title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1792, with Britain on the cusp of war with France, the Board of Ordnance established a Field Train department to ensure supply and storage of guns, ammunition and other equipment for its Artillery and Engineers serving in the field of battle. The small corps (which had its headquarters in the Arsenal) was composed of a permanent cadre of officers, who were supplemented at time of war by uniformed civilians (many of whom were volunteers recruited from the ordnance storekeeper's department). In addition, a number of Royal Artillery sergeants served in the Field Train as Conductors. (The Ordnance Field Train was disbanded following the abolition of the Board of Ordnance, but is now seen as a precursor of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps). The Field Train had its offices in the main guard house and stored its guns, carriages and other equipment in a large building known as the Blue Storehouse (which was near the old Carriage Yard).


title: Royal Arsenal

text: By the 1770s the number of artillerymen accommodated in the Warren had increased to 900, prompting the construction of a new Royal Artillery Barracks on the north side of Woolwich Common, where they moved in 1777; whereupon their old barracks were converted into terraces of houses (they continued to house artillery officers for some years, and were later used for senior staff of the Royal Laboratory). The Commandant Woolwich Garrison remained quartered in the Arsenal until 1839, when he was provided with a new house on Woolwich Common (Government House).


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Royal Military Repository was destroyed along with New Carriage Square in the fire of 1802, but soon re-established itself just west of the new Artillery Barracks in the area now known as the Repository Grounds (which continue to be used for military training to this day). What survived of the items on display at the Repository came to be housed in the Rotunda there from 1820 (having been kept in the old Academy building in the interim), where they formed the nucleus of a new Royal Artillery Museum.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In place of the old Repository in the Warren, a new Royal Engineers Establishment was built in 1803 (next to, and contemporary with, the new Carriage Factory). It was a sizeable quadrangle of workshops and other facilities, which served as the Royal Engineers' headquarters until 1856 (when it was converted into a wheel factory for the adjacent Royal Carriage Works). Also in 1803, the Royal Military Artificers were provided with new barracks, outside the Warren (south of Love Lane, halfway between the Warren and the Common); the corps was renamed the Royal Sappers and Miners in 1812. In 1824 the Commanding Royal Engineer, until then resident in the Arsenal, was given a new house in Mill Lane on the edge of the Common. In 1856 the Royal Sappers and Miners merged with the Royal Engineers and the headquarters of the newly unified Corps was moved from Woolwich to Chatham; a small detachment of Engineer officers was retained in Woolwich, however, alongside the house in Mill Lane, where an office building and a works yard were built. The Royal Engineers (after a brief hiatus) retained responsibility for design and construction of the Arsenal's buildings and other structures, latterly as part of the Building Works Department, which remained active until the 1950s.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Ordnance Field Train also left the Warren, in 1804, moving scores of combat-ready field guns and large stocks of ammunition into the newly-built carriage sheds and magazines of what became known as the Grand Depôt (which stretched from the new Artificers' barracks up towards the new Artillery barracks).


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Royal Military Academy was relocated to the south side of the Common in 1806. The old Academy building, together with the adjacent Storekeeper's residence, then became part of the "Royal Laboratory"; so the Storekeeper (who still had seniority within the Arsenal) was given a sizeable new house on what was then the south-east edge of the site (later overtaken by expansion, it came to be named after the nearby Middle Gate, the second of three main gates in the Arsenal's perimeter wall). The Cadet Barracks continued to be occupied by the Academy for some time afterwards, initially housing the 'Lower Establishment' (junior cadets), and later accommodating the Practical Class, formed of senior cadets awaiting commission. From the 1860s the cadet barracks began to be converted for other uses, but they were still occasionally used by the Academy as overflow accommodation until as late as 1882.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: By 1777 the site had expanded to . The purchase that year of additional land to the east allowed the proof butts to be relocated, realigned and extended in 1779. This in turn freed up additional land on the old Warren site which would be used for a series of substantial building projects in the early 19th century.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1777–1778, convict labour was used to construct a (approximately) brick boundary wall, generally high. In 1804 this wall was raised to near the Plumstead road, and to in other parts. (The first boundary wall had been built in 1702, prior to which the Warren had operated on open ground.)


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Use of convict labour was key to this period of expansion. It was used to construct a huge new wharf, completed in 1813, and then again in 1814–1816 to dig a canal (the Ordnance Canal), which formed the eastern boundary of the site.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Guardhouses were built at points on the perimeter, manned by troops of the Royal Artillery; one at the main gate (1787–1788) and a pair by the new wharf (1814–1815) are still in place today. The River Thames was key to the Warren and its operations from the earliest days. A dock was built as part of the rebuilt wharf to facilitate loading and unloading from ships (it was supplemented in 1856 by the first in a series of substantial piers). The canal, as well as forming a boundary, provided access for barges; these were initially used to deliver timber to the heart of the carriage-building department and later provided a transit route for guns and explosives.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1805, at the suggestion of King George III, the entire complex became known as the Royal Arsenal; its constituent elements retained their independence, however.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Napoleonic wars prompted an increase of activity at the Arsenal, which affected all areas of its operation.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1803–1805 a substantial Royal Carriage Factory was built (on the site of New Carriage Square, which had been destroyed by fire - possibly arson - the previous year). Its outer walls, complete with a contemporary chiming clock, survive; within, where there are now new apartment blocks, there was once a vast engineering and manufacturing complex staffed by wheelwrights, carpenters, blacksmiths and metalworkers. It was here that steam power first came to be used in the Arsenal, when Joseph Bramah installed his patented planing machine in 1805.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Arsenal was soon a renowned centre of excellence in mechanical engineering, with notable engineers including Samuel Bentham, Marc Isambard Brunel and Henry Maudslay employed there. Brunel was responsible for erecting the steam sawmills, part of the "Royal Carriage Department"; Maudslay later expanded this buying more steam machinery. The Arsenal also became a noted research facility, developing several key advances in armament design and manufacture. One example was the innovative Congreve Rocket, designed and (from 1805) manufactured on site by William Congreve (son of the Comptroller of the Royal Laboratory). Thenceforward rocket manufacture became a key activity, carried out in purpose-built premises on the eastern edge of the site.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Between 1805 and 1813 the massive Grand Stores complex was constructed alongside new wharves by the river; though celebrated as a landmark of size and dignity befitting the Arsenal, the buildings were immediately, and for many years afterwards, vulnerable to subsidence due to their proximity to the river (this was caused in no small part by on-site supervisors directing the use of cheaper wooden piles in place of the stone foundations specified by the architect, James Wyatt). The buildings formed a three-sided quadrangle of warehouses facing the river, with the central open space used as a shot-yard. (The main range of buildings was flanked by smaller quadrangles to the east and west, only fragments of which survive.) The Grand Store was not uniquely, or even primarily, designed as an artillery store, but rather as warehousing for all kinds of military equipment: an early example of a planned integrated military stores complex.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: From 1808, "New Laboratory Square" began to be developed to the north of the original Laboratory complex, with an open-sided quadrangle built around an eighteenth-century Naval storehouse; initially used for storage, it came to be used for manufacturing from the 1850s. (It replaced the 'East Laboratory', a quadrangle of buildings which had been demolished to make way for the Grand Store.) Earlier, in 1804, subsidiary Royal Laboratories were set up in the Dockyard towns of Portsmouth and Devonport and in Upnor Castle near Chatham. The Devonport Laboratory (on Mount Wise) had been converted into barracks by 1834 but ten years later Portsmouth's (which had been overtaken by dockyard expansion) was relocated to Priddy's Hard, where manufacture (initially of small arms ammunition, later of shells and fuzes) continued, overseen from Woolwich.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Proof work continued at this time. In 1803 a burst gun caused damage to nearby buildings, which prompted construction of a new set of proof butts further to the east; these opened (on what would later be the site of the Arsenal's gasworks) in 1808. Starting in 1811, a project was begun to raise the ground level of the eastern part of the Arsenal site, as far as the canal, using material dredged from the river bed (a huge undertaking, which took nine years to complete). Also in 1811, a further 20 acres of marshland to the east was purchased, with a view to re-siting the gunnery range (so as to make room for the new sawmills); a 1,250-yard range was then built. In 1838, however, it was accepted that (due to improved ballistics) a much longer range was required; this would require multiple land purchases (at great expense), but was eventually achieved in 1855 when a 3,000-yard range was opened. At the same time, new proof butts were constructed alongside the range.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Levels of arms manufacture naturally ebbed during the relatively peaceful years after the Battle of Waterloo; between 1815 and 1835 the size of the workforce shrank from 5,000 to 500 (not including military personnel and convicts). At the same time, the Arsenal fell behind the pace of technological change. In the early 1840s, Scottish engineering pioneer James Nasmyth toured the site and described it as a 'museum of technical antiquity'. Nasmyth was subsequently engaged to help modernize the complex, but it was only when Britain was on the brink of war that the pace of mechanization increased until, by 1857 (within the space of a decade), the Arsenal had 2,773 specialized machines at work powered by 68 stationary steam engines. A similar pattern of development was seen at the other Board of Ordnance manufacturing sites: the Royal Small Arms Factory, Enfield and the Royal Gun Powder Factory, Waltham Abbey.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: By 1854, the old Laboratory Square had been roofed over to serve as a vast machine shop at the heart of what was now a munitions factory. The open spaces of the Royal Carriage Works were similarly roofed over and mechanised, and the area of its operations expanded; its carpenters and wheelwrights were moved out into new workshops (which later developed into what is now Gunnery House) east of the main building. (This area had previously been used for the storage and seasoning of the timber used for building the gun carriages.) The building of a new Shot and Shell Foundry, an addition to the Royal Laboratory completed in 1856, enabled manufacture of the latest types of ammunition; this huge complex covered the whole of what is now Wellington Park, and later expanded further to the east.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Royal Brass Foundry was renamed the Royal Gun Factory in 1855, and its workshops expanded into the Great Pile (Dial Arch) quadrangles. For the first time it diversified into manufacture of iron cannons (which had previously always been commissioned from private contractors); for this it developed a new and much larger foundry complex (on the far side of the Shot and Shell Foundry) which was completed in 1857. The new foundry building, which still stands, was subdivided into three sections (for moulding, casting and trimming) and complemented by a separate forge and boring mill. The early years of its work were defined by famed arms manufacturer William George Armstrong, who in 1859 made his patented designs for rifled ordnance available for government use; (the Arsenal had previously been unable to replicate its effectiveness in-house). He was duly rewarded with a knighthood and the part-time position of Superintendent of the Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich; after further expansion of the factory complex he resigned in 1863 following the demonstration of an even more powerful rifled gun by his rival Sir Joseph Whitworth.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: As part of the preparations for the Crimean War (1854–1856), Frederick Abel (later Sir Frederick Abel) had been appointed the first War Department Chemist with the aim of investigating the new chemical explosives which were then being developed. He was mostly responsible for bringing Guncotton into safe use and for winning a patent dispute brought by Alfred Nobel against the British Government over the patent rights to Cordite which Abel had jointly developed with Professor James Dewar. A new Chemical Laboratory was built to Abel's requirements; this was numbered "Building 20". Abel was also responsible for the technical management of the Royal Gunpowder Factory. He retired from the Royal Arsenal in 1888.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: 1854 saw the installation of a Retort house for what would become the Royal Arsenal's Gas Works, which was established close to what was then the north-east corner of the site, just west of the canal. Its Superintendent additionally had charge of all hydraulic equipment (lifts, cranes etc.) in use around the Arsenal site (other than that used directly in the process of manufacturing); a pair of hydraulic accumulator towers were built within the eastern outer quadrangle of the Grand Store in 1855 (replacing parts of the building demolished due to subsidence twenty years earlier), which drove machinery throughout the adjacent stores complex.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In the wake of the Crimean War there was widespread criticism of several aspects of Britain's military command. The Board of Ordnance, much criticised for inefficiency, was disbanded in 1855, and the War Office then took over responsibility for the Arsenal and all its activities. A Military Stores Department was established, with its headquarters in the Arsenal's Grand Store. The manufacturing departments were mostly left to their own devices, though the Ordnance Select Committee (initially set up to assess the merits of the Armstrong Gun) took some responsibility for overseeing ongoing research and development; it and its successors were given Verbruggen's House to serve as offices and a board room from 1859. The same period also saw a shift in guard duties and policing on the site - from 1843 these were shared between the Royal Artillery and a detachment from R (Greenwich) Division of the Metropolitan Police, with the Metropolitan Police taking over such duties completely in 1861 with the formation of a devoted .


title: Royal Arsenal

text: As had happened earlier in the century, the wartime expansion of the 1850s was followed by spending cuts, and workforce contraction, in the 1860s. Twenty years later, though, the Arsenal began to grow again as investment in weaponry research and manufacture resumed. The narrow-gauge Royal Arsenal Railway was opened in 1873, complemented later by a standard-gauge network connected to the main line. Electricity arrived in the Arsenal in the 1870s; initially used for lighting, it was soon used to power all kinds of machinery. An on-site power station was opened (on the site of the east quadrangle of the Grand Store) in 1896.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Arsenal was still made up of separate divisions. The manufacturing departments (which soon came to be called Ordnance Factories) were each overseen by a (largely independent) Superintendent (who answered directly to the Director of Artillery and Stores): the Royal Laboratory continued to use hundreds of lathes to manufacture ammunition (including bullets, shrapnel shells, fuzes, percussion caps, as well as shot and shells); the Royal Carriage Department continued to build gun carriages, with metal fast replacing wood for this purpose; and the Royal Gun Factory expanded still further, with a new rolling mill and associated boiler house and forge being erected in the early 1870s, and a huge boring-mill ten years later. Tentative moves toward the manufacture of steel guns were made at this time, though these were mainly sourced from outside contractors; it was not till the turn of the century that iron gun manufacture finally ceased in the Arsenal.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Each Factory was responsible for the initial design and final inspection of items, as well as for the intervening manufacturing process. Once completed, all items manufactured on site passed to the Ordnance Store Department, overseen by the Commissary-General of Ordnance (successor to the Storekeepers of old). He had oversight of one of the world's largest depots for military equipment (following the closure of Woolwich Dockyard in 1869 its site had been given over to serve the department as a storage depot); he also had a degree of seniority across the Arsenal as a whole, being responsible for receiving orders from the Director of Artillery and Stores and disseminating them across the departments.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The three Ordnance Factories guarded their autonomy and resisted efforts made to place them under a single command (the appointment in 1868 of a Brigadier-General with the title 'Director-General of Ordnance and Commandant of the Royal Arsenal' was an initiative which lasted only two years). Since ammunition, guns and carriages had to function together, this lack of co-ordination and communication between the departments that manufactured them inevitably caused problems, at a time when the Arsenal was in any case facing criticism for high levels of wasteful expenditure. An 1886 committee of enquiry, under the chairmanship of the Earl of Morley, laid bare these shortcomings and made a number of recommendations, leading among other things to the (civilian) appointment of Sir William Anderson as Director-General of Ordnance Factories (the post was retitled Chief Superintendent of Ordnance Factories, following Anderson's death, in 1899). A key recommendation was for clear managerial separation between the manufacturing departments and those responsible for inspection and approval of their products, which resulted in the establishment of a separate Inspection department under a Chief Inspector of Armaments.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1887 the Proof Butts were relocated once again (for the last time) further to the east. Four bays were built, to which a further four were added in 1895. Each bay consisted of a concrete box (25 ft wide by 20 ft high and 70 ft deep, two-thirds filled with sand) open towards the gun position, which was around 500 yards away. (The design was much as it had been in previous centuries, except in concrete rather than wood.) Guns were brought into position using a gantry crane, and various instruments measured velocity and other variables. Further bays, with railway mountings for the guns, would be added during the First World War, by which time the area and its operation was known as the Proof and Experimental Establishment.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Recognising the increasing divergence of naval gun design from that of land artillery, part of the Ordnance Store Department was separated off in 1891 to form an independent Naval Ordnance Store Department, which (from its headquarters in the Arsenal) had oversight of what were soon termed Royal Naval Ordnance Depôts (later RN Armament Depots), including RNAD Woolwich: an extensive storage facility within the Arsenal itself.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1868 twenty workers at the Arsenal formed a food-buying association operating from a house in Plumstead and named it the Royal Arsenal Co-operative Society. Over the next 115 years the enterprise grew to half a million members across London and beyond, providing services including funerals, housing, libraries and insurance.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1886 workers at the Arsenal formed a football club initially known as "Dial Square" after the workshops in the heart of the complex, playing their first game on 11 December (a 6–0 victory over Eastern Wanderers) in the Isle of Dogs. Renamed "Royal Arsenal" two weeks later (and also known as the 'Woolwich Reds'), the club entered the professional football league as "Woolwich Arsenal" in 1893 and later became known as Arsenal F.C., having moved to north London in 1913. Royal Ordnance Factories F.C. were another successful team set up by the Royal Arsenal but only lasted until 1896.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Further enlargement was to follow, and on an unprecedented scale; by the 20th century, though, there was little room for further development on site, so the Arsenal had to expand its area eastwards outside its brick boundary wall onto the Plumstead Marshes. The eastern portion of the Arsenal site had long been used for the more dangerous manufacturing processes, as well as for proof testing. This pattern continued, with the Composition Establishment (where assembly of cartridges, fuzes and other items took place) being moved east of the canal and a lyddite factory being established by the river. Later, much of the area of Plumstead and Erith Marshes was scattered with storage magazines for explosive materials, each in its own walled, moated and earth-traversed enclosure. Manufacture of Whitehead torpedoes, begun in the Arsenal in 1871 (with the canal used as a testing run for a time) was moved to Greenock in 1911.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Scientific research played an increasing role across the Arsenal from the early years of the 20th century: in 1902 an Experimental Establishment was set up to carry out research and investigations into explosives; (co-located with the Proof Butts, the two operations later combined to form the Proof and Experimental Establishment). At the same the staff of the War Department Chemist was expanded to strengthen its research capability; and over the next few years other small research departments emerged, focused on areas such as metallurgy, materials and mechanical technology. In 1907 these were all grouped together under a Superintendent of Research to form the Research Department.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: At its peak, during the First World War, the Royal Arsenal extended over some and employed around 80,000 people. The Royal Arsenal by then comprised the Royal Gun & Carriage Factory (which had amalgamated under Colonel Capel Lofft Holden in 1907), the Royal Laboratory (which in 1922 split to form the Royal Ammunition Factory and the Royal Filling Factory) and separate Naval Ordnance and Army Ordnance Store Departments. Other divisions included the Research and Development Department and various Inspection departments set up in the wake of the Morley Report (including that of the Chief Chemical Inspector, Woolwich, successor to the War Department Chemist). The expansion was such that in 1915 the Government built an estate of 1,298 homes - later (1925) known as the Progress Estate - at Eltham to help accommodate the workforce.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In addition to the massive expansion of the Royal Ordnance Factories in the Arsenal, and of private munitions companies, other UK Government-owned National Explosives Factories and National Filling Factories were built during the First World War. All the National Factories closed at the end of the War, with only the Royal (munitions) Factories (at Woolwich, Enfield, and Waltham Abbey) remaining open through to the Second World War.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: During the quiet period after the end of the First World War, the Royal Arsenal built steam railway locomotives. It had an extensive standard gauge internal railway system, and this was connected to the North Kent Line just beyond Plumstead railway station. The Royal Arsenal also cast the Memorial Plaques given to the next-of-kin of deceased servicemen and servicewomen. In 1919 a committee was set up, under the chairmanship of Thomas McKinnon Wood, to report on the future organisation and role of the Royal Arsenal. One recommendation was for the establishment of an integrated Armament Design Office (up until then each factory had maintained its own, largely independent, drawing office). In 1921 a new Design Department duly came into being; based in the Central Offices building, it was a joint service body, responsible for initiating designs for guns, carriages, ammunition, small arms, tanks and transport vehicles, in close collaboration with the ordnance factories.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: On 1 January 1927 policing of the site was transferred from the Metropolitan Police to the new War Department Constabulary. The latter was renamed the Army Department Constabulary in 1964 and then merged into the Ministry of Defence Police in 1971, with these two bodies continuing to police the site until its closure. In 1935, the Ballistics branch of the Research Department began work on developing rockets for use as anti-aircraft weapons. To provide a more remote testing location, Fort Halstead in Kent was acquired by the War Office in 1937, initially serving as an outstation of the Arsenal. This went on to become the Projectile Development Establishment (it later relocated to Aberporth in Wales for the duration of the war).


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The build-up to the Second World War started in the late 1930s. Abel's old Chemical Laboratory was by now too small and new Chemical Laboratories were built in 1937 on "Frog Island", on a former loop in the Ordnance Canal. Staff from the Royal Arsenal helped design, and in some cases managed the construction of, many of the new Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs) and the ROF Filling Factories. Much of the Royal Arsenal's former ordnance production was moved to these new sites, as it was considered vulnerable to aerial bombing from mainland Europe. The original plan was to replace the Royal Arsenal's Filling Factory with one at ROF Chorley and another at ROF Bridgend, but it was soon realised that many more ROFs would be needed. Just over forty had been established by the end of the war, nearly half of them Filling Factories, together with a similar number of explosives factories built and run by private companies, such as ICIs Nobels Explosives, but these private sector factories were not called ROFs.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Royal Arsenal was caught up in the Blitz on 7 September 1940. After several attacks, the fuze factory was destroyed and the filling factory and a light gun factory badly damaged. Explosive filling work ceased on the site, but the production of guns, shells, cartridge cases and bombs continued. In September 1940, prior to the raid, some 32,500 people worked there; but after the raid this dropped to 19,000. The numbers employed on site had increased by February 1943, with 23,000 employed, but by August 1945 were down to 15,000. 103 people were killed and 770 injured, during 25 raids, by bombs, V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Central Offices were also damaged in the raid, prompting the removal of the Design Department from Woolwich; by 1942 both it and the Research Department were accommodated at Fort Halstead (they remained there after the war, and would later merge to become the Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE)).


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The staff of the Chemical Inspectorate, working with explosives, were evacuated in early September 1940. Shortly afterwards one of the Frog Island buildings was destroyed by bombing and another damaged. The laboratories were partially re-occupied in 1945 and fully re-occupied by 1949.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: During the quiet period after the end of the Second World War, the Royal Arsenal built railway wagons, between 1945 and 1949, and constructed knitting frames for the silk stockings industry, up to 1952. Armament production then increased during the Korean War.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: From 1947, the British atomic weapons programme, called "HER" or "High Explosive Research", was based at Fort Halstead in Kent (ARDE), and also at Woolwich. The first British atomic device was tested in 1952; Operation Hurricane. In 1951 the AWRE moved to RAF Aldermaston in Berkshire. ARDE, which had its origin in the Research and Design Departments of the Arsenal, retained its Woolwich outstation there until the 1980s.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1953, a body called Royal Arsenal Estate was set up to dispose of areas of land deemed surplus to requirements. An approximately area of the site, around what is now "Griffin Manor Way", was used for an industrial estate; the Ford Motor Company becoming its first tenant in 1955. Two of the roads on this estate "Nathan Way" and "Kellner Road" appear to have links with people connected with the Royal Arsenal: a Col. Nathan, at the Royal Gunpowder Factory; and, W. Kellner being the second War Office Chemist.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In 1957 a merger took place which created ROF Woolwich: thus, for the first time, the various manufacturing operations on the site were united into a single Royal Ordnance Factory. Its area of operation was henceforward restricted to the western part of the Arsenal site, with everything to the east being earmarked for eventual disposal. In this guise, the factory continued to operate (with upgraded facilities) for a further ten years. The Proof and Experimental Establishment closed in 1957, though RARDE continued to make use of the proof butts until September 1969.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Woolwich Royal Ordnance Factories closed in 1967, and at the same time a large part of the eastern end of the site was sold to the Greater London Council. Much of it was used to build the new town of Thamesmead. Parts of the older (western) section of the site were leased as storage or office space to assorted public bodies (including HM Customs and Excise, the British Museum Library, the National Maritime Museum, the Property Services Agency); alongside these tenants, a variety of smaller MOD departments were accommodated, some on a temporary but others on a longer-term basis.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Shortly after the closure of the Woolwich Royal Ordnance Factories, the "Frog Island" chemical laboratories were moved into a new building erected in 1971, in what was to become the Royal Arsenal East. The old "Frog Island" area was then sold off and a relocated Plumstead Bus Garage was built on part of this site. This action separated what remained of the Royal Arsenal, some , into two sites: Royal Arsenal West, at Woolwich; and, Royal Arsenal East, at Plumstead, approached via "Griffin Manor Way". It also led to breaking down of parts of the 1804 brick boundary wall. Part of it near Plumstead Bus station was replaced by iron railings and chain link fencing; later the public roadway (now the A206) was also changed at the Woolwich market area and the Royal Arsenal's boundary was moved inwards so that the Beresford Gate (which had served as the main entrance to the Arsenal since 1829) became separated from the site by the A206. Its mid-1980s replacement, north of the rerouted A206, stands not far from where the original (1720s) main gateway once stood; it is graced by a pair of 18th-century gatepiers and urns saved from The Paragon on the New Kent Road (itself demolished for road-widening in the 1960s).


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The Royal Arsenal site retained its links to ordnance production for almost another thirty years as a number of the Ministry of Defence Procurement Executive's Quality Assurance Directorates had their headquarters offices located there. These included the Materials Quality Assurance Directorate (MQAD), which looked after materiel, including explosives and pyrotechnics; and the Quality Assurance Directorate (Ordnance) (QAD (Ord)), which looked after ordnance for the Army. MQAD was the successor of the old "War Department Chemist" and the "Chemical Inspectorate"; QAD(Ord) was the successor of the Chief Inspector of Armaments department. There was a separate Naval Ordnance Inspection Department (based in Middlegate House from 1922) that looked after the Royal Navy's interests. QAD (Ord) was based at Royal Arsenal West together with a Ministry of Defence Publications section and part of the British Library's secure storage accommodation. MQAD was based, until closure of the site at Royal Arsenal East; and all the buildings on this site were given "E" numbers, such as "E135". Belmarsh high-security prison was built on part of Royal Arsenal East, becoming operational in 1991.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The sprawling Arsenal site is now one of the focal points for redevelopment in the Thames Gateway zone. Parts of the Royal Arsenal have been used to build residential and commercial buildings.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Some links to its historic past have been kept, with many notable buildings in the historic original (West) site being retained in the redevelopment. Attempts to put the history of the site into context were, however, short-lived: Firepower - The Royal Artillery Museum (direct successor of the Arsenal's Repository museum), which had presented the history of artillery alongside that of the regiment, closed in 2016; and Greenwich Heritage Centre, which told the story of Woolwich including the Royal Arsenal, closed in 2018.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: The western part of the Royal Arsenal has now been transformed into a mixed-use development by Berkeley Homes. It comprises one of the biggest concentrations of Grade I and Grade II listed buildings converted for residential use, with more than 3,000 residents. One of the earliest developments was Royal Artillery Quays, a series of glass towers rising along the riverside built by Barratt Homes in 2003. The first phase of homes at Royal Arsenal, "The Armouries", consisted of 455 new-build apartments in a six-storey building. This was followed by "The Warehouse, No.1 Street". The development has a residents' gym, a Thames Clippers stop on site, a Streetcar car club and a 24-hour concierge facility for residents. Wellington Park provides open space and a public house, the Dial Arch, opened in June 2010


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Plans have now been submitted for a new masterplan encompassing further land along the river. More than 1,700 homes already exist at Royal Arsenal Riverside, with an additional 3,700 new homes planned, along with of commercial, retail, leisure space and a 120-bedroom hotel by Holiday-Inn Express. Also included in the plans is the new Woolwich Crossrail station, which has been part-funded by Berkeley Homes.


title: Royal Arsenal

text: In October 2018, planning permission was granted for the first phase of a multi-million pound restoration of historic buildings near the new Woolwich Crossrail station, to create a 15,000sqm complex of theatres, dance studios and places to eat. Originally this development was known as 'Woolwich Creative District' but names of the district and buildings were later put to the public vote and in July 2019 the name 'Woolwich Works' was announced


title: Royal Arsenal

text: Several early 18th-century buildings on the site have been attributed to the architects Sir John Vanbrugh or Nicholas Hawksmoor (both of whom are known to have designed buildings for the Board of Ordnance), including the Royal Brass Foundry, Dial Arch and the Royal Military Academy; but whilst acknowledging their influence (direct or indirect), the Survey of London credits Brigadier-General Michael Richards (Surveyor-general for the Ordnance board at the time) as having played the leading part in their design. In the late-18th and early-19th centuries James Wyatt, as Architect of the Ordnance, was responsible for several buildings on the site, including the Main Guardhouse (1787), the Grand Store (1805) and Middlegate House (1807). More often than not, though, it was the on-site Engineers and Clerks of the Works who were responsible for the design of buildings and other structures within the working Arsenal.


title: History of the United States public debt

text: The history of the United States public debt started with federal government debt incurred during the American Revolutionary War by the first U.S treasurer, Michael Hillegas, after the country's formation in 1776. The United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since then, except for about a year during 1835–1836. To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP). Historically, the United States public debt as a share of GDP has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined.


text: The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1973 under President Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the terms of presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton. Public debt rose during the 1980s, as President Reagan cut tax rates and increased military spending. It fell during the 1990s, due to decreased military spending, increased taxes and the 1990s boom. Public debt rose sharply in the wake of the 2007–08 financial crisis and the resulting significant tax revenue declines and spending increases.


text: The US Public debt rose dramatically during the 2019-2021 COVID-19 Pandemic due to emergency measures to sustain the economy during large scale economic retraction in most industries with concomitant high unemployment.


text: Except for about a year during 1835–1836, the United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since its Constitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. During the American Revolution, the Continental Congress, under the Articles of Confederation, amassed huge war debts, but lacked the power to repay these obligations through taxation or duties on imports.


text: On the founding of the United States, the financial affairs of the new federation were in disarray, exacerbated by an economic crisis in urban commercial centers. In 1790, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton pushed for Congress to pass a financial plan, called the First Report on the Public Credit, a controversial part of which involved the federal government assuming state debts incurred during the Revolutionary War. Northern states had accumulated a huge amount of debt during the war, amounting to $21.5 million, and wanted the federal government to assume their burden. The Southern states, which had lower or no debts, whose citizens would effectively pay a portion of this debt if the federal government assumed it, were disinclined to accept the proposal. Some states, including Virginia, had already paid off almost half of their debts, and felt that their taxpayers should not be assessed again to bail out the less provident, and further argued that the plan was beyond the constitutional power of the new government. James Madison, then a representative from Virginia, led a group of legislators from the South in blocking the provision and prevent the plan from gaining approval. Jefferson supported Madison. The plan was finally adopted as part of the Compromise of 1790, as the Funding Act of 1790. The compromise meant that the state debts were all picked up by the federal Treasury, and the permanent national capital would be located in the South, along the Virginia-Maryland border in what became the District of Columbia.


text: Historian Max M. Edling has explained how assumption worked. It was the critical issue; the location of the capital was a bargaining ploy. Hamilton proposed that the federal Treasury take over and pay off all the debt that states had incurred to pay for the American Revolution. The Treasury would issue bonds that rich people would buy, thereby giving the rich a tangible stake in the success of the national government. Hamilton proposed to pay off the new bonds with revenue from a new tariff on imports. Jefferson originally approved the scheme, but Madison had turned him around by arguing that federal control of debt would consolidate too much power in the national government. Edling points out that after its passage in 1790, the assumption was accepted. Madison did try to pay speculators below 100%, but they were paid the face value of the state debts they held regardless of how little they paid for them. When Jefferson became president he continued the system. The credit of the U.S. was solidly established at home and abroad, and Hamilton was successful in signing up many of the bondholders in his new Federalist Party. Good credit allowed Jefferson's Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin to borrow in Europe to finance the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, as well as to borrow to finance the War of 1812.


text: The Southern states extracted a major concession from Hamilton in the recalculation of their debt under the fiscal plan. For example, in the case of Virginia, a zero-sum arrangement was contrived, in which Virginia paid $3.4 million to the federal government, and received exactly that amount in federal compensation. The revision of Virginia's debt, coupled with Potomac residence issue, ultimately netted it over $13 million. Another result of federal assumption of state debts was to give the federal government much more power by placing the country's most serious financial obligation in the hands of the federal government rather than the state governments. The federal government was able to avoid competing in interest with the States.


text: The debts of the federal government on January 1, 1791 amounted to $75,463,476.52, of which about $40 million was domestic debt, $12 million was foreign debt, and $18.3 million were state debts assumed by the federal government, of the $21.5 million that had been authorized.


text: To reduce the debt, from 1796 to 1811 there were 14 budget surpluses and 2 deficits. There was a sharp increase in the debt as a result of the War of 1812. In the 20 years following that war, there were 18 surpluses.


text: On January 8, 1835, president Andrew Jackson paid off the entire national debt, the only time in U.S. history that has been accomplished. However, this and other factors, such as the government giving surplus money to state banks, soon led to the Panic of 1837, in which the government had to resume borrowing money.


text: Another sharp increase in the debt occurred as a result of the Civil War. The debt was just $65 million in 1860, but passed $1 billion in 1863 and reached $2.7 billion by the end of the war. During the following 47 years, there were 36 surpluses and 11 deficits. During this period 55% of the national debt was paid off.


text: Debt increased again during World War I (1914–1918), reaching $25.5 billion at its conclusion. Approximately $17 billion in debt was raised through the selling of Liberty Bonds to the general public to finance the U.S.'s military effort. The war was followed by 11 consecutive surpluses that saw the debt reduced by 36% by the end of the 1920s.


text: Warren G. Harding was elected president in 1920 and believed the federal government should be fiscally managed in a way similar to private sector businesses. He had campaigned in 1920 on the slogan, "Less government in business and more business in government." Under Harding, federal spending declined from $6.3 billion in 1920 to $5 billion in 1921 and $3.3 billion in 1922. Over the course of the 1920s, under the leadership of Calvin Coolidge, the national debt was reduced by one third. The decrease was even greater when the growth in GDP and inflation is taken into account.


text: Debt held by the public was $15.05 billion or 16.5% of GDP in 1930. When Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, the public debt was almost $20 billion, 20% of GDP. Decreased tax revenues and spending on social programs during the Great Depression increased the debt and by 1936, the public debt had increased to $33.7 billion, approximately 40% of GDP. During its first term, the Roosevelt administration ran large annual deficits of between 2 and 5% of GDP. By 1939, the debt held by the public had increased to $39.65 billion or 43% of GDP. The buildup and involvement in World War II during the presidencies of F.D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman led to the largest increase in public debt. Public debt rose over 100% of GDP to pay for the mobilization before and during the war. Public debt was $251.43 billion or 112% of GDP at the conclusion of the war in 1945 and was $260 billion in 1950.


text: The public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly after the end of World War II under the presidency of Harry S. Truman, as the U.S. and the rest of the world experienced a post-war economic expansion. Unlike previous wars, the Korean War (1950–53) was largely financed by taxation and did not lead to an increase in the public debt.


text: Growth rates in Western countries began to slow in the late-1960s. Beginning in the mid-1970s and afterwards, U.S. national debt began to increase faster than GDP.


text: The public debt relative to GDP reached a post-World War II low of 24.6% in 1974. In that year, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 reformed the budget process to allow Congress to challenge the president's budget more easily, and, as a consequence, deficits became increasingly difficult to control. National debt held by the public increased from its postwar low of 24.6% of GDP in 1974 to 26.2% in 1980.


text: Debt held by the public relative to GDP rose rapidly again in the 1980s. President Ronald Reagan's economic policies lowered tax rates (Reagan slashed the top income tax rate from 70% to 28%, although bills passed in 1982 and 1984 later partially reversed those tax cuts.) and increased military spending, while congressional Democrats blocked cuts to social programs. As a result, debt as a share of GDP increased from 26.2% in 1980 to 40.9% in 1988, and it continued to rise during the presidency of George H. W. Bush, reaching 48.3% of GDP in 1992.


text: Debt held by the public reached a high of 49.5% of GDP at the beginning of President Clinton's first term. However, it fell to 34.5% of GDP by the end of Clinton's presidency due in part to decreased military spending, increased taxes (in 1990, 1993 and 1997), and increased tax revenue resulting from the 1990s boom. The budget controls instituted in the 1990s successfully restrained fiscal action by the Congress and the President and together with economic growth contributed to the budget surpluses at the end of the decade. The surpluses led to a decline in the public debt from about 43% of GDP in 1998 to about 33% by 2001.


text: In the early 21st century, debt held by the public relative to GDP rose again due in part to the Bush tax cuts and increased military spending caused by the wars in the Middle East and a new entitlement Medicare D program. During the presidency of George W. Bush, debt held by the public increased from $3.339 trillion in September 2001 to $6.369 trillion by the end of 2008. In the aftermath of the global financial crisis of 2007–08 and related significant revenue declines and spending increases, debt held by the public increased to $11.917 trillion by the end of July 2013, under the presidency of Barack Obama.


text: On August 5, 2011, the United States debt-ceiling crisis of 2011, the credit rating agency Standard & Poor's downgraded the rating of the federal government from AAA to AA+. It was the first time the U.S. had been downgraded since it was originally given a AAA rating on its debt by Moody's in 1917. BBC News reported that Standard & Poor's had "lost confidence" in the ability of the U.S. government to make decisions.


text: The President proposes a national budget to Congress, which has final say over the document but rarely appropriates more than what the President requests.


text: Economic historian J. Bradford DeLong, observed a contrast not so much between Republicans and Democrats but between Democrats and "old-style Republicans (Eisenhower and Nixon)" on one hand (decreasing debt) and "new-style Republicans" on the other (increasing debt). David Stockman, former director of the Office of Management and Budget, blamed the "ideological tax-cutters" of the Reagan administration for the increase of national debt during the 1980s. Former Treasury official Bruce Bartlett attributed the increase in the national debt since the 1980s to the policy of "starve the beast". While noting that George H. W. Bush's budget deal in 1990 was one of the reasons for improvement of the fiscal situation in 1990s, Bartlett was highly critical of George W. Bush for creating budget deficits by reducing tax rates and increasing spending in the early 2000s.


text: Public debt is the cumulative result of budget deficits; that is, government spending exceeding revenues.


text: According to the Congressional Budget Office, the United States last had a budget surplus during fiscal year 2001, though the national debt still increased. From fiscal years 2001 to 2009, spending increased by 6.5% of gross domestic product (from 18.2% to 24.7%) while taxes declined by 4.7% of GDP (from 19.5% to 14.8%). Spending increases (expressed as percentage of GDP) were in the following areas: Medicare and Medicaid (1.7%), defense (1.6%), income security such as unemployment benefits and food stamps (1.4%), Social Security (0.6%) and all other categories (1.2%). Revenue reductions were individual income taxes (−3.3%), payroll taxes (−0.5%), corporate income taxes (−0.5%) and other (−0.4%).


text: The 2009 spending level was the highest relative to GDP in 40 years, while the tax receipts were the lowest relative to GDP in 40 years. The next highest spending year was 1985 (22.8%), while the next lowest tax year was 2004 (16.1%).


text: In June 2012, the Congressional Budget Office summarized the cause of change between its January 2001 estimate of a $5.6 trillion cumulative surplus between 2002 and 2011 and the actual $6.1 trillion cumulative deficit that occurred, an unfavorable "turnaround" or debt increase of $11.7 trillion. Tax rate cuts and slower-than-expected growth reduced revenues by $6.1 trillion and spending was $5.6 trillion higher. Of this total, the CBO attributes 72% to legislated tax rate cuts and spending increases and 27% to economic and technical factors. Of the latter, 56% occurred from 2009 to 2011.


text: The difference between the projected and actual debt in 2011, the budget office said, could be attributed largely to:


text: The U.S. budget situation has deteriorated significantly since 2001, when the CBO forecast average annual "surpluses" of approximately $850 billion from 2009 to 2012. The average "deficit" forecast in each of those years as of June 2009 was approximately $1,215 billion. "The New York Times" analyzed this roughly $2 trillion "swing", separating the causes into four major categories along with their share:


text: In October 2009, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) gave the reasons for the higher budget deficit in 2009 ($1,410 billion, i.e. $1.41 trillion) over that of 2008 ($460 billion). The major changes included: declines in tax receipt of $320 billion due to the effects of the recession and another $100 billion due to tax rate cuts in the stimulus bill (the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act or ARRA); $245 billion for the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) and other bailout efforts; $100 billion in additional spending for ARRA; and another $185 billion due to increases in primary budget categories such as Medicare, Medicaid, unemployment insurance, Social Security, and Defense – including the war effort in Afghanistan and Iraq. This was the highest budget deficit relative to GDP (9.9%) since 1945. The national debt increased by $1.9 trillion during FY2009, versus the $1.0 trillion increase during 2008.


text: The Obama Administration also made four significant accounting changes to more accurately report total federal government spending. The four changes were:


text: Obama administration officials predicted that these changes will make the debt over ten years look $2.7 trillion larger than it would otherwise appear.


text: This table lists the U.S. federal debt as a percentage of gross domestic product, or GDP, each year since World War II. The gross federal debt shown below reached 102.7% of GDP at the end of 2012, the most recent figure available; it was the highest percentage since 1945 and the first yearly percentage figure to go over 100% since then. (The gross federal debt in the table includes intra-government debt – that is, money owed by one branch of the federal government to another. When this latter amount is subtracted, the remaining quantity is known as the public debt.)


text: Publicly held debt is the gross debt minus intra-governmental obligations (such as the money that the government owes to the two Social Security Trust Funds, the Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance program, and the Social Security Disability Insurance program).


text: The table below shows annual federal spending, gross federal debt and gross domestic product for specific fiscal years. The government fiscal year runs from October 1 of the previous calendar year to September 30 of the year shown.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Stéphane Mallarmé ( , ; 18 March 1842 – 9 September 1898), pen name of Étienne Mallarmé, was a French poet and critic. He was a major French symbolist poet, and his work anticipated and inspired several revolutionary artistic schools of the early 20th century, such as Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism, and Surrealism.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Mallarmé was born in Paris. He was a boarder at the "Pensionnat des Frères des écoles chrétiennes à Passy" between 6 or 9 October 1852 and March 1855. He worked as an English teacher and spent much of his life in relative poverty but was famed for his "salons", occasional gatherings of intellectuals at his house on the rue de Rome for discussions of poetry, art and philosophy. The group became known as "les Mardistes," because they met on Tuesdays (in French, "mardi"), and through it Mallarmé exerted considerable influence on the work of a generation of writers. For many years, those sessions, where Mallarmé held court as judge, jester, and king, were considered the heart of Paris intellectual life. Regular visitors included W.B. Yeats, Rainer Maria Rilke, Paul Valéry, Stefan George, Paul Verlaine, and many others.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Along with other members of "La Revue Blanche" such as Jules Renard, Julien Benda and Ioannis Psycharis, Mallarmé was a Dreyfusard.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: On 10 August 1863, he married Maria Christina Gerhard. They had two children, Geneviève in 1864 and Anatole in 1871. Anatole died in 1879. Mallarmé died in Valvins (present-day Vulaines-sur-Seine), near Fontainebleau, on September 9, 1898.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Mallarmé's earlier work owes a great deal to the style of Charles Baudelaire who was recognised as the forerunner of literary Symbolism. Mallarmé's later "fin de siècle" style, on the other hand, anticipates many of the fusions between poetry and the other arts that were to blossom in the next century. Most of this later work explored the relationship between content and form, between the text and the arrangement of words and spaces on the page. This is particularly evident in his last major poem, "Un coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard" ('A roll of the dice will never abolish chance') of 1897.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Some consider Mallarmé one of the French poets most difficult to translate into English. The difficulty is due in part to the complex, multilayered nature of much of his work, but also to the important role that the sound of the words, rather than their meaning, plays in his poetry. When recited in French, his poems allow alternative meanings which are not evident on reading the work on the page. For example, Mallarmé's "Sonnet en '-yx"' opens with the phrase "ses purs ongles" ('her pure nails'), whose first syllables when spoken aloud sound very similar to the words "c'est pur son" ('it's pure sound'). Indeed, the 'pure sound' aspect of his poetry has been the subject of musical analysis and has inspired musical compositions. These phonetic ambiguities are very difficult to reproduce in a translation which must be faithful to the meaning of the words.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Mallarmé's poetry has been the inspiration for several musical pieces, notably Claude Debussy's "Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune" (1894), a free interpretation of Mallarmé's poem "L'après-midi d'un faune" (1876), which creates powerful impressions by the use of striking but isolated phrases. Maurice Ravel set Mallarmé's poetry to music in "Trois poèmes de Mallarmé" (1913). Other composers to use his poetry in song include Darius Milhaud ("Chansons bas de Stéphane Mallarmé", 1917) and Pierre Boulez ("Pli selon pli", 1957–62).


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Man Ray's last film, entitled "Les Mystères du Château de Dé (The Mystery of the Chateau of Dice)" (1929), was greatly influenced by Mallarmé's work, prominently featuring the line "A roll of the dice will never abolish chance".


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Mallarmé is referred to extensively in the latter section of Joris-Karl Huysmans' "À rebours", where Des Esseintes describes his fervour-infused enthusiasm for the poet: "These were Mallarmé's masterpieces and also ranked among the masterpieces of prose poetry, for they combined a style so magnificently that in itself it was as soothing as a melancholy incantation, an intoxicating melody, with irresistibly suggestive thoughts, the soul-throbs of a sensitive artist whose quivering nerves vibrate with an intensity that fills you with a painful ecstasy." [p. 198, Robert Baldick translation]


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: The critic and translator Barbara Johnson has emphasized Mallarmé's influence on twentieth-century French criticism and theory: "It was largely by learning the lesson of Mallarmé that critics like Roland Barthes came to speak of 'the death of the author' in the making of literature. Rather than seeing the text as the emanation of an individual author's intentions, structuralists and deconstructors followed the paths and patterns of the linguistic signifier, paying new attention to syntax, spacing, intertextuality, sound, semantics, etymology, and even individual letters. The theoretical styles of Jacques Derrida, Julia Kristeva, Maurice Blanchot, and especially Jacques Lacan also owe a great deal to Mallarmé's 'critical poem.'"


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: It has been suggested that "much of Mallarmé's work influenced the conception of hypertext, with his purposeful use of blank space and careful placement of words on the page, allowing multiple non-linear readings of the text. This becomes very apparent in his work "Un coup de dés"."


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: In 1990, Greenhouse Review Press published D. J. Waldie's American translation of "Un Coup de Dés" in a letterpress edition of 60 copies, its typography and format based on examination of the final (or near final) corrected proofs of the poem in the collection of Harvard's Houghton Library.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: Prior to 2004, "Un Coup de Dés" was never published in the typography and format conceived by Mallarmé. In 2004, 90 copies on vellum of a new edition were published by Michel Pierson et Ptyx. This edition reconstructs the typography originally designed by Mallarmé for the projected Vollard edition in 1897 and which was abandoned after the sudden death of the author in 1898. All the pages are printed in the format (38 cm by 28 cm) and in the typography chosen by the author. The reconstruction has been made from the proofs which are kept in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, taking into account the written corrections and wishes of Mallarmé and correcting certain errors on the part of the printers Firmin-Didot.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: A copy of this edition is in the Bibliothèque François-Mitterrand. Copies have been acquired by the Bibliothèque littéraire Jacques-Doucet and University of California - Irvine, as well as by private collectors. A copy has been placed in the Museum Stéphane Mallarmé at Vulaines-sur-Seine, Valvins, where Mallarmé lived and died and where he made his final corrections on the proofs prior to the projected printing of the poem.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: In 2012, the French philosopher Quentin Meillassoux published "The Number and the Siren", a rigorous attempt at 'deciphering' the poem on the basis of a unique interpretation of the phrase 'the unique Number, which cannot be another.'


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: In 2015, Wave Books published "A Roll of the Dice Will Never Abolish Chance", a dual-language edition of the poem, translated by Robert Bononno and Jeff Clark (designer). Another dual-language edition, translated by Henry Weinfield, was published by University of California Press in 1994.


title: Stéphane Mallarmé

text: The poet and visual artist Marcel Broodthaers created a purely graphical version of "Un coup de Dés", using Mallarmé's typographical layout but with the words replaced by black bars. In 2018, Apple Pie Editions published "un coup de des jamais n'abolira le hasard: translations" by Eric Zboya, an English edition that transforms the poem not only through erasure, but through graphic imaging software.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: The Bærum mosque shooting or Al-Noor Islamic Centre shooting occurred on 10 August 2019 at the Al-Noor Islamic Centre mosque in Bærum, Norway, about west of the capital city Oslo. A gunman broke in through a locked door and opened fire inside the centre, hitting no one. He was subdued by three men after a scuffle and turned over to police. The stepsister of the suspect was later found dead in their family home. Norwegian authorities indicted him for terrorism and murder.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: The suspect reportedly began a Facebook livestream in the hours preceding his attempt, but this was taken down. Before going to the mosque, he allegedly killed his younger stepsister while she slept in her bed, firing three bullets into her head and one into her chest.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: The suspect was reportedly wearing a uniform and helmet when he entered the mosque, shooting his way through the locked door. He was carrying two shotguns or "shotgun-like" weapons and a pistol, opening fire in the room, hitting nobody. Prayers had just ended, with only three elders remaining in the mosque. One of the men approached the suspect and pinned him down, moving his weapons away. The two began to struggle, and the suspect poked the man in the left eye. Another of the men in the room then hit the suspect on the head to subdue him. The police were called at 16:07 local time. The suspect was in a chokehold when police arrived at the mosque. He appeared in court two days later, with his face and neck marked by bruises and scratches.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: Philip Manshaus, a 21-year-old Norwegian man, perpetrated the attack. He lived near the area of the shooting. He was indicted for terrorism and murder. The police have stated that Manshaus is refusing to speak to them, and that he was already known to law enforcement but did not have a criminal background. The national broadcaster NRK spoke with some of his neighbors. One described him as ordinary, saying he had helped her with household tasks before, though another claimed he had not been very happy when he was young, with several neighbors also suggesting that a family bereavement a few years earlier had severely impacted him, and that in the last year he had turned increasingly to religion and extremism. Norwegian police had stated the day after the arrest that they were planning to give the suspect a mental health assessment. In the official questioning session, Manshaus declared that his goal was to intimidate Muslims in Norway. In the weeks before the attack, Manshaus had tried to join the neo-Nazi Nordic Resistance Movement, but for various reasons he never got beyond the first of two planned initiation interviews.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: Shortly before the attempt, someone using the name Philip Manshaus was active on a web forum that has been variously reported as 4chan and 8chan, but was confirmed to be a copycat forum called EndChan. His retrieved messages include telling people that "it's my time, i was elected by saint tarrant" , asking those he was messaging to "bump the Race War thread irl", and saying that "Valhalla awaits". Several intermediary messages had been removed. The messages are seen as praising Brenton Tarrant, the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings in March 2019, and refer to him as "saint tarrant". The Christchurch shootings were inspired by, among other things, the 22/7 attacks that happened in Norway in 2011. The user also posted a meme depicting Tarrant, Patrick Crusius, and John T. Earnest as "chads". All three perpetrated racially and/or religiously motivated gun murders in 2019, including Crusius' attack on a Walmart in El Paso, Texas only a week earlier. Manshaus' posts also reportedly feature him describing himself as the "third disciple"; internet extremism researchers connect this with the rhetoric of Tarrant, suggesting the other 'disciples' would be Earnest and Crusius. Online, Manshaus has also praised Vidkun Quisling, who headed a domestic Nazi collaborationist regime during World War II, and expressed far-right, anti-immigration views.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: Manshaus' 17-year-old stepsister was found dead in their family home by police. She was born in Jiangxi, China, and adopted at 2 years old by Manshaus' stepmother. Manshaus has been charged with her murder.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: The injured man was 65-year-old Mohammad Rafiq. During the scuffle with the suspect, Rafiq overpowered and disarmed him before he could attack anyone else in the mosque. He received minor injuries while the suspect tried to break free from a chokehold, including an attempt to gouge out Rafiq's left eye. Rafiq is a Pakistani retired Air Force officer who had been living in Norway for two and a half years and was a frequent visitor to Al-Noor Islamic Center in Bærum.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: Authorities reported that security in Norway may become increased after the attack, as it occurred during the Muslim holiday of Eid al-Adha, with the Prime Minister raising the national security the following day. The Al-Noor Islamic Centre had already added extra security after the Christchurch mosque shootings. According to local Norwegian media, the mosque said that security would be improved again.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: The Prime Minister, Erna Solberg, condemned the attack. Solberg and Abid Raja, a Liberal Norwegian politician, spoke together on the day of the attack, assuring the public that places of worship should be safe and calling for plans to break down Islamophobia in the country. Another reaction to the incident was a speech given by Siv Jensen, the leader of the right-wing Progress Party, also referred to Rafiq as a hero. The day after the attack, on the Eid al-Adha celebration day, Solberg and other important figures, as well as the men from the mosque, attended a ceremony in solidarity held in Sandvika.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: EndChan has deleted the thread that the user with Manshaus' named posted on, and had its primary web domain taken offline following the attack.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: As the shooting spread in media, so did the actions of Rafiq and the other man in the mosque, which a Danish newspaper described as "courageous"; several media outlets, primarily in Norway but also some foreign ones, described Rafiq as a "hero".


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: A Norwegian philanthropist, Elisabeth Norheim, started a fundraising campaign on a Norwegian crowdfunding website. to help raise money so Rafiq and the other man who helped subdue the attack could undertake the hajj. After the initial goal of 55,000 NOK (~ 6100 USD) for the cost of the two to travel was surpassed, with more than 180,000 NOK (~20,000 USD) raised in one day, the organizers said they could also fund the hajj for the third man in the mosque during the attack. The fund raised was later passed the adjusted goal of 230,000 NOK (~25,000 USD).


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: On 15 August 2019, a ceremony was held at the Sandvika Police House to praise Rafiq and the other man for their actions. It was hosted by Beate Gangås, the Oslo Police Commander-in-Chief, and Lisbeth Hammer Krogh, the mayor of Bærum.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: The Norwegian Police Security Service said that they received a tip about Manshaus approximately one year prior to the attack. After coordinating with the local police department, Oslo Police District, they found that the tip was vague and showed no signs of imminent terror planning activities. The tip was not followed up. Norwegian police reported that they have spoken with Manshaus previously because of his online behavior.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: On 12 August 2019, in a court hearing in Oslo District Court, Manshaus was put in pre-trial jail for four weeks with no visitation, mail or media access. Manshaus declared himself not guilty and called to be released.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: On 11 June 2020, Manshaus was found guilty of murder and terrorism and sentenced to 21 years in prison along with a provision that he should be imprisoned indefinitely if determined to be a threat to society.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: It has been reported that when the members of the mosque called the police, the incident was initially classified as low-priority and the police would not respond; the men struggled trying to convey the situation to the operator.


title: Bærum mosque shooting

text: There have also been claims that a user of an online forum had tried to notify the Norwegian police three times that he suspected an attack would happen, but that local police told him to call the FBI. Police say they are aware of this allegation, but that they are not aware of any such call.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: <onlyinclude>Silversea Cruises is a luxury cruise line headquartered in Monaco. Founded in 1994 by the Vlasov Group of Monaco and the Lefebvre family of Rome, it pioneered all-inclusive cruising with its first ship, "Silver Cloud". Since July 2020, it has been owned by Royal Caribbean Group.</onlyinclude>


title: Silversea Cruises

text: Silversea was founded in 1994 by a joint venture between V-Ships (previously known as Vlasov Group) of Monaco and Antonio Lefebvre d'Ovidio of Rome. The joint owners had previously been the co-owners of Sitmar Cruises.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: As a marketing strategy the new line introduced all-inclusive fares including gratuities, beverages, port charges, travel insurance, and some complimentary shore excursions. As about 80 percent of Silversea's customers were expected to come from North America, the line established a sales office in Miami, Florida.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: Silversea's first ship, , which entered service in April 1994, was followed in January 1995 by a sister ship, .


title: Silversea Cruises

text: In September 2000, the line launched and in January 2001. Both of these ships were enlarged versions of the original two ships, carrying about 100 more passengers. In December 2009, Silversea launched .


title: Silversea Cruises

text: On 18 June 2012, Silversea acquired Canodros S.A., an Ecuadorian tourism company that operated in the Galápagos Islands. The purchase of the line also included the former Renaissance ship "Galapagos Explorer II". She was subsequently moved into the "Silversea Expeditions" brand along with "Silver Explorer". "Silver Galapagos" entered service in September 2013.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: On 24 July 2013, "CNN" aired a report of a Silversea cruise ship, "Silver Shadow" failing a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) inspection by hiding trolleys of food in crew cabins.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: On 10 September 2013, Silversea Cruises confirmed that it would be adding a third vessel to the "Silversea Expeditions" brand, "Silver Discoverer", formerly sailing as for Zegrahm Expeditions. "Silver Discoverer" was christened in Singapore in March 2014 and set sail on her inaugural voyage along Australia's Kimberley Coast on 2 April 2014.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: Fincantieri delivered the fleet's ninth ship, "Silver Muse" to Silversea Cruises on 2 April 2017, at its Sestri Ponente shipyard. "Silver Muse"s debut cruise set sail on 10 April 2017, in the Mediterranean Sea. That same year, Silversea announced an order for "Silver Moon", a sister ship to "Silver Muse", to be built by Fincantieri and delivered in 2020. In May 2018, Silversea announced an order for "Silver Dawn", another sister ship of "Silver Muse", to be delivered by Fincantieri in 2021.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: On 14 June 2018, Royal Caribbean purchased a majority stake in Silversea for approximately $1 billion from Manfredi Lefebvre d'Ovidio, son of cofounder Antonio Lefebvre d'Ovidio, and who had become the sole owner of the cruise line. Following the announcement, Silversea ordered three new ships: two Evolution-class vessels to be built by Meyer Werft to be delivered beginning 2022 and one expedition vessel from Shipyard De Hoop to be delivered in March 2020.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: In July 2020, Royal Caribbean Group acquired the remaining shares of Silversea from Heritage Cruise Holding in exchange for 5.2 million shares of Royal Caribbean Group stock.


title: Silversea Cruises

text: On 14 June 2022, early reports came out that Silversea was very interested in purchasing the "Crystal Endeavor" from the defunct Crystal Cruises brand, with records of the trademarked name "Silver Endeavor" being filled. However, it was further reported on June 28, that both The Ritz-Carlton Yacht Collection and the former owners of Silversea, "Heritage Cruise Holding" (who recently purchased the two Crystal ships and the entire brand) were still interested in purchasing the vessel as well. Silversea’s purchase was confirmed in July 2022, with a purchase price of $275 million, and the ship being renamed "Silver Endeavor".


title: Gelert

text: Gelert () is a legendary dog associated with the village of Beddgelert (whose name means "Gelert's Grave") in Gwynedd, north-west Wales. In the legend, Llywelyn the Great returns from hunting to find his baby missing, the cradle overturned, and Gelert with a blood-smeared mouth. Believing the dog had savaged the child, Llywelyn draws his sword and kills Gelert. After the dog's dying yelp, Llywelyn hears the cries of the baby, unharmed under the cradle, along with a dead wolf which had attacked the child and been killed by Gelert. Llywelyn is overcome with remorse and buries the dog with great ceremony, but can still hear its dying yelp. After that day, Llywelyn never smiles again.


title: Gelert

text: The story is a variation on the ""Faithful Hound" folk-tale motif", which lives on as an urban legend. It is classified as Aarne–Thompson type 178A.


title: Gelert

text: This story formed the basis for several English poems, among which are "Beth Gêlert; or, the Grave of the Greyhound" by William Robert Spencer written around 1800; "Beth Gelert" by Richard Henry Horne; "Gelert" by Francis Orray Ticknor and the dramatic poem "Llewellyn" by Walter Richard Cassels. The tale is also alluded to by John Critchley Prince in lines 24 to 29 of his poem "North Wales:" "Thou hast not trod with pilgrim foot the ground / Where sleeps the canine martyr of distrust, / Poor Gelert, famed in song, as brave a hound / As ever guarded homestead, hut, or hall, / Or leapt exulting at the hunter’s call; / As ever grateful man consigned to dust." Despite this, and despite the presence of a raised mound in the village called Gelert's Grave, historians do not believe that Gelert ever existed.


title: Gelert

text: It is recorded in "Wild Wales" (1862) by George Borrow, who notes it as a well known legend; by "Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable", which details versions of the same story from other cultures; and by "The Nuttall Encyclopaedia", under the Anglicised spellings "Gellert" and "Killhart". John Fiske discusses Gelert in his "Myths and Myth-makers", saying regretfully that "as the Swiss must give up his Tell, so must the Welshman be deprived of his brave dog Gellert, over whose cruel fate I confess to having shed more tears than I should regard as well bestowed upon the misfortunes of many a human hero of romance." He notes that "to this day the visitor to Snowdon is told the touching story, and shown the place, called Beth-Gellert, where the dog's grave is still to be seen. Nevertheless, the story occurs in the fireside lore of nearly every Aryan people."


title: Gelert

text: The tale indeed appears in numerous cultures with minor variations. The Alpine ligurian poem "R sacrifisi dr can", written in Ligurian, tells of how a shepherd shot his sheepdog after finding it covered in sheep blood, only to later find a dead wolf in the stable.


title: Gelert

text: In India, a black snake replaces the wolf and a mongoose replaces the dog. In Egypt, the story goes that a cook nearly killed a Wali for having smashed a pot of herbs, but later discovers that the pot contained a poisonous snake.


title: Gelert

text: In Malaysian folklore, a similar story involves a tame bear, kept by a Malay hunter as the guardian of his young daughter. As in the story of Gelert, the hunter returns home from an expedition, and finds his daughter gone and the bear covered in blood. Hastily thinking the bear has devoured his daughter, the hunter kills it with his spear, but later finds the body of a tiger, killed by the bear in defence of the hunter's daughter, who shortly emerges from the jungle, from where she took refuge.


title: Gelert

text: In the Disney movie "Lady and the Tramp" (1955), Tramp is carried off to the pound after Aunt Sarah finds him in a nursery with the cradle overturned. Happily, in this version of the tale, the "Gelert" figure is rescued: Lady manages to show "Jim Dear" the dead rat hidden behind a curtain, and the parents realize that Tramp actually saved their child from the rat.


title: Gelert

text: In 2002 the "Incredible Story Studios" made a short film called "The Return of Gelert", written by a Welsh schoolchild, which depicts the ghost of Gelert returning to haunt early 21st century Beddgelert.


title: Gelert

text: It is now accepted that the village of Beddgelert took its name from an early saint named Kilart or Celert, rather than from the dog. The "grave" mound is ascribed to David Prichard, landlord of the Goat Hotel in Beddgelert in the late eighteenth century, who connected the legend to the village to encourage tourism.


title: Gelert

text: On the supposed grave of Gelert there are two slate memorials, one in Welsh and the other in English. The latter reads:


title: Gelert

text: IN THE 13TH CENTURY, LLYWELYN, PRINCE OF NORTH WALES, HAD A PALACE AT BEDDGELERT. ONE DAY HE WENT HUNTING WITHOUT GELERT "THE FAITHFUL HOUND" WHO WAS UNACCOUNTABLY ABSENT. ON LLYWELYN'S RETURN, THE TRUANT STAINED AND SMEARED WITH BLOOD, JOYFULLY SPRANG TO MEET HIS MASTER. THE PRINCE ALARMED HASTENED TO FIND HIS SON, AND SAW THE INFANT'S COT EMPTY, THE BEDCLOTHES AND FLOOR COVERED WITH BLOOD. THE FRANTIC FATHER PLUNGED THE SWORD INTO THE HOUND'S SIDE THINKING IT HAD KILLED HIS HEIR. THE DOG'S DYING YELL WAS ANSWERED BY A CHILD'S CRY. LLYWELYN SEARCHED AND DISCOVERED HIS BOY UNHARMED BUT NEAR BY LAY THE BODY OF A MIGHTY WOLF WHICH GELERT HAD SLAIN, THE PRINCE FILLED WITH REMORSE IS SAID NEVER TO HAVE SMILED AGAIN. HE BURIED GELERT HERE. THE SPOT IS CALLED BEDDGELERT.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: The State Tretyakov Gallery (, "Gosudarstvennaya Tretyâkovskaya Galereya"; abbreviated ГТГ, "GTG") is an art gallery in Moscow, Russia, which is considered the foremost depository of Russian fine art in the world.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: The gallery's history starts in 1856 when the Moscow merchant Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov acquired works by Russian artists of his day with the aim of creating a collection, which might later grow into a museum of national art. In 1892, Tretyakov presented his already famous collection of approximately 2,000 works (1,362 paintings, 526 drawings, and 9 sculptures) to the Russian nation. The museum attracted 894,374 (visitors in 2020 (down 68 percent from 2019), due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It was 13th on the list of most-visited art museums in the world in 2020.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: The façade of the gallery building was designed by the painter Viktor Vasnetsov in a peculiar Russian fairy-tale style. It was built in 1902–04 to the south from the Moscow Kremlin. During the 20th century, the gallery expanded to several neighboring buildings, including the 17th-century church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: The collection contains more than 130,000 exhibits, ranging from "Theotokos of Vladimir" and Andrei Rublev's "Trinity" to the monumental "Composition VII" by Wassily Kandinsky and the "Black Square" by Kazimir Malevich.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In May 2012, the Tretyakov Art Gallery played host to the prestigious FIDE World Chess Championship between Viswanathan Anand and Boris Gelfand as the organizers felt the event would promote both chess and art at the same time.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: Pavel Tretyakov started collecting art in the middle of 1850. The founding year of the Tretyakov Gallery is considered to be 1856, when Tretyakov purchased two paintings of Russian artists: "Temptation" by Nikolay Shilder and "Skirmish with Finnish Smugglers" by Vasily Khudyakov, although earlier, in 1854–1855, he had bought 11 drawings and nine pictures by Dutch Old Masters. In 1867 the Moscow City Gallery of Pavel and Sergei Tretyakov was opened. The gallery's collection consisted of 1,276 paintings, 471 sculptures and 10 drawings by Russian artists, as well as 84 paintings by foreign masters.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In August 1892 Tretyakov presented his art gallery to the city of Moscow as a gift. In the collection at this time, there were 1,287 paintings and 518 graphic works of the Russian school, 75 paintings and eight drawings of European schools, 15 sculptures and a collection of icons. The official opening of the museum called the Moscow City Gallery of Pavel and Sergei Tretyakov took place on 15 August 1893.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: The gallery was located in a mansion that the Tretyakov family had purchased in 1851. As the Tretyakov collection of art grew, the residential part of the mansion filled with art and it became necessary to make additions to the mansion in order to store and display the works of art. Additions were made in 1873, 1882, 1885, 1892 and 1902–1904, when there was the famous façade, designed in 1900–1903 by architect V. Bashkirov from the drawings of the artist Viktor Vasnetsov. Construction of the façade was managed by the architect A. M. Kalmykov.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: On 3 June 1918 the Tretyakov Gallery was declared owned by the Russian Federated Soviet Republic and was named the State Tretyakov Gallery. Igor Grabar was again appointed director of the museum. With Grabar's active participation in the same year, the State Museum Fund was created, which up until 1927 remained one of the most important sources of replenishment of the gallery's collection.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In 1926 architect and academician Alexey Shchusev became the director of the gallery. In the following year the gallery acquired the neighboring house on Maly Tolmachevsky Lane (the house was the former home of the merchant Sokolikov). After restructuring in 1928, it housed the gallery's administration, academic departments, library, manuscripts department, and funds and graphics staffs. In 1985–1994, an administrative building was built from the design of architect A. L. Bernstein with two floors and height equal to that of the exposition halls.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In 1928 serious renovations were made to the gallery to provide heating and ventilation. In 1929 electricity was installed.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In 1929 the Church of St. Nicholas in Tolmachi was closed, and in 1932 the building was given to the gallery and became a storage facility for paintings and sculptures. Later, the church was connected to the exposition halls and a top floor was built which was specially designed for exhibiting a painting by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov,"The Appearance of Christ Before the People" (1837–1857). A transition space was built between rooms located on either side of the main staircase. This ensured the continuity of the view of exposure. The gallery began to develop a new concept of accommodating exhibits.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In 1936, a new two floor building was constructed which is located on the north side of the main building – it is known as the Schusevsky building. These halls were first used for exhibitions, and since 1940 have been included in the main route of exposure.From the first days of the Great War, the gallery's personnel began dismantling the exhibition, as well as those of other museums in Moscow, in preparation for evacuating during wartime. Paintings were rolled on wooden shafts, covered with tissue paper, placed in boxes, and sheathed with waterproof material. In the middle of the summer of 1941 a train of 17 wagons traveled from Moscow and brought the collection to Novosibirsk. The gallery was not reopened in Moscow until 17 May 1945, upon the conclusion of the Great War.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In 1956, in honor of the 100th anniversary of the Tretyakov Gallery, the Alexander Ivanov Hall was completed.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: From 1980 to 1992, the director of the Tretyakov Gallery was Y. K. Korolev. Because of the increased number of visitors, Korolev was actively engaged in expanding the area of exposition. In 1983, construction work began to expand the gallery. In 1985 the Depository, a repository of works of art and restoration workshops, was commissioned. In 1986 renovations began on the main building of the Tretyakov Gallery. The architects I. M. Vinogradsky, G. V. Astafev, B. A. Klimov and others were retained to perform this project. In 1989, on the south side of the main building, a new building was designed and constructed to house a conference hall, a computer and information center, children's studio and exhibition halls. The building was named the "Corps of Engineers", because it housed engineering systems and services.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: From 1986 to 1995, the Tretyakov Gallery in Lavrushinsky Lane was closed to visitors to accommodate a major renovation project to the building. At the time, the only museum in the exhibition area of this decade was the building on the Crimean Val, 10, which in 1985 was merged with the Tretyakov Gallery.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: In 1985, the Tretyakov Gallery was administratively merged with a gallery of contemporary art, housed in the Central House of the Artists a large modernist building along the Garden Ring, immediately south of the Krymsky Bridge. The grounds of this branch of the museum contain a collection of Socialist Realism sculpture, including such highlights as Yevgeny Vuchetich's iconic statue "Iron Felix" (which was removed from Lubyanka Square in 1991), the "Swords Into Plowshares" sculpture representing a nude worker forging a plough out of a sword, and the "Young Russia" monument. Nearby is Zurab Tsereteli's 86-metre-tall statue of Peter the Great, one of the tallest outdoor statues in the world.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: Near the gallery of modern art there is a sculpture garden called "the graveyard of fallen monuments" that displays statues of former Soviet Union that were relocated.


title: Tretyakov Gallery

text: There are plans to demolish the gallery constructed in the late Soviet modernism style, though public opinion is strongly against this.


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) is either a professional doctorate or a research doctorate, depending on the granting university, awarded on the basis of advanced study, examinations, project work, and research in business administration. The DBA is a terminal degree in business administration. Some universities also combine the business administration field with technology-related disciplines. Along with the PhD or DPhil, it represents the highest academic qualification in business administration, and is typically required to gain employment as a full-time, tenure-track university professor or postdoctoral researcher in the field. As with other earned doctorates, individuals with the degree are awarded the academic title doctor, which is often represented via the English honorific "Dr." or the post-nominal letters "DBA."


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: DBA candidates submit a significant project, typically referred to as a thesis, capstone project, or dissertation, consisting of a body of original academic research that is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Candidates must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners called a thesis, dissertation, or doctoral committee.


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: In the United States, the Doctor of Business Administration is recognized by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as a research degree. The DBA is also considered by both the United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation to be equivalent to the more commonly awarded PhD.


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: In Canada, the Doctor of Business Administration is recognized as a terminal degree in business administration / management. The DBA qualifies as a full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation. Much like the UK, in Canada, the DBA is a full academic doctorate that can only be granted by Universities Canada-accredited institutions and shares equal parity with a PhD (Management). The dissertation to be completed as part of a DBA program differs only in focus but not in breadth of study, nor academic rigour required. DBA programs in Canadian institutions must include an original contribution to knowledge which must be chaired (supervised) by an accomplished researcher and orally defended (viva) to internal and external examiners.


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: Doctor of Business Administration programs have a dual purpose: contribute to business theory and further develop the professional practice (e.g. contribute to professional knowledge in business). Universities generally require candidates to have significant experience in business, particularly in roles with leadership or other strategic responsibilities. DBA candidates specialize in areas such as management science, information technology management, organizational behavior, economics, finance, and the like. As with other doctorate programs, curricula may be offered on a full-time or part-time basis. According to the European higher education standards set by the Bologna Process, the normal duration of research doctorate programs like the DBA and PhD is usually 3–4 years of full-time study.


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: The responsibility for the structure of doctoral programs resides within the graduate research committees or their equivalent within the university. As such, DBA programs have a specific set of university regulations and are subject to quality approval processes. Regulations include references to protocols for treating ethical issues in research. These regulations are widely used in Australian Universities. For instance, a DBA student cannot embark on the research phase before passing all his or her coursework. Furthermore, upon passing the proposal stage, he or she must clear ethics-related issues with an Ethics Committee. These candidates must go through numerous internal moderations of the dissertation before submitting to external examinations (usually at least two). Successful candidates usually revise their dissertations numerous times before final approval is granted from the doctoral committee.


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: In the United States, Doctor of Business Administration and Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration are equivalent degrees. Also, both doctorates are viewed as research doctorates representing the highest academic qualification in business. As such, both DBA and PhD programs require students to develop original research leading to a dissertation defense. Furthermore, both doctorates enable holders to become faculty members at academic institutions. The DBA and PhD in Business Administration are terminal degrees, allowing the recipient to obtain a tenure-track position in the United States; other countries' requirements may differ.


title: Doctor of Business Administration

text: In some cases, the distinction is solely administrative (Harvard Business School was not authorized to issue a PhD until 2018) In other cases, the distinction is one of orientation and intended outcomes. The PhD is highly focused on developing original academic knowledge, while the DBA emphasizes applied research. Upon completion, graduates of PhD programs generally migrate to full-time faculty positions in academia, while those of DBA programs re-emerge in industry as applied researchers or executives. If working full-time in industry, graduates of DBA and PhD programs often become adjunct professors in top undergraduate and graduate degree programs.


title: King of the Ring (1993)

text: The 1993 King of the Ring was the inaugural King of the Ring professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) and featured the seventh King of the Ring tournament. It was the first of ten King of the Ring events produced as pay-per-views; an 11th exclusively aired on the company's livestreaming service, the WWE Network. The inaugural event took place on June 13, 1993, at the Nutter Center in Dayton, Ohio. Ten matches were held at the event.


title: King of the Ring (1993)

text: The central focus of the PPV was the tournament. Wrestlers gained entry by participating in qualifying matches on WWF television programs, and the second, third, and fourth rounds of the tournament were televised on the King of the Ring PPV broadcast. The 1991 tournament winner Bret Hart also won the 1993 tournament by defeating Razor Ramon, Mr. Perfect, and Bam Bam Bigelow. He was attacked by Jerry Lawler during a coronation ceremony, which led to a feud that lasted more than two years. In addition to the tournament, the event featured Yokozuna defeating Hulk Hogan to win the WWF Championship as well as Shawn Michaels retaining the WWF Intercontinental Championship in a match against Crush.


title: King of the Ring (1993)

text: Reviews of the event were mainly positive. Several reviewers called Bret Hart's matches the highlight of the PPV. The match for the Intercontinental Championship received positive reviews, but the ending to the WWF Championship match, which featured Hulk Hogan in his final PPV appearance in the WWF until 2002, was criticized. The event was attended by 6,500 fans—the lowest attendance of any King of the Ring event—while the buyrate was the highest of any King of the Ring event until 1999. The event was released on VHS in North America and on VHS and DVD in the United Kingdom.


title: King of the Ring (1993)

text: The King of the Ring tournament is a single-elimination tournament that was established by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1985 with the winner being crowned the "King of the Ring." It was held annually until 1991, with the exception of 1990. These early tournaments were held as special non-televised house shows in an effort to boost attendance at these events. In 1993, the WWF began to produce the King of the Ring tournament as a self-titled pay-per-view (PPV). The inaugural PPV, which featured the seventh tournament, took place on June 13, 1993, at the Nutter Center in Dayton, Ohio. Unlike the previous non-televised events, the PPV did not feature all of the tournament's matches. Instead, several of the qualifying matches preceded the event with the final few matches then taking place at the pay-per-view. There were also other matches that took place at the event as it was a traditional three-hour pay-per-view.


title: King of the Ring (1993)

text: In the build up to the event, wrestlers are portrayed as either fan favorites or villains and wrestled in matches that built upon pre-existing feuds and storylines.