title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Following ZANU-PF's landslide electoral victory in the 2013 general elections, Patrick Chinamasa was appointed finance minister. Policies encouraging the indigenisation of the economy were fast tracked and laws requiring that 51% or more of non-black Zimbabwean owned companies had to be handed over to black Zimbabweans were implemented. This has been credited with creating further uncertainty in the economy and negatively impacting investment climate in the country. Although legislation dealing with the indigenisation of the Zimbabwean economy has been in development since 2007 and actively initiated by ZANU-PF in 2010 the policy has continued to be accused of being unclear and a form of "racketeering by regulation." The government doubled the civil service and embarked on what the Economist described as "...misrule and dazzling corruption."


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In April 2014, Chinamasa admitted that the country was heavily in debt and that the country needed to better attract foreign direct investment. Officially Zimbabwe's debt is $7 billion, or over 200% of the country's GDP. However, this figure is disputed, with figures as high as $11 billion being quoted, once debts to other African countries and China are included. As of May 2014, it has been reported that Zimbabwe's economy was in decline following the period of relative economic stability during the Government of National Unity. It is estimated that Zimbabwe's manufacturing sector requires an investment of roughly US$8 billion for working capital and equipment upgrades.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In 2016 Tendai Biti, an opposition politician estimated the government was running a deficit of up to 12% of GDP and Zimbabwe began experiencing a significant shortage of US dollars partly due to a consistent trade deficit. This prompted the Zimbabwean government to limit cash withdrawals from banks and change exchange-control regulations in order to try to promote exports and reduce the currency shortage. In June and July 2016, after Government employees had not been paid for weeks, police had set up road blocks to coerce money out of tourists and there were protests throughout Zimbabwe, Patrick Chinamasa, the finance minister, toured Europe in an effort to raise investment capital and loans, admitting "Right now we have nothing." In August 2016 the government announced that it would be laying off 25,000 civil servants (8% of the country's 298,000 civil servants), cut the number of embassies and diplomatic expenses and cut ministerial expenses in an attempt to save $4 billion in annual wages and secure help from the World Bank and the IMF.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: At the same time, the government sought to improve women's access to microfinance via the Zimbabwe Women Microfinance Bank Limited, which began operations 29 May 2018. The Bank operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Women's Affairs, Gender and Community Development.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In mid-July 2019 inflation had increased to 175% following the adoption of a new Zimbabwe dollar and banning the use of foreign currency thereby sparking fresh concerns that the country was entering a new period of hyperinflation. The Zimbabwean government stopped releasing inflation data in August 2019. The year-on-year inflation rate was 521% in December 2019, but Zimbabwe central bank officials said in February 2020 that they hoped to reduce the figure to 50% by the end of December 2020.


title: Cozi TV

text: Cozi TV (stylized on-air as COZI TV) is an American free-to-air television network owned by the NBC Owned Television Stations division of NBCUniversal. The network airs classic television series from the 1960s to the 2000s.


title: Cozi TV

text: The network originated as a local news and lifestyle programming format that was launched between 2009 and 2011 and was seen on digital subchannels operated by nine owned-and-operated stations television stations of the NBC television network in the United States under the brand NBC Nonstop. The sitcoms and drama series now appearing on Cozi are primarily from the NBCUniversal Television Distribution program library. Cozi is also available via cable television, Dish Network, AT&T U-verse, DirecTV and streaming services YouTube TV, Hulu + Live TV and LocalBTV.


title: Cozi TV

text: After NBCUniversal shut down NBC Weather Plus in December 2008 (shortly after the company, along with Blackstone Group and Bain Capital, purchased The Weather Channel), the company's flagship WNBC in New York City replaced Weather Plus' successor, automated local weather service, NBC Plus, on digital subchannel 4.2 on March 9, 2009, with NBC New York Nonstop, a channel that featured a mix of locally produced news and lifestyle programming.


title: Cozi TV

text: In June 5, 2010, NBC Local Media appointed former WNBC General manager Tom O'Brien in the newly created position of Executive vice president of Nonstop Network. In October, WNBC sister stations WCAU and WRC-TV respectively launched their own versions of the Nonstop channel in the Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. markets. Chicago's WMAQ-TV launched its own local version in November 2010. NBC's three owned-and-operated stations in California (KNBC in Los Angeles, KNTV in San Jose, California-San Francisco and KNSD in San Diego) collaborated to launch the only regional Nonstop channel, NBC California Nonstop, in January 2011; Nonstop channels were also launched by KXAS-TV in Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas and WTVJ in Miami that same month. Each station's Nonstop subchannel carried eight hours of locally produced programming (usually in the form of additional local newscasts exclusive to the subchannel that were produced by each station for their respective market, and some lifestyle or talk-oriented programs), along with core programming from affiliated production company LXTV (such as "Talk Stoop", "First Look" and "Open House" – the latter two of which were later picked up by NBC for its Saturday late-night lineup).


title: Cozi TV

text: In October 2011, NBC Station hired Meredith McGinn as a vice president to leading the development and launch of the network.


title: Cozi TV

text: On November 3, 2011, NBC Owned Television Stations announced that its seven local Nonstop subchannels would become a single national network under the proposed name NBC Nonstop Network (also to have been called NBC Nonstop or Nonstop Network); the format of the national network was originally planned to feature a format similar to the local Nonstop channels, which would have placed the network in direct competition with the Live Well Network. An NBC executive indicated that the independently formatted Nonstop channels were performing well, but needed separate programming. NBC stated that the network would carry reruns of classic television series during daytime hours and lifestyle programming at night, and that local stations would be able to preempt the national Nonstop Network programming to carry their own local content. By July 2012, it was announced that NBC was considering using a different name for the national network, with "Bob TV" among the names being put under consideration.


title: Cozi TV

text: On October 17, 2012, "Time Out" reported that NBCUniversal would launch a new classic television network (similar to MeTV) called Cozi TV. This turned out to actually be the new name of the retooled national version of NBC Nonstop. NBC soft launched Cozi TV on its owned-and-operated stations as well as some charter affiliates on December 20, 2012; the network officially launched on January 1, 2013. McGinn was promoted to Senior vice president of Cozi TV and LXTV in July 2013.


title: Cozi TV

text: Cozi TV permits its local affiliates the option of preempting up to 13 hours of the network's programming each week in order to carry newscasts or other locally produced programming (though some stations without local in-studio operations instead choose to carry additional paid programming); this is a remnant of the format originated by NBC Nonstop, in which most of NBC's O&Os carried additional newscasts on their Nonstop subchannels. Since 2017, the network also carries "The More You Know" E/I block which airs on NBC Saturday mornings from Litton Entertainment on late Sunday mornings to allow their affiliates to be free of commitments to purchasing E/I programming off the open market.


title: Cozi TV

text: NBCUniversal broadcasts Cozi TV in most markets served by a station owned by the NBC Owned Television Stations group, either on subchannels of NBC or Telemundo stations. The network is also available on the digital subchannels of other television stations, primarily those affiliated with NBC. The network is available to stations on a barter basis, in which Cozi TV and its affiliates split the responsibility of selling advertising inventory as well as the commercial time allocated each hour.


title: Cozi TV

text: The network soft-launched on NBC and Telemundo owned-and-operated stations in most markets (with NBC O&Os carrying the network in most markets where the company owns stations and Telemundo O&Os carrying it in markets where an NBC O&O is not present). The network's initial affiliates outside of the core NBC O&O group included KAIL-TV in Fresno, California, KVOA in Tucson, Arizona, KSNV-DT in Las Vegas and eight Texas stations owned by London Broadcasting Company (including KCEN-TV in Waco, Texas and its semi-repeater KAGS-LD in College Station, Texas), with a total initial reach of 26% of U.S. television households. By July 2013, the network's reach had expanded to 42% of the U.S. (or an estimated 47.5 million households with at least one television set), through affiliation deals with WMFP in Boston, KUBE-TV in Houston and the E. W. Scripps Company's KSHB-TV in Kansas City.


title: Cozi TV

text: On June 2, 2014, Cozi TV's programming was made available on AT&T U-verse channel 578 and Dish Network channel 82 on a part-time basis, through a deal with LeSEA's Family Entertainment Television (FETV) network. LeSEA's relationship with Cozi TV was extended to its stations on June 17, 2014, when it signed an affiliation deal to carry the network on its stations in South Bend, Honolulu, Colorado Springs, Tulsa, St. Croix and New Orleans (WHMB-TV in Indianapolis was exempted from the agreement due to an existing affiliation contract with Dispatch Broadcast Group's WTHR and WALV-CD); the network also announced a deal with OTA Broadcasting, LLC to affiliate with KFFV in Seattle and WEPA-CD in Pittsburgh. Both deals expanded the network's reach to 60% of the U.S. The deals expired on June 26, 2017; with WEPA-CD going off the air shortly afterwards due to that station selling its spectrum; ABC affiliate WTAE-TV picked up Cozi TV on January 8, 2018, replacing This TV. FETV now carries its own schedule of acquired programming. As of October 2020, Cozi TV is available nationwide on Dish Network channel 253.


title: Tank classification

text: Tank classification is a taxonomy of identifying either the intended role or weight class of tanks. The classification by role was used primarily during the developmental stage of the national armoured forces, and referred to the doctrinal and force structure utility of the tanks based on design emphasis. The weight classification is used in the same way truck classification is used, and is intended to accommodate logistic requirements of the tanks.


title: Tank classification

text: Many classification systems have been used over a hundred years of tank history. An early division in the definition of roles was between infantry tanks intended to focus on supporting infantry in the assault, and cruiser tanks intended for classic cavalry missions of exploitation, screening and reconnaissance. As World War II progressed, the separation of "infantry" and "cruiser" roles generally disappeared and the "universal tank" started to take over.


title: Tank classification

text: Classification has always been determined by the prevailing theories of armoured warfare, which have been altered in turn by rapid advances in technology. No one classification system works across all periods or all nations; in particular, weight-based classification was inconsistent between countries and eras.


title: Tank classification

text: With the worldwide adoption of the modern main battle tank designs, which favour a modular universal design, these sorts of classifications are mostly eliminated from modern terminology. All main battle tanks are typically armed with weapons with similar characteristics but some may be armoured more than others. These are complemented with light tanks, typically in the role of (armed) reconnaissance.


title: Tank classification

text: Development of a tank classification system started in World War I, when tanks were separated into light tanks and tankettes, medium tanks, and heavy tanks, based on size and weight. Heavy tanks were required to be large to cross trenches, and consequently weighed a lot. Medium tanks were smaller and had help to cross trenches so weighed less. Light tanks were much smaller and lightweight, allowing transport on lorries (trucks).


title: Tank classification

text: These tanks started to be used in different roles based on armour and mobility. Light tanks could provide mobile machine gun support for infantry, medium tanks could be used to react and exploit situational advantages, heavy tanks could be used for the main advance.


title: Tank classification

text: As tank doctrine developed, the role of tanks started to be defined. Initially based on naval ideas, in late 1916 Captain Giffard Le Quesne Martel (later Major General Sir) proposed a tank army formed of Destroyer tanks, Battle tanks (of Heavy, Medium and Light types), Torpedo tanks (utilising large trench mortars), Engineer tanks, Supply tanks and Ambulance tanks


title: Tank classification

text: During the inter-war years, British tank doctrine evolved through experimental trials and the works of J.F.C. Fuller, P.C.S. Hobart and B.H. Liddell-Hart. By 1936, these settled on the roles of light tanks for reconnaissance, infantry tanks to support an advance, and cruiser tanks in the cavalry role, using mobility to exploit situational advantages. The works were further explored by Heinz Guderian in the development of German tank doctrine and Blitzkrieg for the opening stages of World War II.


title: Tank classification

text: Other nations continued to use the light, medium and heavy designations. US and Soviet forces also incorporated the tank destroyer concept, allowing their light, medium, and heavy tanks to prioritise works with the infantry. Soviet forces added the concept of the flame tank, armed with a flamethrower.


title: Tank classification

text: During the course of the war, German forces added command tanks, specialised to the task of co-ordinating tank formations. This idea caught on with other nations. Development of British doctrine added howitzer-armed close support tanks, similar to the older torpedo tank role. These soon became critical to launching smoke, and post-war smoke dischargers became common on tanks. Both command and close support tanks were typically based on the type of tank they were supporting, so may not be considered a completely separate classification.


title: Tank classification

text: With the fall of France, the need for infantry tanks to advance with troops started to be replaced with a need for Assault tanks, a new class with heavier frontal armour to take on battlefield defences. Infantry tanks proved capable in this new role however, and the designation was rarely applied outside of experimental production. The term saw limited use with both British and US forces in joint development. Hobart would later return to Martel's idea of Engineer tanks in the 1944 run-up to D-Day with Hobarts Funnies, and specialised tanks became a core component of the modern battlefield.


title: Tank classification

text: Towards the end of the war, increases in tank engine power started to create the possibility of multi-role vehicles. British light tanks had largely been replaced with armoured cars and carriers, and engineers proposed a new Universal tank coupling Cruiser tank mobility with Infantry tank armour. The concept became redundant when Cruiser tank armour increased anyway, rendering the infantry tank obsolete.


title: Tank classification

text: Post-war the light, medium, and heavy designations remained prevalent until the multi-role concept evolved into the Main Battle Tank, rendering the earlier medium and heavy designations obsolete. Heavy tanks were largely withdrawn from service as medium multi-role vehicles offered similar capability with less of the weight-based constraints. Light tanks remained in use for flexibility, such as with air-portable use.


title: Tank classification

text: Tanks are often referred to by weight-based classifications such as 'light', 'medium' or 'heavy', and by extension the role that this size of tank was suitable for. There were many names given to different tank types, and similar names did not assure similar design goals. Some light tanks were relatively slow, and some were fast. Some heavy tanks had large-calibre, low-velocity, anti-infantry bunker-busters, and some had high-velocity anti-tank guns. Furthermore, expected weights for a given tank type vary over time; a medium tank of 1939 could weigh less than a light tank of 1945.


title: Tank classification

text: While originally based on weight, the light, medium, and heavy classifications expanded based on tactical use. They now have other meanings than just weight, including relation to gun size, the amount of armour, and, most importantly, tactical role. Post-war in 1948 France, Canada, and the United States agreed to classify tanks as light gun, medium gun, or heavy gun.


title: Tank classification

text: After World War II, less expensive armoured cars and more specialised tracked vehicles gradually took over the roles of light tanks.


title: Tank classification

text: Heavy tanks were shown to be incapable of keeping up with mobile warfare, but advances in engine, weapon, and armour technology allowed medium tanks to acquire the best characteristics of heavy tanks, allowing them to fulfil multiple roles on the battlefield. The ultimate in mobility, firepower, and protection were rolled into the main battle tank (MBT). In 1957, the Fourth Tripartite Armour Conference recommended to replace medium and heavy tanks with a single class — Main Battle Tanks.


title: Tank classification

text: In World War I, the first tank, the British Mark I, was designed for supporting infantry by crossing trenches and attacking machine-gun posts. This became known as a heavy tank alongside other, lighter, types.


title: Tank classification

text: A lighter British tank introduced into service in 1918, at and armed with machine guns only was given the designation "Tank, Medium Mark A" and known as the "Whippet".


title: Tank classification

text: Super-heavy breakthrough tanks such as the Char 2C () or the "K-Wagen" () were nearly completed before the war ended. In comparison, the current British MBT, the Challenger 2, weighs some .


title: Tank classification

text: British tank designs in the immediate post-World War I era were developments along the same design as the Mark A and were named as Mediums being around . The first tank to enter service that broke with the design was known as the "Vickers Light Tank" (it weighed about ). It was renamed as the Medium Mark I in 1924 as the earlier heavy and medium tanks went out of service and lighter tanks – or less – came into service.


title: Tank classification

text: In World War 2, Light, Medium, and Heavy tank applications to different roles were incorporated into doctrine. In the US, light tanks were expected to be used ahead of the main force, medium tanks to accompany the main thrust of attack, and by-their-nature slower heavy tanks being brought up to deal with any more significant opposition. In practice, US heavy tanks saw limited use due to the capacity limits of most dockyard equipment, preventing their delivery to the theatres of operation. This left a role-based classification, the tank destroyer, to evolve from the need to move artillery pieces and set ambushes for axis tanks. A variety of super-heavy tanks were also designed during World War II, although none ever saw combat or construction due to their impracticality.


title: Tank classification

text: The British retained some light tanks from the interbellum period, but otherwise moved to a new role based classification scheme.


title: Tank classification

text: Other countries started to move to a more role-based approach, for example, by categorizing tanks into cruiser tanks, breakthrough tanks, and fast tanks. The tanks themselves are still often referred to by light, medium and heavy weights based on the actual weight or the equivalent role (for example, a cruiser tank may be light weight but is used in a similar role to a medium). This continued until multi-role vehicles became available.


title: Tank classification

text: Light tanks, such as the PT-76, continue to play an important role in tank warfare, however many are being replaced with IFVs and armoured cars. The light tank is still more used than main battle tanks in many armies for various reasons: financial, terrain-related (muddy landscape and dense foliage), or doctrinal dependence on airborne divisions. Many light vehicles, such as the British Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) series (FV101 Scorpion, FV107 Scimitar) are used primarily for reconnaissance, but retain the tank capabilities.


title: Tank classification

text: Medium and Heavy tanks were used in the early stages of the cold war, but have gradually been phased out by the multi-role Main Battle Tank. Heavy tanks grew to the point of being logistically problematic, such as the Conqueror and IS-3, while the MBT became capable of filling their battlefield role in a comparatively Medium form-factor. In most cases, the Heavy tanks grew so large that they could not be transported by rail, and could not be supported by common bridges.


title: Tank classification

text: Many types are also described by their tactical role, which depends on contemporary military doctrine. For instance, 'infantry' and 'cruiser' tanks are British classifications of the 1930s and '40s; 'infantry', 'fast', and 'breakthrough' are Soviet types of the same time period.


title: Tank classification

text: British and Soviet tacticians up to the time of the Second World War classified tanks into three major roles: infantry, light, and cavalry. Infantry tanks supported infantry units, to integrally support dismounted infantry actions. Light tanks performed the traditional cavalry role of scouting and screening. Cavalry or "cruiser" tank units were meant to exploit breakthroughs and fight other armoured formations.


title: Tank classification

text: As role based classifications evolved, the role of light tanks was overtaken by other vehicles, such as carriers and scout cars. The infantry and cruiser tank roles were combined in British use late in the war to form the Universal tank concept. This was made possible as increased engine power provided the capability to sufficiently armour a cruiser tank, the Centurion, to undertake both roles. Centurion entered service just as the war came to an end.


title: Tank classification

text: Post-war, tanks were similarly made capable of fulfilling multiple roles on the battlefield, resulting in the designation Main Battle Tank.


title: Tank classification

text: Initially on the very first tanks, two types with two roles were provided: the 'males', armed with two naval 6 pounder (57 mm) guns and machine guns, and 'females', armed with only machine guns that supported the 'males'.


title: Tank classification

text: Later tanks armed with a single gun in one side sponson and machine guns on the other were named "hermaphrodites".


title: Tank classification

text: Tank models were developed before and during World War II according to different philosophies, with different combinations of armour, mobility, and armament. Each major nation developed its own doctrine of tank use, and therefore different tank models to suit. New doctrines explored the role of the tank as a fast-striking unit.


title: Tank classification

text: Tank doctrine in the UK declared that one group of tanks would accompany infantry in a similar role to World War I, while another group of 'cruiser' tanks would then exploit a breakthrough, in a role similar to light cavalry. In the USSR, 1930s tank doctrine specified three groups of tanks: one 'breakthrough' tank in the infantry support role, one tactical breakthrough tank to clear the combat area, and a 'fast tank' for operational maneuver. In Germany, the ideas of Heinz Guderian established the need for unified tank formations, but with a mixture of armaments for differing roles.


title: Tank classification

text: In the United States, doctrine evolved so that the main purpose of the tank was to provide infantry support and exploitation of breakthroughs. The antitank role was given to tank destroyers. There was no analog to the cruiser tank in pre-war US doctrine. There were those within the US Army which advocated a more modern force with tanks in the cavalry role, but their suggestions were not put into place by the time of the US's entry into World War II.


title: Tank classification

text: The idea for this tank was developed during World War I by the British and French. The infantry tank was designed to work in concert with infantry in the assault, moving mostly at a walking pace, which required it to carry heavy armour to survive defensive fire. Its main purpose would have been to clear the battlefield of obstacles, suppress or destroy defenders, and protect the infantry on their advance into and through enemy lines by giving mobile overwatch and cover.


title: Tank classification

text: The British came back to the concept in the pre-Second World War era. The infantry tank did not need to be fast so it could carry more armour. One of the best-known infantry tanks was the Matilda II of World War II.


title: Tank classification

text: A cruiser tank, or cavalry tank, was designed to move fast and exploit penetrations of the enemy front. The idea originated in "Plan 1919", a British plan to break the trench deadlock of World War I in part via the use of high-speed tanks. This concept was later implemented in the "fast tanks" pioneered by J. Walter Christie.


title: Tank classification

text: They were used by the United Kingdom during World War II. Cruiser tanks were designed to complement infantry tanks, exploiting gains made by the latter to attack and disrupt the enemy rear areas. In order to give them the required speed, cruiser designs sacrificed armour compared to the infantry tanks.


title: Tank classification

text: The Soviet fast tank ("bistrokhodniy tank", or BT tank) classification also came out of the infantry/cavalry concept of armoured warfare and formed the basis for the British cruisers after 1936. The T-34 was a development of this line of tanks as well, though their armament, armour, and all-round capability places them firmly in the medium tank category.


title: Tank classification

text: A flame tank is a tank equipped with a flamethrower, most commonly used to supplement combined arms attacks against fortifications, confined spaces, or other obstacles. The type only reached significant use in the Second World War, during which the United States, Soviet Union, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United Kingdom (including members of the British Commonwealth) all produced flamethrower-equipped tanks.


title: Tank classification

text: A number of production methods were used. The flamethrowers used were either modified versions of existing infantry flame weapons (Flammpanzer I and II) or specially designed (Flammpanzer III). They were mounted externally (Flammpanzer II), replaced existing machine gun mounts, or replaced the tank's main armament (Flammpanzer III). Fuel for the flame weapon was either carried inside the tank, in armoured external storage, or in some cases in a special trailer behind the tank (Churchill Crocodile).


title: Tank classification

text: Advances in tank design, armour, and engine technology allowed tank designers to increase the capabilities of tanks significantly, allowing vehicles to undertake multiple roles on the battlefield. This could be accomplished without always resorting to heavier designs, although weights did gradually increase. High-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) ammunition was a threat to tanks and could penetrate steel armour thicker than was practical to put on a tank. Advances such as the British-designed Chobham armour limit the effectiveness of weaker HEAT rounds, but the vulnerability still remained.


title: Tank classification

text: On 7 November 1950, the US Ordnance Committee Minutes (OCM), order #33476, ceased utilizing the terms heavy, medium, and light tanks and redesignated tanks by the gun system, e.g. "90 mm Gun Tank M48 Patton", etc. with heavy gun tanks (), medium gun tanks (), and light gun tanks (), although these gun terms were often still shortened to simply heavy, medium, and light tanks.


title: Tank classification

text: The term "main battle tank" (MBT), in the US, was first generally applied in 1960 to an all-purpose tank, armed and protected as a heavy tank, but with the mobility of the medium tank (the introduction of M60). The MBT would form the backbone of modern ground forces.


title: Tank classification

text: Many Cold War MBTs evolved more or less directly from late World War II medium tank designs. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, a generation of purpose-designed main battle tanks appeared, starting with the British Chieftain tank. These vehicles are less obviously influenced by wartime templates (the Chieftain, for example), weighing as much as a World War II heavy tank and possessing far greater firepower and armour, while retaining the mobility of the previous Centurion design. Similarly, the US M1 Abrams series, the German Leopard 2, the British Challenger 1, French Leclerc and Russian T-90 tanks are all main battle tanks. The defining feature of the main battle tank type is neither its weight, mobility, nor firepower, but instead the idea that only one type of tracked armoured vehicle is required to carry out the roles of breakthrough, exploitation and infantry support.


title: Tank classification

text: Tanks have often been modified for special purposes. The most common is armoured recovery vehicles, used during combat for recovery or repair of battle-damaged and inoperable armoured fighting vehicles. Another common use is to provide armoured capability for combat engineers. These include tanks carrying large-calibre demolition guns, with flails or ploughs for mine-clearing, or flame tanks armed with flamethrowers. The tank occasionally may lose its weapons and the chassis alone may be used, as in bridge-laying tanks.


title: Tank classification

text: Another important modification was the amphibious tank. These designs were modified with waterproofing and propulsion systems, to be able to traverse open water.


title: Tank classification

text: Many specialist tank roles have been assigned to other vehicle types, though many tank chassis are still used for a wide variety of vehicles, ranging from anti-aircraft roles to bridge layers.


title: Tank classification

text: Unmodified tanks can be fitted with equipment, such as mine-clearing ploughs, to give them ancillary roles.


title: Tank classification

text: Hobart's Funnies were a group of various specialist tanks used in World War II, named after Major General Percy Hobart.


title: Tank classification

text: Tanks are sometimes classified as belonging to a particular generation, although the actual definition and membership in these generations is not clearly defined. Soviet and Russian military planners organise tanks into a generation of tanks up to 1945, and four generations of main battle tanks, while Canadian strategists organise main battle tanks into three generations. The military of the People's Republic of China also recognises three generations of its own tanks.


title: Composite pattern

text: In software engineering, the composite pattern is a partitioning design pattern. The composite pattern describes a group of objects that are treated the same way as a single instance of the same type of object. The intent of a composite is to "compose" objects into tree structures to represent part-whole hierarchies. Implementing the composite pattern lets clients treat individual objects and compositions uniformly.


title: Composite pattern

text: that describe how to solve recurring design problems to design flexible and reusable object-oriented software, that is, objects that are easier to implement, change, test, and reuse.


title: Composite pattern

text: When defining (1) codice_1 objects and (2) codice_2 objects that act as containers for codice_1 objects, clients must treat them separately, which complicates client code.


title: Composite pattern

text: This enables clients to work through the codice_4 interface to treat codice_5 and codice_6 objects uniformly:


title: Composite pattern

text: When dealing with Tree-structured data, programmers often have to discriminate between a leaf-node and a branch. This makes code more complex, and therefore, more error prone. The solution is an interface that allows treating complex and primitive objects uniformly. In object-oriented programming, a composite is an object designed as a composition of one-or-more similar objects, all exhibiting similar functionality. This is known as a "has-a" relationship between objects. The key concept is that you can manipulate a single instance of the object just as you would manipulate a group of them. The operations you can perform on all the composite objects often have a least common denominator relationship. For example, if defining a system to portray grouped shapes on a screen, it would be useful to define resizing a group of shapes to have the same effect (in some sense) as resizing a single shape.


title: Composite pattern

text: Composite should be used when clients ignore the difference between compositions of objects and individual objects. If programmers find that they are using multiple objects in the same way, and often have nearly identical code to handle each of them, then composite is a good choice; it is less complex in this situation to treat primitives and composites as homogeneous.


title: Composite pattern

text: In the above UML class diagram, the codice_15 class doesn't refer to the codice_5 and codice_6 classes directly (separately).


title: Composite pattern

text: Instead, the codice_15 refers to the common codice_4 interface and can treat codice_5 and codice_6 uniformly.


title: Composite pattern

text: shows the run-time interactions: In this example, the codice_15 object sends a request to the top-level codice_6 object (of type codice_4) in the tree structure.


title: Composite pattern

text: like adding/removing a child component to/from the container (codice_35) and accessing a child component (codice_36):


title: Composite pattern

text: As it is described in Design Patterns, the pattern also involves including the child-manipulation methods in the main Component interface, not just the Composite subclass. More recent descriptions sometimes omit these methods.


title: Composite pattern

text: The following example, written in Java, implements a graphic class, which can be either an ellipse or a composition of several graphics. Every graphic can be printed. In Backus-Naur form,


title: Composite pattern

text: It could be extended to implement several other shapes (rectangle, etc.) and methods (translate, etc.).


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: James Scott Beattie (born 27 February 1978) is an English football coach and a former professional footballer who played as a striker. He is currently one of the assistant managers at EFL Championship club Wigan Athletic.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: He was previously a part of Garry Monk's backroom staff, working with him at Birmingham City, Middlesbrough, Leeds United, Swansea City and Sheffield Wednesday.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Born in Lancaster, Lancashire, he came through the ranks at Blackburn Rovers, eventually signing professionally for them in 1995. Beattie then went on to have spells at Southampton, Everton, Sheffield United, Stoke City, Rangers, and a short spell on loan at Blackpool, before eventually returning to Sheffield United for a second term. When signed by Everton, and for his first spell at Sheffield United, he commanded the highest fee ever paid for a player by each club at that time.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Born in Lancaster, Lancashire, Beattie was a gifted pupil and attended the Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School. He was a very good swimmer, rated second in the country at the 100 metres freestyle at 14, but he dropped swimming in favour of football after damaging the cartilage tissue on his shoulder.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: He went on to represent his school, and play for Blackburn Schools, before joining Blackburn Rovers as a trainee on 7 March 1995.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: He made his first-team debut for Blackburn Rovers in October 1996, in a 2–0 home defeat against Arsenal. He had made only seven first-team appearances, and had yet to score a goal, when, in the 1998 close season, he was transferred to Southampton.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: He joined Southampton in July 1998 valued at £1 million, as a make-weight part of the deal that took Kevin Davies to Ewood Park for a £7 million fee. Beattie's initial impact was positive, earning him the club's Player of the Season award as he helped the Saints stave off relegation. His second season was hampered by a series of injuries, but in November 2000 he began a long goalscoring run. After 18 months without a goal, he scored 10 in 10 matches, lifting Southampton into a comfortable position, and securing their place in the Premier League for the next season. His form then deserted him once again, and he scored only two goals during the remainder of the season.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie was awarded a new four-year contract in March 2001. However, he failed to score in the remainder of the 2000–01 season, or in the first five Premier League matches of the next – a run that eventually totalled 17 matches. He returned to scoring form at the end of September 2001, and he ended 2001–02 with an impressive total of 14, despite a two-month spell on the sidelines, the result of an ankle injury which he sustained in a match against Manchester United in January 2002.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: In 2002–03, Beattie scored 23 league goals, making him the third-highest Premiership goalscorer (and the highest English goalscorer) for that season. His fine form helped Southampton reach the 2003 FA Cup Final, their first since victory in 1976. Southampton lost 1–0 to Arsenal and Beattie had to settle for a runners-up medal.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie found it difficult to settle at Everton, and, in only his fifth Premier League appearance for the club, he was sent off for a headbutt on Chelsea defender William Gallas, leading to an automatic three-match suspension, and this, combined with a series of injuries, severely limited his contribution during what remained of 2004–05.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: The 2005–06 season saw an improvement: Beattie was Everton's top scorer, with ten goals in the Premier League and one in a 2–1 home defeat against Villarreal in the qualifying stages of the UEFA Champions League. Villarreal also won their own home leg 2–1, meaning Everton progressed no further.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: During 2006–07, Beattie found himself peripheral to the plans of Everton boss David Moyes. He made 33 Premier League appearances, but 18 of them were from the substitutes' bench, and managed only two goals, the second of those coming in October, after which he failed to find the net again. Out of favour, it was reported that Blackburn Rovers were interested in signing him for a second spell, followed by news that Sheffield United were interested in securing his services.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: At the start of August 2007, Beattie signed for Sheffield United for a £4 million fee, this being the biggest transfer fee ever paid by Sheffield United. In the first match of the new season, he scored on his Championship debut for United against Colchester United, and then continued in fine form, scoring regularly, and was named Championship Player of the Month for August/September.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie scored a total of 22 goals in the Championship in 2007–08. This made him the joint second-highest scorer in the division, alongside former Southampton teammate Kevin Phillips of West Bromwich Albion, and one behind Sylvan Ebanks-Blake (who scored 11 for Plymouth Argyle and 12 for Wolverhampton Wanderers). He was named as the Blades' Player of the Year at the end of the season.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: With Sheffield United trying to reduce costs, Beattie returned to the Premier League in January 2009, after signing for Stoke City on a two-and-a-half-year contract for a fee that could eventually rise to £3.5 million. He made an immediate impact, scoring his first goal for Stoke in a 3–1 defeat at Tottenham Hotspur on 27 January 2009. He went on to score seven goals in all for Stoke that season, helping them retain their place in the Premier League.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie did not start 2009–10 very well: after a number of injuries hampered his pre-season training, he left the field of play against Chelsea on a stretcher after only 10 minutes, with fears of a suspected broken ankle. X-rays revealed ankle ligament damage. Beattie recovered, and won his place back in the team, surprisingly at the expense of a resurgent Dave Kitson, and had returned to scoring ways by October. However, a dressing-room altercation between Beattie and Pulis in December 2009 resulted in the striker falling out of favour.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Out of favour at Stoke, Beattie signed a two-year contract, with the option of a further year, with Scottish Premier League club Rangers on 13 August 2010 for an undisclosed fee in the summer of 2010. became the club's first permanent signing in two years due to financial constraints. Beattie made his debut for Rangers immediately after signing for the club, playing in their opening match in the Scottish Premier League against Kilmarnock.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie did not feature much for Rangers, and was restricted to only five league starts in the first half of the season, due to injuries and loss of form. Unable to hold down a place in the team, he was allowed to join Blackpool on loan until the end of the season. He made his full debut on 5 February 2011, in a 5–3 defeat by his old club Everton, and went on to play nine times for the club, but failed to find the net as they sunk to relegation from the Premier League. At the end of August 2011, Rangers terminated Beattie's contract.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: In November 2011, Beattie began training with League One club AFC Bournemouth, with manager Lee Bradbury keen to sign him. However, later that month, Beattie moved north to train with old club Sheffield United to allow manager Danny Wilson to assess his fitness. A few days later, Beattie duly re-signed for Sheffield United on a short-term contract until mid-January 2012. He was quoted in an interview with the "Yorkshire Post" as saying that, "if things go well, the gaffer says that he would like to keep me, and I would be interested in staying until the end of the season at least", prompting speculation that he could sign a longer-term contract. Despite this, Beattie had to wait to make a first-team appearance due to a calf injury sustained during training, eventually making his second debut for Sheffield at the end of December 2011, coming on as an 89th-minute substitute against Notts County at Bramall Lane.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: By mid-January 2012, with Beattie's contract set to expire, Danny Wilson confirmed that he would be offered an extension, hopefully keeping him at the club until the end of the season. With his future with Sheffield United still in doubt, Beattie was given a straight red card for violent conduct at Charlton Athletic, after only coming on as a substitute a few minutes earlier. Despite this disciplinary issue, it was agreed to extend his contract until the end of the season. Beattie was largely used as a substitute for the rest of his stay until he was released in May 2012 as Sheffield United failed to clinch promotion.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie joined League Two club Accrington Stanley on 9 November 2012 in a player/coach role. He made his debut on 16 November, when he came on as a 79th-minute substitute for Will Hatfield in a 1–1 draw at Barnet. On 20 November 2012, he scored a 9th-minute penalty in Stanley's 3–1 win away at Fleetwood Town, ending a 1130-day run of not having scored in a first-team match. He scored another penalty in Stanley's next match against Gillingham. Following the departure of manager Leam Richardson, Beattie expressed an interest in taking the position.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: On 13 May 2013, Beattie was appointed Stanley's new manager. He left Accrington by mutual consent on 12 September 2014.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie earned his first senior England cap in a friendly against Australia, on 12 February 2003, during his most successful season with Southampton. Australia won 3–1, and the result was described (by the Australian media) as "one of the biggest upsets in soccer history". Beattie played the whole of the first half of the match, and was replaced at half-time by Francis Jeffers, who scored England's consolation goal.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie's brief international career seemed to have come to a close when he was not selected for UEFA Euro 2004, the England team coach Sven-Göran Eriksson preferring Emile Heskey as the "traditional" centre-forward despite his having scored five fewer goals than Beattie in the previous season.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: On 13 May 2013, Beattie was appointed as Accrington Stanley's new manager replacing Leam Richardson, but after 16 months in the post, Beattie left by mutual consent. He managed for 58 matches with a win ratio of 27.6%.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: On 16 June 2015, Beattie was appointed as a first-team coach at Premier League club Swansea City, coaching the team's forwards. He joined former teammate Garry Monk's coaching staff. In December 2015, following Monk's dismissal as manager, Beattie left Swansea City alongside Pep Clotet and Kristian O'Leary.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: On 1 July 2016, Beattie rejoined Clotet and Monk at Championship club Leeds United as first-team coach. With Beattie a vital part of the backroom team, Monk's Leeds side finished 7th in The Championship in 2016–17. On 25 May 2017, Monk resigned as Leeds United head coach, leaving behind his backroom staff at the club.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: On 21 June 2017, Beattie followed Monk to newly relegated Championship club Middlesbrough as a first-team coach. On 23 December 2017, he was sacked along with Monk.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie was appointed first-team coach of Championship club Birmingham City when Monk took over as manager in March 2018. After Monk was sacked, Beattie remained on the staff for a further season, albeit on "gardening leave", and left in August 2020 after the arrival of Aitor Karanka as manager.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: Beattie joined Sheffield Wednesday as assistant manager to Monk on 12 August 2020. When Monk was sacked on 9 November 2020, Beattie left with him after just three months at the club.


title: James Beattie (footballer)

text: His time at Southampton was marred by a conviction for drink-driving in 2002, which led to a driving ban.


title: Katsina State

text: Katsina State "(Hausa: Jihar Katsina) (Fula: Leydi Katsina 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤳𞤢𞥁𞤭𞤲𞤢)" is a state in the northwestern geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Katsina State was created in 1987, when it split from Kaduna State. Today, Katsina State borders Kaduna, Zamfara, Kano, and Jigawa States. Nicknamed the "Home of Hospitality", both the state capital and the town of Daura have been described "ancient seats of Islamic culture and learning" in Nigeria.


title: Katsina State

text: With over 5,800,000 residents as at 2006, Katsina State is the fifth largest state in the country by population, despite the fact that it only ranks 17th out of 36 states in terms of area. Demographically, the Hausa people are the largest ethnic group in the state, and Islam is the most practiced religion. In 2005, Katsina became the fifth state in Nigeria to adopt Sharia law.


title: Katsina State

text: The current Governor of Katsina State is Aminu Bello Masari, a member of the All Progressives Congress and ally of President Muhammadu Buhari. The state is considered a political stronghold of Buhari, a native of Daura, who won the state in the 2019 presidential election with almost 80% of the vote.


title: Katsina State

text: In recent years, Katsina has been one of the Nigerian states hit hardest by terrorism. In 2020, over 300 children were kidnapped by the terrorist group Boko Haram in the town of Kankara.


title: Katsina State

text: The state is predominantly Muslim where the Gobarau Minaret is an important building therein. Sharia is valid in the entire state but meanly for the muslims. The Church of Nigeria has a Diocese of Katsina. The Redeemed Christian Church of God and the Roman Catholic Church are fairly present in the state.


title: Katsina State

text: Katsina State is a centre of both formal and informal education. Umaru Musa Yar'adua University is a public university owned by the state government. Al-Qalam University, the first Islamic university in Nigeria is privately owned. Federal University, Dutsin-Ma is owned by the federal government as well as Federal College of Education, Katsina (affiliated to Bayero University Kano). National Open University of Nigeria, Isa Kaita College of Education Dutsinma (affiliated to Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria), a state owned college of education. Cherish Institute Batsari, a privately owned university awarding degree in health courses.


title: Katsina State

text: In spite of measures taken by the state government to prevent the spread of COVID-19 into the state, on 7 April 2020, a doctor in Daura local government area died of cases related to Coronavirus and his family members were tested positive. Later, one of the doctor's patients also died.


title: Katsina State

text: To contain the spread of the virus, state government ordered lockdown in the state and dispatched police to ensure obedience of the law. However, there have been cases of violating the order and people accused the government for locking down worshiping grounds such as churches and Juma'ah mosques while major markets such as Yar Kutungu, Himata, Greenhouse, Mudassir etc were operating. There was a clash between police and youths in Kusada local government area resulting to death and arrests of civilians.


title: Katsina State

text: Katsina State is about . It is situated on latitude between 110° 07' 49N' 130 2257" and Longitude 6052'03East and 990 02' East. The state is from the tropical grassland known as savannah to the north and the state has two major seasons which are the rainy season and dry season.


title: Sham marriage

text: A sham marriage or fake marriage is a marriage of convenience entered into without intending to create a real marital relationship. This is usually for the purpose of gaining an advantage from the marriage.


title: Sham marriage

text: Definitions of sham marriage vary by jurisdiction, but are often related to immigration. The essential point in the varying definitions is whether the couple intend to live in a real marital relationship, to establish a life together. A typical definition by the UK Home Office in 2015:


title: Sham marriage

text: A sham marriage or civil partnership is one where the relationship is not genuine but one party hopes to gain an immigration advantage from it. There is no subsisting relationship, dependency, or intent to live as husband and wife or civil partners.


title: Sham marriage

text: While referred to as a "sham" or "fake" because of its motivation, the union itself is legally valid if it conforms to the formal legal requirements for marriage in the jurisdiction. Arranging or entering into such a marriage to deceive public officials is in itself a violation of the law of some countries, for example the US.


title: Sham marriage

text: After a period, couples often divorce if there is no purpose in remaining married. The reverse situation, in which a couple gets a divorce while continuing to live together, is called paper divorce.


title: Sham marriage

text: Sham marriages are sometimes considered distinct from a marriage fraud, which is a type of romance scam, in which one spouse is unwittingly taken advantage of by the foreign spouse who feigns romantic interest, typically in order to obtain a residence permit or for money.


title: Sham marriage

text: Common reasons for sham marriages are to gain immigration, residency, work, or citizenship rights for one of the spouses.


title: Sham marriage

text: There have been cases of people entering into a sham marriage to avoid suspicion of homosexuality, bisexuality, etc. For example, Hollywood studios had allegedly requested homosexual/homoromantic actors, such as Rock Hudson, to conceal their homosexuality in a so-called lavender marriage.


title: Sham marriage

text: Since the introduction of stricter modern immigration laws in First World countries, sham marriages have become a common method to allow a foreigner to reside, and possibly gain citizenship, in the more desirable country of the spouse. The couple marries with knowledge that the marriage is solely for the purpose of obtaining the favorable immigration status, and without intending to live as a couple. This is frequently arranged as a business transaction with payment of a sum of money, and occurs more commonly with foreigners already in the country.


title: Sham marriage

text: In the UK, sham marriage is a form of immigration fraud undertaken to gain legal immigrant status. The fraud is investigated mostly by the UK Border Force and previously by the UK Border Agency.


title: Sham marriage

text: Increases in sham marriage were reported in London boroughs such as Wandsworth. In August 2010, a senior registrar in Ireland estimated that 15 percent of civil marriages were bogus, for the purpose of gaining residency. Before 2010, people would need a marriage visa from their own country of origin.


title: Sham marriage

text: In April 2011, the Border Agency issued guidance to clergy to help prevent sham marriages intended only to gain the right to reside. English and Welsh clergy may perform a marriage, according to the law there. They have been advised not to offer to publish banns for any marriage where one partner is from outside the European Union. Instead, the couple were to be asked to apply for a licence; if a member of the clergy is not satisfied that a marriage is genuine, they must make that clear to the person responsible for granting the licence.


title: Sham marriage

text: Since the Home Office hostile environment policy started in 2012, there has been criticism in the UK of heavy-handed action affecting genuine marriages. Genuine weddings have been interrupted, and dawn raids have been made to check whether couples are sharing a bed. People have been detained for months on wrongly being accused of being in a sham marriage. In 2018, 1,618 marriages reported by registrars as being suspicious were investigated; the Home Office refused to say how many were found to be sham.


title: Sham marriage

text: In 2013, the Home Office estimated that between 4,000 and 10,000 marriages per year were sham marriages entered for the purpose of gaining legal immigration status for the non-EU partner.


title: Sham marriage

text: A green card marriage is a marriage of convenience between a legal resident of the United States of America and a person who would be ineligible for residency but for being married to the resident. The term derives from the availability of permanent resident documents ("Green cards") for spouses of legal residents in the United States, where marriage is one of the fastest and surest ways to obtain legal residence. Marriages, if legitimate, entitle the spouse to live and work in the United States, as in most other countries. In the United States, 2.3 million marriage visas were approved from 1998 through 2007, representing 25% of all green cards in 2007. Even if the non-resident spouse was previously an illegal immigrant, marriage entitles the spouse to residency.


title: Sham marriage

text: Most marriages between residents and non-residents are undertaken properly, for reasons other than or in addition to residency status. That said, the practice of obtaining residency through marriage is illegal in the United States if the marriage itself is fraudulent. A marriage that is solely for purposes of obtaining legal residence is considered a sham, and is a crime in the United States for both participants.


title: Sham marriage

text: Many of the arrangements are simple transactions between two individuals, often in exchange for money paid to the legal resident. In other cases the legal resident is an unwitting victim of a fraudulent marriage. In yet other cases the marriages are arranged by criminal enterprises, sometimes involving the complicity of corrupt immigration officials who accept payment for describing the marriage as legitimate in immigration paperwork.


title: Sham marriage

text: In United States immigration law, marriage not made in good faith and for purposes of immigration fraud is a felony, subject to a penalty of a US$250,000 fine and five-year prison sentence on the citizen, and deportation of the foreigner. In the 2009 fiscal year, 506 of the 241,154 petitions filed were denied for suspected fraud, a rate of only 0.2%. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services typically conducts an interview of marriage-based green card applicants, with additional scrutiny if they are from a developing country, have a different ethnicity or religion from their sponsor, have a large age gap with their sponsor, or have a history of prior marriage-based green card applications.


title: Sham marriage

text: In Canada, legislation on sham marriages was strengthened in 2012. Continuous controversy arose regarding the issue; Canadian officials have been accused both of being too harsh and harassing couples and of being too lenient in deciding what is a genuine relationship. In addition, there have been objections to the policy from women's organizations, which argued that the new policy which requires the sponsor and the new spouse to live in a "genuine relationship" for two years endangers women who are victims of domestic violence. Although there is an exception to this rule in cases of abuse, the policy has been accused of being too weak (as abuse is difficult to prove).


title: Hylomorphism

text: Hylomorphism (also hylemorphism) is a philosophical theory developed by Aristotle, which conceives every physical entity or being ("ousia") as a compound of matter (potency) and immaterial form (act), with the generic form as immanently real within the individual. The word is a 19th-century term formed from the Greek words ὕλη "hyle", "wood, matter", and μορφή, "morphē", "form".


title: Hylomorphism

text: Aristotle defines X's matter as "that out of which" X is made. For example, letters are the matter of syllables. Thus, "matter" is a relative term: an object counts as matter relative to something else. For example, clay is matter relative to a brick because a brick is made of clay, whereas bricks are matter relative to a brick house.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Change is analyzed as a material transformation: matter is what undergoes a change of form. For example, consider a lump of bronze that's shaped into a statue. Bronze is the matter, and this matter loses one form ("morphe") (that of a lump) and gains a new form (that of a statue).


title: Hylomorphism

text: According to Aristotle's theory of perception, we perceive an object by receiving its form ("eidos") with our sense organs. Thus, forms include complex "qualia" such as colors, textures, and flavors, not just shapes.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Medieval philosophers who used Aristotelian concepts frequently distinguished between substantial forms and accidental forms. A substance necessarily possesses at least one substantial form. It may also possess a variety of accidental forms. For Aristotle, a "substance" ("ousia") is an individual thing—for example, an individual man or an individual horse. Within every physical substance, the substantial form determines what kind of thing the physical substance is by actualizing prime matter as individualized by the causes of that thing's coming to be. For instance, the chick comes to be when the substantial form of chickens actualizes the hen's egg and that actualization is possible insofar as that egg is in potency to being actualized both as a chicken due to the receptivity of its prime matter to the substantial form of chickens and into a chick with certain colored feathers due to the individualization of the egg given by its parents. So while the individualized matter determines individualized properties, the substantial form determines essential properties. The substantial form of substance S consists of S's essence and its essential properties (the properties that S needs in order to be the kind of substance that S is). Substantial change destroys the ability of a substantial form to actualize individualized prime matter without affecting prime matter's ability to be actualized by a new substantial form. When the wolf eats the chick, the chick's rearranged matter becomes part of the wolf and animated by the wolf's substantial form.


title: Hylomorphism

text: In contrast, S's accidental forms are S's non-essential properties, properties that S can lose or gain without changing into a different kind of substance. The chick can lose its feathers due to parasites without ceasing to be an individual chicken.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Aristotle applies his theory of hylomorphism to living things. He defines a soul as that which makes a living thing alive. Life is a property of living things, just as knowledge and health are. Therefore, a soul is a form—that is, a specifying principle or cause—of a living thing. Furthermore, Aristotle says that a soul is related to its body as form to matter.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Hence, Aristotle argues, there is no problem in explaining the unity of body and soul, just as there is no problem in explaining the unity of wax and its shape. Just as a wax object consists of wax with a certain shape, so a living organism consists of a body with the property of life, which is its soul. On the basis of his hylomorphic theory, Aristotle rejects the Pythagorean doctrine of metempsychosis, ridiculing the notion that just any soul could inhabit just any body.


title: Hylomorphism

text: According to Timothy Robinson, it is unclear whether Aristotle identifies the soul with the body's structure. According to one interpretation of Aristotle, a properly organized body is already alive simply by virtue of its structure. However, according to another interpretation, the property of life—that is, the soul—is something in addition to the body's structure. Robinson uses the analogy of a car to explain this second interpretation. A running car is running not only because of its structure but also because of the activity in its engine. Likewise, according to this second interpretation, a living body is alive not only because of its structure but also because of an additional property: the soul, which a properly organized body needs in order to be alive. John Vella uses Frankenstein's monster to illustrate the second interpretation: the corpse lying on Frankenstein's table is already a fully organized human body, but it is not yet alive; when Frankenstein activates his machine, the corpse gains a new property, the property of life, which Aristotle would call the soul.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Some scholars have pointed out a problem facing Aristotle's theory of soul-body hylomorphism. They argue that a living thing's matter is its body and the body needs a soul in order to be alive. Similarly, a bronze sphere's matter is bronze, which needs roundness in order to be a sphere. Now, bronze remains the same bronze after ceasing to be a sphere. Therefore, it seems that a body should remain the same body after death.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Bronze however is not alive and changing its shape does not involve a substantial change. Moreover, Aristotle explicitly denies that a body remains a body after death. A corpse is only equivocally a body because Aristotle states that a body that has lost its soul is no longer potentially alive. To lose the potentiality of life is to be a corpse. Living bodies are thus a composite of soul and matter: the body lives insofar as its soul is actualizing its matter. The body and soul are not two distinct things but as one substance. That is why Aristotle defines the body as having life potentially and the substantial form as the potential body's life source. Aristotelians need to take care not to use the word "body" equivocally to refer to both living things and corpses.


title: Hylomorphism

text: The soul as the body's substantial form enables personal identity to persist over time. Consider the fact that a living body is constantly replacing old matter with new. A five-year-old body consists of different matter than does the same person's seventy-year-old body. If the five-year-old body and the seventy-year-old body consist of different matter, then what makes them the same body? The answer is that the same soul has been animating matter into that person's body.Because the five-year-old and the seventy-year-old bodies share a soul—that is, the person's life—we can identify them both as the body. Apart from the soul, we cannot identify what collection of matter is the body. Therefore, a person's body is no longer that person's body after it dies.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Aristotle says that the intellect ("nous"), the ability to think, has no bodily organ (in contrast with other psychological abilities, such as sense-perception and imagination). Aristotle distinguishes between two types of intellect. These are traditionally called the "passive intellect" and the "active (or agent) intellect". The passive intellect is like clay; it can become anything and is subject to change. The function of the active intellect is to use forms abstracted from physical things to activate the passive intellect to acts of understanding. Passive intellect is also the storehouse of understood ideas. Aristotle says that the "active (or agent) intellect" is not mixed with the body and suggests that it can exist apart from it.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Aristotle's texts on the agent intellect have given rise to diverse interpretations. Some following Averroes (Ibn Rusd 1126-1198) argue that Aristotle equated the active intellect with a divine being who infuses concepts into the passive intellect to aid human understanding. Others following Aquinas (1225-74) argue that the Neo-platonic interpretation is a mistake: the active intellect is actually part of the human soul. The controversy matters insofar as the Neo-platonic interpretation of Aristotle holds that he rejected personal immortality, while the Thomistic interpretation holds that Aristotle used the agent intellect to establish personal immortality. Others interpret Aristotle as arguing that a person's ability to think (unlike his other psychological abilities) belongs to some incorporeal organ distinct from his body. This would amount to a form of dualism. However, according to some scholars, it would not be a full-fledged Cartesian dualism. This interpretation creates what Robert Pasnau has called the "mind-soul problem": if the intellect belongs to an entity distinct from the body, and the soul is the form of the body, then how is the intellect part of the soul? Yet, another interpretation distinguishes the passive intellect and the agent intellect and considers the passive intellect to be a property of the body, while the agent intellect is a substance distinct from the body. Some proponents of this interpretation think that each person has his own agent intellect, which presumably separates from the body at death. Others interpret the agent intellect as a single divine being, perhaps the unmoved mover, Aristotle's God. Still others argue that Aristotle held that an individual form is capable of having properties of its own. According to this interpretation, the soul is a property of the body, but the ability to think is a property of the soul itself, not of the body. If that is the case, then the soul is the body's form and yet thinking need not involve any bodily organ.


title: Hylomorphism

text: The Neoplatonic philosopher Avicebron ("a.k.a."Solomon Ibn Gabirol) proposed a Neoplatonic version of this Aristotelian concept, according to which all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Thomas Aquinas emphasized the act/potency understanding of form/matter whereby form activates the potency of matter and existence activates souls. The angels are accordingly composites of esse and immaterial souls, while God alone is per se existence, pure act without any potencies.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Medieval theologians, newly exposed to Aristotle's philosophy, applied hylomorphism to Christian doctrines such as the transubstantiation of the Eucharist's bread and wine into the body and blood of Jesus. Theologians such as Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas developed Christian applications of hylomorphism.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Many medieval theologians and philosophers followed Aristotle in seeing a living being's soul as that being's form—specifically, its substantial form. However, they disagreed about whether X's soul is X's "only" substantial form. Some medieval thinkers argued that X's soul is X's only substantial form animating the entire body of X. In contrast, other medieval thinkers argued that a living being contains at least two substantial forms—(1) the shape and structure of its body, and (2) its soul, which makes its body alive.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Thomas Aquinas claimed that X's soul was X's only substantial form, although X also had numerous accidental forms that accounted for X's nonessential features. Aquinas defined a substantial form as that which makes X's matter constitute X, which in the case of a human being is also able to transcend the limitations of matter and establish both the rational capacity and natural immortality of human beings. Nevertheless, Aquinas did not claim that human persons were their disembodied souls because the human soul is essentially a substantial form activating matter into the body. He held that a proper human being is a composite of the rational soul and matter (both prime matter and individualized matter). So a soul separated from its body does not become an angel but retains its orientation to animate matter, while a corpse from which the soul has departed is not actually or potentially a human being.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Eleonore Stump describes Aquinas' theory of the soul in terms of "configuration". The body is matter that is "configured", i.e. structured, while the soul is a "configured configurer". In other words, the soul is itself a configured thing, but it also configures the body. A dead body is merely matter that was once configured by the soul. It does not possess the configuring capacity of a human being.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Aquinas believed that rational capacity was a property of the soul alone, not of any bodily organ. However, he did believe that the brain had some basic cognitive function. Aquinas’ attribution of rational capacity to the immaterial soul allowed him to claim that disembodied souls could retain their rational capacity as his identification of the soul's individual act of existence allowed him to claim that personal immortality is natural for human beings. Aquinas was also adamant that disembodied souls were in an unnatural state and that the perfection of heaven includes God miraculously enabling the soul to function once again as a substantial form by reanimating matter into a living body as promised by the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Aristotle holds a teleological worldview: he sees the universe as inherently purposeful. Basically, Aristotle claims that potentiality exists for the sake of actuality. Thus, matter exists for the sake of receiving its form, as an organism has sight for the sake of seeing. Now, each thing has certain potentialities as a result of its form. Because of its form, a snake has the potential to slither; we can say that the snake "ought to" slither. The more a thing achieves its potential, the more it succeeds in achieving its purpose.


title: Hylomorphism

text: Aristotle bases his ethical theory on this teleological worldview. Because of his form, a human being has certain abilities. Hence, his purpose in life is to exercise those abilities as well and as fully as possible. Now, the most characteristic human ability, which is not included in the form of any other organism, is the ability to think. The ability to deliberate makes it possible to choose the course of action that reason deems best--even if it is emotionally undesirable. Contemporary Aristotelians tend to stress exercising freedom and acting wisely as the best way to live. Yet, Aristotle argued that the best type of happiness is virtuously contemplating God and the second best is acting in accord with moral virtue. Either way, for Aristotle the best human life is a life lived rationally.


title: Hylomorphism

text: The idea of hylomorphism can be said to have been reintroduced to the world when Werner Heisenberg invented his duplex world of quantum mechanics. In his 1958 text "Physics and Philosophy", Heisenberg states:


title: Hylomorphism

text: A hylomorphic interpretation of Bohmian mechanics has been suggested, in which the cosmos is a single substance that is composed of both material particles and a substantial form. There is also a hylomorphic interpretation of the collapse of the wave function.


title: India at the Commonwealth Games

text: India has competed in all except four editions of the Commonwealth Games; starting at the second Games in 1934. India has also hosted the games once, in 2010. The most successful event for India in these games is shooting.


title: India at the Commonwealth Games

text: India have been fairly regular at the Commonwealth Games, featuring in all but four editions (1930, 1950, 1962 and 1986) of the quadrennial showpiece. Indian athletes debuted at the Commonwealth Games, then called the British Empire Games, back in 1934. The Indian contingent at London 1934 Games featured six athletes, who competed in 10 track and field events and one wrestling event. India won one medal at their debut Commonwealth Games. Wrestler Rashid Anwar was the first Indian to win a medal at the Commonwealth Games after clinching the bronze medal in the men's 74 kg freestyle wrestling event at 1934 British Empire Games. Since their debut in 1934, India have won 564 medals – 203 golds, 190 silvers and 171 bronze - at the Commonwealth Games. However, the first few editions were very challenging for the nation. Post-independence, India mainly participated in athletics but medals were few and far between until things took a turn for the better in 1958. Legendary sprinter Milkha Singh became the first Indian to win a gold medal at the Commonwealth Games, clinching the top spot in the men's 440 yard event at Cardiff 1958. India bagged another gold in the same edition when heavyweight wrestler Lila Ram won in the men's 100kg freestyle category. Cardiff 1958 was a historic year for women's participation too as track and field athletes Stephanie D’Souza and Elizabeth Davenport became the first Indian women to compete at the Commonwealth Games.


title: India at the Commonwealth Games

text: Meanwhile, the rise of Indian wrestling in the 70s and the 80s played a significant role in the country's improving fortunes at the Commonwealth Games. After the wrestlers, the Indian weightlifters stepped up and earned numerous accolades for the nation, with Raghavan Chanderasekaran proving to be the jewel in the crown. Two-time Olympian weightlifter Raghavan Chanderasekaran won three gold medals, including snatch, clean and jerk and overall, in the flyweight division at Commonwealth Games 1990 and followed it up with three silvers in bantamweight at the 1994 edition in Victoria, Canada. Pistol shooter Jaspal Rana is the most successful Indian athlete at the Commonwealth Games, with 15 medals – nine golds, four silvers and two bronze. He dominated the shooting circuit in the 1990s and early 2000s. The Indian shooters played a crucial role during India's best showing at the Commonwealth Games, which came in 2010. At New Delhi 2010, India won 101 medals - 39 gold medals, 26 silvers and 36 bronze to finish second on the medals leaderboard. New Delhi 2010 remains India's most successful Commonwealth Games until date. Since the 2000s, India have consistently finished among the top five countries in the medals table and are now a force to be reckoned with at the Commonwealth Games.


title: India at the Commonwealth Games

text: While the men dominated the winners list in the initial years, Indian women have also upped their performances in the last few editions. Indian badminton players Ami Ghia and Kanwal Thakar Singh were the first Indian women to win a Commonwealth Games medal, pocketing a women's doubles bronze during Edmonton 1978. Indian women have come a long way since 1978. At Commonwealth Games 2018 in Gold Coast, Australia table tennis ace Manika Batra was the most successful Indian with four medals. India finished third with 66 medals at the edition.


title: India at the Commonwealth Games

text: India hosted the Games in 2010, at Delhi. It was India's most successful Commonwealth Games to date with Indian athletes winning 38 gold, 27 silver and 36 bronze medals.


title: India at the Commonwealth Games

text: At the 2022 Commonwealth Games, India ended its campaign with a total of 61 medals (22 gold, 16 silver, 23 bronze). India with an overall total of 564 medals (203 gold, 190 silver, 171 bronze) is ranked 4th at the All-time Commonwealth Games medal table. India's first ever Commonwealth medal was won by Rashid Anwar, who won a bronze in the category of wrestling in 1934.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: The 1 Broadway–Seventh Avenue Local is a rapid transit service in the A Division of the New York City Subway. Its route emblem, or "bullet", is colored , since it uses the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line for its entire route.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: The 1 operates at all times, making all stops between Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street in Riverdale, Bronx and South Ferry in Lower Manhattan.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: The modern 1 train has always run up to Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx, but its route below 96th Street has varied through the years. Initially, there were two main service patterns south of 96th Street: a local service to South Ferry in Manhattan, and an express service to Brooklyn. The express service was discontinued in 1959. From 1989 to 2005, the 1 ran in a skip-stop service pattern during rush hours, with the 9 providing the complementary skip-stop service on the same route. The 1 and 9 trains were rerouted after the September 11 attacks in 2001; although they had mostly resumed their normal route by 2002, the 1 train skipped the Cortlandt Street station until 2018.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: When the New York City Subway began operation between 1904 and 1908, one of the main service patterns was the West Side Branch, which the modern 1 train uses. Trains ran from Lower Manhattan to the 242nd Street station near Van Cortlandt Park, using what is now the IRT Lexington Avenue Line, 42nd Street Shuttle, and IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line. There was both local and express service with express trains using the express tracks south of 96th Street. Some express trains ran to Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn via the Joralemon Street Tunnel during rush hours while all other trains terminated at City Hall or the South Ferry outer loop.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On November 15, 1906, a petition with 20,000 signatures was sent to the Rapid Transit Commission to request the restoration of express service on the third track north of 96th Street. Residents of Inwood, Marble Hill, and Kingsbridge joined Washington Heights residents in requesting this service to speed their commutes. After receiving that petition, on November 16, the Rapid Transit Commission ordered the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) to extend express service from 96th Street to 137th Street in three days. Limited express service was inaugurated on November 19, 1906, operating daily, except Sundays and holidays, between 7:20 and 8:58 a.m. and 4:54 and 6:18 p.m. to and from 181st Street. Only expresses starting and ending at Kingsbridge would run express in this section-expresses from 168th Street would make local stops in this section. The Kingsbridge express trains would have two red signal markets on the top of the front motor car and a red lantern carried on the front end of the train the center of the car platform. The previous schedule had local and express trains both running every four minutes south of Kingsbridge, while the new schedule had express trains running every 8 minutes on the express track north of 96th Street, and local trains running every eight minutes. The number of local trains south of 96th Street did not change, with half of express trains becoming locals at this point. Waits at local stations north of 96th Street were ten minutes. In December 1906, the IRT prepared plans to relieve overcrowding on the platforms at 96th Street and train congestion at the station. To reduce the significant number of people transferring between people taking Lenox Avenue Line locals and Broadway express trains, the IRT planned to have Broadway express trains pass through the station without stopping. This would force people wanting to take Lenox Avenue Line trains to do so further down the line without needing to transfer, allowing trains to move through 96th Street more quickly.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: In 1906, some of the local trains that started at 168th Street in the morning bypassed 157th Street without stopping.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On January 23, 1911, ten-car express trains began running on the Lenox Avenue Line, and the following day, ten-car express trains were inaugurated on the West Side Line.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On June 3, 1917, the first portion of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line south of Times Square–42nd Street (to 34th Street–Penn Station) opened. A separate shuttle service between Times Square and 34th Street was placed into service as well. On July 1, 1918, this shuttle was extended south to South Ferry, with a shorter shuttle on the Brooklyn branch between Chambers Street and Wall Street. Finally, the new "H" system was implemented on August 1, 1918, joining the two halves of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line and sending all West Side trains south from Times Square. Local trains (Broadway and Lenox Avenue) were sent to South Ferry, while express trains (Broadway and West Farms) used the new Clark Street Tunnel to Brooklyn.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On January 16, 1928, the New York State Transit Commission announced that it had reached an agreement with the IRT to increase service on its lines by 8,000,000 car miles a year–the greatest increase since 1922. As part of the changes, on January 30, all 242nd Street trains started running to New Lots Avenue. This change eliminated the splitting of trains at Brooklyn Museum, with the first half going to New Lots Avenue and the second half to Flatbush Avenue. In addition, the span of rush hour service on both Broadway–Seventh Avenue locals and expresses was increased.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On January 25, 1931, the start time for southbound split train operation was changed from 1 p.m. to 9 a.m. passing Franklin Avenue in order to increase the frequency of service to Flatbush Avenue and New Lots Avenue from every sixteen minutes to every eight minutes.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: As of 1934, all express 1 trains were running from 242nd Street to New Lots Avenue weekdays and Saturdays during the day, alternating between New Lots and Flatbush Avenues evenings and Sunday afternoons, and were split at Brooklyn Museum on Sunday morning with the first half going to New Lots Avenue and the second half to Flatbush Avenue. All local 1 trains ran from 137th Street (extended to Dyckman Street during rush hours) to South Ferry days and evenings, and 242nd Street to either New Lots or Flatbush Avenues during late nights (from midnight to 5:30 a.m.).


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On September 5, 1937, the practice of splitting Sunday morning trains at Brooklyn Museum was discontinued, with the alternate trains going to New Lots Avenue or Flatbush Avenue. Trains were cut from being 10-car trains to 7-car trains. On July 1, 1938, all evening and Sunday trains were rerouted to New Lots Avenue. By 1945, all local 1 trains were cut back from Dyckman Street to 137th Street during peak periods.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: Beginning on May 10, 1946, all 1 trains in Brooklyn ran express during late nights, with service running every twelve minutes. Previously all 1 trains ran local from 12:30 to 5:30 am and they alternated between Flatbush and New Lots Avenues. On December 20, 1946, all late night trains were routed to Flatbush Avenue, while Sunday service still alternated between Flatbush and New Lots Avenues.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: The IRT routes were given numbered designations with the introduction of "R-type" rolling stock, which contained rollsigns with numbered designations for each service. The first such fleet, the R12, was put into service in 1948. The Broadway route to 242nd Street became known as the 1.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On June 12, 1949, 137th Street to South Ferry Sunday local trains were discontinued, but were resumed on March 5, 1950, at which time Sunday service was also rerouted to New Lots Avenue. On March 15, 1954, weekend 137th Street to South Ferry local trains were once again discontinued, and simultaneously weekend Brooklyn trains were rerouted to Flatbush Avenue.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: An attempt was made to extend express service further north on January 14, 1955, when Broadway express trains, or every other 1 train, began running express between 137th and 96th Streets in the peak direction, between 7:32 and 8:33 a.m., and between 5:10 and 5:59 p.m.. Express trains terminated at 242nd Street.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On January 17, 1955, the bottleneck at 96th Street forced some southbound 1 trains that ran express south of 96th Street to remain on the local track at 96th Street, skipping local stops before switching to the express track at 72nd Street.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: Broadway express service between 137th and 96th Street proved unsuccessful, and ended on June 28, 1956. Meanwhile, in Brooklyn, weekday trains were rerouted to Flatbush Avenue and evening 137th Street to South Ferry local trains were discontinued.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: Under a $100-million rebuilding program, increased and lengthened service was implemented during peak hours on the 1 train. Trains then stopped using the switches north of 96th Street, except for General Orders, when temporary construction-related service diversions were in effect. Once most of the work on the project was completed on February 6, 1959, all 1 trains became local, running at an increased frequency, and all 2 and 3 trains became express, and eight-car local trains began operation. 1 trains began to run between 242nd Street and South Ferry at all times. Trains began to be branded as Hi-Speed Locals, being as fast as the old express service with new R21 and R22 subway cars on the route. During rush hours in the peak direction, alternate trains from 242nd Street only stopped at 168th Street while running express from Dyckman to 137th Streets in the direction of heavy traffic. The bypassed stations were served by locals originating from Dyckman Street. By Marcy 26, 1959, 15,000 riders switched from using express trains to the Hi-Speed Locals during rush hours, increasing riders on local trains south of 96th Street by 75 percent.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: Evening rush local/express service was discontinued on February 2, 1959. Morning rush hour express service was revised on January 8, 1962, with express trains stopping at 191st Street and 181st Street, and skipping 215th Street and 207th Street. This express service was discontinued on May 24, 1976, after which all 1 trains began to make all stops.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: In April 1988, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) unveiled plans to speed up service on the Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line through the implementation of skip-stop service. As soon as the plan was announced, some local officials were opposed to the change. Initially, skip-stop service would have been operated north of 116th Street, with the 1 service skipping 125th Street, 157th Street, 207th Street, and 225th Street, and a new numbered 9 service skipping 145th Street, 181st Street, Dyckman Street, 215th Street and 238th Street. As part of the study that resulted in the skip-stop plan, the NYCTA studied using the center track for express service. However, the agency settled on skip-stop service because the center track existed in two discontinuous segments, which would require complicated track-switching maneuvers to accommodate the express trains. Most passengers would not have to wait longer for a train: previously, one-third of 1 trains had terminated at 137th Street, but under the new service pattern, these trains would run the full route to 242nd Street instead. Previously, stations north of 137th Street were served by a train every 10 minutes. At stations served by only one of the skip-stop services, the maximum wait was to be 10 minutes, while at stations served by all trains, the maximum wait would be 5 minutes. Skip-stop trains would not speed through stations, instead passing through skipped stops at , the maximum allowed per NYCTA rules.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: In July 1988, it was announced that the 1/9 skip-stop service would begin on August 29, 1988. Skip-stop service was expected to speed up travel times for almost half of riders north of 96th Street. In August 1988, the NYCTA postponed plans for 1/9 skip-stop service due to public opposition. NYCTA officials recognized that they did not do a good job informing the community, and indicated that they planned to continue to look into it. Plans to implement skip-stop service on the IRT Pelham Line (), which were contingent on the success of 1/9 skip-stop, were indefinitely postponed. In September 1988, the MTA Board formally voted to defer implementation of 1/9 skip-stop service for these reasons. NYCTA planned to initiate outreach in January 1989 and implement the change at some point later that year. In October 1988, the NYCTA informed local communities that it planned to implement skip-stop the following spring. However, residents of Inwood and Washington Heights were particularly opposed to the change, since most stops in these neighborhoods would be skipped by one of the two routes, and since they had not been included in the planning process.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: In March 1989, the NYCTA stated that there was no set date for the implementation of the plan, with service possibly starting as late as the fall. To convince local communities, it set up meetings with residents and distributed leaflets advertising the change. In attempt to win their favor, they changed the name of the service from skip-stop to express service.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: A public hearing on the NYCTA's plan for skip-stop service was held on June 27, 1989. The goals of skip-stop service were to extend all trips to 242nd Street, to provide faster travel times for a majority of riders, and to improve service reliability through evenly loaded and spaced trains. During 1987 and 1988, analysis was conducted to determine various options for express service along the 1, including using the center express track. As part of the plan, express service was to operate weekdays between 6:30 a.m. and 7 p.m. Trips that ended at 137th Street were extended to 242nd Street, which eliminated the need for a significant reduction in service levels at local stops. The 125th Street station, which is located south of 137th Street, would have experienced a reduction in service. The location of all-stop stations and skip-stop stations was done to evenly distribute passengers between the 1 and the 9, and to accommodate reverse commuting patterns. Stops with ridership greater than 8,000 daily passengers were designated all-stop stations, while less patronized stops were served by either 1 or 9 trains. One change was made from the 1988 plan: due to community input 181st Street was added as an all-stop station. Express service was expected to save up to minutes of travel time, while all-stop stations would see an additional -minute reduction in waiting time. This would save between six and nine minutes or a 19% travel time reduction. Running express service via the center track was dismissed since the track had not been designed for express service. The track south of 145th Street is not long enough to allow an express train to pass a local, resulting in merging delays at 103rd Street which would eliminate any time saved. In addition, the busiest stops on the route north of 96th Street would be bypassed without any time savings. Extending all-local service to 242nd Street or adding additional trains were dismissed since they would require additional subway cars, which were not available at the time.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: On July 28, 1989, the MTA Board approved a revised 1/9 skip-stop plan unanimously, with the plan scheduled to take effect on August 21, 1989. Unlike the original plan, 1 trains would skip 145th Street, 191st Street, 207th Street and 225th Street, while 9 trains would skip 157th Street, Dyckman Street, 215th Street and 238th Street.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: Beginning at 6:30 a.m. on Monday, August 21, 1989, the services were coordinated as the 1/9 and both ran between Van Cortlandt Park–242nd Street and South Ferry. The plan was to have skip-stop service begin north of 116th Street–Columbia University, but due to objections, most notably that riders did not want 125th Street to be a skip-stop station, skip-stop service was only implemented north of 137th Street–City College between the hours of 6:30 am and 7:00 pm weekdays. All 1 trains skipped Marble Hill–225th, 207th, 191st and 145th Streets, while all 9 trains skipped 238th, 215th, Dyckman and 157th Streets. On September 4, 1994, midday skip-stop service was discontinued, and 191st Street became a common station for skip-stop service.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: After the September 11 attacks in 2001, 1 trains had to be rerouted since the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line ran directly under the World Trade Center site and was heavily damaged in the collapse of the Twin Towers. It initially ran as a shuttle alongside the 2 and 3 trains to Times Square, due to debris that fell on the tracks south of Pennsylvania Station. When the debris was cleared by September 17, the 1 ran only between 242nd Street and 14th Street, making local stops north of 96th Street and express stops south of that point. Local service was replaced by the 2 and 3 trains, running express from Canal Street to Fulton Street due to debris covering the stops between them. The skip-stop service with the 9 train was suspended for the duration of the 9/11 emergency service plan. On September 19, after a few switching delays at 96th Street, service was changed. 1 trains made all stops at all times from 242nd Street to New Lots Avenue via the Clark Street Tunnel and IRT Eastern Parkway Line, replacing the route of 3 trains within Brooklyn, as the 3 terminated at 14th Street during this period. All 1 trains continued running express with the 2 between the aforementioned streets until October 1, when it terminated at Chambers Street in Manhattan overnight.


title: 1 (New York City Subway service)

text: Over the next year, the section of the Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line's South Ferry spur south of Chambers Street was cleaned and the tunnel was rebuilt through the World Trade Center site. The tunnel was completed and opened to service on September 15, 2002, when 1 trains returned to the South Ferry Loop and 9 skip-stop service was reinstated. However, the Cortlandt Street station, which was directly underneath the World Trade Center, was demolished as part of the clean-up and was rebuilt as part of the World Trade Center Transportation Hub until September 8, 2018, when it reopened as WTC Cortlandt.