title: Propaganda in the United States

text: There was an abundant amount of propaganda in the time Nixon declared the war on drugs. One form of propaganda they used, and that is still used today, is the national youth anti-drug media campaign. The government used posters and ads to scare children and teenagers into avoiding drug use. Nixon initiated the first federal funded programs to begin the prevention of drugs in the U.S. Over the past 40 years, the U.S. has spent over $2.5 trillion fighting the war on drugs. The 1960s gave birth to a rebellious movement that popularized drug use. With many soldiers returning from the war with marijuana and heroin habits there was a strong demand for drugs in the U.S.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: In June 1971, President Nixon declared a "war on drugs." He dramatically increased the presence of federal drug control agencies, and pushed through measures such as mandatory sentencing and no-knock warrants. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was created in 1973 to tackle drug use and the smuggling of illegal narcotics into America. The D.A.R.E. program began in 1983 to educate children on saying no to drugs. By 2003 it cost $230 million and employed 50,000 police officers, but never showed promising results in reducing illegal drug use. The National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign, originally established by the National Narcotics Leadership Act of 1988, but now conducted by the Office of National Drug Control Policy under the Drug-Free Media Campaign Act of 1998, is a domestic propaganda campaign designed to "influence the attitudes of the public and the news media with respect to drug abuse" and for "reducing and preventing drug abuse among young people in the United States". The Media Campaign cooperates with the Partnership for a Drug-Free America and other government and non-government organizations.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: Shortly after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the US. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait's government.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: Among many other means of influencing US opinion, such as distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to US soldiers deployed in the region, "Free Kuwait" T-shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations, the firm arranged for an appearance before a group of members of the US Congress in which a young woman identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: The story helped tip both the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52–47 vote. However, a year after the war, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The young woman who had testified was found to be a member of Kuwait's Royal Family and the daughter of Kuwait's ambassador to the US. She hadn't lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: In early 2002, the U.S. Department of Defense launched an information operation, colloquially referred to as the Pentagon military analyst program. The goal of the operation is "to spread the administrations's talking points on Iraq by briefing retired commanders for network and cable television appearances," where they have been presented as independent analysts.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: On 22 May 2008, after this program was revealed in "The New York Times", the House passed an amendment that would make permanent a domestic propaganda ban that until now has been enacted annually in the military authorization bill.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: The Shared Values Initiative was a public relations campaign that was intended to sell a "new" America to Muslims around the world by showing that American Muslims were living happily and freely, without persecution, in post-9/11 America. Funded by the United States Department of State, the campaign created a public relations front group known as the Council of American Muslims for Understanding (CAMU). The campaign was divided in phases; the first of which consisted of five mini-documentaries for television, radio, and print with shared values messages for key Muslim countries.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: The Ad Council, an American non-profit organization that distributes public service announcements on behalf of various private and federal government agency sponsors, has been labeled as "little more than a domestic propaganda arm of the federal government" given the Ad Council's historically close collaboration with the President of the United States and the federal government. According to the Ad Council official website they aim to make sure advertisements are not as biased and do not harm any individuals. They have a myriad of published press releases and news articles relaying around different topics in the United States. The Ad Council has a goal to change the lives of people through advertisement through various case studies and real stories. This non-profit organization continues to give public service announcements with the hope to relay information without opinion and raise awareness on issues. The Ad Council continues to distribute announcements from the White House regarding all political information and debates.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: In April 2020, President Donald Trump and the United States government played a campaign video for the Republican Party, which was widely regarded as a propaganda video. This video referred to a timeline of the U.S. government's response to the pandemic, only displaying favorable moments. Some commentators and analysts believed that this was to protect President Donald Trump and his government's reputation, especially before the country's 2020 presidential election. Supporters maintained this was to combat widespread media criticism stating that he failed to act quickly enough to stop the spread of COVID-19.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: The 1776 Commission was an advisory committee established in September 2020 by President Donald Trump to support what he called "patriotic education". The Commission, which included no historians specializing in United States history, released "The 1776 Report" on January 18, 2021. Historians criticized the report as "filled with errors and partisan politics", with some describing it as political propaganda.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: Through several international broadcasting operations, the US disseminates American cultural information, official positions on international affairs, and daily summaries of international news. These operations fall under the International Broadcasting Bureau, the successor of the United States Information Agency, established in 1953. IBB's operations include Voice of America, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Alhurra and other programs. They broadcast mainly to countries where the United States finds that information about international events is limited, either due to poor infrastructure or government censorship. The Smith-Mundt Act prohibits the Voice of America from disseminating information to US citizens that were produced specifically for a foreign audience.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: During the Cold War, the United States ran covert propaganda campaigns in countries that appeared likely to become Soviet satellites, such as Italy, Afghanistan, and Chile. According to the Church Committee report, US agencies ran a "massive propaganda campaign" on Chile, where over 700 news items placed in American and European media resulted from CIA activities in a six-weeks period alone.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: In 2006, The Pentagon announced the creation of a new unit aimed at spreading propaganda about supposedly "inaccurate" stories being spread about the Iraq War. These "inaccuracies" have been blamed on the enemy trying to decrease support for the war. Donald Rumsfeld has been quoted as saying these stories are something that keeps him up at night.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: planned operations to convey selected information and indicators to foreign audiences to influence the emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of foreign governments, organizations, groups, and individuals.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: Some argue that the Smith-Mundt Act, adopted in 1948, explicitly forbids information and psychological operations aimed at the US public. However, Emma Briant points out that this is a common confusion: the Smith-Mundt Act only ever applied to the State Department, not the Department of Defense and military PSYOP, which are governed by Article 10 of the US Code. Nevertheless, the current easy access to news and information from around the globe, makes it difficult to guarantee PSYOP programs do not reach the US public. Or, in the words of Army Col. James A. Treadwell, who commanded the U.S. military psyops unit in Iraq in 2003, in "The Washington Post":


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: The Pentagon acknowledged in a newly declassified document that the US public is increasingly exposed to propaganda disseminated overseas in psychological operations.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: Former US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld approved the document referred to, which is titled "Information Operations Roadmap." The document acknowledges restrictions on targeting domestic audience, but fails to offer any way of limiting the effect PSYOP programs have on domestic audiences. A recent book by Emma L. Briant brings this up to date, detailing the big changes in practice following 9/11 and especially after the Iraq War as US defense adapted to a more fluid media environment and brought in new internet policies.


title: Propaganda in the United States

text: Several incidents in 2003 were documented by Sam Gardiner, a retired Air Force colonel, which he saw as information-warfare campaigns that were intended for "foreign populations and the American public." Truth from These Podia, as the treatise was called, reported that the way the Iraq War was fought resembled a political campaign, stressing the message instead of the truth.


title: Boeing C-137 Stratoliner

text: The Boeing C-137 Stratoliner is a retired VIP transport aircraft derived from the Boeing 707 jet airliner used by the United States Air Force. Other nations also bought both new and used 707s for military service, primarily as VIP or tanker transports. In addition, the 707 served as the basis for several specialized versions, such as the E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft. The designation C-18 covers several later variants based on the 707-320B/C series. The C-137 should not be confused with the similar Boeing C-135 Stratolifter; although they share a common ancestor the two aircraft have different fuselages.


title: Boeing C-137 Stratoliner

text: US Air Force procurement of the Boeing 707 was very limited, amounting to three Model 707-153s designated VC-137A. When delivered in 1959 these had four 13,500 lb (6123 kg) dry thrust Pratt & Whitney J57 (JT3C6) turbojets; when subsequently re-engined with 18,000 lbf (80.1 kN) dry thrust TF33-P-5 (JT3D) turbofans they were redesignated VC-137B. Only one other variant served with the Air Force: this was the VC-137C "Air Force One" Presidential transport, the two examples of which were Model 707-320B Intercontinentals with specialized interior furnishings and advanced communications equipment. Two further C-137C aircraft lacking Presidential transport modifications were later added.


title: Boeing C-137 Stratoliner

text: To supplement its VC-137s, the USAF converted several C-135 airframes to VC-135 VIP standard, and these were used for staff transport mainly within the United States.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: Empress Xiaoshengxian (12 January 1692 – 2 March 1777), of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner Niohuru clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the consort of Yinzhen, the Yongzheng Emperor and mother of Hongli, the Qianlong Emperor. She was honoured as Empress Dowager Chongqing during the reign of her son and posthumously honoured as empress, although she never held the rank of empress consort during her lifetime.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: When the empress seat was vacant after Empress Xiaojingxian of the Ulanara clan's death, she was placed in charge of the imperial harem as the highest ranked concubine in that time. The Qianlong Emperor held her in high regard and often consulted her for advice. She died in 1777 and outlived many of her son's consorts.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: Empress Xiaoshengxian's personal name was unknown and not recorded in history. She was born to the upper class Niohuru clan in Beijing.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: The future Empress Xiaoshengxian was born on the 25th day of the 11th lunar month in the 30th year of the reign of the Kangxi Emperor, which translates to 12 January 1692 in the Gregorian calendar. Her family was poor and lived in Chengde city. She is said to shop in the markets for daily necessities, when she was only six or seven.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: In 1705, aged thirteen, when she went to the capital, just at the time, it so happened, that the ladies of the nobility were there awaiting selection to the palace. She followed them to watch the excitement, and the door guards let her in, thinking she was one of the candidates. It was only when the selection began, and the leading officials found that she was not on the list. They told Yinzhen, the fourth son of the Kangxi Emperor, who asked them to include her in the last group. She was then selected because of her regular features and tall figure. She was then sent to the prince's resident and received the title of "Gege".


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: She was, however, not in the prince's good graces. He apart from his official wife, favoured his concubines Li, Geng, and Nian. In the summer of 1710, he suffered from a disease that made his attendants unwilling to be too close to him. She nevertheless looked after him day and night, and he recovered from the illness after two months. He was grateful to her for her loyalty, and the following year on 25 September 1711, she gave birth to his fourth son, Prince Hongli. Soon after the birth, she fell out of favor again.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: In 1722, Prince Yinzhen, who was made Prince Yong, invited the Kangxi Emperor to his residence, Yuanmingyuan, where he met his grandson, eleven year-old Prince Hongli, and took him to his own palace to rear him, and the two lived together for six months. The Kangxi Emperor's love for Hongli was sufficient to raise her status, whom the emperor had once given an audition and praised as "a person with good fortune".


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: The Kangxi Emperor died on 20 December 1722 and was succeeded by Yinzhen, who was enthroned as the Yongzheng Emperor. On 28 March 1723, Lady Niohuru was granted the title "Consort Xi". In 1730, she was elevated to "Noble Consort Xi". When the Yongzheng Emperor's empress consort, Empress Xiaojingxian, died on 29 October 1731, Noble Consort Xi was placed in charge of the emperor's harem because she was the highest rank consort in that time.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: The Yongzheng Emperor died on 8 October 1735 and was succeeded by Hongli, who was enthroned as the Qianlong Emperor. As the birth mother of the reigning emperor, Noble Consort Xi was honoured as (the) "Divine Mother Empress Dowager Chongqing".


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: The Qianlong Emperor held his mother in high regard and often consulted her for advice. Some believe that she may have been behind the emperor's ill-fated selection of Lady Nara to be his second empress consort. The Qianlong Emperor often visited his mother. The Empress dowager also always accompanied her son on his excursions to Shenyang and the Yangtze River Delta. In her old age, when the Empress Dowager was no longer fit to travel, the Qianlong Emperor stopped all his trips and only resumed them after her death.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: The Empress dowager's 60th birthday was lavishly celebrated. The Qianlong Emperor ordered the roads decorated from Beijing to the Summer Palace, Chinese poems were read in her honour and sacrifices were made to the gods by the emperor and the entire imperial court. In her honour, the emperor also ordered the dredging of a lake at the Garden of Clear Ripples, which he named Kunming Lake, as well as renovated buildings on the lake shore.


title: Empress Xiaoshengxian

text: Empress Dowager Chongqing died on 2 March 1777. She was interred in a separate tomb in the Tai Mausoleum of the Western Qing tombs.


title: Sexual predator

text: A sexual predator is a person seen as obtaining or trying to obtain sexual contact with another person in a metaphorically "predatory" or abusive manner. Analogous to how a predator hunts down its prey, so the sexual predator is thought to "hunt" for his or her sex partners. People who commit sex crimes, such as rape or child sexual abuse, are commonly referred to as sexual predators, particularly in tabloid media or as a power phrase by politicians.


title: Sexual predator

text: FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover is attributed with the first known use of the term in the 1920s. It was popularized in the 1990s by Andrew Vachss and "48 Hours". The word is not found at all in newspapers of 1985 and 1986, but occurs 321 times in 1992, 865 times in 1994, and 924 times in 1995. Some U.S. states have a special status for criminals designated as sexually violent predators, which allows these offenders to be held in prison after their sentence is complete if they are considered to be a risk to the public. They can also be placed on a sex offender list which is viewable by everyone on the Internet.


title: Sexual predator

text: The term is applied according to a person's moral beliefs and does not necessarily denote criminal behavior. For example, a person who cruises a bar looking for consensual sex from someone else could be considered a sexual predator by some.


title: Sexual predator

text: The BDSM community often uses "predator" as a term for someone who seeks out dominance and submission partners that are new to the lifestyle. These partners would use the submissive or dominant in a manner that suited their personal needs instead of encouraging them to grow and learn on their own about this culture. In this same circle and in broader circles, there are also predators who are simply hunters who seek a certain type of personality, age group, fetish, or play style; they often refer to themselves as predators and enjoy the game of Hunter/Prey. (For an example of this usage in broader circles, see Kim France's comments in "The New York Times", on Janis Joplin's sexuality.)


title: Sexual predator

text: The term "sexual predator" is often considered distinct from "sex offender". For example, many U.S. states make legal distinctions between these categories, defining a "sexual offender" as a person who has committed a sexual offense. The term "sexual predator" is often used to refer to a person who habitually seeks out sexual situations that are deemed exploitative. However, in some states in the U.S., the term "sexual predator" is applied to anyone who has been convicted of certain crimes, regardless of whether or not there is a history of similar behavior. In the state of Illinois, for instance, a person convicted of any sex crime against a minor is designated a sexual predator, no matter the nature of the crime (violent versus statutory, or perpetrated against a young child versus a teenager), and regardless of past behavior. This has led to criticism that the term is being misused, or overused, and thus has lost its original meaning and effectiveness.


title: Melakarta

text: Mēḷakartā is a collection of fundamental musical scales (ragas) in Carnatic music (South Indian classical music). "Mēḷakartā" ragas are parent ragas (hence known as "janaka" ragas) from which other ragas may be generated. A "melakarta" raga is sometimes referred as "mela", "karta" or "sampurna" as well, though the latter term is inaccurate, as a "sampurna" raga need not be a "melakarta" (take the raga "Bhairavi," for example).


title: Melakarta

text: In Hindustani music the "thaat" is equivalent of "Melakartā". There are 10 "thaats" in Hindustani music, though the commonly accepted "melakarta" scheme has 72 ragas.


title: Melakarta

text: The "mēḷa" system of ragas was first propounded by Raamamaatya in his work Svaramelakalanidhi c. 1550. He is considered the father of "mela" system of ragas. Later, Venkatamakhin, a gifted musicologist in the 17th century, expounded a new "mela" system known today as "mēḷakarta" in his work "Chaturdandi Prakaasikaa". He made some bold and controversial claims and defined somewhat arbitrarily 6 "svaras" from the known 12 semitones, at that time, to arrive at 72 "mēḷakarta" ragas. The controversial parts relate to double counting of R2 (and similar "svaras") and his exclusive selection of "madyamas" for which there is no specific reasoning (also known as "asampurna melas" as opposed to "sampurna ragas"). However, today the 72 "mēḷakarta" ragas use a standardized pattern, unlike Venkatamakhi's pattern, and have gained a significant following. Govindhacharya is credited with the standardization of rules and known for giving different names for standard ragas that have a different structure but the same swaras as those proposed by Venkatamakhi. The scales in this page are those proposed by Govindaacharya.


title: Melakarta

text: A hundred years after Venkatamakhin's time the "Katapayadi sankhya" rule came to be applied to the nomenclature of the "mēḷakarta" ragas. The "sankhya" associates Sanskrit consonants with digits. The digits corresponding to the first two syllables of the name of a raga, when reversed, give the index of the raga. Thus the scale of a "mēḷakarta" raga can be easily derived from its name.


title: Melakarta

text: For example, "Harikambhoji" raga starts with syllables "Ha" and "ri", which have numbers 8 and 2 associated with them. Reversing them we get 28. Hence Harikambhoji is the 28th Mēḷakarta rāga. See Katapayadi sankhya for more details and examples.


title: Melakarta

text: Each "mēḷakarta" raga has a different scale. This scheme envisages the lower Sa ("Keezh Shadja"), upper Sa ("Mael Shadja") and Pa ("Panchama") as fixed "swaras", with the Ma ("Madhyama") having two variants and the remaining swaras Ri ("Rishabha"), Ga ("Gandhaara"), Dha ("Dhaivata") and Ni ("Nishaada") as having three variants each. This leads to 72 seven-note combinations (scales) referred to as the "Mēḷakarta" ragas as follows.


title: Melakarta

text: There are twelve semitones of the octave S, R1, R2=G1, R3=G2, G3, M1, M2, P, D1, D2=N1, D3=N2, N3 (see "swaras" in Carnatic music for explanation of these notations). A melakarta raga must necessarily have S and P, one of the M's, one each of the R's and G's, and one each of the D's and N's. Also, R must necessarily precede G and D must precede N ("krama sampūrṇa" rāga). This gives 2 × 6 × 6 = 72 ragas. Finding "mēḷakarta ragas" is a mathematical process. By following a simple set of rules we can find the corresponding raga and the scale associated with it.


title: Melakarta

text: A raga which has a subset of "svarās" from a "Mēḷakarta" raga is said to be a "janya" (means born or derived from) of that "Mēḷakarta" raga. Every raga is the "janya" of a "mēḷakarta" raga. "Janya" ragas whose notes are found in more than one "mēḷakarta" raga are assigned (or associated) parent "Melakarta" based on subjective notions of similarity. This is obvious for ragas that have less than seven notes. For such ragas it can be associated with a "Mēḷakarta" which has any of the different swaras in that position. For example, Hindolam has Rishabha and Panchama missing. Hence, it could be considered a janya of "Todi" (also known as "Hanumatodi") which has "shuddha rishabha" or with "Natabhairavi" which has a "chathushruti rishabha". It is popularly associated with "Natabhairavi".


title: Melakarta

text: The 72 "Mēḷakarta" ragas are split into 12 groups called "chakrās", each containing 6 ragas. The ragas within the chakra differ only in the "dhaivatam" and "nishadam" notes (D and N), as illustrated below. The name of each of the 12 "chakras" suggest their ordinal number as well.


title: Melakarta

text: The 72 "Mēḷakartā" ragas can be divided into two parts, "shuddha madhyama" and "prati madhyama" ragas. When a given "shuddha madhyama" raga's M1 is replaced by M2, we get the corresponding "prati madhyama" raga. See Katapayadi sankhya for more information on how to derive the various "swaras" of a raga from its "mēḷakartā" number.


title: Melakarta

text: Muthuswami Dikshitar school followed a different set of scales as the 72 "Mēḷakarta" ragas. These were taught by Venkatamakhin. Many of the scales were "asampurna" (not sampurna ragas) because Dikshitar chose to follow the earlier established structure to mitigate ill-effects of usage of direct "vivadi swaras" in the scales.


title: Demarcation problem

text: In philosophy of science and epistemology, the demarcation problem is the question of how to distinguish between science and non-science. It examines the boundaries between science, pseudoscience, and other products of human activity, like art and literature, and beliefs. The debate continues after over two millennia of dialogue among philosophers of science and scientists in various fields. The debate has consequences for what can be called "scientific" in fields such as education and public policy.


title: Demarcation problem

text: An early attempt at demarcation can be seen in the efforts of Greek natural philosophers and medical practitioners to distinguish their methods and their accounts of nature from the mythological or mystical accounts of their predecessors and contemporaries.


title: Demarcation problem

text: G. E. R. Lloyd noted that there was a sense in which the groups engaged in various forms of inquiry into nature set out to "legitimate their own positions", laying "claim to a new kind of wisdom ... that purported to yield superior enlightenment, even superior practical effectiveness". Medical writers in the Hippocratic tradition maintained that their discussions were based on necessary demonstrations, a theme developed by Aristotle in his "Posterior Analytics". One element of this polemic for science was an insistence on a clear and unequivocal presentation of arguments, rejecting the imagery, analogy, and myth of the old wisdom. Some of their claimed naturalistic explanations of phenomena have been found to be quite fanciful, with little reliance on actual observations.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Cicero's "De Divinatione" implicitly used five criteria of scientific demarcation that are also used by modern philosophers of science.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Logical positivism, formulated in the 1920s, held that only statements about matters of fact or logical relations between concepts are meaningful. All other statements lack sense and are labelled "metaphysics" (see the verifiability theory of meaning also known as verificationism).


title: Demarcation problem

text: According to A. J. Ayer, metaphysicians make statements which claim to have "knowledge of a reality which [transcends] the phenomenal world". Ayer, a member of the Vienna Circle and a noted English logical-positivist, argued that making any statements about the world beyond one's immediate sense-perception is impossible. This is because even metaphysicians' first premises will necessarily begin with observations made through sense-perception.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Ayer implied that the line of demarcation is characterized as the place at which statements become "factually significant". To be "factually significant", a statement must be verifiable. In order to be verifiable, the statement must be verifiable in the observable world, or facts that can be induced from "derived experience". This is referred to as the "verifiability" criterion.


title: Demarcation problem

text: This distinction between science, which in the view of the Vienna Circle possessed empirically verifiable statements, and what they pejoratively called "metaphysics", which lacked such statements, can be seen as representing another aspect of the demarcation problem. Logical positivism is often discussed in the context of the demarcation between science and non-science or pseudoscience. However, "The verificationist proposals had the aim of solving a distinctly different demarcation problem, namely that between science and metaphysics."


title: Demarcation problem

text: Karl Popper saw demarcation as a central problem in the philosophy of science. Popper articulates the problem of demarcation as:


title: Demarcation problem

text: Falsifiability is the demarcation criterion proposed by Popper as opposed to verificationism: "statements or systems of statements, in order to be ranked as scientific, must be capable of conflicting with possible, or conceivable observations".


title: Demarcation problem

text: Popper rejected solutions to the problem of demarcation that are grounded in inductive reasoning, and so rejected logical-positivist responses to the problem of demarcation. He argued that logical-positivists want to create a demarcation between the metaphysical and the empirical because they believe that empirical claims are meaningful and metaphysical ones are not. Unlike the Vienna Circle, Popper stated that his proposal was not a criterion of "meaningfulness".


title: Demarcation problem

text: Popper argued that the Humean induction problem shows that there is no way to make meaningful universal statements on the basis of any number of empirical observations. Therefore, empirical statements are no more "verifiable" than metaphysical statements.


title: Demarcation problem

text: This creates a problem for the line of demarcation the positivists wanted to cleave between the empirical and the metaphysical. By their very own "verifiability criterion", Popper argued, the empirical is subsumed into the metaphysical, and the line of demarcation between the two becomes non-existent.


title: Demarcation problem

text: In Popper's later work, he stated that falsifiability is both a necessary and sufficient criterion for demarcation. He described falsifiability as a property of "the logical structure of sentences and classes of sentences", so that a statement's scientific or non-scientific status does not change over time. This has been summarized as a statement being falsifiable "if and only if it logically contradicts some (empirical) sentence that describes a logically possible event that it would be logically possible to observe".


title: Demarcation problem

text: Thomas Kuhn, an American historian and philosopher of science, is often connected with what has been called postpositivism or postempiricism. In his 1962 book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", Kuhn divided the process of doing science into two different endeavors, which he called normal science and extraordinary science (which he sometimes also called "revolutionary science"), and he said that "we must not, I think, seek a sharp or decisive" demarcation criterion. In Kuhn's view, "it is normal science, in which Sir Karl's sort of testing does not occur, rather than extraordinary science which most nearly distinguishes science from other enterprises". That is, the utility of a scientific paradigm for puzzle-solving lies in its suggesting solutions to new problems while continuing to satisfy all of the problems solved by the paradigm that it replaces.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Popper criticized Kuhn's demarcation criterion, saying that astrologers are engaged in puzzle solving, and that therefore Kuhn's criterion recognized astrology as a science. He stated that Kuhn's criterion leads to a "major disaster ... [the] replacement of a rational criterion of science by a sociological one".


title: Demarcation problem

text: Kuhn's work largely called into question Popper's demarcation, and emphasized the human, subjective quality of scientific change. Paul Feyerabend was concerned that the very question of demarcation was insidious: science itself had no need of a demarcation criterion, but instead some philosophers were seeking to justify a special position of authority from which science could dominate public discourse. Feyerabend argued that science does not in fact occupy a special place in terms of either its logic or method, and no claim to special authority made by scientists can be upheld. He argued that, within the history of scientific practice, no rule or method can be found that has not been violated or circumvented at some point in order to advance scientific knowledge. Both Imre Lakatos and Feyerabend suggest that science is not an autonomous form of reasoning, but is inseparable from the larger body of human thought and inquiry.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Paul R. Thagard proposed another set of principles to try to overcome these difficulties, and argued that it is important for society to find a way of doing so. According to Thagard's method, a theory is not scientific if it satisfies two conditions:


title: Demarcation problem

text: Thagard specified that sometimes theories will spend some time as merely "unpromising" before they truly deserve the title of pseudoscience. He cited astrology as an example: it was stagnant compared to advances in physics during the 17th century, and only later became "pseudoscience" in the advent of alternative explanations provided by psychology during the 19th century.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Thagard also stated that his criteria should not be interpreted so narrowly as to allow willful ignorance of alternative explanations, or so broadly as to discount our modern science compared to science of the future. His definition is a practical one, which generally seeks to distinguish pseudoscience as areas of inquiry which are stagnant and without active scientific investigation.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Many historians of science are concerned with the development of science from its primitive origins; consequently they define science in sufficiently broad terms to include early forms of natural knowledge. In the article on science in the eleventh edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica", the scientist and historian William Cecil Dampier Whetham defined science as "ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and of the relations between them". In his study of Greek science, Marshall Clagett defined science as "first, the orderly and systematic comprehension, description and/or explanation of natural phenomena and, secondly, the [mathematical and logical] tools necessary for the undertaking". A similar definition appeared more recently in David Pingree's study of early science: "Science is a systematic explanation of perceived or imaginary phenomena, or else is based on such an explanation. Mathematics finds a place in science only as one of the symbolical languages in which scientific explanations may be expressed." These definitions tend to focus more on the subject matter of science than on its method and from these perspectives, the philosophical concern to establish a line of demarcation between science and non-science becomes "problematic, if not futile".


title: Demarcation problem

text: Larry Laudan concluded, after examining various historical attempts to establish a demarcation criterion, that "philosophy has failed to deliver the goods" in its attempts to distinguish science from non-science—to distinguish science from pseudoscience. None of the past attempts would be accepted by a majority of philosophers nor, in his view, should they be accepted by them or by anyone else. He stated that many well-founded beliefs are not scientific and, conversely, many scientific conjectures are not well-founded. He also stated that demarcation criteria were historically used as in polemical disputes between "scientists" and "pseudo-scientists". Advancing a number of examples from everyday practice of football and carpentry and non-scientific scholarship such as literary criticism and philosophy, he saw the question of whether a belief is well-founded or not to be more practically and philosophically significant than whether it is scientific or not. In his judgment, the demarcation between science and non-science was a pseudo-problem that would best be replaced by focusing on the distinction between reliable and unreliable knowledge, without bothering to ask whether that knowledge is scientific or not. He would consign phrases like "pseudo-science" or "unscientific" to the rhetoric of politicians or sociologists.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Others have disagreed with Laudan. Sebastian Lutz, for example, argued that demarcation does not have to be a single necessary and sufficient condition as Laudan implied. Rather, Laudan's reasoning at the most establishes that there has to be one necessary criterion and one possibly different sufficient criterion.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Various typologies or taxonomies of sciences versus nonsciences, and reliable knowledge versus illusory knowledge, have been proposed. Ian Hacking, Massimo Pigliucci, and others have noted that the sciences generally conform to Ludwig Wittgenstein's concept of family resemblances.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Other critics have argued for multiple demarcation criteria, some suggesting that there should be one set of criteria for the natural sciences, another set of criteria for the social sciences, and claims involving the supernatural could have a set of pseudoscientific criteria.


title: Demarcation problem

text: Discussions of the demarcation problem highlight the rhetoric of science and promote critical thinking. Citizens thinking critically, and expressing themselves with reasoned argument in policy discussion, contribute to enlightened democracy.


title: Demarcation problem

text: The demarcation problem has been compared to the problem of differentiating fake news from real news, which rose to prominence in the 2016 United States presidential election.


title: Mary Hayley Bell

text: Mary Hayley Bell, Lady Mills (22 January 1911 – 1 December 2005) was an English actress and writer, married for 64 years to actor Sir John Mills. Her novel "Whistle Down the Wind" was adapted as a film, starring her teenaged daughter, actress Hayley Mills.


title: Mary Hayley Bell

text: Mary Hayley Bell was born in Shanghai International Settlement, Shanghai, China, where her father, Colonel Francis Hayley Bell, served in the Chinese Maritime Customs Service with postings to various Treaty Ports. Her mother was Agnes (née McGowan). Her father, a Boer War veteran, served, from 1925 to 1928, as Customs Commissioner for Kowloon (within Hong Hong, although this position had no connection with the British colonial administration). During this period Mary attended school in Hong Kong and frequently spent weekends of leisure at the Commissioner's official country bungalow near Fan Ling Golf Club. The family later (1930) moved to Tianjin (then known as Tientsin). In the run-up to World War II, Francis Bell was the Defence Security Officer in Singapore in 1936 MI5. He staged a mock commando raid on Singapore's vital installations, including the naval base, where his men took control of a fuel dump, fleet of boats, and telephone exchange switchboards, in order to highlight Singapore's vulnerability to attack. This led to furious reactions from senior officials, with complaints being made to the War Office, and Bell was sacked.


title: Mary Hayley Bell

text: Mary Hayley Bell travelled to England to attend Malvern Girls' College and RADA. Her stage debut was in 1932 in "The Barretts of Wimpole Street" with an American touring company in Shanghai. On the London stage, she appeared in "Vintage Wine" in 1934 and further West End roles followed, as well as a tour of Australia and a New York debut in 1939. Her acting career ended on her marriage to Mills, in 1941. Later in life, she had a small uncredited role as a nursing home resident in the 1993 Eric Sykes film "The Big Freeze", opposite her husband. She also appeared in her son's documentary "Sir John Mills' Moving Memories" (2000).


title: Mary Hayley Bell

text: Mary Hayley Bell wrote four plays: "Men in Shadow" (1942), "Angel" (1947), "Duet for Two Hands" (1945), and "The Uninvited Guest" (1953). She also wrote the novel "Whistle Down the Wind" (1959), co-wrote the screenplay and story of "Sky West and Crooked" (1966) (released as "Gypsy Girl" in the United States), and wrote additional dialogue for "Scott of the Antarctic" (1948). "Whistle Down the Wind" was made into a film in 1961 (starring daughter Hayley Mills) and an Andrew Lloyd Webber musical in 1996. Its title is believed to have been inspired by the sound of the wind around the bow windows of The Wick, the family's home on Richmond Hill, London.


title: Mary Hayley Bell

text: It was while living at Tianjin, China, that she first met John Mills, who was on tour at the time. They next met when she was appearing in "Tony Draws a Horse" at the Comedy Theatre in London in 1939. She recalled an after-dinner party in Mills's dressing room after one of his performances as George in "Of Mice and Men" at the Apollo Theatre.


title: Mary Hayley Bell

text: Mills and Hayley Bell married at Marylebone Registry Office in London on 16 January 1941. Mills had a 48-hour pass from the Royal Engineers, so their honeymoon at Duke's Hotel was one night. The Mills's first home was a 16th-century cottage named "Misbourne" which they purchased in 1942 and lived at until the autumn of 1945. The survival of the marriage for the 64 years until his death on 23 April 2005 is rare in show business. Mills said that he regretted that his divorce from his first wife prevented Hayley Bell from having a church wedding. They renewed their marriage vows, sixty years after they married, at St. Mary's Church in Denham, Buckinghamshire on 16 January 2001.


title: Mary Hayley Bell

text: In 1975, the Mills family bought Hills House, Denham, Buckinghamshire, a 17th-century house with a four-acre (16 000 m) garden. By 2003, it was too big and the stairs were too challenging for both Sir John and Lady Mills. They moved to a bungalow in the village in 2003. Lady Mills suffered from Alzheimer's disease and used a wheelchair in her final years. Sir John died on 23 April 2005, aged 97, in Buckinghamshire. His widow died eight months later, on 1 December 2005, aged 94.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening or particle hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some steels and stainless steels. In superalloys, it is known to cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high-temperature strength.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Precipitation hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice. Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden the material. The impurities play the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced composite materials. Just as the formation of ice in air can produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon the thermal history of a given portion of the atmosphere, precipitation in solids can produce many different sizes of particles, which have radically different properties. Unlike ordinary tempering, alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow precipitation to take place. This time delay is called "aging". Solution treatment and aging is sometimes abbreviated "STA" in specifications and certificates for metals.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Two different heat treatments involving precipitates can alter the strength of a material: solution heat treating and precipitation heat treating. Solid solution strengthening involves formation of a single-phase solid solution via quenching. Precipitation heat treating involves the addition of impurity particles to increase a material's strength.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: This technique exploits the phenomenon of supersaturation, and involves careful balancing of the driving force for precipitation and the thermal activation energy available for both desirable and undesirable processes.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Nucleation occurs at a relatively high temperature (often just below the solubility limit) so that the kinetic barrier of surface energy can be more easily overcome and the maximum number of precipitate particles can form. These particles are then allowed to grow at lower temperature in a process called "ageing". This is carried out under conditions of low solubility so that thermodynamics drive a greater total volume of precipitate formation.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Diffusion's exponential dependence upon temperature makes precipitation strengthening, like all heat treatments, a fairly delicate process. Too little diffusion ("under ageing"), and the particles will be too small to impede dislocations effectively; too much ("over ageing"), and they will be too large and dispersed to interact with the majority of dislocations.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Precipitation strengthening is possible if the line of solid solubility slopes strongly toward the center of a phase diagram. While a large volume of precipitate particles is desirable, a small enough amount of the alloying element should be added so that it remains easily soluble at some reasonable annealing temperature. Although large volumes are often wanted, they are wanted in small particle sizes as to avoid a decrease in strength as is explained below.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Elements used for precipitation strengthening in typical aluminium and titanium alloys make up about 10% of their composition. While binary alloys are more easily understood as an academic exercise, commercial alloys often use three components for precipitation strengthening, in compositions such as Al(Mg, Cu) and Ti(Al, V). A large number of other constituents may be unintentional, but benign, or may be added for other purposes such as grain refinement or corrosion resistance. An example is the addition of Sc and Zr to aluminum alloys to form FCC L1 structures that help refine grains and strengthen the material. In some cases, such as many aluminium alloys, an increase in strength is achieved at the expense of corrosion resistance. More recent technology is focused on additive manufacturing due to the higher amount of metastable phases that can be obtained due to the fast cooling, whereas traditional casting is more limited to equilibrium phases.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: The addition of large amounts of nickel and chromium needed for corrosion resistance in stainless steels means that traditional hardening and tempering methods are not effective. However, precipitates of chromium, copper, or other elements can strengthen the steel by similar amounts in comparison to hardening and tempering. The strength can be tailored by adjusting the annealing process, with lower initial temperatures resulting in higher strengths. The lower initial temperatures increase the driving force of nucleation. More driving force means more nucleation sites, and more sites means more places for dislocations to be disrupted while the finished part is in use.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Many alloy systems allow the ageing temperature to be adjusted. For instance, some aluminium alloys used to make rivets for aircraft construction are kept in dry ice from their initial heat treatment until they are installed in the structure. After this type of rivet is deformed into its final shape, ageing occurs at room temperature and increases its strength, locking the structure together. Higher ageing temperatures would risk over-ageing other parts of the structure, and require expensive post-assembly heat treatment because a high ageing temperature promotes the precipitate to grow too readily.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: There are several ways by which a matrix can be hardened by precipitates, which could also be different for deforming precipitates and non-deforming precipitates.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Coherency hardening occurs when the interface between the particles and the matrix is coherent, which depends on parameters like particle size and the way that particles are introduced. Coherency is where the lattice of the precipitate and that of the matrix are continuous across the interface. Small particles precipitated from supersaturated solid solution usually have coherent interfaces with the matrix. Coherency hardening originates from the atomic volume difference between precipitate and the matrix, which results in a coherency strain. If the atomic volume of the precipitate is smaller, there will be tension because the lattice atoms are located closer than their normal conditions while when the atomic volume of the precipitate is larger, there will be compression of the lattice atoms, as they are further apart than their normal position. Regardless of whether the lattice is under compression or tension, the associated stress field interacts with dislocations leading to decreased dislocation motion either by repulsion or attraction of the dislocations, leading to an increase in yield strength, similar to the size effect in solid solution strengthening. What differentiates this mechanism from solid solution strengthening is the fact that the precipitate has a definite size, not an atom, and therefore a stronger interaction with dislocations.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Modulus hardening results from the different shear modulus of the precipitate and the matrix, which leads to an energy change of dislocation line tension when the dislocation line cuts the precipitate. Also, the dislocation line could bend when entering the precipitate, increasing the affected length of the dislocation line. Again, the strengthening arises in a way similar to that of solid solution strengthening, where there is a mismatch in the lattice that interacts with the dislocations, impeding their motion. Of course, the severity of the interaction is different than that of solid solution and coherency strengthening.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Chemical strengthening is associated with the surface energy of the newly introduced precipitate-matrix interface when the particle is sheared by dislocations. Because it takes energy to make the surface, some of the stress that is causing dislocation motion is accommodated by the additional surfaces. Like modulus hardening, the analysis of interfacial area can be complicated by dislocation line distortion.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Order strengthening occurs when the precipitate is an ordered structure such that bond energy before and after shearing is different. For example, in an ordered cubic crystal with composition AB, the bond energy of A-A and B-B after shearing is higher than that of the A-B bond before. The associated energy increase per unit area is anti-phase boundary energy and accumulates gradually as the dislocation passes through the particle. However, a second dislocation could remove the anti-phase domain left by the first dislocation when traverses the particle. The attraction of the particle and the repulsion of the first dislocation maintains a balanced distance between two dislocations, which makes order strengthening more complicated. Except for when there are very fine particles, this mechanism is generally not as effective as others to strengthen. Another way to consider this mechanism is that when a dislocation shears a particle, the stacking sequence between the new surface made and the matrix is broken, and the bonding is not stable. To get the sequence back into this interface, another dislocation, is needed to shift the stacking. The first and second dislocation are often called a superdislocation. Because superdislocations are required to shear these particles, there is strengthening because of the decreased dislocation motion.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: In non-deforming particles, where the spacing is small enough or the precipitate-matrix interface is disordered, dislocation bows instead of shears. The strengthening is related to the effective spacing between particles considering finite particle size, but not particle strength, because once the particle is strong enough for the dislocations to bow rather than cut, further increase of the dislocation penetration resistance won't affect strengthening. The main mechanism therefore is Orowan strengthening, where the strong particles do not allow for dislocations to move past. Therefore bowing must occur and in this bowing can cause dislocation loops to build up, which decreases the space available for additional dislocation to bow between. If the dislocations cannot shear particles and cannot move past them, then dislocation motion is successfully impeded.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: The primary species of precipitation strengthening are second phase particles. These particles impede the movement of dislocations throughout the lattice. You can determine whether or not second phase particles will precipitate into solution from the solidus line on the phase diagram for the particles. Physically, this strengthening effect can be attributed both to size and modulus effects, and to interfacial or surface energy.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: The presence of second phase particles often causes lattice distortions. These lattice distortions result when the precipitate particles differ in size and crystallographic structure from the host atoms. Smaller precipitate particles in a host lattice leads to a tensile stress, whereas larger precipitate particles leads to a compressive stress. Dislocation defects also create a stress field. Above the dislocation there is a compressive stress and below there is a tensile stress. Consequently, there is a negative interaction energy between a dislocation and a precipitate that each respectively cause a compressive and a tensile stress or vice versa. In other words, the dislocation will be attracted to the precipitate. In addition, there is a positive interaction energy between a dislocation and a precipitate that have the same type of stress field. This means that the dislocation will be repulsed by the precipitate.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Precipitate particles also serve by locally changing the stiffness of a material. Dislocations are repulsed by regions of higher stiffness. Conversely, if the precipitate causes the material to be locally more compliant, then the dislocation will be attracted to that region. In addition, there are three types of interphase boundaries (IPBs).


title: Precipitation hardening

text: The first type is a coherent or ordered IPB, the atoms match up one by one along the boundary. Due to the difference in lattice parameters of the two phases, a coherency strain energy is associated with this type of boundary. The second type is a fully disordered IPB and there are no coherency strains, but the particle tends to be non-deforming to dislocations. The last one is a partially ordered IPB, so coherency strains are partially relieved by the periodic introduction of dislocations along the boundary.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: In coherent precipitates in a matrix, if the precipitate has a lattice parameter less than that of the matrix, then the atomic match across the IPB leads to an internal stress field that interacts with moving dislocations.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Where formula_3 is the shear modulus, formula_4 is the coherent lattice mismatch, formula_5 is the particle radius, formula_6 is the particle volume fraction, formula_7 is the burgers vector, formula_8 equals the concentration.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: The other one is modulus hardening. The energy of the dislocation energy is formula_9, when it cuts through the precipitate, its energy is formula_10, the change in line segment energy is


title: Precipitation hardening

text: The maximum dislocation length affected is the particle diameter, the line tension change takes place gradually over a distance equal to formula_5. The interaction force between the dislocation and the precipitate is


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Furthermore, a dislocation may cut through a precipitate particle, and introduce more precipitate-matrix interface, which is chemical strengthening. When the dislocation is entering the particle and is within the particle, the upper part of the particle shears b with respect to the lower part accompanies the dislocation entry. A similar process occurs when the dislocation exits the particle. The complete transit is accompanied by creation of matrix-precipitate surface area of approximate magnitude formula_15, where r is the radius of the particle and b is the magnitude of the burgers vector. The resulting increase in surface energy is formula_16, where formula_17 is the surface energy. The maximum force between the dislocation and particle is formula_18, the corresponding flow stress should be formula_19.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: When a particle is sheared by a dislocation, a threshold shear stress is needed to deform the particle. The expression for the required shear stress is as follows:


title: Precipitation hardening

text: When the precipitate size is small, the required shear stress formula_21 is proportional to the precipitate size formula_22, However, for a fixed particle volume fraction, this stress may decrease at larger values of r owing to an increase in particle spacing. The overall level of the curve is raised by increases in either inherent particle strength or particle volume fraction.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Since the particle is non-deforming, the dislocation bows around the particles (formula_23), the stress required to effect the bypassing is inversely proportional to the interparticle spacing formula_24, that is, formula_25, where formula_26 is the particle radius. Dislocation loops encircle the particles after the bypass operation, a subsequent dislocation would have to be extruded between the loops. Thus, the effective particle spacing for the second dislocation is reduced to formula_27 with formula_28, and the bypassing stress for this dislocation should be formula_29, which is greater than for the first one. However, as the radius of particle increases, formula_30will increase so as to maintain the same volume fraction of precipitates, formula_24 will increase and formula_32 will decrease. As a result, the material will become weaker as the precipitate size increases.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: For a fixed particle volume fraction, formula_32 decreases with increasing r as this is accompanied by an increase in particle spacing.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: On the other hand, increasing formula_6 increases the level of the stress as a result of a finer particle spacing. The level of formula_32 is unaffected by particle strength. That is, once a particle is strong enough to resist cutting, any further increase in its resistance to dislocation penetration has no effect on formula_32, which depends only on matrix properties and effective particle spacing.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: If particles of A of volume fraction formula_37are dispersed in a matrix, particles are sheared for formula_38 and are bypassed for formula_39, maximum strength is obtained at formula_40, where the cutting and bowing stresses are equal. If inherently harder particles of B of the same volume fraction are present, the level of the formula_41 curve is increased but that of the formula_32 one is not. Maximum hardening, greater than that for A particles, is found at formula_43. Increasing the volume fraction of A raises the level of both formula_32 and formula_41 and increases the maximum strength obtained. The latter is found at formula_46, which may be either less than or greater than formula_47 depending on the shape of the formula_48 curve.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: There are two main types of equations to describe the two mechanisms for precipitation hardening based on weak and strong precipitates. Weak precipitates can be sheared by dislocations while strong precipitates cannot, and therefore the dislocation must bow. First, it is important to consider the difference between these two different mechanisms in terms of the dislocation line tension that they make. The line tension balance equation is:


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Where formula_50 is the radius of the dislocation at a certain stress. Strong obstacles have small formula_51 due to the bowing of the dislocation. Still, decreasing obstacle strength will increase the formula_51 and must be included in the calculation. L’ is also equal to the effective spacing between obstacles L. This leaves an equation for strong obstacles:


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Considering weak particles, formula_51 should be nearing formula_55 due to the dislocation line staying relatively straight through obstacles. Also , L’ will be:


title: Precipitation hardening

text: For most strengthening at the early stage, it increases with formula_58, where formula_59 is a dimensionless mismatch parameter (for example, in coherency hardening, formula_59 is the fractional change of precipitate and matrix lattice parameter), formula_61 is the volume fraction of precipitate, formula_62 is the precipitate radius, and formula_63 is the magnitude of the Burgers vector. According to this relationship, materials strength increases with increasing mismatch, volume fraction, and particle size, so that dislocation is easier to cut through particles with smaller radius.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: where formula_66 is increased shear stress, formula_67 is the shear modulus of the matrix, formula_68 and formula_69 are the lattice parameter of the precipitate or the matrix.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Dislocations bowing around particles: When the precipitate is strong enough to resist dislocation penetration, dislocation bows and the maximum stress is given by Orowan equation. Dislocation bowing, also called Orowan strengthening, is more likely to occur when the particle density in the material is lower.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: where formula_66 is the material strength, formula_67 is the shear modulus, formula_63 is the magnitude of the Burgers vector, formula_87 is the distance between pinning points, and formula_62 is the second phase particle radius. This governing equation shows that for dislocation bowing the strength is inversely proportional to the second phase particle radius formula_62, because when the volume fraction of the precipitate is fixed, the spacing formula_87 between particles increases concurrently with the particle radius formula_62, therefore formula_92 increases with formula_62.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: These governing equations show that the precipitation hardening mechanism depends on the size of the precipitate particles. At small formula_62, cutting will dominate, while at large formula_62, bowing will dominate.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Looking at the plot of both equations, it is clear that there is a critical radius at which max strengthening occurs. This critical radius is typically 5-30 nm.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: The Orowan strengthening model above neglects changes to the dislocations due to the bending. If bowing is accounted for, and the instability condition in the Frank-Read mechanism is assumed, the critical stress for dislocations bowing between pinning segments can be described as:


title: Precipitation hardening

text: where formula_97 is a function of formula_98, formula_98 is the angle between the dislocation line and the Burgers vector, formula_100is the effective particle separation, formula_7 is the Burgers vector, and formula_5 is the particle radius.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Precipitates in a polycrystalline material can act as grain refiners if they are nucleated or located near grain boundaries, where they pin the grain boundaries as an alloy is solidifying and do not allow for a coarse microstructure. This is helpful, as finer microstructures often outperform (mechanical properties) coarser ones at room temperatures. In recent times nano-precipitates are being studied under creep conditions. These precipitates can also pin the grain boundary at higher temperatures, essentially acting as "friction". Another useful effect can be to impede grain-boundary sliding under diffusional creep conditions with very fine precipitates and if the precipitates are homogeneously dispersed in the matrix, then these same precipitates in the grains might interact with dislocations under creep dislocation creep conditions.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Different precipitates, depending on their elemental compositions, can form under certain aging conditions that were not previously there. Secondary precipitates can arise from removing solutes from the matrix solid solution states. The control of this can be exploited to control the microstructure and influence properties.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: While significant effort has been made to develop new alloys, the experimental results take time and money to be implemented. One possible alternative is doing simulations with Density functional theory, that can take advantage of, in the context of precipitation hardening, the crystalline structure of precipitates and of the matrix and allow the exploration of a lot more alternatives than with experiments in the traditional form.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: One strategy for doing these simulations is focusing on the ordered structures that can be found in many metal alloys, like the long-period stacking ordered (LPSO) structures that have been observed in numerous systems. The LPSO structure is long packed layered configuration along one axis with some layers enriched with precipitated elements. This allows to exploit the symmetry of the supercells and it suits well with the currently available DFT methods.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: In this way, some researchers have developed strategies to screen the possible strengthening precipitates that allow decreasing the weight of some metal alloys. For example, Mg-alloys have received progressive interest to replace Aluminum and Steel in the vehicle industry because it is one of the lighter structural metals. However, Mg-alloys show issues with low strength and ductility which have limited their use. To overcome this, the Precipitation hardening technique, through the addition of rare earth elements, has been used to improve the alloy strength and ductility. Specifically, the LPSO structures were found that are responsible for these increments, generating an Mg-alloy that exhibited high-yield strength: 610 MPa at 5% of elongation at room temperature.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: In this way, some researchers have developed strategies to Looking for cheaper alternatives than Rare Elements (RE) it was simulated a ternary system with Mg-Xl-Xs, where Xl and Xs correspond to atoms larger than and shorter than Mg, respectively. Under this study, it was confirmed more than 85 Mg-Re-Xs LPSO structures, showing the DFT ability to predict known LPSO ternary structures. Then they explore the 11 non-RE Xl elements and was found that 4 of them are thermodynamically stable. One of them is the Mg-Ca-Zn system that is predicted to form an LPSO structure.


title: Precipitation hardening

text: Following the previous DFT predictions, other investigators made experiments with the Mg-Zn-Y-Mn-Ca system and found that at 0.34%at Ca addition the mechanical properties of the system were enhanced due to the formation of LPSO-structures, achieving “a good balance of the strength and ductibility”.


title: Zev Siegl

text: Zev Siegl (December 28, 1942) is an American keynote speaker and presenter. He co-founded Starbucks, with Gordon Bowker and Jerry Baldwin, in 1971, and served as a director of the company during its first decade.


title: Zev Siegl

text: Zev Siegl was born on December 28, 1942 in Detroit, Michigan to a Jewish family. His father, Henry Siegl, was a concert violinist who, starting in 1956, served as the concertmaster of the Seattle Symphony Orchestra for 26 years. His mother, Eleanor Shapiro Siegl, was an educator and founder of The Little School, now located on a campus in Kirkland, Washington.


title: Zev Siegl

text: In March 1971, Siegl, Jerry Baldwin and Gordon Bowker established Starbucks Coffee Company in Seattle, Washington. Siegl, a former public school history teacher, was the company's first paid employee. Siegl often mentions in his public talks that Starbucks wouldn't have been what it is today without the early mentorship they received from Alfred Peet, who at the time was running an already successful coffee stores chain. Following a decade as vice president and a director, Siegl left Starbucks, which had expanded to dominate the gourmet coffee trade in Seattle, with six Seattle-area stores and a wholesale business.


title: Zev Siegl

text: Siegl is the founder of several other small businesses, including Quartermaine Coffee Roasters, in Rockville, Maryland, near Washington, DC.


title: Zev Siegl

text: In 2004, Siegl joined the federally funded Washington Small Business Development Center where he served as lead advisor until 2012. While with the WSBDC he worked directly with more than 500 individual entrepreneurs and SMEs.


title: Zev Siegl

text: Since 2013, Siegl has been sharing the entrepreneurship insights based upon his accumulated experience by serving as a keynote presenter at major entrepreneurship and business conferences worldwide (Kuwait City, Santiago, Kuala Lumpur, Johannesburg, Warsaw, Mexico City, etc. ). Zev has also given virtual talks for large audiences of more than 10,000 attendees and has spoken for major corporations like IBM.


title: Zev Siegl

text: Siegl also mentors MBA candidates at the two large universities located in Seattle, The Foster School of Business at The University of Washington and The Albers School of Business and Economics at Seattle University, and he coaches selected first-time entrepreneurs.


title: Zev Siegl

text: Siegl lives in Seattle, Washington. He is married to an artist, Robin Siegl. She likes to paint boats in the Seattle harbor.


title: Lest we forget

text: "Lest we forget" is a phrase commonly used in war remembrance services and commemorative occasions in English speaking countries, specifically those connected to the British Empire. Before the term was used in reference to soldiers and war, it was first used in an 1897 Christian poem written by Rudyard Kipling called "Recessional", a poem written to commemorate Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee. The phrase occurs eight times; and is repeated at the end of the first four stanzas in order to add particular emphasis regarding the dangers of failing to remember.


title: Lest we forget

text: This Biblical quote is probably a direct source for the term in the 1897 poem. This is consistent with the main theme of the "Recessional" poem – that if a nation forgets the true source of its success (the "Lord God of Hosts" and His "ancient sacrifice" of "a humble and contrite heart") – its military or material possessions will be insufficient in times of war.


title: Lest we forget

text: The poem "Recessional" also appears as a common hymn at war remembrance services; and the phrase "Lest We Forget" can hence be sung.


title: Lest we forget

text: The phrase later passed into common usage after World War I across the British Commonwealth, especially becoming linked with Remembrance Day and Anzac Day observations; it became a plea not to forget past sacrifices, and was often found as the only wording on war memorials, or used as an epitaph.


title: Lest we forget

text: David Rieff, an American academic and the son of New York intellectual Susan Sontag, argues that to recall the past, as in the phrase "lest we forget", is a "far too celebrated" activity, implying we should not commemorate those who have fallen in war.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The Royal Small Arms Factory (RSAF) was a UK government-owned rifle factory in Enfield (though some parts were in Waltham Abbey), adjoining the Lee Navigation in the Lea Valley. The factory produced British military rifles, muskets and swords from 1816. It closed in 1988, but some of its work was transferred to other sites.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The factory designed and manufactured many famous British Army weapons including the Lee–Enfield rifles which were standard equipment during both World Wars.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The RSAF had its origins in a short-lived Royal Manufactory of Small Arms established in Lewisham in 1807. (The site in Lewisham was a mill where armour had been made since the fourteenth century; following its purchase by Henry VIII in 1530, it became known as the Royal Armoury Mills and served his armoury in Greenwich.) During the Napoleonic War, the increasing demand for large quantities of reliable weapons prompted the Board of Ordnance to look into building a new factory on a larger site.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The factory was to be located at Enfield Lock on a marshy island bordered by the River Lea and the Lee Navigation. The land was acquired in 1812 and the factory completed by 1816. The site had the advantages of water-power to drive the machinery and the River Lea Navigation for the transportation by barge of raw materials and finished weapons to the River Thames, 15 miles away to be loaded onto sailing ships. Neighbouring farmland was acquired to become a restricted area to test ordnance from the Royal Gunpowder Mill. The RSAF was originally all situated on the east side of the Lea, in the county of Essex in Waltham Abbey parish, Sewardstone hamlet. The course of the river was diverted during the life of the factory, and "part" of the site then fell in Enfield parish. Local boundary changes initiated by SI 1993/1141 after it closed transferred the site entirely from Epping Forest (district) to the London Borough of Enfield.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The original ambitious plans by Captain John By included three mills. Later, the engineer John Rennie recommended the construction of a navigable leat. The leat was made, although only one mill with two waterwheels was completed.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: In 1816 the barrel branch was transferred from Lewisham; and by 1818 the lock and finishing branches had been moved to the site, enabling the closure of the Lewisham factory. A sword-making department was set up in 1823.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The factory fought off the threat of closure in 1831; and remained quite modest in size until the Crimean War of 1853/1856, which resulted in vastly increased production.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: By 1856 a machine shop was built on American mass-production lines, using American machinery powered by steam engines. The shop was based on a design by Sir John Anderson and built by the Royal Engineers. The workforce increased to 1000, and by 1860 an average of 1,744 rifles were produced per week.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: In 1866 another major expansion took place, when the watermill gave way to steampower. The total number of steam engines grew to sixteen; and by 1887 there were 2,400 employees.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: On the liquidation of the National Arms and Ammunition Company in 1887 a number of workshops at Sparkbrook were purchased and named Royal Small Arms Factory, Sparkbrook. There were also repair operations in Birmingham. On 1 March 1893 there were 2,025 employees at Enfield and 664 at Sparkbrook, the Sparkbrook number having been reduced by ten per cent in the previous six months. The following year repair work was moved from Bagot Street to Sparkbrook but in 1905 manufacture at Sparkbrook was ended and the factory acquired by BSA in early 1906.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: Production of the new model rifle designed by James Paris Lee began in 1889. The famous Lee–Enfield rifle was designed in 1895.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The factory expanded again in World War I; and in World War II. Two other Royal Ordnance Factories were set up in World War II to manufacture rifles designed at RSAF Enfield, and hence to increase arms output in areas less vulnerable to bombing: ROF Fazakerley and ROF Maltby. Both of these have long been closed.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The Royal Small Arms Factory was privatised in 1984 along with a number of Royal Ordnance Factories to become part of Royal Ordnance Plc; and was later bought by British Aerospace (BAe). They closed the site in 1988.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The factory was set up because of disappointment with the poor quality and high cost of the existing British weapons used in the Napoleonic Wars. At this time in Britain, individual components were made mainly in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham by a number of independent manufacturers and then hand-assembled to produce muskets. These component makers eventually combined to become the Birmingham Small Arms Company. The Enfield factory was intended to improve the quality and to drive down costs.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: Almost all the weapons in which the Royal Small Arms Factory had a hand in design or production carry either the word Enfield or the letters EN in their name;


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The RSAF, Enfield, was famous for its Pattern Room which was a collection, or master set, of every weapon made at RSAF Enfield. After closure this collection was moved to ROF Nottingham; which has since closed. The collection is now held at the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: Local government boundary changes meant that the majority of the site was now within the London Borough of Enfield. The necessary outline planning permissions were obtained for site redevelopment; making closure of the site attractive to its new owners.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: Closure was announced on 12 August 1987, shortly after privatisation as Royal Ordnance, and the site closed in 1988; the machinery was auctioned off in November 1988. BAe then formed a joint venture with the property company Trafalgar House to redevelop the site.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: The majority of the site is now covered by a large housing development called Enfield Island Village. The original machine shop frontage and the older part of the rear structure has been retained and was converted into workshops and retail units by the Enfield Enterprise Agency, making use of European Union (ERDF) funding. The buildings also house the RSAF Interpretation centre which can be viewed by appointment only.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: "The Rifles" public house originally known as the "Royal Small Arms Tavern" was compulsorily purchased by the government at the time of the First World War. It closed down in 2004 after a large fire damaged the structure. The partially destroyed building is currently standing (2015). Other pubs which had been built for local works remain standing including The Greyhound just west of the River Lea and The Plough in Sewardstone.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: By 1895, the community had long had its own school (demolished), but it now also had a church (demolished in the 1920s), police station—with three sergeants and nine constables in 1902—and a fire brigade which was manned by one professional and 32 amateurs. Housing conditions in the mid 19th century were poor in the area. The extant Government Row a terrace of cottages was built between two watercourses to house some of the factory's workers. Several public houses were opened close to the complex including "The Royal Small Arms Tavern" renamed "Rifles" in the late 20th century, "The Greyhound", "Ordnance Arms" and "The Plough" and the latter two still survive (2021) and the brewers Truman & Hanbury became responsible for the catering within the factory.


title: Royal Small Arms Factory

text: There is still evidence of the factory to be found in the immediate area such as pill boxes, bridges and original buildings on the site such as the police house.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: J. Lyons & Co. was a British restaurant chain, food manufacturing, and hotel conglomerate founded in 1884 by Joseph Lyons and his brothers in law, Isidore and Montague Gluckstein. Lyons’ first teashop opened in Piccadilly, London in 1894, and from 1909 they developed into a chain of teashops, with the firm becoming a staple of the High Street in the UK. At its peak the chain numbered around 200 cafes. The teashops provided for tea and coffee, with food choices consisting of hot dishes and sweets, cold dishes and sweets, and buns, cakes and rolls.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: Making their first cakes and pastries in 1894, several Lyons cake products are still available on grocers' shelves, including Lyons treacle tart, Lyons Bakewell tart, Lyons Battenberg, and Lyons trifle sponges, which are sold by Premier Foods. The company is also known for its pioneering use of computers in the office.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: The company began as a collaboration between a group of entrepreneurs, the professional artist Joseph Lyons and his brothers in law, Isidore and Montague Gluckstein, as a spin off from the Salmon & Gluckstein tobacco company. In 1894 the company started a teashop in Piccadilly, London, and from 1909 developed this into a chain of teashops which would ultimately number around 200 locations. The company also ran high class restaurants, founding the Trocadero in 1895, and hotels including the Strand Palace, opened in 1909, the Regent Palace, opened in 1915, and the Cumberland Hotel, opened in 1933, all in London. In 1918, to increase sales in northern England, Lyons bought the old established tea company Horniman & Sons. From the 1930s Lyons began to develop a pioneering range of teas, biscuits and cakes that were sold in grocery stores across the world. Lyons was appointed to run the company, and it was named after him.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: J. Lyons & Co. was a pioneer in introducing computers to business. Between 1951 and 1963, the company manufactured and sold a range of LEO (Lyons Electronic Office) computers.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: The company was a substantial food manufacturer, with factories at Cadby Hall in Hammersmith, and from 1921 at Greenford, producing bread, cakes, pies, tea, coffee and ice cream. Lyons branded cakes included treacle tarts, Lyons Bakewell tart, Lyons Battenberg, and Lyons trifle sponges.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: To the public, J. Lyons & Co. were best known for their chain of teashops which opened from 1894 and finally closed in 1981, and for the Lyons Corner Houses in the West End of London. The teashops provided for tea and coffee, with hot dishes and sweets, cold dishes and sweets, and buns, cakes and rolls. Lyons’ teashops were slightly more up market than their ABC (Aerated Bread Company) competitors. They were notable for their interior design, from the 1920s Oliver P. Bernard being consultant artistic director. Until the 1940s they had a certain working-class chic, but by the 1950s and 1960s they were quick stops for busy shoppers where one could drink a cup of tea and eat a snack or an inexpensive meal. The teashops always had a bakery counter at the front, and their signs, art nouveau gold lettering on white, were a familiar landmark. Before the Second World War service was to the table by uniformed waitresses, known as 'Nippies', after the war the teashops converted to cafeteria service.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: Lyons' Corner Houses, which first appeared in 1909 and remained until 1977, were noted for their art deco style. Situated on or near the corners of Coventry Street, Strand and Tottenham Court Road, they and the Maison Lyonses at Marble Arch and in Shaftesbury Avenue were large buildings on four or five floors, the ground floor of which was a food hall with counters for delicatessen, sweets and chocolates, cakes, fruit, flowers and other products. In addition, they possessed hairdressing salons, telephone booths, theatre booking agencies and at one period a twice-a-day food delivery service. On the other floors were several restaurants, each with a different theme and all with their own musicians. For a time the Corner Houses were open 24 hours a day, and at their peak each branch employed around 400 staff. They featured window displays, and, in the post-war period, the Corner Houses were smarter and grander than the local tea shops. Between 1896 and 1965 Lyons owned the Trocadero, which was similar in size and style to the Corner Houses.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: As well as the tea shops and Corner Houses, Lyons ran other large restaurants such as the Angel Cafe Restaurant in Islington and the Throgmorton in Throgmorton Street in the City of London. Its chains have included Steak Houses (1961–1988), Wimpy Bars (1953–1976), Baskin-Robbins (1974–present) and Dunkin' Donuts (1989–present). The artist Kay Lipton designed all the windows for the Corner Houses under the jurisdiction of Norman Joseph, the director post-war.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: The Regent Palace Hotel, Glasshouse Street, London was operated by Strand Hotels Limited, a subsidiary of J. Lyons and Company and opened on 16 May 1915. Strand Hotels also operated the Cumberland Hotel (Marble Arch, London), Kingsley Hotel, Park Court Hotel, Windsor Hotel, White's Hotel and the Strand Palace Hotel after the inception of Strand Hotels Limited. The last London hotel that they operated until the demise of the group in the mid-1970s was the Tower Hotel situated by Tower Bridge in London.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: In 1938, Lyons purchased the Bee Bee Biscuit Company, which manufactured biscuits from its factories in Blackpool. Six years later, Lyons changed the company's name to Symbol Biscuits Ltd. and began selling biscuits under the Symbol and Lyons brand names: one of their innovations was Maryland Cookies in 1956. In 1990, Lyons changed the Symbol Biscuits name to Lyons Biscuits Ltd.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: The rearmament period just before World War II saw a big expansion in the number of Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs), which were British government-owned. However, due to shortages of management resources some ROFs were run as agency factories; and J. Lyons and Co. ran at least one, ROF Elstow. The management and stock control systems needed in the ROFs, in respect of control of raw materials and "perishable" finished products, were somewhat similar to those used in the catering business; and J. Lyons was ideally suited to this task. They do not appear to have any involvement in managing these after 1945, when the ROFs started to run down.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten were offered many cakes from well-wishers around the world for their wedding on 20 November 1947. Of these they accepted only 12, including one from J. Lyons and Co.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: They created a three-tiered cake, mounted on a silver stand, made by F E Jacobs, chief decorator of J Lyons’ Ornamental Department. It stood 1.8 metres high and weighed 63 kg. The first and second tiers featured specially commissioned 10 cm blue and white Wedgewood Jasper vases set in alcoves behind silver pillars, with smaller vases on the third tier. The cake’s panels depicted Princess Elizabeth’s coat of arms, the couple’s initials and a Naval crown. Atop the third tier sat a larger Jasper vase, filled with fresh flowers and trailing orange blossom.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: The top management of Lyons, with its background in the use of mechanical adding machines, saw the necessity of new electrical computers for organising the distribution of cakes and other highly perishable goods. They, therefore, substantially financed the University of Cambridge's Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) which was the second electronic digital stored-program computer to go into regular service, and built their own programmable digital computers and became the first user of these in businesses, with the LEO I digital computer: the "Lyons Electronic Office I", designed and built by Dr John Pinkerton under the leadership of John Simmons. It handled the company's accounts and logistics. Lyons also included the weather forecast to ensure goods carried by their "fresh produce" delivery vans were not wasted in large quantities. Google chairman Eric Schmidt called this "the world's first office computer", built in 1951. A subsidiary LEO Computers Ltd was formed in 1954 and went on to build 11 Leo II and 94 Leo III computers that were sold worldwide.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: One of the ardent users of LEO computers was the General Post Office (GPO), who bought them in the mid/late 1960s to produce telephone bills. They were kept going until 1981, helped by buying other companies' redundant machines and using them for spare parts.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: The company was losing money in the 1960s but remained under the control of the Salmon family, descended from a founding partner. Lyons began to close some of its London tea shops and hotels; in 1963 it also merged its LEO Computers business with English Electric's computer interests to form the jointly owned English Electric LEO.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: In 1964, Lyons sold their half-stake; and English Electric merged the company with Marconi's computer interests to form English Electric LEO Marconi Computers. A continuing problem in the British computer industry was both lack of investment capital and competition with the much larger U.S. computer companies, such as IBM. English Electric LEO Marconi Computers merged with other companies to form International Computers Limited (ICL) which was bought by Fujitsu in 1990.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: In 1978, Lyons was acquired by Allied Breweries and became part of the resulting Allied Lyons. It fell on hard economic times in the late 1980s; and was sold, eventually being broken up with its ice cream and ice lolly products, which were branded as Lyons Maid, being sold to Nestlé. Other parts that were sold off included Lyons Cakes (sold to RHM and ending up as part of their Manor Bakeries subsidiary which also makes Mr Kipling's Cakes) and Ready Brek cereal (ending up being owned by Weetabix Limited). At the end of 1994, Lyons sold Lyons Biscuits to Hillsdown Holdings, which later sold it to a U.S. investment firm which subsequently sold it to British biscuit manufacturer Burton's Foods. Lyons’ cake products, such as Bakewell tart and Battenberg, are owned by Premier Foods.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: The J. Lyons & Co. papers are now stored in the London Metropolitan Archives. The niece and nephew of the Gluckstein brothers were Hannah Gluckstein, a painter; and Louis Gluckstein, a Conservative politician. A descendant of the Salmon side of the original partnership is Nigella Lawson.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher worked as a chemist for the company prior to becoming a barrister and then a Conservative Party MP. While working for the company she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream.


title: J. Lyons and Co.

text: Peter Bird began work operating the LEO computer and rose to be a director of Lyons Computer Services. He later wrote a history of the company and its computers.


title: Haren Pandya

text: Haren Pandya was the Home Minister of Gujarat in India. He was murdered in 2003 in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, when he was sitting in his car (the place of his murder is contentious), after a morning walk in the Law Garden area in Ahmedabad.


title: Haren Pandya

text: Haren Pandya represented the Ellis Bridge constituency of Ahmedabad City as a Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) legislator. He was a member of the RSS from his early age and was also a Municipal Councillor from the Paldi Area of Ahmedabad City. Pandya was a strong supporter of Keshubhai Patel, and in 1998, after the BJP came to power in Gujarat with Keshubhai as Chief Minister, Pandya was made Home Minister. He was appointed Minister of State for revenue after Narendra Modi took over as the Chief Minister; however, he resigned from the post in August 2002. Fearing that he would be denied a ticket for the 2002 assembly elections, he withdrew from the electoral fray. Later, he was appointed to BJP's national executive.


title: Haren Pandya

text: Pandya's wife Jagruti Pandya contested on a Gujarat Parivartan Party ticket in 2012 on the premise that the Modi Government was involved in the conspiracy to murder her husband. She was quoted, "My husband's assassination was a political murder. For the last 10 years, I have been fighting a legal battle to get him justice but in vain, however, I will continue to fight". "I have never made any personal allegations, never named anybody. So I have no personal issues with Narendra Modi or Amit Shah. I just questioned the manner in which the probe was conducted," she said.


title: Haren Pandya

text: After the Godhra riots, it was reported that in a cabinet meeting, Pandya had opposed the bringing of bodies of the victims to Ahmedabad because that would arouse passion. He was the only person able to arrange meetings between victims' family members and Muslim leaders for peace talks, but he was shouted down at the meeting by some ministers.


title: Haren Pandya

text: In November 2007, Outlook reported that Pandya had revealed to the magazine in May 2002 that on the night of 27 February 2002 Narendra Modi had held a meeting in his residence, in which he instructed the attending bureaucrats and police officers to allow "people to vent their frustration and not come in the way of the Hindu backlash." Pandya had disclosed this information on condition of confidentiality. On 19 August 2002, Pandya again spoke to the magazine, according to Outlook, and reiterated what he had said earlier, with the additional comment that if his identity as the source of this information were to be revealed, then he would be killed. The second conversation with Pandya was recorded by the magazine.


title: Haren Pandya

text: It has also been revealed that Pandya had testified before "The Concerned Citizens Tribunal on 2002 Gujarat riots". Referring to Pandya's testimony, the tribunal's report says:


title: Haren Pandya

text: Hosbet Suresh, who was a member of the tribunal, testified before the tribunal and a recording of Pandya's testimony before the tribunal exists.


title: Haren Pandya

text: On 26 March 2003, at about 7:40 am, Pandya was killed by two unidentified assailants who shot five bullets at him when he had just finished his morning walk in the Law Gardens in Ahmedabad. His body lay in his car for two hours. Pandya's family started worrying when he did not return home and sent his personal assistant Nilesh Bhatt to check on him. Bhatt found him lying dead in his car.


title: Haren Pandya

text: In 2007, a special POTA court had sentenced the main accused from Hyderabad, Asgar Ali, to life imprisonment, while handing out life imprisonment to seven others, 10-year jail term to two and five years imprisonment to one. They were all held guilty of murder and conspiracy to spread terror in the case of Pandya's murder and attempted murder charges in the case of VHP leader Jagdish Tiwari.


title: Haren Pandya

text: A lot of controversy followed his murder and top BJP Leaders such as Chief Minister Narendra Modi and the then Deputy Prime Minister of India Lal Krishna Advani were under intense criticism from within the Sangh Pariwar and general public for sidelining Haren Pandya, and not providing him proper security despite threats to his life, and his request for security cover. IPS officer Sanjiv Bhatt had even alerted Pandya about a threat to his life, and even spoke out about Pandya to the Special Investigation Team probing the Godhra riots.


title: Haren Pandya

text: On 29 August 2011, all the 12 people accused of murdering Pandya were acquitted of the murder charges by the Gujarat High Court, but other charges including criminal conspiracy and attempt to murder were retained. The high court called the CBI's work a "botched up and blinkered" investigation.


title: Haren Pandya

text: In July 2019, the Supreme Court in its final verdict reversed the decision of the Gujarat High Court and convicted 12 persons of the killing of Haren Pandya.


title: Haren Pandya

text: An NGO named Centre for Public Interest Litigation (CPIL), on the basis of statements of a witness in Sohrabuddin Sheikh case and allegations made on the then Gujarat government in a book named "Gujarat Files" by journalist Rana Ayyub had sought re-investigation in Haren Pandya murder case. The court rejected the NGO's plea for further probe in the case, and as contempt of court, slammed Rs. 50,000 fine to the NGO. The bench said "Gujarat Files" can not be projected as conclusive evidence as it is based upon one's individual surmises, conjectures, and suppositions.


title: Haren Pandya

text: In August 2011, DNA magazine reported that Sohrabuddin Sheikh, a criminal who had earlier been killed by the Gujarat police in an encounter, and his associate Tulsiram Prajapati may have been "used to kill Haren Pandya". Citing unnamed sources in the Gujarat State Police, the report said that Sohrabuddin was initially given the task, but he back-pedalled and the murder was then executed by Tulsiram. In the encounter killings of Sohrabuddin and Tulsiram, the Gujarat state attorney K.T.S Tulsi admitted before the court that these individuals were killed by the state police.