title: Princess Viktoria of Prussia

text: Her own financial struggles caught up to her, and Viktoria was forced to auction off nearly all of her belongings. The sale, conducted by the Cologne auctioneers M. Lempertz, attracted far less interest than had been anticipated, and it was estimated that the proceeds from the auction would have covered only one-third of her debts (which were reported to have been 900,000 marks, or £45,000 sterling). Viktoria was forced to move into a single rented room in the suburbs of Bonn. That same year Viktoria caused another scandal by filing for divorce from Zoubkoff after less than two years of marriage, on the grounds that his behaviour had resulted in his expulsion from Germany, he was unable to maintain her, and that "conjugal relations did not exist".


title: Princess Viktoria of Prussia

text: Before they could be divorced, or her siblings could have their marriage annulled, Viktoria came down with a fever and was taken to the Hospital of St Francis, in Bonn, where she was diagnosed with pneumonia. In the hours before her death, her brother Wilhelm and sister Margaret attempted to contact her, but were not allowed. Viktoria died on 13 November 1929, "penniless, lonely, loveless, and without her family’s forgiveness". She was buried at Schloss Friedrichshof, the home of her sister Margaret. She was 63.


title: .za

text: .za is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for South Africa. The .za namespace is managed and regulated by the .za Domain Name Authority (ZADNA). Most domains are registered under the second-level domain .co.za.


title: .za

text: None of the official names for South Africa can be abbreviated to ZA, which is an abbreviation of the Dutch "Zuid-Afrika". Dutch was considered an official language in the Union of South Africa until 1961; it subsequently lost its synonymous status with Afrikaans in 1983. "Suid-Afrika" is the standard spelling in Afrikaans, but the .sa domain is used by Saudi Arabia. "Zuid-Afrika" has a history of usage: the international vehicle code for South Africa has been "ZA" since 1936. "ZAR" serves as the ISO 4217 currency code for the South African rand. South African aircraft registration prefixes also start with "Z".


title: .za

text: Currently around 29.39% of the .za internet is served via secured HTTPS protocol, with the Let's Encrypt Authority X3 being the most popular SSL certificate. Apache is the most popular web server, serving 66.56% of the .za domains, followed by Microsoft-IIS serving 11.60% of the total .za domains. The most common 1st character in domain names is "c", with 10.76% of .za domains starting with this character.


title: Lascelles Principles

text: The Lascelles Principles are a constitutional convention in the United Kingdom beginning in 1950, under which the sovereign can refuse a request from the prime minister to dissolve Parliament if three conditions are met:


title: Lascelles Principles

text: The convention was in abeyance from 2011 to 2022, when the sovereign's prerogative power to dissolve Parliament was removed by the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011. Following passage of the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022, which repealed the Fixed-term Parliaments Act, these principles are thought to have been revived.


title: Lascelles Principles

text: The Lascelles principles are not the only convention governing how the sovereign makes decisions relating to changes of government. For example, the Cabinet Manual notes the historic precedent of the sovereign dismissing a government under reserve powers. However, this was last done by William IV, who dismissed Lord Melbourne’s government despite majority support in the Commons and is thought to have damaged the sovereign’s reputation.


title: Lascelles Principles

text: The general principles of government formation also affect this decision. The Cabinet Manual stresses that the monarch should not be exposed to political decisions and "it remains a matter for the Prime Minister, as the Sovereign's principal adviser, to judge the appropriate time at which to resign". The Manual notes that recent Prime Ministers have chosen not to resign until an established situation was set which the sovereign could be advised to accept.


title: Lascelles Principles

text: During public discussion of King George VI's potential response to the outcome of the 1950 general election, which returned a very slim Labour Party majority in the House of Commons, the Lascelles Principles were formally stated in a letter to the Editor of "The Times", written by the King’s Private Secretary Sir Alan Lascelles, and published on 2 May 1950, under the pseudonym "Senex":


title: Lascelles Principles

text: Sir, It is surely indisputable (and common sense) that a Prime Minister may ask—not demand—that his Sovereign will grant him a dissolution of Parliament; and that the Sovereign, if he so chooses, may refuse to grant this request. The problem of such a choice is entirely personal to the Sovereign, though he is, of course, free to seek informal advice from anybody whom he thinks fit to consult.


title: Lascelles Principles

text: In so far as this matter can be publicly discussed, it can be properly assumed that no wise Sovereign—that is, one who has at heart the true interest of the country, the constitution, and the Monarchy—would deny a dissolution to his Prime Minister unless he were satisfied that: (1) the existing Parliament was still vital, viable, and capable of doing its job; (2) a General Election would be detrimental to the national economy; (3) he could rely on finding another Prime Minister who could carry on his Government, for a reasonable period, with a working majority in the House of Commons. When Sir Patrick Duncan refused a dissolution to his Prime Minister in South Africa in 1939, all these conditions were satisfied: when Lord Byng did the same in Canada in 1926, they appeared to be, but in the event the third proved illusory.


title: Lascelles Principles

text: Historian Peter Hennessy stated in 1994 that the second of the three conditions had since been "dropped from the canon", being no longer included in internal Cabinet Office guidance.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The Buncefield fire was a major fire at an oil storage facility that started on 11 December 2005 at the Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal, located near the M1 motorway, Hemel Hempstead, in Hertfordshire, England. The terminal was the fifth largest oil-products storage depot in the United Kingdom, with a capacity of about 60 million Imperial gallons (273 million litres) of fuel. The terminal is owned by TOTAL UK Limited (60%) and Texaco (40%).


title: Buncefield fire

text: The first and largest explosion occurred at 06:01 UTC near tank 912, which led to further explosions which eventually overwhelmed 20 large storage tanks.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The emergency services announced a major emergency at 06:08 and a firefighting effort began. The cause of the explosion was a fuel-air explosion in a vapour cloud of evaporated leaking fuel. The British Geological Survey monitored the event, which measured 2.4 on the Richter scale.


title: Buncefield fire

text: News reports described the incident as the biggest of its kind in peacetime Europe and certainly the biggest such explosion in the United Kingdom since the 1974 Flixborough disaster. The flames had been extinguished by the afternoon of 13 December 2005. However, one storage tank re-ignited that evening, which firefighters left to burn rather than attempting to extinguish it again.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The Health Protection Agency and the Major Incident Investigation Board provided advice to prevent incidents such as these in the future. The primary need is for safety measures to be in place to prevent fuel escaping the tanks in which it is stored. Added safety measures are needed for when fuel does escape, mainly to prevent it forming a flammable vapour and stop pollutants from poisoning the environment.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The first and largest explosion occurred at 06:01 UTC on Sunday, 11 December 2005 near container 912. Further explosions followed which eventually overwhelmed 20 large storage tanks.


title: Buncefield fire

text: From all accounts, it seems to have been an unconfined vapour cloud explosion of unusually high strengthalso known as a fuel-air explosion. Because of an inversion layer, the explosions were heard up to away; there were reports that they were audible in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The British Geological Survey monitored the event, which measured 2.4 on the Richter scale. It was reported that people were woken in south London, and as far west as Wokingham (about ), where in its southern suburb, Finchampstead, numerous people felt the shockwave after the initial explosion. Subsequent explosions occurred at 06:27 and 06:28.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Witnesses many miles from the terminal observed flames hundreds of feet high; the smoke cloud was visible from space, and from as far north as Lincolnshire (about away). Damage from the blasts included broken windows at various buildings including the Holy Trinity church and Leverstock Green School, blown-in or warped front doors, and an entire wall being removed from a warehouse more than half a mile (800 m) from the site. Buildings in neighbouring St Albans also suffered; Townsend School had serious blast damage, and a window was blown out of St Albans Abbey (about away).


title: Buncefield fire

text: Several nearby office blocks were hit so badly that almost every window, front and back, was blown in as the explosion ripped through them. The timing of the explosion before work hours possibly prevented additional casualties. Reports also indicated that cars in nearby streets caught fire. The roof of at least one house was blown off. Buildings in the vicinity were evacuated by police, not only because of the smoke and possibility of more explosions, but because of the danger of structural damage making the buildings unstable.


title: Buncefield fire

text: There were 43 reported injuries; two people were deemed to be seriously injured enough to be kept in hospital, one in Watford General Hospital, with breathing difficulties, and another in Hemel Hempstead Hospital, although they were not in a life-threatening condition. Some early media reports spoke of eight fatalities, but these may have been persons missing. All members of staff from the terminal were accounted for.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Hertfordshire police and fire services and the member of parliament for the area, Mike Penning, said that there were seven fuel tanks on the site which, as of 14:00 on 12 December, had not been affected. These tanks were at risk of exploding if the fire were to spread.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The emergency services announced a major emergency at 06:08 and a tremendous firefighting effort began. At peak times this effort consisted of 25 fire engines, 20 support vehicles and 180 fire fighters.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Around 150 firefighters were called immediately to the incident, and began tackling the blaze at 08:20 on the morning of 11 December, putting in containment measures before applying a large quantity of foam. The incident occurred close to junction 8 of the M1 motorway, which led to its closure and the setting up of a public exclusion area. It was estimated that this incident would be the largest "single-seat" fire in the world ever to be fought by a fire brigade, and foam supplies from sites all over the UK were drawn upon.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Plans had been in place to start using foam at midnight on 11 December, but were delayed by last-minute concerns over possible pollution of local rivers and underlying water sources. Six high volume pumps were used to extract of water per minute per secondfrom a reservoir from the fire, with six more high-volume pumps deployed at various locations to serve as boosters. Thirty-two thousand litres (7,039 imp gal) of fire fighting foam per minute were directed against the fire for just over four hours, after which the pumping rate was reduced. Half of the 20 individual fires were reported extinguished by midday.


title: Buncefield fire

text: By 16:30 on Monday 12 December, it was reported that a further two tank fires had been extinguished, but that one of the tanks extinguished earlier had ruptured and re-ignited, and was now threatening to cause the explosion of an adjacent tank. This led to the M1 motorway being closed again; the public exclusion area was widened, and firefighters were temporarily withdrawn until the risk posed by the threatened tank could be assessed.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Firefighting operations were resumed at about 20:00, and it was anticipated that all fires could be extinguished during the night. Further damage occurred to one of the storage tanks in the early hours of Tuesday morning, causing firefighters to be withdrawn once again, but operations resumed at 08:30. By midday on 13 December, all but three fires had been extinguished, although the largest tank was still burning. Bronze commandoperations on the groundwas visited by the Bishop of St Albans, the local vicar, and the industrial chaplain supporting the fire crews, to see how they were coping.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Firefighters were confident that the remaining fires could be extinguished during the day on Tuesday, 13 December. The smoke plume had been considerably reduced and was more grey, indicating the amount of vapourised water now combining with the smoke. It was reported at 16:45 that all tank fires had been extinguished, although some smaller fires persisted. 75% of firefighters for Hertfordshire were involved in fighting the fire, supported by 16 other brigades. The entire gold command operation, involving many agencies as well as all the emergency services, was run from Hertfordshire Constabulary's headquarters in Welwyn Garden City, some distance from the fire.


title: Buncefield fire

text: A further fire broke out during the early morning of 14 December. Firefighters were of the view that extinguishing it would leave the risk of petroleum vapour re-igniting or exploding, so it would be better to allow the fire, which was well contained, to burn itself out. Hertfordshire Fire Service's deputy chief Mark Yates stated that escaping petroleum vapour was the most likely cause of the original explosion and fire.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The black smoke cloud, which was visible from satellite photographs, drifted at a high altitude, around , towards Reading and Swindon, and could be seen across much of South East England.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The small particles in the smoke contained hydrocarbons, which can be an irritant but have a low toxicity and were not expected to cause any long-term harm. The Met Office issued warnings that the smoke in the atmosphere could come down in rainfall during the night of 11 December.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The fire resulted in 244 people requiring medical aidmainly on the first day of the fire. From those 117 had symptoms attributable to the incident, of whom 38 were members of the public. The majority of those visiting hospitals were from the rescue services and attended for precautionary check ups. Most of them had no symptoms, except for 63 emergency workers who suffered respiratory complaints, of which half were sore throats.


title: Buncefield fire

text: For the first two days of the fire, the high thermal energy made the plume highly buoyant; this, together with settled weather conditions, allowed the plume to rise to a great height with little cross-mixing. When the fire was reduced in intensity it was reported to be possible that the plume would be less buoyant and that ground-level smoke concentrations could then rise significantly. By 12 December, it was reported that the smoke cloud had reached northern France; it was expected to arrive in northern Spain by the weekend.


title: Buncefield fire

text: To investigate the smoke cloud the Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements, a research aircraft operated jointly by NERC and the Met Office, made two flights on 12 and 13 December. In the first flight the edge of the plume was followed along the south coast of England. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and ozone concentrations were found to be low with soot particles being the major component in the cloud. The second flight went into the centre of the plume to obtain data to help forecasting and emergency teams.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Hundreds of homes in the Hemel Hempstead area were evacuated, and about 2,000 people had to find alternative accommodation; emergency services asked residents of the smoke-affected areas to close their windows and doors and to stay inside.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Hertfordshire Constabulary advised people who had houses with smashed windows to seek refuge with friends or family nearby if possible. Some people whose homes were damaged by the blast were placed in hotels, while others stayed in a nearby shopping centre. Total, the operator of the Buncefield depot, set up a helpline for people whose properties had been damaged by the explosion, and called in local authorities and the Salvation Army to provide accommodation or other help.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Concerns for public safety resulted in about 227 schools, libraries, and other public buildings across Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire closing on 12 and 13 December. Police and local authorities advised residents to consult the "Hertfordshire Direct" website for up-to-date information.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Seventy-eight schools in Luton borough were closed on 13 December, along with a limited number of schools in Bedfordshire, on the advice of Hertfordshire's Health Protection Agency that all schools within a radius of the incident site should be closed because of concerns surrounding the effect of the smoke plume on children's health. Schools reopened as normal on 14 December.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The incident occurred close to junction 8 of the M1 motorway. The motorway was shut between junctions 12 and 6aabout shortly after the incident. Other roads in the vicinity, including the short M10 motorway (now part of the A414 road), were also closed.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Some local petrol stations reported long queues as people started panic buying. A spokesman for the Department of Trade and Industry gave assurances that no petrol shortage was likely to result from the incident.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The oil terminal supplied 30% of Heathrow Airport's fuel, and because of the fire, the airport had to start rationing fuel. Some long-haul flights to Australia, the Far East, and South Africa had to make an intermediate stop at Stansted Airport or other European airports to refuel, while short-haul operators were asked to fuel their aircraft for the round trip before flying to Heathrow. Some aircraft were only allowed 40% of the fuel they would normally take on board. Fuel shortages continued for months after the explosion.


title: Buncefield fire

text: In the Maylands industrial area the worst affected buildings were the Northgate Information Solutions headquarters and the Fujifilm building. These buildings were so badly damaged they were rendered completely unusable. Demolition of the Fujifilm building began soon afterwards, and by June 2006 it had been completely removed from the site. Although the Northgate and Fujifilm buildings were closest to the blast, the surrounding Catherine House (to the north), Keystone Distribution building (to the west), 3Com Corporation and RO buildings (to the south), were also extensively damaged. In all, six buildings were designated for demolition and 30 more required major repairs before they could be reoccupied.


title: Buncefield fire

text: As a result of the destruction of the equipment in the Northgate building several websites hosted there were inaccessibleincluding that of the Labour Party. Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge was also affected; its IT system dealing with admissions and discharges had to be replaced for several days by a manual system.


title: Buncefield fire

text: A number of companies were affected by inability to reach their premises even where the premises themselves were largely unaffected by the blast. Criticism was expressed by local citizens and the local MP that originally the depot had been constructed away from other buildings, but that developmental pressures had led to both houses and commercial premises being built near the depot.


title: Buncefield fire

text: In May 2006 Three Valleys Water announced that it had detected the persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic fluorosurfactant perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS)which is used in fire fighting foamin a ground water bore hole close to the Buncefield site. It stated that no water from this well entered the public water supply and that a nearby well and pumping station had been closed since the fire as a precaution. The chemical is a known health risk and the UK government had been about to ban its use.


title: Buncefield fire

text: However just before the announcement, the Drinking Water Inspectorate announced that it was increasing the safe level of the chemical in drinking water. Hemel Hempstead MP, Mike Penning accused the government of changing the rules to suit the situation in which PFOS levels in drinking water in the area may rise in the future. Most of the fuel burned outrather than spilling into the soil, so the impact on surrounding land and the water table was limited.


title: Buncefield fire

text: In Series 7 of the UK version of Top Gear, The “Gas Guzzler Of The Year Award” (referring to Miles Per Gallon) was being presented. Jeremy Clarkson announced the third nominee to be Hemel Hempstead, while a photo of the explosion was shown on screens around the Top Gear Studio. “That actually used up 60 Million gallons of fuel, didn’t move an inch”


title: Buncefield fire

text: A government inquiry held jointly by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the Environment Agency was started, but calls for a full public inquiry were declined. The Board included Tony Newton, Baron Newton of Braintree; Prof Dougal Drysdale, an authority on fire safety; and Dr Peter Baxter, a medical expert. Environment Agency and HSE staff were also on the board. Its aim was to identify the immediate causes of the explosion, rather than consider who was to blame for any deficiencies, so as not to prejudice further legal proceedings.


title: Buncefield fire

text: An initial progress report by the Major Incident Investigation Board on 21 February 2006 did not go into the causes of the explosion, but summed up the event and the immediate reaction from the emergency services. A second progress report, published on 11 April 2006, looked at the environmental impact.


title: Buncefield fire

text: A further announcement was made on 9 May 2006 about the sequence of events which caused the explosion. Starting at 19:00 on the evening of 10 December 2005, Tank 912, towards the north west of the main depot, was filled with unleaded petrolfrom the Coryton Refinery located in Essex, England. At midnight the terminal closed, and a check was made of the contents of tanks, which found everything normal. Normally the gauges monitor the level of the fuel in the tank as it fills from the particular pipeline. From about 03:00 the level gauge for Tank 912 began to indicate an unchanging level reading, despite it being filled at per hour.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Calculations show that the tank would have begun to overflow at about 05:20. There is evidence suggesting that a high-level switch, which should have detected that the tank was full and shut off the supply, failed to operate. The switch failure should have triggered an alarm, but it too appears to have failed. Forty-one minutes later, an estimated of petrol would have spilled down the side of the tank through the roof vents onto the ground inside a bund walla semi-enclosed compound surrounding several tanks.


title: Buncefield fire

text: An overflow such as this results in the rapid formation of a rich fuel and air vapour. CCTV footage showed such a vapour flowing out the bund wall from around 05:38. By 05:50 the vapour started flowing off the site, near the junction of Cherry Tree and Buncefield Lane. Around 05:50 the rate at which fuel was being pumped into the tank increased dramatically. Initially the fuel was pumped in at per hour, but it increased to about per hour. By 06:01, when the first explosion occurred, the cloud which was initially about deep, thickened to and had spread beyond the boundaries of the site.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The extent of the damage meant it was not possible to determine the exact source of ignition, but possibilities include an emergency generator and the depot's fire pump system. The investigators did not believe that it was caused either by the driver of a fuel tanker, as had been speculated, or by anyone using a mobile phone. It was felt unlikely that the explosion had a widespread effect on air quality at ground level.


title: Buncefield fire

text: A total of 2,700 claims were filed by residents, businesses and insurers. A group of 146 claimants were hoping to bring a class action against Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd. On 17 March 2006 a High Court official, Senior Master Turner, adjourned a hearing on whether to permit the class action until October 2006. Claimants including insurance companies, small businesses and about 280 families whose properties were damaged or destroyed were claiming up to £1 billion in damages.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Several court cases resulted from the explosion, although the main trial to determine who was liable for the damage commenced at the High Court in October 2008. The BBC quoted Cheetah Courierswhich suffered a 20% drop in turnover because of the explosions, resulting in losses of around £300,000 to £400,000. The company was located in offices on an industrial estate from the depot.


title: Buncefield fire

text: An initial trial concluded on 23 May 2008 when Mr Justice David Steel issued a summary judgment after hearing that both Total and Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd (HOSL) had agreed that negligence was the cause. In the main trial, Total UK claimed that the duty supervisor at the time was responsible for the explosion, but refused to admit either civil or criminal liability for the incident. Total UK argued that it should not be liable for damages because it could not reasonably have foreseen that it would cause the destruction it did. On 20 March 2009 the High Court found Total liable for the blast, saying that it was satisfied that Total had control of tank filling operations at the Buncefield depot. The judgement left the company facing damage claims of around £700 million.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The site is covered by the COMAH regulations. The Control of Major Accidents and Hazards Regulations are jointly enforced by the "competent authority" which is formed of the Environment Agency and the Health and Safety Executive. They carried out an investigation during and following the fire.


title: Buncefield fire

text: In April 2010 the five companies accused of causing the explosion faced a criminal prosecution brought by the Health and Safety Executive and the Environment Agency. Two defendants, Total UK and British Pipeline Agency Limited, had already pleaded guilty to offences under the Health and Safety at Work Act. The remaining three, Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd, TAV Engineering Ltd and Motherwell Control Systems were found guilty in June 2010. TAV Engineering Ltd and Motherwell Control Systems were found guilty of failing to protect their employees. Hertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd was found guilty of failing to prevent major accidents and limit their effects and then pleaded guilty to causing pollution to enter controlled waters underlying the vicinity around the site, contrary to the Water Resources Act.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Sentencing took place in July 2010. Total UK was fined £3.6m, plus £2.6m in costs. Hertfordshire Oil Storage Limited was fined £1.45m and £1m in costs. The British Pipeline Agency was fined £300,000 plus £480,000 costs. Motherwell Control Systems and TAV Engineering were fined £1,000 each. Local MP Mike Penning called the modest fines "insulting".


title: Buncefield fire

text: The Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal (HOSLHertfordshire Oil Storage Ltd), generally known as the Buncefield complex, was the fifth largest oil-products storage depot in the UK, with a capacity of about of fuel, although it was not always full. This was about 8% of UK oil storage capacity.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The HOSL is a major hub on the UK's oil pipeline network (UKOP) with pipelines to the Lindsey Oil Refinery and Stanlow Refinery and is an important fuel source to the British aviation industry, providing aircraft fuel for local airports including Gatwick, Heathrow and Luton airports. About half of the complex is dedicated to the storage of aviation fuel. The remainder of the complex stores oil, kerosene, petrol and diesel fuel for petrol stations across much of the South-East of England. The terminal is owned by TOTAL UK Limited (60%) and Texaco 40%.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The seat of the fire, and the worst damaged section, was "HOSL West", used by Total and Texaco to store a variety of fuels, and the neighbouring British Pipeline Agency area.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The final report of the Major Incident Investigation Board (MIIB) was written in 2008 and released in February 2011. The investigation found that Tank 912 at the Buncefield oil storage depot was being filled with petrol. The tank had a level gauge that employees used to monitor the level manually, and an independent high-level switch which would shut off inflow if the level got above a certain setpoint. On Tank 912, the manual gauge was stuck and the independent shut-off switch was inoperative, meaning that the tank was being "filled blind" with petrol (i.e., being filled without a clear indication of the level). Eventually Tank 912 filled up completely, the petrol overflowed through vents at the top, and formed a vapour cloud near ground level, which ignited and exploded. The fires from the explosion then lasted for five days.


title: Buncefield fire

text: The investigation found that the level gauge had stuck at random times after a tank service in August 2005, but it did not concern maintenance contractors or site management. The independent shut-off switch was not fitted with a critical padlock to allow its check lever to work. Secondary containment (meant to trap the petrol in a retaining wall around the tank) failed and allowed petrol to flow out. Tertiary containment (drains and catchment areas to prevent release of spilled chemicals to the environment) also failed, and fuel and firefighting foam entered groundwater supplies. The investigation found secondary and tertiary containment to be inadequately designed and poorly maintained.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Wider management failings were found by the investigation to have contributed to the explosion: management safety checks at the site were found to be deficient and not properly followed. Site staff did not have control over the flow rates and timing of two of the three inlet sources, meaning that they did not have enough information to properly manage the storage of incoming fuel. Further, overall throughput had increased, reducing wait times further and shifting the emphasis to process operations instead of process safety.


title: Buncefield fire

text: Soon after the incident the Health Protection Agency was stripped of its remit to provide air quality data and it was passed on to the Environment Agency which forms part of the Major Accident Investigation Board.


title: Buncefield fire

text: An anniversary service was held in Holy Trinity Church Leverstock Green on Sunday, 10 December 2006, at which the Bishop of St Albans spoke, calling again for a full public inquiry, for assurances that the local hospital would maintain its accident and emergency department, and for the community to continue to build on good and new relationships formed because of the blast.


title: Buncefield fire

text: To rebuild the damaged parts of the site, the relevant approval from Dacorum Borough Council would be needed. The BP section of the site is a good way from the explosion and survived with very little damage, but it was inoperative as of 2009. BP is exploring plans for the future use of this part of the site, and has indicated a number of priorities, including the reopening of the fuel pipelines to Heathrow. It is considering using its section to store aviation fuel and as a distribution centre for motor fuel, but at a much-reduced level. In late 2009, Total UK submitted plans for the reconstruction of the oil depot. The reconstruction of the site has been taking place since March 2013.


title: Buncefield fire

text: On the roundabout at the entrance to Hemel, the "Phoenix Gateway" sculpture was designed by Jose Zavala to symbolize the recovery of the town from the Buncefield oil depot explosion.


title: Ty Franck

text: Ty Franck (born May 18, 1969) is an American novelist, screenwriter, and television producer. He is best known for co-authoring "The Expanse" with Daniel Abraham under the pseudonym James S. A. Corey, as well as "Game of Thrones: A Telltale Games Series" (2014) and "The Expanse: Expanded" (2016). The Expanse novels have been adapted into the television series "The Expanse" (2015–2022), with both Franck and Abraham serving as writers and producers on the show.


title: Ty Franck

text: Franck wrote the "Star Wars" novel "Honor Among Thieves" (2014) with Abraham and used the pen name James S. A. Corey again. In addition to his own work, Franck has served as personal assistant to George R. R. Martin and has written for Martin's "Wild Cards" universe.


title: Ty Franck

text: "Leviathan Wakes", book one of "The Expanse", was nominated for the 2012 Hugo Award for Best Novel, while "The Expanse series" was nominated in 2017 and again in 2020 where it won.


title: Ty Franck

text: In 2011, Franck launched a new science fiction series, "The Expanse", co-authored with Daniel Abraham under the pseudonym James S.A. Corey. The books are based on a role-playing game set up by Franck, who had developed a science fiction universe that spanned the solar system. After Franck moved to New Mexico and became part of the science fiction writing community, he set up several campaigns of the game, one that included Abraham as a player. Abraham was impressed by the amount of research and world-building Franck had done and asked to write a novel set in the game's universe. Franck agreed and decided to split the proceeds of the book with Abraham for his part in writing from Franck's notes and outline. After reading Abraham's first chapters, Franck decided to become more involved with the writing. The pair collaborate on the overarching plot, meeting weekly to outline chapters, with Abraham focusing on structure and prose, and Franck developing the story and world. They alternate chapters, writing for different characters each, with Abraham writing Miller, Melba, Avasarala, Bull, and Prax, then swap and rewrite the other's work. By the end of the process, Abraham has stated it would be hard to identify which line was written by which author.


title: Ty Franck

text: The first book, "Leviathan Wakes", was published in June 2011 by Orbit, Abraham's publishing house for his fantasy series "The Dagger and the Coin". The novel was nominated for the Hugo Award in 2012 and received acclaim from the science fiction community. A prequel short story titled "The Butcher of Anderson Station" was published in October 2011 and provides background to one of the secondary characters of "Leviathan Wakes", Colonel Fred Johnson.


title: Ty Franck

text: Its sequel, "Caliban's War", was published in June 2012. The novel expanded the number of point of view characters from two to four, which according to Abraham, allowed for more freedom to explore the characters' situations. The novel was followed by a novella, "Gods of Risk", published in September 2012. The story takes place between the second and third books of the series, and is set in the same time period as the main novels but follows a separate story-line. A second prequel short story, "Drive", was published in the anthology "Edge of Infinity" in November 2012, set decades before the first novel.


title: Ty Franck

text: The third book, "Abaddon's Gate", was released in June 2013, and won the Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel. A second prequel novella, "The Churn", was published in April 2014 and features the main series character Amos Burton.


title: Ty Franck

text: The fourth book, "Cibola Burn", was published in June 2014, the first novel in the series to be released in hardcover. The fifth book, "Nemesis Games", was released in June 2015, and was praised by Andrew Liptak of "io9" as "Corey's "Empire Strikes Back"." It was followed by the novella "The Vital Abyss" in October 2015.


title: Ty Franck

text: The sixth book, "Babylon's Ashes", was released in December 2016; and the seventh, "Persepolis Rising", in December 2017. There are a total of nine novels and five novellas planned for the series, with the last book expected to be released in late 2021.


title: Ty Franck

text: "The Expanse" space opera novels are written by Abraham and Ty Franck under the joint pseudonym James S. A. Corey.


title: Live Life Fast

text: Live Life Fast (stylized in all caps) is the second studio album by American rapper Roddy Ricch. It was released on December 17, 2021, through Atlantic Records and Bird Vision Entertainment. The album features guest appearances from Future, Kodak Black, 21 Savage, Takeoff, Jamie Foxx, Ty Dolla Sign, Alex Isley, Fivio Foreign, Lil Baby, and Gunna. The production was handled by multiple producers including Wheezy, Boi-1da, Southside, TM88 and Kenny Beats among others.


title: Live Life Fast

text: "Live Life Fast" was preceded by one single, "Late at Night", which was released on June 4, 2021. The album received generally lukewarm reviews from music critics and received moderate commercial success. It debuted at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, earning 62,000 album-equivalent units (including 3,500 copies in pure album sales) in its first week.


title: Live Life Fast

text: In August 2020, Ricch announced that he was working on his second studio album, in which he called it a "masterpiece" and also said that he was waiting for the right time to release it. In September 2021, he posted a screenshot of the album name alongside the number of tracks and its duration through an Instagram story. Ricch also revealed a list of featured artists and some record producers who contribute to the album on December 14, 2021. He announced that fans would get to hear the album early as he would go to different cities and play songs from it. The album's lead and only single, "Late at Night", was previously released on June 4, 2021.


title: Live Life Fast

text: "Live Life Fast" was met with generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 67, based on six reviews.


title: Live Life Fast

text: "Live Life Fast" debuted at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, earning 62,000 album-equivalent units (including 3,500 copies in pure album sales) in its first week. This became Roddy Ricch's second US top-ten debut on the chart. The album also accumulated a total of 76.51 million on-demand streams from the album's songs.


title: The Beatnuts

text: The Beatnuts are an American hip hop group and production duo from New York City. Its current members are JuJu and Psycho Les. JuJu (born Jerry Tineo on December 14, 1968) is a Dominican American from Corona and Psycho Les (born Lester Fernandez on April 10, 1970) is a Colombian American from Jackson Heights, Queens. Although only peripheral members, they are routinely acknowledged by Q-Tip as being members of Native Tongues. The Beatnuts were originally a trio before Fashion (born Berntony Smalls on January 13, 1970), now known as Al' Tariq, left the group to start a solo career. V.I.C. (Groove Merchantz, Ghetto Pros) was also a member of The Beatnuts' production team for a while.


title: The Beatnuts

text: JuJu and Psycho Les grew up in different communities in Queens, New York City. Psycho Les started producing beats and DJing at age 15 under aliases including DJ Les Jams and DJ Incredible. At a high school in Flushing, Queens, a friend DJ Loco Moe introduced Les to fellow producer JuJu. While crate digging, both Beatnuts ran into Afrika Baby Bam from the Jungle Brothers. Afrika introduced them to Native Tongues members including De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest and the Jungle Brothers. At this time, JuJu and Psycho Les were DJing parties under the alias Beat Kings. The Jungle Brothers claimed that they were not kings, but rather two nuts for their comical nature and the fact that they were crazy enough to carry hundreds of records to every show they played. They thus changed their name and "it stuck." The two Beatnuts members later met up with rapper Kool Fashion.


title: The Beatnuts

text: The Beatnuts entered the recording industry in 1990 producing two tracks for the British alternative hip hop/electronica group Stereo MCs as well as a song for British rapper Monie Love. Over the next two years, they produced songs for rappers including Common, Pete Nice & DJ Richie Rich and Kurious, as well as a full album for Chi-Ali. As of 1992, JuJu had not appeared on a record, but fellow Beatnuts rappers Fashion and Psycho Les appeared on tracks that he produced. In 1993, The Beatnuts produced more songs for the artists they had previously collaborated with as well as Fat Joe, Suprême NTM and Da Youngsta's. At the same time, The Beatnuts made their name as remix specialists by remixing songs for MC Lyte, Da Lench Mob, Naughty by Nature, Jomanda and others.


title: The Beatnuts

text: The Beatnuts' early production work earned them a record deal with Combat Records in 1992. The Beatnuts planned on releasing a "mini-LP" through that label, but its release was delayed when Kool Fashion was sentenced to six months of jail for drug convictions. After Fashion completed his sentence, The Beatnuts left Combat Records and signed deals with Violator Management and Relativity Records. In April 1993, The Beatnuts released their debut album, "", through their new label. It featured 11 songs, including the two singles "Reign of the Tec" and "No Equal". The album was characterized by its hedonistic party-style lyrics and sample-heavy jazz beats. It was a critical success receiving favorable reviews by Allmusic, "The Source" and "Entertainment Weekly".


title: The Beatnuts

text: "Intoxicated Demons" was followed in 1994 with the eponymous full-length album "". "Street Level" followed its preceding EP in style, but slightly surpassed its commercial success by charting on the "Billboard" 200. It featured two singles, "Props Over Here" and "Hit Me with That", neither of which were commercial hits. "Street Level" was the last Beatnuts album released before Fashion left the group to become a devout Muslim and solo artist under the alias Al' Tariq. He left The Beatnuts on good terms and collaborated with his former group on future albums.


title: The Beatnuts

text: The Beatnuts did not follow up their 1994 album until releasing "Stone Crazy" in 1997. Although it contained "Off the Books", a single that charted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and featured a standout performance by Big Pun, the album was not a critical success. Leo Stanley of Allmusic attributed its mediocre reception to its lack of energy—not its "jazz-inflected rhythms and hardcore rhyming". Chris Ryan of "Rolling Stone" conceded that the album was still "something of a breakthrough" for The Beatnuts in spite of itself. Two weeks after the release of "Stone Crazy", The Beatnuts released "Hydra Beats, Vol. 5", a small-scale instrumental album. "Vol. 5" was one album in a series of vinyl instrumental albums released by underground label Hydra Entertainment.


title: The Beatnuts

text: 1998 saw the release of "", a remix EP that revamped songs from the first three non-instrumental Beatnuts albums. It additionally featured sequels to older Beatnuts tracks and one new song, "Treat$". It was released in anticipation of 1999's "A Musical Massacre", The Beatnuts' most commercially and critically successful album. "A Musical Massacre" reached #35 on the "Billboard" 200 due to its hit single "Watch Out Now". The album is hailed for its "eclectic" and "textured" beats as well as its "rough, rugged, and raunchy" lyrics with slightly more content variation than past releases.


title: The Beatnuts

text: After Sony released The Beatnuts's first hits compilation, 1999's "World Famous Classics", The Beatnuts did not record another album until 2001's "Take It or Squeeze It". Their 2001 album contained two slightly popular singles, "No Escapin' This" and "Let's Git Doe", but was unable to match the commercial or critical success of "A Musical Massacre". Reviews by both Allmusic and "Rolling Stone" claimed that "Take It or Squeeze It" had a mix of inventive production and clichéd gangster rhymes.


title: The Beatnuts

text: In November 2001, it was announced that Loud Records—whose father label Relativity Records had released all Beatnuts albums since their 1993 debut—had cut ties with The Beatnuts. The decision was followed by the release of two greatest hits: 2001's "Beatnuts Forever" and 2002's "Classic Nuts, Vol. 1". While The Beatnuts were free agents, a rumor surfaced that JuJu and Psycho Les were going to collaborate with Al' Tariq under the group alias 'Intoxicated Demons'. The Beatnuts did not reunite with Al Tariq, but instead signed with the underground label LandSpeed Records. In 2002, they released "The Originators", a commercial failure that did not reach the "Billboard" 200 or contain charting singles. The album was still a critical success because of its catchy hooks and creative beats. Steve Juon of RapReviews.com remarked on the correlation between The Beatnuts' critical and commercial success: If they are less known and don't sell as well being on an indie imprint like LandSpeed Records, it will still be worth it if the increased quality of their beats and rhymes remain this high.


title: The Beatnuts

text: Instead of remaining on LandSpeed Records, The Beatnuts signed to Penalty Recordings before releasing their 2004 album "Milk Me". Although Penalty was also an underground label, "Milk Me" was still able to scrape the bottom of the "Billboard" 200. The album was almost unanimously held to be solid. Nonetheless, three singles and an Akon guest appearance did not propel the album to the commercial success of prior Beatnuts albums.


title: The Beatnuts

text: "Milk Me" contained the song "Confused Rappers", a track that dissed Jennifer Lopez for allegedly stealing the beat from The Beatnuts' "Watch Out Now" on her 2002 hit "Jenny from the Block". The song criticizes Lopez's singing ability and looks, but ultimately criticizes the track's producers, Trackmasters and Cory Rooney, for allegedly stealing the beat. Although The Beatnuts did eventually receive royalties, Psycho Les is still critical of the track's producers. The beats on both "Watch Out Now" and "Jenny from the Block" sample the Enoch Light cover of "Hi-Jack" by Fernando Arbex of the Spanish group Barrabás. Barrabás created the original drum and bass lines, with the flute transposition of the melodic loop (the famous sample in the Beatnuts and Jennifer Lopez tracks) introduced in the Herbie Mann and Enoch Light covers.


title: The Beatnuts

text: In March 2007, Psycho Les released his debut solo album "Psycho Therapy (The Soundtrack)" on Pit Fight Records. Psycho Les additionally joined with Al Tariq and Problemz to form the group Big City. In June, they released "The City Never Sleeps" on Nature Sounds.


title: The Beatnuts

text: Later that year, The Beatnuts had a track included on the "Official Joints" mixtape, a collection of previously unreleased songs by NYC rappers.


title: The Beatnuts

text: In December, JuJu was arrested in Stockholm, Sweden for an alleged assault. He was detained for 36 hours for a "minor assault" after performing a concert.


title: The Beatnuts

text: On September 30, 2008, Pit Fight Records released "U.F.O. Files", a compilation of previously unreleased Beatnuts songs.


title: The Beatnuts

text: July 24, 2009, The Beatnuts performed with Slick Rick and Rahzel at the Roseland Theater in Portland, Oregon. Presented by Global Market Productions the show included all elements of hip hop: beat boxing, break dancing, DJing, MC battles and graffiti art.


title: The Beatnuts

text: In October 2009, "Deez Nuts", a semi-autobiographical theatre production conceived by Sacha Jenkins and starring The Beatnuts ran for 3 nights at the Ohio Theatre as part of the New York Hip-Hop Theater Festival.


title: The Beatnuts

text: The Beatnuts partnered with the West Coast Hip hop group Tha Alkaholiks in 2016 to make a super crew known as the Liknuts which toured together.


title: The Beatnuts

text: The Beatnuts are known for their sample-heavy beats and explicit party-ready lyrics. In early records, the beats had a jazz and funk-influenced sound, but later songs were influenced by Latin music. Critics have commented that The Beatnuts have consistently good beats, but lack in terms of lyrics. JuJu addressed this in a 2004 interview:


title: The Beatnuts

text: Their production is noted as some of the most accomplished, if unheralded, in all of hip hop, often intricately detailed (as in their finely honed work for Mos Def on two tracks from "Black on Both Sides") but more regularly barnstorming, club-friendly, flourish-laden party music.


title: The Beatnuts

text: The Beatnuts are noted for being unabashedly, bullishly ribald and in-your-face performers. Recent Beatnuts albums are characterized by more Latin influences.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: James McGill Buchanan Jr. (; October 3, 1919 – January 9, 2013) was an American economist known for his work on public choice theory originally outlined in his most famous work co-authored with Gordon Tullock in 1962, "The Calculus of Consent", then developed over decades for which he received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1986. Buchanan's work initiated research on how politicians' and bureaucrats' self-interest, utility maximization, and other non-wealth-maximizing considerations affect their decision-making. He was a member of the Board of Advisors of The Independent Institute as well as of the Institute of Economic Affairs, a member of the Mont Pelerin Society (MPS) and MPS president from 1984 to 1986, a Distinguished Senior Fellow of the Cato Institute, and professor at George Mason University.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan was born in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, the eldest of the three children of James and Lila (Scott) Buchanan, a family of Scotch-Irish descent. He had two sisters. When James Buchanan Sr. married in 1918 and began his family he borrowed heavily to mechanize and improve the farm, including the acquisition of a herd of Jersey cattle. The Buchanan farm suffered during the 1920sby the time James Buchanan Jr. was old enough to work on the farm, all the work was done either manually or with mules and horses. In his 1992 memoirs, he described his family life on the farm as "genteel poverty" with neither indoor plumbing nor electricity. Later in his life Buchanan continued to enjoy working on his large hobby farm in Blacksburg, Virginia. Unlike in other farm families where children regularly stayed home to help as farm labor, his mother insisted he never miss a day of school. He grew up in a house with his grandfather's library of books on politics. While completing his first university degree in 1940 at the Middle Tennessee State Teachers College he continued to live at home and work on the farm. In 1941 he completed his M.S. at the University of Tennessee and subsequently his PhD at the University of Chicago.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: He served as an officer in the United States Navy in Pearl Harbor and Guam in Honolulu, Hawaii starting in March 1942 as part of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz's operations planning staff. He began his active duty in September 1941, trained in New York, then left for Honolulu in March 1942, where he remained during the war.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan's dislike of eastern elites began during the six months of navy officer training in New York's midshipmen's school in 1941. He was in his early twenties and had not travelled east before. He described what he called overt discrimination against young men like himself; young graduates from what he called establishment universities in the north-eastern states, were promoted more often than those, like him, who were from the southern or western states. In a 2011 interview, Buchanan said that out of twenty "boys from the establishment universities, 12 or 13 were picked against a background of a total of 600 [men]." He was completing his last month of training in New York during the December 7, 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor. Buchanan said that "in balance" his work in operations planning during the war was "easy." He was released in November 1945.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan married a nurse in 1945 that he had met while serving in Honolulu. With her support and the generous G.I. Bill education subsidy available to war veterans, Buchanan applied to graduate school. In his 1992 biography, Buchanan said that when he began his graduate studies in 1945 at the University of Chicago, he was unaware of how market-oriented the Chicago school of economics was. According to a 1992 biography, as a freshman, he was like most of the other PhD students in his program; they were almost all socialist in some form or another. That changed when he enrolled in a course taught by Frank Knight. Knight, who also taught Milton Friedman and George Stigler at the University of Chicago, was a co-founder and vice president of the Mont Pelerin Society, an influential group of less than thirty like-minded prominent international economists, philosophers, intellectuals and entrepreneurs who were invited to a meeting at Mont Pelerin in Switzerland, by Friedrich Hayek. Hayek studied under Ludwig von Mises, known as the main exponent of the Austrian School of Economics. Other attendees at that first meeting included Friedman, Stigler, von Mises and Karl Popper. Within six weeks of starting his studies, Buchanan was "converted into a zealous advocate of the market order". Frank Knight became Buchanan's "de facto" PhD supervisor, and his 1948 dissertation, "Fiscal Equity in a Federal State", was heavily influenced by Knight. Buchanan did not consider himself as belonging to the Austrian or the Chicago schools of economics. But he was a member of the Mont Pelerin Society, and served as its president from 1984 to 1986 just before he received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He did share many of their common beliefs. As Buchanan puts it: "I certainly have a great deal of affinity with Austrian economics and I have no objections to being called an Austrian. Friedrich Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not." Buchanan went on to say that: "I didn't become acquainted with Mises until I wrote an article on individual choice and voting in the market in 1954. After I had finished the first draft I went back to see what Mises had said in "Human Action". I found out, amazingly, that he had come closer to saying what I was trying to say than anybody else."


title: James M. Buchanan

text: It was also at Chicago that he first read and found enlightening the work of Swedish economist Knut Wicksell. Photographs of Knight and Wicksell hung on his office walls ever after.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: After completing his PhD in 1948, Buchanan taught at the University of Tennessee as associate professor then professor from 1948 until 1951. He was a professor of economics at Florida State University from 1951 until 1956 and served for two years as the department chair. From 1955 to 1956 he was a Fulbright Scholar in Italy.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: He taught at UCLA 1968–1969, followed by Virginia Tech 1969-1983, where he held the title Distinguished Professor of Economics.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1988 he began teaching at George Mason University where he remained until his retirement with emeritus status.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1956 Buchanan and G. Warren Nutter approached the president of the University of Virginia to discuss the creation of a new school within the university, "The Jefferson Center for Studies in Political Economy and Social Philosophy". Nutter, who studied under Friedman and Knight at the University of Chicago in the late 1940s, was working at that time under the sponsorship of the Brookings Institution's National Bureau of Economic Research (INBR) on his 1962 book "The Growth of Industrial Production in the Soviet Union". It was Thomas Jefferson who founded the University of Virginia in 1819 in Charlottesville, Virginia as a public research university. The next year the school was founded with the intention of preserving a "social order built on individual liberty, and . . . as an educational undertaking in which students will be encouraged to view the organizational problems of society as a fusion of technical and philosophical issues."


title: James M. Buchanan

text: One of the Center's early publications that reached a wider audience was a 1959 report Buchanan co-authored with Nutter, "The Economics of Universal Education". In it they wrote that the, "case for universal education is self-evident: a democracy cannot function without an informed and educated citizenry. . . . If education is to be universal, compulsion must be exercised by government—that is, by the collective organ of society—since some parents might choose to keep their children out of school. For similar reasons, minimum standards of education must be determined by government. Otherwise, the requirement of education is empty and meaningless." Buchanan was not against "state participation in education" although he strongly opposed " state monopoly of education".


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Its publication provided the Center and its authors, their first opportunity to be involved in a major public policy issue related to constitutional reform. A March 12, 1959 "Charlottesville Daily Progress" editorial called for reform of Virginia's constitution that would recognize "both the need for universal education and the right of the individual to freedom of choice in the education of his children." Georgetown University historian, James H. Hershman, said the wording seems to be from "The Economics of Universal Education". In a 2017 CATO Institute's Libertarianism,org podcast, Richard E. Wagner, who studied under Buchanan in the 1960s and maintained a 50-year friendship with him, said that Buchanan was an "egalitarian" and had no objection to the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education U.S. Supreme Court decision that introduced desegregation in public schools. Wagner said that while Buchanan opposed segregated schools at the time, he also believed in decentralization and parental and student choice within a liberal orientation of people being able to develop their talents and abilities. Hershman wrote the "Encyclopedia Virginia"'s "Massive Resistance" article,' and his 1978 PhD dissertation was on the massive resistance strategya Virginia state government strategy adopted in 1956 to block the desegregation of public schools led by Harry F. Byrd Sr., who coined the term. In a 2020 article, Hershman examined Buchanan's actions in the spring of 1959 within the context of the massive resistance policy. By the time Buchanan became involved, there was already a groundswell of protests against desegregation based on constitutional arguments, states' rights, and even some arguments from the Chicago school of economics. The Virginia school crisis offered Buchanan a "major opportunity" of promoting "libertarian economic and social ideas." The Buchanan and Nutter report proved most useful just before an April 16, 1959 public hearing on a proposed constitutional change. In order to counter the argument that a "private system was unfeasible and that any weakening of public education would damage the state's economy overall and discourage new industries from coming to Virginia", supporters asked Buchanan and Nutter to write a shorter summary of their February report. They published two articles on the report in the Richmond "Times-Dispatch" on April 12 and 13. While Buchanan's personal views on race were beside the point, according to Hershman, the "massive resistance private school initiative" had provided an "opportunity to "create a functioning alternative to the existing public system", to "promote his libertarian education doctrines, as an example to showcase those ideas". Hershman wrote that it did not seem to concern Buchanan that the libertarian doctrines would perpetuate segregation. Buchanan was on the wrong side of history. The school crisis brought in a power shift in the state of Virginia from a "rural, courthouse elite to that of an urban, business elite".


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In later years, Buchanan no longer held the same ideas on school vouchers as those expressed in the 1959 report. He cautioned in a 1984 letter to the Institute for Economic Affairs's Arthur Seldon that a state-sponsored unregulated voucher system from tax revenues to avoid the "evils of state monopoly" of the education system, could have the unintended consequence of the "evils of race-class-cultural segregation." The voucher system could result in recreating the exclusive membership-only system for elites. While vouchers would ideally promote market competition while also providing benefits of "exposure to other races, classes and cultures", this has not happened in practise.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan remained at the University of Virginia until 1968. Buchanan and Nutter established the Virginia school of political economy in the Economics Department which included Tullock, Stigler, Ronald Coase, Alexandre Kafka, and Leland B. Yeager. In a 1997 interview with "Reason", Nobel Laureate Coase discussed the atmosphere in the university's Economics Department in the 1960s, in which he and Buchanan, Tullock, and Nutter were not appreciated. Their work was considered to be "disreputable" and they were considered to be "right-wing extremists", to the "right of the John Birch Society". In the 1950s and 1960s there was a lot of antagonism against those who promoted an unregulated, free market.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: With the publication of "The Calculus of Consent" in 1962 and Mancur Olson's "Logic of Collective Action" in 1965, there was some interest growing in public choice theory. Tullock and Buchanan applied for and received a National Science Foundation grant to organize a preliminary research meeting in Charlottesville in 1963 with about twenty people including Riker, Mancur Olson, Vincent Ostrom and Downs, Duncan Black, Roland McKean, Jerome Rothenberg, and John Rawls from political philosophy, the author of the influential 1971 "A Theory of Justice". They created a Committee for the Study of Non-Market Decision Making, which later became the Public Choice Society. They wanted to focus on how choices and "decisions were made outside of a private market context". As a follow up, they launched a journal with Tullock as editor, that they called "Papers on Non-market Decision Making". Tullock remained as editor until 1990. They had several follow up meetings, including one in Chicago in 1967. They all disliked the title of the journal and someone suggested changing it to "Public Choice."


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1969, Buchanan, Tullock, and Charles J. Goetz established the Center for the Study of Public Choice at Virginia Polytechnic Institute (VPI) in Blacksburg, Virginia with Buchanan as its first president. They continued the Public Choice Society.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: During the presidency of George W. Johnson, George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia underwent a massive campus expansion funded by corporate donors with whom Johnson had cultivated relationshipsAT&T, IBM, and Xerox and others. With these endowments he was able to bring high-profile academics, such as Buchanan, and establish new research centers. Buchanan was drawn to GMU's leadership. He saw GMU as a dynamic university that was going places. Buchanan and Tulloch had been facing challenges with VPI's Economics department head Daniel M. Orr. Buchanan was offered an annual salary of over $100,000 at GMU, which was at that time a relatively unknown state university having just separated from the University of Virginia in 1972. In 1983, Buchanan and Tulloch relocated the entire Center for the Study of Public Choice unit, which included its seven faculty members to GMU. The addition of the respected economics professors and the CSPC provided a catalyst for GMU's growth. Buchanan and Tullock were considered to be the fathers of a new school of economics, based on public choice theory and a populist free-market. The addition of the respected economics professors and the CSPC provided a catalyst for the university's growth. Over the next decades, GMU became the largest public university in Virginia. In his 1985 analysis of the federal budge, Buchanan examined the government's role in economic life and how taxation could be limited. Economist James C. Miller III, who served as chairman of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and as Budget Director for President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, consulted with Buchanan, Tullock, and Tollison at the CSPC Over the next decades, GMU became the largest public university in Virginia.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan was president of the Southern Economic Association in 1963 and of the Western Economic Association in 1983 and 1984, and vice president of the American Economic Association in 1971.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan has been associated with the Indianapolis-headquartered Liberty Fund, a free-market think tank which was founded in 1960 by Pierre F. Goodrich, who had become a member of the Mont Pelerin Society in 1953 and had formed friendships with Hayek, Mises, Friedman, and others. The Fund hosted conferences and a symposium on Buchanan's economic policy, liberalism and liberty. The entire collection of his publications are hosted on the Online Library of Liberty (OLL) site and they have published many of his works. Liberty Fund hosts invitation-only conferences that Buchanan attended over the years.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1998, Buchanan returned to Virginia Tech in Blacksburg as a Distinguished Emeritus Professor of Economics and Philosophy where he contributed in organizing and providing funds for workshops, symposia, and lectures, including the annual James M. Buchanan lectures.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: The Mercatus Center had a branch at George Mason University since 1980 and had some overlaps with the Center for Study of Public Choice there. From 1998 to 2002 the James M. Buchanan Center for Political Economy also operated from the GMU campus where its archives are still located. George Mason University economist Alexander Tabarrok is the director of the CSPC. Tyler Cowen is director of the Mercatus Center and a CSPC faculty member.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan broad themes include public finance then public goods, public choice, and public philosophy. In the late 1940s and 1950s he investigated voting and other topics not usually studied in economics. Buchanan began to break from "disciplinary constraints" and examine problems from other disciplines such as political science.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1948, Buchanan first read the Swedish economist, Wicksell's "Finanztheoretische Untersuchungen" 1896 essay, "A New Principle of Just Taxation." He translated it from German and in his 1986 Nobel Prize lecture Buchanan said that Wicksell was an "important precursor of modern public-choice theory."had informed his own concept of unanimity-voting. said that Wicksell was an "important precursor of modern public-choice theory." Wickseil investigated a mechanism for voting how public goods could be financed in order to ensure that the tax burden was fairly distributed. Wicksell applied the benefit principle to taxation. By using the mechanism of unanimity-voting, everyone involved would have a guarantee of receiving "benefits commensurate to their tax cost from any public good". Wicksell said that no would be able to complain if he were able to receive "a benefit which he himself considers to be (greater or at least) as great as the price he has to pay".


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan said that his 1949 paper, "The Pure Theory of Government Finance: A Suggested Approach" published in the Journal of Political Economy he was influenced by Wicksell. to improve the rules and structure of politics, and particularly to recognize that politicians behave like most people, according to their own self-interests. It was a way of thinking about politics that was based on common sense reality, not romanticism. In that paper he called on economists to clarify their own assumptions about politics and to think about their political models before talking about "good taxation" and "good spending." "The Pure Theory of Government Finance: A Suggested Approach" published in the Journal of Political Economy It contained core ideas that Buchanan continued to develop over his career which spanned six decades, according to his biographer Richard E. Wagner. In his 1989 address on Buchanan's contributions, Tony Atkinson said that it "reads like a manifesto for his life's work." In it Buchanan clarified that the democratic state is not a single decision-making unit as in a monarchy. In democratic societies, the state can only represent the collective will of the sum of its individual members.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: His 1950 article, "Federalism and Fiscal Equity"reprinted in Richard A. Musgrave 1959 "Readings in the economics of taxation"was described as a "pioneering" paper by Musgrave. During the recession of 1960–1961, Buchanan and Musgrave served on a Brookings Institution's National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) advisory committee on the needs, sources, and utilization of public finances. Brookings is a respected think tank that has a long history of producing influential commissioned reports for the United States government. In their discussion on equity objectives of fiscal policy, Musgrave cited Buchanan's recommendation that the central fiscal policy should consider individuals, not the "states", as a matter of equity. The requirement of horizontal equitythe "principle that equals should be treated equally" is more meaningful than that of vertical equitythe "requirement of differential treatment of unequals".


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1955 Buchanan spent the year in Italy reading the works of the neoclassical economist Maffeo Pantaleoni (1857 –1924) and his followersAntonio De Viti De Marco and Vilfredo Pareto, who are part of the Italian school of public finance theory. They are considered to be a major influence on Buchanan's work. He considered them to be among the "intellectual forefathers of the modern public choice theory". In his "Public Principles of Public Debt" published in 1958, Buchanan acknowledged that "the Italian approach to the whole problem of public debt was instrumental in shaping my views". rigorous analysis of the theory of logrolling, macroeconomics, constitutional economics, and libertarian theory. He was the first anglophone economist to focus on this and included their work in his chapter, "The Italian Tradition in Fiscal Theory", in his 1960 textbook "Fiscal Theory and Political Economy". He discussed collective decision-making in public financethe role of the government in the state's economy and fiscal theory.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In the late 1940s and early 1950s as Buchanan was developing his own thoughts on the concept of the state, Kenneth Arrow published his influential 1951 monograph, "Social Choice and Individual Values". which was the catalyst for debate on social choice. The monograph was based on ideas Arrow first developed in 1948 as a RAND Corporation intern and in his PhD dissertation in 1950 combining social ethics, voting theory and economics in his social choice theory. Arrow examined the role of individual preferences in the process of collective decision-making regarding aggregate or group preferences, for example, in voting and establishing underlying constitutions for the common good. Arrow concluded that it was generally impossible to assess the "common good", for example, the design of a social welfare function through a fair ranked voting electoral system because individual preferences within the aggregate differ. The paradox is the impossibility of majority voting yielding a stable result or pareto efficiency with existing rules of the game. Buchanan critiqued Arrow's impossibility theorem or Arrow's paradox. The thesis in Arrow's 1951 book that "majority rule would not give you a political equilibrium" created a lot of debate. Buchanan responded that his idea was anti-majoritaireif that is what the preferences are, then in a democracy we ought to have a rotation, so there is not just one majority simply ruling. Most political scientists in the 1950s believed in majoritarian democracy as the ideal parliamentary model. Buchanan's ideal was more of a constitutional structure. Buchanan described himself as a constitutional political economist who writes from an economic point of view within a structure of American politics that aligns with James Madison's vision of the ideal democratic parliamentary model, which was not a majority democracy. In public choice theory, Buchanan raises concerns about minorities being exploited under permanent majorities


title: James M. Buchanan

text: While in Italy on a Fulbright Scholarship in 1956 - 1957 he became aware of how his generation of Americansthose born in the decades after WWIhad a view of politics that was too romanticized. Italians took a more skeptical, realistic, and critical view of politics. When he returned to the US in 1956, he carried that skepticism with him. In 1958, Tullock took time off from his position at the U.S. Department of State that he had held since 1949, to do research at the University of Virginia focused on majority rule. Buchanan described Tullock as a natural realist about politics; his skepticism had increased in Washington.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan met Tullock, who had a law degree but no formal training in economics, when Tullock accepted a postdoctoral position at the University of Virginia in 1958. Although Tullock's PhD was in law and he had little formal training in economics, the two complemented each other; Buchanan as the philosopher and Tullock the scientist. Together, they set out to provide an "optimal set of the political rules of the game".


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1962, Buchanan and Tullock published "Calculus of Consent, Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy", in which they first outlined public choice theory. Buchanan said he was motivated to write "The Calculus of Consent", because he had a sense that those who should know what democracy actually was, did not. He started to question taxation, expenditure decisions, budgets and the political process. In the same year Buchanan began drafts of his 1967 book, "Public Finance in Democratic Process: Fiscal Institutions and the Individual Choice" in which he applied ideas from pioneering ideas from the public choice school of analysis developed in "Calculus of Consent" to public finance. Buchanan received research support and assistance from the Brookings Institution for the book. In it he analyzed how individual behavior affected fiscal institutions in situations related to collective choice, for example, the relationship between income tax and the public use of economic resources. He said that the primary way in which individuals can make collective choices is by voting.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1967 Buchanan co-authored "Public Debt in a Democratic Society" with Wagner. Buchanan considered his work on public debt as an important extension of his work on public choice theory. Public choice theory examined political decision-making structures as applied to budget policy, specifically as related to fiscal deficit. Buchanan said that there was government overreach in totalitarian regimes but also in the 1960s in Western democratic welfare-state nations, such as President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Great Society" programs designed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice. In the 1970s, as more people became critical of government programs, public choice theory provided some common sense answers, as opposed to romance. He said that he did not want to "lead the way", he wanted to provide a way for people to "interpret better what they were seeing". He described how politicians provide their constituents with programs that benefit them, paying for the new programs with deficit to avoid having to raise taxes to pay for them in order to remain in office. Public choice policies called for constitutional amendments to prevent the deficit from accelerating even more. In his 1986 chapter "Budgetary Bias in Post-Keynesian Politics" in "Deficits", he wrote, "The most elementary prediction from public choice theory is that in the absence of moral or constitutional constraints democracies will finance some share of public consumption from debt issue rather than from taxation and that, in consequence, spending rates will be higher than would accrue under budget balance."


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In 1968, Buchanan left the University of Virginia and spent a year at the University of California, Los Angeles. He published "The Demand and Supply of Public Goods", in which he described public finance methods using consensus politics developed by Wicksell and his student Erik Lindahl (1891 – 1960) within the framework of their concept of the ideal state. Hayek had introduced their work to anglophone economists in his 1941 "Pure Theory of Capital" written while he was at the London School of Economics (LSE). Buchanan traced the history of public goods theory to Wicksell and re-examined the Wicksellian unanimous solution in voting. He discussed tax shares as a variable in public finance theory and potential outcomes of public choice by majority rule. The Lindahl tax share on public goods paid by individuals is based on the marginal benefits derived from the goodsa system designed to maximize efficiency for the individual while also providing optimal public good. The rate or share of taxation is related to the willingness to pay. Buchanan discussed challenges to achieving a Pareto-optimal position from Lindahl's concept of public goods, such as free riders.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan's 1969 work "Cost and Choice" is often overlooked for its contributions in defining the parameters of opportunity cost. In it, he writes that the costs to individuals determine what the price of a good or service is. For example, the physical work that is required to hunt an animal as well as the price of the tools necessary to hunt it and the time spent hunting all play a factor in the price an individual places on the meat. The asking price of the meat will vary from person to person because the input costs required for each person are not the same.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In his 1964 article "What Should Economists Do?", which was based on his 1963 address to the Southern Economic Association (SEA), Buchanan distinguished between economics and politics. The former studies "the whole system of exchange relationships" while the latter studies "the whole system of coercive or potentially coercive relationships". One of Buchanan's definitive statements on the re-orientation of the two academic disciplines of economics and political science was found in this 1963 SEA address.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan told his contemporaries in the field of economics that Adam Smith's statement in his 1776 "An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" that the human "propensity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for another" is what political economy is all about. Economists should therefore focus on the politics of exchange not on attempting to engineer efficient allocations of resources.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Michael Munger described three elements of Buchanan's concept of public choice theorybehavioural symmmetry, methodological individualism, and politics as exchange, or "politics without romance". In their article on Buchanan's politics as exchange, they described him as a classical liberal, who also incorporated rational choice theory, and individual utility maximization in his analyses. The ultimate exchange process is not based on some romantic notion of public service that Buchanan roundly rejected. "Politics of exchange implies a shared exchange relationship or enterprise that is crucial as a way of "justifying political coercion of one person over another". Buchanan encouraged individuals to be skeptical about bureaucrats' and politicians' motivations and behaviour. Buchanan said that the "politics as exchange" contract on which the constitution is based precedes any economic enterprise. Trade in goods and services can only be undertaken in an orderly fashion if a legal system in already in place, one that includes limits on the powers of governments. Politics of exchange can then be described as cooperative, the contract between "nonmarket institutions and the mechanism of coercion is collective". Politics as exchange is a way of justifying coercion by providing a means for a change that is mutually beneficial, attaining pareto efficiency through cooperation, where societal improvement is possible when a change results in harming no one but helping someone.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In his 1966 publication "Public Finance in a Democratic Process" Buchanan began to develop applications based on "The Calculus of Consent" using a multidisciplinary approach through the lens of both economics and politics .


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan was largely responsible for the rebirth of political economy as a scholarly pursuit. He emphasized that public policy cannot be considered solely in terms of distribution, but is instead always a matter of setting the rules of the game that engender a pattern of exchange and distribution. His work in public choice theory is often interpreted as the quintessential instance of economics imperialism; however, Amartya Sen has argued that Buchanan should not be identified with economics imperialism, since he has done more than most to introduce ethics, legal political thinking, and indeed social thinking into economics. Crucial to understanding Buchanan's system of thought is the distinction he made between politics and policy. Politics is about the rules of the game, where policy is focused on strategies that players adopt within a given set of rules. "Questions about what are good rules of the game are in the domain of social philosophy, whereas questions about the strategies that players will adopt given those rules is the domain of economics, and it is the play between the rules (social philosophy) and the strategies (economics) that constitutes what Buchanan refers to as constitutional political economy".


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In his 1975 book, "The Limits of Liberty: Between Anarchy and Leviathan", which has been described as his "magnum opus", Buchanan examined the concept of a social contract. In "The Limits of Liberty" Buchanan did support some redistribution; his proposed social contract of a "productive" state includes tax-financed goods and some social insurance. He felt this would have unanimous agreement. In the summer of 1975 at a Liberty Fund conference in Ohio with most of the economists in attendance saying there should be no estate tax, Buchanan passionately disagreed. He thought that there should be a 100% marginal tax on all estates over a relatively modest amount, to prevent an aristocracy from forming in America and to ensure equal opportunity.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan was a vocal critic of the 1994 David Card and Alan B. Krueger's minimum wage study. Contrary to the consensus at the time, they found that "the increase in the minimum wage increased employment." In a 1996 response in the "Wall Street Journal", Buchanan wrote, "Just as no physicist would claim that "water runs uphill," no self-respecting economist would claim that increases in the minimum wage increase employment. [...] Fortunately, only a handful of economists are willing to throw over the teaching of two centuries; we have not yet become a bevy of camp-following whores."


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan is the chief architect and the leading researcher of public choice theory which was first outlined in his most well-known work, "The Calculus of Consent". Over many decades, Buchanan developed the theoretical formulation which straddled both economics and political science and became known as "The New Political Economy" or "Public Choice" for which he was honored with the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences. Sir Anthony (Tony) Atkinson said that one of Buchanan's major contributions was clarifying two levels of public choicethe constitutional level which is where the rules of the game are set, and the postconstitutional level, where the game is played within the constitutional rules.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In "The Calculus of Consent", Buchanan and Tullock cited Swedish economist Knut Wicksell's standpoint on public choice in their argument for the need for unanimous agreement on constitutional rules. Anthony Atkinson cited the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences describing the significant role of Wicksell in the development of Buchanan's thinking. It was Buchanan who translated Wicksell's "A New Principle of Just Taxation" from German in 1958. Within the framework of public choice, they described the potential for logrolling as enhancing rather than reducing welfare. Logrolling refers to politicians' vote-trading on provisions as part of an endgame of achieving their political or economic goals.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: According to a 1992 journal article by George Mason University economists, Alexander Tabarrok and Tyler Cowen, the precursor to Buchanan and Tullock's public choice theory is found in the work of John C. Calhoun. Tabarrok, who is the director of the Center for Study of Public Choice, and Cowen, Director of the Mercatus Center and a CSPC faculty member, said that Calhoun's political philosophy writings, as developed in his 1851 "A Disquisition on Government", proposed the rule by unanimity to reform the constitution, which as it then existed according to Calhoun, had resulted in a form of democracy that did not sufficiently protect liberty. In his analysis of Calhoun's work through the Virginia political economy perspective, the Heartland Institute's Alexander Salter wrote that Buchanan's project regarding generality norm is supported by Calhoun's concurrent majority developed in the "Disquisition".


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In the "Dictionary of Economics," Tullock said that public choice theory applies methodologies from economics to the study of political behavior. Public choice theory assumes that people are mainly guided by self-interest, including politicians, bureaucrats, and government officials. Public choice theory focuses on democratic decision-making process within the political realm. Buchanan used both fields of economics and political science to help develop his theory of public choice. The same principles used to interpret people's decisions in a market setting are applied to voting, lobbying, campaigning, and even candidates. Buchanan maintains that a person's first instinct is to make their decisions based upon their own self-interest, which varied from previous models where government officials acted in constituents' best interest. Buchanan explains public choice theory as "politics without romance" because, he says, many of the promises made in politics are intended to appear concerned with the interest of others, but in reality are the products of selfish ulterior motives. According to this view, political decisions, on both sides of the voting booth, are rarely made with the intention of helping anyone but the one making the decision. Buchanan argues that the actions of voters and politicians can be predicted by analyzing their behaviors.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In the 1960s when Buchanan first began to formulate his public choice theory, he was one of the few, if not the only economist, who was critical of Keynesian economics, which had become widely accepted in the United States in the 1960s and resulted in a shift in towards governance through "macro-economic engineering". Keynes had written his classic and influential "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" in 1938, but there was a lag between its publication and the widespread adoption of his ideas. By 1965, "Time" magazine featured the phase "We are all Keynesians now" on its cover attributing it to Milton Friedman. Keynes promoted the use of deficit spending as a way to implement government programs in the wake of the Great Depression in the 1930s and Post-World War II. The 1977 book, "Democracy in Deficit", by Buchanan and co-author Richard Wagner was based on an analysis of Keynesian macroeconomic theory and policy in which they applied the basic tools of public choice theory for the first time. They found that there was a bias towards deficit spending that could be linked to the self-interest of the political agents involved.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan's important contribution to constitutionalism is his development of the sub-discipline of constitutional economics.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: According to Buchanan the ethic of constitutionalism is a key for constitutional order and "may be called the idealized Kantian world" where the individual "who is making the ordering, along with substantially all of his fellows, adopts the moral law as a general rule for behaviour". Buchanan rejects "any organic conception of the state as superior in wisdom to the citizens of this state". This philosophical position forms the basis of constitutional economics. Buchanan believed that every constitution is created for at least several generations of citizens. Therefore, it must be able to balance the interests of the state, society, and each individual.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: There was a long history of neoliberal economists in Chile even before Augusto Pinochet 1973 Chilean coup d'état that deposed President Salvador Allende. Through the 1970s and 1980s the Chilean economists known as the Chicago Boys who studied at the University of Chicago, under Friedman had applied his economic theories in their government positions in South America, including in the military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990). The Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile of 1980 came into full force in March 1981 constitution, establishing a market-oriented model based on Chicago School and Friedman's neoliberal ideas. In Chile, Buchanan provided policy advice and his constitutional political economy arguments to Pinochet. He also allegedly provided an "analytical defense of military rule to a predominantly Chilean audience." Hayek also visited Chile and Pinochet that year.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan's legacy lives on through the Political Economic Research Institute (PERI) at Middle Tennessee State University (MTSU) which provides fellowships for both undergraduate and graduate students. PERI at MTSU works with MTSU's Honors College for its undergrad fellows. The Honors college also has its own Buchanan Fellowship. These fellowships honor Buchanan's academic achievement in many subjects besides economics. With respect to PERI's graduate fellowships, these are motived by academic work in the field of economics.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In his 2017 publication, Richard Wagner described how Buchanan's scholarship continues to influence law, ethics, political science, and economics in the 21st century.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Nicolás Cachanosky and Edward J. Lopez suggest that Buchanan's research can inform work on trade restrictions and populism in the twenty-first century.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Michael Munger's 2017 article defending Buchanan's public choice theory, was partly in response to the 2017 non-fiction by Duke University historian Nancy MacLean, "Democracy in Chains", which is almost a biographic account of Buchanan. MacLean's book became a catalyst for controversy online and in journals. Her harshest critics include David Bernstein who wrote a series of "Washington Post" opinion pieces as part of the widely-read "Volokh Conspiracy" blog. "The New York Review of Books", "Boston Review of Books" , and "LA Review of Books" gave the book positive reviews. MacLean traced Buchanan's concept of power to the 1950s and 1960s. He had become concerned that the federal government was channeling too many resources to the public. As he witnessed the federal government increasing its power, Buchanan sought ways to protect the wealthy from being forced to support programs that seemed to him to be a move towards socialism. MacLean described how Buchanan and other libertarians seek to protect capitalism by preventing government overreach. MacLean described Buchanan's concept of human nature as "dismal" and that he believed that politicians and government workers are motivated by self-interest and that government would continue to increase in scale and power unless there were constitutional limits in place. MacLean raised concerns that Buchanan and Charles Koch mutually supported one another to the detriment of democratic participation for all. Koch provided millions in funding to libertarian university programs and Buchanan provided the intellectual arguments from political economy to place limits on democracy. In a 2018 "Journal of Economic Literature" review of MacLean's book, Jean-Baptiste Fleury and Alain Marciano said that MacLean misunderstood public choice theory and that she had overlooked some significant aspects of Buchanan's biography and thinking and had over-interpreted others. MacLean spent years studying Buchanan's copious archives after his death says that the influence of Buchanan's six decades of work on modern conservatism is not well-enough appreciated or understood by liberal politicians, economists, and journalists and that this is problematic.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: University of Chicago economist Luigi Zingales has been influenced by public choice theory which provides a tool box for understanding how the political system can be corrupted by powerful business interests. His 2021 book, "A Capitalism for the People: Recapturing the Lost Genius of American Prosperity", is a call for populist agenda that reflects a distrust of government and supports more competition and free markets. He suggests limiting regulations and relying on a "whistleblower reward system" .


title: James M. Buchanan

text: Buchanan met Anne Bakke, who was of Norwegian descent, at the military base in Hawaii where she was working as a nurse and he was stationed there with the navy during World War II. In 1988, Buchanan returned to Hawaii for the first time since World War II and gave a series of lectures later published by the University Press.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: In a 1986 "Chicago Tribune" interview Buchanan said, "I want a private sphere in which I am protected, where nobody can invade...I don't feel the need to be a part of a community or a team." According to a Washington Post obituarist he was not known for his warm personality, and that even his "staunchest admirers admitted that he was forbidding." Even though he had a long career at George Mason University in Fairfax, Buchanan and his wife chose to spend most of their time a four-hour drive away on their a 400-acre farm working farm near Blacksburg. They had vegetable gardens and raised cattle.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: "The New York Times" obituary said that the Nobel Prize-winning economist who championed public choice theory influenced a "generation of conservative thinking about deficits, taxes and the size of government". The "Badische Zeitung" (Freiburg) called Buchanan, who showed how politicians undermine fair and simple tax systems, the "founder of the new political economy". He and his wife held close family ties with his sisters and nephews.


title: James M. Buchanan

text: A listing of Buchanan's publications from 1949 to 1986 can be found at the "Scandinavian Journal of Economics", 1987, 89(1), pp. 17–37.


title: Pinaka (Hinduism)

text: The Pinaka (, pínāka) is the celestial bow of the Hindu destroyer deity, Shiva. In popular legend, he is believed to have employed this bow in his avatar as Tripurantaka to annihilate the three cities of Mayasura, known as Tripura. The weapon is the origin of one of Shiva's epithets, "Pinakapani", literally meaning, 'the wielder of the Pinaka'.


title: Pinaka (Hinduism)

text: In the Shiva Purana, Shiva employed the Pinaka in his duel against Ganesha, who had been appointed to stand guard while his mother Parvati bathed.


title: Pinaka (Hinduism)

text: In the Harivamsa Purana, when the Prajapati Daksha performed a yajna for the gods, his ceremony was obstructed by Shiva and a human incarnation of Nandi, who wielded the Pinaka. Hari (Vishnu) stood to confront him, accompanied by the adityas and the vasus. Shiva struck Hari on his breast, who countered by grabbing his assailant's throat. When he strung his own bow Sharanga, the mountain Meru trembled. Infuriated, Nandi raised the Pinaka and struck Hari on the head, who stupefied the man with a smile and stood firm, allowing the yajna to resume.