title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Sasha reached a more mainstream audience with his remixes of Madonna's "Ray of Light" and GusGus's "Purple" for those artists' single releases. His success in pop music led him to score the music for the PlayStation video games "Wipeout 3" and "Gran Turismo". In 1999, Sasha and Digweed reunited in the studio to record their third edition in the Northern Exposure series, "". In addition to mixing and DJing, Sasha joined Charlie May of Spooky to produce the "Xpander EP", the title track of which many clubbers still view as "one of the greatest trance tracks of all time". He used the title track as a centerpiece for "", his second Global Underground release. Sasha continued his collaborations with BT on the track "Ride", which was released as a single on Yoshitoshi Records and on BT's "Movement in Still Life". Soon after, he worked with Underworld's Darren Emerson on the single "Scorchio", Sasha's first charting single in four years. In between touring and producing original material, Sasha and Digweed released the mix album "Communicate" in 2000, prompting them to temporarily leave their Twilo residency for a promotional tour of the United States. "Communicate" had mixed reviews: "Spin" stated that despite a "few stellar moments, ["Communicate"] is ultimately a let-down". LAUNCHcast, too, described "Communicate" as "boring and lackluster...stalled in a monochrome world of dead beats".


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: During the late 1990s, the increased popularity and visibility of "superstar DJs" led to the creation of superclubs such as Liverpool's Cream and Sheffield's Gatecrasher. By 2003, however, electronic dance music clubs languished. "The Guardian"'s pop critic, Alexis Petridis, attributed the "terminal decline" of dance music to its over-commercialisation by big-name DJs, such as Sasha, and to their demands for increased fees for performances. Though dance music had been declared "dead" by many in the dance industry, Sasha continued to tour—despite the closing of many superclubs, including his resident club Twilo in May 2001.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: After the closing of Twilo, Sasha and Digweed embarked on their ambitious Delta Heavy Tour of the United States in 2002. Featuring veteran tour producer Kevin Lyman and opening act Jimmy Van M, the tour covered 31 cities and played to 85,000 people. The appearances, complete with laser shows and video production, were more akin to rock concerts than to typical DJ events. This development was new to the DJing scene, and compelled other DJs to host similar concerts. A DVD of performance highlights, interviews, and behind-the-scenes footage was released as "Sasha & John Digweed present Delta Heavy" by System Recordings. Ben Turner, creator of the DanceStar awards, retrospectively described the Delta Heavy tour as "a landmark moment for electronic music". Though the duo of Sasha and Digweed never explicitly split up, demanding schedules and frequent independent touring prevented any substantial collaboration for a long period after Delta Heavy.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: During the latter half of 2002, Sasha collaborated with big beat artist Junkie XL on the single "Breezer". Junkie XL, along with Charlie May, also assisted Sasha on his second album of original material, "Airdrawndagger". "Airdrawndagger" took several years to produce due to Sasha's desire for the album to be "as near to perfection as possible." That March, Sasha suffered a perforated eardrum in a traffic accident, further delaying the album's production. Though the accident temporarily impaired his hearing, he drew inspiration for the album from his ordeal. "Airdrawndagger" was finally released, in August 2002, to much fanfare. However, the album was "received with a lot of head scratching", according to Sasha, which he attributed to its unexpected mix of genres. The album did not feature the heavier "club sound" of Sasha's previous mix albums, bearing a closer resemblance to ambient music. "Airdrawndagger" generally received favorable reviews, though critics noted that it was not as consistent and well produced as his DJ mixes. Sasha himself described it as "a selfish, slightly self-indulgent record", though he maintains that he is "happy with it to this day". Some critics, however, called it "sleepy"; "E!Online" described it as being "more in league with Yanni than Moby". To encourage listeners' interest, Sasha held an amateur remix contest for the album's single, "Wavy Gravy". Due to the contest's success, Sasha released all the tracks from "Airdrawndagger" on his website, so that fans could download and create their own versions.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: After the release of "Airdrawndagger", Sasha took the young DJ James Zabiela "under his wing". He introduced Zabiela to the CDJ1000 turntable, and signed Zabiela to the Excession talent agency. The two toured the United States together, which extended Sasha's influence to already-popular American DJs such as Kimball Collins.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: In 2004, Sasha signed with Global Underground to produce another mix album. However, he found the process of creating a standard mix album unrewarding, and decided to apply his production and DJing skills to a mix compilation that resembled a "real" album—that is, one featuring original material. Sasha's next studio album, "Involver", was "a fusion of mix album and production record", consisting entirely of Sasha's reworkings of tracks by other artists. "I tried to take all the separate sounds to all the tracks [and recombine them]", he later explained, "and it allowed me to mix the tracks together on a much deeper level." He accomplished this by sequencing the album using Ableton Live and Logic Pro. Ableton Live is a music loop-based software package that Sasha uses to engineer tracks in real-time, whereas he used Logic Pro primarily for premeditated edits to audio tracks.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: In 2005, Sasha produced his next mix album, "Fundacion NYC", based on his nights DJing in New York at the Crobar club. "Fundacion NYC" received positive reviews for its originality, though "JIVE Magazine" found it "too complicated for the ear". Sasha is pleased with the album, and plans to make a series of Fundacion albums. The next year, Sasha released 10,000 copies of a June 2006 DJ set for sale using Instant Live, making him the first DJ to use Instant Live's licensing and publishing services. In August 2007, Sasha announced the formation of his record label, Emfire, which will be the exclusive outlet for his new material in both vinyl and digital formats. Its first release was "COMA", a collaborative track by a group of the same name, which features Sasha, Barry Jamieson, Charlie May, and Duncan Forbes. While continuing to regularly DJ, Sasha began work on another "Involver" mix and the next "Fundacion" mix. Sasha's "Invol2ver" was released in September 2008, and "Invol<3r" was released in March 2013.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Though frequent performing kept them apart for several years, Sasha and Digweed announced that they would reunite for a few Australian performances. In November 2006, the duo performed at several venues, including Sydney, Brisbane, and Melbourne as well as numerous tour dates throughout 2007. In 2008, Sasha and Digweed kicked off an American tour with a performance at the Winter Music Conference. The duo played at mainly larger venues on the weekends and smaller (750–1000 people) shows on weekdays. Sasha described their music as "driving and dark" with "a little throwback of Twilo sounds".


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Sasha runs a music studio and lives in New York City, and maintains a house in London. He brings his wife with him on his frequent tours. Sasha finds the constant touring to be physically tiring, though he also feels that he thrives on it. While fans may regard Sasha to be a DJ "hero", he is uneasy with fame; Sasha considers himself "shy at heart" and is typically uncomfortable discussing his personal life. He has mentioned on numerous occasions that he is so busy with DJing and production that he rarely has any free time. However, he enjoys watching football, cooking, and sampling the cuisine of the countries he visits.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: The movie "New Emissions of Light & Sound" won the Best Original Score at the X-Dance Film Festival. The score was made up of new and previously unreleased tracks.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Sasha and Digweed have re-united again in recent years. The iconic duo Sasha & John Digweed performed a Back to Back set at the Ministry of Sound in London on 24 March 2016. Shortly thereafter, the duo announced a list of tour dates for September 2016 to re-launch themselves in a series of gigs and performing Back to Back.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Influenced by the early sound of The Haçienda, Sasha began his career playing records of the rough, danceable genre of acid house. By the early 1990s, he had moved towards a more dark European house music style, though by the time of his Shelley's residency he had begun to experiment more with American house. His tastes further developed as he moved to Renaissance, and he began to incorporate the pop-based sounds of Moby, Spooky, and Leftfield. Sasha's second Digweed collaboration, 1997's "Northern Exposure", was described as "epic house", and subsequent releases featured the spacey and atmospheric trance house sound of artists such as Sven Väth, Matt Darey, Tilt, and Armin Van Buuren. A rhythmic and bassy progressive house influence distinguished his "Xpander EP" and the mix albums of the late 1990s. At the time, Sasha's music rotation included records by artists such as Space Manoeuvres, BT, and Breeder, and Sander Kleinenberg's single "My Lexicon".


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: With the 2000 album "Communicate", the duo's work moved towards a deeper and darker house music sound. The album featured tracks by Morel, Mainline, and Jimmy Van M. The focus shifted from the melodic themes of previous releases in favour of a stronger emphasis on the bassline. The Delta Heavy Tour and "Airdrawndagger" marked a dramatic shift in style, and reflected the influences of relaxed ambient and breakbeat music on Sasha's work. These influences inspired the album's strong melodies, occasional breakbeat loops, and limited use of percussion. "Involver" was primarily a fusion of the musical style of house and ambient breakbeat music characterised by UNKLE and Lostep. With 2005's "Fundacion", Sasha's style was mostly progressive house and electro house music, with work by James Holden, Tiefschwarz, and Swayzak. With his success in progressive house, Sasha has commented that he feels people try to "pigeon-hole" him into playing that genre. Rather than calling it progressive house, Sasha considers his most recent material to be between house, trance, and breaks, though he has stated that he prefers not to associate himself with a specific genre of music.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Sasha attributes his success to his technical skill and ability to "connect with his dancers". During performances, he balances new and experimental material, while ensuring that "the party is still rockin'". His spontaneity carries over to studio work; he typically has only a vague idea of the track listing when beginning work on a new mix album. Because of this, his albums never turn out quite as he expects.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Sasha is known for applying new music technologies to both his studio and live work. Both Sasha and Digweed used Pro Tools on Macintosh computers when mixing their compilation albums, and used turntables and records during live performances. For their remixes, however, they used an Atari ST—an obsolete personal computer from the early 1990s—with Notator, a music sequencer used for arranging audio tracks. For more recent albums such as "Fundacion NYC", Sasha used Ableton Live for sequencing, partially because of Pro Tools' higher price. In live performances up to the late 1990s, Sasha performed exclusively using records. Before he started using the CDJ1000, a "turntable" used for CDs, he had his digital music specially cut to acetate records before each tour. Once he integrated CDs into his live act, Sasha operated CDJ1000s with Allen & Heath mixers and FireworX.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: Sasha began DJing with Ableton Live in his live act as well, using it in tandem with turntables. Having explored its functionality, Sasha found that he could perform entirely through Ableton Live. He then co-developed the Maven controller, which he uses as a physical interface to the Live software. (DJing with a mouse alone, he has said, is "not going to look right or feel right".) "Fundacion NYC" was the first album on which he regularly used the Maven controller. During DJ sets, clubbers often believe Sasha is playing new, unheard remixes; in fact, he is often playing modifications of tracks created in Ableton. Sasha most often uses the built-in Ableton plugins, preferring their superior stability and performance over third party plugins. For the first public performance of "Involver" material, he used a PowerBook running Ableton, but has since shifted to a setup that includes an iMac G5 and Ableton Live.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: The Internet has affected how Sasha obtains and uses tracks for performance. While he once hunted through record shops for new records on a regular basis, Sasha now regularly receives new tracks from producers and labels via the Internet. These tracks, which number in the hundreds each week, are edited by Sasha and others for use in his live DJ sets. He still buys hundreds of records on vinyl, which are then recorded and converted into music files prior to being edited in Ableton by his team of engineers.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: In February 2013, Sasha spoke to Resident Advisor about his decision to change from using Live and the Maven controller to a combination of Native Instruments' Traktor and CDs in his DJ sets. He felt that whilst Ableton Live had developed significantly as production software, it had become less successful as a DJing tool.


title: Sasha (DJ)

text: In 2005, the Grammy committee debated whether his mix compilation album, "Involver", was eligible for nomination as Best Electronic/Dance Album. The Recording Academy decided that the album was eligible, but "Involver" did not receive a nomination. Sasha did receive a Grammy nomination for his remix of Felix da Housecat's "Watching Cars Go By", which was featured on "Involver".


title: Scattered disc

text: The scattered disc (or scattered disk) is a distant circumstellar disc in the Solar System that is sparsely populated by icy small solar system bodies, which are a subset of the broader family of trans-Neptunian objects. The scattered-disc objects (SDOs) have orbital eccentricities ranging as high as 0.8, inclinations as high as 40°, and perihelia greater than . These extreme orbits are thought to be the result of gravitational "scattering" by the gas giants, and the objects continue to be subject to perturbation by the planet Neptune.


title: Scattered disc

text: Although the closest scattered-disc objects approach the Sun at about 30–35 AU, their orbits can extend well beyond 100 AU. This makes scattered objects among the coldest and most distant objects in the Solar System. The innermost portion of the scattered disc overlaps with a torus-shaped region of orbiting objects traditionally called the Kuiper belt, but its outer limits reach much farther away from the Sun and farther above and below the ecliptic than the Kuiper belt proper.


title: Scattered disc

text: Because of its unstable nature, astronomers now consider the scattered disc to be the place of origin for most periodic comets in the Solar System, with the centaurs, a population of icy bodies between Jupiter and Neptune, being the intermediate stage in an object's migration from the disc to the inner Solar System. Eventually, perturbations from the giant planets send such objects towards the Sun, transforming them into periodic comets. Many objects of the proposed Oort cloud are also thought to have originated in the scattered disc. Detached objects are not sharply distinct from scattered disc objects, and some such as Sedna have sometimes been considered to be included in this group.


title: Scattered disc

text: Traditionally, devices like a blink comparator were used in astronomy to detect objects in the Solar System, because these objects would move between two exposures—this involved time-consuming steps like exposing and developing photographic plates or films, and people then using a blink comparator to manually detect prospective objects. During the 1980s, the use of CCD-based cameras in telescopes made it possible to directly produce electronic images that could then be readily digitized and transferred to digital images. Because the CCD captured more light than film (about 90% versus 10% of incoming light) and the blinking could now be done at an adjustable computer screen, the surveys allowed for higher throughput. A flood of new discoveries was the result: over a thousand trans-Neptunian objects were detected between 1992 and 2006.


title: Scattered disc

text: The first scattered-disc object (SDO) to be recognised as such was , originally identified in 1996 by astronomers based at Mauna Kea in Hawaii. Three more were identified by the same survey in 1999: , , and . The first object presently classified as an SDO to be discovered was , found in 1995 by Spacewatch.


title: Scattered disc

text: As of 2011, over 200 SDOs have been identified, including Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà (discovered by Schwamb, Brown, and Rabinowitz), (NEAT), Eris (Brown, Trujillo, and Rabinowitz), Sedna (Brown, Trujillo, and Rabinowitz) and (Deep Ecliptic Survey). Although the numbers of objects in the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc are hypothesized to be roughly equal, observational bias due to their greater distance means that far fewer SDOs have been observed to date.


title: Scattered disc

text: Known trans-Neptunian objects are often divided into two subpopulations: the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc. A third reservoir of trans-Neptunian objects, the Oort cloud, has been hypothesized, although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made. Some researchers further suggest a transitional space between the scattered disc and the inner Oort cloud, populated with "detached objects".


title: Scattered disc

text: The Kuiper belt is a relatively thick torus (or "doughnut") of space, extending from about 30 to 50 AU comprising two main populations of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs): the classical Kuiper-belt objects (or "cubewanos"), which lie in orbits untouched by Neptune, and the resonant Kuiper-belt objects; those which Neptune has locked into a precise orbital ratio such as 2:3 (the object goes around twice for every three Neptune orbits) and 1:2 (the object goes around once for every two Neptune orbits). These ratios, called orbital resonances, allow KBOs to persist in regions which Neptune's gravitational influence would otherwise have cleared out over the age of the Solar System, since the objects are never close enough to Neptune to be scattered by its gravity. Those in 2:3 resonances are known as "plutinos", because Pluto is the largest member of their group, whereas those in 1:2 resonances are known as "".


title: Scattered disc

text: In contrast to the Kuiper belt, the scattered-disc population can be disturbed by Neptune. Scattered-disc objects come within gravitational range of Neptune at their closest approaches (~30 AU) but their farthest distances reach many times that. Ongoing research suggests that the centaurs, a class of icy planetoids that orbit between Jupiter and Neptune, may simply be SDOs thrown into the inner reaches of the Solar System by Neptune, making them "cis-Neptunian" rather than trans-Neptunian scattered objects. Some objects, like (29981) 1999 TD, blur the distinction and the Minor Planet Center (MPC), which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, now lists centaurs and SDOs together.


title: Scattered disc

text: The MPC, however, makes a clear distinction between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc, separating those objects in stable orbits (the Kuiper belt) from those in scattered orbits (the scattered disc and the centaurs). However, the difference between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc is not clear-cut, and many astronomers see the scattered disc not as a separate population but as an outward region of the Kuiper belt. Another term used is "scattered Kuiper-belt object" (or SKBO) for bodies of the scattered disc.


title: Scattered disc

text: Morbidelli and Brown propose that the difference between objects in the Kuiper belt and scattered-disc objects is that the latter bodies "are transported in semi-major axis by close and distant encounters with Neptune," but the former experienced no such close encounters. This delineation is inadequate (as they note) over the age of the Solar System, since bodies "trapped in resonances" could "pass from a scattering phase to a non-scattering phase (and vice versa) numerous times." That is, trans-Neptunian objects could travel back and forth between the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc over time. Therefore, they chose instead to define the regions, rather than the objects, defining the scattered disc as "the region of orbital space that can be visited by bodies that have encountered Neptune" within the radius of a Hill sphere, and the Kuiper belt as its "complement ... in the "a" > 30 AU region"; the region of the Solar System populated by objects with semi-major axes greater than 30 AU.


title: Scattered disc

text: The Minor Planet Center classifies the trans-Neptunian object 90377 Sedna as a scattered-disc object. Its discoverer Michael E. Brown has suggested instead that it should be considered an inner Oort-cloud object rather than a member of the scattered disc, because, with a perihelion distance of 76 AU, it is too remote to be affected by the gravitational attraction of the outer planets.


title: Scattered disc

text: Sedna is not the only such object: (discovered before Sedna) and have a perihelion too far away from Neptune to be influenced by it. This led to a discussion among astronomers about a new minor planet set, called the "extended scattered disc" (E-SDO).


title: Scattered disc

text: There are no clear boundaries between the scattered and detached regions. Gomes et al. define SDOs as having "highly eccentric orbits, perihelia beyond Neptune, and semi-major axes beyond the 1:2 resonance." By this definition, all distant detached objects are SDOs. Since detached objects' orbits cannot be produced by Neptune scattering, alternative scattering mechanisms have been put forward, including a passing star or a distant, planet-sized object. Alternative, it has been suggested that these objects have been captured from a passing star.


title: Scattered disc

text: A scheme introduced by a 2005 report from the Deep Ecliptic Survey by J. L. Elliott et al. distinguishes between two categories: "scattered-near" (i.e. typical SDOs) and "scattered-extended" (i.e. detached objects). Scattered-near objects are those whose orbits are non-resonant, non-planetary-orbit-crossing and have a Tisserand parameter (relative to Neptune) less than 3. Scattered-extended objects have a Tisserand parameter (relative to Neptune) greater than 3 and have a time-averaged eccentricity greater than 0.2.


title: Scattered disc

text: An alternative classification, introduced by B. J. Gladman, B. G. Marsden and C. Van Laerhoven in 2007, uses 10-million-year orbit integration instead of the Tisserand parameter. An object qualifies as an SDO if its orbit is not resonant, has a semi-major axis no greater than 2000 AU, and, during the integration, its semi-major axis shows an excursion of 1.5 AU or more. Gladman et al. suggest the term "scattering disk object" to emphasize this present mobility. If the object is not an SDO as per the above definition, but the eccentricity of its orbit is greater than 0.240, it is classified as a "detached TNO". (Objects with smaller eccentricity are considered classical.) In this scheme, the disc extends from the orbit of Neptune to 2000 AU, the region referred to as the inner Oort cloud.


title: Scattered disc

text: The scattered disc is a very dynamic environment. Because they are still capable of being perturbed by Neptune, SDOs' orbits are always in danger of disruption; either of being sent outward to the Oort cloud or inward into the centaur population and ultimately the Jupiter family of comets. For this reason Gladman et al. prefer to refer to the region as the scattering disc, rather than scattered. Unlike Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), the orbits of scattered-disc objects can be inclined as much as 40° from the ecliptic.


title: Scattered disc

text: SDOs are typically characterized by orbits with medium and high eccentricities with a semi-major axis greater than 50 AU, but their perihelia bring them within influence of Neptune. Having a perihelion of roughly 30 AU is one of the defining characteristics of scattered objects, as it allows Neptune to exert its gravitational influence.


title: Scattered disc

text: The classical objects (cubewanos) are very different from the scattered objects: more than 30% of all cubewanos are on low-inclination, near-circular orbits whose eccentricities peak at 0.25. Classical objects possess eccentricities ranging from 0.2 to 0.8. Though the inclinations of scattered objects are similar to the more extreme KBOs, very few scattered objects have orbits as close to the ecliptic as much of the KBO population.


title: Scattered disc

text: Although motions in the scattered disc are random, they do tend to follow similar directions, which means that SDOs can become trapped in temporary resonances with Neptune. Examples of possible resonant orbits within the scattered disc include 1:3, 2:7, 3:11, 5:22 and 4:79.


title: Scattered disc

text: The scattered disc is still poorly understood: no model of the formation of the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc has yet been proposed that explains all their observed properties.


title: Scattered disc

text: According to contemporary models, the scattered disc formed when Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) were "scattered" into eccentric and inclined orbits by gravitational interaction with Neptune and the other outer planets. The amount of time for this process to occur remains uncertain. One hypothesis estimates a period equal to the entire age of the Solar System; a second posits that the scattering took place relatively quickly, during Neptune's early migration epoch.


title: Scattered disc

text: Models for a continuous formation throughout the age of the Solar System illustrate that at weak resonances within the Kuiper belt (such as 5:7 or 8:1), or at the boundaries of stronger resonances, objects can develop weak orbital instabilities over millions of years. The 4:7 resonance in particular has large instability. KBOs can also be shifted into unstable orbits by close passage of massive objects, or through collisions. Over time, the scattered disc would gradually form from these isolated events.


title: Scattered disc

text: Computer simulations have also suggested a more rapid and earlier formation for the scattered disc. Modern theories indicate that neither Uranus nor Neptune could have formed "in situ" beyond Saturn, as too little primordial matter existed at that range to produce objects of such high mass. Instead, these planets, and Saturn, may have formed closer to Jupiter, but were flung outwards during the early evolution of the Solar System, perhaps through exchanges of angular momentum with scattered objects. Once the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn shifted to a 2:1 resonance (two Jupiter orbits for each orbit of Saturn), their combined gravitational pull disrupted the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, sending Neptune into the temporary "chaos" of the proto-Kuiper belt. As Neptune traveled outward, it scattered many trans-Neptunian objects into higher and more eccentric orbits. This model states that 90% or more of the objects in the scattered disc may have been "promoted into these eccentric orbits by Neptune's resonances during the migration epoch...[therefore] the scattered disc might not be so scattered."


title: Scattered disc

text: Scattered objects, like other trans-Neptunian objects, have low densities and are composed largely of frozen volatiles such as water and methane. Spectral analysis of selected Kuiper belt and scattered objects has revealed signatures of similar compounds. Both Pluto and Eris, for instance, show signatures for methane.


title: Scattered disc

text: Astronomers originally supposed that the entire trans-Neptunian population would show a similar red surface colour, as they were thought to have originated in the same region and subjected to the same physical processes. Specifically, SDOs were expected to have large amounts of surface methane, chemically altered into tholins by sunlight from the Sun. This would absorb blue light, creating a reddish hue. Most classical objects display this colour, but scattered objects do not; instead, they present a white or greyish appearance.


title: Scattered disc

text: One explanation is the exposure of whiter subsurface layers by impacts; another is that the scattered objects' greater distance from the Sun creates a composition gradient, analogous to the composition gradient of the terrestrial and gas giant planets. Michael E. Brown, discoverer of the scattered object Eris, suggests that its paler colour could be because, at its current distance from the Sun, its atmosphere of methane is frozen over its entire surface, creating an inches-thick layer of bright white ice. Pluto, conversely, being closer to the Sun, would be warm enough that methane would freeze only onto cooler, high-albedo regions, leaving low-albedo tholin-covered regions bare of ice.


title: Scattered disc

text: The Kuiper belt was initially thought to be the source of the Solar System's ecliptic comets. However, studies of the region since 1992 have shown that the orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable, and that ecliptic comets originate from the scattered disc, where orbits are generally less stable.


title: Scattered disc

text: Comets can loosely be divided into two categories: short-period and long-period—the latter being thought to originate in the Oort cloud. The two major categories of short-period comets are Jupiter-family comets (JFCs) and Halley-type comets. Halley-type comets, which are named after their prototype, Halley's Comet, are thought to have originated in the Oort cloud but to have been drawn into the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, whereas the JFCs are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. The centaurs are thought to be a dynamically intermediate stage between the scattered disc and the Jupiter family.


title: Scattered disc

text: There are many differences between SDOs and JFCs, even though many of the Jupiter-family comets may have originated in the scattered disc. Although the centaurs share a reddish or neutral coloration with many SDOs, their nuclei are bluer, indicating a fundamental chemical or physical difference. One hypothesis is that comet nuclei are resurfaced as they approach the Sun by subsurface materials which subsequently bury the older material.


title: Zero tolerance

text: A zero tolerance policy is one which imposes a punishment for every infraction of a stated rule. Zero tolerance policies forbid people in positions of authority from exercising discretion or changing punishments to fit the circumstances subjectively; they are required to impose a pre-determined punishment regardless of individual culpability, extenuating circumstances, or history. This pre-determined punishment, whether mild or severe, is always meted out.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Zero tolerance policies are studied in criminology and are common in formal and informal policing systems around the world. The policies also appear in informal situations where there may be sexual harassment or Internet misuse in educational and workplace environments. In 2014, the mass incarceration in the United States based upon minor offenses has resulted in an outcry on the use of zero tolerance in schools and communities.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Little evidence supports the claimed effectiveness of zero tolerance policies. One underlying problem is that there are a great many reasons why people hesitate to intervene, or to report behavior they find to be unacceptable or unlawful. Zero tolerance policies address, at best, only a few of these reasons.


title: Zero tolerance

text: According to the "Online Etymology Dictionary", the first recorded use of the term "zero tolerance" was in 1972 and was originally used in US politics.


title: Zero tolerance

text: An earlier use of the term came during the mid-1960s, in reference to an absolute ban of the pesticide heptachlor by the US Food and Drug Administration. For example, an article that appeared in the June 1963 issue of "Popular Mechanics" stated, "Heptachlor, though, is even more toxic and has been given a 'zero tolerance' by the FDA; that is, not even the slightest trace of heptachlor is permitted on food."


title: Zero tolerance

text: The idea behind zero tolerance policies can be traced back to the Safe and Clean Neighborhoods Act, which was approved in New Jersey in 1973 and had the same underlying assumptions. The ideas behind the 1973 New Jersey policy were later popularized in 1982, when a US cultural magazine, "The Atlantic Monthly", published an article by James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling about the broken windows theory of crime. Their name for the idea comes from the following example:


title: Zero tolerance

text: According to scholars, zero tolerance is the concept of giving "carte blanche" to the police for the inflexible repression of minor offenses, homeless people, and the disorders associated with them. A well-known criticism to this approach is that it redefines social problems in terms of security, it considers the poor as criminals, and it reduces crimes to only "street crimes," those committed by lower social classes and excludes white-collar crimes.


title: Zero tolerance

text: On the historical examples of the application of "zero tolerance" kind of policies, nearly all the scientific studies conclude that it failed to play the leading role in the reduction of crimes that is claimed by its advocates. On the other hand, large majorities of people who are living in communities in which zero tolerance policing has been followed believe that it has actually played a key, leading role in reducing crime in their communities. It has been alleged that in New York City, the decline of the crime rate had started well before Rudy Giuliani came to power in 1993. None of the decreasing processes had any particular inflection under him, and during the same period, the decrease in crime was the same in the other major US cities, even those with an opposite security policy. However, the experience of the vast majority of New Yorkers led them to precisely the opposite conclusion and allowed a Republican to win and retain the Mayor's office for the first time in decades, in large part because of the perception that zero tolerance policing was playing key to the city's improving crime situation. On the other hand, some argue that in 1984-1987, the city had already experienced a policy similar to Giuliani's but instead faced an increase in the crime rate.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Two American specialists, Edward Maguire, a professor at American University, and John Eck from the University of Cincinnati, rigorously evaluated all the scientific work designed to test the effectiveness of the police in the fight against crime. They concluded that "neither the number of policemen engaged in the battle, or internal changes and organizational culture of law enforcement agencies (such as the introduction of community policing) have by themselves any impact on the evolution of offenses." They argue that the crime decrease was caused by not the work of the police and the judiciary but economic and demographic factors: mainly an unprecedented economic growth with jobs for millions of young people and a shift from the use of crack towards other drugs.


title: Zero tolerance

text: An alternative argument comes from Kelling and William Bratton, Giuliani's original police chief, who argue that broken windows policing methods contributed to the decrease in crime but they were not a form of zero tolerance:


title: Zero tolerance

text: Wein sees those points as representing "focal meaning" of the concept. Not all must met literally, but any policy that clearly meets all six of those conditions would definitely be seen as a case of a zero tolerance policy.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Various institutions have undertaken zero tolerance policies such as in the military, in the workplace, and in schools in an effort to eliminate various kinds of illegal behavior such as harassment. Proponents hope that such policies will underscore the commitment of administrators to prevent such behavior. Others raise a concern about that use of zero tolerance policies, a concern that derives from an analysis of errors of omission and errors of commission.


title: Zero tolerance

text: The reasoning is that failure to proscribe unacceptable behavior may lead to errors of omission, and too little will be done. However, zero tolerance may be seen as a kind of ruthless management, which may lead to a perception of "too much being done." If people fear that their co-workers or fellow students may be fired, terminated, or expelled, they may not come forward at all when they see behavior deemed unacceptable. (That is a classic example of Type I and type II errors.) Thus, a too stringent policy may actually reduce reports of illegal behavior.


title: Zero tolerance

text: In the United States zero tolerance, an approach against drugs, was originally designed as a part of the War on Drugs under Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush ostensibly to curb the transfer of drugs at the borders. Law enforcement was to target the drug users, rather than the transporters or suppliers, under the assumption that harsh sentences and strict enforcement of personal use would reduce demand and strike at root cause of the drug problem. The policy did not require additional laws; existing law was instead enacted with less leniency. Similar concepts in other countries, such as Sweden, Italy, Japan, Singapore China, India, and Russia have since been labeled zero tolerance.


title: Zero tolerance

text: A consistence of zero tolerance is the absolute dichotomy between the legality of any use and no use and the equating all illicit drugs and any form of use as undesirable and harmful to society. That contrasts the views of those who stress the disparity in harmfulness among drugs and would like to distinguish between occasional drug use and problem drug use. Although some harm reductionists also see drug use as generally undesirable, they hold that the resources would do more good if they were allocated toward helping problem drug users, instead of combating all drug users. For example, research from Switzerland indicates that emphasis on problem drug users "seems to have contributed to the image of heroin as unattractive for young people."


title: Zero tolerance

text: More generally, zero tolerance advocates holds the aim at ridding the society of all illicit drug use and that criminal justice has an important role in that endeavor. The Swedish Parliament, for example set the vision "a drug-free society" as the official goal for the country's drug policy in 1978. The visions were to prompt new practices inspired by Nils Bejerot that were later called "zero tolerance." In 1980, the Swedish Minister of Justice dropped its practice of giving waivers for possession of drugs for personal use after years of its lowering of thresholds. The same year, police began to prioritize drug users and street-level drug crimes over drug distributors. In 1988, all non-medicinally prescribed usage became illegal, and in 1993, the enforcement of personal use was eased by permitting the police to take blood or urine samples from suspects. The unrelenting approach towards drug users, together with generous treatment opportunities, has received the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime's approval and is cited by the United Nations as one of the main reasons for Sweden's relatively-low drug prevalence rates. However, that interpretation of the statistics and the more general success of Sweden's drug policies are disputed.


title: Zero tolerance

text: The term is used in the context of driving under the influence of alcohol to refer to a lower illegal blood alcohol content for drivers under the age of 21. The legal limit in almost all US states is 0.08%. Utah is the exception, at 0.05%. For drivers under 21, the prohibited level in 16 states is 0.01% or 0.02%, which is also true in Puerto Rico, a US territory, despite its drinking age of 18.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, and Sweden have zero tolerance laws for drugs and driving in Europe, as opposed to the other main legal approach in which laws forbidding impaired driving are enacted instead. Legislation varies in different countries that practice zero tolerance on drug use for drivers. Only a limited set of (common) drugs is included in the zero tolerance legislation in Germany and Belgium. However, in Finland and Sweden, all controlled substances fall into the scope of zero tolerance unless they are covered by a prescription.


title: Zero tolerance

text: In Asia, Japan also practices zero tolerance. People receive a fine and can be fired even the next morning if there are still traces of alcohol. Foreigners may even be deported.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Zero tolerance policies have been adopted in schools and other education venues around the world. The policies are usually promoted as preventing drug abuse, violence, and gang activity in schools. Common zero tolerance policies concern possession or use of recreational drugs or weapons. Students and sometimes staff, parents, and other visitors who possess a banned item or perform any prohibited action for any reason are automatically punished. School administrators are barred from using their judgment, reducing severe punishments to be proportional to minor offenses, or considering extenuating circumstances. For example, the policies treat possession of a knife identically, regardless of whether the knife is a blunt table knife being used to eat a meal, a craft knife used in an art class, or a switchblade with no reasonable practical or educational value. Such policies are thus sometimes derided as "zero intelligence policies."


title: Zero tolerance

text: The unintended negative consequences are clearly documented and sometimes severe: school suspension and expulsion result in a number of negative outcomes for both schools and students. Although the policies are facially neutral, minority children are the most likely to suffer the negative consequences of zero tolerance.


title: Zero tolerance

text: The policies have also resulted in embarrassing publicity for schools. Also, they have been struck down by the courts and by Departments of Education and weakened by legislatures.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Some critics have argued that zero tolerance policing violates the Law Enforcement Code of Conduct passed by the International Association of Chiefs of Police. The code requires that police behave in a courteous and fair manner, treat all citizens in a respectable and decent manner, and never use unnecessary force. Criminologist Matthew Barnett Robinson criticized the practice:


title: Zero tolerance

text: Critics say that zero tolerance policing fails because it destroys several important requisites for successful community policing: police accountability, openness to the public, and community cooperation (Cox and Wade 1998: 106).


title: Zero tolerance

text: Zero tolerance violates principles of health and human services and standards for the education and healthy growth of children, families and communities. Even traditional community service providers in the 1970s aimed for "services for all" (such as zero reject), instead of 100% societal exclusion (zero tolerance). Public administration and disability has supported principles that include education, employment, housing, transportation, recreation, and political participation in the community. which zero tolerance groups claim are not a right in the US.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Opponents of zero tolerance believe that such a policy neglects investigation on a case-by-case basis and may lead to unreasonably harsh penalties for crimes that may not warrant such penalties in reality. Another criticism of zero tolerance policies is that it gives officers and the legal system little discretion in dealing with offenders. Zero tolerance policies may prohibit their enforcers from making the punishment fit the crime.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Fixed sentencing guidelines may incite offenders to commit more serious crimes because they know their punishment will be the same no matter the degree of their actions. That phenomenon of human nature is described in an adage that dates back to at least the 17th century, "might as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb". Until 1820, the English law prescribed hanging for stealing anything worth more than one shilling, whether it was a low-value lamb or a whole flock of sheep.


title: Zero tolerance

text: In the kids for cash scandal, Judge Mark Ciavarella, who promoted a platform of zero tolerance, received kickbacks for constructing a private prison that housed juvenile offenders and then proceeded to fill the prison by sentencing children to extended stays in juvenile detention for offenses as minimal as mocking a principal on Myspace, scuffles in hallways, trespassing in a vacant building, and shoplifting DVDs from Walmart. Critics of zero tolerance policies argue that harsh punishments for minor offences are normalized. The documentary "Kids for Cash" interviews experts on adolescent behaviour who argue that the zero tolerance model has become a dominant approach to policing juvenile offences after the Columbine shooting.


title: Zero tolerance

text: Recently, argumentation theorists (especially Sheldon Wein) have suggested that, frequently, when people advocate adopting a zero tolerance policy, they commit what he has called the "zero tolerance fallacy". Subsequently, Wein has proposed standards which arguments for zero tolerance policies must meet in order to avoid such fallacious inferences.


title: Performativity

text: "Performativity" is the concept that language can function as a form of social action and have the effect of change. The concept has multiple applications in diverse fields such as anthropology, social and cultural geography, economics, gender studies (social construction of gender), law, linguistics, performance studies, history, management studies and philosophy.


title: Performativity

text: The concept is first described by philosopher of language John L. Austin when he referred to a specific capacity: the capacity of speech and communication to act or to consummate an action. Austin differentiated this from constative language, which he defined as descriptive language that can be "evaluated as true or false". Common examples of performative language are making promises, betting, performing a wedding ceremony, an umpire calling a strike, or a judge pronouncing a verdict.


title: Performativity

text: Influenced by Austin, philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler argued that gender is socially constructed through commonplace speech acts and nonverbal communication that are performative, in that they serve to define and maintain identities. This view of performativity reverses the idea that a person's identity is the source of their secondary actions (speech, gestures). Instead, it views actions, behaviors, and gestures as both the result of an individual's identity as well as a source that contributes to the formation of one's identity which is continuously being redefined through speech acts and symbolic communication. This view was also influenced by philosophers such as Michel Foucault and Louis Althusser.


title: Performativity

text: The term derives from the founding work in speech act theory by ordinary language philosopher J. L. Austin. In the 1950s, Austin gave the name performative utterances to situations where saying something was doing something, rather than simply reporting on or describing reality. The paradigmatic case here is speaking the words "I do". Austin did not use the word "performativity".


title: Performativity

text: Breaking with analytic philosophy, Austin argued in "How to Do Things With Words" that a "performative utterance" cannot be said to be either true or false as a constative utterance might be: it can only be judged either "happy" or "infelicitous" depending upon whether the conditions required for its success have been met. In this sense, performativity is a function of the pragmatics of language. Having shown that "all" utterances perform actions, even apparently constative ones, Austin famously discarded the distinction between "performative" and "constative" utterances halfway through the lecture series that became the book and replaced it with a three-level framework:


title: Performativity

text: For example, if a speech act is an attempt to distract someone, the illocutionary force is the attempt to distract and the perlocutionary effect is the actual distraction caused by the speech act in the interlocutor.


title: Performativity

text: Austin's account of performativity has been subject to extensive discussion in philosophy, literature, and beyond. Jacques Derrida, Shoshana Felman, Judith Butler, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick are among the scholars who have elaborated upon and contested aspects of Austin's account from the vantage point of deconstruction, psychoanalysis, feminism, and queer theory. Particularly in the work of feminists and queer theorists, performativity has played an important role in discussions of social change (Oliver 2003).


title: Performativity

text: The concept of performativity has also been used in science and technology studies and in economic sociology. Andrew Pickering has proposed to shift from a "representational idiom" to a "performative idiom" in the study of science. Michel Callon has proposed to study the performative aspects of economics, i.e. the extent to which economic science plays an important role not only in describing markets and economies, but also in framing them. Karen Barad has argued that science and technology studies deemphasize the performativity of language in order to explore the performativity of matter (Barad 2003).


title: Performativity

text: Other uses of the notion of performativity in the social sciences include the daily behavior (or performance) of individuals based on social norms or habits. Philosopher and feminist theorist Judith Butler has used the concept of performativity in her analysis of gender development, as well as in her analysis of political speech. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick describes queer performativity as an ongoing project for transforming the way we may define—and break—boundaries to identity. Through her suggestion that shame is a potentially performative and transformational emotion, Sedgwick has also linked queer performativity to affect theory. Also innovative in Sedgwick's discussion of the performative is what she calls "periperformativity" (2003: 67–91), which is effectively the group contribution to the success or failure of a speech act.


title: Performativity

text: Philosopher and feminist theorist Judith Butler offered a new, more Continental (specifically, Foucauldian) reading of the notion of performativity, which has its roots in linguistics and philosophy of language. They describe performativity as "that reiterative power of discourse to produce the phenomena that it regulates and constrains." They have largely used this concept in their analysis of gender development.


title: Performativity

text: The concept places emphasis on the manners by which identity is passed or brought to life through discourse. Performative acts are types of authoritative speech. This can only happen and be enforced through the law or norms of the society. These statements, just by speaking them, carry out a certain action and exhibit a certain level of power. Examples of these types of statements are declarations of ownership, baptisms, inaugurations, and legal sentences. Something that is key to performativity is repetition. The statements are not singular in nature or use and must be used consistently in order to exert power (Hall 2000).


title: Performativity

text: Butler explains gender as an act. An act that people come to perform in the mode of belief which has been rehearsed much like a script. It is further asserted that people make a reality through repetition (just as actors who make a script). Butler sees gender not as an expression of what one is, rather as something that one does. Furthermore, they see it not as a social imposition on a gender neutral body, but rather as a mode of "self-making" through which subjects become socially intelligible. According to Butler's theory, homosexuality and heterosexuality are not fixed categories. For Butler, a person is merely in a condition of "doing straightness" or "doing queerness" (Lloyd, 1999).


title: Performativity

text: "For Butler, the distinction between the personal and the political or between private and public is itself a fiction designed to support an oppressive status quo: our most personal acts are, in fact, continually being scripted by hegemonic social conventions and ideologies" (Felluga, 2006).


title: Performativity

text: Several criticisms have been raised regarding Butler's concept of performativity. The first is that the theory is individual in nature and does not take into consideration such factors as the space within which the performance occurs, the others involved, and how others might see or interpret what they witness. Also overlooked are the unplanned effects of the performance act and the contingencies surrounding it (Lloyd, 1999).


title: Performativity

text: Another criticism is that Butler is not clear about the concept of subject. It has been said that in Butler's writings, the subject sometimes only exists tentatively, sometimes possesses a "real" existence, and other times is socially active. Also, some observe that the theory might be better suited to literary analysis as opposed to social theory. (Brickell, 2005)


title: Performativity

text: Others criticize Butler for taking ethnomethodological and symbolic interactionist sociological analyses of gender and merely reinventing them in the concept of performativity (Dunn 1997; Green 2007). For example, Green (2007) argues that the work of Kessler and McKenna (1978) and West and Zimmerman (1987) builds directly from Garfinkel (1967) and Goffman (1959) to deconstruct gender into moments of attribution and iteration in a continual social process of "doing" masculinity and femininity in the performative interval. These latter works are premised on the notion that gender does not precede but, rather, follows from practice, instantiated in micro-interaction. Butler builds off of this notion of gender's constructed nature to enhance the frames of analysis for recognizing and understanding marginalized and oppressed identities and groups.


title: Performativity

text: In "" (1979, English translation 1986), philosopher and cultural theorist Jean-François Lyotard defined performativity as the defining mode of legitimation of postmodern knowledge and social bonds, that is, power. In contrast to the legitimation of modern knowledge through such grand narratives as Progress, Revolution, and Liberation, performativity operates by system optimization or the calculation of input and outputs. In a footnote, Lyotard aligns performativity with Austin's concept of performative speech act. Postmodern knowledge must not only report: it must do something and do it efficiently by maximizing input/output ratios.


title: Performativity

text: Lyotard uses Wittgenstein's notion of language games to theorize how performativity governs the articulation, funding, and conduct of contemporary research and education, arguing that at bottom it involves the threat of terror: "be operational (that is commensurable) or disappear" (xxiv). While Lyotard is highly critical of performativity, he notes that it calls on researchers to explain not only the worth of their work but also the worth of that worth.


title: Performativity

text: Lyotard associated performativity with the rise of digital computers in the post-World War II period. In "Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945," historian Tony Judt cites Lyotard to argue that the Left has largely abandoned revolutionary politics for human rights advocacy. The widespread adoption of performance reviews, organizational assessments, and learning outcomes by different social institutions worldwide has led social researchers to theorize "audit culture" and "global performativity".


title: Performativity

text: Against performativity and Jurgen Habermas' call for consensus, Lyotard argued for legitimation by "paralogy", or the destabilizing, often paradoxical, introduction of difference into language games.


title: Performativity

text: Philosopher Jacques Derrida drew on Austin's theory of performative speech act while deconstructing its logocentric and phonocentric premises and reinscribing it within the operations of generalized writing. In contrast to structuralism's focus on linguistic form, Austin had introduced the "force" of speech acts, which Derrida aligns with Nietzsche's insights on language.


title: Performativity

text: In "Signature, Event, Context," Derrida focused on Austin's privileging of speech and the accompanying presumptions of the presence of a speaker ("signature") and the bounding of a performative's force by an act or a context. In a passage that would become a touchstone of poststructuralist thought, Derrida stresses the citationality or iterability of any and all signs.Every sign, linguistic or nonlinguistic, spoken or written (in the current sense of this opposition), in a small or large unit, can be "cited", put between quotation marks; in doing so it can break with every given context, engendering an infinity of new contexts in a manner which is absolutely illimitable. This does not imply that the mark is valid outside of a context, but on the contrary that there are only contexts without any center or absolute anchorage ["ancrage"]. This citationality, this duplication or duplicity, this iterability of the mark is neither an accident nor an anomaly, it is that (normal/abnormal) without which a mark could not even have a function called "normal." What would a mark be that could not be cited? Or one whose origins would not get lost along the way?Derrida's stress on the citational dimension of performativity would be taken up by Judith Butler and other theorists. While he addressed the performativity of individual subject formation, Derrida also raised such questions as whether we can mark when the event of the Russian revolution went awry, thus scaling up the field of performativity to historical dimensions.


title: Performativity

text: In "A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts", John Searle takes up and reformulates the ideas of his colleague J. L. Austin. Though Searle largely supports and agrees with Austin's theory of speech acts, he has a number of critiques, which he outlines: "In sum, there are (at least) six related difficulties with Austin's taxonomy; in ascending order of importance: there is a persistent confusion between verbs and acts, not all the verbs are illocutionary verbs, there is too much overlap of the categories, too much heterogeneity within the categories, many of the verbs listed in the categories don't satisfy the definition given for the category and, most important, there is no consistent principle of classification."


title: Performativity

text: His last key departure from Austin lies in Searle's claim that four of his universal 'acts' do not need 'extra-linguistic' contexts to succeed. As opposed to Austin who thinks all illocutionary acts need extra-linguistic institutions, Searle disregards the necessity of context and replaces it with the "rules of language".


title: Performativity

text: In economics, the "performativity thesis" is the claim that the assumptions and models used by professionals and popularizers affect the phenomena they purport to describe; bringing the world more into line with theory. This theory was developed by Michel Callon in "The Laws of the Markets", before being further developed in "Do Economists Make Markets" edited by Donald Angus MacKenzie, Fabian Muniesa and Lucia Siu, and in "Enacting Dismal Science" edited by Ivan Boldyrev and Ekaterina Svetlova. The most important work in the field is that of Donald MacKenzie and Yuval Millo on the social construction of financial markets. In a seminal article, they showed that the option pricing theory called BSM (Black-Scholes-Merton) has been successful empirically not because of the discovery of preexisting price regularities, but because participants used it to set option prices, so that it made itself true.


title: Performativity

text: The thesis of performativity of economics has been extensively criticized by Nicolas Brisset in "Economics and Performativity". Brisset defends the idea that the notion of performativity used by Callonian and Latourian sociologists leads to an overly relativistic view of the social world. Drawing on the work of John Austin and David Lewis, Brisset theorizes the idea of limits to performativity. To do this, Brisset considers that a theory, in order to be "performative", must become a convention. This requires conditions to be met. To take a convention status, a theory will have to:


title: Performativity

text: Based on this framework, Brisset criticized the seminal work of MacKenzie and Millo on the performativity of the Black-Scholes-Merton financial model. Drawing on the work of Pierre Bourdieu, Brisset also uses the notion of Speech Act to study economic models and their use in political power relations.


title: Performativity

text: MacKenzie's approach was also criticized by Uskali Maki for not using the concept of performativity in accordance with Austin's formulation. This point gave rise to a debate in economic philosophy.


title: Performativity

text: In management, the concept of performativity has also been mobilized, relying on its diverse conceptualizations (Austin, Barad, Barnes, Butler, Callon, Derrida, Lyotard, etc.).


title: Performativity

text: In the study of management theories, performativity shows how actors use theories, how they produce effects on organizational practices and how these effects shape these practices.


title: Performativity

text: For instance, by building on Michel Callon's perspective, the concept of performativity has been mobilized to show how the concept of Blue Ocean Strategy transformed organizational practices.


title: Performativity

text: The German news anchorman Hanns Joachim Friedrichs once argued that a good journalist should never act in collusion with anything, not even with a good thing. In the evening of November 9, 1989, the evening of the fall of the Berlin Wall, however, Friedrichs reportedly broke his own rule when he announced: "The gates of the wall are wide open." („Die Tore in der Mauer stehen weit offen.”) In reality, the gates were still closed. According to a historian, it was this announcement that encouraged thousands of East Berliners to march towards the wall, finally forcing the border guards to open the gates. In the sense of performativity, Friedrichs's words became a reality.


title: Performativity

text: Theories of performativity have extended across multiple disciplines and discussions. Notably, interdisciplinary theorist José Esteban Muñoz has related video to theories of performativity. Specifically, Muñoz looks at the 1996 documentary by Susana Aiken and Carlos Aparicio, "The Transformation."


title: Performativity

text: Although historically and theoretically related to performance art, video art is not an immediate performance; it is mediated, iterative and citational. In this way, video art raises questions of performativity. Additionally, video art frequently puts bodies and display, complicating borders, surfaces, embodiment, and boundaries and so indexing performativity.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University (, abbreviated AU) is a public research university with its main campus located in Aarhus, Denmark. It is the second largest and second oldest university in Denmark. The university is part of the Coimbra Group, the Guild, and Utrecht Network of European universities and is a member of the European University Association.


title: Aarhus University

text: The university was founded in Aarhus, Denmark, in 1928 and comprises five faculties in Arts, Natural Sciences, Technical Sciences, Health, and Business and Social Sciences and has a total of twenty-seven departments. It is home to over thirty internationally recognised research centres, including fifteen centres of excellence funded by the Danish National Research Foundation. The university has been ranked among the top 100 world's best universities. "Times Higher Education" ranks Aarhus University in the top 10 of the most beautiful universities in Europe (2018).


title: Aarhus University

text: The university's alumni include Bjarne Stroustrup, the inventor of programming language C++; Queen Margrethe II of Denmark; Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark; and Anders Fogh Rasmussen, former prime minister of Denmark and a secretary general of NATO.


title: Aarhus University

text: Nobel Laureate Jens Christian Skou (Chemistry, 1997) conducted his groundbreaking work on the Na/K-ATPase in Aarhus and remained employed at the university until his retirement. Two other nobel laureates, namely Trygve Haavelmo (Economics, 1989) and Dale T. Mortensen (Economics, 2010), were affiliated with the university.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University was founded on 11 September 1928 as "Universitetsundervisningen i Jylland" ("University Studies in Jutland") with a budget of 33,000 DKK and an enrollment of 64 students, which rose to 78 during the first semester. The university was founded as a response to the increasing number of students at the University of Copenhagen after World War I. Classrooms were rented from the Technical College and the teaching corps consisted of one professor of philosophy and four associate professors of Danish, English, German and French. Along with the "Universitets-Samvirket" ("University Association") which consisted of representatives of Aarhus' businesses, organisations and institutions, the municipality of Aarhus had fought since 1921 to have Denmark's next university located in the city.


title: Aarhus University

text: In 1929, the municipality of Aarhus gave the university land with a landscape of rolling hills. The design of the university buildings and 12 ha campus area was assigned to architects C. F. Møller, Kay Fisker and Povl Stegmann, who won the architectural competition in 1931. Construction of the first buildings began a year later, but the campus was developed in stages and is still under development . Since 1939, C. F. Møller Architects has been responsible for the architectural design of Aarhus University in accordance with the original functionalist design key, perhaps best exemplified by the characteristic yellow brick and tile.


title: Aarhus University

text: The first buildings were finished in 1933 and housed the Departments of Chemistry, Physics and Anatomy. These departments later moved to newer buildings at the campus and the original building complex now house Department of Psychology and Department of Political Science. The construction of the first stage was funded solely by donations which totaled 935,000 Dkr and the buildings covered an area of 4,190m. One of the most generous contributors to the first stage was "De Forenede Teglværker i Aarhus" ("The United Tileworks of Aarhus") led by director K. Nymark. "Forenede Teglværker" decided to donate 1 million yellow bricks and tiles worth c. 50,000 Dkr and later decided to extend the donation to all bricks needed. The inauguration on 11 September 1933, marked the first official use of the name Aarhus University and was celebrated in a tent on campus, attended by King Christian X, Queen Alexandrine, their son Crown Prince Frederick and Prime Minister Stauning together with 1000 invited guests. On 23 April 1934, Aarhus University was given permission to hold examinations by the king and on 10 October 1935, Professor Dr. phil. Ernst Frandsen was appointed the first rector of the university.


title: Aarhus University

text: Shortages of materials and a stressed economy postponed and delayed further development of Aarhus University. In 1941, construction of the Main Building ("Hovedbygningen") commenced, a complex to house the university aula (assembly hall) and canteen among academic and administrative purposes. The stringent minimalist and uncompromising functionalistic design of the first university buildings from 1933 had stirred some local dissatisfaction and it was decided that the Main Building should possess more traditional romantic and classical architectural inspirations - although in agreement with the original architectural plan - and also make use of more lavish and expensive materials. The Main Building was finished in 1946 and still stands out from the rest of the university campus as somewhat different in its architectural design.


title: Aarhus University

text: In comparison with the original 4,190m floor space of the first buildings, Aarhus University now holds a floor space of 246,000m in the University Park alone. A series of buildings outside the main campus adds an additional floor space of 59,000m.


title: Aarhus University

text: From 1928, Aarhus University offered courses in languages and philosophy, but the students were unable to finish their studies without going to the University of Copenhagen for their final examinations. By request of the Ministry of Education, the Teachers' Association made a draft of how to conduct the final examinations in the humanistic subjects in Aarhus and in the draft, the association proposed that the faculty was named the Faculty of Humanities by analogy with the corresponding faculties in Uppsala, Lund and Turku. After negotiations between the faculties in Aarhus and Copenhagen, the king declared on 8 May 1935 that the final university examinations could be held at the Faculty of Philosophy in Copenhagen as well as at the Faculty of Humanities in Aarhus. This was the first final examinations Aarhus University was allowed to hold, but on 24 July 1936 the king granted the Faculty of Humanities the right to hold examinations for the magister degree and in 1940 for the PhD.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University had offered courses in basic medical subjects from 1933 and on 10 October 1935 the Faculty of Medicine was formally established. The establishment of a Faculty of Medicine in Aarhus was met with some opposition from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Copenhagen. The professors thought that the state should not establish a new faculty until the shortcomings of the old one had been solved. In the end, the professors agreed to sign a recommendation for the new faculty as long as improvements to the old one were not delayed. By 1953, the Faculty of Medicine had been fully built, complete with lectures, professorship chairs, final exams, research facilities and the hospitals of Aarhus had been expanded to meet the demands of clinical training. In 1992, the Faculty of Medicine merged with the dental school and changed its name to Faculty of Health Sciences. In 1998, the new faculty emphasized clinical training for students of the third semester who have frequented one year of anatomy and cell biology, and introduced a new not assessed curriculum of pre-clinical skills laboratory (two hours per week for nine weeks) followed by two weeks of social medicine and an eight-week clinical clerkship at county hospitals.


title: Aarhus University

text: The university established its Faculty of Economics and Law in 1936, but when it offered courses in political science and in psychology (1959 and 1968, respectively), the faculty changed its name to the Faculty of Social Sciences. The faculty had to be funded solely on private donations and once the university demonstrated it had the needed financial means, the Minister of Education recommended the Finance Committee to approve the establishment of the faculty on 27 January 1936 since the state did not have to grant financial support. The Committee approved and by declaration of the king on 5 November 1937, the faculty could hold examinations in economics and law.


title: Aarhus University

text: Courses had been offered in theology since 1932 at the Faculty of Humanities, but in 1942 the Faculty of Theology was formally established. Already on 22 June 1928, Reverend Balslev of Aarhus had proposed that Universitetsundervisningen i Aarhus (not yet university) taught basic courses in theology. Though the proposal was greeted by the management, the Faculty of Theology in Copenhagen pointed out that it would take three full-time teachers of the New Testament, Old Testament and ecclesiastical history, respectively as well as education in Latin, Greek and Hebrew by the Faculty of Humanities. At this time, Universitetsundervisningen i Aarhus did not have the financial means to meet these criteria so the case was shelved for the time being. In April 1931, the case reopened, this time by Bishop Skat Hoffmeyer who proposed free teaching in the required subjects. The management asked the faculty in Copenhagen if this was acceptable, but because the teaching was free, the faculty saw it as tutoring rather than actual teaching and they neither approved or disproved of such an approach though they did not see it as actual university teaching. The municipality of Aarhus did not aid with funds and the management deemed a request of the state to be futile so they decided to disregard getting the teaching approved and start it anyway under the supervision of Skat Hoffmeyer. On 5 September 1932 the Reverend Asmund held the first lecture in theology. This private education in theology continued until the university could hire its own professors in 1938, and in 1942 Aarhus University could at long last establish the Faculty of Theology. The Aarhus New University Hospital shares Masonic architectural elements related to its history of seat of the Danish Order of Freemasons.


title: Aarhus University

text: In 1938, the university management acknowledged it was time to consider an expansion due to lack of space and overcrowding of the auditoriums. The solution was the Main Building ("Hovedbygningen"), containing both rooms and facilities for new academic areas, as well as housing for the general administration, an assembly hall and a canteen. The building was to be organized according to a principle of institutes so that teaching and research took place in certain rooms with their own library and study for the professor.


title: Aarhus University

text: The construction of the building took place during the German occupation of Denmark (1940–45) in World War II, which affected the process in more than one way. No state funds had been involved in the construction of the first university building and a second building for physiology, biochemistry, and a high voltage laboratory, but because the Nazis were against civil use of materials and work forces, the state contributed to the main building. In 1943, the Gestapo, Sicherheitsdienst, Geheime Feldpolizei and Abwehr set up their regional headquarters in the five student halls of residence on campus. Fearing that the same would happen to the new main building, its completion was delayed. C. F. Møller later wrote that for once there was plenty of time to work on the details of the building, like patterned brickwork, acoustic screens and furniture. Furniture designer Aage Windeleff, designed the furniture specially for the main building, while Børge Mogensen's industrially produced furniture designs are the most commonly used elsewhere on campus.


title: Aarhus University

text: The presence of the Gestapo in Aarhus led to multiple arrests of Danish resistance fighters and the resistance movement soon realized they needed outside assistance. On 15 October, the leader of the illegal Danish underground army in Jutland, Niels Bennike, sent the following telegram to London:


title: Aarhus University

text: On 31 October 1944, the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo's headquarters in residence halls 4 and 5, also killing ten civilian workers. 2 Group Bomber Command carried out the bombing by using 25 Mosquito planes. The air strike on the University of Aarhus took place in a heavily populated area and the campus was surrounded by three hospitals. To avoid civilian casualties, the RAF prepared with a model of the campus, shooting at residence halls 4 and 5 with chalk bags. The architect C. F. Møller was in the main building during the air strike but survived and was later dug free from the rubble. The reconstructed main building opened on 11 September 1946.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University was an independent institution until 1970, but with management representatives from the city council and the organization of Universitets-Samvirket. Hereafter, the university became a state-run institution under the first University Act. With the next University Act in 1992, external organizations were once again represented in the administration and under the 2003 Act, all Danish universities are governed by a nationwide university board. This board appoints the rector, deans and heads of departments instead of the students. It commenced in January 2004 for the first time and in August 2005, a new rector was appointed.


title: Aarhus University

text: In 1994, the university was a scene of a shooting; three people (including the perpetrator) were killed and two more were injured.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University has hosted significant musical events. The Grateful Dead played there on April 16, 1972; the recorded performance was part of the group's Europe '72 tour.


title: Aarhus University

text: In the current century, several higher education institutions have been merged with Aarhus University. Following the Danish University reform of 2006, AU merged with the Business and Engineering School in Herning (now part of faculty of Business and Social Science) and the Danish School of Education in Copenhagen (now part of Faculty of Arts), making the university nationwide and adding 6,000 students. In 2011 the National Environmental Research Institute (NERI), until then part of the Ministry of Environment and Energy, and the Danish Research Centre for Agricultural Sciences (DJF), until then part of the Ministry of Agriculture, were merged into AU. The two institutions were initially integrated as separate entities, later fully integrated into the Faculty of Science and Technology.


title: Aarhus University

text: In 2012, Aarhus University's School of Engineering was merged with the university proper, making it Denmark's largest.


title: Aarhus University

text: A major reorganisation of the university effective 1 Jan 2011 reorganised departments into four faculties: Arts, Science and Technology, Health, and Business and Social Sciences. A further reorganisation occurred effective 1 Jan 2020, where Science and Technology was split into two new entities: Faculty of Technical Sciences and Faculty of Natural Sciences.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University's main campus is located in central Aarhus, encircling the University Park ("Universitetsparken").


title: Aarhus University

text: The campus master plan competition was won in 1931 by the collaborative scheme of Danish architects Kay Fisker, C. F. Møller and Povl Stegmann in collaboration with landscape architect Carl Theodor Sørensen. The design includes a wide variety of buildings in a large area, but each building is constructed of the same yellow brick and roofing tile and with a common design key, providing the whole campus with a unified appearance. Construction commenced in 1932 and has continued into present times, lately in 1999-2001 ("Søauditorierne") and 2014-17 (AU Health). The original main building was one of the first Danish functionalist public buildings and has been included in the Ministry of Culture's canon of Danish architecture; it is acknowledged as one of the twelve most significant architectural works in the cultural history of Denmark. In a harmonic interplay with the park, the yellow buildings form a campus that has received international recognition for its aesthetic values and it has been protected by law since 1993, in order to conserve its unique design. C. F. Møller and his company, C. F. Møller Architects have continued as architects of the campus ever since, except the new department of AU Health currently under construction, designed by Cubo. The park and campus has been expanded throughout the years, in 1957 the old park of Vennelystparken, just south of the university park was included.


title: Aarhus University

text: Apart from the main campus, Aarhus University has several smaller campuses and departments throughout Aarhus. This includes the campus on Fuglsangs Alle in Aarhus V, hosting a large part of Aarhus BSS, and campus Nobelparken, adjacent to the university park and built in 1997–2004 in red brick, also by C. F. Møller Architects, but in a different design, parts of the research park IT-byen at Katrinebjerg, where the Department of Computer Science also teach and do research, and more recently (still under construction), the buildings of the former municipal hospital across the street from the university park. Archaeology and anthropology takes residence in Moesgård Manor, an old manor house at the new Moesgård Museum.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University also has locations outside of Aarhus. In the city of Herning, there is a small campus where a few of the university's business, engineering and technology programmes are taught, called the Department of Business Development and Technology. In Copenhagen, part of the Danish School of Education is located at Campus Emdrup.


title: Aarhus University

text: A large part of the dormitories, e.g. Børglum Kollegiet, and youth accommodation in Aarhus is administered by the non-profit housing cooperative of Kollegiekontoret or though the public web-platform Ungdomsboliger.dk providing access to student and youth accommodation all across Denmark. Only the (full name: ) dormitories are located on campus and run by Aarhus University; other dormitories are located elsewhere, all across the city. It is also the only dormitory exclusively for students at Aarhus University.


title: Aarhus University

text: The university is governed by the university board which has 11 members: six members recruited outside the university form the majority of the board, two members are appointed by the academic staff, one member is appointed by the technical/administrative staff, and two members are appointed by the university students. As required by Danish law, the rector is appointed by the university board. The rector in turn appoints deans and deans appoint heads of departments. There is no faculty senate and faculty is not involved in the appointment of rector, deans, or department heads. Hence Danish universities has no faculty governance.


title: Aarhus University

text: , more than 32,000 students were enrolled in Aarhus University. Each year more than 1000 international exchange students come to Aarhus University to study for one or two terms. In 2009 close to 3000 international students were enrolled in full degree programmes. Aarhus University is an international university with a large proportion of students at the post-baccalaureate level: over half of its students are enrolled in master's degree and PhD programmes. In 2011, 59 of the university's 113 Master's degree programmes were taught in English. Talent development of young researchers has been identified as one of the university's core activities. This means that highly qualified students have the option of starting their PhD studies before completing their master's degree. The university's doctoral programmes allow talented students to enroll in a combined Master's/PhD programme either right after completing the master's degree (the 5+3 track) or one year into their master's degree programme (the 4+4 track). Since 2006 the number of PhD students has risen from approximately 1000 to approximately 1700 in 2010.


title: Aarhus University

text: The International Centre maintains international partnerships and combines a wide range of services for exchange students, international full-degree students, PhDs and visiting scholars. The International Centre is often the first stop for foreign students at Aarhus University, since the centre offers advice on finding housing and living in Denmark.


title: Aarhus University

text: Starting in 2011 all summer courses and summer schools offered by Aarhus University for bachelor's, master's and PhD students will be gathered together and expanded to provide more diversity in a new framework: AU Summer University. In the summer of 2011 more than 80 courses were offered within the fields of humanities, theology, social sciences, health sciences, natural sciences, agricultural sciences, business and educational sciences. Summer courses are open to both Danish and international students.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University has seen some deep administrational changes since the turn of the century and now also includes several large sub-departments such as Aarhus BSS, AU Engineering and others. Each of these sub-departments offers undergraduate and/or graduate programmes specific to their own field of study. The core academic degree programmes of Aarhus University includes the following fields:


title: Aarhus University

text: Since 1944, Aarhus University owned Cheminova, a chemical manufacturer which, among other controversies, has been selling methyl parathion pesticide to Brazil farmers. In 2009, senior researcher Mette Jensen emailed her colleagues at AU, asking whether they thought Cheminova should stop selling the controversial pesticides. For this, the university threatened her with dismissal. The university's Pro-Vice-Chancellor Søren E. Frandsen denied that the university had made any mistakes or threatened the freedom of speech and academic freedom of its staff.


title: Aarhus University

text: On 30 April 2015, Cheminova was sold to the FMC Corporation for DKK 8.5 billion, a controversial issue in itself.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University is home to 15 Centres of Excellence supported by the Danish National Research Foundation and a considerable number of major research centres.


title: Aarhus University

text: MINDLAB was established with a DKK 120 million grant awarded by the Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. At MINDLab neuroscientists, psychologists, biologists, statisticians and researchers from other fields work together to understand the brain, its disorders, and its development through physical and social interactions – and vice versa.


title: Aarhus University

text: The Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (founded in 2002 by Professor Flemming Besenbacher) offers a degree programme in nanoscience with an interdisciplinary curriculum covering a broad spectrum of introductory, advanced and specialised courses, aimed at providing the student with a sufficiently broad basis to conduct interdisciplinary research within nanoscience and at the same time achieve disciplinary depth and specialised skills in selected areas. Hence, the programme encompasses physics, chemistry, biology, molecular biology, mathematics and computer science.


title: Aarhus University

text: In 2011 the National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark (NERI) was organisatorically moved from the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy and merged into AU, under the new name Danish Centre for Environment and Energy (DCE). DCE consists of two departments: department of Bioscience and Department of Environmental Sciences, as well as a common secretariat, all under the Faculty of Technical Sciences. The core obligations of DCE continues to be to provide research based monitoring and advice to the Danish Government on environmental issues and conduct independent research and education within the same fields.


title: Aarhus University

text: Also in 2011 the Agricultural Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture was merged into AU. First as a separate faculty for Agricultural Research, later as part of the Faculty of Technical Sciences. The former departments are now organised as Departments of Agroecology, Animal Sciences, and Food Science, together with a common secretariat: Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture (DCA). The core obligations of DCA is to provide advice and supporting research to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, while the departments also engage in independent research and teaching. The Global Rust Reference Center provides testing and investigation services of new and difficult cases of wheat stem rust/black stem rust.


title: Aarhus University

text: Students from different fields meet in the numerous Friday bars and at various events organized by student organizations. The Friday bars are often organised by students from the different departments who set up a small, local bar in a canteen or classroom where beers and non-alcoholic drinks are served. The university also offers the Student bar ("Studenterbaren") though Studenterhus Aarhus.


title: Aarhus University

text: The university also has a number of libraries, some of which are open around the clock with student or employee cards. Almost every department has its own library, but the main library is the State and University Library. It has an extensive electronic journal database which students and staff can access either at the library or from home.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University Sports (AUS) is open to all university students and organises a wide range of activities from badminton, to fencing and chess.


title: Aarhus University

text: The largest student organisations at Aarhus University are the Student Union ("Studenterrådet ved Aarhus Universitet") and "Studenterlauget". The Student Union represents the main student body at Aarhus University in many boards and forums, while "Studenterlauget" is a mainly social organisation at School of Business and Social Sciences. The Student Union has both student seats on the university board. The Student Union also arranges annual concerts and seminars, and publishes the student magazine "Delfinen" (The Dolphin).


title: Aarhus University

text: Besides the Student Union, there are political student organisations at the university often connected to the Danish political parties, the largest of which include the Social-Democratic Students ("Frit Forum"), Conservative Students ("Konservative Studenter"), and Liberal Students ("Liberale Studerende"). The Conservative Students union publishes the student magazine "Critique". The Liberal Students union publishes the leaflet Minerva.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University offers many activities and services for foreign and Danish students. Several "Friday Bars", clubs organized and crewed by students at the university offer cheap beer and drinks, which has a wide appeal to the student body.


title: Aarhus University

text: Studenternes Hus (The Students House) was built in 1964 at the central campus to accommodate students organisations, activities, festivities and gatherings. Among many other things, the buildings are headquarters to the students organisation "Studenterhus Aarhus", and Aarhus University offers a free membership to all exchange students. The Students House is a meeting place for international and Danish students in Aarhus and "Studenterhus Aarhus" organize social and cultural activities throughout the year, ranging from parties and road trips, to language classes and weekly international nights (a popular dinner club). The Students' House including the Student bar used to be run by the independent Studenterhusfonden, but was taken over by the university itself in 2020.


title: Aarhus University

text: AUS is the official sports club of Aarhus University, and is open to all university students. It is an umbrella organisation consisting of 18 independent member clubs, which host a wide range of activities, from badminton to fencing to chess. In addition, AUS also offers independent activities such as indoor soccer tournaments, badminton facilities, and surfing trips.


title: Aarhus University

text: Dale's Café is a meeting place for international students and the university's PhD students that opened in 2011. The café offers coffee, sandwiches and a wide selection of beers. It has an informal lounge area where students and young researchers can relax while enjoying snacks and beverages. Like the main building, Dale's Café is named after Aarhus University's 2010 Nobel Laureate in Economic Sciences, Dale T. Mortensen. The Dale T. Mortensen Building houses the International Centre, the PhD House and the IC Dormitory, which contains 28 dorm rooms and two apartments dedicated to recently arrived international PhD students.


title: Aarhus University

text: Klubben (in English 'the club') is a bar located at the former ASB (Aarhus School of Business), now under the faculty of School of Business and Social Sciences. The bar is open during regular school hours and weekdays, but hosts larger parties during Fridays and in relation to major sports events. Admittance is usually restricted to students of the School of Business and Social Sciences.


title: Aarhus University

text: Studenterlauget, School of Business and Social Sciences (at the former ASB) is currently the largest student organisation in Denmark. The organisation has approximately 4,000 members whom they service through nine smaller "business units". Studenterlauget has around 300 student employees.


title: Aarhus University

text: Queen Margrethe II, the Queen regnant of Denmark since 1972, studied archaeology and political science during 1961–1962.


title: Aarhus University

text: Aarhus University is highly ranked by international organizations and maintains its own page listing its current rankings. It is ranked 71st by the Shanghai Ranking (2021), 89th by National Taiwan University Ranking (2018), 95th by the U.S. News & World Report (2018), 106th by Times Higher Education World University Rankings (2021), and 155th by QS World University Rankings (2021).


title: John Finnegan (The Bold and the Beautiful)

text: John Finnegan is a fictional character from "The Bold and the Beautiful", an American soap opera on the CBS network, portrayed by Tanner Novlan.


text: Created by executive producer Bradley Bell in 2020, Finn made his first appearance on July 23 of that year, and is introduced as the doctor who treats Steffy Forrester (Jacqueline MacInnes Wood) after she sustains injuries in a motorcycle accident and develops a dependency to her pain pills. In addition to the character's presence as part of an opioid addiction storyline, Finn evolved and became Steffy's love interest, subsequent to the pair meeting originally when she landed at the hospital, and both experiencing an immediate attraction to one another and, essentially, fell in love at first sight. Months later, Finn impregnates Steffy, the duo gets engaged, and then delivers their son, Hayes Finnegan, via home birth. They later marry one another in an intimate ceremony at the Forrester Estate.


text: Finn is later revealed to be the long-lost son of the nefarious villainess Sheila Carter (Kimberlin Brown). Finn is the product of an extramarital affair between Sheila and Jack Finnegan (Ted King) while he was married to Finn's adoptive mother, Li Finnegan (Naomi Matsuda). Unbeknownst to Li and Finn, Sheila gave Finn up as a newborn and Jack arranged a secret adoption of his own biological son in order to keep his affair secret. Sheila made many attempts at contact with Finn, most of which were unsuccessful or disjointed due to Steffy's disapproval.


text: "TV Source Magazine" acclaimed Finn as a "strapping young doctor" who infused "a breath of fresh air" to the show; Carly Silver from "Daytime Confidential" asserted that the character was a "good seed". Commonly referred to by the portmanteau "Sinn" in magazines, on social media and internet message boards, the pairing of Finn and Steffy attracted a large fan following. Novlan has become popular with viewers and his introduction and performance in the role received much praise from critics, so much so that the actor's short term exit in April 2022 from the role sparked major controversy and social media uproar. It was later revealed that Novlan had, in fact, never vacated the role of Finn, and re-appeared onscreen the next month in late May.


text: Tanner Novlan's daytime television debut and casting was exclusively reported by "TVLine" on July 9, 2020, alongside Delon de Metz's as a recast of Zende Forrester Dominguez. Novlan was previously known for appearing as "Struggling Actor" in a Liberty Mutual commercial and guest starring appearances on primetime series such as "Modern Family", "Mohawk Girls", "Rizzoli & Isles", and "Roswell, New Mexico". "Soap Hub" specified that Novlan, as John "Finn" Finnegan, was tapped to play Steffy Forrester's (Wood) potential love interest.


text: On June 17, 2020, after fourth months of hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States production shutdown, the series became one of the first American scripted television series to resume recording, although production went on a one-week hiatus to accommodate modifications to its protocols. With the accompanying news that the series will return with original episodes on July 20, 2020, "Deadline Hollywood" announced Novlan's first episodic appearance was slated to be July 23.