title: British sitcom

text: Ray Galton and Alan Simpson (1930–2018 and 1929–2017) wrote together for over 50 years; their most famous series were "Hancock's Half Hour" and "Steptoe and Son". Some of their scripts for Hancock almost repudiated a narrative structure altogether and attempted to reproduce an everyday environment with the intention of also reproducing its comedy. Both the character played by Tony Hancock in "Hancock's Half Hour", and Harold Steptoe, played by Harry H. Corbett, were pretentious would-be intellectuals who found themselves trapped by the squalor of their lives. The Galton and Simpson comedies were often characterised by a bleak and somewhat fatalistic tone. "Steptoe and Son" in particular was at times an example of black comedy, and close in tone to Social realism drama.


title: British sitcom

text: Chesney and Wolfe was a prolific comedy scriptwriting team of Ronald Chesney and Ronald Wolfe whose partnership contributed significantly to the genre of British sitcoms. Spanning the years from the mid-1950s to 1989, among their best shows are "The Rag Trade" starring Dame Barbara Windsor ("Carry On" films) with Dame Penelope Keith ("The Good Life" and "To the Manor Born"), who also starred again together in "Wild, Wild Women" with an all-star cast and Anna Karen who later starred in Chesney and Wolfe's "On the Buses". These were workplace shows with sexist and humorously indecent comedy that obtained very high viewer ratings but were not well received by TV critics. Their other credits include "Meet the Wife", an episode of "'Allo 'Allo!" (1989), and "Watch This Space" in 1980 which was less of a success. Their shows featured many of the regular actors from award-winning comedy shows and films and including among many others, DameThora Hird - a household name and a British institution, Ian Lavender ("Dad's Army"), Reg Varney ("On the Buses"), Sheila Hancock ("Mr Digby Darling"), Prunella Scales ("Fawlty Towers"), Peter Jones (actor), Their 1971 spin-off film, "On the Buses", the first of the three based on the TV series, was the highest British box-office earner of that year.


title: British sitcom

text: Jeremy Lloyd, OBE (1930–2014) co-wrote "Are You Being Served?" and "Allo Allo!"; his sitcoms have been called "the essence of Britishness". "Are You Being Served?" was based partly on his own experiences of working in a London department store as a suit salesman. Its success gave rise a spin-off, "Grace and Favour", which was a collaboration with David Croft.


title: British sitcom

text: During 1970 Lloyd was briefly married to actress, presenter and producer Joanna Lumley ("Absolutely Fabulous") with whom he starred in the sitcom "It's Awfully Bad for Your Eyes, Darling". Lloyd was appointed an OBE in 2013.


title: British sitcom

text: John Howard Davies (1939–2011) joined the BBC as a production assistant in 1966, and became a television director and producer specializing in comedy. In 1978 he became the head of comedy, and in 1982 the head of light entertainment. For four decades, he was a major influence as commissioning producer on shows such as "Fawlty Towers" by John Cleese and Connie Booth, Galton and Simpson's "Steptoe and Son," "All Gas and Gaiters", "The Goodies", and "The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin". Davies was also the producer of all four seasons of "The Good Life". When asked what the best formula for a sitcom is, he replied "All the best sitcom characters are relentlessly horrible."


title: British sitcom

text: Brian Cooke and Johnnie Mortimer were a comedy writing duo whose career began in radio with the critically acclaimed "Round the Horne" of 1968, and its sequel "Stop Messing About" created as a vehicle for Kenneth Williams of Carry On fame. Together they penned many of the 1970s popular TV sitcoms often featuring well known comedy actors such as Paul Eddington of "The Good Life" and "Yes Minister", Patrick Cargill ("Father, Dear Father"); Richard O'Sullivan, Yootha Joyce, and Brian Murphy of "Man About the House "; Peter Butterworth (Carry On), Peter Jones, Beryl Reid, Roy Kinnear, Joan Sanderson. Independently, Cooke created "Tripper's Day" featuring Leonard Rossiter of "The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin" and Eric Chappell's highly successful "Rising Damp". On his own, Mortimer wrote "Never the Twain" starring Donald Sinden ("Two's Company") and Windsor Davies ("It Ain't Half Hot Mum").


title: British sitcom

text: Rhodes wrote the title music for "The Good Life". He was a successful light entertainment composer and musical director including his arrangements for comedienne Beryl Reid's 1968-67 "Beryl Reid Says Good Evening". He collaborated with many stars including Judy Garland, Pearl Bailey, Sammy Davis Jr., Vic Damone and Bruce Forsyth. Rhodes was often referred to as "the musicians' musician", counting musicians such as Ronnie Hazlehurst, Monty Norman and Phil Phillips among his friends. In 1958 he scored the theme for "Dr No", the first James Bond film.


title: British sitcom

text: A prolific composer for sitcoms, comedy productions, game shows and other programmes, Hazlehurst joined the BBC in 1961, and became a staff arranger; his early works included the incidental music for "The Likely Lads" and "The Liver Birds". In 1968 he became the Light Entertainment Musical Director and composed the theme tunes of many sitcoms, including "Are You Being Served?", "Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em", "Last of the Summer Wine" (where he also wrote all the instrumental music for the show), "I Didn't Know You Cared", "The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin", "To the Manor Born", "Yes Minister" and "Yes, Prime Minister", "Just Good Friends" and "Three Up, Two Down". He also arranged the themes for "Butterflies", "Sorry!" and the first series of "Only Fools and Horses".


title: British sitcom

text: Russell wrote the music for "On the Buses" and the children's programme "The Herbs". He studied composition with Richard Rodney Bennett and Bill Russo. He was in Russo's London Jazz Orchestra and took over running this when Russo returned to the United States in 1965. He later became a busy composer and wrote the score of the musical "The Matchgirls".


title: British sitcom

text: The title music for "Keeping Up Appearances" was written by Nick Ingman, a visiting professor at the London College of Music. His collaborators include Paul McCartney, Mick Jagger, Björk, and "The X Factor". His arrangements have accounted for fourteen No. 1 singles and five double platinum albums in the UK and he has been nominated for a Grammy three times.


title: British sitcom

text: Dudley composed the title and incidental music for "Jeeves and Wooster". She is a composer, keyboardist, conductor and pop musician, winning many awards including an Oscar for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score for the comedy film "The Full Monty". Dudley was the first BBC Concert Orchestra's Composer in Association in 2001, and has composed the scores for over twenty other films.


title: British sitcom

text: The title themes for "The Vicar of Dibley", "Blackadder", "Red Dwarf" and "Mr. Bean" are among Howard Goodall's most memorable melodies. He also presents music-based programmes on television and radio, for which he has won many awards. In 2008, he was named as a presenter and Composer-in-Residence at the British radio station Classic FM. In 2009, he was named "Composer of the Year" at the Classic Brit Awards.


title: British sitcom

text: By 2020, at least 45 British sitcoms had been adapted into over 50 feature films; the first of the three "On the Buses" films was the biggest hit at the British box office in 1971. However, they were not always critical successes. In a review of "Are You Being Served?", Michael Stailey of "DVD Verdict" regarded the 1977 film as "guilty of violating almost every law of comedy and film." John Pym of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" also gave the film a negative review, stating that "The humour consists mainly of a withering selection of patent British puns; an inflatable brassiere, some let's-insult-the-Germans jokes and a rickety thunder-box which bolts from the outside are thrown in for good measure." The film holds a 58% positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes; the cutoff for a positive rating is 59%. Moreover, as with the series they were based on, some films have been criticised for not meeting contemporary levels of political correctness.


title: British sitcom

text: British sitcoms reflect changes in public opinion and culture through the times. They began at a time in which, for example, "class and ethnic prejudices were challenged and mocked". They heavily featured slapstick humour and offensive slurs. Series such as "Love Thy Neighbour" (1972–76), and "Mind Your Language" (1977–79, 1986), which attempted to find humour in racial or ethnic conflict and misunderstandings, have been increasingly criticised over time. Speight, the creator of "Love Thy Neighbour", defended its depiction of the central character Alf Garnett, saying: "If you do the character correctly, he just typifies what you hear - not only in pubs but in golf clubs around the country. To make him truthful he's got to say those things, and they are nasty things. But I feel as a writer that they should be out in the open so we can see how daft these comparisons are."


title: British sitcom

text: The contemporary "It Ain't Half Hot Mum" has also been criticised for racism, homophobia, and whitewashing its cast. The writer, Jimmy Perry, defended it saying those elements were true to life. Meanwhile, "Whack-O!", a 1960s series set in a private school, has been described as "a little painful" to watch today for its depictions of caning. Even "Fawlty Towers", considered one of the best sitcoms of all time, has been criticised for its cruelty.


title: British sitcom

text: In 2005, a group of scientists led by Dr. Helen Pilcher was commissioned by the satellite channel UKTV Gold to study 20 years of British sitcoms. Using the medical drama "Casualty" as a control, the team came up with a formula for measuring the success or failure of sitcoms. This formula assessed the recognisability of the main character and their delusions of grandeur, the wittiness of the script, the physical injuries the cast suffer and their differences in social statues, and the success of any plans. There was a maximum score of 1120, and "Casualty" scored 5.5. The top shows and their scores were "Only Fools and Horses" (which scored 696), "The Office" (678), "Father Ted" (564), "Fawlty Towers" (557), and "Blackadder" (374.5).


title: British sitcom

text: British sitcoms are often seen on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), usually thanks to the effort of WGBH, and increasingly on cable television, including BBC America and Comedy Central. "Are You Being Served?", "Keeping Up Appearances" and "As Time Goes By" became sleeper hits when they aired on PBS, while "Absolutely Fabulous" enjoyed a significant following when it aired on Comedy Central and "The Office" won a Golden Globe award in 2004 for "Best Television Series—Musical or Comedy", surpassing American series such as "Sex and the City" and "Will & Grace".


title: British sitcom

text: Several British sitcoms have been successfully remade for the American market. Notable examples include "Steptoe and Son" which became "Sanford and Son", "Till Death Us Do Part", which became "All in the Family", and "The Office" which was remade into an American series of the same name. "Three's Company", a remake of "Man About the House", had its own spinoffs: "The Ropers", based on "George and Mildred", and "Three's a Crowd", based on "Robin's Nest". Other American remakes of British sitcoms include "What a Country!", based on "Mind Your Language". More recently, shows such as "The Inbetweeners" was adapted into an American version, as was "The Thick of It" as "Veep". A large number of US adaptations end up being cancelled early or are not commissioned after their pilots are created. Another notable difference, which can be both positive or negative depending upon the skill of the cast and writers, is the American media culture of 20 or more episodes in a season, as opposed to the British tendency to have fewer than 10 episodes per series.


title: British sitcom

text: In Australia, many British comedy series are aired on the ABC, which is the Australian equivalent of the BBC. British shows are also sometimes shown on the three commercial television networks in Australia, especially Seven Network during the 1970s. In New Zealand, state-run TVNZ also broadcasts many British series. The majority of British comedies now air in both countries on the subscription channels The Comedy Channel and UKTV.


title: British sitcom

text: Australian commercial television channels made their own versions of British comedies during the 1970s, often using members of the original casts. These included: "Are You Being Served?", "Father, Dear Father", "Doctor Down Under", "Love Thy Neighbour in Australia". In both countries, locally produced sitcoms have historically been heavily influenced by the structure of British sitcoms, such as in the New Zealand sitcom "Gliding On".


title: British sitcom

text: In the 1980s, India's national broadcaster Doordarshan showed "Fawlty Towers", "Yes Minister" and "Mind Your Language".


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Bharrat Jagdeo (born 23 January 1964) is a Guyanese politician who has been serving as Vice President of Guyana since 2020, in the administration of President Irfaan Ali. He had previously also held the office from 1997 until 1999, during the presidency of Janet Jagan. Jagdeo subsequently served as the President of Guyana from 11 August 1999 to 3 December 2011. He also holds a number of global leadership positions in the areas of sustainable development, green growth and climate change.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo, a member of the People's Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C), served as Minister of Finance from 1995 to 1999, becoming president in 1999 after Janet Jagan resigned for health reasons. Subsequently, he won two elections, in 2001 and 2006. He was the first President of Guyana to relinquish office in accordance with term limits he signed into the Guyanese Constitution.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Following the PPP/C's electoral defeat in 2015 Jagdeo became Leader of the Opposition in the National Assembly. Furthermore, when the PPP/C returned to power in 2020, Jagdeo was sworn in as a vice president in the administration of president Irfaan Ali. Vice News alleged that it had uncovered corruption by Jagdeo and several Chinese businessmen. These allegations were rejected by Jagdeo who pointed out instead, that the Vice News documentary failed to provide irrefutable evidence to substantiate its claims and it mostly relied on hearsay and comments by Chinese Businessman, Su Zhi Rong against whom he has filed a defamation lawsuit.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo was born in Unity Village in Demerara-Mahaica, in then British Guiana in 1964 to Hindu Indian parents. In 1912, his grandfather, Ram Jiyawan had immigrated under the Indian indenture system to British Guiana from the village of Pure Thakurain in the Amethi district of the Awadh region of the United Provinces in British India (present-day state of Uttar Pradesh in India). Jagdeo joined the youth wing of the People's Progressive Party (PPP), the Progressive Youth Organisation, when he was 13, and became a member of the PPP itself at age 16. He subsequently rose to local leadership positions in the party.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: He attended Bygeval Multilateral High School before migrating to Russia in 1984 for higher studies. After obtaining a master's degree in economics from Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University in Moscow in 1990, Jagdeo returned to Guyana and worked as an economist in the State Planning Secretariat until the PPP-Civic election victory in the October 1992 election. After this he became Special Advisor to the Minister of Finance.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo was appointed as Junior Minister of Finance in October 1993, and a few weeks later, at the PPP's 24th Congress, he was elected to the party's Central Committee. He later became a member of the executive committee of the PPP. In the Cabinet, he was promoted to Senior Minister of Finance in May 1995. In December 1997, he was appointed as the Second Vice President.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: On 8 August 1999, Janet Jagan announced that she was resigning as president for health reasons, and that Jagdeo would be her successor. Because the Prime Minister is the President's legal successor, Jagdeo took office as Prime Minister on 9 August, so that he would be positioned to succeed Jagan. He was then sworn in as president on 11 August. At age 35, he was one of the youngest heads of state in the world.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo was re-elected for another five-year term on 28 August 2006, with the PPP garnering 54.6 percent of the votes. It expanded its majority, by two, to 36 seats in the 65-member parliament. He was sworn in for another term on 2 September.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: At the PPP's 29th Congress, Jagdeo received the highest number of votes (777) in the election to the party's Central Committee, held on 2 August 2008. He was then elected to the PPP Executive Committee on 12 August 2008.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In late 2011, his term of office officially came to an end as a result of the term limit amendment to the Constitution, piloted by his government, and signed into law by himself, which created a two-term limit for anyone elected president after 2000. He was succeeded by PPP/C presidential candidate Donald Ramotar, who was elected president in the 28 November 2011 general elections. Under the Constitution, President Jagdeo's term officially ended on 3 December 2011, when Ramotar took the presidential oath of office.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: During Jagdeo's tenure as president, major economic and social reforms were initiated in Guyana. When he relinquished office, Guyana had experienced five consecutive years of strong economic growth, often out-pacing other South American countries. External debt had been almost halved, and reserves had almost tripled compared to the 2006 situation. During the Presidency, investments had been made in social services which resulted in improved access to education. The housing sector saw its biggest expansion in its history. Road, river and air transport infrastructure were improved.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In 2003, in his role as Lead Head of Government for Agriculture in the Caribbean Community, Jagdeo spearheaded a process (known as the "Jagdeo Initiative") to create a more competitive and sustainable agricultural sector in the region by 2015.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In his final term as president, President Jagdeo became a global advocate for international action to avert the worst extremes of climate change, and was described by the Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Rajendra K. Pachauri, as "one of perhaps half a dozen Heads of Government who truly understands the issue". In line with the President's global advocacy, Guyana's Low Carbon Development Strategy sets out a national scale, replicable model to protect Guyana's 18 million hectare forest, to address the 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions that result from deforestation and forest degradation, and re-orient the Guyanese economy onto a long-term "low deforestation, low carbon, climate resilient trajectory".


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: As part of building this global model, Norway is partnering with Guyana to provide up to US$250 million, by 2015, for avoided greenhouse gas emissions from Guyana's forest. Guyana is using these payments and domestic resources to attract private investment to opportunities in clean energy and new low carbon economic sectors, as well as to make significant public investments in other social and economic priorities. This has been described by the Climate & Development Knowledge Network, the UK-based climate policy network, as "maybe the most progressive low carbon development strategy in a low income country."


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo was a signatory to The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations in May, 2008. Guyana has ratified the treaty. In November 2009, Jagdeo hosted the Heads of Government of South America in Georgetown, at his one-year anniversary of the Pro Tempore Presidency of UNASUR.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: On 26 November 2011, Jagdeo made a far-reaching farewell address ahead of the nation's elections on 28 November 2011. He spoke of accomplishments, such as the economy and defense issues, and emphasised his optimism in the future of Guyana.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In June 2020, Vice News conducted a six-week investigation into allegations of bribery, greenwashing and corruption against Jagdeo. Specifically, their report focused on the relationship between Jagdeo and Chinese investment in mining and energy projects that were at odds with the nation's and Jagdeo's pledges to address the Climate crisis and Biodiversity crisis. The documentary investigation showed undercover footage of Mr Jagdeo seeming to accept bribes although without wanting to know the details of the deal which he was entering, with Su Zhi Rong dealing with the particularities.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In an interview with Vice News and several national papers, Jagdeo rejected allegations of corruption and claimed instead that the Vice News documentary failed to provide first-hand evidence of corrupt transactions as it mostly relied on hear-say and comments by Chinese Businessman, Su Zhi Rong against whom he has filed a defamation lawsuit.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo has been conferred with honorary doctorates of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, TERI University, the University of Central Lancashire and Trent University.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In April 2013, Jagdeo was conferred with the highest honour of the State of Roraima, Brazil, the Order of Merit 'Forte Sao Joaquim'.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In 2004 he received the Pravasi Bharatiya Samman from the President of India in the field of Public affairs.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: President Jagdeo was elected as chairman of the Board of Governors of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank in September 2005. He occupied this position until September 2006.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: "Time" magazine named Jagdeo as one of their "Heroes of the Environment" in 2008, and he was awarded the United Nations "Champion of the Earth" award in 2010.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In early 2010, the Secretary General of the United Nations asked Jagdeo to serve on the Secretary General's High Level Advisory Group on Climate Financing.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In 2011, Heads of State and other leaders from the world's rainforest countries asked him to be "Roving Ambassador for the Three Basins" (Amazon, Congo Basin, South East Asia).


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In March 2012, the world's largest and oldest environmental organisation, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), announced that President Jagdeo would become the IUCN High Level Envoy for Sustainable Development in Forest Countries and an IUCN Patron of Nature.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo is also the President of the Assembly of the Korea-based Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI), having been a Founding Board Member of GGGI since 2010. GGGI is the world's newest international organization, and has 20 Member States.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In June 2013, Commonwealth Secretary-General Kamalesh Sharma announced that former President Jagdeo would lead a high-level team of experts to identify solutions for unlocking resources to enable small, poor and climate-vulnerable Commonwealth countries to combat climate change. The former president was joined by eight others to create a set of recommendations for the international community to help identify practical solutions for those countries most vulnerable to climate change. Jagdeo presented the report to the 53 Heads of Government and other leaders of the Commonwealth, representing about a fifth of the world's population at the 2014 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Colombo, Sri Lanka.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo travelled from the 2015 CHOGM to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change summit in Warsaw where he spoke of the outcomes of CHOGM and the need for continued leadership from Prime Ministers and Presidents. In a major speech in Warsaw, he stated: "In the next 24 months much progress needs to be made if we are going to have a climate agreement. We can still stop the absolute worst extremes of climate change, and start the massive shift towards global low carbon development... The world tried to do this in 2009 at Copenhagen, and failed. As a consequence, more people will die, more livelihoods will be destroyed, more economies will suffer and the cost of action has gone up steadily...If we fail again in 2015, the damage and the costs will become truly unmanageable...Future generations will ask: how could we be so selfish not once, but twice?"


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In March 2013, the ACP Council of Ministers inaugurated a 14-member Eminent Persons Group (EPG) whose mission will be to provide guidance and concrete recommendations for the future of the ACP Group. The 14 members of the group who met in Brussels designated the former Nigerian President, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, as their chairperson, with Jagdeo designated as one of two Vice Chairs.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Jagdeo has been a guest lecturer at Columbia University (New York City, USA), York University (Toronto, Canada), Trent University (Peterborough, Canada), the University of Toronto, United Nations University (Tokyo, Japan), and the University of the West Indies. He has also taken part in Trent University's Carbon Conversation, focusing on the need to de-carbonize the global economy.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: Following the PPP's defeat in the May 2015 general election, Jagdeo was included in the list of the PPP's 32 MPs. He was sworn in as Leader of the Opposition in the National Assembly on 17 August 2015.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: In March 2020, the PPP won the 2020 Guyanese general election, but an attempt was made by the incumbent APNU+AFC government to stay in power illegally. Jagdeo was to the fore of domestic and international efforts to protect the democratic process, and see a peaceful transition of power. The support of the US Government (who placed sanctions on several members of the incumbent Government), and others, resulted in the swearing in of Irfaan Ali as president.


title: Bharrat Jagdeo

text: After the PPP regained the presidency, President Ali swore in Jagdeo as the first Vice President on 3 August 2020. Jagdeo also shortly held the position of Minister of Finance until Ashni Singh was appointed the minister.


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin ( ) is a POSIX-compatible programming and runtime environment that runs natively on Microsoft Windows. Under Cygwin, source code designed for Unix-like operating systems may be compiled with minimal modification and executed.


title: Cygwin

text: The Cygwin installation has a directory layout that is similar to the root file system of Unix-like systems, with familiar directories, such as /bin, /home, /etc, /usr, and /var. Cygwin installs with hundreds of command-line tools and other programs commonly found on a Unix-like system. Additionally, many applications may be installed from a packaging system. The terminal emulator Mintty is the default command-line interface provided to interact with the environment.


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin provides native integration of Windows-based applications. Thus it is possible to launch Windows applications from the Cygwin environment, as well as to use Cygwin tools and applications within the Windows operating context.


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin consists of two parts: a dynamic-link library (DLL) as an API compatibility layer in the form of a C standard library providing a substantial part of the POSIX API functionality, and an extensive collection of software tools and applications that provide a Unix-like look and feel.


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin is free and open-source software, released under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3. It was originally developed by Cygnus Solutions, which was later acquired by Red Hat (now part of IBM), to port the Linux toolchain to Win32, including the GNU Compiler Suite. Rather than rewrite the tools to use the Win32 runtime environment, Cygwin implemented a POSIX-compatible environment in the form of a dynamic-link library (DLL).


title: Cygwin

text: The Cygwin environment is provided in two versions; the full 64-bit version and a stripped down 32-bit version that is slowly being phased out. Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call API in terms of Windows system calls to enable running of a large number of application programs equivalent to those on Unix systems, and a GNU development toolchain (including GCC and GDB) to allow software development. Programmers have ported many Unix, GNU, BSD and Linux programs and packages to Cygwin, including the X Window System, K Desktop Environment 3, GNOME, Apache, and TeX. Cygwin permits installing inetd, syslogd, sshd, Apache, and other daemons as standard Windows services, allowing Microsoft Windows systems to emulate Unix and Linux servers.


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin programs are installed by running Cygwin's "setup" program, which downloads the necessary program and feature package files from repositories on the Internet. As mentioned, there are two versions of this setup program, one for 32-bit versions of the Cygwin DLL, and corresponding applications, and one for 64-bit versions. Setup can install, update, and remove programs and their source code packages. A complete installation will take in excess of 90 GB of hard disk space, but usable configurations may require as little as 1 or 2 GB.


title: Cygwin

text: The version of gcc that comes with Cygwin has various extensions for creating Windows DLLs, specifying whether a program is a windowing or console-mode program, adding resources, etc. Support for compiling programs that do not require the POSIX compatibility layer provided by the Cygwin DLL used to be included in the default codice_13, but is provided by cross-compilers contributed by the MinGW-w64 project.


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin is used heavily for porting many popular pieces of software to the Windows platform. It is used to compile Sun Java, LibreOffice, and even web server software like Lighttpd and Hiawatha.


title: Cygwin

text: The Cygwin API library is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License version 3 (or later) with an exception to allow linking to any free and open-source software whose license conforms to the Open Source Definition (less strict than the Free Software Definition).


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin began in 1995 as a project of Steve Chamberlain, a Cygnus engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used COFF as their object file format, and that GNU already included support for x86 and COFF, and the C library newlib. He thought it would be possible to retarget GCC and produce a cross compiler generating executables that could run on Windows. This proved practical and a prototype was quickly developed.


title: Cygwin

text: The next step was to attempt to bootstrap the compiler on a Windows system, requiring sufficient emulation of Unix to let the GNU configure shell script run. A Bourne shell-compatible command interpreter, such as bash, was needed and in turn a fork system call emulation and standard input/output. Windows includes similar functionality, so the Cygwin library just needed to provide a POSIX-compatible application programming interface (API) and properly translate calls and manage private versions of data, such as file descriptors.


title: Cygwin

text: Initially, Cygwin was called gnuwin32 (not to be confused with the current GnuWin32 project). The name was changed to Cygwin32 to emphasize Cygnus' role in creating it. When Microsoft registered the trademark Win32, the 32 was dropped to simply become Cygwin.


title: Cygwin

text: By 1996, other engineers had joined in, because it was clear that Cygwin would be a useful way to provide Cygnus' embedded tools hosted on Windows systems (the previous strategy had been to use DJGPP). It was especially attractive because it was possible to do a three-way cross-compile, for instance to use a hefty Sun Microsystems workstation to build, say, a Windows-x-MIPS cross-compiler, which was faster than using the PC at the time. In 1999, Cygnus offered Cygwin 1.0 as a commercial product of interest in its own right although subsequent versions have not been released, instead relying on continued open source releases.


title: Cygwin

text: Geoffrey Noer was the project lead from 1996 to 1999. Christopher Faylor was the project lead from 1999 to mid-2014. Corinna Vinschen became co-lead since 2004 when Faylor left Red Hat and has been lead since mid-2014, when Faylor withdrew from active participation in the project.


title: Cygwin

text: From June 23, 2016 the Cygwin library version 2.5.2 was licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 3, so is now possible to link against closed source applications. Before this was available there were two possibilities: to release the source code of the application or buy a Cygwin license to release a closed source application.


title: Cygwin

text: Cygwin's base package selection is fairly small (about 100 MB), containing little more than the bash (interactive user) and dash (installation) shells and the core file and text manipulation utilities expected of a Unix command line. Additional packages are available as optional installs from within the Cygwin Setup program and package manager ("setup-x86_64.exe" – 64bit). These include (from over 12000 others):


title: Cygwin

text: The Cygwin/X project contributes an implementation of the X Window System that allows graphical Unix programs to display their user interfaces on the Windows desktop. This can be used with both local and remote programs. Cygwin/X supports over 500 packages including major X window managers, desktop environments, and applications, for example:


title: Cygwin

text: In addition to the low-level Xlib/XCB libraries for developing X applications, Cygwin ships with various higher-level and cross-platform GUI frameworks, including GTK+ and Qt.


title: Cygwin

text: The Cygwin Ports project provided many additional packages that were not available in the Cygwin distribution itself. Examples included GNOME and K Desktop Environment 3 as well as the MySQL database and the PHP scripting language. Most ports have been adopted by volunteer maintainers as Cygwin packages, and Cygwin Ports are no longer maintained.


title: Stacey Sher

text: Sher was born to a Jewish family in New York City and raised in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. She graduated and got her bachelor's degree from University of Southern California (USC) and was involved with the Peter Stark Producing Program which is a two-year (four-semester) full-time graduate program designed to prepare students for careers as producers.


title: Stacey Sher

text: During her early start in the industry, she was in a brief relationship with Quentin Tarantino during the early 1990s. Soon after, she married Kerry P. Brown, a movie soundtrack producer. They have two children.


title: Stacey Sher

text: In 1985, she became director of development at Hill/Obst Productions. In 1987, she became Vice President of Production. In 1991, she became Senior Vice President at Lynda Obst Productions. She went on to work with Danny DeVito and Michael Shamberg at Jersey Films, and now operates Double Feature Films with Michael Shamberg, with whom she co-founded the company. Stacey Sher has worked on many different movies since the 1980s Movies such as Django Unchained, the Hateful Eight, and Pulp Fiction. She got credibility for the 2005 Independent Spirit Award-winning "Garden State", and three films with director Steven Soderbergh: Contagion, Erin Brockovich, and Out of Sight. Additional credits include Oliver Stone's World Trade Center; Matilda; Along Came Polly and many more. Her production company is Shiny Penny Productions.


title: Stacey Sher

text: Sher has worked with multiple high-profile directors, including Terry Gilliam, Richard LaGravenese, Miloš Forman, Zach Braff, Oliver Stone, and has worked on multiple films with Quentin Tarantino, Steven Soderbergh and Danny DeVito


title: Stacey Sher

text: Sher has worked with many of different notable Hollywood actors and producers as well. She has a close work relationship with Danny DeVito. Both Sher and DeVito have produced movies together, but have also produced television shows together such as "Reno 911!" and "Kate Brasher". Sher was not just working with him but she was also involved as an executive producer on "The American Embassy", "", "Into the Badlands", "Sweet/Vicious", and "Skylanders Academy". In the television series "Reno 911!", most of the acting is actually improvised. The cast is given a broad outline with minimal script while the rest is improv. She produces all different types of genres.


title: Stacey Sher

text: Sher dated director Quentin Tarantino, but their relationship ended during the development of "Pulp Fiction", which Sher was a producer on. Sher married musician/producer Kerry Brown in 2001. They have two children.


title: Stacey Sher

text: Sher has been named co-president of Activision Blizzard Studios. which is devoted to creating television and films based on the company's library of intellectual properties, including Activision Publishing "Call of Duty" and "Skylanders". According to AMC, Sher is a member of the Producers Guild of America, and the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Sher was also honored by the ACLU for her commitment to films and television that are empowering, inspirational, and thought-provoking, dealing with issues from public safety to education, social justice to censorship.


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: Charles Joseph Epstein (September 3, 1933 – February 15, 2011) was an American geneticist who was severely injured in 1993 when he became a victim of a mail bomb attack by the Unabomber. He was a researcher at the University of California, San Francisco and the Buck Institute for Age Research.


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: He was first in his 1959 class at Harvard Medical School, and then interned at Harvard's Peter Bent Brigham Hospital.


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: Epstein began his work in medical genetics—the application of genetics research to human care—in a fellowship with Arno Motulsky, one of the founders of medical genetics, at his Seattle University of Washington lab. While there, Epstein worked to understand the nature of Werner's syndrome, a genetic disease that causes premature aging.


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: He is most notable for conducting groundbreaking research on Down syndrome. In 1967 he became the chairman of the medical genetics division in the pediatrics department of UC San Francisco. He did research on making a mouse model for Down syndrome.


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: Epstein was the president of the American Society of Human Genetics in 1996 and the editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Human Genetics from 1986 to 1993. (He became the official editor-in-chief on the 1st of July 1986 and was severely injured in June 1993.)


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: During the last 10 years of his life, Epstein participated in the formation of the Buck Institute located in Novato, California, serving as chairman of its scientific advisory board and board of trustees.


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: In June 1993 Epstein received a mail bomb sent by Ted Kaczynski, known at the time as the Unabomber. The explosion severed several of Epstein's fingers, caused abdominal injuries, and resulted in a partial loss of his hearing.


title: Charles Epstein (geneticist)

text: Epstein died on February 15, 2011 at the age of 77 after a protracted struggle with pancreatic cancer.


title: FA Youth Cup

text: The Football Association Youth Challenge Cup is an English football competition run by The Football Association for under-18 sides. Only those players between the age of 15 and 18 on 31 August of the current season are eligible to take part. It is dominated by the youth sides of professional teams, mostly from the Premier League, but attracts over 400 entrants from throughout the country.


title: FA Youth Cup

text: At the end of the Second World War the FA organised a Youth Championship for County Associations considering it the best way to stimulate the game among those youngsters not yet old enough to play senior football. The matches did not attract large crowds but outstanding players were selected for Youth Internationals and thousands were given the chance to play in a national contest for the first time. In 1951 it was realised that a competition for clubs would probably have a wider appeal. The FA Youth Challenge Cup (1952–53 season) was restricted to the youth teams of clubs, both professional and amateur, who were members of the FA.


title: FA Youth Cup

text: The notion of a youth cup was thought of by Sir Joe Richards, the late President of the Football League. He initially put forward the idea to the league clubs but they were not enthused; Richards then took the idea to the Football Association, who liked the idea and created the competition in the same year. The Youth Cup trophy itself was purchased by the Football League during World War II. However, they never found a use for it. Football League secretary Fred Howarth found the trophy in a cupboard at the Starkie Street office and handed it over to the Football Association.


title: FA Youth Cup

text: Manchester United are the competition's most successful club, winning it eleven times. They are also the current holders after beating Nottingham Forest 3–1 in the 2022 final.


title: FA Youth Cup

text: The tournament has served as a springboard into the professional game for many top British players. The likes of George Best, John Barnes, Ryan Giggs, David Beckham, Gary Neville, Frank Lampard, Michael Owen, Steven Gerrard, Jamie Carragher, Joe Cole, Wayne Rooney, Theo Walcott, Daniel Sturridge, Jack Wilshere, and Gareth Bale had all won the tournament or played in the final. The 1991–92 FA Youth Cup famously spawned the rise of Fergie's Fledglings.


title: FA Youth Cup

text: The highest attendance at an FA Youth Cup match was 67,492 for the Manchester United vs Nottingham Forest final at Old Trafford on 11 May 2022, which Manchester United won 3–1.


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob is a 2021 American direct-to-DVD animated comedy film produced by Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment. It is the thirty-fifth entry in the direct-to-video series of "Scooby-Doo" films and was released on February 23, 2021.


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: After solving another mystery,(similar to the twilight zone’s nightmare at 10,000 feet) DNA evidence reveals Shaggy’s ancestry comes from a village in England believed to have once been Camelot. The gang travels to the village to learn about Shaggy’s ancestors and discover that Shaggy is descended from a legendary night who thwarted an attempt by Morgan La Fey from stealing the throne of Camelot from King Arthur.


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: During the night, Morgan La Fey attacks the gang and sends them back in time to the time of King Arthur. Realizing they are playing a part in the kingdom’s legend, the gang decides to follow history until they can find a way back to the future. The plan is complicated when Shaggy pulls Excalibur from the stone and inadvertently challenges King Arthur’s right to the throne. The right to the throne will be decided by a competition between knights, but Shaggy only gets Fred on his team while Arthur gets the entire order of the round table.


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: Before the competition can start, Morgan La Fey temporarily paralyzes Fred so he can’t compete, forcing Daphne to take his place while Velma begins apprenticing under the wizard Merlin to find a way to the future. Daphne single handily defeats the knights of the round table and Shaggy is declared king, but Morgan La Fey kidnaps him. The gang and King Arthur follows him to Morgan La Fry’s lair and discover Shaggy has been duped into signing over his right to the throne in exchange for a banquet. Morgan transforms into a dragon to destroy the gang, but they managed to defeat her.


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: Afterward, Velma reveals she discovered the whole adventure was a staged experience by the townsfolk and that the gang was never sent back in time. Fearing Shaggy might claim the town as his birthright, the town used a Camelot experience attraction, actors, and special effects to get Shaggy to sign over the deed to the town. Shaggy explains he has no interest in claiming the town, but the town librarian who posed as Morgan La Fey steals the deed to take all the profits from the attraction for herself. Using an animatronic dragon, the gang stops her and a party is thrown to celebrate. During the party, Velma learns that the town didn’t hire a Merlin actor and the one she encountered might have been the real thing.


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: Warner Bros. announced it in 2019 with a originally scheduled release in 2020. In December 2020, Syfy Wire exclusively announced the release date of February 23, 2021 with an accompanying trailer.


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: It was originally titled "Scooby-Doo in King Arthur's Court", but it was retitled to "Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob".


title: Scooby-Doo! The Sword and the Scoob

text: This was the first film to posthumously give special credit to original "Scooby-Doo" creators Joe Ruby and Ken Spears, who both died months before the film's release.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: The Focke-Wulf Ta 183 "Huckebein" was a design for a jet-powered fighter aircraft intended as the successor to the Messerschmitt Me 262 and other day fighters in Luftwaffe service during World War II. It had been developed only to the extent of wind tunnel models when the war ended, but the basic design was further developed postwar in Argentina as the FMA IAe 33 Pulqui II. The name "Huckebein" is a reference to a trouble-making raven ("Hans Huckebein der Unglücksrabe") from an illustrated story in 1867 by Wilhelm Busch.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: In early 1944, the Reich Air Ministry (RLM, for "Reichsluftfahrtministerium") became aware of Allied jet developments, and were particularly concerned that they might have to face the Gloster Meteor over the continent. In response, they instituted the Emergency Fighter Program which took effect on July 3, 1944, ending production of most bomber and multi-role aircraft in favour of fighters, especially jet fighters. Additionally, they accelerated the development of experimental designs that would guarantee a performance edge over the Allied designs, designs that would replace the first German jet fighters, the Messerschmitt Me 262 "Schwalbe" and Heinkel He 162 "Spatz".


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: The result was a series of advanced designs, some using swept wings for improved transonic performance, others instead using the tailless design to lower drag to the same end. Since German aircraft engineers were aware that tailless designs might encounter serious stability problems at transonic speeds, much as the prototype Me 163B V18 did on July 6, 1944, in hitting a record 1,130 km/h (702 mph) top speed and nearly destroying its entire rudder surface in the process, a variety of stabilization methods such as airbrakes on the wings were considered for such aircraft or simply adding conventional tail surfaces. Kurt Tank's design team led by Hans Multhopp designed in 1945 a fighter known as ""Huckebein"" (from Wilhelm Busch's ""Hans Huckebein", the unlucky raven", a cartoon raven that traditionally makes trouble for others), also known as Project V (Project VI in some references) or Design II at Focke-Wulf. The raven character itself was re-used for the modern Bundeswehr's "Lufttransportgeschwader 62" as the inspiration for their unit's insignia.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: Development of the Ta 183 started as early as 1942 as Project VI, when the engineer Hans Multhopp assembled a team to design a new fighter, based on his understanding that previous Focke-Wulf design studies for jet fighters had no chance of reaching fruition because none had the potential for transonic speeds. This aircraft, bearing the RLM airframe number 8-183, was intended to use, as with a growing number of other advanced German late-war jet aircraft proposals, the advanced Heinkel HeS 011 turbojet; although the first prototypes were to be powered by the Junkers Jumo 004B. Early studies also included an optional 1,000 kgf (10 kN) thrust rocket engine for takeoff and combat boost, much as the special "003R" version of the BMW 003 jet engine was meant to use, with fuel and oxidiser for up to 200 seconds of burn time stored in drop tanks under the wings.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: The wings were swept back at 40° and were mounted in the mid-fuselage position. The wings appear to be mounted very far forward compared with most designs, a side-effect of attempting to keep the centre of pressure (CoP) of the wing as a whole as close to the middle of the fuselage as possible. Reflecting the dilemma of a shortage of strategic materials, the first option of using aluminum in the construction of the main spar consisting of two tapered I-beams attached together on the top and bottom with shear webs of thin steel sheeting, led to a reappraisal. Multhopp chose to use wood instead of metal throughout the wing structure, with wood structure ribs attached to the front and back of the I-beams to give the wing its overall shape, and then covered with plywood. The box-like structure contained six fuel cells, giving the aircraft a total fuel load of 1,565 L (413 US gal).


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: The original design used a T-tail, with a notably long vertical stabilizer and a seemingly undersized horizontal stabilizer. The vertical stabilizer was swept back at 60°, and the horizontal stabilizer was swept back and slightly dihedralled. The horizontal stabilizer also featured two large trim tabs, the main pitching force actually being provided by what would have appeared to be "ailerons" on most other turbojet-powered fighter airframes of the period. The Ta 183 wing's outermost trailing-edge control surfaces on its wing panels, were well behind the center of gravity, placing their trailing edges' tips virtually even, horizontally, with the intended HeS 011 jet engine's exhaust orifice, and thus could provide both pitch and roll control through functioning as elevon control surfaces, as those on the wing panels of Messerschmittt's Me 163 tailplane-less "Komet" rocket fighter already did. Many problems beset the project, including the chance of a Dutch roll. Work therefore concentrated on the much less problematic Focke-Wulf Project VII. However, when the RLM eventually rejected that design, "Huckebein" was again brought to the fore.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: The Ta 183 had a short fuselage with the air intake passing under the cockpit and proceeding to the rear where the single engine was located. The pilot sat in a pressurized cockpit with a bubble canopy which provided excellent vision. The primary armament of the aircraft consisted of four 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons arranged around the air intake.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: It was also possible to carry a bomb load of 500 kg (1,100 lb), consisting of one SD or more SC 500 half-tonne bombs, one "Bombentorpedo" BT 200 bomb, five SD-series fragmentation bombs, SC-series general-purpose bombs, or a Rb 20/30 reconnaissance camera. The weapons load would be carried in the equipment space in the bottom of the fuselage and thus partially protrude about halfway from the fuselage, possibly allowing for other armament packages such as the Ruhrstahl X-4 wire-guided missile.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: Multhopp's team also seriously explored a second version of the basic design, known as Design III, a modified Design II (it is unknown what Design I referred to). The first of these had only minor modifications, with slightly differently shaped wingtips and repositioning of the undercarriage. The second version had a reduced sweepback to 32°, allowing the wing and cockpit to be moved rearward. The tail was also redesigned, using a short horizontal boom to mount the control surfaces just above the line of the rear fuselage. This version looks considerably more "conventional" to the modern eye, although somewhat stubby due to the short overall length of the HeS 011.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: The second of these two schemes was entered in the official competition ordered by the "Oberkommando der Luftwaffe" at the end of 1944. On 28 February 1945, the Luftwaffe High Command examined the various Emergency Fighter proposals and selected the Junkers EF 128 to be developed and produced; the Focke-Wulf team gained second place. However, in the last few weeks of the war, it was decided that the "Huckebein" was really the best design and, at a meeting in Bad Eilsen, Tank was told to arrange mockups and to plan for full production. It had a planned speed of about 1,000 km/h (620 mph) at 7,000 m (22,970 ft) and it was estimated that 300 aircraft per month would be delivered when production got into its stride, each aircraft being produced in 2,500 man hours.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: A total of 16 prototypes were to be built, allowing the tail unit to be interchanged between the Design II and III variations. Of the "Versuchs" (experimental test series) aircraft, the Ta 183 V1-V3 were to be powered by the Jumo 004B turbojet with somewhat lengthened rear fuselages near the engine's exhaust nozzle to accommodate them, pending delivery of the HeS 011 jet engine. The Ta 183 V4-V14 were intended to be A-0 series pre-production aircraft and V15-V16 were to be static test aircraft. The first flight of the aircraft was projected for May 1945, but no finished Ta 183 "Versuchs"-series prototypes had been completed by 8 April 1945, when British troops captured the Focke-Wulf facilities.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: After the end of the war, Kurt Tank, in exile in Argentina, resurrected the Ta 183 project, resulting in the IAe Pulqui II. This version was modified to place the wings at a shoulder-mounted position, in order to avoid a heavy fuselage spar pass-through structure going around the engine, however this resulted in deep stall problems at high angles of attack. This could be resolved, and a version correcting these problems was planned. However, the financial crash of 1953 and the fall of Juan Peron temporarily suspended work on the project. By 1955, the project had been abandoned due to the availability of surplus ex-Korean War F-86 Sabres at a fraction of the cost.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: Historians including David Myrha have claimed the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 was at least inspired by the Ta 183, because the Soviets captured plans from the Germans at the end of World War II. The MiG-15 does bear a resemblance in layout, sharing the high tailplane and nose-mounted intake, although the aircraft are different in structure, details, and proportions. The MiG-15's design shared features, and some appearance commonalities with the MiG design bureau's own 1945-46 attempt at a Soviet-built rocket interceptor similar to the Messerschmitt Me 263 rocket fighter, and also common to many contemporary jet fighters — and were derived from aerodynamic and structural considerations (for example, the American Republic F-84F, the Swedish SAAB 29, and the French Dassault Ouragan and Mystère). A detailed design history of the MiG-15 was published by Russian aviation historian Yefim Gordon refuting any connection between the Ta 183 and the MiG-15. According to the designers, the MiG-15 was an indigenous design, their choice of swept wings (as swept-back wings of any sort on a Soviet-designed aircraft were first flown on the MiG-8 "Utka" canard light aircraft of 1945) being due to their desire to move ahead of most Western designs which were not intended for the 960 km/h+ (600 mph+) speed range.


title: Focke-Wulf Ta 183

text: Like the MiG-9 and MiG-15, the Saab 29 is subject to claims of having been indirectly influenced by the Ta 183. SAAB engineers received German research studies in swept wings in the immediate post-war period via contacts in Switzerland, and incorporated it into the Tunnan design, which was still limited to paper studies at the time.


title: Invisible ink

text: Invisible ink, also known as security ink or sympathetic ink, is a substance used for writing, which is invisible either on application or soon thereafter, and can later be made visible by some means, such as heat or ultraviolet light. Invisible ink is one form of steganography.


title: Invisible ink

text: One of the earliest writers to mention an invisible ink is Aeneas Tacticus, in the 4th century BC. He mentions it in discussing how to survive under siege but does not indicate the type of ink to be used. This was part of his list of the 20 different methods of secret communications in a book called "On the Defense of Fortifications". One of the techniques that involved steganography involved puncturing a tiny hole above or below letters in a document to spell out a secret message. This did not include an invisible ink but the Germans improved on the method during World War I and World War II. They used invisible ink and microdots instead of pinpricks.


title: Invisible ink

text: Philo of Byzantium may be the first writer known to describe an invisible ink using a reagent around 217218 BC, with oak galls and vitriol. These ingredients were used to make oak gall ink. People soon discovered that they could write invisibly with one of the ingredients and then cause the writing to appear by adding the other.


title: Invisible ink

text: Pliny the Elder and the Roman poet Ovid gave advice on the use of plant juices and milk to write secret messages.


title: Invisible ink

text: Giovanni Battista della Porta is credited with the first recipe for a sympathetic ink, derived from alum and vinegar, as well as the first book on secret writing and invisible inks, "Magia Naturalis"(1558, 1589). Since then, a wide variety of invisible inks have been used for all sorts of secretive purposes. A formula similar to oak gall ink was created by James Jay and used by George Washington and the Culper Spy Ring during the American Revolution and lemon juice was used by the 'Lemon Juice Spies' (Carl Muller and 4 other Germans, who all died for their efforts either by suicide or execution, along with John Hahn, an English baker) during World War I. In World War II, neutral or acidic solutions of phenolphthalein, a chemical compound extracted from pills for constipation, were used as invisible ink. It is colorless but turns pink when exposed to alkali such as ammonia and bicarbonate soda.


title: Invisible ink

text: Invisible ink can be applied to a writing surface with a specialty purpose stylus, stamp, fountain pen, toothpick, calligraphy pen, Cotton swab, or even a finger dipped in the liquid. Once dry, the written surface looks as if it were blank, with a similar texture and reflectivity as the surrounding surface.


title: Invisible ink

text: The ink can be later made visible by different methods according to the type of invisible ink used. The ink may be revealed by heat or by application of an appropriate chemical, or it may be made visible by viewing under ultraviolet light. Inks which are developed by a chemical reaction may depend on an acid-base reaction (like litmus paper), reactions similar to the blueprint process, or any of hundreds of others. Developer fluids may be applied using a spray bottle, but some developers are in the form of vapor, e.g. ammonia fumes used to develop phenolphthalein ink.


title: Invisible ink

text: There are also toy invisible ink pens which have two tips—one tip for invisible ink writing, and another tip for developing the ink. Invisible ink is sometimes used to print parts of pictures or text in books for children to play with, always including a "decoder pen" which is used to show the invisible parts of texts or pictures, thus revealing answers to questions printed in regular ink or completing missing parts of pictures.


title: Invisible ink

text: Security marker pens or UV markers with fluorescent ink that glows when illuminated with a UV light is often used to invisibly mark valuable household items in case of burglary. There are specialty security maker pens formulated for writing on non-porous surfaces such as glass, plastic, metal, etc. The mark can be read by using a blacklight or other UV light source. Security marker pens can be obtained commercially and are widely used as a crime countermeasure.


title: Invisible ink

text: Some commercially available invisible inks glow very brightly, in a variety of colors, under ultraviolet light. This makes them suitable for use in readmission such as hand stamping.


title: Invisible ink

text: There are some invisible ink types that can only be invisible when applied to certain types of surfaces, but are still visible on others.


title: Invisible ink

text: Some vendors now offer invisible ink for use in computer inkjet printers. Such inks are usually visible under ultraviolet light. Typical uses include printing information on business forms for use by the form processor, without cluttering up the visible contents of the form. For example, some United States Postal Service mail sorting stations use UV-visible ink to print bar codes on mailed envelopes giving routing information for use by mail handling equipment further down the line before delivery.


title: Invisible ink

text: Very rarely, invisible ink has been used in art. It is usually developed, though not always. There are artists who use the effect in conjunction with invisible and other reactive inks and paints to create a variety of effects when used in conjunction with UV lights.


title: Invisible ink

text: An E2E voting system called Scantegrity II uses invisible ink to enable the voter to obtain a confirmation code only for the voted selection.


title: Invisible ink

text: What an "ideal" invisible ink is depends on its intended use. For example, property marking should ideally be done with ink easily read under ultraviolet light, whereas in espionage such an ink would be considered too easily detectable since a large number of letters may be screened relatively quickly using UV light.


title: Invisible ink

text: Invisible inks are inherently "insecure" against a determined and well-equipped inspector, which must be balanced against the logistical difficulty in carrying out mass-screening of posted mail. It is easier to perform large-scale undetected screening of millions of electronic communications, than to mass-screen even a small fraction of conventional mail. Apart from in dictatorships where large numbers of personnel are employed to spy on fellow nationals, screening of posted mail is only feasible in particular situations, such as letters to and from a particular suspect or facility.


title: Invisible ink

text: The British SOE training manual used in the Second World War identified the following properties of an "ideal" invisible ink:


title: Invisible ink

text: From practical experience "6" and "9" were usually incompatible. SOE agents were trained not to risk their lives through reliance on insecure inks, most of which were from World War I. In general, SOE used invisible inks as a back-up method of communication when other, more secure communication techniques were unavailable. The agency was known to supply special inks to its field agents, rather than have them depend upon improvisation from obtainable everyday chemicals. When agents were forced to improvise, they were advised to dilute their invisible ink as much as possible to reduce chances of detection.


title: Invisible ink

text: Any invisible ink can be made visible by someone who is sufficiently determined, but the limitation is generally time available and the fact that one cannot apply hours of effort to every single piece of paper. Thus successful use of invisible ink depends on not arousing suspicion that invisible ink may be present.


title: Invisible ink

text: Telltale signs of invisible ink, such as pen scratches from a sharp pen, roughness, or changed reflectivity of the paper (either more dull or more shiny, usually from using undiluted ink), can be obvious to a careful observer who simply makes use of strong light, a magnifying glass and his or her nose. Also, key words in the visible letter, such as "heat" or any other odd code name, in an out of place context may alert a censor to the presence of invisible ink. Invisible ink is not effective with glossy or very smooth paper types, since the sizing of these papers prevents ink from being absorbed deep into the paper and it is easily visible, especially if the paper is examined under glancing light. There are, however, commercially available inks for non-porous surfaces that are only visible under ultraviolet light and are otherwise virtually invisible on such surfaces.


title: Invisible ink

text: Using either ultraviolet light or an iodine fume cupboard, messages can be quickly screened for invisible ink and also read without first permanently developing the invisible ink. Thus, if a censor uses this method to intercept messages, the letter may then be sent to the intended recipient, who will be unaware that the secret message has already been intercepted by a third party.


title: Invisible ink

text: A "screening station" theoretically could involve visual and olfactory inspection, an examination under ultraviolet light and then the heating of all objects in an oven before finally trying exposure to iodine fumes to produce optimal security in optimal time.


title: Invisible ink

text: For practical reasons, the inks are listed here according to their method of development. It must be understood however that some inks - particularly those of organic origin or those consisting of a mixture of several chemicals - may be made visible by several methods. For example, invisible writing with soap water may be made visible either by heat, reaction with phenolphthalein, viewing under ultraviolet light, or by placing the page inside an iodine fume cupboard.


title: Invisible ink

text: Some of these are organic substances that oxidize when heated, which usually turns them brown. For this type of "heat fixed" ink, any acidic fluid will work. The most secure way to use any of the following substances for invisible ink is by dilution, usually with water, close to the point when they become difficult to develop.


title: Invisible ink

text: The writing is rendered visible by heating the paper, either on a radiator, by ironing it, using a hair dryer, or by placing it in an oven. A 100-watt light bulb is less likely to damage the paper.


title: Invisible ink

text: Some inks glow faintly (fluoresce) when under an ultraviolet lamp. This is a property of many substances, particularly organic substances and body fluids.


title: Invisible ink

text: Other inks work in a near opposite way by "absorbing" ultraviolet light but without fluorescing. When these are used on fluorescent paper, the inked areas fluoresce less than the surrounding paper area when under an ultraviolet lamp. This is especially a property of inks with a yellow tint.


title: Invisible ink

text: Some UV-visible inks may be detected on a photocopy, due to the relatively strong ultraviolet component in light from the photocopier scanning head.


title: Invisible ink

text: This includes virtually all invisible inks, but pure distilled water can also be used in this way. Application of any fluid will alter the paper surface fibers or sizing.


title: Invisible ink

text: Fumes created from heating iodine crystals will develop the writing, which will appear brown because the iodine sticks preferentially to the altered areas of the paper. Exposing the paper to strong sunlight will return the writing to its invisible state, as will using a bleach solution.


title: Invisible ink

text: Slightly dampening paper with a sponge or by steam and then drying it before writing a message will prevent writing from being developed by this method, but overdoing dampening will result in telltale paper cockling.


title: Invisible ink

text: Inks that are visible for a period of time without the intention of being made visible again are called disappearing inks. Disappearing inks typically rely on the chemical reaction between thymolphthalein and a basic substance such as sodium hydroxide. Thymolphthalein, which is normally colorless, turns blue in solution with the base. As the base reacts with carbon dioxide (always present in the air), the pH drops below 10.5 and the color disappears. Pens are now also available that can be erased simply by swiping a special pen over the original text. Disappearing inks have been used in gag squirtguns, for limited-time secret messages, for security reasons on non-reusable passes, for fraudulent purposes, and for dress-making and other crafts where measurement marks are required to disappear.


title: Invisible ink

text: As an indication of security, most invisible inks were already known by the end of World War I. However, in 1999, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency successfully requested that World War I invisible ink remain exempt from mandatory declassification, based on the premise that invisible ink was still relevant to national security. The World War I documents remained classified until 2011.


title: Invisible ink

text: Former MI6 agent Richard Tomlinson stated that Pentel Rolling Writer rollerball pens were extensively used by MI-6 agents to produce secret writing in the form of invisible messages while on missions.


title: Invisible ink

text: In 2002, a gang was indicted for spreading a riot between federal penitentiaries using coded telephone messages, and messages in invisible ink.


title: Zastava M93 Black Arrow

text: The M93 Black Arrow (/"M93 Crna strela") is a 12.7×108mm anti-materiel rifle developed and manufactured by Zastava Arms.


title: Zastava M93 Black Arrow

text: The rifle was designed in 1993 and entered production in 1998. The primary purpose of this rifle is long-range engagement and due to that, it is provided with an optical sight, which is included in the rifle set (8x magnification with the division up to 1,800 m) and a backup iron sight. Its mount can accept the sights of other manufacturers as well.


title: Zastava M93 Black Arrow

text: The Zastava M93 Black Arrow rifle is available in both 12.7×108mm and .50 BMG. It is a bolt-action, air-cooled, magazine-fed firearm with a fixed stock. The weapon is fed through a 5- or 10-round detachable, spring-loaded box magazine. The shoulder stock has a telescoping design, sitting aft of the ergonomic pistol grip unit. The bolt-action handle rests over the right side of the gun body. A carrying handle is affixed to the forend and the barrel is capped by a multi-baffled brake to assist in handling the massive recoil action. A folding bipod is also attached.


title: Zastava M93 Black Arrow

text: Its overall design is a scale-up of the Mauser 98 system, similarly to the Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr, with some influence from the French FR-F1


title: Zastava M93 Black Arrow

text: However the FR-F1 was built on basis of MAS-36 that was also influenced by Gewehr 98 (Mauser 98). Therefore the M93 and FR-F1 have some roots in Mauser 98.


title: WebAuthn

text: Web Authentication (WebAuthn) is a web standard published by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). WebAuthn is a core component of the FIDO2 Project under the guidance of the FIDO Alliance. The goal of the project is to standardize an interface for authenticating users to web-based applications and services using public-key cryptography.


title: WebAuthn

text: On the client side, support for WebAuthn can be implemented in a variety of ways. The underlying cryptographic operations are performed by an authenticator, which is an abstract functional model that is mostly agnostic with respect to how the key material is managed. This makes it possible to implement support for WebAuthn purely in software, making use of a processor's trusted execution environment or a Trusted Platform Module (TPM). Sensitive cryptographic operations can also be offloaded to a roaming hardware authenticator that can in turn be accessed via USB, Bluetooth Low Energy, or near-field communications (NFC). A roaming hardware authenticator conforms to the FIDO Client to Authenticator Protocol (CTAP), making WebAuthn effectively backward compatible with the FIDO Universal 2nd Factor (U2F) standard.


title: WebAuthn

text: Similar to legacy U2F, Web Authentication is resilient to verifier impersonation, that is, it is resistant to phishing attacks, but unlike U2F, WebAuthn does not require a traditional password. Moreover, a roaming hardware authenticator is resistant to malware since the private key material is at no time accessible to software running on the host machine.


title: WebAuthn

text: The WebAuthn Level 1 and 2 standards were published as W3C Recommendations on 4 March 2019 and 8 April 2021 respectively. A Level 3 specification is currently a First "Public Working Draft" (FPWD).


title: WebAuthn

text: FIDO2 is the successor to FIDO Universal 2nd Factor (U2F). Whereas U2F only supports multi-factor mode, having been designed to strengthen existing username/password-based login flows, FIDO2 adds support for single-factor mode. In single-factor mode, the authenticator is activated by a test of user presence, which usually consists of a simple button push; no password is required. In multi-factor mode, the authenticator ("something you have") performs user verification. Depending on the authenticator capabilities, this can be:


title: WebAuthn

text: Regardless of mode, the authenticator never shares its secrets or biometric data with the website. Moreover, a single secret or biometric works with all websites, as the authenticator will select the correct cryptographic key material to use for the service requesting authentication after user verification was completed successfully.


title: WebAuthn

text: A secret and biometric on the authenticator can be used together, similarly to how they would be used on a smartphone. For example, a fingerprint is used to provide convenient access to your smartphone but occasionally fingerprint access fails, in which case a PIN can be used.


title: WebAuthn

text: Like its predecessor FIDO U2F, W3C Web Authentication (WebAuthn) involves a website, a web browser, and an authenticator:


title: WebAuthn

text: WebAuthn specifies how a claimant demonstrates possession and control of a FIDO2 authenticator to a verifier called the WebAuthn Relying Party. The authentication process is mediated by an entity called the WebAuthn Client, which is little more than a conforming web browser.


title: WebAuthn

text: For the purposes of illustration, we assume the authenticator is a roaming hardware authenticator (see below for other options). In any case, the authenticator is a multi-factor cryptographic authenticator that uses public-key cryptography to sign an authentication assertion targeted at the WebAuthn Relying Party. Assuming the authenticator uses a PIN for user verification, the authenticator itself is "something you have" while the PIN is "something you know".


title: WebAuthn

text: To initiate the WebAuthn authentication flow, the WebAuthn Relying Party indicates its intentions to the WebAuthn Client (i.e., the browser) via JavaScript. The WebAuthn Client communicates with the authenticator using a JavaScript API implemented in the browser. A roaming authenticator conforms to the FIDO Client to Authenticator Protocol.


title: WebAuthn

text: WebAuthn does not strictly require a roaming hardware authenticator. Alternatively, a software authenticator (implemented on a smartphone, e.g.) or a platform authenticator (i.e., an authenticator implemented directly on the WebAuthn Client Device) may be used. Relevant examples of platform authenticators include Windows Hello and the Android operating system.


title: WebAuthn

text: The illustrated flow relies on PIN-based user verification, which, in terms of usability, is only a modest improvement over ordinary password authentication. In practice, the use of biometrics for user verification can improve the usability of WebAuthn. The logistics behind biometrics are still poorly understood, however. There is a lingering misunderstanding among users that biometric data is transmitted over the network in the same manner as passwords, which is not the case.


title: WebAuthn

text: When the WebAuthn Relying Party receives the signed authentication assertion from the browser, the digital signature on the assertion is verified using a trusted public key for the user. How does the WebAuthn Relying Party obtain that trusted public key in the first place?


title: WebAuthn

text: To obtain a public key for the user, the WebAuthn Relying Party initiates a WebAuthn registration flow that is very similar to the authentication flow illustrated above. The primary difference is that the authenticator now signs an attestation statement with its attestation private key. The signed attestation statement contains a copy of the public key that the WebAuthn Relying Party ultimately uses to verify a signed authentication assertion. The attestation statement also contains metadata describing the authenticator itself.


title: WebAuthn

text: The digital signature on the attestation statement is verified with the trusted attestation public key for that particular model of authenticator. How the WebAuthn Relying Party obtains its store of trusted attestation public keys is unspecified. One option is to use the FIDO metadata service.


title: WebAuthn

text: The attestation type specified in the JavaScript determines the trust model. For instance, an attestation type called self-attestation may be desired, for which the trust model is essentially trust on first use.


title: WebAuthn

text: The WebAuthn Level 1 standard was published as a W3C Recommendation by the Web Authentication Working Group on 4 March 2019. WebAuthn is supported by Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Apple Safari and Opera.


title: WebAuthn

text: The desktop version of Google Chrome has supported WebAuthn since version 67. Firefox, which had not fully supported the previous FIDO U2F standard, included and enabled WebAuthn in Firefox version 60, released on May 9, 2018. An early Windows Insider release of Microsoft Edge (Build 17682) implemented a version of WebAuthn that works with both Windows Hello as well as external security keys.


title: WebAuthn

text: Existing FIDO U2F security keys are largely compatible with the WebAuthn standard, though WebAuthn added the ability to reference a unique per-account "user handle" identifier, which older authenticators are unable to store. One of the first FIDO2-compatible authenticators was the second-generation Security Key by Yubico, announced on April 10, 2018.


title: WebAuthn

text: The first Security Level 2 certified FIDO2 key, called "Goldengate" was announced one year later by eWBM on April 8, 2019. and


title: WebAuthn

text: Apple announced that Face ID or Touch ID could be used as a WebAuthn platform authenticator with Safari on June 24, 2020.


title: WebAuthn

text: WebAuthn implements an extension of the W3C's more general Credential Management API, which is an attempt to formalize the interaction between websites and web browsers when exchanging user credentials. The Web Authentication API extends the Credential Management codice_1 and codice_2 JavaScript methods so they accept a codice_3 parameter. The codice_4 method is used for registering public key authenticators as part of associating them with user accounts (possibly at initial account creation time but more likely when adding a new security device to an existing account) while the codice_5 method is used for authenticating (such as when logging in).


title: WebAuthn

text: To check if a browser supports WebAuthn, scripts should check if the codice_6 interface is defined. In addition to codice_7, the standard also defines the codice_8, codice_9, and codice_10 interfaces in addition to a variety of dictionaries and other datatypes.


title: WebAuthn

text: The API does not allow direct access to or manipulation of private keys, beyond requesting their initial creation.


title: WebAuthn

text: In August 2018, Paragon Initiative Enterprises conducted a security audit of the WebAuthn standard. While they could not find any specific exploits, they revealed some serious weaknesses in the way the underlying cryptography is used and mandated by the standard.


title: WebAuthn

text: The main points of criticism revolve around two potential issues that were problematic in other cryptographic systems in the past and therefore should be avoided in order to not fall victim to the same class of attacks:


title: WebAuthn

text: Paragon Initiative Enterprises also criticized how the standard was initially developed, as the proposal was not made public in advance and experienced cryptographers were not asked for suggestions and feedback. Hence the standard was not subject to broad cryptographic research from the academic world.


title: WebAuthn

text: Despite these shortcomings, Paragon Initiative Enterprises still encourage users to continue to use WebAuthn but have come up with some recommendations for potential implementors and developers of the standard that they hope can be implemented before the standard is finalized. Avoiding such mistakes as early as possible would prevent the industry from any challenges that are introduced by broken standards and the need for backwards compatibility.


title: WebAuthn

text: ECDAA was only designed to be used in combination with device attestation. This particular feature of WebAuthn is not necessarily required for authentication to work. Current implementations allow the user to decide whether an attestation statement is sent during the registration ceremony. Independently, relying parties can choose to require attestation or not. ECDAA was removed from WebAuthn Level 2 as it was not implemented by browsers nor relying parties.


title: Satya Bhabha

text: Satya Sorab Bhabha (born 13 December 1983) is a British actor known for his role as Matthew Patel in the 2010 film "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World" and his recurring role as Shivrang in "New Girl".


title: Satya Bhabha

text: Bhabha was born in London, England. His father, professor Homi K. Bhabha, is an Indian Zoroastrian of Parsi heritage. His mother, lecturer Jacqueline Bhabha (née Strimpel), was born in India, to German Jewish parents, and grew up in Italy. He is a graduate of Yale University, where he acted in and directed student theatre productions, is said to have been a member of Skull and Bones, and was a recipient of the Louis Sudler Prize for Excellence in the Arts.


title: Satya Bhabha

text: In 2010, Bhabha appeared in the film version of the graphic novel "Scott Pilgrim", entitled "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World". Bhabha plays the lead role in the Deepa Mehta film "Midnight's Children" (2012), based on Salman Rushdie's novel "Midnight's Children".


title: Satya Bhabha

text: In 2012, Bhabha was cast in the Fox sitcom "New Girl." He plays a love interest and fiancé of Hannah Simone's character Cece.


title: Satya Bhabha

text: Bhabha has been playing the cello since he was very young and has performed around the world in symphonies, as well as with different chamber ensembles. He has played cello for the band "He's My Brother She's My Sister", a Los Angeles-based group. He has been married to his husband since 2016.


title: Bathala

text: In ancient Tagalog indigenous religion, Bathala Maykapal is the transcendent Supreme Being, the originator and ruler of the universe. He is commonly known and referred to as Bathala; a term or title which, in earlier times, also applied to lesser beings such as personal tutelary spirits, omen birds, comets, and other heavenly bodies which the early Tagalog people believed predicted events. It was after the arrival of the Spanish missionaries in the Philippines in the 16th century that "Bathala Maykapal" came to be identified as the Christian God, thus its synonymy with Diyos. Over the course of the 19th century, the term Bathala was totally replaced by "Panginoon" (Lord) and "Diyos" (God). It was no longer used until it was popularized again by Filipinos who learned from chronicles that the Tagalogs' indigenous God was called Bathala.


title: Bathala

text: Most scholars believed that Bathala (Chirino 1595–1602), Badhala (Plasencia 1589), Batala (Loarca 1582), or Bachtala (Boxer Codex 1590) was derived from the Sanskrit word "bhattara" or "bhattaraka" (noble lord) which appeared as the sixteenth-century title "batara" in the southern Philippines and Borneo. In the Indonesian language, "batara" means "god"; its feminine counterpart is "batari". In Malay, "betara" means "holy", and was applied to the greater Hindu gods in Java. "Betara" was also assumed by the ruler of Majapahit.


title: Bathala

text: Dr. Pardo de Taverra, a linguist, states that "bhattala" could have come from "avatara", avatar; that is, the descent of a god on earth in a visible form, such as the ten avatars of Vishnu. According to John Crawfurd, the Malay word "Batara" is derived from avatara both in "sense and orthography", and is a prefix to connote any deity.


title: Bathala

text: According to Jose Rizal's former mentor Rev. Pablo Pastells, S.J., who reprinted in 1900 the early work of his fellow Jesuit, Fr. Pedro Chirino, "Labor Evangelica", which was first published in 1663 from an anonymous document dated April 20, 1572, the name of Bathala can be ascertained "by resolving the word into its primary elements, "Bata" and "Ala" = 'Son God, or Son of God.'" This is why the first missionaries did not deprive the natives of this name when they instructed them about the existence of God and the mysteries of the Trinity, the incarnation, and redemption, as states an anonymous but very circumstantial relation written in Manila, on April 20, 1572.


title: Bathala

text: Other possible origins of the term Bathala or Batala are the Malay word "Berhala" ("idol") and the Arabic expression "‘Allah-ta’ala" ("God, be exalted"), which is the origin of Bathala’s other name "Anatala".


title: Bathala

text: The name of the supreme being of the Tagalogs was given as Batala in "Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas" (1582) by Miguel de Loarca, Bathala mei capal in "Relación de las Islas Filipinas" (1595–1602) by Pedro Chirino, Badhala in "Relacion de las Costumbres de Los Tagalos" (1589) by Juan de Plasencia, Bachtala napal nanca calgna salahat ("Bathala na kumapal at nangangalaga sa lahat" – God the creator and preserver of all things), Mulayri, Molaiari, Molayare, and Dioata in the Boxer Codex (1590), Anatala and Ang Maygawa in "Carta sobre la idolatria de los naturales de la provincia de Zambales, y de los del pueblo de Santo Tomas y otros circunvecinos" (1686-1688) by Felipe Pardo, O.P., and Bathala mei Capal and Diuata in "The history of Sumatra: containing an account of the government, laws, customs and manners of the native inhabitants, with a description of the natural productions, and a relation of the ancient political state of that island." (1784) by William Marsden. The true name of this deity, however, is actually unknown, and the ancient Tagalogs usually referred to and addressed him under several titles and epithets.


title: Bathala

text: Jose Rizal, in his letter to his friend Ferdinand Blumentritt (17 April 1890), wrote that the word Bathala was an error of Chirino or some missionary older than or ahead of him who had been copied by subsequent historians, because, according to him, the majority of the historians of the Philippines were mere copyists. He believed that the phrase "Bathala Maykapal" that was adopted by other historians after Chirino was nothing more than the phrase "Bahala ang Maykapal" wrongly written; that is, equivalent to Alla or Alah of the Muslims or to the Malayan "Tuan Alla punia Kraja." This is because "Bahala ang May Kapal" means "God will take care", a meaning given also in a dictionary to the phrase" Bathala May Kapal". The fact that the phrase "Bathala May Kapal" was so often encountered made Rizal presume that it may only have been a copy, and that another source where the word Bathala was used without the denomination "May Kapal" could not be found. Rizal believed that the Tagalogs never pronounced the name of their God, just as they did not pronounce the names of their parents, especially before strangers whom they considered their greatest enemies. He believed that they only called him "Maykapal", a designation still used and understood by most Tagalogs today. He also pointed out that there was no trace at all of the name "Bathalà" among the Tagalogs in the local towns despite the fact that they used words such as "Tikbalang", "Asuang", "Anito", "Nuno", "Tiyanak", etc. and retained many pagan usages, traditions, legends, and stories. He believed that the old missionaries did not take much interest in getting to know the religion of the Tagalogs. On account of their religious zeal, the missionaries considered the Tagalogs' religion unworthy and diabolical, and as a result, they never undertook a thorough investigation of it.


title: Bathala

text: For Isabelo de los Reyes, the name of the Tagalog supreme god was "Maykapal" or "Lumikha", and hence they called their sacred images "likha" and not "Badhala", since the latter was not a specific name, but a common treatment of deities, ominous beings, and other fabulous beings that they feared. Thus, there was "Badhala Maykapal" (Lord Maker), "Badhala Katutubo" (Conborn Lord Anito), and "Badhala Tigmamanok", or Blue Bird, which actually referred to the "kásay-kásay" (Kingfisher). Their names were "Badhala", like comets, not because they were gods, but because they were ominous. The word was pronounced "Badhala" and not "Bathala", as an enlightened Tagalog elder told de los Reyes, and this was confirmed by Fr. Noceda in his old Dictionario Tagalog (1754). Also, according to Fr. Noceda, the term Bathala, or "Badhala", was only used among Tagalogs who had connections with Malay Hindus or Mohammedans, i.e. those from Manila to the South. Moreover, the Tagalogs did not remember the word Bathala, "Bátala", or "Badhala" until it was popularized again by Filipinos when they learned from lightly written chronicles that the indigenous Tagalog God was called Bathala.


title: Bathala

text: 1. Mulayari (Boxer Codex: "Mulayri" [42r], "Molaiari" [59r], "Molayare" [62r]) – In the transcription and translation of the Boxer Codex (1590) by George Bryan Souza and Jeffrey Scott Turley (2015), the word "May-ari" ("Owner" or "Owner of Property") is used instead of the original spelling "Mulayri". The footnote explains: "Q&G, 419, gloss this Tagalog term as "an indirect appellation of God"". According to the author Jean-Paul G. Potet (Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs, 2018) "Its compounds are "mula" "origin" and "yari" "power", therefore it means "Source of Power". The absence of linker between the two components, as in Malay, points at the Bruneian period for the time when it was coined". The word "yari" also means "made, finished or complete, etc." Thus, the meaning of Mulayari is also similar to that of "Mulajadi" ("Beginning of Becoming"), which is the name of the creator deity of the Batak people of Indonesia. The Tagalog and Malay word "mula" is derived from Sanskrit "mula", meaning "root", while the Malay word "jadi" and its Tagalog equivalent "yari" are descended from the Sanskrit word "jati" (birth), and both words can mean "finished" or "completed" regarding something made or created (becoming/being). Another possible origin of the name "Mulayari" is the Malayalam word "mulayari" which means "bamboo seed". The name "Mulayari" was not entered by Spanish lexicographers in the old Tagalog dictionaries.


title: Bathala

text: 2. Diwata ("Dioata", "Diuata") - Derived from Sanskrit deva and devata, which mean “deity”. Like Mulayari, Spanish lexicographers did not enter this name in early Tagalog dictionaries. In Richard E. Elkin's Manobo-English Dictionary (1968), "diwata" specifically refers to the highest supreme being. In Bla'an mythology, "Diwata" is one of the four primordial beings. According to some Bla'ans, "Diwata" and "Melu" (the Creator) were brothers, and because "Diwata" was older than "Melu", Christian Bible translators chose "Diwata" to refer to the Christian God. Among the Tagbanwa people, "Diwata" is another name for the supreme deity "Mangindusa". In the Kaharingan religion of Borneo, the supreme god "Hatala" (represented as a hornbill "Tingang") gave his reflection on the primeval waters the name "Jata" (represented as a watersnake "Tambon"). In unity, they were known as "Jatatala" which was considered a male deity as a whole. However, "Jata" represented the Underworld, the Earth, and the feminine aspect of God, while "Hatala" represented the Upperworld, the Sun, and the masculine aspect of God. The name "Jata" is derived from the Sanskrit "deva" and "devata" [Wilken (1912, vol. III)]. ""Jata"" as a collective designation refers to a category of spirits inhabiting the Underworld. With the ancient Visayans, "diwata" was the equivalent of the Tagalog anito (ancestral spirit). According to Rev. Pablo Pastells, S.J., the interpretation of the word Bathala as 'Son of God' is confirmed by the Visayan word "Diuata": "we always find here the same idea signified in the words "Diwa" and "uata" differing only in their transposition... In closing, we may note that "Dewa" in Malay, "Déwa" in Javanese, Sunda, Makasar, and Day[ak?], "Deva" in Maguindanao, and "Djebata" in Bornean, signify 'the supreme God,’ or 'Divinity." In the Tagalog language, "diwa" means "spirit, thought, idea, central point, sense". According to Demetrio, Cordero-Fernando, and Nakpil Zialcita, the Tagalogs and Kapampangans of Luzon used the word "anito" instead of the word "diwata", which was more predominant in the Visayan regions. This indicated that those peoples of Luzon were less influenced by the Hindu and Buddhist beliefs of the Madjapahit empire than the Visayans were. In modern Tagalog, "diwata" means fairy or nymph. It refers particularly to feminine nature spirits of extraordinary beauty, like Maria Makiling.


title: Bathala

text: 3. Maykapal ("Meicapal", "Meycapal") – "Owner of what has been shaped". The title or epithet "Maykapal" is derived from the word "kapal", the basic meaning of which is "to shape earth, clay, or wax into balls". Its doublet "kipil" expresses the same meaning about food: "to make rice balls and eat them". This title is related to Bathala's other title "Maylupa", meaning "Owner of the Earth/Land".


title: Bathala

text: 5. Maylupa ("Meilupa", "Meylupa") – “Owner of the Earth/Land". Under this title, Bathala is symbolically represented by a crow/raven ("uwak"), one of the birds associated with the omen of death. Fr. Francisco Colin (1663) compared "Maylupa" with ancient European deities such as Ceres (an agricultural deity) and Pan (a pastoral deity), which indicates that devotees of Bathala under this title were farmers and herders.


title: Bathala

text: 6. Magpalaylay – "the One Fond of Incantations" (‘’laylay’’ meaning “incantation”). The word "laylay" can also mean reverence, hence the term "kalaylayan" (your reverence), which early Tagalog men with children used to address their fathers.


title: Bathala

text: 7. Lumikha – "Creator". In the Old Tagalog language, the word "likha" also referred to the statuettes of the anitos. In modern Tagalog, including Filipino, it mainly refers to and means "creation". The word "likha" was derived from the Sanskrit word "lekha", which means "drawing, picture or writing". In the ancient Tagalogs’ creation myth, the first man and woman sprang forth from a bamboo, which was the most common writing material of pre-Hispanic Filipinos.


title: Bathala

text: 8. Anatala – A corruption of the Arabic expression "‘Allah-ta’ala" which means "God, be exalted". It probably reached Tagalog through Malay or Maranao, where the Arabic expression is read ""Alataala"". Because the expression ended in "-a", Spanish inquisitors thought that it referred to a female deity of the Tagalogs, the superior goddess of all their deities, thus making this name a synonym of Bathala. The name of the Bornean deity "Hatala", "Mahatala", or "Lahatala" is also a corruption of the same Arabic expression [Wilken (1912, vol. III)]. However, according to Blumentritt, "Mahatala" or "Mahatara" is the contraction of "Mahabatara", which means "the Great Lord". Pedro A. Paterno (1892) also referred to "Anatala" as "Anak-Hala", which, according to him, means "Son of God".


title: Bathala

text: 9. Nuno ("Nono") – "Grandparent" or "Ancient One", similar to "Laon" of the Visayans and "Gugurang" of the Bicolanos. This is the name used to refer to Bathala by the initiates ("antiñgeros") of Anting-anting, a post-colonial esoteric belief system of the Tagalogs. The "antiñgeros" also refer to "Nuno" as "Infinito Dios" (Infinite God). The term "nuno" was also used by the ancient Tagalogs to refer to the spirits of their ancestors (i.e. "anito"), nature spirits (e.g. "nuno sa punso"), and the crocodile/cayman/alligator ("buwaya").