drifters" has 700 million registered users, with 200 million registered as mobile players. Following Speed Drifters, the studio released its own massive multiplayer online RPG (MMORPG) titled "The Legend of Dragon" in 2010 and first-person shooter (FPS) "Assault Fire" in 2012. In 2013, the studio released their final PC game which is a third-person shooter (TPS) titled "Age of Gunslingers" before they made their debut into mobile gaming with the release of WeChat exclusive games such as "We Match" and "We Run."


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: In 2014, Jade Studio merged with Wolong Studio from Chengdu and Tianmeiyiyou Studio from Shanghai to form TiMi Studio Group. Following the merge, in 2015, the group's development division TiMi-L1 debuted into mobile gaming with the massive Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) game, "Honor of Kings". As of July 2019, "Honor of Kings" is the most profitable mobile game globally of the first half of 2019, earning more than $728 million.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: In 2016, the division introduced the King Pro League (KPL); an official competitive esport for "Honor of Kings". The KPL marked the division’ and studio group' first entry into esports, providing a $12 million prize pool.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: Following the success of "Honor of Kings", in 2016, the group's development division TiMi-J6 released "Arena of Valor". The MOBA game was launched for mobile and Nintendo Switch in over 50 countries across Asia, Europe, North America and South America, expanding the group's reach worldwide, with more than 13 million monthly active users reported in May 2019. The game became a part of the esports demonstration event at the 2018 Asian Games and 2019 Southeast Asian Games.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: On 19 March 2019, at the Game Developers Conference (GDC) in San Francisco, California, Activision announced that they were partnering with TiMi Studio Group to develop their upcoming title, "". The game was developed by the TiMi-J3 division and released worldwide on 1 October 2019. As of 4 October 2019, the game has surpassed 35 million downloads and over $2 million in revenue. In December 2019, the game received an award for Best Mobile Game at The Game Awards.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: In July 2019, it was announced that the studio group and The Pokémon Company are developing a new "Pokémon" game, which was revealed on 24 June 2020, called "Pokémon UNITE," a Multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game for mobile and Nintendo Switch.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: In May 2020, the studio group announced ex-343 Industries and Ubisoft developer Scott Warner as Studio Head in North America. Scott Warner will lead TiMi's "Team Kaiju" (stylized as "TEAM KAIJU"), which was revealed on 15 October 2021. The subsidiary is working on one unnamed first-person-shooter (FPS) game for the PC and console market.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: On 27 June 2020, the studio group and SNK announced a new unnamed mobile game, "Code: J", for the classic arcade franchise "Metal Slug".


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: In November 2020, the studio group announced that "Honor of Kings" set a record of 100 million average daily active users worldwide.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: in July 2021, the group established a new division located in Canada, Montréal. The division's classification is TiMi-F1 and the development focus is an AAA open-world game.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: In June 2022, TiMi L1 Studio, a development division of the group, announced a strategic partnership with Level Infinite on publishing Honor of Kings world-wide, where Level Infinite will take over the publishing, eSports, but TiMi the operations and community. The five versus five video game in the multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) genre will adapt on areas where TiMi J6 Studio's Arena of Valor have a shared eSports with in Honor of Kings World Championship (KCC), under TiMi eSports, but did not reach the expected player base.


title: TiMi Studio Group

text: In August 2022, Nicolas 'Sparth' Bouvier announced that he had joined Team Kaiju as the Senior Art Director. Previously Sparth had been with the Halo franchise for 14 years, serving as the Art Director for most of that tenure.


title: Brimonidine

text: Brimonidine is a medication used to treat open-angle glaucoma, ocular hypertension, and rosacea. In rosacea it improves the redness. It is used as eye drops or applied to the skin.


title: Brimonidine

text: Common side effects when used in the eyes include itchiness, redness, and a dry mouth. Common side effects when used on the skin include redness, burning, and headaches. More significant side effects may include allergic reactions and low blood pressure. Use in pregnancy appears to be safe. When applied to the eye it works by decreasing the amount of aqueous humor made while increasing the amount that drains from the eye. When applied to the skin it works by causing blood vessels to contract.


title: Brimonidine

text: Brimonidine was patented in 1972 and came into medical use in 1996. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 175th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3million prescriptions.


title: Brimonidine

text: Brimonidine is indicated for the lowering of intraocular pressure in patients with open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. It is also the active ingredient of brimonidine/timolol along with timolol maleate.


title: Brimonidine

text: A 2017 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to determine if brimonidine slows optic nerve damage.


title: Brimonidine

text: In 2013, the FDA approved topical application of brimonidine 0.33% gel for persistent facial redness of rosacea.


title: Brimonidine

text: α agonists, through the activation of a G protein-coupled receptor, inhibit the activity of adenylate cyclase. This reduces cAMP and hence aqueous humour production by the ciliary body.


title: Brimonidine

text: Peripheral α agonist activity results in vasoconstriction of blood vessels (as opposed to central α agonist activity that decreases sympathetic tone, as can be seen by the medication clonidine). This vasoconstriction may explain the acute reduction in aqueous humor flow. The increased uveoscleral outflow from prolonged use may be explained by increased prostaglandin release due to α adrenergic stimulation. This may lead to relaxed ciliary muscle and increased uveoscleral outflow.


title: Brimonidine

text: In July 2018, Bausch and Lomb began to market over the counter (OTC) eye drops, using brimonidine's tartrate formulation in a concentration of 0.025%, as an ophthalmic vasoconstrictor under the brand name Lumify. Intended to relieve redness in the sclerae of the eyes for periods of up to eight hours at a time through its vasoconstrictive effects, Lumify was marketed as an alternative to Visine, the brand of tetrahydrozoline hydrochloride solution most commonly used for that purpose.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The speaker of a deliberative assembly, especially a legislative body, is its presiding officer, or the chair. The title was first used in 1377 in England.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The title was first recorded in 1377 to describe the role of Thomas de Hungerford in the Parliament of England.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The speaker's official role is to moderate debate, make rulings on procedure, announce the results of votes, and the like. The speaker decides who may speak and has the powers to discipline members who break the procedures of the chamber or house. The speaker often also represents the body in person, as the voice of the body in ceremonial and some other situations.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: By convention, speakers are normally addressed in Parliament as 'Mister Speaker', if a man, or 'Madam Speaker', if a woman. In other cultures, other styles are used, mainly being equivalents of English "chairman" or "president". Many bodies also have a speaker "pro tempore" (or deputy speaker), designated to fill in when the speaker is not available.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The President of the National Assembly of Armenia is the speaker of the house in the National Assembly of Armenia. The formation of this position was established on 1 August 1918.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The Speaker of the House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the Australian House of Representatives, the lower house of the Parliament of Australia. The President of the Senate is the presiding officer of the Australian Senate, the upper house of the Parliament.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: In Canada, the Speaker of the House of Commons ("président de la Chambre des communes") is the individual elected to preside over the House of Commons, the elected lower house. The speaker is a Member of Parliament (MP) and is elected at the beginning of each new parliament by fellow MPs. The Speaker's role in presiding over Canada's House of Commons is similar to that of speakers elsewhere in other countries that use the Westminster system. The Speaker does not vote except in the case of a tie. By convention, if required to vote, the Speaker will vote in favour of continuing debate on a matter, but will not ultimately vote for a measure to be approved.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The Speaker of the Senate of Canada ("président du Sénat") is the presiding officer of the Senate of Canada, the appointed upper house. The Speaker represents the Senate at official functions, rules on questions of parliamentary procedure and parliamentary privilege, and presides over debates and voting in the "Red Chamber". The Speaker of the Senate is appointed by the Governor General of Canada from amongst sitting senators upon the advice of the Prime Minister. The Speaker has a vote on all matters. In the event of a tie, the matter fails.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: At the provincial level, the presiding officer of the provincial legislatures is called the "Speaker" ("président") in all provinces except Quebec, where the term "President" is used. The presiding officer fulfills the same role as the Speaker of the House of Commons.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The President of the Chamber of Deputies is the highest authority of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile. The President of the Senate is the highest authority of the Senate of Chile.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: In the People's Republic of China, the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress is the presiding officer of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress which is considered China's top legislative body. As stipulated in Article 84 of the Constitution of China, should both the President and Vice-President become incapacitated, and the National People's Congress is unable to elect a timely replacement, the Chairman of the NPC Standing Committee will act as President.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The President of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong is the speaker of the Legislative Council and is elected by and from its members. The President presides over the Council meetings and is empowered to enforce the Rules of Procedures solely.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: While Members of the Legislative Council may be Hong Kong residents who are not Chinese citizens, the President can only be selected from those who possess a Chinese nationality and does not have a right of abode in foreign countries.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: Parliamentarism in Italy is centred on the Presidents of the two Houses, vested in defence of the members and of the assembly as a whole; so "the Speaker invites the representative of the Government not to deviate from the rules of parliamentary behaviour". Now constitutional community highlights changes also in this role. The President of the Senate also acts as deputy President of the Republic "in all cases in which the President cannot perform them".


title: Speaker (politics)

text: In New Zealand, the Speaker of the House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the New Zealand House of Representatives, the only chamber of the New Zealand Parliament. Precedent set by other Westminster-style parliaments means that Members of Parliament must always address the Speaker.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: In Singapore, the Speaker of the Parliament of Singapore is the head officer of the country's legislature. By recent tradition, the Prime Minister nominates a person, who may or may not be an elected Member of Parliament (MP), for the role. The person's name is then proposed and seconded by the MPs, before being elected as Speaker. The Constitution states that Parliament has the freedom to decide how to elect its Speaker.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: While the Speaker does not have to be an elected MP, they must possess the qualifications to stand for election as an MP as provided for in the Constitution. The Speaker also cannot be a Cabinet Minister or Parliamentary Secretary, and must resign from those positions prior to being elected as Speaker.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The Speaker is one of the few public sector roles which allow its office-holder to automatically qualify as a candidate in the Singapore presidential elections.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The Legislative Yuan is the highest legislative body of Taiwan. The President of the Legislative Yuan presides over its meetings and is elected by the legislators from among themselves. Until 1993, the President of the Control Yuan was elected by and from the members like the speaker of many other parliamentary bodies.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: In the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the Speaker is the individual elected to preside over the elected House of Commons. The speaker is a Member of Parliament (MP) and is elected at the beginning of each new parliament by fellow MPs.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The Lord Speaker is the presiding officer of the House of Lords. The presiding officer of the House of Lords was until recently the Lord Chancellor, who was also a member of the government (a cabinet member) and the head of the judicial branch. The Lord Chancellor did not have the same authority to discipline members of the Lords that the speaker of the Commons has in that house. The Lord Speaker is elected by the members of the House of Lords and is expected to be politically impartial.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: Both chambers of the United States Congress have a presiding officer defined by the United States Constitution. The Speaker of the United States House of Representatives presides over the lower house of Congress, the House of Representatives. The Speaker, elected by the entire House, is the top-ranking officer of the legislative branch of the federal government. Unlike in Commonwealth realms, the position is partisan, and the Speaker often plays an important part in running the House and advancing a political platform; Joseph Gurney Cannon, speaker from 1903 to 1911, is an extreme example.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The Vice President of the United States, as provided by the United States Constitution formally presides over the upper house, the Senate. In practice, however, the Vice President does not regularly appear in Congress owing to responsibilities in the Executive branch and the fact that the Vice President may only vote to break a tie, something that rarely occurs due to the filibuster preventing tie votes from occurring in practice. In the Vice President's absence, the presiding role is delegated to the most Senior member of the majority party, who is the President pro tempore of the United States Senate. Since the Senate's rules give little power to its non-member presider (who may be of the minority party), the task of presiding over daily business is typically rotated among junior members of the majority party.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: In the forty-nine states that have a bicameral legislature, the highest leadership position in the lower house is usually called the "Speaker" and the upper house is usually the "President of the (State) Senate. In Nebraska—the only state with a unicameral legislature—the senators elect one senator to serve as "Speaker of the Nebraska Legislature". In Tennessee, the senators elect a "Speaker of the Senate" who presides over the Tennessee Senate and serves as lieutenant governor.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The presiding officer for an upper house of a bicameral legislature usually has a different title, although substantially the same duties. When the upper house is called a senate, the equivalent title is often President of the Senate. Australia, Chile, the United States and many other countries have upper houses with presiding officers titled "president". In several American republics, the vice president of the country serves as the president of the upper house. This pattern is not universal, however. Some upper houses, including those of Canada, have a speaker.


title: Speaker (politics)

text: The Presiding Officer of the National Assembly for Wales, Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament, and Presiding Officer of the Northern Ireland Assembly fulfill the same role as the speaker.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: A charge is an offensive maneuver in battle in which combatants advance towards their enemy at their best speed in an attempt to engage in a decisive close combat. The charge is the dominant shock attack and has been the key tactic and decisive moment of many battles throughout history. Modern charges usually involve small groups of fireteams equipped with weapons with a high rate of fire and striking against individual defensive positions (such as a concertainer or bunker), instead of large groups of combatants charging another group or a fortified line.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: It may be assumed that the charge was practiced in prehistoric warfare, but clear evidence only comes with later literate societies. The tactics of the classical Greek phalanx included an ordered approach march, with a final charge to contact.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: In response to the introduction of firearms, Irish and Scottish troops at the end of the 16th century developed a tactic that combined a volley of musketry with a transition to rapid hand-to-hand combat using melee weapons. Initially successful, it was countered by effective discipline and the development of defensive bayonet tactics.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: A term used by the Allied forces to refer to Japanese human wave attacks and swarming staged by infantry units armed with bayonets and swords. This term came from the Japanese battle cry "Tennōheika Banzai" (天皇陛下万歳, "Long live His Majesty the Emperor"), shortened to banzai, specifically referring to a tactic used by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Pacific War.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: The development of the bayonet in the late 17th century led to the bayonet charge becoming the main infantry charge tactic through the 18th and 19th centuries and well into the 20th century. As early as the 19th century, tactical scholars were already noting that most bayonet charges did not result in close combat. Instead, one side usually fled before actual bayonet fighting ensued. The act of fixing bayonets has been held to be primarily connected to morale, the making of a clear signal to friend and foe of a willingness to kill at close quarters.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: The shock value of a charge attack has been especially exploited in cavalry tactics, both of armored knights and lighter mounted troops of both earlier and later eras. Historians such as John Keegan have shown that when correctly prepared against (such as by improvising fortifications) and, especially, by standing firm in face of the onslaught, cavalry charges often failed against infantry, with horses refusing to gallop into the dense mass of enemies, or the charging unit itself breaking up. However, when cavalry charges succeeded, it was usually due to the defending formation breaking up (often in fear) and scattering, to be hunted down by the enemy. While it was not recommended for a cavalry charge to continue against unbroken infantry, charges were still a viable danger to heavy infantry. Parthian lancers were noted to require significantly dense formations of Roman legionaries to stop, and Frankish knights were reported to be even harder to stop, if the writing of Anna Komnene is to be believed. However, only highly trained horses would voluntarily charge dense, unbroken enemy formations directly, and in order to be effective, a strong formation would have to be kept – such strong formations being the result of efficient training. Heavy cavalry lacking even a single part of this combination – composed of high morale, excellent training, quality equipment, individual prowess, and collective discipline of both the warrior "and" the mount – would suffer in a charge against unbroken heavy infantry, and only the very best heavy cavalrymen (e.g., knights and cataphracts) throughout history would own these in regards to their era and terrain.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: The cavalry charge was a significant tactic in the Middle Ages. Although cavalry had charged before, a combination of the adoption of a frame saddle secured in place by a breast-band, stirrups and the technique of couching the lance under the arm delivered a hitherto unachievable ability to utilise the momentum of the horse and rider. These developments began in the 7th century but were not combined to full effect until the 11th century. The Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081) was an early instance of the familiar medieval cavalry charge; recorded to have a devastating effect by both Norman and Byzantine chroniclers. By the time of the First Crusade in the 1090s, the cavalry charge was being employed widely by European armies.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: However, from the dawn of the Hundred Years' War onward, the use of professional pikemen and longbowmen with high morale and functional tactics meant that a knight would have to be cautious in a cavalry charge. Men wielding either pike or halberd in formation, with high morale, could stave off all but the best cavalry charges, whilst English archers with the longbow could unleash a torrent of arrows capable of wreaking havoc, though not necessarily a massacre, upon the heads of heavy infantry and cavalry in unsuitable terrain. It became increasingly common for knights to dismount and fight as elite heavy infantry, although some continued to stay mounted throughout combat. The use of cavalry for flanking manoeuvres became more useful, although some interpretations of the knightly ideal often led to reckless, undisciplined charges.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: Cavalry could still charge dense heavy infantry formations head-on if the cavalrymen had a combination of certain traits. They had a high chance of success if they were in a formation, collectively disciplined, highly skilled, and equipped with the best arms and armour, as well as mounted upon horses trained to endure the physical and mental stresses of such charges. However, the majority of cavalry personnel lacked at least one of these traits, particularly discipline, formations, and horses trained for head-on charges. Thus, the use of the head-on cavalry charge declined, although Polish hussars, French Cuirassiers, and Spanish and Portuguese conquistadores were still capable of succeeding in such charges, often due to their possession of the previously mentioned combination of the traits required for success in such endeavours.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: In the twentieth century, the cavalry charge was seldom used, though it enjoyed sporadic and occasional success.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: In what was called the ""last true cavalry charge"", elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States attacked Villista forces in the Battle of Guerrero on 29 March 1916. The battle was a victory for the Americans, occurring in desert terrain, at the Mexican town of Vicente Guerrero, Chihuahua.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: One of the most successful offensive cavalry charges of the 20th century was not conducted by cavalry at all, but rather by mounted infantry, when on 31 October 1917, the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged across two miles of open terrain in the face of Ottoman artillery and machine gun fire to successfully capture Beersheba in what would come to be known as the Battle of Beersheba.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: On 23 September 1918 the Jodhpur Lancers and Mysore Lancers of the 15th (Imperial Service) Cavalry Brigade charged Turkish positions on horseback at Haifa. Together the two regiments captured 1,350 German and Ottoman prisoners, including two German officers, 35 Ottoman officers, 17 artillery guns including four 4.2 guns, eight 77mm guns and four camel guns as well as a 6-inch naval gun, and 11 machine guns. Their own casualties amounted to eight dead and 34 wounded. 60 horses were killed and another 83 injured.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: On 16 May 1919, during the Third Anglo-Afghan War, the 1st King's Dragoon Guards made the last recorded charge by a British horsed cavalry regiment at Dakka, a village in Afghan territory, north west of the Khyber Pass.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: During the Spanish Civil War, there was a massive cavalry charge by a Francoist division during the Battle of Alfambra on 5 February 1938, the last great mounted charge in Western Europe.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: The Polish cavalry, in spite of being primarily trained to operate as rapid infantry and being better armed than regular Polish infantry (more anti—tank weapons and armored vehicles per capita) did execute up to 15 cavalry charges during the Invasion of Poland. The majority of the charges were successful and none were meant as a charge against armored vehicles. Some battles featured mutual charges by the Polish and German cavalry such as the Battle of Krasnobród (1939). The German cavalry scouts from 4th Light Division (Germany) charged the Polish infantry from 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade (Poland) and were countered by Polish tankettes moving from concealed positions at Zakliczyn.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: On November 17, 1941, during the Battle of Moscow, the Soviet 44th Cavalry Division charged the German lines near Musino, west of the capital. The mounted Soviets were ravaged by German artillery, then by machine guns. The charge failed, and the Germans said they killed 2,000 cavalrymen without a single loss to themselves. On 24 August 1942, the defensive charge of the Savoia Cavalleria at Izbushensky against Russian lines near the Don River was successful. British and American cavalry units also made similar cavalry charges during World War II. (See 26th Cavalry Regiment). The last successful cavalry charge, during World War II, was executed during the Battle of Schoenfeld on March 1, 1945. The Polish cavalry, fighting on the Soviet side, overwhelmed the German artillery position and allowed for infantry and tanks to charge into the city. The cavalry sustained only seven dead, while 26 Polish tankmen and 124 infantrymen as well as around 500 German soldiers ended up dead.)


title: Charge (warfare)

text: After World War II, the cavalry charge was clearly outdated and was no longer employed; this, however, did not stop modern troops from utilising horses for transport, and in countries with mounted police, similar (albeit unarmed) techniques to the cavalry charge are sometimes employed to fend off rioters and large crowds.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: At the start of the war in Afghanistan by United States forces, there was a cavalry charge by a unit of Green Berets led by Captain Mark Nutsch, and their use of horses in the charge was made into a Hollywood movie, "12 Strong". Across from the site of the former World Trade Center (1973–2001) there is a monument to the 'horse soldiers' who took part in that daring cavalry charge.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: In the firearms age, the basic parameters are speed of advance against rate (or effectiveness) of fire. If the attackers advance at a more rapid rate than the defenders can kill or disable them then the attackers will reach the defenders (though not necessarily without being greatly weakened in numbers). There are many modifiers to this simple comparison – timing, covering fire, organization, formation and terrain, among others. A failed charge may leave the would-be attackers vulnerable to a counter-charge.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: There has been a constant rise in an army's rate of fire for the last 700 years or so, but while massed charges have been successfully broken they have also been victorious. It is only since the mid-19th century that straight charges have become less successful, especially since the introduction of the repeating rifles, machine guns, and breech-loading artillery. They are often still useful on a far smaller scale in confined areas where the enemy's firepower cannot be brought to bear. Bayonet charges are still seen in the early 20th century, but are often limited to use against adversaries with inferior firepowers, when ammunition supply is scarce, or simply as a form of suicide attack to inflict fear on the enemy.


title: Charge (warfare)

text: In modern times, melee charges are practically extinct outside of riot control and street fighting, with a few exceptions such as the bayonet charge at the Battle of Danny Boy, but military charging tactics mainly take place with armored fighting vehicles such as tanks, infantry fighting vehicles and armored cars. These ground combat vehicles can either advance directly with marching fire, or transport infantry attackers quickly into proximity with the target position in order to assault and capture it. Air assaults are also a frequently used tactic to insert special operation raids against high-value targets.


title: Skipjack-class submarine

text: The "Skipjack" class was a class of United States Navy nuclear submarines (SSNs) that entered service in 1959-61. This class was named after its lead boat, . The new class introduced the teardrop hull and the S5W reactor to U.S. nuclear submarines. The "Skipjack"s were the fastest U.S. nuclear submarines until the s, the first of which entered service in 1974.


title: Skipjack-class submarine

text: The "Skipjack"s' design (project SCB 154) was based on the USS "Albacore"'s high-speed hull design. The hull and innovative internal arrangement were similar to the diesel-powered "Barbel" class that were built concurrently. The design of the "Skipjack"s was very different from the s that preceded the "Skipjack"s. Unlike the "Skate"s, this new design was maximized for underwater speed by fully streamlining the hull like a blimp. This required a single screw aft of the rudders and stern planes. Adoption of a single screw was a matter of considerable debate and analysis within the Navy, as two shafts offered redundancy and improved maneuverability. The so-called "body-of-revolution hull" reduced her surface sea-keeping, but was essential for underwater performance. Also like "Albacore", the "Skipjack"s used HY-80 high-strength steel, with a yield strength of , although this was not initially used to increase the diving depth relative to other US submarines. HY-80 remained the standard submarine steel through the "Los Angeles" class.


title: Skipjack-class submarine

text: Another "Barbel"-like innovation was the combination of the conning tower, control room, and attack center in one space. This was continued in all subsequent US nuclear submarines. Combining the functions in one space was facilitated by the adoption of "push-button" ballast control, another feature of "Albacore". Previous designs had routed the trim system piping through the control room, where the valves were manually operated. The "push-button" system used hydraulic operators on each valve, remotely electrically operated (actually via toggle switches) from the control room. This greatly conserved control room space and reduced the time required to conduct trim operations. The overall layout made coordination of the weapons and ship control systems easier during combat operations.


title: Skipjack-class submarine

text: Much of the overall internal arrangement was continued in the subsequent "Thresher"- and "Sturgeon"-class submarines. The "Skipjack"s' five compartments were called the Torpedo Room, Operations Compartment, Reactor Compartment, Auxiliary Machinery Space (AMS), and Engine Room. With the addition of a missile compartment, the arrangement of the first 41 US nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) was similar. The design was primarily single-hull, with a double hull around the torpedo room and AMS for ballast tanks. The design was improved on the "Thresher"s, the one-off , and subsequent attack submarines by relocating the torpedo room into the operations compartment via angled midships torpedo tubes to make room for a large sonar sphere in the bow. The "George Washington" class, the first SSBNs, were derived from the "Skipjack"s, with rebuilt from the incomplete first . The hull of "Scorpion" was laid down twice, as the original hull was redesigned to become the "George Washington". Also, the material for building was diverted into building , which delayed "Scamp"s progress.


title: Skipjack-class submarine

text: The bow planes were moved to the massive sail to cut down on flow-induced noise near the bow sonar arrays. They were known as sail planes (fairwater planes). The "Skipjack"s were the first class built with sail planes; they were later backfitted on the "Barbel"s. This design feature would be repeated on all U.S. nuclear submarines until the improved , the first of which was launched in 1988. The small "turtleback" behind the sail was the exhaust piping of the auxiliary diesel generator.


title: Skipjack-class submarine

text: The "Skipjack"s also introduced the S5W reactor to U.S. nuclear submarines. It was known as ASFR (Advanced Submarine Fleet Reactor) during development. The S5W was used on 98 U.S. nuclear submarines of 8 classes and the first British nuclear submarine, , making it the most-used US Navy reactor design to date.