title: Craig James (running back)

text: In James' first year with the Patriots in the 1984–85 season, he was initially a backup to Tony Collins under his old coach Meyer. When Meyer was fired after a 5–3 start to the season, new coach Raymond Berry made James the starting running back, and James finished the year as the Patriots' leading rusher with 790 yards.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: In the 1985–86 season, James started at running back all season, rushing for 1,227 yards, and was selected for the Pro Bowl. He was the last white player to rush for more than 1,000 yards in a season until Peyton Hillis reached that mark in 2010. In Week 2 against the Chicago Bears, he caught a 90-yard touchdown pass from Tony Eason, which was the longest touchdown from scrimmage in Patriots history at the time. He was a major factor in the Patriots' 31–14 upset win over the Miami Dolphins in the AFC title game, rushing for a career postseason high of 105 yards. However, he was dominated by the Chicago Bears' defense in Super Bowl XX, which held him to only one yard on five carries.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: James struggled to continue his Pro Bowl form in the 1986–87 season, finishing with just 427 yards on 154 carries. At the end of the year, he had surgery to repair his right shoulder after suffering from recurrent dislocations during the year. James returned for the start of the 1987–88 season, but got just three carries in the first two games before being shut down with another shoulder injury.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: After gaining 15 yards on four carries and 14 catches for 171 yards in the first six games of the 1988–89 season, James suffered from posterior shoulder dislocations and underwent surgery in October, missing the remainder of the season. He retired from the NFL after the 1988 season, having rushed for 2,469 yards and eleven touchdowns in his five seasons with the Patriots. He also had 819 receiving yards and two touchdown catches, and completed three of six pass attempts, with all three completions going for touchdowns.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: In 2009, James was included in the Patriots All-1980s team that was selected by local media and team figures to commemorate the team's 50th anniversary.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: After his retirement from play in 1989, James went on to become a radio analyst for SMU college football games, then was the sports anchor for KDFW-TV. During this time, he also appeared on ESPN as a studio analyst on the "College GameDay" and "College Football Scoreboard" programs. James worked with Lee Corso, who gave him the nickname "Mustang Breath". In 1996, James joined CBS, where he served as a studio analyst on "College Football Today" as well as "The NFL Today" programs before becoming a game analyst on "NFL on CBS". During his CBS stint, he served as a reporter during the NCAA men's basketball championship as well as the 1998 Winter Olympics. In 2003, James moved to ABC. He served as a studio analyst on the network's college football coverage through the 2008 season. James also appeared as an analyst on ESPN's Thursday-night package as well as other college football programs such as "College Football Live". He then teamed with Mike Patrick and sideline reporter Heather Cox as game analyst for the 2009 season, working ESPN on ABC Saturday afternoon broadcasts, while still working the Thursday-night package. On December 19, 2011, James announced that he was leaving ESPN to run for the United States Senate.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: James said in 1998 that the Wisconsin Badgers were "the worst team to ever play in the Rose Bowl," but Wisconsin went on to defeat #6 UCLA 38–31 in the 1999 Rose Bowl. Afterward, Badgers coach Barry Alvarez fired back: "Well, I know we're at least the second worst."


title: Craig James (running back)

text: James is a voter in the AP college football poll, and has received some attention and criticism for his reported tendency to award low votes to teams from outside the Power Five conferences, such as Boise State and TCU.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: On August 30, 2013, Fox Sports Southwest announced that it had hired James as a college football analyst and co-host of the network's college football studio show. On September 2, after only one appearance, the network abruptly cut ties with James before he had formally signed a contract. Reportedly, Fox Sports officials were displeased that James' hire had not been vetted. Additionally, "The Dallas Morning News" reported that Fox Sports officials were upset with statements against same-sex marriage that James had made during his Senate run. On February 25, 2014, the First Liberty Institute filed suit on James' behalf against Fox, claiming that he was fired for his religious beliefs. Also in 2014, James joined the Family Research Council as assistant to president Tony Perkins, intending to "fight the kind of 'religious bigotry' [James] blames for his firing by Fox."


title: Craig James (running back)

text: James' son Adam was the center of a controversy that resulted in Texas Tech suspending, and later firing, head football coach Mike Leach shortly before the 2010 Alamo Bowl. Leach had allegedly forced Adam to stand in a shed for two hours during practice on two occasions. In response, Adam went directly to university chancellor Kent Hance and members of the board of trustees with his accusations. In light of the allegations, ESPN removed Craig James from announcing the Alamo Bowl, replacing him with Bob Davie. In a lawsuit filed by Leach against Texas Tech, he alleges that Adam "voluntarily placed himself into the electrical closet and apparently took pictures with his phone camera." In response, James stated, "Since the James family is not a party to the lawsuit, we deem it inappropriate to discuss it."


title: Craig James (running back)

text: Leach later filed suit against James and others for defamation and wrongful termination related to the publicity surrounding the incident. In August 2013, Leach's claims were dismissed on summary judgment.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: In an interview with WFAA-TV in Dallas, James revealed that he was interested in getting involved in politics as a member of the Republican Party. James is a self-described conservative and stated that government intervention in business and health care were his main concerns. He founded a political group called Texans for a Better America.


title: Craig James (running back)

text: On December 19, 2011, James announced that he would run for the United States Senate as a Republican in 2012 for the seat being vacated by Kay Bailey Hutchison. Public Policy Polling found during the race that "as Craig James has become better known he's just gotten more and more unpopular." During a 2012 debate, James upbraided former Dallas mayor Tom Leppert for attending a gay pride parade, and declared that gays would eventually "answer to the Lord for their actions." Those and other controversial statements subsequently cost him his job at Fox Sports Southwest. On May 29, 2012, he finished a distant fourth out of nine candidates in the Republican primary with 3.6% of the vote.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Southern California Edison (or SCE Corp), the largest subsidiary of Edison International, is the primary electricity supply company for much of Southern California. It provides 15 million people with electricity across a service territory of approximately 50,000 square miles. However, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E), Imperial Irrigation District, and some smaller municipal utilities serve substantial portions of the southern California territory. The northern part of the state is generally served by the Pacific Gas & Electric Company of San Francisco. Other investor-owned utilities (IOUs) in California include SDG&E, PacifiCorp, Bear Valley Electric, and Liberty Utilities.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Southern California Edison (SCE) still owns all of its electrical transmission facilities and equipment, but the deregulation of California's electricity market in the late 1990s forced the company to sell many of its power plants, though some were probably sold by choice. In California, SCE retained only its hydroelectric plants, totaling about 1,200 MW, and its 75% share of the 2,150-MW San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, which has been shut down since January 2012; in June 2013 the company announced its intention to permanently close and decommission the nuclear plant. The utility lost all of its natural gas-fired plants, which provided most of its electrical generation. The large, aging plants were bought by out-of-state companies such as Mirant and Reliant Energy, which allegedly used them to manipulate the California energy market.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Southern California Edison's power grid is linked to PG&E's by the Path 26 wires that generally follow Interstate 5 over Tejon Pass. The interconnection takes place at a large substation at Buttonwillow. PG&E's and WAPA's Path 15 and Path 66, respectively, from Buttonwillow north eventually connect to BPA's grid in the Pacific Northwest. There are several other interconnections with local and out-of-state utilities, such as Path 46.


title: Southern California Edison

text: In addition, SCE operates a regulated gas and water utility. SCE is the sole commercial provider of natural gas and fresh water service to Santa Catalina Island, including the city of Avalon, California. SCE operates the utilities under the names of Catalina Island Gas Company and Catalina Island Water Company.


title: Southern California Edison

text: The origins of the company lie with the grand scheme of business magnate Henry E. Huntington and hydraulic engineer John S. Eastwood, developed around 1908, for a vast complex of reservoirs to be constructed in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of central California. Huntington founded Pacific Light and Power, one of the roughly two dozen companies he controlled at the time, to execute what would eventually become one of the largest hydropower systems in the United States, the Big Creek Hydroelectric Project. Pacific Light and Power was one of the predecessor companies to SCE, along with Edison Electric, Mt. Whitney Power & Electric Co., California Electric Power Co., Southern California Power Co., and others.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Southern California Edison agreed to pay a $650,000 settlement for the 2011 blackout with FERC and NERC.


title: Southern California Edison

text: On December 16, 2011, a shooting occurred when an employee of Southern California Edison opened fire at an office building in Irwindale. The employee killed two co-workers and seriously wounded two others before committing suicide.


title: Southern California Edison

text: In March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, 8,000 of the 13,000 employees were shifted to remote work. The US Department of Homeland Security has named utilities like SCE part of the 16 sectors designated “critical infrastructure sectors. The group of remote workers was set up so the company can operate if it faces workforce disruptions or shortages if employees become stricken or quarantined because of COVID-19.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Southern California Edison allows its customer to obtain their electricity entirely from renewable sources by subscribing to a "green rate".


title: Southern California Edison

text: In 2006, Southern California Edison planned to secure 1,500 megawatts or more of power generated from new projects to be built in the Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm area. The contract, which more than doubles SCE's wind energy portfolio, envisions more than of wind parks in the Tehachapi region, which is triple the size of any existing U.S. wind farm.


title: Southern California Edison

text: In March 2008, Southern California Edison announced a $875 million project to build a network of 250 megawatts of photovoltaic solar power generation, making it the biggest solar cell project in the nation. The photovoltaic cells will cover of rooftops in southern California and will generate enough power to serve 162,000 homes.


title: Southern California Edison

text: In 2009, Southern California Edison entered into a contract with Solar Millennium to purchase solar thermal power up to 726 MW. Southern California Edison also entered into a contract with Stirling Energy Systems to buy electricity from a 500 megawatt, 4,600 acre (19 km), solar power plant which was due to open in 2009. The purchase was canceled in late 2010, as changes in technology reduced the cost of photovoltaic-based solar power to below that of solar Stirling generated power. This would have been the first commercial application of the dish stirling system. A different technology from the more familiar solar panel, the dish concentrates solar energy by the use of reflective surfaces and by the use of the Stirling heat engine to convert the heat into electricity.


title: Southern California Edison

text: In 2014, Southern California Edison installed the Tehachapi Energy Storage Project, which is composed of more than 600,000 lithium-ion battery cells at Monolith Substation in Tehachapi, California in order to test storing power generated from an area that currently has 5,000 wind turbines.


title: Southern California Edison

text: In 2017, the company opened two new hybrid electric gas turbine (EGT) units called peaker plants, that combine gas turbines and storage batteries at the same site. Each plant delivers around 50-megawatts; the batteries can provide 10-megawatts and four megawatt-hours of power. Both the turbines and the batteries are designed and manufactured by General Electric’s Power Division.


title: Southern California Edison

text: The plant runs the battery first in a series of short bursts, saving gas usage for longer power demand. The combination of a 30-minute duration battery improves the environmental impact of the gas turbine. The SCE setup (the first of its kind) cut greenhouse gas emissions by 60%, reduced annual water usage by 2 million gallons and lowered the number of gas starts by 50%.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Southern California Edison has a number of resources and a rate designed specifically for electric vehicle users.


title: Southern California Edison

text: As of July 2018, Southern California Edison plans to add thousands of new charging stations for passenger electric vehicles (EV). This addition is a component of the company's "Charge Ready" program, a pilot program with the aim of increasing the availability of charging ports for EVs. Since 2016, Southern California Edison has installed 1,000 charging stations throughout their Southern and Central California service area.


title: Southern California Edison

text: The company also runs a rebate program for electric vehicle purchases. Southern California Edison gives people in its service area who purchase a new or used, or lease, an electric vehicle a $450 rebate. The program will run until 2020.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Southern California Edison has a long history of research in the energy arena. Often this includes working with other companies and government entities. One example is the SOLARII feasibility generator, which was a solar-powered energy plant that could produce electricity 24 hours a day. This was done by heating molten salts that would hold the heat during the day and would be used to generate power at night.


title: Southern California Edison

text: Dr. John Jurewitz served as Director of Regulatory Policy for Southern California Edison for 15 years until his retirement in July 2007. His major areas of research are in oil, gas, and electricity policy and greenhouse gas regulation. He has testified and participated in government-sponsored proceedings addressing electric industry restructuring and energy policy at the state, federal, and international levels.


title: Southern California Edison

text: In November, 2014, SCE announced a partnership with Ice Energy to provide more efficient energy storage by freezing water at night when electricity is cheaper. (Ice Energy filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in December 2019.)


title: Southern California Edison

text: In April 2015, Southern California Edison laid off about 400 IT employees, with an additional 100 IT workers leaving voluntarily. Meanwhile, the utility company hired immigrants from India through Infosys, based in Bangalore, and Tata Consultancy Services in Mumbai, which are among the largest users of H-1B visas. About 70% of the work to be done by Tata and Infosys will be completed offshore, according to SCE. The company claimed it had to lay off US-based employees to stay competitive. The layoffs were questioned by members of the United States Senate. SCE was subsequently investigated by the US Department of Labor for potential H1-B visa abuse. In October, Department of Labor concluded Infosys did not abuse the H1-B program in the dealings with SCE, while Tata's case remained open.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: On July 28, 2019, a mass shooting occurred at the Gilroy Garlic Festival in Gilroy, California. The gunman killed three people and wounded 17 others before killing himself after a shootout with responding police officers.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: , investigators had not determined the motives of the gunman, identified as 19-year-old Santino William Legan. The FBI opened a domestic terrorism investigation into the incident.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: The Gilroy Garlic Festival was an annual three-day event held at Christmas Hill Park. One of the nation's best-known food festivals, centered on garlic, it drew 80,000 to 100,000 visitors from around the country and was described as a family event. Located about southeast of San Jose and the Silicon Valley area, Gilroy is home to about 60,000 people, and the city is a major producer of garlic. As Gilroy's top fundraising event, the Garlic Festival was staffed with volunteers to raise money for nonprofit groups, including clubs and schools.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: The shooting occurred during the 41st annual gathering of the festival on Sunday, July 28, 2019—its third and final day—shortly before the scheduled closing at 6:00p.m. The gunman entered the festival by using bolt cutters to cut through a wire fence along Uvas Creek, thus evading security screening. Authorities stated that a WASR-10 semi-automatic rifle was used, a Romanian variant of the AK-47. It was equipped with a 75-round drum magazine. The gunman was also wearing a bulletproof vest and carrying five extra magazines of 40 rounds each.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: The gunman opened fire on festival-goers near an inflatable slide, ultimately shooting 39 rounds. Eyewitnesses described a white man wearing a green shirt and a grayish handkerchief around his neck firing into the food area. Witnesses reported that he appeared to be firing at random. Jack van Breen, the lead singer of the local band TinMan (which was performing an encore when the shooting began) told KPIX-TV that he heard someone shout, "Why are you doing this?" The gunman's response was, "Because I'm really angry."


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: Police at the scene engaged him within a minute of the first shots being fired, firing 18 rounds and hitting the gunman several times. The police chief credited the fast response to a heavy police presence with "many, many officers in the park". The three officers were placed on administrative leave per standard procedures when they fire their service weapons in the line of duty. While initial reports indicated that the gunman was killed by the police, the Santa Clara County coroner reported on August 2 that the gunman died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head, after officers had already shot him multiple times.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: Along with the Gilroy Police Department, the San Francisco Field Division of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives and 30 FBI agents also responded to the scene.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: Three people—Stephen Romero, age 6; Keyla Salazar, age 13; and Trevor Deon Irby, age 25—were killed, all by single gunshots to the torso. An additional 17 people were wounded.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: The Santa Clara County Healthcare System's two hospitals treated 19 patients, including the gunman. Some were also treated but not admitted. The patients ranged in age from 12 to 69; 11 had gunshot injuries and eight had other injuries. Two victims were also reported hospitalized at Stanford Hospital.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: Santino William Legan, a 19-year-old male, was identified by authorities as the shooter. Police believe he acted alone. Legan spent most of his life in Gilroy and attended Monte Vista Christian School through his freshman to junior years and graduated from Gilroy High School, but in the months before the shooting lived in the remote town of Walker Lake in Mineral County, Nevada. He purchased the rifle used in the shooting in Fallon, Nevada, on July 9, three weeks before the festival. The possession and sale of the weapon are banned in California, but legal in Nevada.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: An Instagram account was opened four days before the shooting by a Santino William Legan of the same age, who self-identified as being of Italian and Iranian descent. On the day of the shooting, Legan made two posts to the account, one of which complained about the event congesting the countryside with "hordes of mestizos and Silicon Valley white twats" and instructed people to read the book "Might Is Right", a pseudonymous proto-fascist manifesto.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: Authorities discovered a Remington 870 shotgun inside Legan's car. Police and federal agents searched Legan's father's house in Gilroy. Investigators also searched the gunman's apartment in Walker Lake, Nevada, where they reportedly discovered a bulletproof vest, empty shotgun and rifle boxes, a gas mask, and empty ammunition boxes, and pamphlets on guns; investigators also confiscated three hard drives and three thumb drives.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: Investigators have not determined a motive for the attack. Brian Levin of the Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism at Cal State San Bernardino stated that research has shown some mass shooters have "a broad range of motivations and, at times, conflicting ideologies, which can make it difficult to classify attacks and pinpoint their motivations." Searches found that Legan owned both left-wing and right-wing literature, including reading material on white supremacy and Islamic extremism. The investigation turned up evidence that Legan had been "exploring violent ideologies" and had created a list of potential targets, including the Garlic Festival as well as "religious organizations, courthouses, federal buildings and political institutions involving both the Republican and Democratic parties." Because of this list, a domestic terrorism probe has been opened.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: The Santa Clara County district attorney report, released in March 2020, stated, "In light of the grave circumstances of this case, [law enforcement's] actions were unquestionably lawful and justified."


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: U.S. President Donald Trump offered condolences and thanked law enforcement on Monday, July 29. California's junior U.S. senator Kamala Harris expressed gratitude toward the first responders, as did California's governor Gavin Newsom. The governor visited with survivors and the families of victims on Monday. While stating he supported the Second Amendment, he said he would like national cooperation controlling "weapons of goddamned mass destruction". Congressman Dan Lipinski (IL-3), who was attending the festival along with his wife, released a brief statement thanking the first responders and calling for legislative action against gun violence in the U.S. Other lawmakers also issued statements about the incident.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: Organizations, such as March for Our Lives and Moms Demand Action, and people, such as the former spokesperson for the National Rifle Association and many celebrities, also responded.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: The owner of the Nevada firearm store visited by the perpetrator before the shooting, and of the store's associated website from which the perpetrator ordered the weapon, posted a Facebook message stating that he felt heartbroken and that "this goes against everything I believe in" and remarked that the shooter ought to "rot in hell".


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: The shooting was highlighted by Pope Francis during a speech in St. Peter's Square on August 4, 2019, following the shootings in El Paso and Dayton, in which he condemned attacks on defenseless people; the pope said that he was spiritually close to the victims, the wounded and the families affected by the attacks that had "bloodied Texas, California, and Ohio".


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: In response to the shooting, in early September 2019, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors unanimously declared the National Rifle Association a domestic terrorist organization. Supervisor Catherine Stefani stated, "The N.R.A. exists to spread pro-gun propaganda and put weapons in the hands of those who would harm and terrorize us ... Nobody has done more to fan the flames of gun violence than the N.R.A." Mayor Sam Liccardo of nearby San Jose proposed to prevent straw purchases of firearms by requiring gun owners in the city to carry insurance. Liccardo put the proposal on hold due to the COVID-19 pandemic but revived it in 2021 after a mass shooting in San Jose.


title: Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting

text: In January 2020, the Gilroy Strong Resilience Center opened to support survivors of the mass shooting.


title: Suraj (director)

text: Suraj (born December 31, 1977) is an Indian film director who works primarily in Tamil films. He is best known for directing action and masala films.


title: Suraj (director)

text: In 1996, Suraj began working as an assistant director to Sundar C. on his comedy films "Ullathai Allitha" and "Mettukudi". In 1997, he continued to assist Sundar C. on "Arunachalam" starring Rajinikanth and he was the co-director of the film "Janakiraman".


title: Suraj (director)

text: Then, Suraj returned to assist Sundar C. in his films. In 2006, he made his directorial comeback through "Thalai Nagaram", starring his mentor Sundar C., Jyothirmayi and Vadivelu. The following year, Suraj made his third film "Marudhamalai", featured Arjun, Nila and again comedian Vadivelu. In 2009, he directed "Padikathavan" starring Dhanush, Tamannaah and due his busy schedule, Vadivelu has been replaced by comedian Vivek. The film was distributed by Sun Pictures. In 2011, he made "Mappillai", remake of the 1989 film "Mappillai". The film starring Dhanush, Hansika Motwani and Manisha Koirala. The film received mixed reviews, but the film became a hit at the box office.


title: Suraj (director)

text: After Mappillai Suraj directed "Alex Pandian" starring Karthi and Anushka Shetty. The film released on 11 January 2013. After Alex Pandian's failure, Suraj directed "Sakalakala Vallavan" starring Jayam Ravi, Anjali and Trisha. The film released on 31 July 2015. He later directed "Kaththi Sandai" starring Vishal.


title: Suraj (director)

text: In 2022, Suraj directed "Naai Sekar Returns", to Vadivelu’s character in "Thalai Nagaram" (2006) in which he plays a laughably over-the-top rowdy called Naai Sekar.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Mehmed Nâzım Ran (15 January 1902 – 3 June 1963), commonly known as Nâzım Hikmet (), was a Turkish-Polish poet, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, director, and memoirist. He was acclaimed for the "lyrical flow of his statements". Described as a "romantic communist" and "romantic revolutionary", he was repeatedly arrested for his political beliefs and spent much of his adult life in prison or in exile. His poetry has been translated into more than fifty languages.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: According to Nâzım Hikmet, he was of paternal Turkish and maternal German, Polish, Georgian descent. Nâzım Hikmet's mother came from a distinguished, cosmopolitan family with predominantly Circassian (Adyghe) roots, along with high social position and relations to Polish nobility. From his father's side he had Turkish heritage. His father, Hikmet Bey, was the son of Çerkes Nâzım Pasha (another Circassian), after whom Nâzım Hikmet was named.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Nazım’s maternal grandfather, Hasan Enver Pasha, was the son of Polish-born Mustafa Celalettin Pasha and Saffet Hanım, daughter of Serbian Omar Pasha and Circassian Adviye Hanım the daughter of Çerkes Hafız Pasha.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Mustafa Celalettin Pasha (born Konstanty Borzęcki herbu Półkozic) authored ("The Ancient and Modern Turks") in Istanbul, in 1869.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Nâzım Hikmet's maternal grandmother, Leyla Hanım, was the daughter of Mehmet Ali Pasha, of French (Huguenot) and German origin, and Ayşe Sıdıka Hanım who was a daughter of Çerkes Hafız Paşa. Nâzım Hikmet and Celile Hanım's cousins included Oktay Rifat Horozcu, a leading Turkish poet, and the statesman Ali Fuat Cebesoy, among others.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Ran was born on 15 January 1902, in Selânik (Salonica), where his father was serving as an Ottoman government official. He attended the Taşmektep Primary School in the Göztepe district of Istanbul and later enrolled in the junior high school section of the prestigious Galatasaray High School in the Beyoğlu district, where he began to learn French; however, in 1913, he was transferred to the Numune Mektebi in the Nişantaşı district. In 1918, he graduated from the Ottoman Naval School on Heybeliada, one of the Princes' Islands located in the Sea of Marmara. His school days coincided with a period of political upheaval, during which the Ottoman government entered the First World War, allying itself with Germany. For a brief period he was assigned as a naval officer to the Ottoman cruiser "Hamidiye"; however in 1919 he became seriously ill and, not being able to fully recover, was exempted from naval service in 1920.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: In 1921, together with his friends Vâlâ Nureddin (Vâ-Nû), Yusuf Ziya Ortaç and Faruk Nafiz Çamlıbel, he went to İnebolu in Anatolia in order to join the Turkish War of Independence; from there he (together with Vâlâ Nûreddin) walked to Ankara, where the Turkish liberation movement was headquartered. In Ankara they were introduced to Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) who wanted the two friends to write a poem that would invite and inspire Turkish volunteers in Istanbul and elsewhere to join their struggle. This poem was much appreciated, and Muhittin Bey (Birgen) decided to appoint them as teachers to the Sultani (high-college) in Bolu, rather than sending them to the front as soldiers. However, their communist views were not appreciated by the conservative officials in Bolu, and so the two decided to go to Batumi in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic to witness the results of the Russian Revolution of 1917, arriving there on 30 September 1921. In July 1922, the two friends went to Moscow, where Ran studied Economics and Sociology at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in the early 1920s. There, he was influenced by the artistic experiments of Vladimir Mayakovsky and Vsevolod Meyerhold, as well as the ideological vision of Lenin.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Despite writing his first poems in syllabic meter, Nazım Hikmet distinguished himself from the "syllabic poets" in concept. With the development of his poetic conception, the narrow forms of syllabic verse became too limiting for his style and he set out to seek new forms for his poems.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: He was influenced by the young Soviet poets who advocated Futurism. On his return to Turkey, he became the charismatic leader of the Turkish avant-garde, producing streams of innovative poems, plays and film scripts. In Moscow in 1922, breaking the boundaries of syllabic meter, he changed his form and began writing in free verse.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: He has been compared by Turkish and non-Turkish men of letters to such figures as Federico García Lorca, Louis Aragon, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Faiz Ahmed Faiz and Pablo Neruda. Although Ran's work bears a resemblance to these poets and owes them occasional debts of form and stylistic device, his literary personality is unique in terms of the synthesis he made of iconoclasm and lyricism, of ideology and poetic diction.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Many of his poems have been set to music by the Turkish composer Zülfü Livaneli and Cem Karaca. A part of his work has been translated into Greek by Yiannis Ritsos, and some of these translations have been arranged by the Greek composers Manos Loizos and Thanos Mikroutsikos.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Ran's imprisonment in the 1940s became a "cause célèbre" among intellectuals worldwide; a 1949 committee that included Pablo Picasso, Paul Robeson, and Jean-Paul Sartre campaigned for his release.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: On 8 April 1950, Ran began a hunger strike in protest against the Turkish parliament's failure to include an amnesty law in its agenda before it closed for the upcoming general election. He was then transferred from the prison in Bursa, first to the infirmary of Sultanahmet Jail in Istanbul, and later to Paşakapısı Prison. Seriously ill, Ran suspended his strike on 23 April, the National Sovereignty and Children's Day. His doctor's request to treat him in hospital for three months was refused by officials. So, as his imprisonment status had not changed, he resumed his hunger strike on the morning of 2 May.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Ran's hunger strike caused a stir throughout the country. Petitions were signed and a magazine named after him was published. His mother, Celile, began a hunger strike on 9 May, followed by renowned Turkish poets Orhan Veli, Melih Cevdet and Oktay Rıfat the next day. In light of the new political situation after the 1950 Turkish general election, held on 14 May, the strike was ended five days later, on 19 May, Turkey's Commemoration of Atatürk, Youth and Sports Day, he was finally released through a general amnesty law enacted by the new government.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: On 22 November 1950, the World Council of Peace announced that Nazım Hikmet Ran was among the recipients of the International Peace Prize, along with Pablo Picasso, Paul Robeson, Wanda Jakubowska and Pablo Neruda.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Later on, Ran escaped from Turkey to Romania on a ship via the Black Sea, and from there moved to the USSR. Because in the Soviet bloc the only recognized Turkish minority existed in communist Bulgaria, the poet's books were immediately brought out in this country, both in Turkish originals and Bulgarian translations. The communist authorities in Bulgaria celebrated him in Turkish and Bulgarian publications as 'a poet of liberty and peace.' The goal was to discredit Turkey presented as a 'lackey of the imperialist' United States in the eyes of Bulgaria's Turkish minority, many of whom desired to leave for or were expelled to Turkey in 1950–1953.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: When the EOKA struggle broke out in Cyprus, Ran believed that the population of Cyprus would be able to live together peacefully, and called on the Cypriot Turks to support the Greek Cypriots' demand for an end to British rule and Union with Greece (Enosis). Hikmet drew negative reaction from Cyprus Turkish community due to his opinions.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Persecuted for decades by the Republic of Turkey during the Cold War for his communist views, Ran died of a heart attack in Moscow on 3 June 1963 at 6.30 am while picking up a morning newspaper at the door of his summer house in Peredelkino, far away from his beloved homeland. He is buried in Moscow's Novodevichy Cemetery, where his tomb is still a place of pilgrimage for Turks and others from around the world. His final wish, never carried out, was to be buried under a plane-tree (platanus) in any village cemetery in Anatolia.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: His poems depicting the people of the countryside, villages, towns and cities of his homeland ("Memleketimden İnsan Manzaraları", i.e. "Human Landscapes from my Country"), as well as the Turkish War of Independence ("Kurtuluş Savaşı Destanı", i.e. "The Epic of the War of Independence"), and the Turkish revolutionaries ("Kuvâyi Milliye", i.e. "Force of the Nation") are considered among the greatest literary works of Turkey.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Following his death, the Kremlin ordered the publication of the poet's first-ever Turkish-language collected works in communist Bulgaria, where at that time a large and still recognized Turkish national minority existed. The eight volumes of these collected works, "Bütün eserleri", appeared at Sofia between 1967 and 1972, that is, in the very last years of the existence of the Turkish minority educational and publishing system in Bulgaria.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Ran had Polish and Turkish citizenship. The latter was revoked in 1959, and restored in 2009. His family has been asked if they want his remains repatriated from Russia.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: During the 1940s, as he was serving his sentence at Bursa Prison, he used to paint. There, he met a young inmate named İbrahim Balaban. Ran discovered Balaban's talent in drawing, gave all his paint and brushes to him, and encouraged him to continue with painting. Ran influenced the peasant, and educated him, who had finished only a three-grade village school, in forming his own ideas in the fields of philosophy, sociology, economics and politics. Ran admired Balaban much, and referred to him in a letter to the novelist Kemal Tahir as "his peasant painter" (). Their contact remained also after they were released from the prison.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Ran's poem "" ("The Girl Child") conveys a plea for peace from a seven-year-old girl, ten years after she has perished in the atomic bomb attack at Hiroshima. It has achieved popularity as an anti-war message and has been performed as a song by a number of singers and musicians both in Turkey and worldwide; it is also known in English by various other titles, including "I Come and Stand at Every Door", "I Unseen" and "Hiroshima Girl".


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: In 2005, famous Amami Ōshima singer Chitose Hajime collaborated with Ryuichi Sakamoto by translating "Kız Çocuğu" into Japanese, retitling it [] "A dead girl"). It was performed live at the Atomic Bomb Dome in Hiroshima on the eve of the 60th Anniversary (5 August 2005) of Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The song later appeared as a bonus track on Chitose's album "Hanadairo" in 2006.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: Some of Ran's poems are translated into Nepali by Suman Pokhrel and are published in print and online literary journals.


title: Nâzım Hikmet

text: He also opposed the Korean War, in which Turkey participated. After the Senate address of John Foster Dulles, who served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, where he valued Turkish soldiers at 23 cents a month compared with the lowest echelon U.S. soldiers at $70, Nazım Hikmet Ran wrote a protest poem criticising the policies of the United States. This poem is titled (On the soldier worth 23 cents).


title: Field extension

text: In mathematics, particularly in algebra, a field extension is a pair of fields formula_1 such that the operations of "E" are those of "F" restricted to "E". In this case, "F" is an extension field of "E" and "E" is a subfield of "F". For example, under the usual notions of addition and multiplication, the complex numbers are an extension field of the real numbers; the real numbers are a subfield of the complex numbers.


title: Field extension

text: Field extensions are fundamental in algebraic number theory, and in the study of polynomial roots through Galois theory, and are widely used in algebraic geometry.


title: Field extension

text: A subfield formula_2 of a field formula_3 is a subset formula_4 that is a field with respect to the field operations inherited from formula_3. Equivalently, a subfield is a subset that contains formula_6, and is closed under the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and taking the inverse of a nonzero element of formula_2.


title: Field extension

text: For example, the field of rational numbers is a subfield of the real numbers, which is itself a subfield of the complex numbers. More generally, the field of rational numbers is (or is isomorphic to) a subfield of any field of characteristic formula_10.


title: Field extension

text: If "K" is a subfield of "L", then "L" is an extension field or simply extension of "K", and this pair of fields is a field extension. Such a field extension is denoted "L" / "K" (read as ""L" over "K"").


title: Field extension

text: If "L" is an extension of "F", which is in turn an extension of "K", then "F" is said to be an intermediate field (or intermediate extension or subextension) of "L" / "K".


title: Field extension

text: Given a field extension , the larger field "L" is a "K"-vector space. The dimension of this vector space is called the degree of the extension and is denoted by ["L" : "K"].


title: Field extension

text: The degree of an extension is 1 if and only if the two fields are equal. In this case, the extension is a trivial extension. Extensions of degree 2 and 3 are called quadratic extensions and cubic extensions, respectively. A finite extension is an extension that has a finite degree.


title: Field extension

text: Given two extensions and , the extension is finite if and only if both and are finite. In this case, one has


title: Field extension

text: Given a field extension "L" / "K" and a subset "S" of "L", there is a smallest subfield of "L" that contains "K" and "S". It is the intersection of all subfields of "L" that contain "K" and "S", and is denoted by "K"("S"). One says that "K"("S") is the field "generated" by "S" over "K", and that "S" is a generating set of "K"("S") over "K". When formula_12 is finite, one writes formula_13 instead of formula_14 and one says that "K"("S") is over "K". If "S" consists of a single element "s", the extension is called a simple extension and "s" is called a primitive element of the extension.


title: Field extension

text: In characteristic 0, every finite extension is a simple extension. This is the primitive element theorem, which does not hold true for fields of non-zero characteristic.


title: Field extension

text: If a simple extension is not finite, the field "K"("s") is isomorphic to the field of rational fractions in "s" over "K".


title: Field extension

text: The notation "L" / "K" is purely formal and does not imply the formation of a quotient ring or quotient group or any other kind of division. Instead the slash expresses the word "over". In some literature the notation "L":"K" is used.


title: Field extension

text: It is often desirable to talk about field extensions in situations where the small field is not actually contained in the larger one, but is naturally embedded. For this purpose, one abstractly defines a field extension as an injective ring homomorphism between two fields.


title: Field extension

text: "Every" non-zero ring homomorphism between fields is injective because fields do not possess nontrivial proper ideals, so field extensions are precisely the morphisms in the category of fields.


title: Field extension

text: Henceforth, we will suppress the injective homomorphism and assume that we are dealing with actual subfields.


title: Field extension

text: The field of complex numbers formula_15 is an extension field of the field of real numbers formula_16, and formula_16 in turn is an extension field of the field of rational numbers formula_18. Clearly then, formula_19 is also a field extension. We have formula_20 because formula_21 is a basis, so the extension formula_22 is finite. This is a simple extension because formula_23 formula_24 (the cardinality of the continuum), so this extension is infinite.


title: Field extension

text: is an extension field of formula_26 also clearly a simple extension. The degree is 2 because formula_27 can serve as a basis.


title: Field extension

text: is an extension field of both formula_29 and formula_26 of degree 2 and 4 respectively. It is also a simple extension, as one can show that


title: Field extension

text: Finite extensions of formula_18 are also called algebraic number fields and are important in number theory. Another extension field of the rationals, which is also important in number theory, although not a finite extension, is the field of p-adic numbers formula_33 for a prime number "p".


title: Field extension

text: It is common to construct an extension field of a given field "K" as a quotient ring of the polynomial ring "K"["X"] in order to "create" a root for a given polynomial "f"("X"). Suppose for instance that "K" does not contain any element "x" with "x" = −1. Then the polynomial formula_34 is irreducible in "K"["X"], consequently the ideal generated by this polynomial is maximal, and formula_35 is an extension field of "K" which "does" contain an element whose square is −1 (namely the residue class of "X").


title: Field extension

text: By iterating the above construction, one can construct a splitting field of any polynomial from "K"["X"]. This is an extension field "L" of "K" in which the given polynomial splits into a product of linear factors.


title: Field extension

text: If "p" is any prime number and "n" is a positive integer, we have a finite field GF("p") with "p" elements; this is an extension field of the finite field formula_36 with "p" elements.


title: Field extension

text: Given a field "K", we can consider the field "K"("X") of all rational functions in the variable "X" with coefficients in "K"; the elements of "K"("X") are fractions of two polynomials over "K", and indeed "K"("X") is the field of fractions of the polynomial ring "K"["X"]. This field of rational functions is an extension field of "K". This extension is infinite.


title: Field extension

text: Given a Riemann surface "M", the set of all meromorphic functions defined on "M" is a field, denoted by formula_37 It is a transcendental extension field of formula_15 if we identify every complex number with the corresponding constant function defined on "M". More generally, given an algebraic variety "V" over some field "K", then the function field of "V", consisting of the rational functions defined on "V" and denoted by "K"("V"), is an extension field of "K".


title: Field extension

text: An element "x" of a field extension is algebraic over "K" if it is a root of a nonzero polynomial with coefficients in "K". For example, formula_39 is algebraic over the rational numbers, because it is a root of formula_40 If an element "x" of "L" is algebraic over "K", the monic polynomial of lowest degree that has "x" as a root is called the minimal polynomial of "x". This minimal polynomial is irreducible over "K".


title: Field extension

text: An element "s" of "L" is algebraic over "K" if and only if the simple extension is a finite extension. In this case the degree of the extension equals the degree of the minimal polynomial, and a basis of the "K"-vector space "K"("s") consists of formula_41 where "d" is the degree of the minimal polynomial.


title: Field extension

text: The set of the elements of "L" that are algebraic over "K" form a subextension, which is called the algebraic closure of "K" in "L". This results from the preceding characterization: if "s" and "t" are algebraic, the extensions and are finite. Thus is also finite, as well as the sub extensions , and (if ). It follows that , "st" and 1/"s" are all algebraic.


title: Field extension

text: An "algebraic extension" is an extension such that every element of "L" is algebraic over "K". Equivalently, an algebraic extension is an extension that is generated by algebraic elements. For example, formula_42 is an algebraic extension of formula_18, because formula_39 and formula_45 are algebraic over formula_46


title: Field extension

text: A simple extension is algebraic if and only if it is finite. This implies that an extension is algebraic if and only if it is the union of its finite subextensions, and that every finite extension is algebraic.


title: Field extension

text: Every field "K" has an algebraic closure, which is up to an isomorphism the largest extension field of "K" which is algebraic over "K", and also the smallest extension field such that every polynomial with coefficients in "K" has a root in it. For example, formula_15 is an algebraic closure of formula_16, but not an algebraic closure of formula_18, as it is not algebraic over formula_18 (for example is not algebraic over formula_18).


title: Field extension

text: Given a field extension , a subset "S" of "L" is called algebraically independent over "K" if no non-trivial polynomial relation with coefficients in "K" exists among the elements of "S". The largest cardinality of an algebraically independent set is called the transcendence degree of "L"/"K". It is always possible to find a set "S", algebraically independent over "K", such that "L"/"K"("S") is algebraic. Such a set "S" is called a transcendence basis of "L"/"K". All transcendence bases have the same cardinality, equal to the transcendence degree of the extension. An extension "L"/"K" is said to be if and only if there exists a transcendence basis "S" of "L"/"K" such that "L" = "K"("S"). Such an extension has the property that all elements of "L" except those of "K" are transcendental over "K", but, however, there are extensions with this property which are not purely transcendental—a class of such extensions take the form "L"/"K" where both "L" and "K" are algebraically closed. In addition, if "L"/"K" is purely transcendental and "S" is a transcendence basis of the extension, it doesn't necessarily follow that "L" = "K"("S").


title: Field extension

text: For example, consider the extension formula_52 where "x" is transcendental over formula_46 The set formula_54 is algebraically independent since "x" is transcendental. Obviously, the extension formula_55 is algebraic, hence formula_54 is a transcendence basis. It doesn't generate the whole extension because there is no polynomial expression in formula_57 for formula_58. But it is easy to see that formula_59 is a transcendence basis that generates formula_60 so this extension is indeed purely transcendental.


title: Field extension

text: An algebraic extension "L"/"K" is called normal if every irreducible polynomial in "K"["X"] that has a root in "L" completely factors into linear factors over "L". Every algebraic extension "F"/"K" admits a normal closure "L", which is an extension field of "F" such that "L"/"K" is normal and which is minimal with this property.


title: Field extension

text: An algebraic extension "L"/"K" is called separable if the minimal polynomial of every element of "L" over "K" is separable, i.e., has no repeated roots in an algebraic closure over "K". A Galois extension is a field extension that is both normal and separable.


title: Field extension

text: A consequence of the primitive element theorem states that every finite separable extension has a primitive element (i.e. is simple).


title: Field extension

text: Given any field extension "L"/"K", we can consider its automorphism group Aut("L"/"K"), consisting of all field automorphisms "α": "L" → "L" with "α"("x") = "x" for all "x" in "K". When the extension is Galois this automorphism group is called the Galois group of the extension. Extensions whose Galois group is abelian are called abelian extensions.


title: Field extension

text: For a given field extension "L"/"K", one is often interested in the intermediate fields "F" (subfields of "L" that contain "K"). The significance of Galois extensions and Galois groups is that they allow a complete description of the intermediate fields: there is a bijection between the intermediate fields and the subgroups of the Galois group, described by the fundamental theorem of Galois theory.


title: Field extension

text: Field extensions can be generalized to ring extensions which consist of a ring and one of its subrings. A closer non-commutative analog are central simple algebras (CSAs) – ring extensions over a field, which are simple algebra (no non-trivial 2-sided ideals, just as for a field) and where the center of the ring is exactly the field. For example, the only finite field extension of the real numbers is the complex numbers, while the quaternions are a central simple algebra over the reals, and all CSAs over the reals are Brauer equivalent to the reals or the quaternions. CSAs can be further generalized to Azumaya algebras, where the base field is replaced by a commutative local ring.


title: Field extension

text: Given a field extension, one can "extend scalars" on associated algebraic objects. For example, given a real vector space, one can produce a complex vector space via complexification. In addition to vector spaces, one can perform extension of scalars for associative algebras defined over the field, such as polynomials or group algebras and the associated group representations. Extension of scalars of polynomials is often used implicitly, by just considering the coefficients as being elements of a larger field, but may also be considered more formally. Extension of scalars has numerous applications, as discussed in extension of scalars: applications.


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: The sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus) is a small hawk, with males being the smallest hawks in the United States and Canada, but with the species averaging larger than some Neotropical species, such as the tiny hawk. The taxonomy is far from resolved, with some authorities considering the southern taxa to represent three separate species: white-breasted hawk ("A. chionogaster"), plain-breasted hawk ("A. ventralis"), and rufous-thighed hawk ("A. erythronemius"). The American Ornithological Society keeps all four variations conspecific.


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: The sharp-shinned hawk is sometimes separated into four species, with the northern group ("see distribution") retaining both the scientific name and the common name: sharp-shinned hawk ("A. striatus"). In addition to the nominate taxon ("A. s. striatus"), it includes subspecies "perobscurus", "velox", "suttoni", "madrensis", "fringilloides", and "venator". The three remaining taxa, each considered a monotypic species if split, are the white-breasted hawk ("A. chionogaster"; Kaup, 1852), plain-breasted hawk ("A. ventralis"; Sclater, 1866) and rufous-thighed hawk ("A. erythronemius"; Kaup, 1850). The breeding ranges of the groups are entirely allopatric, although the wintering range of the nominate group partially overlaps with the range of "chionogaster" (as is also the case with certain taxa within the nominate group). This allopatry combined with differences in plumage ("see appearance") and, apparently, certain measurements, has been the background for the split, but hard scientific data are presently lacking (AOU). Disregarding field guides, most material published in recent years (e.g. AOU, Ferguson-Lees "et al." p. 586, and Dickinson "et al.") has therefore considered all to be members of a single widespread species – but not without equivocation: Ferguson-Lees et al. say that if they were to make a world list, they would include the three taxa as separate species (p. 75), and the AOU's comment includes the note "split almost certainly good".


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: Storer (1952) suggested that the southernmost populations within the nominate group were paler below, thus approaching "chionogaster". This has also been reflected in recent guides, where "A. s. madrensis" of southern Mexico is described as being relatively pale below (compared to more northern subspecies), but if this is a sign of intergradation with "chionogaster" or a north-south cline which includes both the members of the nominate group and "chionogaster" remains unclear. In Bolivia, "ventralis" and " erythronemius" approach each other, but no evidence of intergradation is known – something that, without actual specimens, also would be hard to prove due to the variability in the plumage of "ventralis".


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: This is a small "Accipiter" hawk, with males long, with a wingspan of and weight from . As common in "Accipiter" hawks, females are distinctly larger in size, averaging some 30% longer, and with a weight advantage of more than 50% being common. The female measures in length, has a wingspan of and weighs . The wings measure each, the tail is long and the tarsus is . Measurements given here are for the northern group, but they are comparable for the remaining subspecies. Adults have short broad wings and a medium-length tail banded in blackish and gray with the tip varying among individuals from slightly notched through square to slightly rounded (often narrowly tipped white). The remiges (typically only visible in flight) are whitish barred blackish. The legs are long and very slender (hence the common name) and yellow. The hooked bill is black and the cere is yellowish. The remaining plumage varies depending on group:


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: This species is widespread in North America, Central America, South America and the Greater Antilles. Below, the distributions of the four groups ("see taxonomy") are described as they occur roughly from north to south:


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: It occurs in a wide range of woodland and forest types, both dominated by conifers and by various types of broad-leaved trees (especially oaks) The largest populations of the nominate group ("see taxonomy") are thought to occur in the temperate boreal forests, but winter in warmer regions farther south ("see distribution"). The taxa "suttoni", "madrensis" (both from the nominate group), "chionogaster" (white-breasted hawk) and "ventralis" (plain-breasted hawk), are found in upper tropical to temperate highlands; mainly at altitudes of , but occasionally down to near sea-level and up to . The taxon "erythronemius" (rufous-thighed hawk) is found in tropical and subtropical regions; both in lowlands and highlands.


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: These birds surprise and capture most of their prey from cover or while flying quickly through dense vegetation. They are adept at navigating dense thickets, although this hunting method is often hazardous to the hawk. The great majority of this hawk's prey are small birds, especially various songbirds such as sparrows, wood-warblers, finches, wrens, nuthatches, tits, icterids and thrushes. Birds caught range in size from a Anna's hummingbird to a ruffed grouse and virtually any bird within this size range is potential prey. Typically, males will target smaller birds, such as sparrows and wood-warblers, and females will pursue larger prey, such as American robins and flickers, leading to a lack of conflict between the sexes for prey. These hawks often exploit backyard bird feeders in order to target congregations of ideal prey. They often pluck the feathers off their prey on a post or other perch. Rarely, sharp-shinned hawks will also eat rodents, lizards, frogs, snakes, and large insects, the latter typically being dragonflies captured on the wing during the hawk's migration. Bats have occasionally been recorded as a prey of this hawk.


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: Sharp-shinned hawks construct a stick nest in a large conifer or dense group of deciduous trees. Clutches of 3 to 8 eggs have been recorded, but 4 to 5 eggs is the typical clutch size. The eggs measure and weigh about . The eggs are prized by egg-collectors, because they are heavily marked with surprisingly colorful and varied markings. The incubation period is thought to average at about 30 days. After hatching, the young are brooded for 16 to 23 days by the female, while the male defends the territory and catches prey. The young fledge at the age of about a month and rely on their parents for feeding and protection another four weeks. The nesting sites and breeding behavior of sharp-shinned hawks are generally secretive, in order to avoid the predation of larger raptors, such as the northern goshawk and the Cooper's hawk. While in migration, adults are sometimes preyed on by most of the bird-hunting, larger raptors, especially the peregrine falcon. The breeding behavior of the taxa "chionogaster" (white-breasted hawk), "ventralis" (plain-breasted hawk) and "erythronemius" (rufous-thighed hawk) are comparably poorly known, but based on the available knowledge they appear to differ little from that of the nominate group


title: Sharp-shinned hawk

text: In North America this species declined in numbers in the 1960s and 1970s, probably as a result of the use of DDT and other pesticides. The population of USA and Canada has rebounded since and might even exceed historical numbers today, probably due to the combination of the ban on DDT and the proliferation of backyard bird feeders in North America which create unnaturally reliable and easy prey sources. Migratory sharp-shinned hawks are one of the most numerous raptors recorded at "hawk watches" across the country. An exception is the subspecies from Puerto Rico, "Accipiter striatus venator", which is rare and listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. The remaining resident subspecies from the Greater Antilles, "fringilliodes" from Cuba and nominate ("A. s. striatus") from Hispaniola, are uncommon, local, and, at least in the case of the latter, decreasing. Both "ventralis" (plain-breasted hawk) and "erythronemius" (rufous-thighed hawk) are fairly common (but easily overlooked due to their secretive behavior) and presently considered safe. The situation for "chionogaster" (white-breasted hawk) is potentially more problematic due to its limited range, although it, at least locally, remains fairly common.


title: Jonathan Ikoné

text: Nanitamo Jonathan Ikoné (born 2 May 1998) is a French professional footballer who plays as a forward for Serie A club Fiorentina and the France national team.


title: Jonathan Ikoné

text: Ikone made his professional debut on 28 September 2016 in the UEFA Champions League against Ludogorets replacing Ángel Di María after 88 minutes in a 1–3 away win. He made his Ligue 1 debut three days later against Bordeaux, once again coming on in place of Di María after 88 minutes in a 2–0 home win.


title: Jonathan Ikoné

text: On 18 January 2017, Ikoné was loaned to fellow Ligue 1 side Montpellier for the rest of the season. He made his debut against Metz three days later and played the whole match.


title: Jonathan Ikoné

text: On 31 December 2021, Ikoné signed for Serie A club Fiorentina, effective from 3 January 2022. The deal was worth a reported €15 million.


title: Jonathan Ikoné

text: Ikoné was born in France and is of DR Congolese descent. He is a youth international footballer for France. He was called up to the senior France squad for games against Albania and Andorra in September 2019. He scored on his debut on 7 September against Albania after coming on as a 77-minute substitute for Kingsley Coman.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Blepharospasm is any abnormal contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle. The condition should be distinguished from the more common, and milder, involuntary quivering of an eyelid, known as myokymia, or fasciculation. In most cases, blepharospasm symptoms last for a few days and then disappear without treatment, but in some cases the twitching is chronic and persistent, causing life-long challenges. In these cases, the symptoms are often severe enough to result in functional blindness. The person's eyelids feel like they are clamping shut and will not open without great effort. People have normal eyes, but for periods of time are effectively blind due to their inability to open their eyelids. In contrast, the reflex blepharospasm is due to any pain in and around the eye.


title: Blepharospasm

text: It is of two types: essential and reflex blepharospasm. The benign essential blepharospasm (BEB) is a focal dystonia—a neurological movement disorder involving involuntary and sustained contractions of the muscles around the eyes. The term "essential" indicates that the cause is unknown, but fatigue, stress, or an irritant are possible contributing factors. Blepharospasm is sometimes part of benign fasciculation syndrome.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Although there is no cure, botulinum toxin injections may help temporarily. A surgical procedure known as myectomy may also be useful. BEB is a fairly rare disease, affecting only one in every 20,000 people in the United States. The word is from Greek: βλέφαρον / blepharon, eyelid, and σπασμός / spasmos, "spasm," an uncontrolled muscle contraction.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Some causes of blepharospasm have been identified; however, the causes of many cases of blepharospasm remain unknown. Some people with blepharospasm have a history of dry eyes, light sensitivity, and even fatigue. Others report no eye problems before onset of symptoms.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Some drugs can induce blepharospasm, such as those used to treat Parkinson's disease, as well as hormone treatments, including estrogen-replacement therapy for women going through menopause. Blepharospasm can also be a symptom of acute withdrawal from benzodiazepines. Prolonged use of benzodiazepines can induce blepharospasm and is a known risk factor for the development of blepharospasm.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Blepharospasm may also come from abnormal functioning of the brain's basal ganglia. Simultaneous dry eye and dystonias such as Meige's syndrome have been observed. Blepharospasms can be caused by concussions in some rare cases, when a blow to the back of the head damages the basal ganglia.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Drug therapy for blepharospasm has proved generally unpredictable and short-termed. Anticholinergics, tranquillizing drugs and botulinum toxin are the mostly used therapeutic options. However serious side effects can be observed as well as failure of therapy. It is therefore not surprising that new therapies are constantly being tested. In this backdrop new evidence shows Mosapride can be a safe and affordable therapeutic option for blepharospasm.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Botulinum toxin injections have been used to induce localized, partial paralysis. Among most sufferers, botulinum toxin injection is the preferred treatment method. Injections are generally administered every three months, with variations based on patient response and usually give almost immediate relief (though for some it may take more than a week) of symptoms from the muscle spasms. Most patients can resume a relatively normal life with regular botulinum toxin treatments. A minority of sufferers develop minimal or no result from botulinum toxin injections and have to find other treatments. For some, botulinum toxin diminishes in its effectiveness after many years of use. An observed side effect in a minority of patients is "ptosis" or eyelid droop. Attempts to inject in locations that minimize ptosis can result in diminished ability to control spasms. A recent Cochrane systematic review showed that a single treatment session (where both eyelids were injected with BtA multiple times) alleviated the symptoms of blepharospasm, disability, and number of involuntary movements.


title: Blepharospasm

text: People that do not respond well to medication or botulinum toxin injection are candidates for surgical therapy. The most effective surgical treatment has been "protractor myectomy", the removal of muscles responsible for eyelid closure.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Since the root of the problem is neurological, doctors have explored sensorimotor retraining activities to enable the brain to "rewire" itself and eliminate dystonic movements. The work of Joaquin Farias has shown that sensorimotor retraining activities and proprioceptive stimulation can induce neuroplasticity, making it possible for patients to recover substantial function that was lost due to blepharospasm.


title: Blepharospasm

text: Developed by The Eye Research Group Oxford, PressOp™ is a new ethically approved spectacle mounted device that arose after studying individuals with Blepharospasm who regularly use “sensory tricks”. By applying pressure to the temple region of their forehead patients found this helped to enable eye opening. The device is particularly helpful controlling an episode of severe spasm when the carrying out of specific tasks is necessary. Blepharospasm sufferers may find continuity in their quality of life by using the device while effectiveness of treatment is not at its peak.


title: The Great Alone

text: The Great Alone is a historical fiction novel written by American author Kristin Hannah published by St. Martin's Press in 2018. The story follows the Allbright family's move to the Alaskan wilderness and the ensuing challenges they face there.


title: The Great Alone

text: The title "The Great Alone" is a reference to Robert W. Service's poem "The Shooting of Dan McGrew". Hannah cites her family, 1970s politics, and Alaskan culture as inspirations for the novel.


title: The Great Alone

text: Hannah had initially written a whole draft of a thriller with the same characters trying to solve a crime that had taken place in the past, but during revisions only kept the 1970s Alaska setting; then started writing a first-person point-of-view novel from a teenage narrator.


title: The Great Alone

text: "The Great Alone" spent four weeks at number one on "The New York Times" Fiction Best Seller list in 2018, and two weeks at number one on the "Los Angeles Times" hardcover fiction bestsellers list. It was 17th on "USA Today's" 2018 year-end top 100 best-selling books list. The novel won Best Historical Fiction at the 2018 Goodreads Choice Awards. As of 2021, the novel has sold two million copies in the United States.


title: The Great Alone

text: Overall, the novel received positive feedback from critics. The novel was featured in positive starred reviews by "Publishers Weekly" and "Kirkus Reviews". The "Toronto Star" praised its "compassionate, nuanced portrait of the “twisted love” that results from domestic violence, and of the ways in which women cope with such abuse." The "Star Tribune" stated that Hannah "has created an atmosphere of brooding paranoia and simmering violence that can set your heart racing. Anticipated plot twists unravel unexpectedly." However, Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" criticized the novel, calling it "a heart-tugger written in borderline young adult style, combining terrible troubles with notes of overripe romance." Ron Charles of "The Washington Post" noted that "the weaknesses of "The Great Alone" are usually camouflaged by its dramatic and often emotional plot."


title: The Great Alone

text: Before the book's publication, "Variety" announced Sony’s TriStar Pictures had preemptively purchased movie rights to "The Great Alone", with Elizabeth Cantillon of the Cantillon Company and Laura Quicksilver as producers and Julia Cox as the screenwriter.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: The Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy was a large, wide-bodied cargo aircraft built in the United States and used for ferrying outsized cargo items, most notably components of NASA's Apollo program. The Pregnant Guppy was the first of the Guppy line of aircraft produced by Aero Spacelines. The design inspired later designs, such as the jet-powered Airbus Beluga and Boeing Dreamlifter.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: In 1960, NASA was using barges to transport increasingly large rocket components from manufacturers on the West Coast to test and launch sites on the East Coast, a method that was slow and expensive. Meanwhile, U.S. airlines were disposing of their obsolete piston-engined Boeing 377 Stratocruisers in favor of the newer jet-engined airliners. Aircraft broker Leo Mansdorf was stockpiling surplus Stratocruisers at Van Nuys for resale.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: Ex-USAF pilot John M. Conroy realized that these aircraft could be modified to transport the large but relatively light rocket components. Conroy presented his plans for an extensively modified Stratocruiser to NASA, where an official commented that the bloated aircraft resembled a pregnant guppy. Although NASA was lukewarm on the concept, Conroy mortgaged his house and founded Aero Spacelines International to build and operate the concept aircraft.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: Conversion work was undertaken by On Mark Engineering. The Pregnant Guppy (registered N1024V) used an ex-Pan Am airframe. A 5-meter section from an ex-British Overseas Airways Corporation aircraft (G-AKGJ) was added immediately behind the wing. A new upper fuselage of 6-meter diameter was added, giving the aircraft a "triple-bubble" appearance when viewed from the front. The entire rear section, including tail surfaces, was detachable to allow cargo to be loaded directly into the fuselage. The wing, engines, tail, nose, and cockpit were unchanged.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: The aircraft first flew on September 19, 1962, piloted by Conroy and co-pilot Clay Lacy. When Van Nuys traffic control realized that Conroy intended to take off, they notified police and fire departments to be on alert. However, the huge aircraft performed flawlessly. It differed in handling from a Stratocruiser only in a slight decrease in speed caused by the drag of the larger fuselage.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: The Guppy delivered the S-IV Saturn I rocket stage three weeks faster than a barge, for a cost of $16.00 (equivalent to $ today) per mile ().


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: In the summer of 1963, the Pregnant Guppy began flying NASA cargo. Among its early duties was transporting the first and second stages of the Gemini program's Titan II from the Martin Co. in Baltimore, Maryland, to Cape Canaveral. As the space program grew through the late 1960s, it became apparent that the one original aircraft clearly could not handle the whole transport load, so 25 more Stratocruisers and ex-USAF C-97s were purchased to construct four Super Guppy aircraft, which were even longer and larger than the original.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: The various Guppy aircraft served throughout the 1960s, 1970s, and beyond. After the Apollo program ended, the aircraft transported airliner sections.


title: Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy

text: The Pregnant Guppy was sold to American Jet Industries and registered N126AJ for scrap. It was scrapped at Van Nuys in 1979.


title: Software prototyping

text: Software prototyping is the activity of creating prototypes of software applications, i.e., incomplete versions of the software program being developed. It is an activity that can occur in software development and is comparable to prototyping as known from other fields, such as mechanical engineering or manufacturing.


title: Software prototyping

text: A prototype typically simulates only a few aspects of, and may be completely different from, the final product.


title: Software prototyping

text: Prototyping has several benefits: the software designer and implementer can get valuable feedback from the users early in the project. The client and the contractor can compare if the software made matches the software specification, according to which the software program is built. It also allows the software engineer some insight into the accuracy of initial project estimates and whether the deadlines and milestones proposed can be successfully met. The degree of completeness and the techniques used in prototyping have been in development and debate since its proposal in the early 1970s.


title: Software prototyping

text: The purpose of a prototype is to allow users of the software to evaluate developers' proposals for the design of the eventual product by actually trying them out, rather than having to interpret and evaluate the design based on descriptions. Software prototyping provides an understanding of the software's functions and potential threats or issues. Prototyping can also be used by end users to describe and prove requirements that have not been considered, and that can be a key factor in the commercial relationship between developers and their clients. Interaction design in particular makes heavy use of prototyping with that goal.


title: Software prototyping

text: This process is in contrast with the 1960s and 1970s monolithic development cycle of building the entire program first and then working out any inconsistencies between design and implementation, which led to higher software costs and poor estimates of time and cost. The monolithic approach has been dubbed the "Slaying the (software) Dragon" technique, since it assumes that the software designer and developer is a single hero who has to slay the entire dragon alone. Prototyping can also avoid the great expense and difficulty of having to change a finished software product.


title: Software prototyping

text: The practice of prototyping is one of the points Frederick P. Brooks makes in his 1975 book "The Mythical Man-Month" and his 10-year anniversary article "No Silver Bullet".


title: Software prototyping

text: An early example of large-scale software prototyping was the implementation of NYU's Ada/ED translator for the Ada programming language. It was implemented in SETL with the intent of producing an executable semantic model for the Ada language, emphasizing clarity of design and user interface over speed and efficiency. The NYU Ada/ED system was the first validated Ada implementation, certified on April 11, 1983.


title: Software prototyping

text: A common term for a user interface prototype is the horizontal prototype. It provides a broad view of an entire system or subsystem, focusing on user interaction more than low-level system functionality, such as database access. Horizontal prototypes are useful for:


title: Software prototyping

text: A vertical prototype is an enhanced complete elaboration of a single subsystem or function. It is useful for obtaining detailed requirements for a given function, with the following benefits:


title: Software prototyping

text: Software prototyping has many variants. However, all of the methods are in some way based on two major forms of prototyping: throwaway prototyping and evolutionary prototyping.


title: Software prototyping

text: Also called close-ended prototyping. Throwaway or rapid prototyping refers to the creation of a model that will eventually be discarded rather than becoming part of the final delivered software. After preliminary requirements gathering is accomplished, a simple working model of the system is constructed to visually show the users what their requirements may look like when they are implemented into a finished system.


title: Software prototyping

text: The most obvious reason for using throwaway prototyping is that it can be done quickly. If the users can get quick feedback on their requirements, they may be able to refine them early in the development of the software. Making changes early in the development lifecycle is extremely cost effective since there is nothing at that point to redo. If a project is changed after a considerable amount of work has been done then small changes could require large efforts to implement since software systems have many dependencies. Speed is crucial in implementing a throwaway prototype, since with a limited budget of time and money little can be expended on a prototype that will be discarded.


title: Software prototyping

text: Another strength of throwaway prototyping is its ability to construct interfaces that the users can test. The user interface is what the user sees as the system, and by seeing it in front of them, it is much easier to grasp how the system will function.


title: Software prototyping

text: Prototypes can be classified according to the fidelity with which they resemble the actual product in terms of appearance, interaction and timing. One method of creating a low fidelity throwaway prototype is paper prototyping. The prototype is implemented using paper and pencil, and thus mimics the function of the actual product, but does not look at all like it. Another method to easily build high fidelity throwaway prototypes is to use a GUI Builder and create a "click dummy", a prototype that looks like the goal system, but does not provide any functionality.


title: Software prototyping

text: The usage of storyboards, animatics or drawings is not exactly the same as throwaway prototyping, but certainly falls within the same family. These are non-functional implementations but show how the system will look.


title: Software prototyping

text: Summary: In this approach the prototype is constructed with the idea that it will be discarded and the final system will be built from scratch. The steps in this approach are:


title: Software prototyping

text: Evolutionary prototyping (also known as breadboard prototyping) is quite different from throwaway prototyping. The main goal when using evolutionary prototyping is to build a very robust prototype in a structured manner and constantly refine it. The reason for this approach is that the evolutionary prototype, when built, forms the heart of the new system, and the improvements and further requirements will then be built.


title: Software prototyping

text: When developing a system using evolutionary prototyping, the system is continually refined and rebuilt.


title: Software prototyping

text: This technique allows the development team to add features, or make changes that couldn't be conceived during the requirements and design phase.


title: Software prototyping

text: Evolutionary prototypes have an advantage over throwaway prototypes in that they are functional systems. Although they may not have all the features the users have planned, they may be used on an interim basis until the final system is delivered.


title: Software prototyping

text: In evolutionary prototyping, developers can focus themselves to develop parts of the system that they understand instead of working on developing a whole system.


title: Software prototyping

text: The final product is built as separate prototypes. At the end, the separate prototypes are merged in an overall design. By the help of incremental prototyping the time gap between user and software developer is reduced.


title: Software prototyping

text: Extreme prototyping as a development process is used especially for developing web applications. Basically, it breaks down web development into three phases, each one based on the preceding one. The first phase is a static prototype that consists mainly of HTML pages. In the second phase, the screens are programmed and fully functional using a simulated services layer. In the third phase, the services are implemented.


title: Software prototyping

text: There are many advantages to using prototyping in software development – some tangible, some abstract.


title: Software prototyping

text: Reduced time and costs: Prototyping can improve the quality of requirements and specifications provided to developers. Because changes cost exponentially more to implement as they are detected later in development, the early determination of "what the user really wants" can result in faster and less expensive software.


title: Software prototyping

text: Improved and increased user involvement: Prototyping requires user involvement and allows them to see and interact with a prototype allowing them to provide better and more complete feedback and specifications. The presence of the prototype being examined by the user prevents many misunderstandings and miscommunications that occur when each side believe the other understands what they said. Since users know the problem domain better than anyone on the development team does, increased interaction can result in a final product that has greater tangible and intangible quality. The final product is more likely to satisfy the user's desire for look, feel and performance.


title: Software prototyping

text: Insufficient analysis: The focus on a limited prototype can distract developers from properly analyzing the complete project. This can lead to overlooking better solutions, preparation of incomplete specifications or the conversion of limited prototypes into poorly engineered final projects that are hard to maintain. Further, since a prototype is limited in functionality it may not scale well if the prototype is used as the basis of a final deliverable, which may not be noticed if developers are too focused on building a prototype as a model.


title: Software prototyping

text: User confusion of prototype and finished system: Users can begin to think that a prototype, intended to be thrown away, is actually a final system that merely needs to be finished or polished. (They are, for example, often unaware of the effort needed to add error-checking and security features which a prototype may not have.) This can lead them to expect the prototype to accurately model the performance of the final system when this is not the intent of the developers. Users can also become attached to features that were included in a prototype for consideration and then removed from the specification for a final system. If users are able to require all proposed features be included in the final system this can lead to conflict.


title: Software prototyping

text: Developer misunderstanding of user objectives: Developers may assume that users share their objectives (e.g. to deliver core functionality on time and within budget), without understanding wider commercial issues. For example, user representatives attending Enterprise software (e.g. PeopleSoft) events may have seen demonstrations of "transaction auditing" (where changes are logged and displayed in a difference grid view) without being told that this feature demands additional coding and often requires more hardware to handle extra database accesses. Users might believe they can demand auditing on every field, whereas developers might think this is feature creep because they have made assumptions about the extent of user requirements. If the developer has committed delivery before the user requirements were reviewed, developers are between a rock and a hard place, particularly if user management derives some advantage from their failure to implement requirements.


title: Software prototyping

text: Developer attachment to prototype: Developers can also become attached to prototypes they have spent a great deal of effort producing; this can lead to problems, such as attempting to convert a limited prototype into a final system when it does not have an appropriate underlying architecture. (This may suggest that throwaway prototyping, rather than evolutionary prototyping, should be used.)


title: Software prototyping

text: Excessive development time of the prototype: A key property to prototyping is the fact that it is supposed to be done quickly. If the developers lose sight of this fact, they very well may try to develop a prototype that is too complex. When the prototype is thrown away the precisely developed requirements that it provides may not yield a sufficient increase in productivity to make up for the time spent developing the prototype. Users can become stuck in debates over details of the prototype, holding up the development team and delaying the final product.


title: Software prototyping

text: Expense of implementing prototyping: the start up costs for building a development team focused on prototyping may be high. Many companies have development methodologies in place, and changing them can mean retraining, retooling, or both. Many companies tend to just begin prototyping without bothering to retrain their workers as much as they should.


title: Software prototyping

text: It has been argued that prototyping, in some form or another, should be used all the time. However, prototyping is most beneficial in systems that will have many interactions with the users.


title: Software prototyping

text: Systems with little user interaction, such as batch processing or systems that mostly do calculations, benefit little from prototyping. Sometimes, the coding needed to perform the system functions may be too intensive and the potential gains that prototyping could provide are too small.


title: Software prototyping

text: Prototyping is especially good for designing good human–computer interfaces. "One of the most productive uses of rapid prototyping to date has been as a tool for iterative user requirements engineering and human–computer interface design."


title: Software prototyping

text: Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM) is a framework for delivering business solutions that relies heavily upon prototyping as a core technique, and is itself ISO 9001 approved. It expands upon most understood definitions of a prototype. According to DSDM the prototype may be a diagram, a business process, or even a system placed into production. DSDM prototypes are intended to be incremental, evolving from simple forms into more comprehensive ones.


title: Software prototyping

text: DSDM prototypes can sometimes be "throwaway" or "evolutionary". Evolutionary prototypes may be evolved horizontally (breadth then depth) or vertically (each section is built in detail with additional iterations detailing subsequent sections). Evolutionary prototypes can eventually evolve into final systems.


title: Software prototyping

text: Operational prototyping was proposed by Alan Davis as a way to integrate throwaway and evolutionary prototyping with conventional system development. "It offers the best of both the quick-and-dirty and conventional-development worlds in a sensible manner. Designers develop only well-understood features in building the evolutionary baseline, while using throwaway prototyping to experiment with the poorly understood features."


title: Software prototyping

text: Davis' belief is that to try to "retrofit quality onto a rapid prototype" is not the correct method when trying to combine the two approaches. His idea is to engage in an evolutionary prototyping methodology and rapidly prototype the features of the system after each evolution.


title: Software prototyping

text: Obviously, a key to this method is to have well trained prototypers available to go to the user sites. The operational prototyping methodology has many benefits in systems that are complex and have few known requirements in advance.


title: Software prototyping

text: Evolutionary Systems Development is a class of methodologies that attempt to formally implement evolutionary prototyping. One particular type, called Systemscraft is described by John Crinnion in his book "Evolutionary Systems Development".


title: Software prototyping

text: Systemscraft was designed as a 'prototype' methodology that should be modified and adapted to fit the specific environment in which it was implemented.


title: Software prototyping

text: The basis of Systemscraft, not unlike evolutionary prototyping, is to create a working system from the initial requirements and build upon it in a series of revisions. Systemscraft places heavy emphasis on traditional analysis being used throughout the development of the system.


title: Software prototyping

text: Evolutionary Rapid Development (ERD) was developed by the Software Productivity Consortium, a technology development and integration agent for the Information Technology Office of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).


title: Software prototyping

text: To elicit customer/user input, frequent scheduled and ad hoc/impromptu meetings with the stakeholders are held. Demonstrations of system capabilities are held to solicit feedback before design/implementation decisions are solidified. Frequent releases (e.g., betas) are made available for use to provide insight into how the system could better support user and customer needs. This assures that the system evolves to satisfy existing user needs.


title: Software prototyping

text: The design framework for the system is based on using existing published or de facto standards. The system is organized to allow for evolving a set of capabilities that includes considerations for performance, capacities, and functionality. The architecture is defined in terms of abstract interfaces that encapsulate the services and their implementation (e.g., COTS applications). The architecture serves as a template to be used for guiding development of more than a single instance of the system. It allows for multiple application components to be used to implement the services. A core set of functionality not likely to change is also identified and established.


title: Software prototyping

text: The ERD process is structured to use demonstrated functionality rather than paper products as a way for stakeholders to communicate their needs and expectations. Central to this goal of rapid delivery is the use of the "timebox" method. Timeboxes are fixed periods of time in which specific tasks (e.g., developing a set of functionality) must be performed. Rather than allowing time to expand to satisfy some vague set of goals, the time is fixed (both in terms of calendar weeks and person-hours) and a set of goals is defined that realistically can be achieved within these constraints. To keep development from degenerating into a "random walk," long-range plans are defined to guide the iterations. These plans provide a vision for the overall system and set boundaries (e.g., constraints) for the project. Each iteration within the process is conducted in the context of these long-range plans.


title: Software prototyping

text: Once an architecture is established, software is integrated and tested on a daily basis. This allows the team to assess progress objectively and identify potential problems quickly. Since small amounts of the system are integrated at one time, diagnosing and removing the defect is rapid. User demonstrations can be held at short notice since the system is generally ready to exercise at all times.


title: Software prototyping

text: Efficiently using prototyping requires that an organization have the proper tools and a staff trained to use those tools. Tools used in prototyping can vary from individual tools, such as 4th generation programming languages used for rapid prototyping to complex integrated CASE tools. 4th generation visual programming languages like Visual Basic and ColdFusion are frequently used since they are cheap, well known and relatively easy and fast to use. CASE tools, supporting requirements analysis, like the Requirements Engineering Environment (see below) are often developed or selected by the military or large organizations. Object oriented tools are also being developed like LYMB from the GE Research and Development Center. Users may prototype elements of an application themselves in a spreadsheet.


title: Software prototyping

text: As web-based applications continue to grow in popularity, so too, have the tools for prototyping such applications. Frameworks such as Bootstrap, Foundation, and AngularJS provide the tools necessary to quickly structure a proof of concept. These frameworks typically consist of a set of controls, interactions, and design guidelines that enable developers to quickly prototype web applications.


title: Software prototyping

text: Screen generating programs are also commonly used and they enable prototypers to show user's systems that do not function, but show what the screens may look like. Developing Human Computer Interfaces can sometimes be the critical part of the development effort, since to the users the interface essentially is the system.


title: Software prototyping

text: Software factories can generate code by combining ready-to-use modular components. This makes them ideal for prototyping applications, since this approach can quickly deliver programs with the desired behaviour, with a minimal amount of manual coding.


title: Software prototyping

text: A new class of software called Application definition or simulation software enables users to rapidly build lightweight, animated simulations of another computer program, without writing code. Application simulation software allows both technical and non-technical users to experience, test, collaborate and validate the simulated program, and provides reports such as annotations, screenshot and schematics. As a solution specification technique, Application Simulation falls between low-risk, but limited, text or drawing-based mock-ups (or wireframes) sometimes called "paper-based prototyping", and time-consuming, high-risk code-based prototypes, allowing software professionals to validate requirements and design choices early on, before development begins. In doing so, the risks and costs associated with software implementations can be dramatically reduced.


title: Software prototyping

text: To simulate applications one can also use software that simulates real-world software programs for computer-based training, demonstration, and customer support, such as screencasting software as those areas are closely related.


title: Software prototyping

text: "The Requirements Engineering Environment (REE), under development at Rome Laboratory since 1985, provides an integrated toolset for rapidly representing, building, and executing models of critical aspects of complex systems."


title: Software prototyping

text: Requirements Engineering Environment is currently used by the United States Air Force to develop systems. It is:


title: Software prototyping

text: REE is composed of three parts. The first, called proto is a CASE tool specifically designed to support rapid prototyping. The second part is called the Rapid Interface Prototyping System or RIP, which is a collection of tools that facilitate the creation of user interfaces. The third part of REE is a user interface to RIP and proto that is graphical and intended to be easy to use.


title: Software prototyping

text: Rome Laboratory, the developer of REE, intended that to support their internal requirements gathering methodology. Their method has three main parts: