title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: In the show's third season (2000–01), Phoebe receives the active power of levitation and enters a relationship with Cole Turner (Julian McMahon), who is actually the demon mercenary Belthazor that was sent by The Triad (who have replaced The Council) to kill The Charmed Ones. Upon this discovery, Phoebe struggles between her loyalty to her sisters and her love for Cole. After a tumultuous love affair, often deterred due to Cole's frequent struggle between good and evil, Phoebe manages to graduate from college. Phoebe and her sisters eventually learn that The Triad work for an even greater evil, The Source of All Evil who is the leader of the demonic realm known as The Underworld. In the season three finale, Phoebe ventures into The Underworld to save Cole from his dark side, while her sisters face dire consequences in the world above. Prue and Piper unwittingly expose themselves as witches to the world after being caught on camera by a local news crew fighting with The Source's personal assassin Shax. This results in Piper's catastrophic death in the arms of Prue, and Phoebe unable to help them. In order to save Piper's life, Prue orders Leo Wyatt (Brian Krause) to find Phoebe and pass on a deal to The Source to turn back time. The Source agrees, knowing that he plans to double cross her in the end as Phoebe will be immune to the time reset while in The Underworld. Time is reversed to the sisters' first encounter with Shax, however Phoebe no longer answers when Prue calls for help, as she was never sent back. The season ends on a cliffhanger with Piper and Prue left for dead after losing in the fight against Shax. Meanwhile, Phoebe remains trapped in The Underworld.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: The opening episode of the fourth season (2001–02), "Charmed Again (Part 1)", reveals that Phoebe was rescued from The Underworld by Leo and Cole. However, because of this they arrived too late and were only able to heal Piper of her injuries from the season three finale. Prue's injuries from Shax were too severe and was unable to be saved. Later in the episode, while attending Prue's funeral, Phoebe meets Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan) and receives a premonition of the woman being attacked by Shax. This incident leads to Phoebe and Piper discovering that Paige is their younger half-sister. By the end of the season premiere, Paige helps to restore the Power of Three and avenge Prue's death in vanquishing her murderer Shax. During this season, Phoebe finds herself forced into the role of the middle sister as she attempts to play mediator between Piper and Paige, much like Piper was once for her and Prue. Alongside continuing her Charmed role, Phoebe receives a marriage proposal from Cole, accepting after he becomes stripped of his demon half. Phoebe eventually pens the spell to vanquish The Source, whom escapes a final vanquish by possessing the now human Cole. For the remainder of the season, Phoebe plans to marry Cole unaware that he has become the new Source of All Evil and ruler of The Underworld. After being tricked by Cole and The Seer (Debbie Morgan) into participating in a dark marriage ceremony, Phoebe lands a job as an advice columnist for the newspaper "The Bay Mirror". Soon after she discovers that she is pregnant and subsequently chooses to join Cole as his queen in The Underworld.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: As season four draws to a close, Phoebe is forced to choose between her husband and her sisters. She mournfully sides with her sisters to vanquish Cole. Later, her unborn child is magically stolen by The Seer who claims that the child is rightfully hers and was never Phoebe's. About to be sacrificed as human offerings during The Seer's coronation as the new Source, Phoebe and her sisters tap into "The Power of Three" and vanquish The Seer and the entire Underworld council. In the season finale, the Angel of Destiny (Dakin Matthews) visits and gives the sisters an offer to live a normal life without magical powers or the threat of demons. After some contemplation Phoebe declines alongside her sisters, but the Angel of Destiny is not done with the sisters' and makes hints about Piper's pregnancy, which only Phoebe takes the hint and announces it.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: For season five (2002–03), Phoebe attempts to live a life without Cole where she can focus on her career. This plan is stunted when a resurrected Cole returns to San Francisco eager to reconcile with Phoebe. After a series of attempts to win back Phoebe's affections, even trying to seduce her to evil once again, Cole is vanquished in the 100th episode of the series, "Centennial Charmed". Later in the season, Phoebe helps to deliver Piper and Leo's first child, Wyatt Matthew Halliwell. Soon after she begins a romantic relationship with her new boss, multi-millionaire Jason Dean (Eric Dane).


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: In season six (2003–04), Phoebe continues her relationship with Jason and also sees her magical abilities grow to include the power of empathy. Phoebe eventually becomes more serious with Jason, moving with him to Hong Kong. After a year of dating, Jason discovers Phoebe's secret identity as a witch by accident and, unable to handle the revelation, breaks up with her. Phoebe subsequently moves back to San Francisco and into the Manor. In the episode "The Legend of Sleepy Halliwell", Phoebe experiences a vision quest and not only discovers that her new time-traveling whitelighter Chris (Drew Fuller) is actually the second child of Piper and Leo, but that she is also destined to have a child of her own. This puts Phoebe on a selfish path of using her psychic powers to find the father of her child to the neglect of her other duties. For this, Phoebe is stripped of her unique powers by a Tribunal Council made up of both high-powered demons and Elders, though she retains her basic abilities as a witch and Charmed One. In the sixth-season finale, the sisters, Leo and Chris discover that a powerful Elder named Gideon (Gildart Jackson) wishes to destroy the Twice-Blessed Wyatt, an act which causes Wyatt to turn his back on good in the future.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: At the start of season seven (2004–05), Phoebe is still stripped of her powers. After she begins to feel disconnected from her advice column audience, Phoebe takes a sabbatical from work and is temporarily replaced by a ghost-writer Leslie St. Claire (Nick Lachey). Phoebe and Leslie enter a brief romance, but it does not last long as Leslie moves to Los Angeles. In the episode "Styx Feet Under", Phoebe only regains her power of premonitions. In the hopes of having a demon-free life, Phoebe and her sisters join forces with The Avatars, powerful beings who are neither good nor evil, in their plan to turn the world into a utopia. Phoebe is the first of the sisters to regret this when her premonition powers show her how much the world has been robbed of its free will. The Charmed Ones team up with The Underworld's new leader, Zankou (Oded Fehr) to defeat The Avatars. However, Zankou then turns on the sisters, becoming their adversary for the remainder of the season. During this season Cole, while stuck in Limbo, arranges for the good-natured demon Drake De'mon (Billy Zane) to enter Phoebe's life and keep her from giving up on love. In the season seven finale, during a suicide mission to vanquish Zankou, Phoebe and her sisters fake their deaths in order to escape the constant threat of demon attacks, as well as police and government investigations.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: For the eighth and final season (2005–2006), Phoebe takes on the false identity of Julie Bennett (Monica Allgeier) and begins a relationship with an artist named Dex Lawson (Jason Lewis). While under the influence of a spell cast by the prodigy of the Charmed Ones, Billie Jenkins (Kaley Cuoco), Phoebe marries Dex under the alias of Julie. Unsure if she could ever have a lasting marriage with someone she is not completely honest with, Phoebe reveals the truth of her hidden identity to Dex. The pair eventually break up and agree to get an annulment. Phoebe later meets a cupid named Coop (Victor Webster), who was sent by The Elders to help her find love again. When Phoebe discovers that Billie and her sister, Christy (Marnette Patterson) are the ultimate power The Charmed Ones must defeat to save Leo from the Angel of Death (Simon Templeman), she has reservations because the women are human and not demons. In the end, Phoebe participates in the ultimate battle between The Charmed Ones and the Jenkins sisters, which destroys the Halliwell Manor, and only Piper and Billie survive. In the series finale "Forever Charmed", Piper uses Coop's time-traveling ring to call upon her mother and grandmother and save Phoebe and Paige. After Christy is defeated, Phoebe and her sisters write about their lives in the Book of Shadows. An epilogue shows Phoebe and Coop getting married and that their marriage will produce three children, all daughters. Phoebe also becomes a successful author, writing a self-help book on finding love.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: As one of the central characters throughout the entire series, Phoebe appears in the majority of "Charmed" literature. These appearances first began in the series of novels. The novels follow no strict continuity with the series or each other, and are often considered to be non-canon. However, the television series producers have final approval of everything in the novels, which could indicate the literature fitting into the established canon of the series and the so-called ""Charmed" universe". Phoebe's first appearance in "Charmed" literature takes place within the novel "The Power of Three" by Eliza Willard on November 1, 1999, which acts as a novelised version of the series premiere episode. Her last appearance in a "Charmed" novel takes place within "Trickery Treat" by Diana G. Gallagher on January 1, 2008.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: In 2010, "Charmed" gained an officially licensed continuation in the form of a comic book, which is often billed as "". The series is published monthly by Zenescope Entertainment. Set eighteen-months after the series finale, the sisters are seen living happy demon free lives and have each entered into motherhood. Phoebe has had her first daughter with her husband Coop, who is named Prudence Johnna and nicknamed P.J. by Grams. Phoebe is also seen preparing to return to work as an advice columnist for The Bay Mirror. In the second issue of the comic, Phoebe regains her previously stripped powers of Levitation and Empathy. In Issue #6 of the comic, "Morality Bites Back", Phoebe learns that she used Advanced Empathy to murder Cal Greene in a previously visited future of February 26, 2009, by reflecting his emotions back onto him which caused his brain to overload.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: In "Charmed" it is revealed that magical witches can develop and master a variety of magical skills and powers which include; scrying, spell casting, and brewing potent potions. As a magical witch Phoebe can utilize scrying, a divination art form that allows one to locate a missing object or person. Phoebe can also cast spells, often written in iambic pentameter or as a rhyming couplet, to influence others or the world around her. She can also brew potions, most often used to vanquish foes or to achieve other magical feats similar to the effects of a spell. As a witch and Charmed One, Phoebe has also developed a number of magical powers which include premonitions, levitation, empathy and pathokinesis.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: When Phoebe first comes into her powers, the first power she develops is the ability to see the future in the form of premonitions. Premonitions are considered to be a passive power. She triggers this power when she touches or is in the presence of something that is related to the subject of her premonitions, making them a form of psychometry. This originally only encompassed precognition, to see the future, but grew to include retrocognition, to see the past, as well. This power was initially uncontrollable, but in later seasons she learns to summon premonitions at will. While her premonitions are initially shown as black and white in the show, it is mentioned several times that Phoebe experiences them in color. As her power grows, her premonitions become more vivid to where they become slightly colored and she can hear and feel what is taking place. Phoebe's premonition powers also allow her visions to reveal the truth. For instance, in the season one finale, "Deja Vu All Over Again", when the world is caught within a recurring time loop by the time sorcerer Tempus (David Carradine), Phoebe is able to realize that the same day is repeating over and over again because of her premonition powers.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: By season five, her power evolves to enable her to experience aspects of astral projection allowing her to interact with the environment of her premonitions. This aspect of her power is highlighted in the season five episodes "The Eyes Have It" and "Sand Francisco Dreamin'", as well as the season eight episode "Hulkus Pocus". Her premonition powers also evolve to allow Phoebe to anticipate the actions of others as in many instances Phoebe has sidestepped and jumped out the way of incoming fireballs and energy balls with perfect timing. Examples of this can be seen in the season seven episodes "Freaky Phoebe", where Phoebe is able to sense a demon who is behind her with a pair of scissors, and in the episode "Ordinary Witches", where Ronnie (Brian Howe), a cab driver Phoebe loses her powers to, is able to sense when and where the next fireball of a demon is going to be launched using her power of premonitions. Phoebe also develops the power to trigger a vision in someone else with similar powers, "sharing" visions with Elders and knowing how to trigger a specific "trap" premonition in the evil witch Mitzy (Jenny McCarthy), who has temporary possession of her powers. Kyra (Charisma Carpenter), a powerful demonic seer, tells Phoebe her powers were once limited to psychometry but they grew, like Phoebe's will in time.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: At the start of season three, in the episode "The Honeymoon's Over", Phoebe obtains her first active power in the form of levitation, the power to defy gravity and float in the air. This power is uncontrollable when she first obtains it, but she later learns to maintain complete control over it. When new to her power, Phoebe is unable to move horizontally, and in the season three episode "Once Upon a Time", Prue uses telekinesis to guide Phoebe across a cavern while she is levitating. Later in the series, Phoebe often mixes her martial arts and kick boxing with her levitating power to knock out her enemies. In season four, the power advances so that Phoebe is able to glide short distances while levitating and she even learns to use her power to walk on walls. During the fifth season, she is able to propel herself while levitating, as seen when she propels herself through a ventilation duct with her levitation powers in the episode "The Importance of Being Phoebe". In the season six episode "Forget Me... Not", Phoebe showcases a form of projective levitation, when she levitates herself and a weatherman. Phoebe displays projective levitation again in the episode "Love's a Witch" when she levitates the pillow she is sitting on along with her.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: In the "Charmed" comic books, specifically in issue #16 "The Heavens Can Wait", her power has been shown to have grown stronger, allowing Phoebe to levitate Paige's orb-shield which contained herself, her two sisters and Leo. While inside the Nexus of The All, Phoebe became able to use her power to its full potential, allowing her to not only fly but also to carry Piper and Paige with ease. Later, Prue tells Phoebe that her power will advance to this stage naturally at some point in the future.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: Season six sees Phoebe develop the power of empathy, the power to sense and experience the emotions of others. Being an empath allows Phoebe to directly channel the emotions of those around her. This initially causes considerable problems, as after encountering the emotions of others Phoebe would sometimes act on their whims or amplify and broadcast her own feelings, such as once triggering a fight in the "Bay Mirror" offices by accident (Although this could have unintended advantages; when the Halliwells were attacked by a demon that trapped them in their ideal worlds, Phoebe quickly realized something was wrong because her empathy powers caused her to tap into her boyfriend's desire for her to be a large-scale success where Phoebe was content being a local celebrity). In the "Charmed" series, magical powers are tied to the user's emotions, and because Phoebe can feel the emotions of others, her empathy allows her to sometimes tap into other characters' magical powers. This is first seen in the second half of the two-part season six premiere, "Valhalley of the Dolls (Part 2)". When a Valkyrie-turned-Piper attacks Phoebe, she channels Piper's telekinetic Valkyrie powers to where she can use them herself. This channeling of Valkyrie Piper's powers, also made her powers, when used against Phoebe, ineffective. In later episodes, Phoebe also uses empathy to deflect energy balls and fireballs, causing them to backfire on their users.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: In the season two episode, "Morality Bites", when the sisters travel to the future, it is revealed that Phoebe uses a magical power to kill a man named Cal Greene out of revenge. In the "Charmed" comics issue #6, "Morality Bites Back", Phoebe learns that this power is an advanced form of empathy, which is called Pathokinesis. Phoebe discovers that her empathy powers grow to allow her to incapacitate or even kill another person. In the comics, Phoebe realizes that she murders Cal Greene by reflecting his emotions back onto him, flooding his mind with painful emotions and memories of the women he had hurt, which causes his brain to overload.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: Early in the series, Phoebe is revealed to be a skilled pick-pocket; having picked up the technique during her rebellious teen years. Also, to make up for initially only having a passive power, Phoebe takes classes in self-defense. Her skills in hand-to-hand combat which includes Kung-Fu, Jeet Kune Do, & Kickboxing have advanced to the point where Phoebe is capable of beating multiple adversaries, most notably demonic wrestlers, furies, and vampires.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: Milano and Doherty's rumored off-screen feud earned them a nomination for Best Fight at the 2001 Wand Awards. In 2004, she was nominated for Favorite Female TV Character at the Spacey Awards in Canada. At the 2005 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, Milano was nominated for Favorite Television Actress. The following year, she was nominated for Television – Choice Actress at the Teen Choice Awards.


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: Kristin Sample of AOL TV called Phoebe "the hottest" witch out of the Halliwell sisters. In his review of the pilot episode, Ray Richmond of "Variety" magazine described Phoebe as "a free-spirited, self-absorbed conspiracy buff." In another review of the pilot episode, John Levesque of the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" also labelled Phoebe "free-spirited", but felt that Milano's acting needed "seasoning." "PopMatters" Michael Abernethy wrote that Milano provided "a lighter touch" to "Charmed" and noted that her "comic training" in sitcoms was "ideal for her carefree character" Phoebe. Angelica Bastien of "Bustle" magazine called Phoebe a "fan favorite" and commented that Milano "definitely fits the role much better than Lori [Rom] did. Just check out the Youtube video comparing their different takes on the character to see why it's best Milano took on the role." Brett Cullum of DVD Verdict named Phoebe "a wacky free spirit spitfire" and also believed that Milano was the right choice for Phoebe as she "provided an innate sense of comedy that rounded out the cast well." Rob Lineberger of the same publication felt that Milano's acting in the fifth season was "over the top in every way" and noted that she had a "hysterical physical presence." In his review of the sixth season, Lineberger wrote that Milano was "still singularly, blissfully goofy." "Entertainment Weekly"s Gillian Flynn also praised the comedy moments in the sixth season, writing "Milano has turned exasperation into an art form, as she's morphed into everything from Mata Hari to her combat-booted former teen self this season."


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: BuzzFeed's Jarett Wieselman commented on Phoebe's outfits in the later seasons, noting that many of the episodes featured her wearing "a series of progressively revealing and ridiculous costumes in the name of vanquishing." Joshua Levs of CNN labelled the costumes worn by Phoebe and her sisters "so skimpy", and noted that some of her memorable costumes included being a mermaid, "a leather-clad comic-book hero", and "topless on a horse." Levs also added that casting directors should pay attention because "Milano can act." A writer for MovieWeb described Phoebe as a "great, interesting, and relateable character." The writer also praised Milano for delivering an "incredibly convincing and believable performance", further adding that she "was another great casting choice" for "Charmed". Hypable.com's Tariq Kyle felt that Phoebe was the best character on the show, adding "She's sweet and innocent in a lot of ways, but she's also strong and realistic. She's smart, but she's relatable. She still fails and makes mistakes, but she constantly grows."


title: Phoebe Halliwell

text: In 2007, AOL TV ranked Phoebe at number seven on their list of the Top TV Witches. She also ranked seventh on the same list the following year. Virgin Media placed Phoebe at number 11 on their list of TV Temptresses, writing "As one of the trio of glamorous witches on ghostly drama "Charmed", Phoebe can use her psychic premonitions for all sorts of japery including romance." Milano was referenced in the 2002 teen comedy film "Big Fat Liar" due to her portrayal as a witch in "Charmed". In the film, Kaylee (Amanda Bynes) recalls watching an episode of "Charmed" on The WB where Milano "was about to cast a spell on her cute demon boyfriend." In his review of the television series "Witches of East End" being too similar to "Charmed", Christian Cintron of Hollywood.com noted that Jenna Dewan-Tatum's "ne'er-do-well, bed-hopping character" Freya Beauchamp is a lot like Phoebe.


title: Hartman Personality Profile

text: The Color Code Personality Profile also known as "The Color Code" or "The People Code" is a personality inventory devised by Taylor Hartman. A 45-question personality test is used to assess one's color.


title: Hartman Personality Profile

text: The Hartman Personality Profile is based on the notion that all people possess one of four driving "core motives". "The Color Code" is based on four types of personality, identified by color: Red, (motivated by power); Blue, (motivated by intimacy); White, (motivated by peace); and Yellow, (motivated by fun).<ref>


title: Privity of contract

text: The doctrine of privity of contract is a common law principle which provides that a contract cannot confer rights or impose obligations upon any person who is not a party to the contract.


title: Privity of contract

text: The premise is that only parties to contracts should be able to sue to enforce their rights or claim damages as such. However, the doctrine has proven problematic because of its implications for contracts made for the benefit of third parties who are unable to enforce the obligations of the contracting parties. In England and Wales, the doctrine has been substantially weakened by the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, which created a statutory exception to privity (enforceable third party rights).


title: Privity of contract

text: contract of sale of goods or services. Horizontal privity arises when the benefits from a contract are to be given to a third party. Vertical privity involves a contract between two parties, with an independent contract between one of the parties and another individual or corporation.


title: Privity of contract

text: If a third party gets a benefit under a contract, it does not have the right to go against the parties to the contract beyond its entitlement to a benefit. An example of this occurs when a manufacturer sells a product to a distributor and the distributor sells the product to a retailer. The retailer then sells the product to a consumer. There is no privity of contract between the manufacturer and the consumer.


title: Privity of contract

text: This, however, does not mean that the parties do not have another form of action: for instance, in "Donoghue v. Stevenson" a friend of Ms. Donoghue bought her a bottle of ginger beer, which contained the partially decomposed remains of a snail. Since the contract was between her friend and the shop owner, Mrs. Donoghue could not sue under the contract, but it was established that the manufacturer was in breach of a duty of care owed to her. Accordingly, she was awarded damages in the tort of negligence for having suffered gastroenteritis and "nervous shock".


title: Privity of contract

text: Prior to 1861 there existed decisions in English Law allowing provisions of a contract to be enforced by persons not party to it, usually relatives of a promisee, and decisions disallowing third party rights. The doctrine of privity emerged alongside the doctrine of consideration, the rules of which state that consideration must move from the promise, that is to say that if nothing is given for the promise of something to be given in return, that promise is not legally binding unless promised as a deed. 1833 saw the case of "Price v. Easton", where a contract was made for work to be done in exchange for payment to a third party. When the third party attempted to sue for the payment, he was held to be not privy to the contract, and so his claim failed. This was fully linked to the doctrine of consideration, and established as such, with the more famous case of "Tweddle v. Atkinson". In this case the plaintiff was unable to sue the executor of his father-in-law, who had promised to the plaintiff's father to make payment to the plaintiff, because he had not provided any consideration to the contract.


title: Privity of contract

text: The doctrine was developed further in "Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre v. Selfridge and Co. Ltd." through the judgment of Lord Haldane.


title: Privity of contract

text: Privity of Contract played a key role in the development of negligence as well. In the first case of "Winterbottom v. Wright" (1842), in which Winterbottom, a postal service wagon driver, was injured due to a faulty wheel, attempted to sue the manufacturer Wright for his injuries. The courts however decided that there was no privity of contract between manufacturer and consumer.


title: Privity of contract

text: This issue appeared repeatedly until "MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co." (1916), a case analogous to "Winterbottom v Wright" involving a car's defective wheel. Judge Cardozo, writing for the New York Court of Appeals, decided that no privity is required when the manufacturer knows the product is probably dangerous if defective, third parties (e.g. consumers) will be harmed because of said defect, and there was no further testing after initial sale. Foreseeable injuries occurred from foreseeable uses. Cardozo's innovation was to decide that the basis for the claim was that it was a tort not a breach of contract. In this way he finessed the problems caused by the doctrine of privity in a modern industrial society. Although his opinion was only law in New York State, the solution he advanced was widely accepted elsewhere and formed the basis of the doctrine of product liability.


title: Privity of contract

text: There are exceptions to the general rule, allowing rights to third parties and some impositions of obligations. These are:


title: Privity of contract

text: Attempts have been made to evade the doctrine by implying trusts (with varying success), constructing the Law of Property Act 1925 s. 56(1) to read the words "other property" as including contractual rights, and applying the concept of restrictive covenants to property other than real property (without success).


title: Privity of contract

text: In England and Wales, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 provided some reform for this area of law which has been criticised by judges such as Lord Denning and academics as unfair in places. The act states:


title: Privity of contract

text: This means that a person who is named in the contract as a person authorised to enforce the contract or a person receiving a benefit from the contract may enforce the contract unless it appears that the parties intended that he may not.


title: Privity of contract

text: The Act enables the aim of the parties to be fully adhered to. In "Beswick v Beswick", the agreement was that Peter Beswick assign his business to his nephew in consideration of the nephew employing him for the rest of his life and then paying a weekly annuity to Mrs. Beswick. Since the latter term was for the benefit of someone not party to the contract, the nephew did not believe it was enforceable and so did not perform it, making only one payment of the agreed weekly amount. Yet the only reason why Mr. Beswick contracted with his nephew was for the benefit of Mrs. Beswick. Under the Act, Mrs. Beswick would be able to enforce the performance of the contract in her own right. Therefore, the Act realises the intentions of the parties.


title: Privity of contract

text: The law has been welcomed by many as a relief from the strictness of the doctrine, however it may still prove ineffective in professionally drafted documents, as the provisions of this statute may be expressly excluded by the draftsmen.


title: Privity of contract

text: In Hong Kong, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Ordinance provided for a similar legal effect as the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.


title: Privity of contract

text: In Australia, it has been held that third-party beneficiaries may uphold a promise made for its benefit in a contract of insurance to which it is not a party ("Trident General Insurance Co Ltd v. McNiece Bros Pty Ltd" (1988) 165 CLR 107). It is important to note that the decision in "Trident" had no clear ratio, and did not create a general exemption to the doctrine of privity in Australia.


title: Privity of contract

text: Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia have all enacted statutory provisions to enable third party beneficiaries to enforce contracts, and limited the ability of contracting parties to vary the contract after the third party has relied on it. In addition, section 48 of the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) allows third-party beneficiaries to enforce contracts of insurance.


title: Privity of contract

text: Although damages are the usual remedy for the breach of a contract for the benefit of a third party, if damages are inadequate, specific performance may be granted ("Beswick v. Beswick" [1968] AC 59).


title: Privity of contract

text: The issue of third-party beneficiaries has appeared in cases where a stevedore has claimed it is covered under the exclusion clauses in a bill of lading. In order for this to succeed, three factors must be made out:


title: Privity of contract

text: The last issue was explored in "New Zealand Shipping Co Ltd v. A M Satterthwaite & Co Ltd" [1975] AC 154, where it was held that the stevedores had provided consideration for the benefit of the exclusion clause by the discharge of goods from the ship.


title: Privity of contract

text: New Zealand has enacted the Contracts Privity Act 1982, which enables third parties to sue if they are sufficiently identified as beneficiaries by the contract, and in the contract it is expressed or implied they should be able to enforce this benefit. An example case of not being "sufficiently identified" is that of "Field v Fitton" (1988).


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Greater Pittsburgh is a populous region centered around its largest city and economic hub, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The region encompasses Pittsburgh's urban core county, Allegheny, and six adjacent Pennsylvania counties: Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland in Western Pennsylvania, which constitutes the Pittsburgh, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area MSA as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: As of the 2020 census, the Greater Pittsburgh region had a population of over 2.37 million people. Roughly one-fifth of the entire population of Pennsylvania resides within the region. The core city, Pittsburgh, has a population of 302,971, making it the second-largest city in the state. Over half of the region's population resides within Allegheny County, which has a population of 1.24 million and is the second-largest county in the state.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Garrett Nelson and Alasdair Rae's 2016 analysis of American commuter flows, "An Economic Geography of the United States: From Commutes to Megaregions", identified the Pittsburgh megaregion as a region encompassing the entirety or significant portions of 54 counties in Western Pennsylvania, Eastern Ohio, Northern West Virginia, and Western Maryland. By this definition, the informal regional boundaries are similar to historical interpretations where the region is defined as the central portion of the Allegheny Plateau to the west and north of the Allegheny Front and south of Lake Erie and Pennsylvania's Northern Tier. The hills and river valleys along the Upper Ohio River and its many eastern tributaries, including the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers have historically been the major centers of population of the region.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: According to this research the US can be divided into 'mega regions' based on the most extreme commuting patterns within a geographical area (commutes within 100 miles from the core city). By this liberal definition, the Pittsburgh mega region consists of twenty-eight Pennsylvania counties (Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Bedford, Blair, Butler, Cambria, Cameron, Centre, Clarion, Clearfield, Crawford, Elk, Erie, Fayette, Forest, Greene, Huntingdon, Indiana, Jefferson, Lawrence, Mercer, Mifflin, Somerset, Venango, Warren, Washington, and Westmoreland), nineteen West Virginia counties (Barbour, Brooke, Doddridge, Grant, Hancock, Harrison, Lewis, Marion, Marshall, Mineral, Monongalia, Ohio, Preston, Randolph, Taylor, Tucker, Tyler, Upshur, and Wetzel), five Ohio counties (Belmont, Columbiana, Harrison, Jefferson, and Monroe), and two Maryland counties (Allegany and Garrett), and portions of Chautauqua, New York in and around Ripley. . The combined population of the megaregion was over 4.9 million in 2016.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: There are also several formal definitions of Greater Pittsburgh which are often used in media mentions of the region. These include the Office of Management and Budget's Pittsburgh, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) and Pittsburgh-New Castle-Weirton, PA-OH-WV Combined Statistical Area (CSA). The Nielsen Corporation's Pittsburgh Designated Market Area (DMA) is another commonly used formal definition of the region. There are nineteen counties included in at least one of these definitions and their combined population was over 2.9 million in 2016.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Historically, Pittsburgh has been grouped in the "rust belt"; however, reflective of the rebound of the region within the last generation, the metro area has been included as a part of the "Great Lakes Basin" gaining representation in the Great Lakes Metro Chamber Coalition.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Pittsburgh's association with the Great Lakes region is due in part to its economic, demographic and commuter connections to Great Lakes cities like Cleveland, Erie, Toledo and even Detroit. Christopher Briem, an economist at the University of Pittsburgh's University Center for Social and Urban Research, has argued that southwestern Pennsylvania is "far more interconnected" with northeastern Ohio than it is with the eastern half of Pennsylvania, and that the industries of Pittsburgh are primarily linked to Ohioan cities such as Youngstown, Akron, and Cleveland, not to Pennsylvanian cities such as Allentown, Scranton, or Philadelphia. He notes that, conversely, the population centers of northeastern Ohio are primarily connected with Pittsburgh and only secondarily connected to the state capital of Columbus. Briem argues that "In so many ways the state boundaries we think of as important are no more than lines on a map." In recognizing their economic interdependence, Briem coined the term "Cleveburgh" to refer collectively to the cities of Cleveland and Pittsburgh, along with the smaller towns dotting the corridor of I-76 between the cities. Robert Lang and Arthur Nelson of the Metropolitan Institute at Virginia Tech also identify the region between Cleveland and Pittsburgh as being an interconnected "megapolitan area" and refer to it as the "Steel Corridor".


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: The largest school district in the area is the Pittsburgh Public Schools, with the school districts of Allegheny County also boasting large student bodies. Many private schools also serve the core county of Allegheny. More public districts are found throughout Beaver, Westmoreland, and Washington counties, as well as private schools in each county.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Several area colleges and universities serve the region. Pittsburgh itself is home to many colleges, universities and research facilities, the most well-known of which are Carnegie Mellon University, the University of Pittsburgh, and Duquesne University. Also in the city are Carlow University, Chatham University, Point Park University, the Community College of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, Reformed Presbyterian Theological Seminary, and the Pittsburgh Institute of Mortuary Science. Within the greater metropolitan area, universities include Clarion University of Pennsylvania, La Roche University, Slippery Rock University, Westminster College and Grove City College north of the city, Robert Morris University and Geneva College west of the city, Washington & Jefferson College, Pennsylvania Western University and Waynesburg University to the south, and Seton Hill University, Saint Vincent College and Indiana University of Pennsylvania to the east.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Pittsburgh International Airport is located to the west of downtown Pittsburgh in Findlay. The smaller but less crowded Arnold Palmer Regional Airport to the east of downtown in Latrobe provide commercial service to the metro area.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Pittsburgh International was the fortress hub of US Airways from 1952 to 2005 with over 500 daily departures to more than 110 destinations in 2000. By 2007, fewer than 70 departures to 21 destinations remained. In 2007, US Airways did select the airport for its new $25 million, 27,000 sq ft (2,500 m), 600-employees-strong Global Flight Operations Center. Since being de-hubbed the airport has seen expanded service from JetBlue, Southwest Airlines and Delta Air Lines' direct trans-Atlantic service to Paris.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Arnold Palmer Regional Airport offers commercial service via Spirit Airlines to the Carolinas, Florida and Texas. Palmer has had commercially scheduled air service since the 1980s.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Allegheny County Airport in suburban West Mifflin, Pennsylvania, is the area's largest general aviation airport. The historic landmark, art deco terminal was the main passenger airport for the area until 1952. Allegheny opened in 1931 as the nation's third-largest and first with "hard surface" runways.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: The Pittsburgh area is served by four main-line Interstates including the Pennsylvania Turnpike (which is co-signed with I-76 and in the extreme eastern part of the region also co-signed with I-70):


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: The Port of Pittsburgh ranks as the 21st-largest port in the United States with almost 34 million short tons of river cargo for 2011, the port ranked 9th-largest in the U.S. when measured in domestic trade.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: The Pittsburgh Regional Transit agency (PRT) is the largest mass transit service in the metro area and includes a 26-mile subway/light rail system, all serving the central core. This system is complemented by the Butler Transit Authority and Town & Country Transit to north destinations, Beaver County Transit Authority and New Castle Area Transit Authority to northwest destinations, Westmoreland County Transit Authority and IndiGo to eastern destinations, and Washington City Transit, Mid Mon Valley Transit Authority and Fayette Area Coordinated Transportation serving southern destinations. The University of Pittsburgh Transportation System also provides services in the eastern core of the metropolitan area while Mountain Line Transit serves the city, western suburbs and an express route south to Morgantown, West Virginia.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Amtrak serves the region with stops at Penn Station in Downtown Pittsburgh, Connellsville to the southeast and both Greensburg and Latrobe to the east.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Freight rail is a major industry for the area with the Pittsburgh Line and the Conway Yard among other infrastructure serving the region.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Pittsburgh and its surrounding area has a distinct regional identity and has historically been regarded as a transitional region within the Northeastern United States. The region's counties also fall within the borders of Appalachia as defined by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The City of Pittsburgh has been characterized as the "northern urban industrial anchor of Appalachia" which makes it an anomaly compared to much of Appalachia which has traditionally been characterized as southern, rural, and economically distressed.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Joseph Scarpaci, professor emeritus of geography at Virginia Tech, has described Pittsburgh as having "one foot in the East...and the other in the Midwest". Barbara Johnstone, professor of rhetoric and linguistics at Carnegie Mellon University, ascribes this isolation and idiosyncratic cultural identity of the region to the difficulty of moving through the Allegheny Mountains and the Allegheny Plateau.The Pittsburgh area was sort of isolated. It was very hard to get back and forth across the mountains. There's always been a sense that Pittsburgh was kind of a place unto itself—not really southern, not really Midwestern, not really part of Pennsylvania. People just didn't move very much.In his 2009 book, "The Paris of Appalachia", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette writer Brian O'Neill meditates on this aspect of Pittsburgh's regional and cultural ambiguity. The title of the book is intentionally provocative:"The Paris of Appalachia" some have called Pittsburgh derisively, because it's still the largest city along this gorgeous mountain chain that needs a better press agent. I've long felt we should embrace that title, though few are with me. Several tried to talk me out of slapping it on the cover, but were we called "The Paris of the Rockies," we wouldn't run from it. Sometimes we're so afraid of what others think, we're afraid to say who we are. This city is not Midwestern. It's not East Coast. It's just Pittsburgh, and there's no place like it. That's both its blessing and its curse.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Greater Pittsburgh is home to several museums, galleries, and organizations which promote appreciation for the visual arts. The largest art museum in the region is the Carnegie Museum of Art, founded in 1895 by industrialist Andrew Carnegie and located in Pittsburgh's Oakland neighborhood. It is renowned for its collections of 19th and 20th century decorative art, Japanese prints, and old master prints. Contemporary art museums include the Mattress Factory and the Andy Warhol Museum, both located on Pittsburgh's North Side.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: The Pittsburgh area served as a launchpad for the professionalization of both American football and ice hockey in the 1890s and 1900s. The first professional player (William Heffelfinger) played for a Pittsburgh football team in 1892, which was followed by the first open professional (John Brallier), the first all-professional team (the Latrobe Athletic Association), and a participant in the first all-professional league (the Pittsburgh Stars of the first National Football League). In the case of ice hockey, the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League was the first hockey league to pay its players in 1901, eventually merging into the first fully pro league, the International Professional Hockey League, in 1904. Professional hockey in Pennsylvania predated the professionalization of the game in Canada (where it eventually came to dominate in the early 20th century) by four years.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Today, the region is home to three major league franchises in baseball, football, and hockey; several minor league teams in soccer, baseball, and hockey; and three major NCAA universities.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Golf in the metro area boasts such courses as Oakmont Country Club, which has hosted the U.S. Open a record nine times, and Foxburg Country Club the oldest continuous club in the U.S. Such tournaments as the 84 Lumber Classic, Pittsburgh Senior Open and the current Mylan Classic call the region home. Area courses have also hosted multiple PGA Championships, LPGA Championships, U.S. Women's Opens and Ryder Cup matches.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Annual sporting events include the Head of the Ohio crew race, Three Rivers Regatta, Pittsburgh Vintage Grand Prix, and the Pittsburgh Marathon.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: The regions rivers have hosted the Bassmaster Classic and Forrest Wood Cup and the city has enjoyed having one of only two teams to host the Major League Baseball All Star Game a record eight times. The area has also hosted the NHL All Star Game, NHL Winter Classic, Senior Olympics, NHL Entry Draft, AHL All Star Game, NCAA Tournament and Frozen Four.


title: Greater Pittsburgh

text: Winter in the region sees sport continue at such rinks at PPG Place and North Park as well as area ski resorts like Boyce Park, Seven Springs Mountain Resort, Hidden Valley, Laurel Mountain and Wisp.


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: The chief justice of the Philippines () presides over the Supreme Court of the Philippines and is the highest judicial officer of the government of the Philippines.


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: As of April 5, 2021, the position is currently held by Alexander Gesmundo, who was appointed by President Rodrigo Duterte following the early retirement of his predecessor Diosdado Peralta in March 2021.


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: The chief justice, who was first named on June 11, 1901, in the person of Cayetano Arellano, is the oldest existing major governmental office continually held by a Filipino, preceding the presidency and vice presidency (1935), senators (1916, or as the Taft Commission, on September 1, 1901) and the members of the House of Representatives (1907 as the Philippine Assembly).


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: The power to appoint the chief justice lies with the president of the Philippines, who makes the selection from a list of three nominees prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council. There is no material difference in the process of selecting a chief justice from that in the selection of associate justices. As with the other justices of the Supreme Court, the chief justice is obliged to retire upon reaching the age of 70; otherwise there is no term limit for the chief justice. In the 1935 constitution, any person appointed by the president has to be confirmed by the Commission on Appointments; in the 1973 constitution, the person whom the president appointed did not have to undergo confirmation under the Commission on Appointments.


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: The current 1987 constitution does not ascribe any formal role to the chief justice other than as an ex-officio chairman of the Judicial and Bar Council and as the presiding officer in any impeachment trial of the president. The chief justice is also required to personally certify every decision that is rendered by the court. The chief justice carries only 1 vote out of 15 in the court, and is generally regarded, vis-a-vis the other justices, as the "primus inter pares" rather than as the administrative superior of the other members of the court.


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: Still, the influence a chief justice may bear within the court and judiciary, and on the national government cannot be underestimated. In the public eye, any particular Supreme Court is widely identified with the identity of the incumbent chief justice, hence appellations such as "The Fernando Court" or "The Puno Court". Moreover, the chief justice usually retains high public visibility, unlike the associate justices, who tend to labor in relative anonymity, with exceptions such as Associate Justice J. B. L. Reyes in the 1950s to 1970s.


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: By tradition, it is also the chief justice who swears into office the president of the Philippines. One notable deviation from that tradition came in 1986, and later again in 2010. Due to the exceptional political circumstances culminating in the People Power Revolution, on February 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino took her oath of office as president before Associate Justice Claudio Teehankee in San Juan just minutes before Ferdinand Marcos took his own oath of office also as president before Chief Justice Ramon Aquino. Marcos fled into exile later that night. More than two decades afterwards, Benigno Simeon Aquino III followed in his mother's footsteps (with almost similar reasons) by having Associate Justice Conchita Carpio-Morales administer his oath of office, rather than Chief Justice Renato Corona (who was eventually impeached halfway through Aquino's term). Six years later, in 2016, Rodrigo Duterte took his oath of office before Associate Justice Bienvenido Reyes, his classmate at San Beda College of Law, instead of Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno (who would eventually be removed from her position through "quo warranto" after it was determined that she had been unlawfully holding office "ab initio").


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: The chief justice also names the three justices each from the Supreme Court in the memberships of the House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal and the Senate Electoral Tribunal.


title: Chief Justice of the Philippines

text: The chief justice is the chief executive officer of the Philippine judiciary system and together with the whole Supreme


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: Tolkāppiyam, also romanised as Tholkaappiyam (, "lit." "ancient poem"), is the most ancient extant Tamil grammar text and the oldest extant long work of Tamil literature. The surviving manuscripts of the "Tolkappiyam" consists of three books ("atikaram"), each with nine chapters ("iyal"), with a cumulative total of 1,610 (483+463+664) "sutras" in the "nūṛpā" meter. It is a comprehensive text on grammar, and includes "sutras" on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The "Tolkappiyam" is difficult to date. Some in the Tamil tradition place the text in the mythical second sangam, variously in 1st millennium BCE or earlier. Scholars place the text much later and believe the text evolved and expanded over a period of time. According to Nadarajah Devapoopathy the earliest layer of the "Tolkappiyam" was likely composed between the 2nd and 1st century BCE, and the extant manuscript versions fixed by about the 5th century CE. The "Tolkappiyam Ur-text" likely relied on some unknown even older literature.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: Iravatham Mahadevan dates the Tolkappiyam to no earlier than the 2nd century CE, as it mentions the "puḷḷi" being an integral part of Tamil script. The "puḷḷi" (a diacritical mark to distinguish pure consonants from consonants with inherent vowels) only became prevalent in Tamil epigraphs after the 2nd century CE.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: According to linguist Prof. S. Agesthialingam, Tolkappiyam contains many later interpolations, and the language shows many deviations consistent with late old Tamil (similar to Cilappatikaram), rather than the early old Tamil poems of Eṭṭuttokai and Pattuppāṭṭu.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The "Tolkappiyam" contains aphoristic verses arranged into three books – the "Eluttatikaram" ("Eluttu" meaning "letter, phoneme"), the "Sollatikaram" ("Sol" meaning "Sound, word") and the "Porulatikaram" ("Porul" meaning "subject matter", i.e. prosody, rhetoric, poetics). The "Tolkappiyam" includes examples to explain its rules, and these examples provide indirect information about the ancient Tamil culture, sociology, and linguistic geography. It is first mentioned by name in Iraiyanar's "Akapporul" – a 7th- or 8th-century text – as an authoritative reference, and the "Tolkappiyam" remains the authoritative text on Tamil grammar.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The word "Tolkāppiyam" is a attribute-based composite word, with "tol" meaning "ancient, old", and "kappiyam" meaning "book, text, poem, kavya"; together, the title has been translated as "ancient book", "ancient poem", or "old poem". The word 'kappiyam' is of Indo-Aryan origin from the Sanskrit "Kavya".


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: According to Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature and history scholar, Tamil purists tend to reject this Sanskrit-style etymology and offer "curious" alternatives. One of these breaks it into three "tol-kappu-iyanratu", meaning "ancient protection [of language]". An alternate etymology that has been proposed by a few purists is that the name of the work derives from the author's name Tolkāppiyan, but this is a disputed assumption because neither the author(s) nor centuries in which this masterpiece was composed are known.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The dating of the Tolkappiyam is difficult, much debated, and it remains contested and uncertain. Proposals range between 5,320 BCE and the 8th century CE.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The tradition and some Indian scholars favor an early date for its composition, before the common era, and state that it is the work of one person associated with sage Agastya. Other Indian scholars, and non-Indian scholars such as Kamil Zvelebil, prefer to date it not as a single entity but in parts or layers. The Tolkappiyam manuscript versions that have survived into the modern age were fixed by about the 5th century CE, according to Zvelebil. Scholars reject traditional datings based on three sangams and the myth of great floods because there is no verifiable evidence in its favor, and the available evidence based on linguistics, epigraphy, Sangam literature and other Indian texts suggest a much later date. The disagreements now center around divergent dates between the 3rd century BCE and 8th century CE.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: There is no firm evidence to assign the authorship of this treatise to any one author. "Tholkapiyam", some traditionally believe, was written by a single author named Tolkappiyar, a disciple of Vedic sage Agastya mentioned in the "Rigveda" (1500–1200 BCE). According to the traditional legend, the original grammar was called Agathiam written down by sage Agastya, but it went missing after a great deluge. His student Tolkappiyar was asked to compile Tamil grammar, which is "Tolkappiyam". In Tamil historical sources such as the 14th-century influential commentary on "Tolkappiyam" by Naccinarkkiniyar, the author is stated to be Tiranatumakkini (alternate name for Tolkappiyan), the son of a Brahmin "rishi" named Camatakkini. The earliest mention of Agastya-related Akattiyam legends are found in texts approximately dated to the 8th or 9th century.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: According to Kamil Zvelebil, the earliest "sutras" of the Tolkappiyam were composed by author(s) who lived before the "majority of extant" Sangam literature, who clearly knew Pāṇini and followed Patanjali works on Sanskrit grammar because some verses of Tolkappiyam – such as "T-Col 419" and"T-Elutt 83" – seem to be borrowed and exact translation of verses of Patanjali's "bhasya" and ideas credited to more ancient Panini. Further, the author(s) lived after Patanjali because various sections of "Tolkappiyam" show the same ideas for grammatically structuring a language and it uses borrowed Indo-European words found in Panini and Patanjali works to explain its ideas. According to Hartmut Scharfe and other scholars, the phonetic and phonemic sections of the "Tolkappiyam" shows considerable influence of Vedic "Pratishakhyas", while its rules for nominal compounds follow those in Patanjali's "mahabhasya", though there is also evidence of innovations. The author(s) had access and expertise of the ancient Sanskrit works on grammar and language.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: According to Zvelebil, another Tamil tradition believes that the earliest layer by its author(s) – Tolkappiyan – may have been a Jaina scholar, who knew "aintiram" (pre-Paninian grammatical system) and lived in south Kerala, but "we do not know of any definite data concerning the original author or authors". This traditional belief, according to Vaiyapuri Pillai, is supported by a few Jaina Prakrit words such as "patimaiyon" found in the "Tolkappiyam".


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The "Tolkappiyam" deals with "ilakkanam" (grammar) in three books ("atikaram"), each with nine chapters ("iyal") of different sizes. The text has a cumulative total of 1,610 (Eluttatikaram 483 + Sollatikaram 463 + Porulatikaram 664) "sutras" in the "nūṛpā" meter, though some versions of its surviving manuscripts have a few less. The "sutra" format provides a distilled summary of the rules, one that is not easy to read or understand; commentaries are necessary for the proper interpretation and understanding of "Tolkappiyam".


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: "Eluttu" means "sound, letter, phoneme", and this book of the "Tolkappiyam" covers the sounds of the Tamil language, how they are produced (phonology). It includes "punarcci" ("lit." "joining, copulation") which is combination of sounds, orthography, graphemic and phonetics with sounds as they are produced and listened to. The phonemic inventory it includes consists of 5 long vowels, 5 short vowels, and 17 consonants. The articulatory descriptions in "Tolkappiyam" are incomplete, indicative of a proto-language. It does not, for example, distinguish between retroflex and non-retroflex consonants, states Thomas Lehmann. The phonetic and phonemic sections of the first book show the influence of Vedic Pratisakhyas, states Hartmut Scharfe, but with some differences. For example, unlike the Pratisakhyas and the later Tamil, the first book of "Tolkappiyam" does not treat /ṭ/ and /ṇ/ as retroflex.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: "Sol" meaning "word", and the second book deals with "etymology, morphology, semantics and syntax", states Zvelebil. The "sutras" cover compounds, some semantic and lexical issues. It also mentions the twelve dialectical regions of Tamil speaking people, which suggests the author(s) had a keen sense of observation and inclusiveness for Old Tamil's linguistic geography. According to Peter Scharf, the "sutras" here are inspired by the work on Sanskrit grammar by Panini, but it uses Tamil terminology and adds technical innovations. Verb forms and the classification of nominal compounds in the second book show the influence of Patanjali's "Mahabhasya".


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: "Porul" meaning "subject matter", and this book deals with the prosody ("yappu") and rhetoric ("ani") of Old Tamil. It is here, that the book covers the two genres found in classical Tamil literature: "akam" (love, erotics, interior world) and "puram" (war, society, exterior world). The "akam" is subdivided into "kalavu" (premarital love) and "karpu" (marital love). It also deals with dramaturgy, simile, prosody and tradition. According to Zvelebil, this arrangement suggests that the entire "Tolkappiyam" was likely a guide for bardic poets, where the first two books led to this third on how to compose their songs. The third book's linking of literature ("ilakkiyam") to the grammatical rules of the first and the second book ("ilakkanam") created a symbiotic relationship between the two. The literary theory of "Tolkappiyam", according to Peter Scharf, borrows from Sanskrit literary theory texts.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: Epigraphical studies, such as those by Mahadevan, show that ancient Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in South India and dated to between 3rd century BCE and 4th century CE had three different grammatical form. Only one of them is assumed in the "Tolkappiyam". The language of the Sangam literature is same as the one described in "Tolkappiyam", except in some minor respects.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The "Tolkappiyam" is a collection of aphoristic verses in the "nūṛpā" meter. It is unintelligible without a commentary. Tamil scholars have written commentaries on it, over the centuries:


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: The commentary by Ilampuranar dated to the 11th or 12th century CE is the most comprehensive and probably the best, states Zvelebil. The commentary by Senavaraiyar deals only with the second book "Sollathikaram". The commentary by Perasiriyar, which is heavily indebted to the "Nannūl", frequently quotes from the "Dandiyalankaram" and "Yapparunkalam", the former being a standard medieval rhetorica and the latter being a detailed treatise on Tamil prosody. Naccinarkiniyar's commentary, being a scholar of both Tamil and Sanskrit, quotes from Parimelalakar's works.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: There are two verses given in support of Tholkappiar's religious outlook. Some made controversial and unconfirmed observation in Sangam poems that there is relatively meager reference given to religion in general. In the "akam" songs, Tholkappiar has made reference to deities in the different land divisions: Thirumal for Mullai, Murugan for Kurinji, Vendhan for Maarutham, Kadalon for Neithal and Kotravai for Paalai.


title: Tolkāppiyam

text: Alexander Dubyanskiy, veteran Tamil scholar from Moscow State University stated, "I am sure that Tolkappiyam is a work which demanded not only vast knowledge and a lot of thinking but a considerable creative skill from its composer." Dubyanskiy also said that the authority of the text was undeniable: "It is a literary and cultural monument of great importance."


title: Solanki Roy

text: Solanki Roy (Bengali: শোলাঙ্কি রায়) is an Indian actress who works in Indian television and web series.


title: Solanki Roy

text: Roy was born and raised in Kolkata. She studied at Bidhannagar Municipal School and graduated in political science from Bidhannagar College in Kolkata. Later, she did her post-graduation in International Relations from Jadavpur University. She married Shakya Bose, a New Zealand-based banker, in 2018.


title: Solanki Roy

text: Roy made her first television appearance in ETV Bangla's (Colors Bangla) Bengali serial Kotha Dilam (2014) with the lead character named Sudha. She also played the lead character Meghla opposite to Vikram Chatterjee in Star Jalsha's famous TV serial Ichche Nodee (2015) which was showered with lots of love from audience. She also appeared on Zee Bangla serial Saat Bhai Champa and Star Jalsha serial Phagun Bou. She was playing the role of Dr. Kadambini Ganguly aka Bini in Star Jalsha's period drama Prothoma Kadambini opposite to Honey Bafna, based on the biography of Bengal's first practising female physician Kadambini Ganguly. Recently, She became Khori Singha Roy in the drama Gantchhora.


title: Santorini (Thira) International Airport

text: Santorini (Thira) International Airport () is an airport in Santorini/Thira, Greece located north of the village of Kamari. The airport serves as both a military and a civil airport. With its redesigned apron, as of 2021 the airport is able to serve up to nine civilian airliners at the same time. Santorini is one of the few Cyclades Islands with a major airport.


title: Santorini (Thira) International Airport

text: The airport is located about 6 km southeast of the centre of the city of Thira. The main asphalt runway (17/35) is 7,208 feet (2,197 m) in length. The parallel taxiway was built and marked to runway specification but is now marked and lighted as a taxiway. The airfield can accommodate medium-sized jets like the Boeing 757, Boeing 737 and Airbus 320 series as well as smaller aircraft such as the Avro RJ, Fokker 70, and ATR 72. Scheduled airlines include Ryanair, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines, with seasonal scheduled and charter flights from other airlines during the higher seasons in spring, summer and autumn. Transportation to and from the air terminal is via buses, taxis, hotel car-pickups and hired cars.


title: Santorini (Thira) International Airport

text: In December 2015 the privatisation of Santorini (Thira) International Airport and 13 other regional airports of Greece was finalised with the signing of the agreement between the Fraport AG/Copelouzos Group joint venture and the state privatisation fund. According to the agreement, the joint venture will operate the 14 airports (including Santorini (Thira) International Airport) for 40 years as of 11 April 2017.


title: Santorini (Thira) International Airport

text: The data are from Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) until 2016, and from the airport's official website from 2017 thereafter.


title: Weruche Opia

text: Reanne Weruche Opia () (born 11 April 1987) is a British-Nigerian actress and entrepreneur. She is the founding CEO of the clothing line Jesus Junkie Clothing. She was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for her performance in the BBC miniseries "I May Destroy You" (2020).


title: Weruche Opia

text: Born in Lagos, Opia moved to South East London at the age of 13. Her father is an author and professor of social sciences and her mother is veteran Nigerian broadcaster and television host Ruth Benamaisia-Opia. Opia holds a degree in drama and sociology from the University of the West of England, Bristol.


title: Weruche Opia

text: After making her television debut with a guest appearance in a 2010 episode of "The Bill", Opia spent a year with the Renegade Theatre Company in Nigeria. Upon returning to England in 2012, she appeared in the Channel 4 crime drama "Top Boy" and the Channel 5 procedural "Suspects".


title: Weruche Opia

text: Opia gained prominence through her role as Cleopatra Ofoedo in the third series of the BBC comedy "Bad Education" and its 2015 spinoff film. Opia was nominated in 2015 in the Nollywood Actress of the Year category at the 2015 Nigeria Entertainment Awards for her role in the film "When Love Happens". From 2019 to 2020, Opia was in the main cast of the Dave sitcom "Sliced" as Naomi.


title: Weruche Opia

text: Opia starred as Terry Pratchard in Michaela Coel's BBC series "I May Destroy You", which first aired in June 2020. For her performance, Opia was nominated for a British Academy Television Award and won a Black Reel Award. In 2022, she appeared in the ITV thriller "Our House".


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Penn State Nittany Lions are the athletic teams of Pennsylvania State University, except for the women's basketball team, known as the Lady Lions. The school colors are navy blue and white. The school mascot is the Nittany Lion. The intercollegiate athletics logo was commissioned in 1983.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State participates as a member institution of the Big Ten Conference at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) level for most sports. It is one of only 15 universities in the nation that plays Division I FBS football and Division I men's ice hockey. Two sports participate in different conferences because they are not sponsored by the Big Ten: men's volleyball in the Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA) and women's ice hockey in College Hockey America (CHA). The fencing teams operate as independents.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State has finished in the top 25 in every NACDA Director's Cup final poll, a feat only matched by nine other institutions: Stanford, UCLA, USC, Florida, Ohio State, Texas, North Carolina, and Michigan. The NACDA Director's Cup is a list compiled by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics that charts institutions' overall success in college sports. Penn State's highest finish came in the 1998–99 standings when the Nittany Lions finished 3rd. PSU finished in 5th place in the 2013–14 standings; it was the fifth time the program finished in the top 5 and the tenth time the program finished in the top 10.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State's men's basketball program reached the Final Four once in 1954, though the best postseason finish in recent years occurred in 2001 with a trip to the Sweet Sixteen of the NCAA tournament after a win over UNC in the round of 32. The most recent postseason championship for Penn State was the 2018 National Invitation Tournament on March 29, 2018. Penn State outscored Utah 82–66 to capture its second men's basketball national title in school history and its third postseason tournament title since winning the Atlantic-10 Tournament in 1991. The Nittany Lions lost in the first round of the 2011 NCAA tournament, the team's most recent postseason appearance.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Notable alumni include: Frank Brickowski, John Amaechi, Calvin Booth, Mike Costello, Stanley Pringle, Geary Claxton, Jamelle Cornley, Lamar Stevens. Micah Shrewsberry is the current coach.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Lady Lions, the Penn State women's basketball team and the only athletic team not known as "Nittany Lions," have had more success than their male counterparts, often gaining berths into the women's NCAA tournament, reaching the Final Four once in 2000. The Lady Lions have reached the NCAA tournament more than any other Big Ten team with 25 appearances as of 2014. The Lady Lions have won 8 Big Ten Regular Season Championships and 2 Big Ten tournament Championships. The most recent postseason championship won by Penn State was the 1998 Women's National Invitation Tournament. Carolyn Kieger was in her second season as head coach of the Lady Lions in 2020–21.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The men's cross country team won NCAA titles in 1942, 1947, and 1950. Before the NCAA began sponsoring the cross country championship in 1938, and unlike today, the annual ICAAAA meet was a premier national championship event for track and field and cross country. The team won ICAAAA championships in 1926, 1927, 1928 and 1930. Penn State runners won the individual ICAAAA titles in 1920 (John Romig), 1927 and 1928 (William Cox, consecutively). PSU men also won ICAAAA team titles in 1950, 1951, 1960 and 2000, as well as individual crowns in 1938, 1946, 1987 and 2004.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State has been a fencing powerhouse, having won a record 13 national championships in the sport since the NCAA began awarding titles in combined men's and women's fencing in 1990. The team finished as champion or runner-up in 21 of the first 25 years of the combined tournament. The program won six consecutive NCAA Championships from 1995 to 2000.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Emmanuil G. Kaidanov was the coach of the fencing squads during most of that period. The women's fencing team won national AIAW titles in 1980 and 1981, followed by an NCAA championship in 1983. The team recruits both nationally and throughout the world.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State Nittany Lions assistant fencing coach George G. Abashidze, after a United States Center for SafeSport investigation found he had committed sexual misconduct in 2017, was banned by USA Fencing for three years, prompting Penn State to terminate him in 2019. A Penn State investigation into the matter confirmed the woman’s claims against Abashidze, but found that the assistant coach had not violated any university policies. The woman who was the object of the misconduct sued Penn State in 2020, charging that it had tried to cover up the incident.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: In September 2022, Penn State placed head fencing coach Wes Glon on paid leave pending more information about restrictions imposed on him by USA Fencing. In April 2022, a former Penn State fencer had filed a complaint against Glon and the university alleging physical, verbal, and psychological abuse by Glon. In May 2020, a complaint had also been filed by a female fencing coach after Glon allegedly failed to report sexual misconduct allegations against his assistant coach, George Abashidze; after an investigation by SafeSport into the same matter, he was ultimately required to serve a six-month term of probation for such failure.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The women's field hockey team is coached by Char Morett, a former Penn State field hockey player herself and 1984 Olympic bronze medalist.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State is one of the premier programs in the nation with 28 NCAA Tournament appearances, the third most in the nation. Since joining the Big Ten in 1992, the Nittany Lions have been dominant with more Big Ten Tournament titles than any other team and the second most regular season titles behind Michigan.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: In 2007, the women's Field Hockey team reached the National Championship game, but fell to undefeated UNC, 3–0. In their tournament run, they were able to defeat two-time defending champion Maryland, 1–0, and defending national runner-up Wake Forest, 2–0. Jen Long was nominated for the Honda Award for her efforts. They also finished as NCAA runners-up in 2002, losing to Wake Forest in the title game 2–0 after defeating Old Dominion 3–2 in the semifinals. 2002 marked the first time Penn State reached the NCAA Finals and second time reaching the Final Four. The team won the AIAW national championships in 1980 and 1981. In 2011 the women's field hockey team won its fifth ever Big Ten title after defeating Michigan 3–2, and first since 1998 when they again defeated Michigan 3–1.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State has a large football following and attracts tens of thousands of visitors to its campus; the surrounding area is known as "Happy Valley" for tailgating and games on autumn Saturdays in Beaver Stadium. The largest crowd ever at Beaver Stadium was on October 21, 2017, as 110,823 people watched the Nittany Lions defeat the University of Michigan by a score of 42–13. The school has earned a reputation as "Linebacker U" for the number of high-quality linebackers trained. Joe Paterno was the head coach for the Nittany Lion football team from 1966 until he was fired on November 9, 2011, in the aftermath of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal. He was regarded as one of the most successful national coaches, holding the record for wins and bowl appearance. Penn State plays in two football "trophy games" with other members of the Big Ten: the Governor's Victory Bell with the University of Minnesota and the Land Grant Trophy game versus Michigan State University.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Prior to joining the Big Ten, Penn State was one of the strongest of the independent schools in college football. They played a number of schools regularly, including Pitt, Syracuse, West Virginia, Notre Dame, Maryland, and Alabama. Penn State has won the prestigious Lambert-Meadowlands Trophy, awarded for Eastern football supremacy, a record 29 times as of 2013. Penn State has also been named the ECAC FBS Team of the Year for a record 13th time.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State won consensus National Championships in 1982 and 1986, both under Coach Paterno. The 1986 team won by defeating the University of Miami in the 1987 Fiesta Bowl, which remains one of the most watched college football game in history. The school has had a number of other undefeated teams including 1909, 1911, 1912, 1920, 1921, 1947, 1968, 1969, 1973, and 1994, some of which have been awarded national championships Penn State currently has a FBS bowl record of 29–18–2.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State is also among the leaders nationwide in terms of players advancing to the professional level. As of 2006, 29 former Penn State players and coaches were on the rosters of NFL teams, the tenth-highest such placement rate in the country. Penn State has been represented in at least one of the teams participating in the Super Bowl 37 of the 41 times the championship game has been played.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: A report indicated that Penn State's football program ranks 12th nationwide in terms of economic contributions to each program's university, athletic department, conference, and community. The report, based on ticket sales, sponsorships, football program expenses, athletic department expenses (non-football), shared conference profits, and county revenue figures during home football games, revealed that the Nittany Lions are presently worth roughly US$63 million.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: In July 2012, the NCAA announced several punitive measures as a result of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal. In addition to vacating all wins between 1998 and 2011, Penn State was banned from post-season play for four years, and the number of scholarships was reduced. Players were free to transfer during the 2012 season without sitting out a year, but few did so. After details of the case emerged, the NCAA restored all vacated wins and rescinded both the remaining ban on post-season play and scholarship reduction.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: In 2007, the men's gymnastics team won their NCAA record 14th national championship, by defeating powerhouse Oklahoma at Rec Hall, with the score of 221.000–220.200, denying them a threepeat. The women's team won the AIAW national championship twice, in 1978 and 1980, edging out other dominant teams such as Cal State-Fullerton and Utah.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Aside from five years in the 1940s, the men's ice hockey program has had varsity status since the 2012–13 season. The team plays in the Pegula Ice Arena and competed as an independent Division I team in the 2012–2013 season. In the 2013–2014 season, the team began play in the Big Ten conference's first year of sponsorship of men's ice hockey. Recently, the team achieved the number one ranking in Division I men's hockey for the first time in program history.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Before becoming a varsity program, the men's ice hockey team, the Icers, competed at the American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA) Men's Division I level and was a member of the Eastern States Collegiate Hockey League (ESCHL) from 2007–08 through 2010–11. Penn State won seven ACHA DI National Championships in 1984, 1990, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003. The Division II men's hockey club team were champions of the University Hockey League during the 2003–04 and 2001–02 seasons; they were runners-up during the 2002–03, 2000–01, and 1998–99 seasons.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The women's program moved to the NCAA Division I level beginning in the 2012–13 season and joined College Hockey America, becoming the fifth member of the conference. The team also plays in the Pegula Ice Arena.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Before becoming a varsity program, the women's ice hockey team, the Lady Icers, competed at the ACHA Women's Division I level in the Eastern Collegiate Women's Hockey League (ECWHL).


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Penn State women's lacrosse teams have won two NCAA titles, in addition to three United States Women's Lacrosse Association championships in 1978, 1979, and 1980.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Penn State men's lacrosse team dates to 1913. Penn State has appeared in four NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship tournaments, including in 2003, 2005, 2013, and 2017.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State has had seven alumni and coaches inducted into the National Lacrosse Hall of Fame, including Mary McCarthy Stefano, Gillian D. Rattray, Barb Jordan, Betsy Williams Dougherty, Candace "Candy" Finn Rocha, Joanne Connelly and Thomas R. Hayes.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Before the NCAA began its tournament in 1959, the annual national champion was declared by the Intercollegiate Soccer Football Association from 1926 to 1958, the result of polls and the subjective opinion of the ISFA administrators. In that time, Penn State shared eight national championships and was selected three times as champion outright (1929, 1938, 1954). The rival College Soccer Bowl was held from 1950–1952 in an attempt to decide a national champion on the field. Penn State gained a last-minute tie in the 1950 championship final. The team won in 1951; however, the ISFA failed to select Penn State that year.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The women's soccer team won its first NCAA national championship in 2015. The program has been particularly strong in recent years, as the team won 15 straight Big Ten Championships through the 2012 season, which was an all-time Big Ten record for women's teams. The streak surpassed the 12 by Michigan swimming & diving of the 1990s and led the then-ongoing run by Northwestern's women's tennis squad, which had won 14 straight titles through 2011.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Nittany Lions softball team began play in 1965. The team has made ten NCAA Tournament appearances in 1983, 1985, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2011. The current head coach is Clarisa Crowell.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Before the NCAA began sponsoring a national championship in 1965, the men's indoor track and field team won ICAAAA titles in 1942 and 1959. PSU men also won ICAAAA team titles in 1984, 1987, 2001, 2003 and 2006.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State is home to one of the top men's and women's volleyball programs. Penn State is one of only 5 schools—and the only school not in California—to win an NCAA Championship for both men and women's volleyball, the others being Stanford, UCLA, USC, and Long Beach State.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The men's volleyball team is coached by Mark Pavlik. The program has won two NCAA National Championships in 1994 and 2008 and 16 EIVA titles out of 17 years, including 10 consecutive. They finished as NCAA National runners-up in 1982, 1995 and 2006, to UCLA each time (twice at Rec Hall). They reached the NCAA final four 24 times including 13 out of the last 14 years through the 2008 season and an NCAA record 10 consecutive (1998–2008).


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The men's first national title came in 1994, when they beat powerhouse UCLA in five sets after being down 11–4 in the fourth set and then winning the fourth 15–12 and the fifth with the same score. The win made Penn State the first school outside of California in the then-24 year history to win an NCAA Men's volleyball championship. They won the NCAA title again in 2008, defeating Pepperdine 3–1. With the win, Penn State men and women's programs swept the volleyball championships in the same academic year, joining Stanford from 1996–97 to be the only schools to accomplish the rare feat.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Penn State women's volleyball team, one of the nation's premier volleyball programs, is coached by Russ Rose, who, since his first season in 1979, has led the Nittany Lions to a record of 1,189 and 186, an .865 winning percentage, through the end of 2015. Rose stands as the NCAA Division I all-time winningest coach, as he owns the NCAA Division I Records for win percentage and total victories. Rose has won all but 51 of the program's wins. On December 17, 2009, Rose earned his 1,000th career victory with a win against Hawaii in the 2009 NCAA National Semifinals. In all but one season under Rose, there has been at least one AVCA All-American on his team.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The program is one of only two DI universities to appear in every NCAA tournament (1981–2015). They have won seven NCAA National Championships, the most all-time, in 1999, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, and 2014. They were the national runners-up in 1993, 1997, and 1998 and also reached the Final Four in 1994 and 2012.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The team achieved unprecedented success from 2007–10. The Nittany Lions won four consecutive national titles in that span, the most consecutive titles in NCAA Division I history. In that historic stretch, Penn State won 109 consecutive matches (Sept. 21, 2007-Sept. 10, 2010), 111 consecutive sets (Dec. 15, 2007-Dec. 18, 2008), 94 consecutive home matches (Sept. 1, 2006-Dec. 11, 2010), and 55 consecutive road matches (Sept. 28, 2007-Sept. 10, 2010), all NCAA Division I records.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Lions were extraordinarily successful when Penn State was in the Atlantic 10 conference, as they won the title all 8 years without losing a single conference match before joining the Big Ten. In the Big Ten, the team has won 16 titles since 1991, including a conference record 8 straight (2003–10). During Big Ten play, Penn State went undefeated 6 times (1998, 1999, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009).


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Before joining the Big Ten, Penn State was a member of the Eastern Wrestling League from 1976 to 1992. Before that, Penn State was a member of the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA).


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: In April 2005, Penn State broke ground on a construction project designed to expand and modernize Rec Hall for the students, faculty, and staff who use the facility. As part of this renovation, Intercollegiate Athletics created the Lorenzo Wrestling Complex that ranks among the nation's finest facilities in the sport.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State Wrestling, under the guidance of head coach Cael Sanderson, entered the final session of the 2019 NCAA Championships having already clinched their eighth team title in nine years. Sanderson's squad left the National Finals and PPG Paints Arena with three individual National Champions. Penn State had five NCAA finalists for the fourth straight year and won three titles, beginning at 285 with senior Anthony Cassar(Rocky Hill, N.J.) winning his first. Jason Nolf (Yatesboro, Pa.) and Bo Nickal (Allen, Texas) each won their third straight crowns. The Nittany Lions won the team race with 137.5 points, finishing over 40.0 points ahead of second place Ohio State, which had 96.5. Oklahoma State finished third with 84.0. Penn State was the only team to score over 100.0 points.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State's national championship win in 2019 extended the program's streak to 4. A team from the Big Ten Conference has won the last 13.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State offers a program of "team sports," programs that have not been granted full varsity status, but are members of the Athletic Department and receive greater support than club sports. Penn State team sports "compete nationally at the highest level." Rugby (men's and women's) has been a team sport since 2005. Ice Hockey (men's and women's) was a team sport from 2005 until 2011, and has since been elevated to varsity status.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Penn State rugby program is classified by the university as a "Team Sport" within Penn State Intercollegiate Athletics Department, and therefore receives university support (paid coaches, facilities, health insurance, etc.) equivalent to a varsity program. As of 2011, Penn State rugby was funded 52% by alumni donations, 32% by player dues, and 16% by university contribution.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State rugby was founded in 1962 and plays in Division 1-A. Penn State has been one of the most successful programs in college rugby. Penn State advanced to the national semifinals 10 times from 1989 to 2007, and reached the finals 5 times from 1989 to 2001. With 76 registered players, Penn State was ranked as the largest college rugby program in the United States in 2009. Penn State made headlines when they defeated favored BYU 48–46 in the 2018 D1A quarterfinal to reach the semifinals.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The women's rugby team fields a perennially competitive side, winning national titles in 1997, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016. The 2014 Penn State Women's team won their ninth Collegiate National Championship, with a 58–0 semifinal victory over West Chester University and a 38–0 triumph in the championship match against Stanford.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State has appeared in three consecutive editions (2010–12) of the Collegiate Rugby Championship (CRC). The CRC is played every year in June at PPL Park in Philadelphia, and is the highest profile college rugby sevens tournament in the US, broadcast on NBC. In the 2011 CRC, Penn State beat Ohio State in a 12–10 match to qualify for the quarterfinals, where Penn State lost to eventual champions Dartmouth 7–12.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State has been successful in other rugby sevens competitions. For example, Penn State won the 2011 Subaru 7s tournament, and won the 2012 Halloween 7s tournament led by tournament MVP Blaze Feury. Penn State finished second at the 2012 Big Ten 7s, losing to Wisconsin in the final and missing out on qualification for the 2012 USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The university is home to a number of intercollegiate club sports that the university doesn't field at the NCAA level and/or sports not sponsored by the NCAA.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Two Penn State students have won the national intercollegiate individual championship in billiards. In 1982 Thomas Golly won the men's title. In 1988 Janet Dordell captured the women's crown.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State fields an intercollegiate club rowing team that competes on the national level. The team has participated in several regatta events, including the Aberdeen Dad Vail Regatta and the American Collegiate Rowing Association national championship.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State's Club Croquet team was established in 2010 and has been growing since with nearly 150 members. It serves as the sole croquet team at Penn State and competes each year at the United States Croquet Association (USCA) collegiate championships. In 2017, the team won the USCA Collegiate National Championship in golf croquet.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Penn State Club Cross Country is a member of the National Intercollegiate Running Club Association (NIRCA). The women's team has won five NIRCA National Championships (2006, 2009, 2010, 2015, 2016) and the men's team has won one (2019).


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State Club Gymnastics participates in NAIGC (National Association of Intercollegiate Gymnastics Clubs) competition. In recent history both the men's and women's teams have had great success, including national titles for the men in 2009 and 2010. The women have had similar success with top-five finishes every year since 2009.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: In addition to the varsity men's and women's ice hockey teams, PSU fields a men's club team in American Collegiate Hockey Association Division 2 and the Mid-Atlantic Collegiate Hockey Association, as well as a women's club team in American Collegiate Hockey Association Women's Division 1 and the Eastern Collegiate Women's Hockey League.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The PSU Roller Hockey team competes in National Collegiate Roller Hockey Association at the NCRHA Division I level. The team is a Division I member of the Eastern Collegiate Roller Hockey Association (ECRHA). Penn State also fields a team in the B Division of the NCRHA and ECRHA. The PSU B team won the NCRHA B Division Championship in 2010, the university's first national title in roller hockey.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Gail Ramsay won the intercollegiate women's squash championship a record four times in 1977, 1978, 1979 and 1980.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State also fields a competitive club swim and dive team that competes throughout the school year. With a membership of 100+, including all talents from former D1 swimmers to beginners, it is one of the more popular club sports at Penn State. The team finished 4th out of 50+ teams at the 2013 East Coast Collegiate Swim and Dive Club National Championships at Georgia Tech.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State's team, named SPANK, competes in the USA Ultimate College Series at the D-1 level. They are in the Ohio Valley region, and face rival University of Pittsburgh at the regional championship every year. The B-team, Love Tap, also competes at the D-1 level, and serves as a developmental team for SPANK.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The Men's Club Water Polo team competes in the Mid-Atlantic Division of the Collegiate Water Polo Association and has won nine Mid-Atlantic Division Championships (1998, 2005, 2009, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2022) to qualify for the National Collegiate Club Championship.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Below are 34 national team titles in current and former NCAA sports that were not bestowed by the NCAA:


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Penn State has won 86 national team championships all time, 52 of which are NCAA championships. These Division I NCAA championships rank in a tie for fourth all-time, trailing only UCLA, Stanford, and USC. Penn State has the most national championships of any Big Ten school. Most of the women's championships prior to 1982 occurred under the auspices of the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW); indeed, four women's teams won national championships in 1980 alone. The NCAA did not start sponsoring women's championships until the 1981–82 academic year. Some of the men's championships occurred prior to the NCAA sponsoring a championship in that sport (for example, the NCAA did not start sponsoring a men's soccer championship until 1959) and some sports have never had recognized NCAA championships (such as Division I FBS football).


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Below are 36 national team titles won by Penn State sports club teams (and Athletics Department "Team Sports") at the highest collegiate level in non-NCAA sports:


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: During Penn State's years of membership in the Atlantic 10 Conference (1982–91) and earlier when it was known as the Eastern 8 Conference (1976–79), Penn State won 70 total championships.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Of Penn State's 29 varsity athletic programs, several programs are not sponsored by the Big Ten and have competed in other conferences, now and in the past.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Athletes (129) and coaches/faculty members (12) from Penn State have won 17 gold medals, 15 silver medals, and 28 bronze medals. The University had its most representatives participating in the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games with 21 participants earning eight medals, also the most ever.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Five former Penn State student-athletes earned medals in the 2012 London Olympic Games. Women's volleyball stars Megan Hodge and Christa Harmotto earned silver medals after falling to Brazil in the gold-medal match. Additionally, women's soccer players Erin McLeod and Carmelina Moscato came home with bronze medals playing for the Canada women's national soccer team. Finally, Natalie Dell earned Penn State's first rowing medal with her bronze-medal performance in the women's quadruple sculls. Penn State sent 19 participants to the 2012 Summer Games, a school record at the time.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: The football team plays in Beaver Stadium. The men's and women's basketball teams play in the Bryce Jordan Center. Most of the other indoor teams play at Rec Hall, which was previously the long term home for the basketball teams as well. The school also is home to the Ashenfelter Multi-Sport Facility for indoor track. Other indoor facilities include Lasch Building & Holuba Hall for football; White Building houses gymnastics & fencing; and the Lorenzo Wrestling Complex is within Rec Hall.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: A new baseball stadium named Medlar Field at Lubrano Park opened in June 2006. The stadium is host to both the University baseball team as well as the State College Spikes, a minor league baseball team. The ballpark is oriented towards the east, offering a view of Mount Nittany. The softball team plays at its new home, the Nittany Lion Softball Park, which opened in 2011. Jeffrey Field is home to the soccer program. The lacrosse teams play at the Penn State Lacrosse Field which opened in 2012 next to the Ashenfelter Multi-Sport Facility. The hockey teams both play at the Pegula Ice Arena. The field hockey team plays at the Penn State Field Hockey Complex which is located adjacent to Bigler Field, and opened in 2005.


title: Penn State Nittany Lions

text: Additionally, the university operates the Penn State Golf Courses, two courses for the golf teams, students, faculty, and the general public. The Intercollegiate Athletics Department operates the Stone Valley Recreation Area, approximately twenty miles southeast of State College.