title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Meanwhile, journalist Josh Fairley (Al Weaver) smells a story, and persuades his editor to run a picture of attractive Leanne on their front page. Josh's is a small local newspaper, and he wants to run a more exciting story than golden weddings. He publishes Leanne's picture, despite getting the brush off from Defne, who is trying to keep the story relatively low profile. Josh takes photos for the paper at the home where Vic (Edward Woodward), Leanne's grandfather, lives. Josh manages to converse with Vic about his granddaughter. He eventually persuades Vic to loan him the key to his mobile home, in order to gather clues and background details. When he arrives at the mobile home, he is astonished to discover Rosie on the bed seemingly unharmed. He calls the police and takes pictures for his paper and dashes off to his office, leaving Rosie with the neighbours. Josh doesn't see Kyle who, on arriving at the mobile home in his white van, is arrested by the police.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Defne eventually persuades Matt to give a press conference, and Barbara agrees to speak as well. The press conference doesn't go well, and Josh asks Matt if he knew that Leanne was pregnant, having acquired the information from her grandfather. Matt, clearly shaken, walks out. It is left to Barbara to appeal to whoever has any information about Leanne's whereabouts. At first, she is calm, then she gives in to a scream of panic and grief in front of everyone. After the debacle, DSI Barclay is rapped by his superior for not participating and supporting the press. He remains aloof, but agrees to help.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Sarah is finding it hard to let go of Leanne's family, and starts seeing them regularly. Sarah attempts to start a relationship with Matt, but he rebuffs her advances, telling her that they can only be friends. She is upset at this, and eventually tells him her own traumatic past, in which her father murdered her mother, Sarah was 5 at the time. This seems to explain her rather unbalanced behaviour since finding Ethan.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Tanya has left to live with Barbara and John and expresses her feelings of guilt to John. She tells him that she didn't want to visit Vic because his room smelt. Tanya feels that Leanne's disappearance would've never happened if she'd joined them. John tries to reassure her. Eventually Tanya goes to stay with her dad in France. The police have a lead that Leanne may have started seeing her ex- husband, but they haven't followed it up. DCI Iain Barclay (Hugh Bonneville) is obsessed with following the flower seller, a Bosnian, who may have links with illegal immigration from Macedonia. This frustrates the rest of the team.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: After 28 days, DCI Barclay comes under scrutiny from his superiors in the Met as he has no leads on the case at all. They are about to submit a report and are asking the team questions. His colleague Amy is frustrated that he hasn't named a suspect. She accuses him of refusing to name Matt as a suspect because he's black. However, Barclay's superiors ordered him to lay off Matt. Barclay denies this. Later a body is found in the woods by the dog shelter owner, whilst out walking his dogs. The body is identified as Branko, the Macedonian illegal immigrant who sold flowers from a van, the van Leanne was buying flowers from when she disappeared.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: On day 33, it is August Bank Holiday. Defne is taking part in the fun run and Beam is there to support her. Josh is there to cover the event for the paper. PC Simone Farnes (Nikki Amuka-Bird), Sarah and Matt take the children to the fun run. Matt becomes overwhelmed by the crowds and he and Sarah go to her flat, leaving the children and the dog with Simone. They have sex, despite Matt's reluctance. Suddenly a boater on the lake spots a body in the water. After several days it is confirmed that the body is Leanne's.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: DS Amy Foster (Janet McTeer) is about to retire, and her colleagues throw a party for her. She drunkenly gives a speech about not missing her colleagues when truly, she is terrified at the prospect of life without her work. Barclay takes her home and sobers her up. Before she retires, the forensic lab does her one last favour, they identify the fibres under Leanne's fingernails as carpet. It becomes apparent to Barclay that Leanne, desperate to give a clue to her would be rescuers, deliberately scraped up the fibres so that they would be found. It was also established that she was alive when she was dumped in the lake. John is admitted to a psychiatric hospital, following an overdose. Barclay had warned him about seeing Leanne's body after 5 weeks underwater, and he's traumatised. Only Tanya comes to visit him, her true feelings for her grandfather shows, mirroring her mum's devotion to Vic, despite her protestations of "who needs love, anyway?" Barbara is furious at John, and refuses to see him. Beam is irritated by the dog shelter man, who insists on confessing to killing Leanne.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Kyle is in court, he is remanded in custody despite his pleas that he was regularly beaten by other inmates in prison. The judge refuses to remand him to his mother. Kyle manages to escape from the police van that was taking him back to prison. He's hit by a car, but continues on his way, eventually ending up at Rosie and Ethan's house, where they're being cared for by Sarah. Rosie is delighted to see him, and gives him a hug. He disappears before Sarah comes out and finds the children.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Gary finds Kyle at the gym and beats him viciously, telling him to be quiet. Matt tells the others to call the police, and then locks himself in the locker room with Kyle and Gary, where he demands to know if Kyle hurt Rosie. Kyle insists that he didn't, and says that it was all an accident. He and Branko ran a smuggling scheme bringing in untaxed cigarettes, and storing them at Vic's mobile home. Vic had let them use it as a favour for Hazel, Kyle's mother, who worked at the nursing home and was the only person who was kind to Vic. When Leanne stopped to buy the flowers, Kyle was in the back of the flower van with cigarettes and illegal cash, Leanne then started to shout at Branko that his cancer sticks were killing her grandfather. Branko attempted to shut her up, and Leanne hit her head, and fell unconscious. Terrified, Branko and Kyle threw her in the back of the van and drove off. When she recovered consciousness, she was concerned about her children, so Kyle went to pick them up in his white van. Ethan and the dog jumped out, but he took Rosie back to Vic's mobile home, where Branko had taken Leanne. Kyle insists that it was too late, and Leanne died, so he took her body and put it in the lake.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Matt tells him that it "wasn't" too late, that Leanne drowned when Kyle dumped her in the lake. Kyle is horrified and turns to Gary and shouts "You said she was dead!" Matt understands that it was Gary who killed Leanne, and attacks him. The police break in and take them all away, but Kyle dies of his injuries inflicted by Gary. Gary is charged with the deaths of Leanne, Branko and Kyle. The final scene is Matt with his three children at Leanne's grave (with a smaller cross for her unborn baby). Sarah is nearby, but doesn't join the family as they walk away together.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: In October 2008, the BBC commissioned a two-part spin-off in which Hugh Bonneville and Janet McTeer reprise their roles as Barclay and Foster. "Hunter" was broadcast in January 2009.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: In Australia, the "Five Days" drama was broadcast over two weeks on 2 and 9 October ABC TV under the title "Hunter" as a lead-in to the broadcast of this serial, beginning 16 October.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: In August 2009 the Ecclesbourne Valley Railway in Wirksworth, Derbyshire was used to film the second series, entitled 'Five Days II', and starring Suranne Jones, Anne Reid, Bernard Hill, Matthew McNulty, Ashley Walters, David Morrissey, Chris Fountain, Nina Sosanya and Derek Riddell amongst others. The station at Wirksworth was turned into the fictional station of Castlebury in Yorkshire.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Many locations within West Yorkshire and some in North Yorkshire were used for filming: Many scenes were filmed at Wakefield Kirkgate railway station with the main road approaching the station being closed for a period of time whilst a chase was filmed. A now demolished signal box, named 'Oakenshaw', which was located just down the line from Wakefield Kirkgate gets a mention within the programme. The public entrance and 6th floor interior (with genuine landscape views of Wakefield) of the HM Revenue & Customs Enquiry Centre, 'Crown House' on Kirkgate / Brunswick Street was turned into a police station for filming. Actors wearing high-vis police jackets with 'British Transport Police' on the back were seen outside Crown House. A sign stating 'North Counties Constabulary' was seen outside Crown House and this is believed to be the name for the fictitious local police force, yet the British Transport Police is mentioned with its correct name. One of the main shopping areas, Kirkgate, was also a location for filming.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Brighouse railway station was also seen in the opening scenes of the first episode with a Northern Rail service seen arriving and then departing the station. Many exterior scenes, including Market and outside street scenes were filmed in Dewsbury and Dewsbury Town Hall was also featured. The exterior shots of 'St. Mary's Hospital' is actually the exterior of the 'EC Stoner' Administration building of the University of Leeds and the Mosque shown is actually the Northern School of Contemporary Dance on Louis Street, Chapeltown. Many of the Victorian housing stock seen on screen are Leeds streets filmed around Harehills. All scenes involving the British Rail Class 101 Diesel Multiple Unit were filmed at the Ecclesbourne Valley Railway in Derbyshire. This type of train is no longer in service - the last serving unit was withdrawn in 2003. Certain scenes were set in Scarborough, due to a particular character being resident in the town. Wirksworth station was dressed up to be 'Castlebury' station and the Class 101 DMU had the fictitious 'Pennine Rail Express' livery applied to the interior and exterior of the train - the colours of which are of a similar style to those of the Northern Rail train livery. Some Northern Rail trains can be seen pulling out of stations and in the backgrounds when not central to the main action within a scene.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: On day one, an off duty police officer named Laurie Franklin (Suranne Jones), is on a train accompanying her mother Jen (Anne Reid), who suffers from dementia, to hospital. The train suddenly comes to a halt, and it soon transpires that a young Muslim woman has jumped from a bridge, hitting the train, leaving the train driver, Pat (Steve Evets), traumatised. Laurie and conductor Danny (Matthew McNulty) take charge until the railway police arrive. Danny gives Jen and Laurie a lift to the hospital, where Jen fits and is admitted overnight. At the hospital, Laurie learns from social worker Colly (Nina Sosanya) and foster father Nick (Derek Riddell) that a baby has been abandoned in a toilet and found by cleaner Didi (Cornell John). The baby is named Michael, after Didi's brother. As Danny and his Muslim wife Nusrat (Shivani Ghai) discuss adoption, Laurie believes that the baby and the suicide are connected. DI Mal Craig (David Morrissey), the Railway Police inspector, tells her that the corpse is in fact that of a young man, not a woman as had been previously thought.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Day two, Laurie discovers that Michael's blood group is Asian and although it is believed that the dead youth is the father, Michael's blood group does not match the deceased. However, the dead youth's finger-prints are found on the baby's pushchair, which Colly and Didi discover abandoned in the hospital grounds. It also contains a Muslim prayer for protection. Mal's son, Luke (Luke Hudson), who lives with his estranged wife, was playing by the railway lines, and recorded a video of his friend, and in the background, the video shows that the dead youth was actually pushed, at which point Laurie's superior, Supt Jim Carpenter (Hugo Speer), takes over the case. DC Bilal Choudry (Navin Chowdhry) answers an appeal and names the corpse as an illegal Afghan immigrant, Farid, who was a drug-pusher, possibly killed in a gangland revenge. Laurie is surprised to find Jen bringing home Gerard, a man they met on the train. Nusrat - hopeful to adopt Michael - discovers her brother Khalil (Sacha Dhawan) agitated and blood-stained.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Day 8, Michael falls ill, and is admitted to hospital. The diagnosis is suspected methadone withdrawal. There are no leads a week after the murder. A reconstruction of the murder is created and Muslim passenger Jamal Matthews (Ashley Walters) accuses Laurie of inciting Islamophobia. An old lady alerts Laurie to the disappearance of her neighbours on the day of the murder - a man and two women. Farid's shoe is found in their car but was apparently also worn by someone else. Nusrat disowns Khalil to the adoption officer and soon afterwards their father, Ibra (Aaron Neil), finds images of Khalil with a Taliban-type group on his computer following Khalil's visit to Pakistan, allegedly to study. At the same time Khalil is meeting Jamal.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Day 37, Nick takes Michael home and confesses to Colly, his deceased wife's sister, that he wants to keep him, but Didi tells Colly a child needs a mother and Nusrat and Danny are suitable for the adoption. Khalil has a panic attack at a royal visit and is briefly arrested by Laurie, which angers Ibra. Ibra confronts Khalil about the photos found on the computer, to which Khalil replies that they were from the past and that he has changed. Pat meets former lover Maureen (Pooky Quesnel) who reveals that she lived next to the old lady with her friend's daughter Katie, who now lives in Manchester. It transpires that Katie is Michael's mother, and the father is Farid, but it is revealed that Farid wasn't the dead youth's name. Farid is in fact, the dead youth's brother (Kamal Kaan), who turns up. Jen and Gerry bond as he goes with her to hospital, where her condition is re-diagnosed as physical degeneration and not Alzheimer's. Laurie and Mal also bond but as Pat takes Maureen to the police to explain her innocence, Mal is hit by a car whilst pursuing Sohel, one of the train passengers.


title: Five Days (TV series)

text: Two months later, Laurie, still traumatised from the accident that killed Mal, learns that Jen and Gerry (Bernard Hill) are engaged. Maureen, having told the police that she was on the bridge when the youth jumped but did not push him, moves in with Pat. Farid, Michael's real father, is preparing to collect Michael from Nick and promises to raise him with the aid of Maureen. However Maureen kidnaps Michael and takes him to Katie, who wants nothing to do with Michael. She returns to Pat, confessing that she shopped Farid for drug-dealing, causing his brother to jump from the bridge as he was left on his own. Laurie discovers that Pat has pushed Maureen over the bridge, because she twice deserted him. Laurie fears that Michael has been killed too, but finds him safe in the car, and Laurie arrests Pat. Khalil is imprisoned on suspicion of terrorism for having been at the camp in Pakistan and Nusrat and Danny fear this will harm their adoption chances forever.


title: Bier

text: A bier is a stand on which a corpse, coffin, or casket containing a corpse is placed to lie in state or to be carried to the grave.


title: Bier

text: In Christian burial, the bier is often placed in the centre of the nave with candles surrounding it, and remains in place during the funeral.


title: Bier

text: The bier is a flat frame, traditionally wooden but sometimes of other materials. In antiquity it was often a wooden board on which the dead were placed, covered with a shroud. In modern times, the corpse is rarely carried on the bier without being first placed in a coffin or casket, though the coffin or casket is sometimes kept open.


title: Bier

text: A bier is often draped with cloth to lend dignity to the funeral service. The modern funeral industry uses a collapsible aluminium bier on wheels, known as a "church truck" to move the coffin to and from the church or funeral home for services.


title: Bier

text: Biers are generally smaller than the coffin or casket they support for reasons of appearance. As a result, they are not particularly stable, and can tip over unless well-centered and undisturbed.


title: Bier

text: The Carmelite Priory at Mdina, Malta, has a colorful bier on display that was used to carry the monks or friars before they were buried without a coffin.


title: Bier

text: Ancient Egyptians depicted biers used in their embalming practices and to bear royal coffins in the tomb. They were fashioned to resemble the goddess Sekhmet, the fierce lioness who was the protector of the kings, displaying her head, feet, and often, her distinctive tail that in graphics is shown arching over the bier.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Lebanese Arabic ( ; autonym: ), or simply Lebanese ( ; autonym: ), is a variety of North Levantine Arabic, indigenous to and spoken primarily in Lebanon, with significant linguistic influences borrowed from other Middle Eastern and European languages and is in some ways unique from other varieties of Arabic. Due to multilingualism and pervasive diglossia among Lebanese people (a majority of the Lebanese people are bilingual or trilingual), it is not uncommon for Lebanese people to code-switch between or mix Lebanese Arabic, English, and French in their daily speech. It is also spoken among the Lebanese diaspora.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Lebanese Arabic is a descendant of the Arabic dialects introduced to the Levant in the 7th century AD, which gradually supplanted various indigenous Northwest Semitic languages to become the regional lingua franca. As a result of this prolonged process of language shift, Lebanese Arabic possesses a significant Aramaic substratum, along with later non-Semitic adstrate influences from Ottoman Turkish, English, and French. As a variety of Levantine Arabic, Lebanese Arabic is most closely related to Syrian Arabic and shares many innovations with Palestinian and Jordanian Arabic.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Lebanese Arabic shares many features with other modern varieties of Arabic. Lebanese Arabic, like many other spoken Levantine Arabic varieties, has a syllable structure very different from that of Modern Standard Arabic. While Standard Arabic can have only one consonant at the beginning of a syllable, after which a vowel must follow, Lebanese Arabic commonly has two consonants in the onset.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Lebanese literary figure Said Akl led a movement to recognize the "Lebanese language" as a distinct prestigious language and oppose it to Standard Arabic, which he considered a "dead language". Akl's idea was relatively successful among the Lebanese diaspora.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Several non-linguist commentators, most notably the statistician and essayist Nassim Nicholas Taleb, have claimed that the Lebanese vernacular is not in fact a variety of Arabic at all, but rather a separate Central Semitic language descended from older languages including Aramaic; those who espouse this viewpoint suggest that a large percentage of its vocabulary consists of Arabic loanwords, and that this compounds with the use of the Arabic alphabet to disguise the language's true nature. Taleb has recommended that the language be called Northwestern Levantine or neo-Canaanite. However, this classification is at odds with the comparative method of historical linguistics; the lexicon of Lebanese, including basic lexicon, exhibits sound changes and other features that are unique to the Arabic branch of the Semitic language family, making it difficult to categorize it under any other branch, and observations of its morphology also suggest a substantial Arabic makeup. However, this is disputable as Arabic and Aramaic share many cognates, so only words proper to the Arabic language and cognates with Arabic-specific sound changes can certainly only be from Arabic. It is plausible that many words used in Lebanese Arabic today may have been influenced by their respective Aramaic and Canaanite cognates.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Historian and linguist Ahmad Al-Jallad has argued that modern dialects are not descendants of Classical Arabic, forms of Arabic existing before the formation of Classical Arabic being the historical foundation for the various dialects. Thus he states that, "most of the familiar modern dialects (i.e. Rabat, Cairo, Damascus, etc.) are sedimentary structures, containing layers of Arabics that must be teased out on a case-by-case basis." In essence, the linguistic consensus is that Lebanese too is a variety of Arabic.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: This table shows the correspondence between general Lebanese Arabic vowel phonemes and their counterpart realizations in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and other Levantine Arabic varieties.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Although there is a modern Lebanese Arabic dialect mutually understood by Lebanese people, there are regionally distinct variations with, at times, unique pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Lebanese Arabic is rarely written, except in novels where a dialect is implied or in some types of poetry that do not use classical Arabic at all. Lebanese Arabic is also utilized in many Lebanese songs, theatrical pieces, local television and radio productions, and very prominently in zajal.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Formal publications in Lebanon, such as newspapers, are typically written in Modern Standard Arabic, French, or English.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: While Arabic script is usually employed, informal usage such as online chat may mix and match Latin letter transliterations. The Lebanese poet Said Akl proposed the use of the Latin alphabet but did not gain wide acceptance. Whereas some works, such as "Romeo and Juliet" and "Plato's Dialogues" have been transliterated using such systems, they have not gained widespread acceptance. Yet, now, most Arabic web users, when short of an Arabic keyboard, transliterate the Lebanese Arabic words in the Latin alphabet in a pattern similar to the Said Akl alphabet, the only difference being the use of digits to render the Arabic letters with no obvious equivalent in the Latin alphabet.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: There is still today no generally accepted agreement on how to use the Latin alphabet to transliterate Lebanese Arabic words. However, Lebanese people are now using Latin numbers while communicating online to make up for sounds not directly associable to Latin letters. This is especially popular over text messages and apps such as WhatsApp.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: In 2010, The Lebanese Language Institute has released a Lebanese Arabic keyboard layout and made it easier to write Lebanese Arabic in a Latin script, using unicode-compatible symbols to substitute for missing sounds.


title: Lebanese Arabic

text: Said Akl, the poet, philosopher, writer, playwright and language reformer, designed alphabet for the Lebanese language using the Latin alphabet in addition to a few newly designed letters and some accented Latin letters to suit the Lebanese phonology in the following pattern:


title: School integration in the United States

text: School integration in the United States is the process (also known as desegregation) of ending race-based segregation within American public and private schools. Racial segregation in schools existed throughout most of American history and remains an issue in contemporary education. During the Civil Rights Movement school integration became a priority, but since then "de facto" segregation has again become prevalent.


title: School integration in the United States

text: School segregation declined rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Segregation appears to have increased since 1990. The disparity in the average poverty rate in the schools whites attend and blacks attend is the single most important factor in the educational achievement gap between white and black students.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Some schools in the United States were integrated before the mid-20th century, the first ever being Lowell High School in Massachusetts, which has accepted students of all races since its founding. The earliest known African American student, Caroline Van Vronker, attended the school in 1843. The integration of all American schools was a major catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement and racial violence that occurred in the United States during the latter half of the 20th century.


title: School integration in the United States

text: After the Civil War, the first legislation providing rights to African Americans was passed. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, also known as the Reconstruction Amendments, which were passed between 1865 and 1870, abolished slavery, guaranteed citizenship and protection under the law, and prohibited racial discrimination in voting, respectively.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Despite these Reconstruction amendments, blatant discrimination took place through what would come to be known as Jim Crow laws. As a result of these laws, African Americans were required to sit on different park benches, use different drinking fountains, and ride in different railroad cars than their white counterparts, among other segregated aspects of life. Though the Civil Rights Act of 1875 prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, in 1896 the Supreme Court ruled in the landmark case "Plessy v. Ferguson" that racially segregated public facilities such as schools, parks, and public transportation were legally permissible as long as they were equal in quality. This separate but equal doctrine legalized segregation in schools.


title: School integration in the United States

text: This institutionalized discrimination led to the creation of black schools—or segregated schools for African-American children. With the help of philanthropists such as Julius Rosenwald and black leaders such as Booker T. Washington, black schools began to establish themselves as esteemed institutions. These schools soon assumed prominent places in black communities, with teachers being seen as highly respected community leaders. However, despite their important role in black communities, black schools remained underfunded and ill-equipped, particularly in comparison to white schools. For example, between 1902 and 1918, the General Education Board, a philanthropic organization created to strengthen public schools in the South, gave only $2.4 million to black schools compared to $25 million given to white schools.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Throughout the first half of the 20th century there were several efforts to combat school segregation, but few were successful. However, in a unanimous 1954 decision in the "Brown v. Board of Education" case, the United States Supreme Court ruled segregation in public schools unconstitutional. The NAACP legal team representing Brown, led by Thurgood Marshall, argued that racially separate schools were inherently unequal, as society as a whole looked down upon African Americans and racially segregated schools only reinforced this prejudice. They supported their argument with research from psychologists and social scientists in order to empirically prove that segregated schools inflicted psychological harm on black students. These expert testimonies, coupled with the concrete knowledge that black schools had worse facilities than white schools and that black teachers were paid less than white teachers, contributed to the landmark unanimous decision.


title: School integration in the United States

text: The Little Rock Nine was a group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. Their enrollment was followed by the Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas. They then attended after the intervention of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Before the Little Rock Nine, the state of Arkansas would experience the first successful school integrations below the Mason–Dixon line. In 1948, nine years before the Little Rock Nine, the University of Arkansas' Law and Medical Schools successfully admitted black students. Public schools would also integrate in the Arkansas cities of Charleston and Fayetteville in 1954 as well.


title: School integration in the United States

text: The U.S. Supreme Court issued its historic Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 347 U.S. 483, on May 17, 1954. Tied to the 14th Amendment, the decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation.[1] After the decision, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) attempted to register black students in previously all-white schools in cities throughout the South. In Little Rock, Arkansas, the school board agreed to comply with the high court's ruling. Virgil Blossom, the Superintendent of Schools, submitted a plan of gradual integration to the school board on May 24, 1955, which the board unanimously approved. The plan would be implemented during the fall of the 1957 school year, which would begin in September 1957.


title: School integration in the United States

text: By 1957, the NAACP had registered nine black students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High, selected on the criteria of excellent grades and attendance.[2] Called the "Little Rock Nine", they were Ernest Green (b. 1941), Elizabeth Eckford (b. 1941), Jefferson Thomas (1942–2010), Terrence Roberts (b. 1941), Carlotta Walls LaNier (b. 1942), Minnijean Brown (b. 1941), Gloria Ray Karlmark (b. 1942), Thelma Mothershed (b. 1940), and Melba Pattillo Beals (b. 1941). One black student, Minnijean Brown, was expelled for retaliating. Ernest Green became the first black student to graduate from Central High in May 1958


title: School integration in the United States

text: When integration began on September 4, 1957, the Arkansas National Guard was called in to "preserve the peace". Originally at orders of the governor, they were meant to prevent the black students from entering due to claims that there was "imminent danger of tumult, riot and breach of peace" at the integration. However, President Eisenhower issued Executive order 10730, which federalized the Arkansas National Guard and 1,000 soldiers from the US Army and ordered them to support the integration on September 23 of that year, after which they protected the African American students. The Arkansas National Guard would escort these nine black children inside the school as it became the students’ daily routine that year.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Despite the federal ruling in "Brown v. Board of Education", integration was met with immediate opposition from some people, especially in the south. In 1955, "Time" magazine reviewed the status of desegregation efforts in the 17 Southern and border states, grading them from "A" to "F" as follows:


title: School integration in the United States

text: A policy of "massive resistance" was declared by Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd and led to the closing of nine schools in four counties in Virginia between 1958 and 1959; those in Prince Edward County, Virginia remained closed until 1964.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Supporting this policy, a majority of Southern congressmen, in the U.S. House of Representative signed a document in 1956 called the Southern Manifesto, which condemned the racial integration of public institutions such as schools.


title: School integration in the United States

text: In 1957, in accordance with massive resistance, Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas called upon the Arkansas National Guard to prevent nine black students from attending the newly desegregated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. In response, President Dwight D. Eisenhower dispatched federal troops to safely escort the group of students - soon to be known as the Little Rock Nine - to their classes in the midst of violent protests from an angry mob of white students and townspeople.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Escalating the conflict, Faubus closed all of Little Rock's public high schools in fall 1958, but the U.S. Supreme Court ordered them reopened in December of that year.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Prominent black newspapers such as the Chicago Defender and the Atlanta Daily World praised the Brown decision for upholding racial equality and civil rights. The editors of these newspapers recognized the momentous nature and symbolic importance of the decision. Immediately, "Brown v. Board of Education" proved to be a catalyst in inciting the push for equal rights in southern communities, just as Charles Houston and Thurgood Marshall had hoped when they devised the legal strategy behind it. Less than a year after the Brown decision, the Montgomery bus boycott began—another important step in the fight for African-American civil rights. Today, "Brown v. Board of Education" is largely viewed as the starting point of the Civil Rights Movement.


title: School integration in the United States

text: By the 1960s and 70s, the Civil Rights Movement had gained significant support. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited segregation and discrimination based on race in public facilities, including schools, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in voting affairs. In 1971, the Supreme Court in "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" approved the use of busing to achieve desegregation, despite racially segregated neighborhoods and limited radii of school districts. By 1988, school integration reached an all-time high with nearly 45% of black students attending previously all-white schools.


title: School integration in the United States

text: After "Brown vs. Board of Education" ruled that school segregation was unconstitutional, the implementation of desegregation was discussed in a follow-up Supreme Court case termed "Brown II". Though the NAACP lawyers argued for an immediate timetable of integration, the Supreme Court issued an ambiguous order that school districts should integrate with "all deliberate speed."


title: School integration in the United States

text: On August 23, 1954, 11 black children attended school with approximately 480 white students in Charleston, Arkansas. The school superintendent made an agreement with local media not to discuss the event, and attempts to gain information by other sources were deliberately ignored. The process went very smoothly, followed by a similar action in Fayetteville, Arkansas the same fall. The following year, the integration of schools in Hoxie, Arkansas drew national coverage from Life Magazine, and bitter opposition from White Citizen's Councils and segregationist politicians ensued. Although integration allowed more Black youth access to better-funded schools, in many areas the process also resulted in the layoffs of Black teachers and administrators who had worked in all-Black schools.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Various options arose that allowed white populations to avoid the forced integration of public schools. After the Brown decision, many white families living in urban areas moved to predominantly suburban areas in order to take advantage of the wealthier and whiter schools there. William Henry Kellar, in his study of school desegregation in Houston, Texas, described the process of white flight in Houston's Independent School District. He noted that white students made up 49.9 percent of HISD's enrollment in 1970, but that number steadily dropped over the decade. White enrollment comprised only 25.1 percent of HISD's student population by 1980.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Another way that white families avoided integration was by withdrawing their children from their local public school system in order to enroll them into newly founded "segregation academies". After the 1968 Supreme Court case "Green v. County School Board of New Kent County" hastened the desegregation of public schools, private school attendance in the state of Mississippi soared from 23,181 students attending private school in 1968 to 63,242 students in 1970. These two practices, collectively termed white flight, led to a decrease in white populations in urban public schools so much that between 1968 and 1978 schools in the South were more segregated than they were pre-Brown.


title: School integration in the United States

text: The subject of desegregation was becoming more inflamed. In March 1970, President Richard M. Nixon decided to take action. He declared Brown to be <nowiki>"right in both constitutional and human terms" and expressed his intention to enforce the law. He also put in place a process to carry out the court'</nowiki>s mandate. Vice President Spiro T. Agnew and George Shultz, then secretary of labor, were asked to lead a cabinet committee to manage the transition to desegregated schools.


title: School integration in the United States

text: The University of Louisiana at Lafayette was the first college in Louisiana to integrate its student body. Southwest Louisiana Institute, as it was then known, admitted John Harold Taylor of Arnaudville in July 1954 without incident, and by September of that year when the fall semester began, 80 Blacks were in attendance and no disturbances were recorded. SLI became the University of Southwestern Louisiana four years later and today is known as the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.


title: School integration in the United States

text: The University of Texas was the subject of the seminal Supreme Court desegregation case of "Sweatt v. Painter" which resulted in the UT School of Law enrolling its first two Black students and the school of architecture enrolling its first Black student, both in August 1950. The University of Texas enrolled the first Black student at the undergraduate level in August 1956.


title: School integration in the United States

text: In Spring 1955, Thelma Joyce White, the valedictorian of the segregated Douglass High School in El Paso, Texas, filed suit against the University of Texas system after her application to Texas Western College was rejected for the 1954–1955 school year. During the pendency of her case, the United States Supreme Court issued further guidance on the "Brown v. Board of Education" decision. In response to the lawsuit and further guidance, the regents of the University of Texas voted to allow Black students to enroll in Texas Western College on July 8, 1955. On July 18, 1955, the federal judge hearing Ms. White's case ordered the desegregation of Texas Western College.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Federal district court Judge W. A. Bootle ordered the admission of Hamilton Holmes and Charlayne Hunter to the University of Georgia on January 6, 1961, ending 160 years of segregation at the school. The decision by Judge Bootle conflicted the state's previous enactment of law that stopped the funding of any school who admitted a black student to their establishment. Amongst rumors that the school could close with the admittance of the two black students, order was kept by on campus until January 11. That night, an angry mob gathered outside Hunter's dormitory, causing significant property damage and gaining media attention for the university and the state. After the riots, even previously pro-segregation officials condemned the rioters. According to the New Georgia Encyclopedia, “Even Governor Ernest Vandiver Jr., who had campaigned for office on the segregationist slogan "No, Not One," condemned the mob violence, and perhaps as a result of the negative publicity suffered by the state in the national press, conceded that some integration might be unavoidable”. Whether it was from the fear of the state closing the school or moral grounds, officials and professors favored admitting black students on a limited basis at the least.


title: School integration in the United States

text: After the controversial 1956 Sugar Bowl and death of its progressive president Blake R. Van Leer shortly after, Georgia Tech finally made steps towards integration. Using the University of Georgia as a model not to follow, Georgia Tech began to plan integration strategies in January 1961. President Edwin Harrison announced in May that the school would admit three of thirteen black applicants for admission the following fall. Harrison noted that ”The decision was necessary… to forestall the possibility of federal intervention and to maintain administrative control over the school's admissions”. Though the decision was widely accepted by Atlanta communities and groups, precautions were still taken to ensure peace. Ford Greene, Ralph Long Jr., and Lawrence Michael Williams, the school's first three black students, attended classes on September 27 with no resistance making Georgia Tech the first institution of higher education in the Deep South to integrate peacefully and at its own will.


title: School integration in the United States

text: After a fiery speech from Ross Barnett at an Ole Miss football game that some refer to as “a call to arms”, white segregationists flooded the University of Mississippi campus and exploding into riots on September 30, 1962. The rioters were protesting the presence of James Meredith after he was granted admission to the university from legal battle he won with the help of the NAACP. Authoritative officials had been stationed on the campus, but little was done to effectively control the crowd. By morning, two civilians were dead and several injured. No rioters and federal officers died in the event.


title: School integration in the United States

text: President John F. Kennedy ordered the federalized Mississippi National Guard and federal troops to the campus as a result of the fatal riots to prevent any more violence and carry out the federal ruling for James Meredith to be able to register at the University. In an interview with NPR Bishop Duncan Gray Jr., who was there when the violence erupted said,‘” It was a horrible thing, and I'm sorry we had to go through that, but it certainly marked a very definite turning point. And maybe a learning experience for some people, I think even the ardent segregationists didn't want to see violence like that again”’. Perhaps making this event extremely vital to civil right movement and it aims to change the mentality of segregationists and the movements calls for nonviolence. Escorted by federal marshals, U.S. Air Force veteran James Meredith was able to register for classes and be the first black student to graduate in 1963.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Mercer was the first college or university in the Deep South to voluntarily desegregate.[32] On April 18th, 1963, Mercer's Board of Trustees voted 13 to 5, with 3 abstentions, to ratify the policy that "Mercer University considers all applications based on qualification, without consideration of race, color of skin, creed, or origin."[33]. This policy change allowed Sam Oni, a twenty-two-year-old student from Ghana, to become the first Black student to attend Mercer University.[34] Sam Oni, knowingly and intentionally, in part applied to Mercer for the purpose of helping to end racial segregation in the southern United States.[35] Sam Oni succeeded despite pressure from segregationists in both the South and the Southern Baptists to keep Mercer racially segregated, including an airplane flying a banner that read "Keep Mercer Segregated" as the Board of Trustees successfully voted to fully integrate.[36]


title: School integration in the United States

text: In 1956, Autherine Lucy was able to attend the University of Alabama upon court order after a three year court battle. According to the National Museum of African American History and Culture, “There were no incidents during her first two days of classes. However, that changed on Monday, February 6. Students mobbed her, initially shouting hate-filled epithets. Lucy had to be driven by university officials to her next class at the Education Library building, all the while being bombarded with rotten eggs”. The mobs were mostly able to freely march around campus harassing Lucy due to the police doing little to nothing to stop them. The University suspended Lucy “for her own protection." Autherine Lucy and her legal team filed a case against the University, suing them for allowing the mob to congregate, but was not able to prove that they were responsible for the mob. After losing the case the University of Alabama had legal grounds to expel Lucy for defaming the school.


title: School integration in the United States

text: In 1963, a federal court ruled that Vivien Malone and James Hood can lawfully enroll and attend the University of Alabama. Again, the federal decision caused ripples in the state, causing conflict between the anti-integration state laws and judgements put into action by the federal judges. “In Alabama, the notoriously segregationist Governor George Wallace vowed to “stand in the schoolhouse door” in order to block the enrollment of a black student at the University of Alabama”. He eventually did stand in the doorway of Foster Auditorium in an infamous act to preserve the segregationist way of life in the South. According to HISTORY, “Though Wallace was eventually forced by the federalized National Guard to integrate the university, he became prominent symbol of the ongoing resistance to desegregation."


title: School integration in the United States

text: The implementation of school integration policies did not just affect black and white students; in recent years, scholars have noted how the integration of public schools significantly affected Hispanic populations in the south and southwest. Historically, Hispanic-Americans were legally considered white. A group of Mexican-Americans in Corpus Christi, Texas challenged this classification, as it resulted in discrimination and ineffective school integration policies. In "Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District" (1970), the Federal District Court decreed that Hispanic-Americans should be classified as an ethnic minority group, and that the integration of Corpus Christi schools should reflect that. In 2005, historian Guadalupe San Miguel authored "Brown Not White", an in-depth study of how Hispanic populations were used by school districts to circumvent truly integrating their schools. It detailed that when school districts officially categorized Hispanic students as ethnically white, a predominantly African-American school and a predominantly Hispanic school could be combined and successfully pass the integration standards laid out by the U.S. government, leaving white schools unaffected. San Miguel describes how the Houston Independent School District used this loophole to keep predominantly white schools unchanged, at the disadvantage of Hispanic students.


title: School integration in the United States

text: In the early 1970s, Houstonians boycotted this practice: for three weeks, thousands of Hispanic students stopped attending their local public schools in protest of the racist integration laws. In response to this boycott, in September 1972 the HISD school board - following the precedent in "Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District" - ruled that Hispanic students should be an official ethnic minority, effectively ending the loophole that prevented the integration of white schools.


title: School integration in the United States

text: Work by economist Rucker Johnson shows that school integration improved educational attainment and wages in adulthood for the black students who experienced integrated schools in the 1970s and 1980s, before schools began to increasingly re-segregate.


title: School integration in the United States

text: For students who remained in public schools, de facto segregation remained a reality due to segregated lunch tables and segregated extracurricular programs. Today, the pedagogical practice of tracking in schools also leads to de facto segregation within some public schools as racial and ethnic minorities are disproportionately overrepresented in lower track classes and white students are disproportionately overrepresented in AP and college prep classes.


title: School integration in the United States

text: The growing emphasis on standardized tests as measures of achievement in schools is a part of the dialogue surrounding the relationship between race and education in the United States. Many studies have been done surrounding the achievement gap, or the gap in test scores between white and black students, which shrank until the mid-1980s and then stagnated.


title: School integration in the United States

text: In 2003, the Supreme Court openly recognized the importance of diversity in education, where they noted that integrated classrooms prepare students to become citizens and leaders in a diverse country. Psychologists have studied the social and developmental benefits of integrated schools. In a study by Killen, Crystal, and Ruck, researchers discovered that students in integrated schools demonstrate more tolerance and inclusionary behaviors compared to those who have less contact with students from other racial backgrounds.


title: Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes

text: Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes is an animated television series based on the Marvel Comics' "Fantastic Four" comic book series. This is the team's fourth foray into animation. The series is co-produced by American company Marvel Entertainment and French company MoonScoop Group, with the participation of M6 and Cartoon Network Europe, and distributed by Taffy Entertainment.


title: Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes

text: In the United States, the show had an erratic airing schedule on Cartoon Network, having premiered as part of Toonami on September 2, 2006. It ran for only eight of the season's 26 episodes before being pulled. It subsequently returned to the network starting June 9, 2007, shortly before the release of the film "". The second launch of the show aired only nine episodes, leaving nine installments not televised in the USA. The show aired on Boomerang for a brief time before moving to Nicktoons in 2009 for the final episodes. The series was produced in 16:9 widescreen, although it was letterboxed or cropped when broadcast.


title: Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes

text: "World's Greatest Heroes" is not directly connected to any of the previous iterations of the Fantastic Four, telling its own version of the team's origin and their encounters with their rogues gallery. Unlike its 1994 predecessor, which consisted almost entirely of straight or modified reinterpretations of classic "Fantastic Four" comic book stories, World's Greatest Heroes features mostly original stories, though elements from various comic iterations of the Fantastic Four were used in the series.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Seth Ezekiel Cohen is a fictional character on the Fox television series "The O.C.", portrayed by Adam Brody. Seth is one of the "core four" characters on "The O.C." alongside Ryan Atwood, Marissa Cooper, and Summer Roberts. Seth's friendship with Ryan, who eventually became his adoptive brother, formed a focal point of the series along with their romances. Seth married Summer in the series finale. His other relationships were with Anna Stern and Alex Kelly. Seth's goal was to attend Brown University, but he ends up going to Rhode Island School of Design (RISD) and continuing work on his comic book "Atomic County". The role saw Brody win four Teen Choice Awards from five nominations, from 2004 to 2006.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Brody did not immediately get the part of Seth Cohen after his first audition because he improvised the dialogue. However, the producers called him back a month later for another test, and he was cast in March 2003. Schwartz said about Brody that he is "naturally talented, a funny guy, and has a Point of View on the world (and an initial perspective on Seth) that made him feel very specific, and had a little attitude." The character is based on Schwartz, who said: "The dynamic between Sandy and Seth is very much based on me and my dad. It was as much Seth's choice not to fit in, as it was the Water Polo players rejecting him, and a lot of that came from Brody, as well as a love for Death Cab for Cutie.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Carina Chocano of "Entertainment Weekly" described Seth as "a nuanced portrait of a true-to-life dork [whose] relationship to Ryan is full of nice little ironies." "The New York Times" characterized him as "eccentric and literate" while the show's website compared him to Holden Caulfield for being an existential hero. He has also been described as "gawky".


title: Seth Cohen

text: Seth is very sarcastic and uses irony to find the humor in the events that occur around him. He has a positive nature, and although sometimes his humor is misconceived as ill-mannered, he tries to joke his way out of sticky situations and is more likely to laugh off the negatives and be overwhelmingly enthusiastic about the positives in his, and everyone else's, life. He is shown throughout the series to be self-obsessed and neurotic, with a tendency to make himself the center of attention. However, in many episodes, he proves to be a sweet and genuine guy with good intentions and a good heart, and this is often overlooked by others. Seth is a very bubbly character, thanks to the likes of his "only true friend" Ryan, and is prone to not knowing when to keep his mouth shut, however this is more endearing and humorous, than irritating. He is a self-proclaimed geek and likes comic books, science fiction, video games, and old movies. He also has a toy horse named Captain Oats. Seth is close to both of his parents and often playfully teases them. Though he occasionally will not accept their help or advice, he does so sometimes and seems to value their opinions and knows they would do anything for him and vice versa. Seth is shown to care very much about his mother. His actions are demonstrated in episodes such as "The Dearly Beloved" when Seth hesitates to send his mother to rehab and in "The Man of the Year" when he takes care of her when she relapses in her drinking.


title: Seth Cohen

text: At school, Seth's social awkwardness results in him being either ignored or bullied, making him a popular target for the jocks. Prior to Ryan's arrival, he was routinely bullied by the jocks (namely, the water polo players), who would intentionally urinate on his shoes and slam him into the lockers, and had hated Newport so much that he wanted to go to a boarding school on the East Coast. If not bullied, he was largely ignored by his other peers; Summer treated him with disdain, calling him "Death Breath Seth," while Marissa, who lived next door since they were in elementary school, did not speak to him until after Ryan's arrival. He would go out on his sailboat, the Summer Breeze, to escape Newport; in Season 2 he admitted to Ryan that he sold it for cash while docked at Santa Barbara and caught a Greyhound to Portland. Besides his awkwardness, his naivety in social norms and relationships contributes to his propensity to draw trouble to himself and not realizing until it's too late, a running gag in the show; for example, he has to be physically stopped by both Zach Stevens and Ryan when he tries to call his crush Alex Kelly even after she hinted for him to stay away because her ex is in town. He quickly forms a friendship with Ryan as the latter was the first person who befriended him without any preconceived notions and without judging him.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Seth was further designed as an artist in the second season. Plans of him drawing comics started at the end of the first season when executive producer Alan Heinberg impressed by Eric Wight's work asked him to be the "ghost artist". Wight, who said he easily related to Seth, first made sketches of the four main superheroes, and the rest came later as the episodes were being developed.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Seth Cohen was born in Berkeley, California, to parents Sanford "Sandy" Cohen and Kirsten Cohen. Raised in Newport Beach, he is Jewish on his father's side and connects and identifies with his father's religious and cultural background. However, he embraces the mutual holiday of Chrismukkah, a joint Christmas and Hanukkah holiday. He was befriended by Ryan Atwood (Benjamin McKenzie) when the latter was brought home by Sandy. Before Ryan's arrival, Seth was ignored by most of his peers due to his awkward nature and unusual hobbies. They quickly strike a friendship as Ryan did not judge him like other "Newpsies" and Seth was the first to accept Ryan as a member of the household without any reservations. Soon after Ryan's arrival, Seth became friends with Marissa Cooper (Mischa Barton) and got the chance to speak to Summer Roberts (Rachel Bilson), a popular girl on whom he had a huge crush since childhood. The pair grew closer after they traveled to Tijuana together, despite Summer's denial of liking him. She quickly turned him down for a date after seeing a few cheerleaders eyeing the pair. After finally admitting she liked Seth, Summer grew jealous of Seth's friend Anna Stern (Samaire Armstrong), whom he met at a cotillion dance practice and he shared many interests with, including comics. They started dating after Seth decided in her favour during a contest for his affection between her and Summer. However, their relationship was short lived as they broke up when Seth made it obvious that he truly wanted Summer instead and had made the wrong choice. Anna soon left to go home to Pittsburgh, but she and Seth remained friends.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Though Summer and Seth started seeing each other and lost their virginity to each other, Summer still wanted their relationship to be secret. Seth refused to put up with this and declared his love for her atop a coffee cart in front of the school. Seth and Summer's relationship became official and continued until Seth's best and pretty much only friend Ryan Atwood announced he'd be returning to his home neighborhood, Chino, after his pregnant ex-girlfriend declared she wanted to keep the baby and raise it in her hometown. Seth tried to make Ryan stay and was distraught at his departure but tried to appear uninterested by it, although it pained him deeply. He couldn't face the idea of becoming a loner once more, and even though he still had Summer, he decided to sail the oceans for the summer in his boat, Summer Breeze, which was named after Summer. He left a note for her, and for his parents, who were distraught over losing both Seth and Ryan in one day.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Early in season 2, Seth is staying with Luke Ward in Portland, Oregon and working at a kayak rental shack. He refuses to come home despite his parents' calls as he was still resentful of his parents for letting Ryan go back to Chino, forcing Sandy to ask Ryan to accompany him to Portland in hopes of persuading Seth to return. Once Seth returned, Summer had moved on with Zach Stevens (Michael Cassidy). After accepting the fact that his relationship with Summer was over, Seth started dating Alex Kelly (Olivia Wilde), a girl with whom he temporarily worked at The Bait Shop in Newport Beach. He attempts to impress her by putting on a "bad boy" image, even entertaining the idea of wearing one of Ryan's trademark wife-beaters to meet her and "stealing" his grandfather's Aston Martin. Their relationship was short-lived after he accidentally discovers her making out with Marissa (Alex is revealed to be bisexual). In the meantime, Seth and Zach became friends as they both had a passion for comics. They created a comic book together titled "Atomic County" revolving around four Orange County teenagers who have super powers which mirror the "core four". The tension came to a breaking point when Zach, Summer and Seth went on a trip to sell their comic book. Seth subtly admitted his feelings about Summer, who was about to leave on a trip to Italy with Zach a few weeks after, but Seth begged for her to be with him. She couldn't deny her feelings and left Zach for Seth at the airport, sealing the new relationship with a rainy kiss in the style of Spider-Man. Zach ultimately gave Summer up at prom, and Seth swooped in to again tell the school how he loved Summer when she was named Prom Queen. Summer admits to Seth that she loves him for his "little flaws and [his] little quirks". They stayed together and started to apply to colleges, deciding on Brown University, Seth's dream college, because "most importantly, it's 3,000 miles away". Summer decided that if she got into Brown and Seth didn't, she would not attend because she wanted to be with him. Summer got in and Seth did not, but he lied and told her he did because he didn't want her to pass up Brown, which led to their breakup. When he visited Brown, Seth came across Anna and she helped him get an interview for the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD). In the season finale, Seth surprised Summer with his acceptance to RISD for the spring semester, and they reunited. They happily graduated from high school, but things got difficult when Marissa died in a car accident.


title: Seth Cohen

text: As the story continued six months later, Seth worked at a comic-book store and had problems with Summer, who turned from materialistic gossip into a tree-hugging Vegan (who later protested against poverty at a Thanksgiving meal at the Cohens) at college and would not answer his phone calls. He left long messages on her answering-machine. When they met in Newport, Summer acted cold towards him. After a visit from Taylor, Summer realized that she was isolating Seth because she couldn't deal with what was in Newport - the memory of Marissa. She visited home for Thanksgiving, and Seth confronted her with this concept, which she eventually accepted, telling him via voice mail as she left to return to Brown to deal with it on her own. Though Summer came to terms with Marissa's death through therapy and seemed to return to her old self, she and Seth quickly discovered that her tree-hugging ways had left a deep imprint. Seth supported her by stepping back and giving her space to pursue her new interests; however, this made Summer realize how important Seth was in her life and their relationship grew stronger. False pretenses led to Summer's semester-long suspension from Brown just as Seth was to start at RISD, but Seth decided he would put off college until the following fall so they could return to Providence together. On the eve of the New Year, a pregnancy scare caused Seth to ask for Summer's hand in marriage. Although the scare was false, plans for their marriage remained. Later, Summer backed out of the engagement, but they were still dating. Their relationship was again questioned when Summer was offered a job at GEORGE, while Seth had nothing set for him. When Newport was struck with an earthquake, they barely escape a collapsing streetlight and the Cohens, whose house was destroyed, cram together with Julie and Kaitlin Cooper at Summer's house. For the next six months, Seth was in limbo and Summer challenges him to find something he is passionate about and pursue it. She accepted the offer from GEORGE but promises to stay in contact. The series concluded four years later in "The End's Not Near, It's Here" with the couple getting married in a Jewish ceremony, with Ryan serving as best man.


title: Seth Cohen

text: Upon the show's premiere, Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC described Ryan and Seth's friendship as "the most promising plot".


title: Seth Cohen

text: At the start of the second season, "The New York Times" wrote that "the relationship between the men is the show's emotional centerpiece."


title: Seth Cohen

text: As of 2004, Seth was named one of the 10 best current characters by "Zap2it", writing: "The gangly Adam Brody effortlessly delivers his hilarious and sweetly sarcastic lines. He's positively delightful and brings a level of humor not often seen on prime time soaps. Heck, even his wardrobe is a hoot."


title: Seth Cohen

text: In 2004, he was nominated for Choice Breakout Male TV Star and Choice TV Actor - Drama/Action Adventure, losing the former to Chad Michael Murray of "One Tree Hill" and winning the latter.


title: Seth Cohen

text: In 2005, he won two awards for Choice TV Actor - Drama/Action Adventure and Choice TV Chemistry with Rachel Bilson who played Summer Roberts.


title: Seth Cohen

text: In 2009, he was voted the "Best Son" in "Zap2it" first poll of the best television characters in the 2000s.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Fashion in the period 1500–1550 in Western Europe is marked by very thick, big and voluminous clothing worn in an abundance of layers (one reaction to the cooling temperatures of the Little Ice Age, especially in Northern Europe and the British Isles). Contrasting fabrics, slashes, embroidery, applied trims, and other forms of surface ornamentation became prominent. The tall, narrow lines of the late Medieval period were replaced with a wide silhouette, conical for women with breadth at the hips and broadly square for men with width at the shoulders. Sleeves were a center of attention, and were puffed, slashed, cuffed, and turned back to reveal contrasting linings.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Henry VIII of England (ruled 1509–1547) and Francis I of France (ruled 1515–1547) strove to host the most glittering renaissance court, culminating in the festivities around the Field of Cloth of Gold (1520). But the rising power was Charles V, king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily from 1516, heir to the style as well as the riches of Burgundy, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1520. The inflow of gold and silver from the New World into recently united Spain changed the dynamics of trade throughout Western Europe, ushering in a period of increased opulence in clothing that was tempered by the Spanish taste for sombre richness of dress that would dominate the second half of the century. This widespread adaptation of Hispanic court attire in Europe was seen as a sign of allegiance to the empire of Charles V.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Regional variations in fashionable clothing that arose in the 15th century became more pronounced in the sixteenth. In particular, the clothing of the Low Countries, German states, and Scandinavia developed in a different direction than that of England, France, and Italy, although all acknowledged the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid-1520s.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Linen shirts and chemises or smocks had full sleeves and often full bodies, pleated or gathered closely at neck and wrist. The resulting small frill gradually became a wide ruffle, presaging the ruff of the latter half of the century. These garments were often decorated with embroidery in black or red silk, and occasionally with gold metal threads if the garment was meant to be flashier of ones wealth. The bodice was boned and stiffened to create a more structured form, and often a busk was inserted to emphasise the flattening and elongation of the torso. Small geometric patterns appeared early in the period and, in England, evolved into the elaborate patterns associated with the flowering of blackwork embroidery. German shirts and chemises were decorated with wide bands of gold trim at the neckline, which was uniformly low early in the period and grew higher by midcentury. Silk brocades and velvets in bold floral patterns based on pomegranate and thistle or artichoke motifs remained fashionable for those who could afford them, although they were often restricted to kirtles, undersleeves and doublets revealed beneath gowns of solid-coloured fabrics or monochromatic figured silks. Yellow and red were fashionable colours.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Inspired by the mended uniforms of the Swiss soldiers after the country's 1477 victory over the Duke of Burgundy, elaborate slashing remained popular, especially in Germany, where a fashion arose for assembling garments in alternating bands of contrasting fabrics. Elsewhere, slashing was more restrained, but bands of contrasting fabric called "guards", whether in colour or texture, were common as trim on skirts, sleeves, and necklines. These were often decorated with bands of embroidery or applied passementerie. Bobbin lace arose from passementerie in this period, probably in Flanders, and was used both as an edging and as applied trim; it is called "passamayne" in English inventories.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: The most fashionable furs were the silvery winter coat of the lynx and dark brown (almost black) sable.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Women's fashions of the early 16th century consisted of a long gown, usually with sleeves, worn over a "kirtle" or undergown, with a linen chemise or smock worn next to the skin.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: The high-waisted gown of the late medieval period evolved in several directions in different parts of Europe. In the German states and Bohemia, gowns remained short-waisted, tight-laced but without corsets or stays. The open-fronted gown laced over the kirtle or a stomacher or plackard. Sleeves were puffed and slashed, or elaborately cuffed.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: In France, England, and Flanders, the high waistline gradually descended to the natural waist in front (following Spanish fashion) and then to a V-shaped point. Cuffs grew larger and were elaborately trimmed.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Hoop skirts or farthingales had appeared in Spain at the very end of the 15th century, and spread to England and France over the next few decades. Stays also appeared during this period.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: A variety of hats, caps, hoods, hair nets, and other headdresses were worn, with strong regional variations.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: In the first half of the 16th century, German dress varied widely from the costume worn in other parts of Europe. Skirts were cut separately from bodices, though often were sewn together, and the open-fronted gown laced over a kirtle with a wide band of rich fabric, often jeweled and embroidered, across the bust. Partlets (called in German "gollers" or collars) were worn with the low-cut bodice to cover the neck and shoulders, and were made in a variety of styles. The most popular goller was a round shoulder-capelet, frequently of black velvet lined in silk or fur, with a standing neckband; this goller would remain in use in some parts of Germany into the 17th century and became part of national dress in some areas.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Narrow sleeves were worn in the earliest years of the century, and were later decorated with bands of contrasting fabric and rows of small panes or strips over puffed linings. Skirts were trimmed with bands of contrasting fabric, but were closed all around. They would be worn draped up to display an underskirt.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: From 1530, elements of Spanish dress were rapidly adopted in fashionable Germany under the influence of the imperial court of Charles V.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Dress in Holland, Belgium, and Flanders, now part of the Empire, retained a high, belted waistline longest. Italian gowns were fitted to the waist, with full skirts below.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: The French gown of the first part of the century was loosely fitted to the body and flared from the hips, with a train. The neckline was square and might reveal the kirtle and chemise beneath. Cuffed sleeves were wide at the wrist and grew wider, displaying a decorated undersleeve attached to the kirtle. The gown fastened in front early, sometimes lacing over the kirtle or a stomacher, and the skirt might be slit in front or the train tucked up in back to display the skirt of the kirtle.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: As a fitted style emerged under Spanish influence, the gown was made as a separate bodice and skirt; this bodice usually fastened at the side or the side-back with hooks and eyes or lacing.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: From the 1530s, French and English fashions featured an open, square-necked gown with long sleeves fitted smoothly over a tight, sometimes boned "kirtle" or "pair of bodies, (later in the century)" and a farthingale. With the smooth, conical line of the skirt, the front of the kirtle or petticoat was displayed, and a decorated panel called a "forepart", heavily embroidered and sometimes jeweled, was pinned to the petticoat or directly to the farthingale.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: The earlier cuffed sleeves evolved into "trumpet sleeves", tight on the upper arm and flared below, with wide, turned back cuffs (often lined with fur) worn over full undersleeves that might match the decorated forepart. At the very end of the period, full "round sleeves" (perhaps derived from Italian fashions) began to replace the flaring trumpet sleeves, which disappeared by the later 1550s.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Fabric or chain "girdles" were worn at the waist and hung down to roughly knee length; a tassel or small prayer book or purse might be suspended from the girdle.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: The low neckline of the dress could be filled with a partlet. Black velvet partlets lined in white with a high, flared neckline were worn pinned over the gown. Partlets of the same rich fabric as the bodice of the gown give the appearance of a high-necked gown. Sheer or opaque linen partlets were worn over the chemise or smock, and high-necked smocks began to appear; toward 1550 these might have a small standing collar with a ruffle, which would become the pleated ruff of the next period.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: For the middle and lower classes, clothing would have been a much more practical affair. Over the smock, the kirtle would be worn. Depending on the weather and occasion, a simple gown would have been worn over the kirtle. This gown could be laced in the front or could sometimes be closed at the side of the bodice with hooks and eyes. The kirtle would most likely be laced, stiffened with buckram or sometimes reed, and made of wool. There are not many surviving pieces of clothing attributed to the lower classes, so most information is taken from portraits.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: In France, England, and the Low Countries, black hoods with veils at the back were worn over linen undercaps that allowed the front hair (parted in the middle) to show. These hoods became more complex and structured over time.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Unique to England was the gable hood, a wired headdress shaped like the gable of a house. In the 16th century gable headdress had long embroidered lappets framing the face and a loose veil behind; later the gable hood would be worn over several layers that completely concealed the hair, and the lappets and veil would be pinned up in a variety of ways.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: [[Image:Albrecht Dürer 092.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Albrecht Dürer]]'s "Young Woman" of 1507 wears hat called a "barett", popular in the German states.]]


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: A simple rounded hood of the early years of the century evolved into the [[French hood]], popular in both France and England; its arched shape sat further back on the head and displayed the front hair which was parted in the center and pinned up in braids or twists under the veil.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: German women adopted hats like fashionable men's "baretts" early in the century; these were worn over caps or cauls ("colettes") made of netted cord over a silk lining. Hats became fashionable in England as an alternative to the hood toward the 1540s. Close fitting caps of fur were worn in cold climates.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: In warmer climates including Italy and Spain, hair was more often worn uncovered, braided or twisted with ribbons and pinned up, or confined in a net. A Spanish style of the later 15th century was still worn in this period: the hair was puffed over the ears before being drawn back at chin level into a braid or wrapped twist at the nape.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: First-time brides wore their hair loose, in token of virginity, and a wreath or chaplet of orange blossoms was traditional. A jeweled wreath with [[Vitreous enamel|enameled]] "orange blossoms" was sometimes worn.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Women of wealth wore gold chains and other precious jewellery; collar-like [[necklace]]s called "carcanets", [[earring]]s, [[bracelet]]s, [[Ring (finger)|rings]], and jewelled pins. Bands of jeweller's work were worn as trim by the nobility, and would be moved from dress to dress and reused. Large brooches were worn to pin overpartlets to the dress beneath.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: [[Dress hook]]s, of [[silver gilt]] for the wealthy and of [[base metal]] for the lower classes, were worn to loop up skirts.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: A fashionable accessory was the "[[zibellino]]", the [[Fur|pelt]] of a [[sable]] or [[marten]] worn draped at the neck or hanging at the waist; some costume historians call these "flea furs". The most expensive zibellini had faces and paws of goldsmith's work with jewelled eyes.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: However, not all women or men were allowed to wear jewellery because of the [[sumptuary laws]] that restricted wearing certain types of jewellery and luxurious fabrics, such as purple velvet, to first royalty and then nobility. The newly wealthy merchant classes who were not aristocrats could not wear jewellery on their clothing or fabrics restricted to nobles.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Portraits produced during the Renaissance provide an invaluable resource for visualizing and understanding the beauty ideals of the period. Sandro Botticelli's "Venus and Mars", painted between 1480-1490 depicts Venus as the ultimate amalgamation of female physical beauty. Her face is perfectly symmetrical, her skin is unblemished and pure white, her hair is light in colour and slightly waved, her forehead is high, her eyebrows are severely arched, her lips are red and full and her abdomen and hips protrude slightly under her thin garment.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Women sometimes applied toxic substances to their faces and chests such as [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], [[alum]], and [[ceruse]] to lighten the skin and remove freckles, as the ideal was loosely 'natural'. However, these products, such as ceruse, a lead derivative, severely irritated the skin, leaving women's faces blemished and burned. Although safer alternatives existed, women preferred the consistency and coverage offered by ceruse. Not all cosmetics were dangerous, many women relied on lotions and balms containing almonds, olive oil, lemon juice, bread crumbs, eggs, honey, rosewater and snake fat to clarify and cleanse the skin. Red lips and rosy cheeks were achieved primarily through the application of [[vermilion]]; ceruse mixed with organic dyes such as [[henna]] and [[cochineal]] (a powder made from the ground exoskeleton of insects). In Italy especially, women sought to achieve the light tresses that were viewed as the ideal. Women applied mixtures of lemon juice, alum and white wine and sat in the sun to lighten their hair. In order to produce loose curls, women wrapped hair saturated in [[gum arabic]] or beer around clay curlers. Finally, the appearance of a high forehead was achieved by plucking hairs along the hairline, and severely arching or removing the eyebrows altogether. Although at this time, women could not cosmetologically alter the symmetry of their face, or the structure of their nose in order to obtain the ideal, the products available allowed them to come close.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: [[Image:Melzi portrait detail chemise.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Fastening of an Italian chemise, c. 1525]]


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: [[Image:Holbein henry8 full length.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] wears a fur-trimmed red overgown with split hanging sleeves over a jerkin and an embroidered and slashed doublet and sleeves. [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], 1537]]


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Early in this period, men's silhouette was long and narrow, but gradually it grew wider until by the later reign of Henry the VIII the silhouette was almost square, with shoulder emphasis achieved through wide [[revers]] and [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and large sleeves.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: From the 1530s, a narrower silhouette became popular under Spanish influence. Collars were higher and tighter. Shoulders lost their padding and developed a slight slope. Doublet sleeves became fuller rather than tight. Jerkins closed to the neck; their skirts were shorter and slightly flared rather than full, and they displayed more of the hose. Overall the fashion was more rigid and restrained.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Lower-class men wore a one-piece garment called a [[cotte]] in English, tight to the waist with knee-length skirts and long sleeves over their hose.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: [[Matthäus Schwarz]] compiled a "Klaidungsbüchlein" or "Trachtenbuch" (usually translated as "Book of Clothes"), a book cataloguing the clothing that he wore between 1520 and 1560. The book contains color illustrations focused on Schwarz's individual clothing history.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: A variety of hats were worn in the period. The German "'barett", with its turned-up brim, was fashionable throughout the period, and a similar hat with a turned-up round or "halo" brim was popular in the court of Henry VIII. The "flat hat" combined a low, gathered crown with a circular brim and was worn in mid-century.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: At the beginning of the century hair was often grown chin-length with the exception of the clergy. Styles gradually became shorter and more finely trimmed over the 1510s and 1520s until by the 1530s short styles were favoured.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: Style in men's and women's footwear was the same in this period. Shoes for men and women were flat, and often slashed and fastened with a strap across the instep. They were made of soft leather, velvet, or silk. Broad, squared toes were worn early, and were replaced by rounded toes in the 1530s. Toward the middle of the century, shoes became narrower and were shaped naturally to the foot. Soft boots for riding fitted to mid-calf.


title: 1500–1550 in Western European fashion

text: As shown in the images below, children's clothing was mostly smaller versions of adult clothing, complete with low necklines and cumbersome underthings. Children of the nobility must have had limited freedom of movement to play and romp because of the restrictive clothing they wore. Toddler boys wore gowns until they were "[[breeching (boys)|breeched]]".


title: Wanderlust

text: The first documented use of the term in English occurred in 1902 as a reflection of what was then seen as a characteristically German predilection for wandering that may be traced back to German Romanticism and the German system of apprenticeship (the journeyman), as well as the custom of adolescent wanderings in search of unity with nature.


title: Wanderlust

text: The term originates from the German words ('to hike') and ('desire'), literally translated as 'enjoyment of hiking', although it is commonly described as 'enjoyment of strolling, roaming about, or wandering'.


title: Wanderlust

text: In recent years, the word is less commonly used in German, having been largely supplanted in the sense of 'desire to travel' by ('a longing for far-away places'), coined as an antonym to , 'homesickness'.


title: Wanderlust

text: Robert E. Park in the early twentieth century saw wanderlust as in opposition to the values of status and organisation, while postmodernism would by contrast see it largely as playfully empowering.


title: Wanderlust

text: In post-Enlightenment Europe, upper-class bachelors were encouraged to embark upon a (roughly, 'cultural education journey'), often sightseeing trips to Italy or France.


title: Wanderlust

text: Among tourists, sociologists distinguish sunlust from wanderlust as motivating forces – the former primarily seeking relaxation, the latter engagement with different cultural experiences.


title: Wanderlust

text: Wanderlust may reflect an intense urge for self-development by experiencing the unknown, confronting unforeseen challenges, getting to know unfamiliar cultures, ways of life and behaviours or may be driven by the desire to escape and leave behind depressive feelings of guilt, and has been linked to bipolar disorder in the periodicity of the attacks.


title: Wanderlust

text: In adolescence, dissatisfaction with the restrictions of home and locality may also fuel the desire to travel.


title: Sea Venom (missile)

text: Sea Venom is an Anglo-French lightweight anti-ship missile developed by MBDA to equip the French Navy and the Royal Navy. The missile is known as "Anti-Navire Léger" (ANL) in France and Sea Venom (formerly "Future Anti-Surface Guided Weapon (Heavy)") in the United Kingdom. While initial operating capability had been expected with the Royal Navy in 2022, Sea Venom missiles were reported deployed with Royal Navy Wildcat helicopters operating as part of the Royal Navy's carrier strike group in 2021. The first test launch, from an AS365 Dauphin helicopter of the French DGA defence procurement agency, was successfully conducted on 21 June 2017.


title: Sea Venom (missile)

text: Sea Venom is designed as a successor to the French Navy's AS 15 TT and Royal Navy's Sea Skua missiles. When in service, Sea Venom will equip Eurocopter Panther and NH90 helicopters in the French Navy and Wildcat helicopters in the Royal Navy. Due to shared characteristics with its predecessors, MBDA claims Sea Venom will be able to readily integrate onto platforms that are already carrying Sea Skua and AS 15 TT.


title: Sea Venom (missile)

text: Much like its predecessors, Sea Venom is designed to attack surface targets, such as fast in-shore attack craft ranging in size of between 50–500 tonnes, as well as larger surface targets of up to corvette size. With its 30 kg warhead, the missile is also capable of inflicting significant damage to larger vessels through precision aim point selection, and can also attack static land-based targets. Whilst its precise range is currently unknown, MBDA has stated that the missile has a "long" stand-off range enabling it to be launched from beyond the reach of most modern air defence systems. The missile is capable of several attack modes including sea skimming and "pop up/top attack." Sea Venom uses an infrared seeker with the option of "man in the loop" track-via-missile guidance via data-link; the high speed two-way data-link transmits the images "seen" by the seeker back to the operator, enabling them to remain in control of the missile throughout its flight in addition to having an autonomous engagement capability.


title: Sea Venom (missile)

text: The Royal Navy declared Sea Venom an initial operating capability in May 2021 when it deployed them as part of United Kingdom Carrier Strike Group 21 on its maiden deployment to the Pacific. The missile equipped four Wildcat HMA2 helicopters embarked on the strike group's accompanying destroyers.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The yellow-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis platurus) is a venomous species of snake from the subfamily Hydrophiinae (the sea snakes) found in tropical oceanic waters around the world except for the Atlantic Ocean. For many years, it was placed in the monotypic genus "Pelamis", but recent molecular evidence indicates it lies within the genus "Hydrophis".


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: In 1766, Linnaeus published the original description of the yellow-bellied sea snake, naming it "Anguis platura" ("Anguis" meaning snake). In 1803, François Marie Daudin created the new genus "Pelamis" and assigned this species to it, referring to it as "Pelamis platuros". In 1842, Gray described what he thought was a new species and called it "Pelamis ornata" (subsequently "P. ornata" became a synonym of "P. platura"). The commonly used genus name "Pelamis" is derived from the Ancient Greek word for "tunny fish", which presumably refers to the habitat or what Daudin thought they ate. The specific name "platurus" is a combination of the Ancient Greek words "platys" "flat" and "oura" "tail", referring to the flattened tail. The word "Pelamis" is a feminine noun and means young or small tunny fish. In 1872, Stoliczka introduced the name "Pelamis platurus" (still the most used scientific name by scientists today), but used the incorrect ending "-us" instead of "-a" which a feminine noun requires. A few recent examples exist of scientists' beginning to use the grammatically correct name "Pelamis platura", e.g., Bohme 2003 and the Reptile Database with its page headed "Pelamis platura" (Linnaeus, 1766), which includes an extensive synonymy of the different scientific names which have been used for the yellow-bellied sea snake. The same rules apply for the most recent taxonomic name of "Hydrophis platurus".


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: To further complicate the nomenclature, the taxonomic status of sea snakes is still under review, with recent authors suggesting a dismantling of monotypic genera, such as "Pelamis", in favour of a single genus, "Hydrophis", in order to reduce paraphyly and better reflect phylogenetic relationships.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: Sea snakes are a monophyletic group (Hydrophiinae) that diverged from the front-fanged Australasian venomous snakes (Elapidae) about 10 million years ago. The yellow-bellied sea snake is a part of the rapidly radiating Hydrophis group.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The yellow-bellied sea snake, as the name implies, has a distinctive bicolor pattern with a yellow underbelly and brown back, making it easily distinguishable from other sea snake species. Yellow-bellied sea snakes, like many other species of sea snake, are fully adapted to living their whole lives at sea: mating, eating and giving birth to live young (ovoviviparous). Adaptations to aquatic life include the reduced ventral scale size, laterally compressed body and paddle-tail for swimming, valved nostrils and palatine seal for excluding seawater, and cutaneous gas exchange for prolonging dive times. This species can uptake up to 33% of its oxygen requirements through the skin while diving and swimming at the surface of the water. Sea snakes also have a special salt gland located in the lower jaw that was formerly believed to filter out salt from the surrounding seawater but has been found not to be used for that purpose, as sea snakes drink fresh water only.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The body of this snake is compressed, with the posterior less than half the diameter of the neck; the body scales are juxtaposed, subquadrangular in shape, and in 23–47 rows around the thickest part of the body; ventral scales, 264–406 in number, are very small and, if distinct, divided by a latitudinal


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: groove, but usually are indistinguishable from adjacent body scales. The head is narrow, with an elongated snout; head shields are entire, nostrils are superior, and nasal shields are in contact with one another; the prefrontal scale is in contact with second upper labial; one or two preoculars, two or three postoculars, and two or three small anterior temporals are present; seven or eight upper labials are found, with four or five below the eye, but separated from the border by a subocular. Colors of the snake are variable, but most often distinctly bicolored, black above, yellow or brown below, with the dorsal and ventral colors sharply demarcated from one another; ventrally, there may be a series of black spots or bars on the yellow or brown background, or the yellow may extend dorsally so there is only a narrow middorsal black stripe, or a series of black crossbars. Total length for males is up to , for females up to ; tail length for males is up to , females up to .


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The yellow-bellied sea snake is one of the most widely distributed snakes in the world. It is completely pelagic and is often observed on oceanic drift lines, using surface currents and storms to move around the ocean. Their distribution appears to be largely determined by favourable water temperatures, oceanic currents and recent formation of land bridges that have blocked farther dispersal.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The yellow-bellied sea snake has an extensive distribution covering the entire tropical Indo-Pacific, as well as extending to Costa Rica, southern California, and northern Peru. It is the only sea snake to have reached the Hawaiian Islands. The favoured habitat for hunting and reproduction includes free floating mats of sea kelp occurring in the Indian Ocean. The species is the most commonly beached sea snake on the coast of Southwest Australia, including records at beaches near metropolitan areas. It is also reported from Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australia).


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The sea snake has also been reported in colder waters such as the coasts of southern California, Tasmania, and New Zealand, a country that would otherwise be free of snakes were it not for the infrequent visits of yellow-bellied sea snake and banded sea kraits. Though rare, the yellow-bellied sea snake is the most commonly seen sea snake in New Zealand waters, to the degree that the species can be considered indigenous to New Zealand and protected under the Wildlife Act 1953. These cold water occurrences are believed to be linked with el Niño events or severe storms. They require a minimum of 16–18 °C (60.8 to 64.4 °F) to survive long term. In October 2015, they were reported and photographed on beaches in Ventura County, California, well outside their normal range, for the first time in 30 years.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The yellow-bellied sea snake is the only sea snake to have been found in the Atlantic Ocean, although only in limited circumstances. The yellow-bellied sea snake's occurrence into the Atlantic is not considered a part of its native range, but rather a dispersal from its native Pacific range.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The yellow-bellied sea snake has been found in all the countries of Africa's eastern coast and all eastern islands, like Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Réunion, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa and Tanzania. On the African Atlantic coast they have been reported to occur in the Agulhas Current, with specimens found along the coasts of South Africa and Namibia.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: The yellow-bellied sea snake has also been found in the Colombian Caribbean four separate times, making it the only sea snake to be found in the Caribbean Sea. However these occurrences are believed to be the result of human activity, be it ship discharge, intentional release or via the Panama Canal, as it is not considered a part of their native range. This is due to the land bridge between North and South America (Isthmus of Panama), which formed from about 10 million years ago to 3 million years ago (i.e., continental drift), acting as a dispersal barrier and preventing entry into the Caribbean Sea from the Pacific Ocean. The man-made Panama Canal has not made a crossing of the isthmus possible presumably because it is fresh water.


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: Due to the wide distribution of the species and relative lack of dispersal barriers, it has been assumed that individuals from different localities represent a single breeding population (i.e., high gene flow). However, a study that used haplotype networks in two populations from Costa Rica suggests that shallow genetic population structure exists, which reflects variation in colour patterns (brown and yellow in Golfo de Papagayo and completely yellow in Golfo Dulce).


title: Yellow-bellied sea snake

text: Contrary to past beliefs, sea snakes require fresh water to survive and the yellow-bellied sea snake drinks precipitation that forms on the surface of sea water. This species has been reported to survive severe dehydration of up to 7 months during seasonal drought.