title: Majulah Singapura

text: In its original composition, an instrumental interlude of the first two verses follows the chorus of the song, then the chorus is sung twice to finish it. Zubir Said modified the song from there, as requested by Toh Chin Chye, by removing 8 bars starting from "" to "" in order to bring forward the emphasis of the 8th line "". The move was also seen as making the anthem more neutral as the eight bars also contained subtle motives brought from Malay musical elements. Also, the interlude was removed in the national anthem version.


title: Majulah Singapura

text: Interviewed by the Oral History Department in 1989, Toh Chin Chye said it was appropriate for the national anthem to be in Malay, "the indigenous language of the region, as English is not native to this part of the world." He felt that the "Malay version of the national anthem would appeal to all races... it can be easily understood. And at the same time [it] can be easily remembered... . [I]t must be brief, to the point;... and can be sung". However, on 22 July 1991, the English daily newspaper "The Straits Times" reported that during a meeting between the then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong and community leaders, a group of grassroots leaders and a lawyer had suggested that "adjustments" be made to the national anthem. The given reason was that many Singaporeans were not able to sing in Malay and therefore not have "strong feelings" or "strong emotions when they sing the national anthem".


title: Majulah Singapura

text: In particular, some grassroots leaders argued that since the Chinese constitute a majority of the population, a Mandarin version of the anthem should be used. The Prime Minister's response was that he would keep the national anthem as it was but would ensure that translations in other mother tongues were more easily available. The proposal to change the lyrics was also criticized by former Deputy Prime Minister S. Rajaratnam, who felt that the Malay lyrics of the anthem were so simple that "anyone over the age of five, unless mentally retarded, had no difficulty singing the anthem. All Singaporean children of kindergarten age have not only had no difficulty memorising the words but have for decades sung it every morning with 'strong feelings and emotion'." He also noted that the anthem had nevertheless already been translated into Singapore's three other official languages (English, Mandarin and Tamil) for those who cannot understand Malay.


title: Majulah Singapura

text: In 1991, a poll of 35 people by "The Straits Times" found that while a majority of Singaporeans knew what the anthem generally meant, seven out of 35 persons interviewed knew the meaning of every word. However, all but three of those interviewed agreed that the anthem should continue to be sung in Malay. The three persons who disagreed felt that the anthem should be in English because that was the language most commonly used in Singapore. All the interviewees, including those who did not know the meaning of the lyrics, said they nevertheless felt a sense of pride and patriotism when they heard or sang the national anthem.


title: Majulah Singapura

text: Singer Taufik Batisah was criticised for incorrectly singing the word "berseru" (to proclaim) instead of "bersatu" (to unite) during his rendition of "Majulah Singapura" before the start of the 2009 Formula 1 SingTel Singapore Grand Prix on 27 September 2009. A "Straits Times" poll then found that out of 50 people only 10 were able to sing the national anthem perfectly. Most people got between 80 and 90% of the lyrics right, while six could recite only the first line or less. Although many correctly stated that the title of the anthem meant "Onward Singapore", a majority did not understand the meaning of the anthem. However, most of the persons surveyed disagreed that the anthem should be in English, with one respondent saying: "It's better in Malay because there's a cultural history to it and [it] is more meaningful, and has traces to our roots."


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: "Whoomp! (There It Is)" is the debut single by 1990s rap duo Tag Team, written by members Cecil "DC the Brain Supreme" Glenn and Steve "Rolln" Gibson. The song reached No. 1 on the "Billboard" Hot R&B chart and No. 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in 1993. "Whoomp!" reached multi-platinum status and broke records for the number of consecutive weeks in the top 10. Though Tag Team is considered a one-hit wonder, as their subsequent singles did not find the same success, "Whoomp!" has remained a pop culture staple with multiple placements in film, television, and advertisements. The song has also endured as a mainstay at sporting and arena events.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: Tag Team recorded "Whoomp! (There It Is)" in August 1992. At that time, Glenn was working as the main DJ at Magic City, an Atlanta gentlemen's club that would later become recognized as a hub of Atlanta hip-hop and rap music. The song sampled a synthesizer line from the 1980 Italo disco hit "I'm Ready" by Kano. Glenn played the track in the club on the same day it was mixed and received a positive reaction from the audience. In the following months, people requested the song so often that it became clear the song had the potential to become a hit. The single was shopped to and rejected by multiple record labels because executives were unfamiliar with southern bass and were unsure if the sound would sell well around the country. Glenn instead borrowed $2,500 from his parents to press eight hundred records. The singles quickly sold out in Atlanta on word of mouth alone.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: A representative from Mercury Records suggested that the best person to promote music from the southern bass genre was one-time Stax Records mogul Al Bell, head of Bellmark Records. Glenn reached out to Bell, who agreed to sign Tag Team without even hearing the song. Bell reportedly told Glenn, "I don’t need to hear the record. I hear it in your spirit."


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: A similar song, "Whoot, There It Is", was released by the Miami-based group 95 South a month prior to Tag Team's "Whoomp!" Both groups' record companies maintained that the similarities were a coincidence, as the phrase, "Whoomp (or whoot), there it is", was a common expression used by dancers in Atlanta and Miami nightclubs that members from both groups frequented. Arsenio Hall hosted both groups on his television show to perform their versions of the songs and let viewers vote on their favorite by calling a 900 number to donate money to the relief effort for the 1993 Midwest floods.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: The phrase "Whoomp! There it is!" has come to mean something similar to "Look at that!". It is intended to encourage "positive partying". Tag Team has explained that the phrase refers to "anything that one agrees with on a positive level."


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: The song was praised by critics for its positive and uplifting tone. Within months of its release, "Whoomp!" reached the top position on the "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop chart. The record held the #2 spot on the Hot 100 for seven consecutive weeks and reached platinum status. In February 1994, it received its fourth platinum certification.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: "Whoomp! (There It Is)" received an award in the category for "Best Rap 12-inch" at the 1994 WMC International Dance Music Awards in the US. It was rated #97 in VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders. The song is listed at #58 on ""Billboard"s Greatest Songs of all time". "Whoomp" has been called "da bomb party song" of the 1990s by "Atlanta" magazine and "among the country's most commercially successful singles of all time."


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: The video for the song features a large outdoor party. It was filmed at an Atlanta fairground and shows the duo riding a carousel. Extras were recruited by word-of-mouth and also by an announcement on a local radio station. More than a thousand extras showed up for the shoot.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: The hit song spent one week at #1 on the US R&B chart in 1993. On the Hot 100 chart dated July 10, "Whoomp! (There It Is)" reached a new peak at number two, sandwiched between Janet Jackson's "That's the Way Love Goes" above and UB40's "Can't Help Falling in Love" beneath - all three songs ended up next to each other at the Year-End edition of the chart, occupying exactly the same positions, albeit in slightly different orders. It eventually spent seven weeks at #2 in September through October, 1993 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, but was kept out of the top slot by "Can't Help Falling in Love" and Mariah Carey's "Dreamlover". The single is certified 4× Platinum in the US for shipments of over 4,000,000 copies and, despite never reaching number one on the pop chart, the song spent 24 non-consecutive weeks in the top ten becoming the longest running top ten song of all time until Toni Braxton’s “Un-Break My Heart” spent a week longer in 1997. It was ranked the second biggest song of 1993, behind Whitney Houston's "I Will Always Love You". It has sold over 3.5 million copies in the United States.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: Within a year of the release of "Whoomp! (There It Is)", Tag Team remixed the backing music with a version of the theme song from the original "Addams Family" television series to create the song "Addams Family (Whoomp!)" for the film "Addams Family Values". Actors Christina Ricci and Jimmy Workman reprised their film roles as Wednesday Addams and Pugsley Addams (respectively) for the song's music video. This version appears as the closing track on . "Addams Family (Whoomp!)" won the 1994 Razzie Award (Worst Original Song) for its writers (Ralph Sall, Stephen Gibson and Cecil Glenn).


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: "Whoomp! (There It Is)" has been played or referenced in dozens of films, TV shows, and advertisements. Some of the song's most notable placements in film include "Elf", "", "Rio", and "Addams Family Values". The song is also referenced in episode titles of "Martin", "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air", and "The Secret Life of the American Teenager". It is also widely considered one of the top songs of all time for sporting events and has been included among MLB's top walk-up songs and the NBA's biggest arena anthems.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: More recently, a variant of the lyric was created by Vancouver Canucks fans to laud the popularity of the (at the time) recently-hired coach Bruce Boudreau, with a "Bruce, there it is!" chant during hockey games, beginning in December 2021.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: In 1995, British pop/dance act Clock released a successful Eurodance cover of the song titled "Whoomph! (There It Is)". It was their fifth single from the debut album, "It's Time...", and peaked at No. 5 in Ireland, No. 4 in the United Kingdom, No. 14 in Finland, No. 36 in Sweden and No. 96 in Australia.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: In 2001, UK garage producer BM Dubs (Andrew Kirby) released a version credited as BM Dubs presents Mr. Rumble featuring Brasstooth and Kee. It is based on Mr. Rumble's "Whoops... We'll Be in Trouble!" from 2000, in which this version directly samples the vocals from Tag Team's "Whoomp! (There It Is)", whereas BM Dubs' 2001 version is a cover with vocals by Kee. It samples the Timo Maas remix of "Dooms Night" by Azzido Da Bass and reached No. 32 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 4 on the UK Dance Singles Chart in March 2001.


title: Whoomp! (There It Is)

text: In December 2020, the GEICO insurance company used a parody of "Whoomp! (There It Is)" and the members of Tag Team as the punchline to a joke in a commercial. It featured Glenn and Gibson replacing the lyrics of the song with lyrics about ice cream, turning the lyric to "Scoop! (There It Is)". While the song had been used in advertisements previously, this was the first time the members appeared in a spot.


title: History of sociology

text: Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged, primarily out of Enlightenment thought, as a positivist "science of society" shortly after the French Revolution. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the philosophy of knowledge, arising in reaction to such issues as modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism.


title: History of sociology

text: During its nascent stages, within the late-19th-century, sociological deliberations took particular interest in the emergence of the modern nation state, including its constituent institutions, units of socialization, and its means of surveillance. As such, an emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes sociological discourse from that of classical political philosophy. Likewise, social analysis in a broader sense has origins in the common stock of philosophy, therefore pre-dating the sociological field.


title: History of sociology

text: Various quantitative social research techniques have become common tools for governments, businesses, and organizations, and have also found use in the other social sciences. Divorced from theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social research a degree of autonomy from the discipline of sociology. Similarly, ""social science"" has come to be appropriated as an umbrella term to refer to various disciplines which study humans, interaction, society or culture.


title: History of sociology

text: As a discipline, sociology encompasses a varying scope of conception based on each sociologist's understanding of the nature and scope of society and its constituents. Creating a merely linear definition of its science would be improper in rationalizing the aims and efforts of sociological study from different academic backgrounds.


title: History of sociology

text: The codification of sociology as a word, concept, and popular terminology is identified with Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (see 18th century section) and succeeding figures from that point onward. It is important to be mindful of presentism, of introducing ideas of the present into the past, around sociology. Below, we see figures that developed strong methods and critiques that reflect on what we know sociology to be today that situates them as important figures in knowledge development around sociology. However, the term of "sociology" did not exist in this period, requiring careful language to incorporate these earlier efforts into the wider history of sociology. A more apt term to use might be proto-sociology that outlines that the rough ingredients of sociology were present, but had no defined shape or label to understand them as sociology as we concepualize it today.


title: History of sociology

text: The sociological reasoning may be traced back at least as far as the ancient Greeks, whose characteristic trends in sociological thought can be traced back to their social environment. Given the rarity of extensive or highly-centralized political organization within states, the tribal spirit of localism and provincialism was in for deliberations on social phenomena, which would thus pervade much of Greek thought.


title: History of sociology

text: Proto-sociological observations can be seen in the founding texts of Western philosophy (e.g. Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato, Polybius, etc.). Similarly, the methodological survey can trace its origins back to the Domesday Book ordered by King of England, William the Conqueror, in 1086.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 13th century, Ma Duanlin, a Chinese historian, first recognized patterns of "social dynamics" as an underlying component of historical development in his seminal encyclopedia, ().


title: History of sociology

text: There is evidence of early Muslim sociology from the 14th century. In particular, some consider Islamic scholar Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-century Arab from Tunis, to have been the first sociologist and, thus, the father of sociology. His "Muqaddimah" (later translated as "Prolegomena" in Latin), serving as an introduction to a seven-volume analysis of universal history, would perhaps be the first work to advance social-scientific reasoning and social philosophy in formulating theories of social cohesion and social conflict.


title: History of sociology

text: Concerning the discipline of sociology, Khaldun conceived a dynamic theory of history that involved conceptualizations of social conflict and social change. He developed the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life, as well as the concept of "generation", and the inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors conquer a city. Following his Syrian contemporary, Sati' al-Husri, the "Muqaddimah" may be read as a sociological work; six books of general sociology, to be specific. Topics dealt with in this work include politics, urban life, economics, and knowledge.


title: History of sociology

text: The work is based around Khaldun's central concept of "asabiyyah", meaning "social cohesion", "group solidarity", or "tribalism". Khaldun suggests such cohesion arises spontaneously amongst tribes and other small kinship groups, which can then be intensified and enlarged through religious ideology. Khaldun's analysis observes how this cohesion carries groups to power while simultaneously containing within itself the—psychological, sociological, economic, political—seeds of the group's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty, or empire bound by an even stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion.


title: History of sociology

text: The term ""sociologie"" was first coined by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (1773-1799), derived the Latin ; joined with the suffix "-ology", 'the study of', itself from the Greek "lógos" ().


title: History of sociology

text: In 1838, the French scholar Auguste Comte ultimately gave "sociology" the definition that it holds today. Comte had earlier expressed his work as "social physics", however that term would be appropriated by others such as Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet.


title: History of sociology

text: Henri de Saint-Simon published "Physiologie sociale" in 1813, devoting much of his time to the prospect that human society could be steered toward progress if scientists would form an international assembly to influence its course. He argued that scientists could distract groups from war and strife, by focusing their attention to generally improving their societies living conditions. In turn, this would bring multiple cultures and societies together and prevent conflict. Saint-Simon took the idea that everyone had encouraged from the Enlightenment, which was the belief in science, and spun it to be more practical and hands-on for the society. Saint-Simon's main idea was that industrialism would create a new launch in history. He saw that people had been seeing progress as an approach for science, but he wanted them to see it as an approach to all aspects of life. Society was making a crucial change at the time since it was growing out of a declining feudalism. This new path could provide the basis for solving all the old problems society had previously encountered. He was more concerned with the participation of man in the workforce instead of which workforce man choose. His slogan became "All men must work”, to which communism would add and supply its own slogan "Each according to his capacity."


title: History of sociology

text: Writing after the original Enlightenment and influenced by the work of Saint-Simon, political philosopher of social contract, Auguste Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind through the scientific understanding of the social realm. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th-century humanists; he believed all human life passed through distinct historical stages and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the "queen science" in Comte's schema; all basic physical sciences had to arrive first, leading to the most fundamentally difficult science of human society itself. Comte has thus come to be viewed as the "Father of Sociology".


title: History of sociology

text: Comte delineated his broader philosophy of science in the "Course of Positive Philosophy" (c. 1830–1842), whereas his "A" "General View of Positivism" (1848) emphasized the particular goals of sociology. Comte would be so impressed with his theory of positivism that he referred to it as "the great discovery of the year 1822.”


title: History of sociology

text: Comte's system is based on the principles of knowledge as seen in three states. This law asserts that any kind of knowledge always begins in "theological" form. Here, the knowledge can be explained by a superior supernatural power such as animism, spirits, or gods. It then passes to the metaphysical form, where the knowledge is explained by abstract philosophical speculation. Finally, the knowledge becomes "positive" after being explained scientifically through observation, experimentation, and comparison. The order of the laws was created in order of increasing difficulty. Comte's description of the development of society is parallel to Karl Marx's own theory of historiography from capitalism to communism. The two would both be influenced by various Utopian-socialist thinkers of the day, agreeing that some form of communism would be the climax of societal development.


title: History of sociology

text: In later life, Auguste Comte developed a "religion of humanity" to give positivist societies the unity and cohesiveness found through the traditional worship people were used to. In this new "religion", Comte referred to society as the ""Great Being"" and would promote a universal love and harmony taught through the teachings of his industrial system theory. For his close associate, John Stuart Mill, it was possible to distinguish between a "good Comte" (the one who wrote "Course in Positive Philosophy") and a "bad Comte" (the author of the secular-religious system). The system would be unsuccessful but met with the publication of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" to influence the proliferation of various secular humanist organizations in the 19th century, especially through the work of secularists such as George Holyoake and Richard Congreve.


title: History of sociology

text: Harriet Martineau undertook an English translation of "Cours de Philosophie Positive" that was published in two volumes in 1853 as "The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (freely translated and condensed by Harriet Martineau)". Comte recommended her volumes to his students instead of his own. Some writers regard Martineau as the first female sociologist. Her introduction of Comte to the English-speaking world and the elements of sociological perspective in her original writings support her credit as a sociologist.


title: History of sociology

text: Both Comte and Marx intended to develop a new scientific ideology in the wake of European secularization. Marx, in the tradition of Hegelianism, rejected the positivist method and was in turn rejected by the self-proclaimed sociologists of his day. However, in attempting to develop a comprehensive "science of society" Marx nevertheless became recognized as a founder of sociology by the mid 20th century. Isaiah Berlin described Marx as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title."


title: History of sociology

text: In the 1830s, Karl Marx was part of the Young Hegelians in Berlin, which discussed and wrote about the legacy of the philosopher, George W. F. Hegel (whose seminal tome, "Science of Logic" was published in 1816). Although, at first sympathetic with the group's strategy of attacking Christianity to undermine the Prussian establishment, he later formed divergent ideas and broke with the Young Hegelians, attacking their views in works such as "The German Ideology". Witnessing the struggles of the laborers during the Industrial Revolution, Marx concluded that religion (or the "ideal") is not the basis of the establishment's power, but rather ownership of capital (or the "material")- processes that employ technologies, land, money and especially human labor-power to create surplus-value—lie at the heart of the establishment's power. This "stood Hegel on his head" as he theorized that, at its core, the engine of history and the structure of society was fundamentally material rather than ideal. He theorized that both the realm of cultural production and political power created ideologies that perpetuated the oppression of the working class and the concentration of wealth within the capitalist class: the owners of the means of production. Marx predicted that the capitalist class would feel compelled to reduce wages or replace laborers with technology, which would ultimately increase wealth among the capitalists. However, as the workers were also the primary consumers of the goods produced, reducing their wages would result in an inevitable collapse in capitalism as a mode of economic production.


title: History of sociology

text: Marx also co-operated with Friedrich Engels, who accused the capitalist class of "social murder" for causing workers "life of toil and wretchedness" but with a response that "tales no further trouble in the matter". This gives them the power over the workers' health and income, "which can degree his life or death". His book "The Condition of the Working Class in England" (1844) studied the life of the proletariat in Manchester, London, Dublin, and Edinburgh.


title: History of sociology

text: Émile Durkheim´s work took importance as he was concerned with how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in modernity, an era in which traditional social and religious ties are no longer assumed, and in which new social institutions have come into being. His first major sociological work was "The Division of Labour in Society" (1893). In 1895, he published "The Rules of Sociological Method" and set up the first European department of sociology, becoming France's first professor of sociology. In 1898, he established the journal "L'Année Sociologique". Durkheim's seminal monograph, "Suicide" (1897), a study of suicide rates in Catholic and Protestant populations, pioneered modern social research and served to distinguish social science from psychology and political philosophy. "The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life" (1912) presented a theory of religion, comparing the social and cultural lives of aboriginal and modern societies. Durkheim was also deeply preoccupied with the acceptance of sociology as a legitimate science. He refined the positivism originally set forth by Auguste Comte, promoting what could be considered as a form of epistemological realism, as well as the use of the hypothetico-deductive model in social science. For him, sociology was the science of institutions, if this term is understood in its broader meaning as "beliefs and modes of behaviour instituted by the collectivity" and its aim being to discover structural social facts. Durkheim was a major proponent of structural functionalism, a foundational perspective in both sociology and anthropology. In his view, social science should be purely holistic; that is, sociology should study phenomena attributed to society at large, rather than being limited to the specific actions of individuals. He remained a dominant force in French intellectual life until his death in 1917, presenting numerous lectures and published works on a variety of topics, including the sociology of knowledge, morality, social stratification, religion, law, education, and deviance. Durkheimian terms such as "collective consciousness" have since entered the popular lexicon.


title: History of sociology

text: Ferdinand Tönnies argued that Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft were the two normal types of human association. The former was the traditional kind of community with strong social bonds and shared beliefs, while the latter was the modern society in which individualism and rationality had become more dominant. He also drew a sharp line between the realm of conceptuality and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ('pure' sociology), whereas the second empirically and in an inductive way ('applied' sociology). His ideas were further developed by Max Weber, another early German sociologist.


title: History of sociology

text: Weber argued for the study of social action through interpretive (rather than purely empiricist) means, based on understanding the purpose and meaning that individuals attach to their own actions. Unlike Durkheim, he did not believe in monocausal explanations and rather proposed that for any outcome there can be multiple causes. Weber's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation, secularisation, and "disenchantment", which he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Weber is also known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, elaborated in his book "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism", in which he proposed that ascetic Protestantism was one of the major "elective affinities" associated with the rise in the Western world of market-driven capitalism and the rational-legal nation-state. He argued that it was in the basic tenets of Protestantism to boost capitalism. Thus, it can be said that the spirit of capitalism is inherent to Protestant religious values. Against Marx's historical materialism, Weber emphasised the importance of cultural influences embedded in religion as a means for understanding the genesis of capitalism. The "Protestant Ethic" formed the earliest part in Weber's broader investigations into world religion. In another major work, "Politics as a Vocation", Weber defined the state as an entity that successfully claims a "monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory". He was also the first to categorise social authority into distinct forms, which he labelled as charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal. His analysis of bureaucracy emphasised that modern state institutions are increasingly based on rational-legal authority.


title: History of sociology

text: Weber´s wife, Marianne Weber also became a sociologist in her own right writing about women´s issues. She wrote "Wife and Mother in the Development of Law" which was devoted to the analysis of the institution of marriage. Her conclusion was that marriage is "a complex and ongoing negotiation over power and intimacy, in which money, women's work, and sexuality are key issues". Another theme in her work was that women's work could be used to "map and explain the construction and reproduction of the social person and the social world". Human work creates cultural products ranging from small, daily values such as cleanliness and honesty to larger, more abstract phenomena like philosophy and language.


title: History of sociology

text: Georg Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approach laid the foundations for sociological antipositivism, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?', presenting pioneering analyses of social individuality and fragmentation. For Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history". Simmel discussed social and cultural phenomena in terms of "forms" and "contents" with a transient relationship; form becoming content, and vice versa, dependent on the context. In this sense he was a forerunner to structuralist styles of reasoning in the social sciences. With his work on the metropolis, Simmel was a precursor of urban sociology, symbolic interactionism and social network analysis. Simmel's most famous works today are "The Problems of the Philosophy of History" (1892), "The Philosophy of Money" (1900), "The Metropolis and Mental Life" (1903), "Soziologie" (1908, inc. "The Stranger", "The Social Boundary", "The Sociology of the Senses", "The Sociology of Space", and "On The Spatial Projections of Social Forms"), and "Fundamental Questions of Sociology" (1917).


title: History of sociology

text: Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the English philosopher, was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists, although his work has largely fallen out of favor in contemporary sociology. The early sociology of Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte and Marx; writing before and after the Darwinian revolution in biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in socially Darwinistic terms. In fact, his early writings show a coherent theory of general evolution several years before Darwin published anything on the subject. Encouraged by his friend and follower Edward L. Youmans,<ref name="http://www.jstor.org/stable/986404"></ref> Spencer published "The Study of Sociology" in 1874, which was the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim’s "Division of Labour in Society" is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest" as a basic mechanism by which more effective socio-cultural forms progressed.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 20th century, Spencer's work became less influential in sociology because of his social Darwinist views on race, which are widely considered a form of scientific racism. For example, in his "Social Statics" (1850), he argued that imperialism had served civilization by clearing the inferior races off the earth: "The forces which are working out the great scheme of perfect happiness, taking no account of incidental suffering, exterminate such sections of mankind as stand in their way. … Be he human or be he brute – the hindrance must be got rid of." Largely because of his work on race, Spencer is now described in the academy as "of all the great Victorian thinkers... [the one] whose reputation has fallen the farthest."


title: History of sociology

text: A contemporary of Spencer, Lester Frank Ward is often described as a father of American sociology and served as the first president of the American Sociological Association in 1905 and served as such until 1907. He published "Dynamic Sociology" in 1883; "Outlines of Sociology" in 1898; "Pure Sociology" in 1903; and "Applied Sociology" in 1906. Also in 1906, at the age of 65 he was appointed to professor of sociology at Brown University.


title: History of sociology

text: In July 1897, W. E. B. Du Bois produced his first major "The Philadelphia Negro" (1899), a detailed and comprehensive sociological study of the African-American people of Philadelphia, based on the field work he did in 1896–1897. The work was a breakthrough in scholarship because it was the first scientific study of African Americans and a major contribution to early scientific sociology in the U.S. In the study, Du Bois coined the phrase "the submerged tenth" to describe the black underclass. Later in 1903 he popularized the term, the "Talented Tenth", applied to society's elite class. Du Bois's terminology reflected his opinion that the elite of a nation, both black and white, were critical to achievements in culture and progress. In an effort to portray the genius and humanity of the black race, Du Bois published "The Souls of Black Folk" (1903), a collection of 14 essays. The introduction famously proclaimed that "the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line." A major theme of the work was the double consciousness faced by African Americans: being both American and black. This was a unique identity which, according to Du Bois, had been a handicap in the past, but could be a strength in the future: "Henceforth, the destiny of the race could be conceived as leading neither to assimilation nor separatism but to proud, enduring hyphenation."


title: History of sociology

text: Many other philosophers and academics were influential in the development of sociology, not least the Enlightenment theorists of social contract, and historians such as Adam Ferguson (1723–1816). For his theory on social interaction, Ferguson has himself been described as "the father of modern sociology. Ferguson argued that capitalism was diminishing social bonds that traditionally held communities together. Other early works to appropriate the term 'sociology' included "A Treatise on Sociology, Theoretical and Practical" by the North American lawyer Henry Hughes and "Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Society" by the American lawyer George Fitzhugh. Both books were published in 1854, in the context of the debate over slavery in the antebellum US. Harriet Martineau, a Whig social theorist and the English translator of many of Comte's works, has been cited as the first female sociologist. Writing a study of the United States, she noted how the theoretical ideal of equality apparent in the Declaration of Independence were not reflected in the social reality of the country, which marginalised women and practiced slavery.


title: History of sociology

text: Various other early social historians and economists have gained recognition as classical sociologists, including Robert Michels (1876–1936), Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923) and Thorstein Veblen (1857–1926). The classical sociological texts broadly differ from political philosophy in the attempt to remain scientific, systematic, structural, or dialectical, rather than purely moral, normative or subjective. The new class relations associated with the development of Capitalism are also key, further distinguishing sociological texts from the political philosophy of the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras.


title: History of sociology

text: Formal institutionalization of sociology as an academic discipline began when Emile Durkheim founded the first French department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In 1896, he established the journal "L'Année Sociologique".


title: History of sociology

text: A course entitled "sociology" was taught for the first time in the United States in 1875 by William Graham Sumner, drawing upon the thought of Comte and Herbert Spencer rather than the work of Durkheim. In 1890, the oldest continuing sociology course in the United States began at the University of Kansas, lectured by Frank Blackmar. The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 and the first full-fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the University of Chicago by Albion W. Small (1854–1926), who in 1895 founded the "American Journal of Sociology". American sociology arose on a broadly independent trajectory to European sociology. George Herbert Mead and Charles H. Cooley were influential in the development of symbolic interactionism and social psychology at the University of Chicago, while Lester Ward emphasized the central importance of the scientific method with the publication of "Dynamic Sociology" in 1883.


title: History of sociology

text: The first sociology department in the United Kingdom was founded at the London School of Economics in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich by Max Weber, who had established a new antipositivist sociology. The "Institute for Social Research" at the University of Frankfurt (later to become the "Frankfurt School" of critical theory) was founded in 1923.[29] Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after WW2, influencing literary theory and the "Birmingham School" of cultural studies.


title: History of sociology

text: The University of Frankfurt's advances along with the close proximity to the research institute for sociology made Germany a powerful force in leading sociology at that time. In 1918, Frankfurt received the funding to create sociology's first department chair. The Germany's groundbreaking work influenced its government to add the position of Minister of Culture to advance the country as a whole. The remarkable collection of men who were contributing to the sociology department at Frankfurt were soon getting worldwide attention and began being referred to as the “Frankfurt school.” Here they studied new perspectives on Marx' theories, and went into depth in the works of Weber and Freud. Most of these men would soon be forced out of Germany by the Nazis, moving to America. In the United States they had a significant influence on social research. This forced relocation of sociologists enabled sociology in America to rise up to the standards of European studies of sociology by planting some of Europe's greatest sociologists in America.


title: History of sociology

text: Felix Weil was one of the students who received their doctorate on the concept of socialization from the University of Frankfurt. He, along with Max Horkheimer and Kurt Albert Gerlach, developed the Institute of Social Research after it was established in 1923. Kurt Albert Gerlach would serve as the institute's first director. Their goal in creating the institute was to produce a place that people could discover and be informed of social life as a whole. Weil, Horkheimer, and Gerlach wanted to focus on interactions between economics, politics, legal matters, as well as scholarly interactions in the community and society. The main research that got the institute known was its revival of scientific Marxism. Many benefactors contributed money, supplies, and buildings to keep this area of research going. When Gerlach became ill and had to step down as director, Max Horkheimer took his place. He encouraged the students of the institute to question everything they studied. If the students studied a theory, he not only wanted them to discover its truth themselves, but also to discover how, and why it is true and the theories relation to society. The National Socialist regime exiled many of the members of the Institute of Social Research. The regime also forced many students and staff from the entire Frankfurt University, and most fled to America. The war meant that the institute lost too many people and was forced to close. In 1950, the institute was reopened as a private establishment. From this point on the Institute of Social Research would have a close connection to sociology studies in the United States.


title: History of sociology

text: In 1905 the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded, and Lester F. Ward was selected to serve as the first President of the new society.


title: History of sociology

text: The University of Chicago developed the major sociologists at the time. It brought them together, and even gave them a hub and a network to link all the leading sociologists. In 1925, a third of all sociology graduate students attended the University of Chicago. Chicago was very good at not isolating their students from other schools. They encouraged them to blend with other sociologists, and to not spend more time in the class room than studying the society around them. This would teach them real life application of the classroom teachings. The first teachings at the University of Chicago were focused on the social problems that the world had been dealt. At this time, academia was not concerned with theory; especially not to the point that academia is today. Many people were still hesitant of sociology at this time, especially with the recent controversial theories of Weber and Marx. The University of Chicago decided to go into an entirely different direction and their sociology department directed their attention to the individual and promoted equal rights. Their concentration was small groups and discoveries of the individual's relationship to society. The program combined with other departments to offer students well-rounded studies requiring courses in hegemony, economics, psychology, multiple social sciences and political science. Albion Small was the head of the sociology program at the University of Chicago. He played a key role in bringing German sociological advancements directly into American academic sociology. Small also created the "American Journal of Sociology". Robert Park and Ernest Burgess refined the program's methods, guidelines, and checkpoints. This made the findings more standardized, concise and easier to comprehend. The pair even wrote the sociology program's textbook for a reference and get all students on the same page more effectively. Many remarkable sociologists such as George Hebert Mead, W.E.B Du Bois, Robert Park, Charles S. Johnson, William Ogburn, Hebert Blumer and many others have significant ties to the University of Chicago.


title: History of sociology

text: In 1920 a department was set up in Poland by Florian Znaniecki (1882–1958). William I. Thomas was an early graduate from the Sociology Department of the University of Chicago. He built upon his education and his work changed sociology in many ways. In 1918, William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki gave the world the publication of "The Polish Peasant" in Europe and America. This publication combined sociological theory with in depth experiential research and thus launching methodical sociological research as a whole. This changed sociologist's methods and enabled them to see new patterns and connect new theories. This publication also gave sociologists a new way to found their research and prove it on a new level. All their research would be more solid, and harder for society to not pay attention to it. In 1920, Znaniecki developed a sociology department in Poland to expand research and teachings there.


title: History of sociology

text: With the lack of sociological theory being taught at the University of Chicago paired with the new foundations of statistical methods, the student's ability to make any real predictions was nonexistent. This was a major factor in the downfall of the Chicago school.


title: History of sociology

text: International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when René Worms (1869–1926) founded the small "Institut International de Sociologie", eclipsed by much larger International Sociological Association from 1949.


title: History of sociology

text: Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are typically cited as the three principal architects of modern social science. The sociological "canon of classics" with Durkheim and Weber at the top owes in part to Talcott Parsons, who is largely credited with introducing both to American audiences. Parsons' "Structure of Social Action" (1937) consolidated the American sociological tradition and set the agenda for American sociology at the point of its fastest disciplinary growth. In Parsons' canon, however, Vilfredo Pareto holds greater significance than either Marx or Simmel. His canon was guided by a desire to "unify the divergent theoretical traditions in sociology behind a single theoretical scheme, one that could in fact be justified by purely scientific developments in the discipline during the previous half century." While the secondary role Marx plays in early American sociology may be attributed to Parsons, as well as to broader political trends, the dominance of Marxism in European sociological thought had long since secured the rank of Marx alongside Durkheim and Weber as one of the three "classical" sociologists.


title: History of sociology

text: The methodological approach toward sociology by early theorists was to treat the discipline in broadly the same manner as natural science. An emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method was sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy.


title: History of sociology

text: This perspective, termed positivism, was first developed by theorist Auguste Comte. Positivism was founded on the theory that the only true, factual knowledge is scientific knowledge. Comte had very vigorous guidelines for a theory to be considered positivism. He thought that this authentic knowledge can only be derived from positive confirmation of theories through strict continuously tested methods, that are not only scientifically but also quantitatively based. Émile Durkheim was a major proponent of theoretically grounded empirical research, seeking correlations to reveal structural laws, or "social facts". Durkheim proved that concepts that had been attributed to the individual were actually socially determined. These occurrences are things such as suicide, crime, moral outrage, a person's personality, time, space, and God. He brought to light that society had influence on all aspects of a person, far more than had been previously believed. For him, sociology could be described as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning". Durkheim endeavoured to apply sociological findings in the pursuit of political reform and social solidarity. Today, scholarly accounts of Durkheim's positivism may be vulnerable to exaggeration and oversimplification: Comte was the only major sociological thinker to postulate that the social realm may be subject to scientific analysis in the same way as noble science, whereas Durkheim acknowledged in greater detail the fundamental epistemological limitations.


title: History of sociology

text: Reactions against positivism began when German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) voiced opposition to both empiricism, which he rejected as uncritical, and determinism, which he viewed as overly mechanistic. Karl Marx's methodology borrowed from Hegel dialecticism but also a rejection of positivism in favour of critical analysis, seeking to supplement the empirical acquisition of "facts" with the elimination of illusions. He maintained that appearances need to be critiqued rather than simply documented. Marx nonetheless endeavoured to produce a "science of society" grounded in the economic determinism of historical materialism. Other philosophers, including Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911) and Heinrich Rickert (1863–1936) argued that the natural world differs from the social world because of those unique aspects of human society (meanings, signs, and so on) which inform human cultures.


title: History of sociology

text: In Italy, speculative knowledge prevails over positivistic sociological science, where the forms of attraction of the social sciences are vitiated by the self-reformism of morality and the self-assertion of science. The process lasts until the 1950s. After that there is a revival and sociological science gradually asserts itself as an academic discipline (See Guglielmo Rinzivillo, "Science and the Object. Self-criticism of strategic knowledge", Milan, Franco Angeli, 2010, p. 52 ff., ISBN 9788856824872).


title: History of sociology

text: At the turn of the 20th century the first generation of German sociologists formally introduced methodological antipositivism, proposing that research should concentrate on human cultural norms, values, symbols, and social processes viewed from a subjective perspective. Max Weber argued that sociology may be loosely described as a 'science' as it is able to identify causal relationships—especially among ideal types, or hypothetical simplifications of complex social phenomena. As a nonpositivist however, one seeks relationships that are not as "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable" as those pursued by natural scientists. Both Weber and Georg Simmel pioneered the Verstehen (or 'interpretative') approach toward social science; a systematic process in which an outside observer attempts to relate to a particular cultural group, or indigenous people, on their own terms and from their own point-of-view. Through the work of Simmel, in particular, sociology acquired a possible character beyond positivist data-collection or grand, deterministic systems of structural law. Relatively isolated from the sociological academy throughout his lifetime, Simmel presented idiosyncratic analyses of modernity more reminiscent of the phenomenological and existential writers than of Comte or Durkheim, paying particular concern to the forms of, and possibilities for, social individuality. His sociology engaged in a neo-Kantian critique of the limits of perception, asking 'What is society?' in a direct allusion to Kant's question 'What is nature?'


title: History of sociology

text: In the early 20th century, sociology expanded in the U.S., including developments in both macrosociology, concerned with the evolution of societies, and microsociology, concerned with everyday human social interactions. Based on the pragmatic social psychology of George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) and, later, the Chicago school, sociologists developed symbolic interactionism.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 1920s, György Lukács released "History and Class Consciousness" (1923), while a number of works by Durkheim and Weber were published posthumously. During the same period members of the Frankfurt school, such as Theodor W. Adorno (1903–1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), developed critical theory, integrating the historical materialistic elements of Marxism with the insights of Weber, Freud and Gramsci—in theory, if not always in name—often characterizing capitalist modernity as a move away from the central tenets of the Enlightenment.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 1930s, Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) aimed to bring together the various strands of sociology, with the aim of developing a universal methodology. He developed action theory and functionalism, integrating the study of social order with the structural and voluntaristic aspects of macro and micro factors, while placing the discussion within a higher explanatory context of system theory and cybernetics. Parsons had also suggested starting from the 'bottom up' rather than the 'top down' when researching social order. One of his students, Harold Garfinkel, followed in this direction, developing ethnomethodology. In Austria and later the U.S., Alfred Schütz (1899–1959) developed social phenomenology, which would later inform social constructionism.


title: History of sociology

text: In some countries, sociology was undermined by totalitarian governments for reasons of ostensible political control. After the Russian Revolution, sociology was gradually "politicized, Bolshevisized and eventually, Stalinized" until it virtually ceased to exist in the Soviet Union. In China, the discipline was banned with semiotics, comparative linguistics and cybernetics as "Bourgeois pseudoscience" in 1952, not to return until 1979. During the same period, however, sociology was also undermined by conservative universities in the West. This was due, in part, to perceptions of the subject as possessing an inherent tendency, through its own aims and remit, toward liberal or left wing thought. Given that the subject was founded by structural functionalists; concerned with organic cohesion and social solidarity, this view was somewhat groundless (though it was Parsons who had introduced Durkheim to American audiences, and his interpretation has been criticized for a latent conservatism).


title: History of sociology

text: In the mid-20th century Robert K. Merton released his "Social Theory and Social Structure" (1949). Around the same time, C. Wright Mills continued Weber's work of understanding how modernity was undermining tradition, with a critique of the dehumanizing impact this had on people. Also using the Weberian notion of class, he found that the United States was at the time ruled by a power elite composed of military, political, economic and union leaders. His "The Sociological Imagination" (1959), argued that the problem was in people seeing their problems as individual issues, rather than as products of social processes. Also in 1959, Erving Goffman published "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life" and introduced the theory of dramaturgical analysis which asserts that all individuals aim to create a specific impression of themselves in the minds of other people.


title: History of sociology

text: Wright Mills' ideas were influential on the New Left of the 1960's, which he had also coined the name for. Herbert Marcuse was subsequently involved in the movement. Following the counterculture of the decade, new thinkers emerged, especially in France, such as Michel Foucault. While power had earlier been viewed either in political or economic terms, Foucault argued that "power is everywhere, and comes from everywhere", seeing it as a type of relation present on every level of society that is a key component of social order. Examples of such relations included discourse and power-knowledge. Foucault also studied human sexuality with his "The History of Sexuality" (1976). Influenced by him, Judith Butler subsequently pioneered queer theory. Raewyn Connell in turn identified the stigmatization of homosexuality as a product of hegemonic masculinity.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 1960's, sociologists also developed new types of quantitative and qualitative research methods. Paul Lazarsfeld founded Columbia University's Bureau of Applied Social Research, where he exerted a tremendous influence over the techniques and the organization of social research. His many contributions to sociological method have earned him the title of the "founder of modern empirical sociology". Lazarsfeld made great strides in statistical survey analysis, panel methods, latent structure analysis, and contextual analysis. He is also considered a co-founder of mathematical sociology. Many of his ideas have been so influential as to now be considered self-evident.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 1970's, Peter Townsend redefined poverty from the previous definition of 'total earnings being too little to obtain the minimum necessities of physical life', to one which also took into account the relative deprivation caused, meaning that not having access to the typical level of lifestyle was also a form of poverty. During the same decade, Pierre Bourdieu, advancing the concept of habitus, argued that class was not defined solely by economic means, but also by the socially acquired taste which one shared with the rest of the class. Beyond economic capital, he also identified cultural, social, scholastic, linguistic, and political capital. These all contributed towards symbolic capital. Richard Sennett in turn found that working-class people were finding themselves in crisis following rising social status, as it conflicted with the values of their background.


title: History of sociology

text: Structuralism is "the belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract structure". Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 1900s, mainly in France and Russian Empire, in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague, Moscow and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when structural linguistics were facing serious challenges from the likes of Noam Chomsky and thus fading in importance, an array of scholars in the humanities borrowed Saussure's concepts for use in their respective fields of study. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism.


title: History of sociology

text: Modernization theory is used to explain the process of modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of a progressive transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. Modernization theory originated from the ideas of German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920), which provided the basis for the modernization paradigm developed by Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902–1979). The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, "traditional" countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s, then went into a deep eclipse. It made a comeback after 1991 but remains a controversial model. Political sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset wrote extensively about the conditions for democracy in comparative perspective becoming influential in modernization theories and in emerging political science.


title: History of sociology

text: In Latin America Dependency theory, a structuralist theory, emerged arguing that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system". This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as scholars searched for the root issue in the lack of development in Latin America The theory was popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a criticism of modernization theory, which was falling increasingly out of favor because of continued widespread poverty in much of the world. At that time the assumptions of liberal theories of development were under attack. It was used to explain the causes of overurbanization, a theory that urbanization rates outpaced industrial growth in several developing countries. Influenced by Dependency theory, World-systems theory emerged as a macro-scale approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis. Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the best-known version of world-systems analysis, beginning in the 1970s. Wallerstein traces the rise of the capitalist world-economy from the "long" 16th century (c. 1450–1640). The rise of capitalism, in his view, was an accidental outcome of the protracted crisis of feudalism (c. 1290–1450). Europe (the West) used its advantages and gained control over most of the world economy and presided over the development and spread of industrialization and capitalist economy, indirectly resulting in unequal development.


title: History of sociology

text: Niklas Luhmann described modern capitalism as dividing society into different systems – economic, educational, scientific, legal, political and other systems – which together from the system of systems that is society itself. This system is in turn formed by communication, which is defined as the "synthesis of information, utterance, and understanding" emerging from verbal and non-verbal activities. A social system is similar to a biological organism by reproducing itself through communication developing from communication. A system is anything with a 'distinction' from its environment, which is itself formed by other systems. These systems are connected by 'structural couplings' which translate communications from one system to another (including from humans to systems), the lack of which is a problem for modern capitalism.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 1960s and 1970s post-structuralist and postmodernist theory, drawing upon structuralism and phenomenology as much as classical social science, made a considerable impact on frames of sociological enquiry. Often understood simply as a cultural style 'after-Modernism' marked by intertextuality, pastiche and irony, sociological analyses of postmodernity have presented a distinct "era" relating to (1) the dissolution of metanarratives (particularly in the work of Lyotard), and (2) commodity fetishism and the 'mirroring' of identity with consumption in late capitalist society (Debord; Baudrillard; Jameson). Postmodernism has also been associated with the rejection of enlightenment conceptions of the human subject by thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Claude Lévi-Strauss and, to a lesser extent, in Louis Althusser's attempt to reconcile Marxism with anti-humanism. Most theorists associated with the movement actively refused the label, preferring to accept postmodernity as a historical phenomenon rather than a method of analysis, if at all. Nevertheless, self-consciously postmodern pieces continue to emerge within the social and political sciences in general.


title: History of sociology

text: In the 1980's, bell hooks argued that white and non-white women faced different obstacles in society. Kimberlé Crenshaw subsequently developed the concept of intersectionality in 1989 to describe the way different identities intersected to create differing forms of discrimination. In 1990, Sylvia Walby argued that six intersecting structures upheld patriarchy: the family household, paid work, the state, male violence, sexuality, and cultural institutions. Later, the sociologist Helma Lutz described 14 'lines of difference' which could form the basis of unequal power relations.


title: History of sociology

text: Elsewhere in the 1980s, theorists often focused on globalization, communication, and reflexivity in terms of a 'second' phase of modernity, rather than a distinct new era "per se". Jürgen Habermas established communicative action as a reaction to postmodern challenges to the discourse of modernity, informed both by critical theory and American pragmatism. Fellow German sociologist, Ulrich Beck, presented "The Risk Society" (1992) as an account of the manner in which the modern nation state has become organized. In Britain, Anthony Giddens set out to reconcile recurrent theoretical dichotomies through structuration theory. During the 1990s, Giddens developed work on the challenges of "high modernity", as well as a new 'third way' politics that would greatly influence New Labour in U.K. and the Clinton administration in the U.S. Leading Polish sociologist, Zygmunt Bauman, wrote extensively on the concepts of modernity and postmodernity, particularly with regard to the Holocaust and consumerism as historical phenomena. While Pierre Bourdieu gained significant critical acclaim for his continued work on cultural capital, certain French sociologists, particularly Jean Baudrillard and Michel Maffesoli, were criticised for perceived obfuscation and relativism.


title: History of sociology

text: Functionalist systems theorists such as Niklas Luhmann remained dominant forces in sociology up to the end of the century. In 1994, Robert K. Merton won the National Medal of Science for his contributions to the sociology of science. The positivist tradition is popular to this day, particularly in the United States. The discipline's two most widely cited American journals, the "American Journal of Sociology" and the "American Sociological Review", primarily publish research in the positivist tradition, with ASR exhibiting greater diversity (the "British Journal of Sociology", on the other hand, publishes primarily non-positivist articles). The twentieth century saw improvements to the quantitative methodologies employed in sociology. The development of longitudinal studies that follow the same population over the course of years or decades enabled researchers to study long-term phenomena and increased the researchers' ability to infer causality.


title: History of sociology

text: The increase in the size of data sets produced by the new survey methods was followed by the invention of new statistical techniques for analyzing this data. Analysis of this sort is usually performed with statistical software packages such as R, SAS, Stata, or SPSS.


title: History of sociology

text: Social network analysis is an example of a new paradigm in the positivist tradition. The influence of social network analysis is pervasive in many sociological sub fields such as economic sociology (see the work of J. Clyde Mitchell, Harrison White, or Mark Granovetter, for example), organizational behavior, historical sociology, political sociology, or the sociology of education. There is also a minor revival of a more independent, empirical sociology in the spirit of C. Wright Mills, and his studies of the Power Elite in the United States of America, according to Stanley Aronowitz.


title: History of sociology

text: Critical realism is a philosophical approach to understanding science developed by Roy Bhaskar (1944–2014). It combines a general philosophy of science (transcendental realism) with a philosophy of social science (critical naturalism). It specifically opposes forms of empiricism and positivism by viewing science as concerned with identifying causal mechanisms. Also, in the context of social science it argues that scientific investigation can lead directly to critique of social arrangements and institutions, in a similar manner to the work of Karl Marx. In the last decades of the twentieth century it also stood against various forms of 'postmodernism'. It is one of a range of types of philosophical realism, as well as forms of realism advocated within social science such as analytic realism and subtle realism.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: Leprechaun Returns is a 2018 American comedy slasher film made as a direct sequel to "Leprechaun" from 1993. Directed by Astron-6's Steven Kostanski, the film stars Taylor Spreitler as the daughter of Jennifer Aniston's character from the original film, who encounters the title creature 25 years after her mother trapped it in a well. Warwick Davis elected not to return as the Leprechaun, and Linden Porco took over the role for this film.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: Lila Jenkins (Taylor Spreitler) arrives at Devil's Lake, North Dakota, to help greenify an old house owned by her sorority at Laramore University. Lila hitches a ride from Ozzie Jones (Mark Holton) and reveals that her mother, Tory Redding, had died the year prior to cancer. Ozzie accidentally drops his phone while unloading Lila's luggage and heads back to retrieve it, only to get sprayed by water from the old well, rebirthing the Leprechaun and causing it to punch his way out of Ozzie's torso.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: Lila meets her sorority sisters consisting of Katie (Pepi Sonuga), an eco-friendly and intelligent girl; Rose (Sai Bennett), the self-appointed leader of the group; and Meredith (Emily Reid), a stoner who brings over a group of dudes consisting of Andy (Ben McGregor), a dimwitted student attracted to Katie; and Matt (Oliver Llewellyn Jenkins), a self-proclaimed wannabe filmmaker. After Meredith insults Lila's mother for her fear of monsters, Lila goes to bed and encounters visions of Zombie Ozzie. The next morning, Katie and Andy install a solar panel, while the Leprechaun learns that his powers are too weak due to his loss of gold, and determines that killing will solve his problems. That night, the Leprechaun reveals himself to Lila and Meredith, who takes pictorial evidence of the creature when Matt and Rose rebuff their suspicions. Andy also encounters the Leprechaun, who cuts him in half with the solar panel after he mocks the leprechaun for his height.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: Meredith and Lila sneak inside the house to recover the car keys, where Meredith locks Lila in the basement and reveals she made a deal with the leprechaun to have Lila in hopes of leaving the rest alone. The group leaves Lila behind when Meredith reveals that Lila was killed, but soon learn of Meredith's true intentions. Meanwhile, Lila encounters Ghost Ozzie, who helps Lila learn of the Leprechaun's true weakness and of the basement's exit hole. When the Leprechaun catches up to the group on Matt's drone, they crash into a tree and run away, leaving Meredith behind when the Leprechaun reveals a loophole he created in order to continue the murders. The Leprechaun slows Meredith down using sprinklers, and kills her by impaling her mouth with a sprinkler faucet. Matt attempts to slow down the Leprechaun with his drone, but he overrides the controls and kills Matt with the drone blades.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: Rose and Katie run into Lila and follow a treasure map that Ghost Ozzie helped Lila discover. The three discover a pick-up truck that contains the gold, but Rose reveals that she cashed in some of the gold to help finance the greenify project. To deceive the leprechaun, Lila stuffs the pot with tampons and offers the gold back to the Leprechaun, but he realizes their true intentions. Lila is able to trap the leprechaun in a circle of iron objects (iron is a leprechaun's weakness) in order create a plan to defeat the leprechaun. Katie restores the power while Rose creates clover juice. Lila stuffs a hose in the Leprechaun's mouth and fill him with the juice, causing him to explode. Rose offers to clean the house, but the Leprechaun is able to multiply himself into multiple small leprechauns using chunks of his body. Rose is able to defeat most of the creatures, but the leprechauns outsmart her and impale her on a trophy. The leprechaun is able to form again before Lila and Katie discover Rose's body.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: Lila is able to surround the leprechaun's feet with gold before electrocuting the Leprechaun, blowing up the house in the process. Lila and Katie become covered in green slime and they escape. It's revealed that Lubdan survived at the end. He hitchhikes a ride on a chicken truck on its way to Bismarck, North Dakota so he can reclaim his gold before the credits roll.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: "Leprechaun Returns" premiered digitally via video on demand on December 11, 2018. The film made its worldwide TV premiere on March 17, 2019 on Syfy. It was then released on DVD and Blu-ray in June.


title: Leprechaun Returns

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has approval rating based on reviews, with an average rating of . Bloody Disgusting gave the film a decent review, entitled ""Leprechaun Returns" is Far from Gold But Still Manages to Charm".


title: Hex dump

text: In computing, a hex dump is a hexadecimal view (on screen or paper) of computer data, from memory or from a computer file or storage device. Looking at a hex dump of data is usually done in the context of either debugging, reverse engineering or digital forensics.


title: Hex dump

text: In a hex dump, each byte (8 bits) is represented as a two-digit hexadecimal number. Hex dumps are commonly organized into rows of 8 or 16 bytes, sometimes separated by whitespaces. Some hex dumps have the hexadecimal memory address at the beginning.


title: Hex dump

text: Some common names for this program function are codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, codice_4 and simply codice_5 or even codice_6.


title: Hex dump

text: The leftmost column is the hexadecimal displacement (or address) for the values of the following columns. Each row displays 16 bytes, with the exception of the row containing a single *. The * is used to indicate multiple occurrences of the same display were omitted.


title: Hex dump

text: This is helpful when trying to locate TAB characters in a file which is expected to use multiple spaces.


title: Hex dump

text: In the CP/M 8-bit operating system used on early personal computers, the standard DUMP program would list a file 16 bytes per line with the hex offset at the start of the line and the ASCII equivalent of each byte at the end. Bytes outside the standard range of printable ASCII characters (20 to 7E) would be displayed as a single period for visual alignment. This same format was used to display memory when invoking the D command in the standard CP/M debugger DDT. Later incarnations of the format (e.g. in the DOS debugger DEBUG) changed the space between the 8th and 9th byte to a dash, without changing the overall width.


title: Hex dump

text: This notation has been retained in operating systems that were directly or indirectly derived from CP/M, including DR-DOS, MS-DOS, OS/2 and Windows. On Linux systems, the command hexcat produces this classic output format too. The main reason for the design of this format is that it fits the maximum amount of data on a standard 80-character-wide screen or printer, while still being very easy to read and skim visually.


title: Hex dump

text: Here the leftmost column represents the address at which the bytes represented by the following columns are located. CP/M and various DOS systems ran in real mode on the x86 CPUs, where addresses are composed of two parts (base and offset).


title: Hex dump

text: In the above examples the final 00s are non-existent bytes beyond the end of the file. Some dump tools display other characters so that it is clear they are beyond the end of the file, typically using spaces or asterisks, e.g.:


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: The Major Dhyan Chand Award, officially known as Major Dhyan Chand Award for Lifetime Achievement in Sports and Games, is the lifetime achievement sporting honour of the Republic of India. The award is named after hockey wizard Major Dhyan Chand (1905–79), an Indian legendary field hockey player who scored more than 1000 international goals during a career which spanned over 20 years from 1926 to 1948. It is awarded annually by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports. Recipients are selected by a committee constituted by the Ministry and are honoured for their contributions to sport both during their active sporting career and after retirement. , the award comprises a statuette, a certificate, ceremonial dress, and a cash prize of .


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: Instituted in 2002, the award is given only to the disciplines included in the events like Olympic Games, Paralympic Games, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games, World Championship and World Cup along with Cricket, Indigenous Games, and Parasports. The nominations for a given year are accepted till 30 April or last working day of April. A nine-member committee evaluates the nominations and later submits their recommendations to the Union Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports for further approval.


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: The first recipients of the award were Shahuraj Birajdar (Boxing), Ashok Diwan (Hockey), and Aparna Ghosh (Basketball), who were honoured in 2002. Usually conferred upon not more than three sportspersons in a year, a few exceptions have been made (2003, 2012–2013, and 2018–2020) when more recipients were awarded.


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: The nominations for the award are received from all government recognised National Sports Federations, the Indian Olympic Association, the Sports Authority of India, the Sports Promotion and Control Boards, and the state and the union territory governments with not more than two eligible sportspersons nominated for each sports discipline. The Sports Promotion and Control Boards of various Governments organizations includes the All India Police Sports Control Board, Army Sports Control Board, Railways Sports Promotion Board, Indian Navy Sports control Board, Air Force Sports Control Board, Petroleum Sports Promotion Board, Air India Sports Promotion Board, SAIL Sports Promotion Board. In case of cricket, the nominations are received from the Board of Control for Cricket in India as there is no National Sports Federation recognised by the Government. The Sports Authority of India (SAI) is authorised to submit the nominations on behalf of all the de-recognised or under suspension National Sports Federations. The previous award recipients of Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna, Arjuna Award, Dronacharya Award, and Dhyan Chand Award can also nominate one sportsperson for the discipline for which they themselves were awarded. The Government can nominate up to two sportspersons in deserving cases where no such nominations have been received from the nominating authorities. The nominations for a given year are accepted till 30 April or last working day of April.


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: All the received nominations are sent to SAI and concerned National Sports Federations for verification against the claimed achievements. The National Anti-Doping Agency is responsible for providing doping clearance. Any sportsperson who is either penalised or being investigated for use of drugs or substances banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency is not eligible for the award along with the previous award recipients of Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna, Arjuna Award, and Dronacharya Award. A committee consisting of the Joint Secretary and the Director/Deputy Secretary of Department of Sports, the Secretary and the Executive Director/Director (TEAMS) of SAI verify and validate the nominations.


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: The valid nominations are considered by a selection committee constituted by the Government. This nine member committee consists of a Chairperson nominated by the Ministry; four members who are either Olympians or previous recipients of the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna, Arjuna or Dhyan Chand awards; two sports journalists/experts/commentators; one sports administrator; and the Director General of SAI and the Joint Secretary of Department of Sports; with not more than one sportsperson from any particular discipline being included in the committee. The medals won in various International championships and events in disciplines included in Summer and Winter Olympic and Paralympics Games, Asian Games, and Commonwealth Games are given 70% weightage. The remaining 30% weightage is given for contributions made towards promotion of sports after the candidates retirement from an active sporting career. For any other games not included in Olympic, Asian Games, and Commonwealth Games like cricket and indigenous games, individual performances are taken into consideration. The sportsperson with maximum points is given 70 marks, while the remaining candidates are given marks in proportion to the maximum points. For team events, marks are given per the strength of the team. Following are the points defined for medals at the given events:


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: For a given discipline, not more than two sportspersons, one male and one female, are given highest marks. The committee may not recommend the award to the sportsperson with the highest marks across disciplines but can only recommend the recipient of the highest aggregate marks in a particular sports discipline. The recommendations of the selection committee are submitted to the Union Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports for further approval.


title: Dhyan Chand Award

text: In August 2015, the Ministry announced the award to Romeo James (Hockey), Shiv Prakash Mishra (Tennis), and T. P. Padmanabhan Nair (Volleyball). A Public-Interest Litigation was filed in the Madras High Court by Paralympic athlete Ranjith Kumar Jayaseelan. The petitioner mentioned that he submitted the nomination after fulfilling the criteria by getting 60% for medals and 30% for contributing for sports promotion. Kumar requested to annul the award announced on three recipients. The Court ordered a notice to the Ministry seeking an explanation about the selection.


title: John Paul Young

text: John Inglis Young, OAM (born 21 June 1950), known professionally as John Paul Young, is a Scottish-born Australian pop singer who had his 1978 worldwide hit with "Love Is in the Air". His career was boosted by regular appearances as a performer and guest host on national broadcaster, ABC's 1974–1987 TV series, "Countdown".


title: John Paul Young

text: Besides "Love Is in the Air", Young had top ten chart success in Germany and the Netherlands with "Standing in the Rain" and four other top ten hits in South Africa, including No. 1 hits with "I Hate the Music" in 1976 and "Yesterday's Hero" in 1975.


title: John Paul Young

text: On 27 August 2009, Young was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame.


title: John Paul Young

text: Young was born John Inglis Young in Bridgeton, Glasgow, Scotland to James and Agnes (nee Inglis) Young. Together with his parents, two sisters and a brother, Young emigrated to Australia on board the , arriving in Sydney on Australia Day (26 January) 1962 when he was aged 11. His family lived at East Hills Hostel before moving to Liverpool. He attended school at Hammondville Public School, Liverpool Boys High School and Westfields Sports High School. After finishing school, he started an apprenticeship as a sheet metal worker. Initially performing as John Young, his first involvement in music began in late 1967 when he formed a band, Elm Tree, with schoolmates.


title: John Paul Young

text: The other members included Robert (Slim) Barnett on bass guitar, Ollie Chojnacki on guitar, Philip Edwards (drums 1968–1971, 1972–1976), Andy Imlah on co-lead vocals, Dave Kaentek, Ron Mazurkiewicz on keyboards and Geoff Watts on drums. Elm Tree gained a moderate following around Sydney, and after being spotted by producer Martin Erdman, they cut one single for his Du Monde label, a cover of UK band Marmalade's "Rainbow", which was released through Festival in November 1970, but did not enter the top 50 Australian singles charts. In mid-1971 they entered the New South Wales heats of Hoadley's Battle of the Sounds and got as far as the Sydney finals, but they didn't make it through to the national final, and so never managed to break out of the Sydney suburban dance circuit.


title: John Paul Young

text: At this point, Young's manager Dal Myles got him a role in the Melbourne production of "The Jesus Christ Revolution". The show opened and closed in six weeks. However, due to being seen in this production, Young received a telegram from Jim Sharman who wanted him to audition as Annas for Harry M. Miller's original Australian production of the Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice rock musical "Jesus Christ Superstar". The show premiered in Sydney on 4 May 1972, and, as well as established theatrical performers, the cast featured leading pop-rock artists: Trevor White, Robin Ramsay, Jon English, Doug Parkinson, Stevie Wright (ex-The Easybeats), Marcia Hines and Reg Livermore. Young remained with the production until it closed in February 1974; the production broke theatrical attendance records in its two-year season, and whilst it provided him with a public profile, it left him at a loose end when it concluded.


title: John Paul Young

text: For Young, a major break occurred at an Elm Tree performance when visiting producer and manager, Simon Napier-Bell, heard them in a pub in Newcastle in 1971. He persuaded Young to sign as a solo artist to Albert Productions—the company that had produced Australia's top 1960s group The Easybeats. Napier-Bell then produced Young's first hit single, "Pasadena", at Armstrong Studios in Melbourne; it was co-written by George Young (also Scottish-born, but no relation) and Harry Vanda of The Easybeats, together with British actor David Hemmings who was a partner in Napier-Bell's label, SNB Records. Vanda & Young also produced AC/DC and other Albert Productions artists. All he had to do was sing over the demo tape Vanda/Young had sent from London. The single was released under the name, John Young, later releases used "John Paul Young" (Paul was his Catholic confirmation name) to avoid confusion with Johnny Young (no relation), the 1960s pop star and "Young Talent Time" (1971–1988 TV show) presenter. He performed the song on "Happening 70" on Channel Ten. "Pasadena" peaked at No. 16 in the Australian Singles charts in early 1972. It was followed by "You Drive Me Crazy" which was released in February 1973 but failed to chart.


title: John Paul Young

text: Young renewed his association with Albert Productions, signing with them as a solo artist. Vanda & Young had returned to Australia from UK in 1973. After his stint in "Superstar", they took over as his producers and resumed writing songs for him. Young's third single "It's Only Love" was released in March 1974, but failed to chart in the top 50. The B side was a track called "Bad Trip". Young said "no one liked it. It was a disappointment. It was about suicide but they must've thought it was about drugs because of the title. It wasn't banned or anything, they just didn't play it." Young considered a part in the musical "Godspell" but decided against it, preferring to go back to sheet metal work. He left the job after a day and a half due to being hassled by the boss.


title: John Paul Young

text: In February 1975, Young released "Yesterday's Hero", a song about the fleeting nature of pop stardom which drew on Vanda & Young's own experiences as former teen idols. The single shot into the national charts in April and gave Young his first top ten hit, reaching No. 8 on the Australian singles chart. The single sold strongly in the United States, where it reached No. 44 on the Cash Box Top 100 in February 1976. One of the key factors in the Australian success of "Yesterday's Hero" was the film clip made to promote it, which enabled the song to be given heavy exposure on "Countdown", which had just switched to its new one-hour Sunday evening format, following the official start of colour TV broadcasting on 1 March 1975. Young's debut performance on "Countdown" had him miming "Yesterday's Hero" while dressed in a sailor's suit surrounded on an island stage with a studio audience of screaming teen girls. He was dragged off the stage three times by audience members and the microphone cord was ripped out but the song continued uninterrupted. ABC TV producer, Michael Shrimpton believes his show, "Countdown", played a big part in making "Yesterday's Hero" and Young a teen pop success.


title: John Paul Young

text: By mid-1975, "Countdown"'s talent co-ordinator, Ian "Molly" Meldrum, had started appearing on-screen with a weekly rock report. Young, as guest host, introduced Meldrum's second report, "Here's boring old Molly with boring old humdrum".—"Molly" Meldrum's "Humdrum" and "Countdown" continued until 1987, with Young often featured as a performer or guest host named "Squeak" or "JPY" by Meldrum. For touring purposes Young fronted John Paul Young and The All Stars, with members who had worked with Vanda and Young's former bandmate Stevie Wright. The All Stars included, Warren Morgan (ex-Chain, Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs) on piano and vocals, who co-wrote songs with Young. Other early members were, Kevin Borich (La De Das) on guitar, Johnny Dick (Max Merritt & the Meteors, Billy Thorpe & the Aztecs) on drums, Ronnie Peel (aka “Rockwell T James”, Missing Links, La De Das) on bass guitar and Ian Winter (Carson, Daddy Cool) on guitar. Billy Thorpe reportedly said they were the best rock band in Australia.


title: John Paul Young

text: Throughout 1975, Young toured with Stevie Wright, Sherbet and Stylus, with the latter also being his backing band. Young headlined his first concert tour over the Christmas period of 1975–6, preferring to use local bands as their support acts.


title: John Paul Young

text: Young's debut studio album, "Hero" was released in October 1975 and peaked at No. 9 on the Australian Album charts. A string of top 10 hits, written and produced by Vanda & Young, followed in Australia including "The Love Game" (peaked at No. 4 in September 1975), "I Hate the Music" (No. 2, April 1976) and "I Wanna Do It with You" (No. 7, May 1977). Young's second studio album, "J.P.Y." was released in August 1976 and also peaked at No. 9. In addition to his Australian success, Young achieved top 20 hit singles in Sweden, with "Yesterday's Hero" and "I Hate the Music", and in South Africa where "I Hate the Music" and "Yesterday's Hero" were No. 1 hits, and "Keep on Smilin'" and "I Wanna Do It with You" were top ten hits. In May 1977, Young released his third studio album "Green", which peaked No. 19.


title: John Paul Young

text: In a 1976 Rolling Stone interview, Young gives an insight into working with the Vanda/Young team: After I recorded "Pasadena" our relationship just developed. They play me their songs and say: "See what you think of this." Usually I like it, sometimes I don't. Sometimes I pick out something they've written and say "I want to do this", like I did with "Things to do". (For the "JPY" album), we worked out some of the songs on the road. Others are worked out in the studio and some, like "Standing in the Rain" are produced by the studio system. Harry and George work it out and I come in later to do the vocal.


title: John Paul Young

text: In November 1977, Young's first 'best of' compilation was released, titled "All the Best". It was preceded by the single "Where the Action Is" and both single and album peaked within the Australian top 40.


title: John Paul Young

text: Late in 1977, the European markets began playing "Standing in the Rain", the B-Side for the song "Keep on Smilin'". The song became a top 10 hit in Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. selling over 400,000 copies.


title: John Paul Young

text: Young's next single, "Love Is in the Air", became a worldwide hit during 1978, peaking at No. 3 on the Australian charts in May, No. 7 in the US "Billboard" Hot 100, and No. 5 in the UK singles chart.


title: John Paul Young

text: The associated album, "Love Is in the Air" was released in October and reached the top 40 on the Australian albums chart. Subsequent singles, "The Day That My Heart Caught Fire" which peaked in the top 20, and "Heaven Sent" continued the disco style. Young was crowned '' in October 1978. "Love Is in the Air" also won 'Most Popular Australian Single' and Vanda & Young won both 'Best Australian Record Producer' and 'Best Australian Songwriter' at the same awards.


title: John Paul Young

text: Young's fifth studio album, "Heaven Sent" was released in November 1979 and peaked at number 95. By mid-1980 Young had left Albert Productions and ended his association with Vanda & Young.


title: John Paul Young

text: Young used session musicians for his 1960s' covers album, "The Singer" released in August 1981 but failed to reach the top 50. Young turned to a more contemporary electropop sound and adult oriented style. He signed to the Australian branch of German label I.C. Records in 1983 and flew to Germany with producer, composer and keyboard player John Capek (ex-Carson) to start recording a new album, with sessions at studios in Hanover, Munich, Los Angeles, Melbourne and Sydney. Most of the material was co-written by Capek and Canadian Marc Jordan. The resulting album, "One Foot in Front" was released in March 1984. The lead single, "Soldier of Fortune", peaked at No. 17 on the national singles chart, other singles "War Games", "L.A. Sunset" and "Call the Night" (1984) all failed to chart into the top 50, "Soldier of Fortune" gained further prominence when it was picked as the theme song for the 1984 Summer Paralympics held in New York City, and also went on to be a hit in Germany.


title: John Paul Young

text: On 25 January 1988 Young performed in the 'Royal Command, New South Wales Bicentennial Concert' in front of the Prince and Princess of Wales at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. Televised across Australia, the event was viewed by over 10 million people and prompted an invitation to appear at World Expo 88 in Brisbane.


title: John Paul Young

text: In late 1988, Young and his family moved to Lake Macquarie near Newcastle. Newcastle's first FM radio station, New FM, was preparing to open in 1989 and Young was asked to head their All-Australian programme, "Oz Made Mondays". The programme was successful with Young moving through the ranks of the station to Morning Announcer garnering four No. 1 rating spots for his "Breakfast" and "Drive Time" programmes along the way. A compilation album titled "Classic Hits" was released in 1988, including the new single "Don't Sing That Song", but failed to chart.


title: John Paul Young

text: In 1992, an Australian comedy film titled "Strictly Ballroom" was released. The film and associated soundtrack featured new versions of "Love Is in the Air" and "Standing in the Rain", both of which were released as singles. "Love Is in the Air" peaked at No. 3 on the Australian Singles Charts and was a top 50 hit in the UK. In 1994 Young left 105.3 NEWFM in Newcastle and joined 2CH in Sydney, which only lasted six months.


title: John Paul Young

text: On 4 November 1994, Young became a naturalised Australian citizen and received his papers from then Prime Minister, Paul Keating.


title: John Paul Young

text: In 1996, Young released his eighth studio album and first since 1984. Titled "Now", it is a covers album and includes a re-recording of "Love Is in the Air". In 1997, Young made two trips to Germany following invitations to perform on a host of national and European television specials and to promote "Now". Young returned to Germany in 1998 with The Allstar band for a month-long tour On returning to Australia Young joined the stage production of "Leader of the Pack" playing the role of Gus Sharkey (aka Phil Spector).


title: John Paul Young

text: In 2000, he played to his largest audience as a featured performer at the closing ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics. Young was recorded on DVD for three songs at the "Gimme Ted" benefit concert held on 9 March 2001. From 8 August 2001, ABC-TV broadcast a six-part documentary, "Long Way to the Top" which chronicled 50 years of rock 'n' roll in Australia, Young featured in "Episode 4: Berserk warriors 1973–1981". For the associated Long Way to the Top Tour in August–September 2002, Young re-formed the All-Star Band with Juan Gonzales on guitar, Warren Morgan on piano, Ronnie Peel on bass guitar, Greg Plimmer on drums and Michael Walker on synthesiser. From 12 October 2003, ABC broadcast, "Love Is in the Air", a five-part documentary on Australian pop music with "Episode 3: Strange Fruit" describing "Countdown" and how Young was made into a pop star.


title: John Paul Young

text: In 2004, Young became mentor for contestants on the music talent show, "Popstars Live", which was broadcast on Seven Network from February 2004. Young left the show in April, a spokesperson for the producers of "Popstars Live" denied that he had been sacked. In 2005 Young reprised his role as Gus Sharkey in the musical, 'Leader of the Pack'.


title: John Paul Young

text: In 2006, Young returned to the studio with Harry Vanda and released "In Too Deep" in September. Young appeared on the Countdown Spectacular concert series in Australia during June–August in 2006 and on the Countdown Spectacular 2 during August–September 2007. Young co-hosted the 2007 event with Ian Meldrum. In 2008, Young worked on a musical comedy titled "Van Park", which focuses on "a group of fellow music lovers have gathered to live out their remaining years" in a caravan park. Young plays Akbar, one of the co-owners of the park.