title: Catherine of York

text: Catherine had six sisters, of whom only four reached adulthood –three older (Elizabeth, Cecily and Anne) and one younger (Bridget)–; Mary, born in 1467, died at the age of 14 from some illness, and Margaret, born in 1472, died in infancy. Catherine also had five brothers: three elder full brothers who were sons of Edward IV, and two elder half-brothers from her mother's first marriage to John Grey of Groby: Thomas and Richard Grey. The youngest of Catherine's full brothers, George, died at the age of about two years, while the other two brothers, Edward V and Richard, disappeared from the Tower in 1483 during the reign of their uncle Richard III.


title: Catherine of York

text: Her paternal grandparents were Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (who claimed the rights of the House of York to the English throne) and Cecily Neville, and her maternal grandparents were Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, Dowager Duchess of Bedford.


title: Catherine of York

text: Almost from birth, Catherine was a desirable bride and in the future could become a pawn in the politics of dynastic marriages. Soon after her birth, in August 1479, was received a marriage proposal with the heir to the Catholic Monarchs –John, Prince of Asturias, who was a year older than the princess. On 28 August 1479, a preliminary marriage agreement was concluded; on 2 March 1482, this agreement was ratified by the Spanish side. However, in April 1483, the princess's father suddenly died, and the negotiations were terminated.


title: Catherine of York

text: Edward IV's death was followed by a political crisis that dramatically changed the position of the former queen and her children. Catherine's older brother, Edward V, who succeeded to the throne, was captured by his uncle Lord Protector Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and Anthony Woodville and Richard Grey (Catherine's uncle and half-brother, respectively) who accompanied the young king, were arrested. The king was moved to the Tower of London, where he was later joined by his only full-brother, Richard; together with the rest of the children, among whom was Catherine, the dowager queen took refuge in Westminster Abbey. Two months later, on 22 June 1483, Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was declared illegal; all the children of the late king were declared illegitimate by the act of parliament "Titulus Regius" and deprived of the right to the throne and all titles. A few days later, Anthony Woodville and Richard Grey were executed. On 6 July 1483, Richard of Gloucester was proclaimed king under the name of Richard III; shortly thereafter there was no news of Catherine's brothers locked up in the Tower.


title: Catherine of York

text: On Christmas Day 1483, Henry Tudor, whose mother was plotting with Elizabeth Woodville against King Richard III, swore in Rennes Cathedral that he would marry Edward IV's eldest daughter, Elizabeth, or the next Cecily (if the marriage with Elizabeth for some reasons will be impossible) after he takes the English throne. However, the uprising of the Tudor party, led by the Duke of Buckingham, failed even before this oath. After the failure of Buckingham's rebellion, Richard III agreed to negotiate with his brother's widow, Elizabeth Woodville. On 1 March 1484, the king swore publicly that the daughters of his late brother would not be harmed or molested; in addition, Richard III promised that they would not be imprisoned in the Tower or any other prison, that they would be placed "in respectable places of good name and reputation", and later be married to "men of noble birth" and given dowry lands with an annual income of 200 marks each. The princesses moved under the care of their "gracious uncle", who gave them rooms in his palace. Tudor historian Edward Hall writes that Richard III "made all the daughters of his brother solemnly arrive at his palace; as if with him new –familiar and loving entertainment– they were supposed to forget ... the trauma inflicted on them and the tyranny that preceded this". According to the generally accepted version, Catherine moved to the royal palace with her sisters, but there is an assumption that Catherine and her younger sister Bridget stayed with their mother after leaving the sanctuary.


title: Catherine of York

text: Two years later, in August 1485, Richard III died at the Battle of Bosworth and Henry Tudor became the new king by right of conquest under the name of Henry VII. He fulfilled his promise and married Elizabeth of York, and also canceled the "Titulus Regius" act, which deprived the children of Edward IV of titles and rights to the throne. The act of "Titulus Regius" was removed from the archives, as were all documents related to it. In 1492 Dowager Queen Elizabeth died; Catherine took part in her funeral ceremony, becoming one of the youngest mourners at the royal funeral. Left an orphan, Catherine finally settled at the court of her sister the queen.


title: Catherine of York

text: Henry VII, once on the throne, began to build grandiose matrimonial plans for his wife's relatives. First of all, he wanted to establish peace with his northern neighbor –the Kingdom of Scotland. In November 1487, a preliminary agreement was concluded on the marriage of Catherine with the second son of King James III, James, Duke of Ross, who was almost three years older than the princess. According to the same agreement, Catherine's sister Cecily was to become the wife of the heir to the Scottish throne, James, Duke of Rothesay, and James III, widowed by that time, was to marry the mother of the princess, Dowager Queen Elizabeth Woodville. But James III was killed in June 1488 before these marriages were made; negotiations were interrupted and never resumed.


title: Catherine of York

text: In October 1495, shortly after her sixteenth birthday, Catherine married William Courtenay, son and heir of the Earl of Devon –a large and noble landowner of Devon and Cornwall and an ardent supporter of Henry VII and the Lancastrian party. The House of Courtenay descended from the French nobility of the County of Gâtinais, and through the female line from King Edward I of England through his daughter Elizabeth of Rhuddlan. The marriage of Catherine and William was approved by Parliament during the same session as that of Catherine's older sister Anne with Thomas Howard, later 3rd Duke of Norfolk. It is known that Queen Elizabeth paid for the wedding dress for the groom and donated money for the upbringing of the future children of the newlyweds. Being in favour with the king, the Courtenays spent most of their time at court; Catherine as the "principal lady", received a salary of £50 per year. Outside the court, Catherine and William preferred to use Tiverton Castle or the ancient Courtenay family home, Colcombe Castle, as a residence; both residences were located in Devon, but Catherine preferred Colcombe. The couple had three children: two sons, Henry and Edward and a daughter, Margaret.


title: Catherine of York

text: In later years, Catherine was close to her sister the queen. She attended the lavish wedding of her eldest nephew, Arthur, Prince of Wales and Catherine of Aragon in November 1501, and the betrothal of her eldest niece, Margaret, to King James IV of Scotland in January 1502. However, a few months later, disgrace began: William Courtenay was arrested and sent to prison on suspicion of participating in the conspiracy of the Yorkist pretender to the throne, Edmund de la Pole. He spent several years in prison, although there was no evidence of his guilt; probably the sole reason for Courtenay's arrest was his marriage to a princess of the House of York. William was deprived of property and rights to inherit the titles and possessions of his father, as well as the right to transfer them to his children; thus, on the death of the Earl of Devon, his title and possessions were to fall to the crown.


title: Catherine of York

text: Only thanks to the patronage of her sister the queen, Catherine remained at liberty and at court and received a livelihood. Elizabeth of York ordered that Lady Margaret Coton take care of the upbringing and education of Catherine's children, and allocated funds for this. Catherine's children were moved under the protection of Coton to Sir John Hussey's country house at Havering-atte-Bower, which at that time was located on lands that were in the use of the queen or her mother. The content of the children, as well as their other servants, which included two maids, grooms and nannies, was also paid by the queen. She also paid for the needs of Catherine's husband, who was imprisoned in the Tower. In June 1502, the youngest of Catherine's two sons, Edward, died, which was a heavy blow for the princess. Catherine's grief was aggravated by the fact that the child's illness was transient, and his mother, who was with the queen in Notley, did not have time to go to the bedside of her dying son. Since Catherine did not have the funds for the funeral of her son, her sister again paid all the expenses. The queen, on the other hand, allocated funds for a mourning wardrobe for the princess; orders regarding Catherine's wardrobe became one of the last manifestations of the queen's concern for her sister.


title: Catherine of York

text: In February 1503, Queen Elizabeth of York died. The death of her sister was a great loss for Catherine, since the queen was not only a relative and close friend for her, but also a patroness. Starting from the second day of mourning, Catherine led the mourners at her sister's funeral; on the first day, this post was occupied by the main lady-in-waiting of the late queen, Lady Elizabeth Stafford, since Catherine's wardrobe was not ready. Catherine became the only person to attend all three masses for the late queen.


title: Catherine of York

text: Left without friends and support from her sister, Catherine turned to her father-in-law for help. The Earl of Devon, a very benevolent person, allocated an annual allowance for his grandchildren −100 marks for Henry and 200 marks for Margaret; however, for Catherine herself, probably, no funds were allocated, since there are no documents confirming the opposite. Probably, the son of the late queen, Henry, Prince of Wales, who by that time had become the heir to the throne, also provided some assistance to the aunt, but there is no documentary evidence of this either.


title: Catherine of York

text: Henry VII died in April 1509, and the life of Catherine herself changed dramatically. She was aunt to the new king, Henry VIII, who immediately invited her to court, where she attended the funeral of the late monarch. Henry VIII paid for all of Catherine's expenses related to moving to the court. At the same time, Catherine received the post of maid of honour to the younger sister of the king, Mary (later Queen consort of France). One of the first state acts of Henry VIII was the forgiveness and return of possessions to Catherine's husband, William Courtenay. The Courtenays were present at all the celebrations at court, and both were in such favour with the young king that Catherine became the only godmother of the heir to the throne, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, who was born on 1 January 1511.


title: Catherine of York

text: Catherine's father-in-law died in 1509, and formally her husband became the heir to the Earl's title and possessions, however, in order to receive the inheritance, William needed the approval of the king and the repeal of the act of deprivation. Until all the formalities were met, Catherine, "the king's dearest aunt", was assigned annuity payments in the amount of 200 marks. Despite the friendly attitude towards his aunt and her husband, Henry VIII put forward a number of conditions under which William Courtenay could transfer the title and possessions of his father. One of these conditions was the renunciation of Catherine's claims to the lands of the Earldom of March (to which she was also entitled as one of the descendants of Anne de Mortimer), and as her father's personal, non-crown property. Catherine, having neither the means nor the desire to fight for the possessions of the Marches, accepted the proposal of her nephew, and on 12 April 1511, the parties signed an agreement.


title: Catherine of York

text: On 9 or 10 May 1511 the title of Earl of Devon was recreated for William Courtenay, and the act that prohibited the succession of titles to his children was repealed. The king guaranteed the transfer to the couple of some possessions, seized in favour of the crown from Thomas Courtenay during the reign of Catherine's father. In addition, several estates were personally transferred to Catherine with the right to transfer them by inheritance.


title: Catherine of York

text: By the time all the formalities related to the transfer of the title to William Courtenay were completed, he was already seriously ill; on 9 June 1511 he died of pleurisy at the Palace of Placentia, where he was staying with his wife. The king gave special permission for a magnificent funeral at Blackfriars Abbey; the organization of the funeral was carried out by Catherine, whom her husband in his will called the main executor of his last will. After the funeral, she ordered daily masses to be read and candles to be kept burning around the clock on William's grave.


title: Catherine of York

text: Left a widow at the age of thirty-one, on 6 July 1511, Catherine completed the transfer of her rights to the Earldom of March to the crown and, in order to ensure a further life free from matrimonial plans, she took a vow of celibacy on 13 July in the presence of the Bishop of London, Richard FitzJames. Being by nature very active, Catherine devoted the rest of her life to putting things in order in her possessions and those of her son. On 3 February 1512, she received from the king the right to use for life all the possessions of the late spouse in the Earldom of Devon.


title: Catherine of York

text: In February 1512, Catherine sent a petition to Parliament on behalf of her son, in which she asked to consider the issue of inheriting the title and possessions of his late father by young Henry Courtenay. The petition was read three times in the House of Lords, but consideration of the issue was postponed due to the need to discuss it with the king. The reason for the delay was the fact that some of Henry's ancestral property had been transferred by the king to the Courtenays before William was reinstated. Another reason was the claims to the possessions of Thomas Courtenay by the husbands of his co-heiresses sisters: Sir Hugh Conway (husband of Elizabeth Courtenay), and Sir William Knyvet of Buckenham (husband of Joan Courtenay). In October 1512, Catherine, through the mediation of the Bishop of London, managed to negotiate with both applicants: some lands were transferred to Conway for life use, and a life annuity of £177 was also promised; Knyvet's claims were withdrawn in exchange for a lifetime annuity of £200.


title: Catherine of York

text: In November 1512, Parliament approved the transfer of the title and lands of the late William Courtenay to his ten-year-old son Henry, and over time, Catherine's son joined the circle of those close to the king. She herself also enjoyed the favor of the king and she signed her letters and documents as "Princess Catherine, Countess of Devon, daughter, sister and aunt of kings". In addition, she adopted as her personal coat of arms the royal coat of arms of England, combined with the coat of arms of Courtenay and the addition of the arms of the Earls of Ulster and March.


title: Catherine of York

text: Settling the affairs of her son, Catherine did not forget about her only daughter: in 1512 she began to look for a groom for Margaret. Catherine sent letters to the royal servants with a request to determine the most profitable candidates for the Margaret's husband. Further events are described by historians inconsistently. Mary Anne Everett Green retells a local legend that shortly after her marriage to Henry Somerset (son and heir of the Earl of Worcester), Margaret, during a visit to her mother at Colcombe Castle, choked on a fish bone and died; the same version is confirmed by the inscription on her grave. However, other sources report that Catherine's daughter visited her cousin Mary in 1520. There is no further information about Margaret, and her husband, who inherited his father's title in 1526, was by this time married again.


title: Catherine of York

text: After the death of her husband, Catherine was rarely at court, preferring to live in Tiverton or Colcombe Castles in Devon, although she often received guests in Colcombe. One of the few appearances of the princess at court was the christening of Henry VIII's daughter Mary in 1516, at which Catherine was the godmother. A year earlier, Elizabeth Grey, Viscountess Lisle, was placed under her care and became the first wife of Catherine's son Henry, who was granted several mansions and other benefits. In Tiverton, Catherine was the head of the most powerful family in the area and the owner of a large estate. Her estates, managed by a whole network of employees, brought Catherine an annual income of about £2,750 –a large amount on which the household was supported. In 1519, Sir Hugh Conway died, claiming some of the possessions of Courtenay, and Catherine, through an act of parliament, was returned to the lands that were in the life inteest of the deceased.


title: Catherine of York

text: Detailed records from the early 1520s show that Catherine lived a life befitting her origins: she regularly bought luxury items such as spices, French and Rhenish wines, and expensive fabrics (such as velvet and satin). The princess' chapel had many beautiful vestments, sacred vessels, religious books and images of saints. Catherine was on good terms with the prelates of Devon, received gifts from the Bishop of Exeter and from the abbots of Ford, Buckland and Newenham. In the 1520s, the princess was fond of hunting, listened to minstrels, kept three jesters; on New Year's holidays in 1524, several troupes of actors visited Catherine's house, as well as epiphany singers from Exeter. She often traveled around her possessions, and by the age of 45 she was still active: she rode a lot, hunted and did business. However, the fact that the inventory list of Catherine's property, compiled after her death, included a cart with horses, may indicate a decrease in the activity of the princess in her later years.


title: Catherine of York

text: Catherine maintained good relations with the royal couple: it is known that in 1524 the princess sent them £20 as a gift. She regularly gave gifts to her son, in particular, for the birth of her grandson Edward, she sent Henry £200 pounds and gave another £40 to the messenger who announced her the birth. Historical documents describe the princess as a very kind person: she never quarreled with her neighbors if they happened to shoot game in her possessions, and did not severely punish the poor if they decided to eat strawberries or a rabbit on her land; in addition, she regularly distributed generous alms. In the spring of 1524, Catherine fell ill. Two doctors were called to her bedside; she sent orders to her domain, probably in case of her death, which may indicate the seriousness of the disease. In nearby churches they prayed for Catherine's health. On 2 May 1527, Catherine made a will in which for the most part she took care of her soul: she ordered the payment of £21 a year for an unlimited period to three priests who were to say mass daily in St. Peter's Church in Tiverton in the presence of three poor men, who also received payouts once a week. Catherine died on 15 November 1527 at Tiverton Castle at the age of about forty-nine years and was buried on 2 December with a magnificent ceremony in the local church of St Peter's Church. By her order, all servants were to attend the funeral in black robes and receive an annual salary. Also present at the funeral were the abbots of Ford, Montecut and Torre; the sermon was read by a canon of Exeter Cathedral. 8,000 poor people were given money to pray for the soul of Catherine.


title: Catherine of York

text: On the grave of the princess, by order of her son, a horizontal effigy was installed. During the English Reformation, the chapel in which Catherine was buried was destroyed by Protestants. Subsequently, a burial was discovered that contained the remains of several people, so it was not possible to determine which of them belonged to the last princess from the House of York.


title: Catherine of York

text: Since not a single brother of the princess survived to the reign of the kings from the Tudor dynasty, and her sisters (with the exception of Queen Elizabeth), did not leave surviving descendants recognized by the crown, Catherine's children became the only of all the grandchildren of Edward IV, who inherited dangerous claims to the English throne from the House of York, which played a fatal role in the life of the descendants of the princess. Although Catherine's son, Henry Courtenay, was still in favor with the king for some time after his mother's death, in 1538, thanks to the denunciation of his cousin Geoffrey Pole, Henry's correspondence with Geoffrey's brother, Catholic Cardinal Reginald Pole, who claimed the throne of England, was discovered. Henry, along with his wife Gertrude and son Edward, was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London; a year later, Henry was executed on charges of treason. After the execution of her husband, Gertrude was deprived of her property, but received her freedom. The only son of Gertrude was much less fortunate: he spent most of his life in prison and was released only during the reign of Queen Mary I; in 1554, Edward Courtenay took only a passive part in Wyatt's rebellion, due to which he was expelled from the country, but not executed. He died at Padua in 1556, as the last descendant of Catherine of York.


title: Rum ration

text: The rum ration (also called the tot) was a daily amount of rum given to sailors on Royal Navy ships. It was abolished in 1970 after concerns that the intake of strong alcohol would lead to unsteady hands when working machinery.


title: Rum ration

text: The rum ration, or "tot", from 1850 to 1970 consisted of of rum at 95.5 proof (54.6% ABV), given out at midday. Senior ratings (petty officers and above) received their rum neat, whilst for junior ratings it was diluted with two parts of water to make of grog. Rum, due to its highly flammable nature, was stored in large barrels in a special rum store in the bowels of the ship. The rum ration was served from one particular barrel, known as the "Rum Tub", which was ornately decorated and was made of oak and reinforced with brass bands with brass letters saying "The Queen, God Bless Her".


title: Rum ration

text: Not all sailors necessarily drew their rum: each had the option to be marked in the ship's books as "G" (for Grog) or "T" (for Temperance). Sailors who opted to be "T" were given threepence (3d) a day instead of the rum ration, although most preferred the rum. Sailors under 20 were not permitted a rum ration, and were marked on the ship's books as "UA" (Under Age).


title: Rum ration

text: The time when the rum ration was distributed was called "Up Spirits", which was between 11 am and 12 noon. A common cry from the sailors was "Standfast the Holy Ghost". This was in response to the bosun's call "Up Spirits". Each mess had a "Rum Bosun" who would collect the rum in a metal container called a " fanny " from the Supply rating (Jack Dusty) responsible for measuring out the right number of tots for each mess. The officers did not get a rum ration (but had unrationed access to a range of duty-free commercial spirits).


title: Rum ration

text: Tot glasses were kept separate from any other glasses. They were washed on the outside, but never inside, in the belief that residue of past tots would stick to the side of the glass and make the tot even stronger.


title: Rum ration

text: A sailor's ration of alcohol was originally beer with a daily ration of one gallon (i.e. eight pints). This official allowance continued until after the Napoleonic Wars. When beer was not available, as it would often spoil easily, it could be substituted by a pint of wine or half a pint of spirits depending on what was locally available. In later years, the political influence of the West Indian planters led to rum being given the preference over arrack and other spirits. The half-pint of spirits was originally issued neat; it is said that sailors would "prove" its strength by checking that gunpowder doused with rum would still burn (thus verifying that rum was at least 57% ABV).


title: Rum ration

text: The practice of compulsorily diluting rum in the proportion of half a pint to one quart of water (1:4) was first introduced in the 1740s by Admiral Edward Vernon (known as Old Grog, because of his habitual grogram cloak). The ration was also split into two servings, one between 10 am and noon and the other between 4 and 6 pm. In 1795 Navy regulations required adding small quantities of lemon or lime juice to the ration, to prevent scurvy. The rum itself was often procured from distillers in Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago and the British Virgin Islands. Rations were cut in half in 1823 and again in half, to the traditional amount, in 1850.


title: Rum ration

text: The abolition of the rum ration had been discussed in Parliament in 1850 and again in 1881 however nothing came of it. In 1970, Admiral Peter Hill-Norton abolished the rum ration as he felt it could have led to sailors failing a breathalyser test and being less capable to manage complex machinery. This decision to end the rum ration was made after the Secretary of State for Defence had taken opinions from several ranks of the Navy. Ratings were instead allowed to purchase beer, and the amount allowed was determined, according to the MP David Owen, by the amount of space available for stowing the extra beer in ships. The last rum ration was on 31 July 1970 and became known as Black Tot Day as sailors were unhappy about the loss of the rum ration. There were reports that the day involved sailors throwing tots into the sea and the staging of a mock funeral in a training camp. In place of the rum ration, sailors were allowed to buy three cans of beer a day and improved recreational facilities. While the rum ration was abolished, the order to "splice the mainbrace", awarding sailors an extra tot of rum for good service, remained as a command which could only be given by the Monarch and is still used to recognise good service. Rum rations are also given on special occasions: in recent years, examples included the 100th anniversary of the Royal Canadian Navy in 2010 and after the Queen's Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2012.


title: Rum ration

text: In the United States Navy, the daily ration was of distilled spirits until 1842, when it was reduced to . It was abolished in 1862.


title: Rum ration

text: While the Royal Australian Navy never issued the rum ration, their sailors were entitled to the rum ration when they were on Royal Navy ships until 1921.


title: Rum ration

text: The Royal Canadian Navy abolished the rum ration in 1972, and the last navy to issue the rum ration regularly, the Royal New Zealand Navy, abolished the practice on 28 February 1990.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: Manslaughter is a crime in the United States. Definitions can vary among jurisdictions, but manslaughter is invariably the act of causing the death of another person in a manner less culpable than murder. Three types of unlawful killings constitute manslaughter. First, there is voluntary manslaughter which is an intentional homicide committed in "sudden heat of passion" as the result of adequate provocation. Second, there is the form of involuntary manslaughter which is an unintentional homicide that was committed in a criminally negligent manner. Finally, there is the form of involuntary manslaughter which is an unintentional homicide that occurred during the commission or attempted commission of an unlawful act which does not amount to a felony (thereby triggering the felony-murder rule).


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: Voluntary manslaughter involves the intentional killing of a person in which the offender did not have prior intent to kill. The defendant may have the intention of causing serious injury short of death.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: The following are some examples of defenses that may be raised to mitigate murder to voluntary manslaughter:


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: A killing that occurs after adequate "provocation" by an event which would cause a reasonable person to lose self-control is voluntary manslaughter. There must not be a "cooling off period" negating provocation. If there is an interval between the provocation and killing sufficient to allow the passion of a reasonable person to cool, the homicide is not manslaughter, but murder.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In the United States, jurisdictions vary on what counts as adequate provocation. Traditionally, there were five categories which constituted adequate provocation: (1) observation of sexual marital infidelity, (2) assault and battery, (3) mutual combat, (4) witnessing harm to a loved one, and (5) resistance to an illegal arrest. Courts have since moved on to less restrictive rules which look at whether the provocation was of such a nature that it would cause an ordinary person to enter a heightened state of passion and lose their self-control. Nonetheless, regardless of the rule used to determine adequate provocation, under the common law words alone are almost always never enough. However, that does not apply to jurisdictions which use the Model Penal Code.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In some jurisdictions, a person who acted in self-defense with an honest but "unreasonable" belief that deadly force was necessary to do so can reduce a murder charge to one of voluntary manslaughter or deliberate homicide committed without criminal malice. ("Malice" is found if a person is killed intentionally and without legal excuse or mitigation.)


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: Diminished capacity is a defense that may negate the mental state of "malice". If a jurisdiction recognizes that a person can kill without justification but also without any evil intent, for example due to a mental defect or mental illness, that jurisdiction may define the person's crime as something less than murder. This partial defense is only available in some U.S. jurisdictions and not others; whereas the complete defense of insanity is available throughout the U.S. but is rarely used because it is more difficult to prove.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: Involuntary manslaughter is the killing of another person without the intent to kill, but where the person's death occurs as a result of the negligent or reckless actions of the defendant.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In the United States, "constructive manslaughter", also known as "unlawful act manslaughter", is a lesser version of felony murder, and covers a person who causes the death of another while committing a misdemeanorthat is, a violation of law that does not rise to the level of a felony. Such a law may allow for conviction for the homicide if the misdemeanor law that was violated by the defendant is a law designed to protect human life.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In some U.S. jurisdictions, if a person is so reckless as to "manifest extreme indifference to human life", the defendant may be guilty of aggravated assault as well as of involuntary manslaughter.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In some U.S. jurisdictions, malice may be found if the defendant's actions reflect "willful" or "depraved" indifference to human life. In such a case, even though the injury to the victim was not intended, the wrongdoer may be guilty of "second degree murder".


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: Vehicular manslaughter is a class C felony which holds people liable for any death which occurs because of criminal negligence, or a violation of traffic safety laws. A common use of the vehicular manslaughter laws involves prosecution for a death caused by driving under the influence of intoxicating substances (determined by excessive blood alcohol content levels set by individual U.S. states), although an independent infraction (such as driving with a suspended driver's license), or negligence, is usually also required.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In Wisconsin, a person who causes death with any type of motor vehicle while legally intoxicated may be liable and charged with homicide by intoxicated use of a motor vehicle. Culpability lies with the perpetrator. The maximum penalty for homicide by intoxicated use of a vehicle is twenty-five years in prison, but with a prior OWI offense the maximum penalty may be increased to forty years in prison.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In the State of Texas, "intoxication manslaughter" is a distinctly defined offense. A person commits intoxication manslaughter if he, or she, operates a motor vehicle in a public place, operates an aircraft, a watercraft, or an amusement ride, or assembles a mobile amusement ride while intoxicated and, by reason of that intoxication, causes the death of another by accident or mistake.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: Intoxication manslaughter, vehicular manslaughter and other similar offenses require a lesser mens rea than other manslaughter offenses. Furthermore, the fact that the defendant is entitled to use the alcohol, controlled substance, drug, dangerous drug, or other substance, is no defense. For example, to prove intoxication manslaughter, it is "not" necessary to prove the person was negligent in causing the death of another, nor that they unlawfully used the substance that intoxicated them, but only that they were intoxicated, and operated a motor vehicle, and someone died as a result.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: The same principle of strict liability applies in New York for vehicular manslaughter in the second degree.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: In some U.S. states, assisted suicide is punishable as manslaughter, while others classify it as an independent criminal offense or as a form of murder.


title: Manslaughter (United States law)

text: As each state has its own statutes, law that cover the same criminal conduct may have different names. For example:


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Percy Wyndham Lewis (18 November 1882 – 7 March 1957) was a British writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of the Vorticist movement in art and edited "BLAST," the literary magazine of the Vorticists.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: His novels include "Tarr" (1918) and "The Human Age" trilogy, composed of "The Childermass" (1928), "Monstre Gai" (1955) and "Malign Fiesta" (1955). A fourth volume, titled "The Trial of Man", was unfinished at the time of his death. He also wrote two autobiographical volumes: "Blasting and Bombardiering" (1937) and "Rude Assignment: A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date" (1950).


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Lewis was born on 18 November 1882, reputedly on his father's yacht off the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. His English mother, Anne Stuart Lewis (née Prickett), and American father, Charles Edward Lewis, separated about 1893. His mother subsequently returned to England. Lewis was educated in England at Rugby School and then Slade School of Fine Art, University College London. He spent most of the 1900s travelling around Europe and studying art in Paris. While in Paris, he attended lectures by Henri Bergson on process philosophy.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 1908, Lewis moved to London, where he would reside for much of his life. In 1909, he published his first work, accounts of his travels in Brittany, in Ford Madox Ford's "The English Review". He was a founding member of the Camden Town Group, which brought him into close contact with the Bloomsbury Group, particularly Roger Fry and Clive Bell, with whom he soon fell out.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 1912, Lewis exhibited his work at the second Postimpressionist exhibition: Cubo-Futurist illustrations to "Timon of Athens" and three major oil paintings. In 1912, he was commissioned to produce a decorative mural, a drop curtain, and more designs for The Cave of the Golden Calf, an avant-garde cabaret and nightclub on Heddon Street.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: From 1913 to 1915, Lewis developed the style of geometric abstraction for which he is best known today, which his friend Ezra Pound dubbed "Vorticism". Lewis sought to combine the strong structure of Cubism, which he found was not "alive", with the liveliness of Futurist art, which lacked structure. The combination was a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity. In his early visual works, Lewis may have been influenced by Bergson's process philosophy. Though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss (19 April 1949) that he "began by embracing his evolutionary system." Nietzsche was an equally important influence.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Lewis had a brief tenure at Roger Fry's Omega Workshops, but left after a quarrel with Fry over a commission to provide wall decorations for the Daily Mail Ideal Home Exhibition, which Lewis believed Fry had misappropriated. He and several other Omega artists started a competing workshop called the Rebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for only four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group and its publication, "BLAST". In "BLAST," Lewis formally expounded the Vorticist aesthetic in a manifesto, distinguishing it from other avant-garde practices. He also wrote and published a play, "Enemy of the Stars". It is a proto-absurdist, Expressionist drama. Lewis scholar Melania Terrazas identifies it as a precursor to the plays of Samuel Beckett.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 1915, the Vorticists held their only U.K. exhibition before the movement broke up, largely as a result of World War I. Lewis himself was posted to the western front and served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. Much of his time was spent in Forward Observation Posts looking down at apparently deserted German lines, registering targets and calling down fire from batteries massed around the rim of the Ypres Salient. He made vivid accounts of narrow misses and deadly artillery duels.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: After the Third Battle of Ypres, Lewis was appointed an official war artist for both the Canadian and British governments. For the Canadians, he painted (1918) from sketches made on Vimy Ridge. For the British, he painted one of his best-known works, "A Battery Shelled" (1919), drawing on his own experience at Ypres. Lewis exhibited his war drawings and some other paintings of the war in an exhibition, "Guns", in 1918.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Although the Vorticist group broke up after the war, Lewis's patron, John Quinn, organized a Vorticist exhibition at the Penguin Club in New York in 1917. His first novel, "Tarr", was serialized in "The Egoist" during 1916–17 and published in book form in 1918. It is widely regarded as one of the key modernist texts.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Lewis later documented his experiences and opinions of this period of his life in the autobiographical "Blasting and Bombardiering" (1937), which covered his life up to 1926.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: After the war, Lewis resumed his career as a painter with a major exhibition, "Tyros and Portraits", at the Leicester Galleries in 1921. "Tyros" were satirical caricatures intended to comment on the culture of the "new epoch" that succeeded the First World War. "A Reading of Ovid" and "Mr Wyndham Lewis as a Tyro" are the only surviving oil paintings from this series. Lewis also launched his second magazine, "The Tyro", of which there were only two issues. The second (1922) contained an important statement of Lewis's visual aesthetic: "Essay on the Objective of Plastic Art in our Time". It was during the early 1920s that he perfected his incisive draughtsmanship.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: By the late 1920s, he concentrated on writing. He launched yet another magazine, "The Enemy" (1927–1929), largely written by himself and declaring its belligerent critical stance in its title. The magazine and other theoretical and critical works he published from 1926 to 1929 mark a deliberate separation from the avant-garde and his previous associates. He believed that their work failed to show sufficient critical awareness of those ideologies that worked against truly revolutionary change in the West, and therefore became a vehicle for these pernicious ideologies. His major theoretical and cultural statement from this period is "The Art of Being Ruled" (1926).


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: "Time and Western Man" (1927) is a cultural and philosophical discussion that includes penetrating critiques of James Joyce, Gertrude Stein and Ezra Pound that are still read. Lewis also attacked the process philosophy of Bergson, Samuel Alexander, Alfred North Whitehead, and others. By 1931 he was advocating the art of ancient Egypt as impossible to surpass.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 1930 Lewis published "The Apes of God", a biting satirical attack on the London literary scene, including a long chapter caricaturing the Sitwell family, which may have harmed his position in the literary world. In 1937 he published "The Revenge for Love," set in the period leading up to the Spanish Civil War and regarded by many as his best novel. It is strongly critical of communist activity in Spain and presents English intellectual fellow travellers as deluded.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Despite serious illness necessitating several operations, he was very productive as a critic and painter. He produced a book of poems, "One-Way Song", in 1933, and a revised version of "Enemy of the Stars". An important book of critical essays also belongs to this period: "Men without Art" (1934). It grew out of a defence of Lewis's satirical practice in "The Apes of God" and puts forward a theory of 'non-moral', or metaphysical, satire. The book is probably best remembered for one of the first commentaries on Faulkner and a famous essay on Hemingway.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: After becoming better known for his writing than his painting in the 1920s and early 1930s, he returned to more concentrated work on visual art, and paintings from the 1930s and 1940s constitute some of his best-known work. The "Surrender of Barcelona" (1936–37) makes a significant statement about the Spanish Civil War. It was included in an exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in 1937 that Lewis hoped would re-establish his reputation as a painter. After the publication in "The Times" of a letter of support for the exhibition, asking that something from the show be purchased for the national collection (signed by, among others, Stephen Spender, W. H. Auden, Geoffrey Grigson, Rebecca West, Naomi Mitchison, Henry Moore and Eric Gill) the Tate Gallery bought the painting, "Red Scene". Like others from the exhibition, it shows an influence from Surrealism and de Chirico's Metaphysical Painting. Lewis was highly critical of the ideology of Surrealism, but admired the visual qualities of some Surrealist art.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: During this period, Lewis also produced many of his most well-known portraits, including pictures of Edith Sitwell (1923–1936), T. S. Eliot (1938 and 1949), and Ezra Pound (1939). His 1938 portrait of Eliot was rejected by the selection committee of the Royal Academy for their annual exhibition and caused a furore, when Augustus John resigned in protest.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Lewis spent World War II in the United States and Canada. In 1941, in Toronto, he produced a series of watercolour fantasies centred on themes of creation, crucifixion and bathing.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: He grew to appreciate the cosmopolitan and "rootless" nature of the American melting pot, declaring that the greatest advantage of being American was to have "turned one's back on race, caste, and all that pertains to the rooted state." He praised the contributions of African-Americans to American culture, and regarded Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco as the "best North American artists," predicting that when "the Indian culture of Mexico melts into the great American mass to the North, the Indian will probably give it its art." He returned to England in 1945.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: By 1951, he was completely blinded by a pituitary tumor that placed pressure on his optic nerve. It ended his artistic career, but he continued writing until his death. He published several autobiographical and critical works: "Rude Assignment" (1950), "Rotting Hill" (1951), a collection of allegorical short stories about his life in "the capital of a dying empire"; "The Writer and the Absolute" (1952), a book of essays on writers including George Orwell, Jean-Paul Sartre and André Malraux; and the semi-autobiographical novel "Self Condemned" (1954).


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: The BBC commissioned Lewis to complete his 1928 work "The Childermass", which was published as "The Human Age" and dramatized for the BBC Third Programme in 1955. In 1956, the Tate Gallery held a major exhibition of his work, "Wyndham Lewis and Vorticism", in the catalogue to which he declared that "Vorticism, in fact, was what I, personally, did and said at a certain period"—a statement which brought forth a series of "Vortex Pamphlets" from his fellow "BLAST" signatory William Roberts.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: From 1918 to 1921, Lewis lived with Iris Barry, with whom he had two children. He is said to have shown little affection for them.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 1930, Lewis married Gladys Anne Hoskins (1900–1979), 18 years his junior and affectionately known as Froanna. They lived together for 10 years before marrying and never had children.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Lewis kept Froanna in the background, and many of his friends were unaware of her existence. It seems that Lewis was extraordinarily jealous and protective of his wife, owing to her youth and beauty. Froanna was patient and caring toward her husband through financial troubles and his frequent illnesses. She was the model for some of Lewis's more tender and intimate portraits as well as a number of characters in his fiction. In contrast to his earlier, impersonal portraits, which are purely concerned with external appearance, the portraits of Froanna show a preoccupation with her inner life.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Always interested in Roman Catholicism, he never converted. He died in 1957 and was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. By the time of his death, Lewis had written 40 books in all.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 1931, after a visit to Berlin, Lewis published "Hitler" (1931), a book presenting Adolf Hitler as a "man of peace" whose party-members were threatened by communist street violence. His unpopularity among liberals and anti-fascists grew, especially after Hitler came to power in 1933. Following a second visit to Germany in 1937, Lewis changed his views and began to retract his previous political comments. He recognized the reality of Nazi treatment of Jews after a visit to Berlin in 1937. In 1939, he published an attack on anti-semitism titled "The Jews, Are They Human?", which was favourably reviewed in "The Jewish Chronicle". He also published "The Hitler Cult" (1939), which firmly revoked his earlier support for Hitler.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Politically, Lewis remained an isolated figure through the 1930s. In "Letter to Lord Byron", W. H. Auden called Lewis "that lonely old volcano of the Right." Lewis thought there was what he called a "left-wing orthodoxy" in Britain in the 1930s. He believed it was against Britain's self-interest to ally with the Soviet Union, "which the newspapers most of us read tell us has slaughtered out-of-hand, only a few years ago, millions of its better fed citizens, as well as its whole imperial family."


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In "Anglosaxony: A League that Works" (1941), Lewis reflected on his earlier support for fascism:Fascism – once I understood it – left me colder than communism. The latter at least pretended, at the start, to have something to do with helping the helpless and making the world a more decent and sensible place. It does start from the human being and his suffering. Whereas fascism glorifies bloodshed and preaches that man should model himself upon the wolf.His sense that America and Canada lacked a British-type class structure had increased his opinion of liberal democracy, and in the same pamphlet, Lewis defends liberal democracy's respect for individual freedom against its critics on both the left and right. In "America and Cosmic Man" (1949), Lewis argued that Franklin Delano Roosevelt had successfully managed to reconcile individual rights with the demands of the state.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In recent years, there has been renewed critical and biographical interest in Lewis and his work, and he is now regarded as a major British artist and writer of the twentieth century. Rugby School hosted an exhibition of his works in November 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. The National Portrait Gallery in London held a major retrospective of his portraits in 2008. Two years later, held at the Fundación Juan March (Madrid, Spain), a large exhibition ("Wyndham Lewis 1882–1957") featured a comprehensive collection of Lewis's paintings and drawings. As Tom Lubbock pointed out, it was "the retrospective that Britain has never managed to get together.".


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 2010, Oxford World Classics published a critical edition of the 1928 text of "Tarr", edited by Scott W. Klein of Wake Forest University. The Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University held an exhibition entitled "The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–18" from 30 September 2010 through 2 January 2011. The exhibition then travelled to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection, Venice (29 January – 15 May 2011: "I Vorticisti: Artisti ribellia a Londra e New York, 1914–1918") and then to Tate Britain under the title "The Vorticists: Manifesto for a Modern World" between 14 June and 4 September 2011.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: Several readings by Lewis are collected on "The Enemy Speaks", an audiobook CD published in 2007 and featuring extracts from "One Way Song" and "The Apes of God", as well as radio talks titled "When John Bull Laughs" (1938), "A Crisis of Thought" (1947) and "The Essential Purposes of Art" (1951).


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: A blue plaque now stands on the house in Kensington, London, where Lewis lived, No. 61 Palace Gardens Terrace.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In his essay "Good Bad Books", George Orwell presents Lewis as the exemplary writer who is cerebral without being artistic. Orwell wrote, "Enough talent to set up dozens of ordinary writers has been poured into Wyndham Lewis's so-called novels… Yet it would be a very heavy labour to read one of these books right through. Some indefinable quality, a sort of literary vitamin, which exists even in a book like [1921 melodrama<nowiki>]</nowiki> "If Winter Comes", is absent from them."


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: In 1932, Walter Sickert sent Lewis a telegram in which he said that Lewis's pencil portrait of Rebecca West proved him to be "the greatest portraitist of this or any other time."


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: For many years, Lewis's novels have been criticised for their satirical and hostile portrayals of Jews. "Tarr" was revised and republished in 1928, giving a new Jewish character a key role in making sure a duel is fought. This has been interpreted as an allegorical representation of a supposed Zionist conspiracy against the West. His literary satire "The Apes of God" has been interpreted similarly, because many of the characters are Jewish, including the modernist author and editor Julius Ratner, a portrait which blends anti-semitic stereotype with historical literary figures John Rodker and James Joyce.


title: Wyndham Lewis

text: A key feature of these interpretations is that Lewis is held to have kept his conspiracy theories hidden and marginalized. Since the publication of Anthony Julius's "T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form" (1995), where Lewis's anti-semitism is described as "essentially trivial", this view is no longer taken seriously.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: Dilution of precision (DOP), or geometric dilution of precision (GDOP), is a term used in satellite navigation and geomatics engineering to specify the error propagation as a mathematical effect of navigation satellite geometry on positional measurement precision.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: The concept of dilution of precision (DOP) originated with users of the Loran-C navigation system. The idea of Geometric DOP is to state how errors in the measurement will affect the final state estimation. This can be defined as:


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: Conceptually you can geometrically imagine errors on a measurement resulting in the formula_2 term changing. Ideally small changes in the measured data will not result in large changes in output location. The opposite of this ideal is the situation where the solution is very sensitive to measurement errors. The interpretation of this formula is shown in the figure to the right, showing two possible scenarios with acceptable and poor GDOP.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: More recently, the term has come into much wider usage with the development and adoption of GPS. Neglecting ionospheric and tropospheric effects, the signal from navigation satellites has a fixed precision. Therefore, the relative satellite-receiver geometry plays a major role in determining the precision of estimated positions and times. Due to the relative geometry of any given satellite to a receiver, the precision in the pseudorange of the satellite translates to a corresponding component in each of the four dimensions of position measured by the receiver (i.e., formula_3, formula_4, formula_5, and formula_6). The precision of multiple satellites in view of a receiver combine according to the relative position of the satellites to determine the level of precision in each dimension of the receiver measurement. When visible navigation satellites are close together in the sky, the geometry is said to be weak and the DOP value is high; when far apart, the geometry is strong and the DOP value is low. Consider two overlapping rings, or annuli, of different centres. If they overlap at right angles, the greatest extent of the overlap is much smaller than if they overlap in near parallel. Thus a low DOP value represents a better positional precision due to the wider angular separation between the satellites used to calculate a unit's position. Other factors that can increase the effective DOP are obstructions such as nearby mountains or buildings.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: These values follow mathematically from the positions of the usable satellites. Signal receivers allow the display of these positions ("skyplot") as well as the DOP values.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: The term can also be applied to other location systems that employ several geographical spaced sites. It can occur in electronic-counter-counter-measures (electronic warfare) when computing the location of enemy emitters (radar jammers and radio communications devices). Using such an interferometry technique can provide certain geometric layout where there are degrees of freedom that cannot be accounted for due to inadequate configurations.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: The effect of geometry of the satellites on position error is called geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) and it is roughly interpreted as ratio of position error to the range error. Imagine that a square pyramid is formed by lines joining four satellites with the receiver at the tip of the pyramid. The larger the volume of the pyramid, the better (lower) the value of GDOP; the smaller its volume, the worse (higher) the value of GDOP will be. Similarly, the greater the number of satellites, the better the value of GDOP.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: The DOP factors are functions of the diagonal elements of the covariance matrix of the parameters, expressed either in a global or a local geodetic frame.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: where formula_9 denote the position of the receiver and formula_10 denote the position of satellite i. Formulate the matrix, A, which (for 4 pseudorange measurement residual equations) is:


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: The first three elements of each row of "A" are the components of a unit vector from the receiver to the indicated satellite. The last element of each row refers to the partial derivative of pseudorange w.r.t. receiver's clock bias.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: In general: formula_13 where formula_14 is the Jacobian of the sensor measurement residual equations formula_15, with respect to the unknowns, formula_16; formula_17 is the Jacobian of the sensor measurement residual equations with respect to the measured quantities formula_18, and formula_19 is the correlation matrix for noise in the measured quantities. For the preceding case of 4 range measurement residual equations: formula_20, formula_21, formula_22, formula_23, formula_24, formula_25, formula_26, formula_27 and the measurement noises for the different formula_28 have been assumed to be independent which makes formula_29. This formula for Q arises from applying best linear unbiased estimation to a linearized version of the sensor measurement residual equations about the current solution formula_30, except in the case of B.L.U.E. formula_19 is a noise covariance matrix rather than the noise correlation matrix used in DOP, and the reason DOP makes this substitution is to obtain a relative error. When formula_19 is a noise covariance matrix, formula_33 is an estimate of the matrix of covariance of noise in the unknowns due to the noise in the measured quantities. It is the estimate obtained by the First Order Second Moment (F.O.S.M.) uncertainty quantification technique which was state of the art in the 1980s. In order for the F.O.S.M. theory to be strictly applicable, either the input noise distributions need to be Gaussian or the measurement noise standard deviations need to be small relative to rate of change in the output near the solution. In this context, the second criteria is typically the one that is satisfied.


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: This (i.e. for the 4 time of arrival/range measurement residual equations) computation is in accordance with [6] where the weighting matrix,


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: Note that P only simplifies down to the Identity matrix because all the sensor measurement residual equations are time of arrival (pseudo range) equations. In other cases, for example when trying to locate someone broadcasting on an International distress frequency, formula_35 would not simplify down to the identity matrix and in that case there would be a "Frequency DOP" or FDOP component either in addition to or in place of the TDOP component. (Regarding "in place of the TDOP component": Since the clocks on the legacy International Cospas-Sarsat Programme LEO satellites are much less accurate than GPS clocks, discarding their time measurements would actually increase the geolocation solution accuracy.)


title: Dilution of precision (navigation)

text: are both dependent on the coordinate system used. To correspond to the local horizon plane and the local vertical in either a north, east, up coordinate system.


title: Guadalupe Peak

text: Guadalupe Peak, also known as Signal Peak, is the highest natural point in Texas, with an elevation of above sea level. It is located in Guadalupe Mountains National Park, and is part of the Guadalupe Mountains range in southeastern New Mexico and West Texas. The mountain is about east of El Paso and about southwest of Carlsbad, New Mexico. The peak rises more than above the arid floor of the Chihuahuan Desert.


title: Guadalupe Peak

text: The peak can be climbed by a maintained stony trail ( each way) with a 3,000 feet elevation gain at any time of the year. The trail is part of the network of hiking trails in the surrounding national park.


title: Guadalupe Peak

text: A stainless steel pyramid marks the summit. It was erected by American Airlines in 1958 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Butterfield Overland Mail, a stagecoach route that passed south of the mountain. One side of the pyramid has the American Airlines logo. The second side displays a U.S. Postal Service tribute to the Pony Express Riders of the Butterfield Stage. The third side displays a compass with the logo of the Boy Scouts of America.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The 1st Cavalry Regiment is a United States Army regiment that has its antecedents in the early 19th century in the formation of the United States Regiment of Dragoons. To this day, the unit's special designation is "First Regiment of Dragoons". While they were the First Regiment of Dragoons another unit designated the 1st Cavalry Regiment was formed in 1855 and in 1861 was re-designated as the 4th Cavalry Regiment (units were renumbered based on seniority and it was the fourth oldest mounted regiment in active service). The First Dragoons became the 1st Cavalry Regiment since they were the oldest mounted regiment.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), Continental forces patterned cavalry units after those of the opposing British forces, especially the well-supplied mounted dragoons of the British Army. The first cavalry unit formed by the Congress of the United States of America was a squadron of four troops (the Squadron of Light Dragoons) commanded by Major Michael Rudolph on 5 March 1792 (the troops would then be incorporated into the Legion of the United States (1792 to 1796)). In 1796 the dragoons were reduced to two companies, were dismounted units by 1800 and disbanded in 1802. In 1808 the Regiment of Light Dragoons was formed and in 1812 another regiment (2nd Regiment of Light Dragoons) was raised. Units of both regiments of dragoons served during the War of 1812 in engagements at the Battle of the Mississinewa; the Battle of Lundy's Lane; Fort Erie and the Siege of Fort Meigs. The 1st Regiment and 2nd Regiment were consolidated on 30 March 1814 into the single Regiment of Light Dragoons of eight troops, but this unit was dissolved in 1815 (the rationale was that cavalry forces were too expensive to maintain as part of a standing army, so Congress insisted on economy and a minimum standing Army).


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The "United States Regiment of Dragoons" was organized by an Act of Congress approved on 2 March 1833 after the disbandment of the "Battalion of Mounted Rangers" (formed in 1832 due to a lack of mounted units to patrol the frontier and also in response to the Black Hawk War). The first order announcing appointments in the regiment was dated 5 March 1833, and gave the names of the colonel, lieutenant-colonel, major, four captains and four lieutenants, stating that the organization of the regiment would be perfected by the selection of officers from the "Battalion of Mounted Rangers."


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In June 1834, the regiment filled its complement of officers, many of whom later became noted Civil War generals:


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In October 1833, the five companies first organized were sent under Colonel Dodge to winter in the vicinity of Fort Gibson, Arkansas Territory, where they remained until June 1834. Then, the regiment was sent on the First Dragoon Expedition, or the Pawnee Expedition, during which, although it ended in September, a full one-fourth of the officers and men died of fever. For the winter, Headquarters with Companies A, C, D and G, were sent to Fort Leavenworth; Companies B, H and I, Lieutenant Colonel Kearny, commanding, into the Indian country on the right bank of the Mississippi River, near the mouth of the Des Moines River; and Companies E, F and K, Major Mason commanding, to Fort Gibson. Throughout the summer of 1835, all the companies of the regiment were kept in the field.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The regiment became the "First Regiment of Dragoons" when the Second Regiment of Dragoons was raised in 1836, however, the general disposition of the regiment remained unchanged. The various companies were employed in scouting among the Indians, especially along the Missouri frontier, with a portion of the regiment going to Nacogdoches, Texas, to keep white trespassers from the Indian lands, and preserving peace between whites and Indians and among the Indians themselves; also in building wagon roads and bridges. During the winter, the companies returned to their respective stations – Forts Leavenworth, Gibson and Des Moines.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Colonel Dodge resigned on 4 July 1836, and was appointed Governor of Wisconsin. He was succeeded by Lieutenant Colonel Kearny. The regiment was not heavily engaged in the Florida war, although it did take some minor casualties, including a lieutenant. In March 1837, a regimental order designated the color of the horses of each company as follows: A and K, black; B, F and H, sorrel; C, D, E and I, bay; and G, iron gray.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In October 1837, and again in March 1838, Colonel Kearny led elements of the regiment to quell Osage Indians. In April 1839, the army created Fort Wayne in Indian Territory, and Companies E, F, G and K, were stationed there for several years, with occasional forays into the field to chase hostile Indians. Kearny was promoted to brigadier general on 30 June 1846, and was succeeded by Colonel Mason.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: General Kearny was placed in command of the "Army of the West (1846)", which consisted of Companies B, C, G, I and K, 1st Dragoons, an artillery battalion, some separate infantry companies, two regiments of Missouri volunteer cavalry, the volunteer Mormon Battalion, and the 1st Regiment of New York Volunteers, which sailed from New York City to California by ship. All in all, the Army of the West consisted of about 3,700 men, which ventured west to New Mexico, some of whom did not reach California. This command was concentrated at Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River, from which point it marched for Santa Fé on 1 August 1846. The force occupied Santa Fé without much opposition, and, after leaving part of his force there, Kearny marched into California, arriving in December.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On the morning of 6 December 1846, Kearny's 150-man command met and defeated an equal number of California lancers at San Pasqual, about 40 miles from San Diego, under Major Andrés Pico. The action was severe, with the 1st Dragoons losing 3 officers and 14 men killed, principally with lance thrusts. General Kearny himself received two wounds. His force finally reached San Diego on 12 December 1846.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Kearny, with a force consisting of Company C, 1st Dragoons, (60 dismounted men) under Captain Turner, sailors and marines with a battery of artillery and California volunteers, left San Diego for Los Angeles on 29 December. Kearny's troops routed Mexicans under Governor Flores at the crossing of the Rio San Gabriel on 8 January 1847, and on the plains of La Mesa on 9 January. With the capture of Los Angeles on the following day, all Mexican resistance to the American occupation of Southern California ceased.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Kearny had left Companies G and I at Albuquerque under Capt. J. H. K. Burgwin. When Col. Sterling Price (then in command at Santa Fé) learned of the seizure and murder of the New Mexico Governor Charles Bent and five others by the Mexicans (20 January), he moved out against them with a force of about 350 dismounted men and easily defeated them, on 24 January, at Canada. Captain Burgwin defeated another Mexican force shortly thereafter and rejoined Price's column for a series of further battles.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: During 1847, regimental headquarters were still at Leavenworth and Companies A and E were with Zachary Taylor in Mexico. Early in the year, Company B was reorganized at Jefferson Barracks before being sent to Santa Fe in June. On 26 June, while en route, the company was engaged by 300-400 Comanches at Grand Prairie, Arkansas, losing five men killed and six wounded. They were the first unit of the Regiment to seriously tangle with the frontier Indians. Upon reaching Santa Fe, on 6 August with the $350,000 they had been escorting, Company B was retrained as a field artillery battery to support the regiment.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Companies D, F and K saw service on Scott's line in Mexico. Company F escorted General Scott from Veracruz to Mexico City and was present at the battles near that city. From 1 November to 20 December, it was engaged on escort duty between the city and Vera Cruz. In 1848, the three companies returned to the United States and were stationed at various points on the northwestern frontier. Companies B, G, and I served with General Sterling Price in February – March 1848 in his campaign down into the State of Chihuahua and participated in the attack on Santa Cruz de Rosales. Company D was sent to the Minnesota Territory commanded by Lieut. J. W. T. Gardiner. In the summer of 1849 they escorted Maj. Woods of the 6th Infantry at Fort Snelling, to mark a northern boundary line and select a site for a future fortification near Pembina.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In September 1848, the First Regiment of Dragoons rode out of Fort Kearny and returned to Fort Leavenworth in Kansas and trained their new recruits. On 11 May 1849, the regiment rode further west, and along with two companies of the 6th Infantry Regiment, guarded the treacherous Oregon Trail in the heart of Pawnee territory. In October, an engagement on the Little Blue River near Linden, Nebraska and another engagement on the Platte River resulted in numerous Pawnee fatalities, and 5 Dragoon casualties. On 15 May 1850, J. W. Davidson and Captain Nathaniel Lyon led a regiment of the 1st U.S. Dragoons in a massacre of 60 Pomo Native Americans at Clear Lake, California, the 1850 "Bloody Island Massacre";


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Brevet Brigadier General Mason, Colonel of the 1st Dragoons, died at Jefferson Barracks, on 25 July 1850, and was succeeded by Col. Thomas T. Fauntleroy, promoted from the Second Dragoons. In 1853, the newly acquired Southwest erupted in violence between the US and local Indian tribes. After a reorganization period, elements of the 1st Regiment of Dragoons set out for New Mexico on 1 July 1854. The year of 1854 was rough for the Dragoons; heavy casualties and a tenacious enemy took their toll.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Earlier in the year, on 30 March 1854, Companies F and I were stationed at Cantonment Burgwin in New Mexico, and Lieutenant J. W. Davidson, with Company I and 16 men of Company F, disobeyed his orders and boldly attacked a Jicarilla Apache camp about 16 miles south of Taos at Cieneguilla. The Indian camp was surprised and captured; while securing the camp, the troops were surprised by more Indians, who attacked the Dragoon horse-holders and took Davidson at such disadvantage that the command narrowly escaped annihilation. Fourteen men of Company I and eight of Company F were killed; Lieutenant Davidson and 14 men were wounded. Regimental headquarters was transferred to Fort Union, New Mexico Territory, in July 1854, when the rest of the regiment arrived. Throughout the following year, the companies in New Mexico were almost constantly on the move. Colonel Fauntleroy made three expeditions against the Utes and Apaches, and Companies I and K fought the Apaches. On 17 January 1855, Companies B, G, and part of K were attacked at night by a band of Apaches while camped near the Penasco River. Despite being repulsed, the Indians adopted guerrilla tactics and skirmished the next day. On the 19th, 12 troopers from B Company became separated and were ambushed by the Apache, suffering 3 killed including the Company Commander.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Meantime, out West, Companies C and E took part in the Rogue River War in Oregon Territory, in which, at the Battle of Hungry Hill, the troops were compelled to retire with a loss of 26 killed and wounded, after fighting for a day and a half.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In the spring of 1855, two new regiments of cavalry, the First and Second Cavalry, were authorized in addition to the current two regiments of dragoons and the Regiment of Mounted Riflemen (formed in 1845). One of these new units named "The First Cavalry Regiment", under the command of Lt. Col. Edwin Vose Sumner, the first regular American military unit to bear that name (in 1861 it was re-designated the 4th Cavalry Regiment). Sumner was previously with the First Dragoons.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Headquarters for the First Dragoons were moved to Fort Tejon, California, in December 1856, with the various companies scattered throughout the West. For the next five years, the regiment engaged in a variety of Indian fights, seeing action at various times against the Navajos and Apaches in the Southwest and several tribes in the Northwest. On 8 January 1859, B and K Companies fought an engagement with the Mojave in the Mohave Valley and another engagement against the Paiutes on 18–19 April 1860 near present-day Yermo, California.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Colonel Fauntleroy resigned on 13 May 1861, and was succeeded by Col. Benjamin Lloyd Beall. With the outbreak of the Civil War and the War Department's wanting to re-designate all mounted regiments as cavalry and to renumber them in order of seniority., the First Dragoons became the "First Regiment of Cavalry" by an Act of Congress on 3 August 1861 (the existing First Cavalry Regiment (formed in 1855) was the fourth oldest mounted regiment in terms of active service, so it was re-designated the 4th Cavalry Regiment). During November and December, the regiment, except Companies D and G, which were still stationed in New Mexico Territory, was transferred by steamship from the Pacific Coast through Panama and then to Washington, D.C., arriving by the end of January 1862. Colonel Beall retired 1 February, and was succeeded by Col. George A.H. Blake. The regiment was attached to the 2d Brigade, Cavalry Reserve, Army of the Potomac.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In the meantime, the two companies left in Confederate Arizona had abandoned and destroyed Forts Breckinridge and Buchanan and retreated to Fort Craig. Company D was engaged in a skirmish with Confederates near Fort Craig, on 19 February, and the two companies took part in the Battle of Valverde on 21 February. Company D took part in the engagements at Pigeon's Ranch, 30 March; Albuquerque, 25 April; and Peralta, 27 April.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The bulk of the 1st U.S. Cavalry, meanwhile, fought in the Peninsula Campaign in Virginia. At Williamsburg, on 4 May, a squadron under Capt. Benjamin F. "Grimes" Davis charged and repulsed Confederate cavalry, capturing a flag but losing 13 men. At Gaines' Mill, on 27 June, the regiment lost 26 more men. The regiment participated in fighting at Malvern Hill, Kelly's Ford, and during Stoneman's Raid in April and May.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: At the battle of Beverly Ford in June 1863, Davis was killed while in command of the 8th New York Cavalry. At Upperville, the 1st U.S. Cavalry met the Jeff Davis Legion and the 1st and 2d North Carolina regiments in a mounted charge. The regiment lost 53 men (most to saber cuts). At Gettysburg, its loss was 16 men. Several more men were lost in a series of skirmishes during the Confederate retreat to Virginia.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In June 1863, the two companies left in New Mexico were broken up. The officers and noncommissioned officers were transferred to Carlisle Barracks, where the companies were reorganized, joining the regiment at Camp Buford, Maryland, in October 1863. After a period of rest and re-equipping near Washington, D.C., the 1st Cavalry rejoined the Army of the Potomac and was engaged at Manassas Junction and at Catlett's Station, on 5 November; Culpeper, on 8 November; Stephensburg, on 26 November, and Mine River. The regiment was employed during the winter doing picket duty along the Rapidan River.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In February, the 1st U.S. Cavalry engaged in a series of fights along the Rapidan line, and then accompanied Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer in a raid on Charlottesville, Virginia. On General Sheridan's taking command of the Cavalry Corps, the 1st Cavalry, now commanded by Capt. N. B. Sweitzer, was attached to Merritt's Reserve or Regular Brigade, Torbert's Division, and in the preparation for the Overland Campaign, the regiment was employed in picketing the Rapidan, taking part in the battles of Todd's Tavern, on 7 May, and Spotsylvania Court House, on 8 May.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The regiment subsequently accompanied Sheridan on his daring raid around Richmond, fighting at Beaver Dam Station, on 10 May; Yellow Tavern, on 11 May: Meadow Bridge and Mechanicsville, on 12 May; Tunstall's Station, on 14 May; Hawe's Shop, on 28 May; and Old Church, on 30 May.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: At the Battle of Cold Harbor, on 1 June, the regiment saw severe fighting, losing several men and officers. The 1st Cavalry then accompanied General Sheridan on his Trevilian raid, and lost 35 men in the Battle of Trevilian Station, on 11 and 12 June. The regiment was engaged in daily skirmishing during the return march to White House Landing, and was engaged there on 17 June, at the Chickahominy River on 18 June, and at the battle of Darby's Farm, on 28 June. The 1st Cavalry captured an enemy flag at the battle of Deep Bottom, on 28 July, where the Regular Brigade, fighting on foot, routed a brigade of Confederate cavalry.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On 31 July, the 1st Division marched to City Point, embarked on ships the next day, and was transported to Washington, D.C. to assist in repelling the threatened attack of General Early. On 5 August, it moved towards Harpers Ferry, having been ordered to the Shenandoah Valley to rejoin Sheridan. On 10 August, the Reserve Brigade routed Confederates near Winchester. The regiment was then engaged in almost daily skirmishing, and took part in all the important valley battles except Fisher's Hill. From 16 August through 20 August, the 1st Cavalry was employed, together with the whole of the 1st Division, in the destruction of all wheat and forage, and the seizure of all horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs accessible in the valley.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The 1st Cavalry took part in the charge of the Reserve Brigade at the Battle of Opequon, on 19 September, and, in conjunction with the 2nd Cavalry, captured two stands of colors and some 200 prisoners. Its casualties were 37 killed, wounded and missing. On 28 September, in an action at Waynesboro, it suffered 18 additional casualties.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The 1st Cavalry played an important part in the Battle of Cedar Creek, 19 October. After the surprise and defeat of Horatio G. Wright in the morning, the divisions of Merritt and Custer came up as reinforcements. Two squadrons of the 1st Cavalry formed perpendicular across the Valley Pike and dismounted behind stone walls, the third squadron being held in reserve. This position was held with great difficulty, the advanced squadron being subjected to an enfilading fire.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The regiment then returned to Middletown and, during the fall and winter, engaged in numerous skirmishes and took part in Merritt's raid through the Loudoun Valley and Torbert's raid on Gordonsville. In December, the regiment was assigned to duty at the Cavalry Corps headquarters in Winchester.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On 27 February, Sheridan commenced his last expedition through the Shenandoah Valley, wanting to destroy the Virginia Central Railroad and the James River Canal, and capture Lynchburg. The 1st Cavalry took part in the Battle of Waynesboro, on 2 March, where the remnant of Early's army was captured. It was then engaged in many skirmishes during a march from Charlottesville to White House Landing, while destroying locks and the embankment of the James River Canal, railroads and Confederate supplies. It arrived at White House Landing on 17 March, taking part in a sharp engagement that day.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The 1st Cavalry was then present in all the major battles of the Cavalry Corps until the close of the war. On 30 March, it was in the engagement on White Oak Road; on 31 March, at Dinwiddie Court House; on 1 April, at Five Forks. There, the regiment charged an entrenched enemy position, carried it and seized 200 prisoners. It also fought on 2 April in the engagement near the Southside Railroad; on 6 April, at the Battle of Sayler's Creek; and on 9 April, at Appomattox Courthouse, the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The regiment then returned to Petersburg, where it remained in camp until 24 April, when it marched with the Cavalry Corps towards North Carolina for the proposed junction with Sherman. On the surrender of Joseph E. Johnston's army, the Cavalry Corps returned to Petersburg and the regiment, escorting General Sheridan, left for Washington on 8 May, arriving on 16 May and taking part in the Grand Review of the Armies.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Later that month, the regiment was ordered to Louisiana, arriving at New Orleans on 31 May and remaining there until 29 December, when it embarked for California via the Isthmus of Panama. It was stationed at the Presidio of San Francisco on 22 January, with Companies A, G and K going on 5 February to Drum Barracks, where Companies C, D and E, followed them on 17 February, Company L going to Sacramento. In June, regimental headquarters went to Fort Vancouver and the several companies were distributed through Oregon, Washington Territory, Idaho, California, Nevada and Arizona, no two being at the same station.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: From 1866 to 1871, various companies from the 1st Cavalry Regiment were involved in numerous skirmishes involving Indians during the American Indian Wars throughout the west. From 1866 to 1868, they operated in Oregon, Idaho Territory, Nevada, and California fighting the Snake War. Although not defined by one large battle, this series of guerrilla skirmishes and frontier clashes across the high-desert sagebrush plains would be the deadliest Indian War in the West, with 1,762 fatalities. These skirmishes included an expedition from Fort Bidwell, California, during 22–29 October 1866, when Company A killed 14 Indians, three women, four children, and captured an entire camp. Later that year, LTC George Crook led an expedition of one company of the 1st Cavalry to pursue the Indians in their winter quarters. On 26 December 1866, at the Battle of Owyhee River in Malheur County, Oregon Crook's men caught the Paiutes asleep in their camp. However, after the first shots were fired, Chief Howluck determined to stay and fight. The native warriors taunted the soldiers, who returned a deadly accurate fire on the warriors. Quickly into the fighting almost every mounted warrior was shot down. The rest sought refuge behind rocks, remaining there until mid-day when they retreated. Continuing his pursuit Crook again encountered the Chief Paulina's Paiute village at Steen's Mountain (named after an early officer of the 1st Dragoons). As Crook ordered the charge his horse bolted and carried him through the native village. Nevertheless, his men followed. Despite several close calls for Crook personally, his troopers' fire was accurate and inflicted heavy casualties. A month later Crook's men engaged in one final skirmish before Crook ended the expedition due to bad weather.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On the nights of 7–8 February 1867, 25 men of Company B on a patrol were attacked by hostile Indians near Vicksburg Mines in Nevada. On 5 April 1868, Company F killed 32 Indians and captured two near Malheur River, Oregon. Following the Indians south into California, Crook's 1st Cavalry troopers, along with infantrymen from the 23rd Infantry Regiment and 15 Warm Springs and Shoshone scouts encountered a large band of them in an entrenched position. The Native American warriors had made a fortress out of lava rocks in the Infernal Caverns of northern California near the town of Likely. From there they were able to pour a steady fire upon the soldiers commanded by Lt. Col. George Crook. Crook's men attacked on the second day. Despite heavy casualties they managed to scale the cliffs and take the fortifications. Colonel Crook reportedly shot down Chief Sieto himself. Fighting continued into the night as the Native warriors withdrew deeper into the caverns. Crook commented "I never wanted dynamite so bad as I did when we first took the fort and heard the diabolical and defiant yells from down in the rocks". On the third day the Natives had fled the caverns.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: They also fought in the Apache Wars in Arizona Territory from 1866 to 1872. On 29 January 1867, Company M encountered a band of 90 warriors at Stein's Mountain in New Mexico Territory; 60 Indians were killed and 27 captured. From 26 to 31 May 1868, eight men of Company M killed 34 Indians. At Fort McDowell in Arizona on 9–11 December 1869, 20 men from Company E killed an entire band of 11 Mojave Apaches.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On 15 December 1870, Colonel Blake was retired from active service on his own application, and Colonel Alvan C. Gillem of the 11th Infantry was transferred to the First Cavalry in his stead.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The Modoc Indians were a small tribe living in northern California near Tule Lake and Lost River. Through the intercession of interested civilians, orders were issued for the Modocs removal to the Klamath Indian Reservation. They went on the reservation, but, on account of ill treatment, left it, and the War Department was then directed to enforce the orders. The Indians at once commenced hostilities and one of the most protracted and obstinate Indian wars of later years followed.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Company B left Fort Klamath, on 28 November 1872, for the purpose of arresting "Captain Jack" and the leaders of his band of Modocs, and at daylight on 29 November surprised the Indians in their camp near the Lost River. The Indians refused to surrender and an engagement followed in which eight Indians were killed and many wounded, and the camp, squaws, and property were captured. The company lost two men killed and six wounded, two of them mortally. The company then went into camp at Crowley's Ranch on Lost River opposite the Indian camp.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Company G from Fort Bidwell took station on 13 December at Land's Ranch, Tule Lake, near the Indian stronghold. The Indians attacked this camp on 21 December, and were repulsed, but not until two men and five horses had been killed. Company B now joined Company G and the two companies marched against the Indians on 16 January 1873 in conjunction with General Wheaton's column, with which Company F and a detachment of Company H were also serving at this time. The Indians attacked Companies B and G the same afternoon, but were repulsed, the companies losing three men wounded. The general engagement took place on 17 January, and lasted from 7.30 A.M. to 9.30 P.M., when the troops retired, going finally into camp at Applegate's Ranch near Clear Lake. The regiment lost two men killed and two officers, – Captain Perry and Lieutenant Kyle, – and eight men wounded, one mortally.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The Indians attacked a wagon train on 22 January, driving away the escort. However, Captain Reuben F. Bernard, 1st Cavalry, came up with reinforcements and the Indians were repulsed, losing one killed and many wounded. Company K from Fort Halleck, Nev., joined the battalion on 18 February. The battalion now consisted of Companies B, F, G and K, under Captain Biddle, who was soon succeeded by Captain Bernard. Colonel Gillem, 1st Cavalry was commanding the expedition, and Company H joined the column on 10 February.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: During the night of 14 April, the companies of the 1st Cavalry moved with the rest of the command to invest the Modoc stronghold, and in the Second Battle of the Stronghold, 15–17 April, drove the Indians out of their position and into the rocks and mountains. The 1st Cavalry lost two men killed and two wounded. On 26 April, Companies B and F went to the scene of the "Thomas massacre" and brought off a number of the wounded and dead. The same companies were attacked by Indians on 10 May, at Sorass Lake, California, but repulsed them with the loss of one warrior killed and two wounded. The command lost one killed and six wounded, two of them mortally. On 17 May, Companies B, G and K, with a battery (serving as cavalry) of the 4th Artillery, all under Major John Green, came upon a band of Modocs, which they drove five miles, killing one and capturing several squaws and children. The troops followed the trail and on 22 May, 70 Indians – men, women and children – surrendered. "Boston Charlie" was captured on 29 May, and on 31 May "Sconchin", "Scarfaced Charlie", and 27 other Indians surrendered.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Companies F and H were sent from Applegate's Ranch on 31 May to follow up on those Modocs who had eluded Green's command, finding them on 1 June, when the whole party surrendered. With the capture of "Captain Jack", the Modoc war ended, and by the end of June the companies that had been engaged in it had returned to their proper stations.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: The companies left in Arizona were moved north, and by the end of October 1873, headquarters with Companies A and D were at Benicia Barracks; B at Fort Klamath; C at Camp McDermitt, Nev.; E at Fort Lapwai, Idaho Territory -, F, L and M at Fort Walla Walla, Wyoming Territory; G at Camp Bidwell, California.; H and K at Camp Harney, Oregon.; and I at Camp Halleck, Nevada.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Colonel Gillem died at his residence in Nashville, Tenn., 2 December 1875, and was succeeded by Colonel Cuvier Grover, promoted from the 3rd Cavalry.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On 15 June 1877, Companies F and H, under Captain Perry, were ordered to proceed to Camas Prairie to the assistance of the settlers of Mount Idaho, I. T., who were threatened by the Nez Percé Indians under Chief Joseph. Learning that the Indians were crossing Salmon River and could be taken at a disadvantage, the march was given that direction and Chief Joseph's camp was found and taken by surprise, but the Indians quickly rallied and repulsed the troops with severe loss, Lieutenant E. W. Theller, 21st Infantry (attached), and 33 men being killed and two wounded.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: All the companies of the regiment, except M at Fort Colville and A at Camp Harney watching the Piutes, were now ordered into the field against the Nez Percés. Companies E and L joined General Howard's command on 21 June; and on 1 July they surprised and attacked the camp of "Looking Glass" on the Clearwater, I. T. The village was entirely destroyed, several Indians killed and about 1,000 ponies captured. On 2 July, the same command attempted to form a junction with Company F, which was on its way from Lapwai. On 3 July, the Indians ambushed the advanced guard, consisting of Lieutenant S. M. Rains, ten men of the battalion and two civilian scouts, killing them all, and were then found to be in such force and so strongly posted that it was considered imprudent to attack them. The junction with Company F was effected, however, on 4 July, and the same afternoon the Indians attacked, the fight lasting until sunset. The battalion (E, F and L) joined General Howard at Grangerville, on 8 July. Company H had joined on 2 July, and the battalion was commanded by Captain David Perry.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On 11 July, General Howard crossed the Clearwater with his whole command and moved down that stream with Company H in advance. The Indian camp was discovered and at once attacked, the fight lasting two days and ending with the retreat of the Indians. Company B joined in time to take part in the fight on 12 July. The regiment lost three men killed and four wounded. The battalion made a reconnaissance on 18 July of the Lo-Lo trail, and the Indian scouts accompanying it were ambushed and met with considerable loss. One Nez Percé was killed.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Major Sanford's battalion, consisting of Companies C, D, I and K, joined General Howard on the Clearwater, on 28 July, and the expedition across the Lo-Lo trail began on 30 July. Companies B, C, I and K, under Major Sanford, accompanied it, and Companies D, E, G and L, with other troops under Major Green, constituted the "Reserve Column", which remained at Camas Prairie until 5 August, when it moved near to Mount Idaho, and established a permanent camp called Camp Howard. Companies F and H were stationed at Fort Lapwai.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: In the Indian attack at Camas Creek on 20 August, Companies B and L were engaged, losing one man killed and one wounded. At Judith Basin, the battalion was detached from General Howard's command and directed to return, and all the companies had reached their stations by the end of November. Company K and a detachment of C, attached to General Sturgis' command, took part in the engagement with the Nez Percés at Canyon Creek, Montana, on 13 September 1877.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: At the outbreak of the Bannock War in May 1878, Company G was the first body of troops to reach the scene of hostilities, and Captain Bernard reported that the Indians numbered from 300 to 500. They were moving towards Steens Mountain (named after Enoch Steen, a former member of the regiment). The whole of the First Cavalry was at once ordered into the field and Colonel Grover sent to Fort Boise to take charge of operations there. Companies D, I and K, were with him. Companies F and L joined Company G on the Owyhee, 17 June, and the three companies reached Camp Harney on 21 June, where they were joined by Company A. These four companies were designated the "Left Column" by General Howard.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: On the morning of 23 June, the Left Column struck the main camp of the hostiles on Silver Creek, and drove the Indians out of it and on to a cutbank, made by the creek, which had been prepared for defense. The action lasted into the night and in the morning it was found that the Indians had gone. Many Indians were killed and the camp was destroyed. The battalion lost two killed and three wounded. Company K joined the battalion on 27 June, and on 28 June the cavalry cut loose from the foot troops and pushed forward on the trail of the Indians. The fertile John Day Valley was saved in great part by this vigorous pursuit, and on 5 July General Howard overtook the command, arriving with it at Pilot Rock on 7 July. Here, it was joined by Companies E and H. The Indian camp was located and at sunrise on 8 July Captain Bernard moved his battalion to the attack.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: About 300 Indians occupied the crest of the high and steep hills near Birch Creek, and were at once attacked. Captain Bernard fought his cavalry on foot without separating the men from the horses. All the companies, except A with the pack train, were deployed and used in the engagement, and the Indians were driven from three successive positions and finally four or five miles further into the mountains. Four men were wounded, one mortally, and probably 20 horses were killed. The enemy's loss is unknown; their women, children and best horses were sent off, seemingly towards the Grande Ronde, before the action began.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Lieutenant C. E. S. Wood, A. D. C., wrote: "The entire fight was closely watched by the general commanding, who desires to express his opinion that no troops ever behaved better or in a more soldierly manner than did the officers and men engaged in this encounter." The command camped for the night among the rough cañons adjacent to the battle-field.


title: 1st Cavalry Regiment (United States)

text: Captain Bernard was then ordered to take his command, except Company K, to Fort Walla Walla to refit. Company K was sent to join the infantry column and with it moved to the Umatilla Agency, near which the hostiles were reported to be. Here the Indians attacked on 13 July. In the ensuing fight, Company K held the right of the line and took part in the final charge by which the Indians were driven off the field and for three miles into the hills. At the request of the Indian Agent, the command moved back to the agency that night, but two days later seven dead Indians were counted upon the battle-field.