title: Dall sheep

text: Originally, the subspecies "O. d. dalli" and "O. d. stonei" were distinguished by the color of their pelage (fur). However, the pelage-based designations have been shown to be questionable. Complete colour intergradation occurs in both "O. dalli" sheep subspecies (i.e., Dall's and Stone's), ranging between white and dark morphs of the species. Intermediately coloured populations, called Fannin sheep were originally (incorrectly) identified as a unique subspecies ("O. d. fannini") with distributions inhabiting in the Pelly Mountains and Ogilvie Mountains of the Yukon Territory. Fannin sheep have more recently been confirmed as admixed individuals with predominantly Dall's sheep genetic origins. Previous mitochondrial DNA evidence had shown no molecular division along earlier subspecies boundaries, although evidence from nuclear DNA may provide some support. Current taxonomy using mitochondrial DNA information may be less reliable due to hybridization between "O. dalli" and "O. canadensis" recorded in evolutionary history.


title: Dall sheep

text: Current genetics analyses using a genomewide set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has confirmed new subspecies range boundaries for both Dall's and Stone's sheep, updating the previous pelage-based and mitochondrial DNA classifications.


title: Dall sheep

text: "O. dalli" stand about at the shoulder. They are off-white in color, and their coat consists of a fine wool undercoat and stiff, long, and hollow guard hairs. Their winter coats can be over thick. "O. dalli" can live to be 12 to 16 years of age.


title: Dall sheep

text: "O. dalli" are sexually dimorphic, which means rams and ewes look different. Rams are larger than ewes and typically weigh between at maturity. Ewes weigh approximately on average. During the winter, adult sheep may lose up to 16% of their body mass, and lambs and yearlings as much as 40% depending on winter weather severity. "O. dalli" begin growing horns at about two months old. Ewes have small, slender horns compared to the massive, curling horns of rams. Young rams resemble ewes until they are about 3 years of age. At this point, their horns begin to grow much faster and larger than ewes' horns.


title: Dall sheep

text: Adult male "O. dalli" have thick, curling horns. Adult males are easily distinguished by their horns, which continue to grow steadily from spring to early fall. This results in a start-and-stop growth pattern of rings called annuli. Annuli can be used to help determine age.


title: Dall sheep

text: The sheep inhabit the subarctic and arctic mountain ranges of Alaska, the Yukon Territory, the Mackenzie Mountains in the western Northwest Territories, and central and northern British Columbia. "O. dalli" are found in areas with a combination of dry alpine tundra, meadows, and steep or rugged ground. This combination allows for both grazing and escape from predators.


title: Dall sheep

text: "O. dalli" can often be observed along the Seward Highway South of Anchorage, Alaska, within Denali National Park and Preserve (which was created in 1917 to preserve the sheep from overhunting), at Sheep Mountain in Kluane National Park and Reserve, in the Tatshenshini Park Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park in northwestern British Columbia, and near Faro, Yukon.


title: Dall sheep

text: Primary predators of this sheep are wolf packs, coyotes, black bears, and grizzly bears; golden eagles are predators of the young. "O. dalli" have been known to butt gray wolves off the face of cliffs.


title: Dall sheep

text: Rams and ewes are rarely found in the same groups outside of the mating season, or rut, which occurs from mid-November through mid-December. For most of the year, rams feed in the best foraging areas to enhance their reproductive fitness. During spring and summer, ewes are more likely to select areas such as steep, rocky slopes with lower predation risk to raise offspring.


title: Dall sheep

text: Social order and dominance rank is maintained in ram groups through a variety of behaviors including head-on collisions. These dramatic clashes involve each ram getting a running start before colliding, horns-first into one another. Other behaviors associated with establishing social order include leg kicks, bluff charges, and dominance mounting. Most of this behavior establishes order year-round, but clashes between males with similar horn sizes intensify as the rut approaches. Ewes occasionally engage in similar competitive behavior over feeding or bedding sites. Young sheep practice such interactions as part of their play. While rams do clash horns, it is done to establish order, not over fights to possess ewes.


title: Dall sheep

text: Rams are known to occupy up to six seasonal ranges, including different areas used during autumn, rut (or mating season from mid-November to mid-December), midwinter, late winter/spring, and summer, as well as spending time at salt licks.


title: Dall sheep

text: For most of the year, ewes select areas free of snow and close to forage. After lambs are born in May, close proximity to escape terrain as well as nearby forage are important in habitat selection. Ewes and lambs will travel farther from escape terrain to forage when in larger groups.


title: Dall sheep

text: In the summer, food has a high variety and is abundant. In the winter, food is limited to what is available in snow-free areas, such as frozen grasses, sedges, lichens, or mosses. "O. dalli" will travel long distances in the spring to visit mineral licks to supplement their diet.


title: Dall sheep

text: The Inupiat people have a long history of hunting "O. dalli" that dates back to at least the 16th century. Sheep are valued for their skin, which is used for warm clothing, and their meat, especially in times when caribou are not available. Historically, the sheep were hunted in summer by foot and in winter by dog sled teams. Today, the rugged terrain in which they live still requires foot travel to reach these animals. The dependence on "O. dalli" for meat and clothing fluctuates with caribou populations. Caribou herds declined considerably in the 1940s, and "O. dalli" became an important harvest species. Since the 1990s, caribou populations have been large enough to sustain people. Consequently, subsistence harvest of "O. dalli" is lower now than in the 1940s, but sheep continue to be an important meat source when caribou migration routes shift during the winter or between years.


title: Dall sheep

text: Where sport hunting is allowed in Alaska's national preserves, hunters can harvest mature "O. dalli" rams that have horns that are full-curl or greater, have both tips broken off or are eight years of age or older.


title: Dall sheep

text: Changes in "O. dalli" abundance, distribution, composition and health may indicate changes happening with other species and ecosystem processes. The sheep live in alpine, or high mountain, areas. These areas are expected to experience significant changes associated with climate change. Changes may include shifts in locations of plant communities (e.g., an increase in shrubs in alpine areas), diversity of plant species (e.g., loss of important forage species for sheep), and local weather patterns (such as increased incidence of high winter snowfall and icing events), which may affect sheep distribution and abundance.


title: Dall sheep

text: Some species are expected to benefit from climate change while others will not. Shrubs and woody plants typically dominate plant communities at lower elevations. As elevation increases, the dominant plant community transitions to one dominated by low-growing grasses, flowers, and lichens. Warming climate trends, longer growing seasons, and changes in precipitation have the potential to allow woody plant species to find suitable habitat at higher elevations.


title: Dall sheep

text: As a result, low-growing alpine species may be out-competed or shaded by the encroaching woody plants. Changes in the seasonal availability and diversity of alpine plants may affect "O. dalli" populations by altering sheep diets and consequently where they can live in mountain parks, as well as ewe pregnancy rates and lamb growth and survival.


title: Clerestory

text: In architecture, a clerestory ( ; , also clearstory, clearstorey, or overstorey) is a high section of wall that contains windows above eye level. Its purpose is to admit light, fresh air, or both.


title: Clerestory

text: Historically, "clerestory" denoted an upper level of a Roman basilica or of the nave of a Romanesque or Gothic church, the walls of which rise above the rooflines of the lower aisles and are pierced with windows.


title: Clerestory

text: Similar structures have been used in transportation vehicles to provide additional lighting, ventilation, or headroom.


title: Clerestory

text: The technology of the clerestory appears to originate in the temples of ancient Egypt. The term "clerestory" is applicable to Egyptian temples, where the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the stone roofs of the adjoining aisles, through gaps left in the vertical slabs of stone. Clerestory appeared in Egypt at least as early as the Amarna period.


title: Clerestory

text: In the Minoan palaces of Crete such as Knossos, by contrast, lightwells were employed in addition to clerestories.


title: Clerestory

text: According to Biblical accounts, the Hebrew temple built by King Solomon featured clerestory windows made possible by the use of a tall, angled roof and a central .


title: Clerestory

text: The clerestory was used in the Hellenistic architecture of the later periods of ancient Greek civilization. The Romans applied clerestories to basilicas of justice and to the basilica-like bath-houses and palaces.


title: Clerestory

text: Early Christian churches and some Byzantine churches, particularly in Italy, are based closely on the Roman basilica, and maintained the form of a central nave flanked by lower aisles on each side. The nave and aisles are separated by columns or piers, above which rises a wall pierced by clerestory windows.


title: Clerestory

text: During the Romanesque period, many churches of the basilica form were constructed all over Europe. Many of these churches have wooden roofs with clerestories below them. Some Romanesque churches have barrel-vaulted ceilings with no clerestory. The development of the groin vault and ribbed vault made possible the insertion of clerestory windows.


title: Clerestory

text: Initially the nave of a large aisled and clerestoried church was of two levels: arcade and clerestory. During the Romanesque period, a third level was inserted between them, a gallery called the "triforium". The triforium generally opens into space beneath the sloping roof of the aisle. This became a standard feature of later Romanesque and Gothic large abbey and cathedral churches. Sometimes another gallery set into the wall space above the triforium and below the clerestory. This feature is found in some late Romanesque and early Gothic buildings in France.


title: Clerestory

text: The oldest glass clerestory windows still in place are from the late eleventh century, found in Augsburg Cathedral in Bavaria, Germany.


title: Clerestory

text: In smaller churches, clerestory windows may be trefoils or quatrefoils. In some Italian churches they are ocular. In most large churches, they are an important feature, both for beauty and for utility. The ribbed vaulting and flying buttresses of Gothic architecture concentrated the weight and thrust of the roof, freeing wall-space for larger clerestory fenestration. Generally, in Gothic masterpieces, the clerestory is divided into bays by the vaulting shafts that continue the same tall columns that form the arcade separating the aisles from the nave.


title: Clerestory

text: The tendency from the early Romanesque period to the late Gothic period was for the clerestory level to become progressively taller and the size of the windows to get proportionally larger in relation to wall surface, emerging in works such as the Gothic architecture of Amiens Cathedral or Westminster Abbey, where their clerestories account for nearly a third of the height of the interior.


title: Clerestory

text: Modern clerestories often are defined as vertical windows, located on high walls, extending up from the roofline, designed to allow light and breezes into a space, without compromising privacy. Factory buildings often are built with clerestory windows; modern housing designs sometimes include them as well.


title: Clerestory

text: Modern clerestory windows may have another especially important role, besides daylighting and ventilation: they can be part of passive solar strategies, in very energy-efficient buildings (passive houses and zero-energy buildings).


title: Clerestory

text: To that end, clerestories are used in conjunction with stone, brick, concrete, and other high-mass walls and floors, properly positioned to store solar heat gains during the hotter parts of the day – allowing the walls and the floor to act as a heat bank during the cooler parts of the day.


title: Clerestory

text: Clerestories – in passive solar strategies – should be properly located (typically in the sunny side of the building) and protected from the summer's sun by rooflines, overhangs, recessed thick walls, or other architectural elements, in order to prevent overheating during the cooling season.


title: Clerestory

text: Clerestory roofs were used on railway carriages (known as "clerestory carriages") from the mid-nineteenth century to the 1930s.


title: Clerestory

text: The first Pullman coaches in England had clerestory roofs, and were imported and assembled at Derby, where Pullman set up an assembly plant in conjunction with the Midland Railway, a predecessor of the London Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS). The first coach, a sleeping car named "Midland", was assembled and ready for trial-running in January 1874.


title: Clerestory

text: The last clerestory-roofed trains on the London Underground were the 'Q' stock, which were withdrawn from operation in 1971.


title: Clerestory

text: Clerestories were also used in early double-decker buses, giving better ventilation and headroom in the centre corridor, as well as better illumination.


title: Clerestory

text: The Volkswagen Type 2 Kombi, or Transport, commonly called the Microbus, came in a deluxe version with clerestory windows. VW made the Samba from 1961 to 1967 in several versions, which had as many as 23 windows, and it is highly prized by collectors.


title: Clerestory

text: The clerestory is known as "mollycroft roof", as well, especially in Romany and other caravans, eg, vardos.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The Battle of Bouvines was fought on 27 July 1214 near the town of Bouvines in the County of Flanders. It was the concluding battle of the Anglo-French War of 1213–1214. Although estimates on the number of troops vary considerably among modern historians, at Bouvines, a French army commanded by King Philip Augustus routed a larger Allied army led by Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV in one of the rare pitched battles of the High Middle Ages and one of the most decisive medieval engagements.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: In early 1214, a coalition was assembled against King Philip Augustus of France, consisting of Otto IV, King John of England, Count Ferrand of Flanders, Count Renaud of Boulogne, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg. Its objective was to reverse the conquests made by Philip earlier in his reign.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: After initial manoeuvring in late July, battle was offered near Bouvines on 27 July. The long allied column deployed slowly into battle order, leaving the Allies at a disadvantage. The superior discipline and training of the French knights allowed them to carry out a series of devastating charges, shattering the Flemish knights on the allied left wing. In the centre, the Allied knights and infantry under Otto enjoyed initial success, scattering the French urban infantry and nearly killing Philip. A counterattack by French knights smashed the isolated Allied infantry and Otto's entire centre division fell back. Otto fled the battle and his knightly followers were defeated by the French knights, who went on to capture the Imperial eagle standard. With the Allied centre and left wing routed, only the soldiers of the right wing under Renaud of Boulogne and William de Longespee held on. They were killed, captured or driven from the field. A pursuit was not conducted as it was nearly dark.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The crushing French victory dashed English and Flemish hopes of regaining their lost territories. Having lost all credibility as emperor following the battle, Otto IV was deposed by Pope Innocent III, leading to Frederick II's accession to the Imperial throne. King John was compelled to hand over Anjou, the ancient patrimony of the Angevin kings of England, to Philip in a peace settlement. This confirmed the collapse of the Angevin Empire. The disaster at Bouvines forever altered the political situation in England, as John was so weakened that his discontented barons forced him to agree to the Magna Carta in 1215. Counts Ferrand, Renaud and Longespee were captured and imprisoned. The balance of power shifted, with the popes of the 13th century increasingly seeking the support of a powerful France. Philip had achieved remarkable success in the expansion of his realm and by the end of his reign, in 1223, had not only laid the foundations for the era of Capetian pre-eminence in Europe which followed and marked much of the Late Middle Ages, but also those of the absolutism that came to define the Ancien Régime.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: In 1214, Ferdinand, Infante of Portugal and Count of Flanders, desired the return of the cities of Aire-sur-la-Lys and Saint-Omer, which he had recently lost to Philip II, King of France, in the Treaty of Pont-à-Vendin. He thus broke allegiance with Philip and assembled a broad coalition including Emperor Otto IV, King John of England, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The campaign was planned by John, who was the fulcrum of the alliance; his plan was to draw the French away from Paris southward towards his forces and keep them occupied, while the main army, under Emperor Otto IV, marched on Paris from the north. John's plan was followed initially, but the Allies in the north moved slowly. John, after two encounters with the French, retreated to Aquitaine on 3 July.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: On 23 July, having summoned his vassals, Philip had an army consisting of 7,000 knights and 15,000 infantry. The Emperor finally succeeded in concentrating his forces at Valenciennes, although this did not include John, and in the interval Philip had counter-marched northward and regrouped. Philip now took the offensive himself, and after manoeuvring to obtain good ground for his cavalry he offered battle on 27 July, on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: Otto was surprised by the speed of his enemy and was thought to have been caught unprepared by Philip, who probably deliberately lured Otto into his trap. Otto decided to launch an attack on what was then the French rearguard.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The Allied army drew up facing south-west towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the centre, supported by a cavalry corps under Otto himself. The French army formed up opposite in a similar formation, cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the town militias, in the centre. Philip, with the cavalry reserve and the royal standard, the Oriflamme, positioned himself to the rear of the men on foot. It is said by William the Breton, chaplain to Philip at the battle, that the soldiers stood in line in a space of 40,000 steps (), which leaves very little clearance and predisposes to hand-to-hand fighting. William the Breton also says in his chronicle that "the two lines of combatants were separated by a small space".


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The French army contained 1,200–1,360 knights (of whom 765 were from the royal demesne) and 300 mounted sergeants. Philip had launched an appeal to the municipalities in northern France, in order to obtain their support.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: 16 of the 39 municipalities of the royal demesne answered the call to arms. They provided 3,160 infantry, broken down as:


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The balance of the infantry, possibly another 2,000 men, were composed of mercenaries. The other communes of the royal demesne were supposed to provide a further 1,980 infantry, but it is doubtful that they did.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: In total, the royal army totalled approximately 6,000–7,000 men. The royal standard bearer of the Fleur-de-lis was Galore of Montigny.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: Otto's army contained some 1,300–1,500 knights: 600–650 Flemish, 425–500 Hainaulter and 275–350 from elsewhere. He also fielded approximately 7,500 infantry, to give a total force of just under 9,000 men. The imperial army was also formed up in three battles:


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The battle opened with an attack by 150 light cavalrymen from the Abbey of Saint-Médard de Soissons against the Flemish knights on the allied left, aiming to throw it into confusion. The Flemish knights easily drove off the unarmoured horsemen. Some Flemish knights left their formations and chased the retreating light cavalry. 180 French knights from Champagne in turn attacked and killed or captured the over-aggressive Flemish knights. The Count of Flanders counter-attacked with his entire force of 600 knights and threw the French back.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: Gaucher de Châtillon launched his 30 knights at the Flemish force, followed by a further 250 knights. They carried out a continuous series of charges, and halted the allied advance. Many knights on both sides fell from their horses in the first clash. The French were better ordered than the more loosely formed Flemish knights, and the Allied ranks grew thinner as they were assaulted by the compact French masses. Châtillon and Melun with their knights broke through the ranks of their Flemish counterparts, then wheeled and struck them from the rear, constantly switching targets. St. Pol's knights and the Burgundians engaged in an exhausting struggle against the Flemings, taking no prisoners. The Duke of Burgundy's horse was killed and the Duke thrown to the ground, but he was saved by his knights, who beat off the Flemish and found him a fresh horse.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The Flemings fought on for three hours despite their increasingly desperate situation, driven by knightly honour. Finally, the wounded and unhorsed Count of Flanders was captured by two French knights, triggering the collapse of his knights' morale.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The French urban militia infantry, 2,150 strong, were gathered under the Oriflamme in the centre, in front of Philip's knights and the "fleur-de-lis" standard. Soon after deploying, they were attacked by Allied knights and infantry under Otto and thrown back. Otto and his knights had nearly reached the French king when they were halted by French knights. The allied infantrymen broke through to Philip and his handful of knightly companions, unhorsing him with their hooked pikes. The French king's armour deflected an enemy lance and saved his life. Gales de Montigny used the royal standard to signal for help and another knight gave Philip a fresh horse.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The allied infantry used daggers to stab unhorsed French knights through the openings in their helmets and other weak spots in their armour. The Norman knight Etienne de Longchamp was killed in this way and the French suffered heavy losses. After repeated French counterattacks and a prolonged fight the Allies were thrown back.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The battle in the centre was now a melee between the two mounted reserves led by the King and the Emperor in person. The French knight Pierre Mauvoisin nearly captured Otto and his horse and Gérard la Truie stabbed the Emperor with a dagger, which bounced off his coat of mail and struck Otto's horse in the eye, killing it. Otto was saved by four German lords and their followers. As the French sent more knights to attack him personally he fled the field. The German knights fought to the bitter end to save their emperor, all being killed or captured. The Imperial Standard with the eagle and dragon was captured by the French knights, who brought it to their king. By this time, Allied resistance in the centre had ceased.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: Meanwhile, on the French left Robert de Dreux's troops were at first pressed by men led by William Longespée. William Longespée was unhorsed and taken prisoner by Philip of Dreux, the Bishop of Beauvais, and the English soldiers fled. Mathieu de Montmorency captured twelve enemy banners. (In memory of this feat, the shield of Montmorency includes an additional twelve eagles or sixteen altogether instead of the previous four.)


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The day was already decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne (Renaud de Dammartin), a former vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of 400–700 Brabançon pikemen. They defied every attack by the French cavalry, while Reginald made repeated sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, long after the Imperial army had retreated, the Brabant schiltrom was overrun by a charge of 50 knights and 1,000–2,000 infantry under Thomas de St. Valery. Reginald was taken prisoner in the melee. A pursuit was not conducted owing to the approaching nightfall and a fear that the prisoners might escape. The French formations were recalled using trumpets.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: French knightly casualties are not recorded; the French infantry suffered heavily. The Allies had 169 knights killed and "heavy" but unquantified losses among the infantry; including between 400 and 700 Brabant infantry killed. As well as Reginald of Boulogne two other counts were captured by the French, Hainaut Ferrand and William Longespée, as well as twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: The battle ended the threat from both Otto and John. According to Jean Favier, Bouvines is "one of the most decisive and symbolic battles in the history of France". For Philippe Contamine "the Battle of Bouvines had both important consequences and a great impact". Ferdinand Lot called it a "medieval Austerlitz".


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: Philip returned to Paris triumphant, marching his captive prisoners behind him in a long procession, as his subjects lined the streets to greet the victorious king. In the aftermath of the battle, Otto retreated to his castle of Harzburg and was soon overthrown as Holy Roman Emperor by Frederick II, who had already been recognised as emperor in the south a year and a half earlier. Count Ferdinand remained imprisoned following his defeat, while King John obtained a five-year truce, on very lenient terms given the circumstances.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: Philip's decisive victory was crucial to the political situation in England. The battle ended all hope of a restoration of the Angevin Empire. So weakened was the defeated King John that he soon needed to submit to his barons' demands and agree to the Magna Carta, limiting the power of the crown and establishing the basis for common law.


title: Battle of Bouvines

text: In thanksgiving for the victory, Philip Augustus founded the Abbey of Notre Dame de la Victoire, between Senlis and Mont l'Evêque. In 1914, to mark the seventh centenary, Félix Dehau had the parish church of Bouvines rebuilt with a number of stained-glass windows representing the history of the battle. In 2014, the eighth centenary was commemorated in Bouvines by an association called Bouvines 2014. A series of events, including an official ceremony and a show called "Bouvines la Bataille", attracted more than 6,000 viewers in Bouvines.


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: Season three of "Seinfeld", an American television series created by Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David, began airing on September 18, 1991 on NBC, a U.S. broadcast television network. It comprises 23 episodes and concluded its initial airing on May 6, 1992. "The Tape", "The Pen", and "The Letter" are some of the season's episodes that were inspired by the writers' own experiences. Co-creator Larry David admits that season three was a big turning point for the series in terms of how the show was made; it's where the writers started doing non linear storylines with episodes containing multiple stories. George was becoming a bigger liar, Elaine was becoming more quirky, and Kramer was becoming surer of himself throughout his crazy antics. This season received eight Emmy nominations and one Directors Guild of America Award.


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: The DVD boxset for season three was released by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment in Region 1 on November 23, 2004, twelve years after it had completed broadcast on television. It was also released in Region 2 on November 1, 2004 and on October 18, 2004 in Region 4. As well as every episode from the season (minus "The Stranded" which was produced for the second season), the DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes, exclusive stand-up material, and commentaries.


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: "Seinfeld" was produced by Castle Rock Entertainment and distributed by Columbia Pictures Television and Columbia TriStar Television and was aired on NBC in the U.S. The executive producers were Larry David, George Shapiro, and Howard West with Tom Gammill and Max Pross as supervising producers. Bruce Kirschbaum was the executive consultant. Tom Cherones was the main director for this season; however, some of the episodes were directed by David Steinberg, Joshua White, and Jason Alexander. This season was written by Larry David, Jerry Seinfeld, Larry Charles, Peter Mehlman, Elaine Pope, Tom Leopold, Bob Shaw, Don McEnery, Bill Masters, and Greg Daniels.


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: The series was set predominantly in an apartment block on New York City's Upper West Side; however, the third season was shot and mostly in filmed CBS Studio Center in Studio City, California. The show features Jerry Seinfeld as himself, Jason Alexander as George Costanza, Julia Louis-Dreyfus as Elaine Benes, and Michael Richards as Kramer. Due to Julia Louis-Dreyfus's off-screen pregnancy, her character had to spend the latter half of this season hiding her belly behind furniture and laundry baskets. Siobhan Fallon Hogan was originally asked to reprise her role as Tina later in this season, but was performing as a cast member on season 17 of Saturday Night Live and had to refuse. Harris Shore played the role of Mr. Lippman in "The Library"; however, Richard Fancy took over the role for the remainder of the series. The Babu Bhatt character was originally scripted under the name of Vong Sim, but was later changed.


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: A number of the season's episodes were inspired by the writers' own experiences. "The Pen" was partly inspired by a sofa bed owned by Jerry Seinfeld's mother Betty. During stays, Seinfeld would put the couch cushions on the floor and sleep on them there to avoid the uncomfortable mattress. The Chinese baldness cure that George tries in "The Tape" is based on something Larry David tried while living in New York. Also, the shots Kramer takes of George's scalp in this episode are identical to those the real Kenny Kramer took of Larry David. Elaine's story in "The Letter" was inspired by Larry David's experience attending an Angels – Yankees game in Anaheim, California. While seated as a guest in Gene Autry's box, David was asked to remove the hat. David could be seen wearing the hat on the front page of the "Los Angeles Times" sports section the following day. Mr. West is also named after Howard West, one of the show's executive producers, who provided Larry David with a connection to the seats in the owners' box.


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: The season premiere, "The Note", is the only episode (other than the original pilot) with a different version of the theme song, which included female back-up singers harmonizing over the iconic slap-bass tune. The singers were added by composer Jonathan Wolff at the request of Jerry Seinfeld, who wanted to add "a little sparkle" to the music, suggesting the addition of some scat lyrics. Seinfeld and executive producer Larry David both liked Wolff's additions, and three episodes were produced with the new style music. However, they had neglected to inform NBC and Castle Rock of the change, and when the season premiere aired, they were surprised and unimpressed, and requested that they return to the original style. The subsequent two episodes were redone, leaving "The Note" as the only episode with the additional music elements.


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100% approval rating with an average rating of 8.9/10, based on 14 critic reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, ""Seinfeld" comes fully into its own as a divine comedy of petty grievances in a third season that mines wicked wit from the painfully awkward."


title: Seinfeld (season 3)

text: Season three received eight Emmy nominations, two of which were won. Elaine Pope and Larry Charles won "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series" for "The Fix-Up". Janet Ashikaga also won for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Editing for a Series", for the episode "The Subway." Jerry Seinfeld was nominated for "Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series" for the special one-hour episode "The Boyfriend/New Friend," losing to Craig T. Nelson for his portrayal of Hayden Fox on the ABC sitcom Coach and Jason Alexander was nominated for "Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series", losing to Michael Jeter in the CBS comedy Evening Shade. The series was also nominated for "Outstanding Comedy Series" for this season, which was won by Murphy Brown, then in its fourth season. The series would be nominated in that category for the remaining six seasons, winning only once, in the next season. There were also two other Emmy nominations for the "Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series" category, with Larry David, Bob Shaw, and Don McEnery for "The Tape", and Larry David for "The Parking Garage". David Steinberg was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award for "Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy Series" for "The Tape".


title: Eden ahbez

text: George Alexander Aberle (April 15, 1908 – March 4, 1995), known as eden ahbez, was an American songwriter and recording artist of the 1940s to 1960s, whose lifestyle in California was influential in the hippie movement. He was known to friends simply as ahbe.


title: Eden ahbez

text: Ahbez composed the song "Nature Boy", which became a No. 1 hit for eight weeks in 1948 for Nat "King" Cole. Living a bucolic life from at least the 1940s, he traveled in sandals and wore shoulder-length hair and beard, and white robes. He camped out below the first L in the Hollywood Sign above Los Angeles and studied Oriental mysticism. He slept outdoors with his family and ate vegetables, fruit, and nuts. He claimed to live on three dollars per week.


title: Eden ahbez

text: Ahbez was born in Brooklyn, New York, to a Jewish father and a Scottish-English mother, and spent his early years in the Brooklyn Hebrew Orphan Asylum of New York, which branched off from the Hebrew Orphan Asylum. He then traveled in an Orphan Train and was adopted, in 1917, by a family in Chanute, Kansas, and raised under the name George McGrew.


title: Eden ahbez

text: During the 1930s, McGrew lived in Kansas City, where he performed as a pianist and dance band leader. In 1941, he arrived in Los Angeles and began playing piano in the Eutropheon, a small health food store and raw food restaurant on Laurel Canyon Boulevard. The cafe was owned by John and Vera Richter, who followed a "Naturmensch" and "Lebensreform" philosophy influenced by the Wandervogel movement in Germany. He was a vegetarian. He recalled once telling a policeman: "I look crazy but I'm not. And the funny thing is that other people don't look crazy but they are."


title: Eden ahbez

text: Their followers, known as "Nature Boys" and who included "Gypsy Boots" (né Robert Bootzin), wore long hair and beards and ate only raw fruits and vegetables. During this period, he adopted the name "eden ahbez", choosing to spell his name with lower-case letters, claiming that only the words God and Infinity were worthy of capitalization.


title: Eden ahbez

text: Some time in 1947, he married Anna Jacobson a month after they met; the couple had a son, Tatha Om Ahbez, on October 9, 1948.


title: Eden ahbez

text: In 1947, ahbez approached Nat "King" Cole's manager backstage at the Lincoln Theater in Los Angeles and handed him the music for his song, "Nature Boy". Cole began playing the song for live audiences to much acclaim, but needed to track down its author before releasing his recording of it. Publicity material for Cole's single instead makes the claim that Johnny Mercer recommended ahbez to Cole on behalf of Capitol Records. Jack Patton, in turn, is said to have advised ahbez to bring "Nature Boy" to Capitol after befriending him at the restaurant where ahbez worked.


title: Eden ahbez

text: Ahbez was discovered living under the Hollywood Sign and became the focus of a media frenzy when Cole's version of "Nature Boy" shot to No. 1 on the "Billboard" charts and remained there for eight consecutive weeks during the summer of 1948. In early 1948, RKO Radio Pictures paid ahbez $10,000 for the rights to "Nature Boy" to use as the theme song for their film "The Boy with Green Hair", and he was credited as the song's composer on the film's opening titles.


title: Eden ahbez

text: Ahbez was covered simultaneously in "Life", "Time", and "Newsweek" magazines. Frank Sinatra and Sarah Vaughan later released versions of the song. Ahbez faced legal action from a Yiddish music composer, Herman Yablokoff, who claimed that the melody to "Nature Boy" came from one of his songs, "Shvayg mayn harts" ("Be Still My Heart"). Ahbez claimed to have "heard the tune in the mist of the California mountains". However, legal proceedings resulted in a payment to Yablokoff of $25,000 in an out-of-court settlement.


title: Eden ahbez

text: Ahbez continued to supply Cole with songs, including "Land of Love (Come My Love and Live with Me)", which was also covered by Doris Day and The Ink Spots. In 1949, he gave Burl Ives the idea to cover Stan Jones' "Ghost Riders in the Sky" after overhearing Jones recording his own version of the song. He worked closely with jazz musician Herb Jeffries, and, in 1954, the pair collaborated on an album, "The Singing Prophet", which included the only recording of Ahbez's four-part "Nature Boy Suite". The album was later reissued as "Echoes of Eternity" on Jeffries' United National label. In the mid 1950s, he wrote songs for Eartha Kitt, Frankie Laine, and others, as well as writing some rock-and-roll novelty songs. In 1957, his song "Lonely Island" was recorded by Sam Cooke, becoming the second and final Ahbez composition to hit the Top 40.


title: Eden ahbez

text: In 1959, he began recording instrumental music, which combined his signature somber tones with exotic arrangements and (according to the record sleeve) "primitive rhythms". He often performed bongo, flute, and poetry gigs at beat coffeehouses in the Los Angeles area. In 1960, he recorded his only solo LP, "Eden's Island," for Del-Fi Records. This mixed beatnik poetry with exotica arrangements. Ahbez promoted the album through a coast-to-coast walking tour making personal appearances, but it sold poorly.


title: Eden ahbez

text: During the 1960s, ahbez released five singles. Grace Slick's band, the Great Society, recorded a version of "Nature Boy" in 1966 and ahbez was photographed in the studio with Brian Wilson during a session for the "Smile" album in early 1967. Later that year, British singer Donovan sought out ahbez in Palm Springs, and the two wanderers shared a reportedly "near-telepathic" conversation. In the 1970s, Big Star's Alex Chilton recorded a version of "Nature Boy" with the photographer William Eggleston on piano. The song was finally released as a bonus track on the 1992 Rykodisc re-release of the album "Third/Sister Lovers".


title: Eden ahbez

text: His wife Anna (née Annette Jacobson; October 16, 1915 – August 9, 1963) died, aged 47, of leukemia, and his son Zoma (né Tatha Om Ahbez), drowned in 1971 at age 22. In 1974, ahbez was reported to be living in the Los Angeles suburb of Sunland, and he owned a record label named Sunland Records, for which he was recording under the name "Eden Abba". From the late 1980s until his death, ahbez worked closely with Joe Romersa, an engineer/drummer in Los Angeles. The master tapes, photos, and final works of ahbez are in Romersa's possession.


title: Eden ahbez

text: Ahbez died on March 4, 1995, of injuries sustained in a car accident, at the age of 86. Another album, "Echoes from Nature Boy", was released posthumously.


title: Bajram Begaj

text: Bajram Begaj (born 20 March 1967) is an Albanian retired military officer and politician, who is currently serving as the 9th President of Albania since 24 July 2022.


title: Bajram Begaj

text: Begaj, who has had a long career in the Albanian army, served as the 26th Chief of General Staff of the Albanian Armed Forces from July 2020 to June 2022. Although he is politically independent, on 3 June 2022 Begaj was officially nominated by the governing Socialist Party as the candidate to the fourth round of the 2022 presidential election. Begaj is the fifth president in the history of Albania to have a military background, after Ahmet Zogu, Ramiz Alia, Alfred Moisiu and Bujar Nishani.


title: Bajram Begaj

text: Begaj was born on 20 March 1967, in Rrogozhinë. He graduated from Tirana's Faculty of Medicine in 1989 and became an active medical officer in 1998. Having completed his professional doctorate degree, he holds the title "Associate Professor" in Medicine.


title: Bajram Begaj

text: During his 31-year military career, Begaj has taken part in numerous training seminars and completed courses in Security and Defense, the Advanced Postgraduate School of Medicine, a Postgraduate Specialization in Gastrohepatology, a Hospital Management Course and Strategic Medical Leadership Course in the United States, a Specialization Course in Medicine and a Health Course in Greece.


title: Bajram Begaj

text: Begaj previously served as the Commander of the Doctrine and Training Command in the Albanian Armed Forces. He held various other posts including: Chief of the Military Medical Unit and Deputy Military Director of SUT, Director of the Military Hospital, Director of the Health Inspectorate, etc. He was appointed Chief of the General Staff of the Albanian Armed Forces in July 2020 and assumed office later that month.


title: Bajram Begaj

text: Begaj was elected by the parliament of Albania for the role of president on 4 June 2022, with 78 votes in favour, 4 against, and 1 abstention. 57 MPs from the opposition boycotted the vote, claiming the process of naming candidates was irregular. Begaj was sworn in on 24 July 2022.


title: Evil Queen

text: The Evil Queen, also called the Wicked Queen, is a fictional character and the main antagonist of "Snow White", a German fairy tale recorded by the Brothers Grimm; similar stories exist worldwide. Other versions of the Queen appear in subsequent adaptations and continuations of the fairy tale, including novels and films. One particularly notable version is Disney's depiction, sometimes known as Queen Grimhilde. The character has also become an archetype that inspired unrelated works.


title: Evil Queen

text: The Evil Queen is Snow White's evil and vindictive stepmother who is obsessed with being "the fairest in the land". The beautiful young princess Snow White evokes the Queen's sense of envy, so the Queen designs a number of plans to kill Snow White through the use of witchcraft. A driving force in the story is the Queen's Magic Mirror. In the traditional resolution of the story, the Queen is grotesquely executed for her crimes. The tale is meant as a lesson for young children warning them against the dangers of narcissism, pride, and hubris.


title: Evil Queen

text: In some retellings of the fairy tale, the Queen has been re-imagined or portrayed more sympathetically, such as being morally conflicted or suffering from madness instead of being simply evil. In some of the revisionist stories she serves as the protagonist and has even been portrayed as an antihero or a tragic hero.


title: Evil Queen

text: The Evil Queen is a very beautiful but proud and arrogant woman who marries the King after the death of his first wife, the mother of Snow White. The Evil Queen owns a magic mirror, which one day informs her that her young stepdaughter Princess Snow White has surpassed her in beauty.


title: Evil Queen

text: After deciding to eliminate Snow White, the Queen orders her Huntsman to take the princess into the forest and kill her. The Queen tells him to bring back Snow White's lungs and liver, as proof that the princess is dead. However, the Huntsman takes pity on Snow White, and instead, brings the Queen the lungs and liver of a wild boar. The Queen has the cook prepare the lungs and liver and she eats what she believes are Snow White's organs.


title: Evil Queen

text: While questioning her mirror again, the Queen discovers that Snow White has survived. Intending to kill Snow White herself, she takes the disguise of an old peddler woman. She visits the dwarfs' house and sells Snow White laces for a corset that she laces too tight in an attempt to asphyxiate the girl. When that fails, the Queen returns as a comb seller and tricks Snow White into using a poisoned comb. When the comb fails to kill Snow White, the Queen again visits Snow White disguised as a farmer's wife and gives Snow White a poisoned apple.


title: Evil Queen

text: Snow White is awakened by a Prince from another kingdom, and they invite the Queen to their wedding. Although fearing what will happen, her own jealousy drives her to attend. There she is forced to put on red-hot iron shoes and "dance" until she drops dead.


title: Evil Queen

text: In the classic ending of "Snow White", the Evil Queen is put to death by torture. This is often considered to be too dark and potentially horrifying for children in modern society. Sara Maitland wrote that "we do not tell this part of the story any more; we say it is too cruel and will break children's soft hearts." Therefore, many (especially modern) revisions of the fairy tale often change the gruesome classic ending in order to make it seem less violent. In some versions instead of dying, the Queen is merely prevented from committing further wrongdoings. However, in the same 2014 nationwide UK poll that considered the Queen from "Snow White" the scariest fairy tale character of all time (as cited by 32.21% of responding adults), around two-thirds opined that today's stories are too "sanitised" for children.


title: Evil Queen

text: Already the first English translation of the Grimms' tale, written by Edgar Taylor in 1823, has the Queen choke on her own envy upon the sight of Snow White alive. Another early (1871) English translation by Susannah Mary Paull "replaces the Queen's death by cruel physical punishment with death by self-inflicted pain and self-destruction" when it was her own shoes that became hot due to her anger.


title: Evil Queen

text: Other alternative endings can have the Queen just instantly drop dead "of anger" at the wedding or in front of her mirror upon learning about it, die from her own designs going awry (such as from touching her own poisoned rose) or by nature (such as falling into quicksands while crossing a swamp on her way back to the castle after poisoning Snow White), be killed by the dwarfs during a chase, be destroyed by her own mirror, run away into the forest never to be seen again, or simply being banished from the kingdom forever.


title: Evil Queen

text: In the first edition of the Brothers Grimm story, from their 1812 collection "Kinder- und Hausmärchen" ("Children's and Household Tales"), the Queen is Snow White's biological mother. In subsequent versions after 1819, this was changed; text was added to include that Snow White's mother died and the king remarried. Jack Zipes said that the change was made because the Grimms "held motherhood sacred." According to Sheldon Cashdan, Professor of Psychology at the University of Massachusetts, a "cardinal rule of fairy tales" mandates that the "heroes and heroines are allowed to kill witches, sorceresses, even stepmothers, but never their own mothers". Zipes' 2014 collection of Grimm fairy tales in their original forms reinstated the Queen as Snow White's mother.


title: Evil Queen

text: However, the wicked stepmother was not unknown in German versions predating the Brothers Grimm's collection. In 1782, Johann Karl August Musäus published a literary fairy tale titled "Richilde" which reimagined the folktale from the villain's point of view. The main character is Richilde, arrogant Countess of Brabant, who as a child received the gift of a magic mirror invented by her godfather Albertus Magnus. Many elements of the Grimms' Snow White appear in this story, including the wicked stepmother, the magic mirror, the poisoned apple, and the punishment of dancing in red-hot shoes.


title: Evil Queen

text: Diane Purkiss attributes the Queen's fiery death to "the folkbelief that burning a witch's body ended her power, a belief which subtended (but did not cause) the practice of burning witches in Germany", while the American Folklore Society noted that the use of iron shoes "recalls folk practices of destroying a witch through the magic agency of iron".


title: Evil Queen

text: Rosemary Ellen Guiley suggests that the Queen uses an apple because it recalls the temptation of Eve; this creation story from the Bible led the Christian Church to view apples as a symbol of sin. Many people feared that apples could carry evil spirits, and that witches used them for poisoning. Robert G. Brown of Duke University also makes a connection with the story of Adam and Eve, seeing the Queen as a representation of the archetype of Lilith. The symbol of an apple has long had traditional associations with enchantment and witchcraft in some European cultures, as in case of Morgan le Fay's Avalon ("Isle of the Apples").


title: Evil Queen

text: Oliver Madox Hueffer noted that the wicked stepmother with magical powers threatening a young princess is a recurring theme in fairy tales; one similar character is the witch-queen in "The Wild Swans" as told by Hans Christian Andersen. According to Kenny Klein, the enchantress Ceridwen of the Welsh mythology was "the quintissential evil stepmother, the origin of that character in the two tales of Snow White and Cinderella".


title: Evil Queen

text: Equivalents of the Evil Queen can be found in Snow White-like tales from around the world. In the Scottish Gaelic oral tale "Gold-Tree and Silver-Tree", the Queen is named Silver-Tree and is the heroine's biological mother. A talking trout takes the place of the Queen's mirror and the huntsman figure is the princess' own father. The villain's relationship with Snow White can also vary, with versions from around the world sometimes featuring wicked sisters or sisters-in-law, or a wicked mother of the prince. One early variation of the tale was Giambattista Basile's "The Young Slave," where the heroine's mother is unintentionally involved in putting her to sleep, and she is awoken by her cruel and jealous aunt who treats her like a slave.


title: Evil Queen

text: The Queen's tricks also vary from place to place. In Italy, she uses a toxic comb, a contaminated cake, or a suffocating braid. In France, a local tale features a poisoned tomato. The Queen's demands of proof from the huntsman (often her lover in non-Grimm versions) also vary: a bottle of blood stoppered with the princess' toe in Spain, or the princess' intestines and blood-soaked shirt in Italy.


title: Evil Queen

text: According to some scholars such as Roger Sale and University of Hawaii professor Cristina Bacchilega, the story has ageist undertones vilifying the older woman character, with her envy of Snow White's beauty. Terri Windling wrote that the Queen is "a woman whose power is derived from her beauty; it is this, the tale implies, that provides her place in the castle's hierarchy. If the king’s attention turns from his wife to another, what power is left to an aging woman? Witchcraft, the tale answers. Potions, poisons, and self-protection."


title: Evil Queen

text: Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar regard Snow White and her mother/stepmother as two female stereotypes, the angel and the monster. The fact that the Queen was Snow White's biological mother in the first version of the Grimms' story has led several psychoanalytic critics to interpret "Snow White" as a story about repressed Oedipus complex, or about Snow White's Electra complex and sexual rivalry with the Queen. According to Bruno Bettelheim, the story's main motif is "the clash of sexual innocence and sexual desire". Cashdan interprets the Queen's motives as "fear that the king will find Snow White more appealing than her." This struggle is so dominating the psychological landscape of the tale, that Gilber and Gubar even proposed renaming the story "Snow White and Her Wicked Stepmother". Harold Bloom opined that the three "temptations" all "testify to a mutual sexual attraction between Snow White and her stepmother."


title: Evil Queen

text: According to Bettelheim, "only the death of the jealous queen (the elimination of all outer and inner turbulence) can make for a happy world." Cashdan opined "the death of the witch signals a victory of virtue over vice, a sign that positive forces in the self have prevailed," and "the active involvement of heroine in the witch's demise communicates to readers that they must take an active role in overcoming their own errant tendencies." The evil queen "embodies narcissism, and the young princess, with whom readers identify, embodies parts of the child struggling to overcome this tendency. Vanquishing the queen represents a triumph of positive forces in the self over vain impulses." Similarly, the psychologist Betsy Cohen wrote that "in order to avoid becoming a wicked queen herself, Snow White needs to separate from and kill off this destructive force inside of her."


title: Evil Queen

text: Regarding the manner of the Queen's execution, Jo Eldridge Carney, Professor of English at The College of New Jersey, wrote: "Again, the fairy tale's system of punishment is horrific but apt: a woman so actively consumed with seeking affirmation from others and with violently undoing her rival is forced to enact her own physical destruction as a public spectacle." Scholars such as Cashdan, Sheldon Donald Haase, and John Hanson Saunders argue from psychological and storytelling viewpoints that the Queen's punishment fits her crimes, gives closure to the reader and shows good triumphing over evil. Likewise, Mary Ayers of the Stanford University School of Medicine wrote that the red-hot shoes symbolise that the Queen was "subjected to the effects of her own inflamed, searing hot envy and hatred." It was also noted that this ending echoes the fairy tale of "The Red Shoes", which similarly "warns of the danger of attachment to appearances."


title: Evil Queen

text: Anthony Burgess commented: "Reading that, how seriously can we take it? It is fairy-tale violence, which is not like real mugging, terrorism and Argentinean torture." On the other hand, writers such as Oliver Madox Hueffer have expressed sympathy for the queen or, like psychology professor Sharna Olfman, remove the violence when reading the story to children while also acknowledging that verbal storytelling lacks "graphic visual imagery."


title: Evil Queen

text: The character was portrayed in a variety of ways in the subsequent adaptations reimagining the classic fairy tale. According to Lana Berkowitz of the "Houston Chronicle", "Today stereotypes of the evil queen and innocent Snow White often are challenged. Rewrites may show the queen is reacting to extenuating circumstances." Scott Meslow, of "The Atlantic," noted that "Disney's decision to throw out the Grimms's appropriately grim ending—which sentences the evil queen to dance in heated iron shoes until her death—has meant that ending is all but forgotten."


title: Superorganism

text: A superorganism or supraorganism is a group of synergetically interacting organisms of the same species. A community of synergetically interacting organisms of different species is called a holobiont.


title: Superorganism

text: The term superorganism is used most often to describe a social unit of eusocial animals, where division of labour is highly specialised and where individuals are not able to survive by themselves for extended periods. Ants are the best-known example of such a superorganism. A superorganism can be defined as "a collection of agents which can act in concert to produce phenomena governed by the collective", phenomena being any activity "the hive wants" such as ants collecting food and avoiding predators, or bees choosing a new nest site. In challenging environments, micro organisms collaborate and evolve together to process unlikely sources of nutrients such as methane. This process called syntrophy ("eating together") might be linked to the evolution of eukaryote cells and involved in the emergence or maintenance of life forms in challenging environments on Earth and possibly other planets. Superorganisms tend to exhibit homeostasis, power law scaling, persistent disequilibrium and emergent behaviours.


title: Superorganism

text: The term was coined in 1789 by James Hutton, the "father of geology", to refer to Earth in the context of geophysiology. The Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock, and Lynn Margulis as well as the work of Hutton, Vladimir Vernadsky and Guy Murchie, have suggested that the biosphere itself can be considered a superorganism, although this has been disputed. This view relates to systems theory and the dynamics of a complex system.


title: Superorganism

text: The concept of a superorganism raises the question of what is to be considered an individual. Toby Tyrrell's critique of the Gaia hypothesis argues that Earth's climate system does not resemble an animal's physiological system. Planetary biospheres are not tightly regulated in the same way that animal bodies are: "planets, unlike animals, are not products of evolution. Therefore we are entitled to be highly skeptical (or even outright dismissive) about whether to expect something akin to a 'superorganism'". He concludes that "the superorganism analogy is unwarranted".


title: Superorganism

text: Some scientists have suggested that individual human beings can be thought of as "superorganisms"; as a typical human digestive system contains 10 to 10 microorganisms whose collective genome, the microbiome studied by the Human Microbiome Project, contains at least 100 times as many genes as the human genome itself. Salvucci wrote that superorganism is another level of integration that is observed in nature. These levels include the genomic, the organismal and the ecological levels. The genomic structure of organisms reveals the fundamental role of integration and gene shuffling along evolution.


title: Superorganism

text: The nineteenth century thinker Herbert Spencer coined the term "super-organic" to focus on social organization (the first chapter of his "Principles of Sociology" is entitled "Super-organic Evolution"), though this was apparently a distinction between the organic and the social, "not" an identity: Spencer explored the holistic nature of society as a social organism while distinguishing the ways in which society did not behave like an organism. For Spencer, the super-organic was an emergent property of interacting organisms, that is, human beings. And, as has been argued by D. C. Phillips, there is a "difference between emergence and reductionism".


title: Superorganism

text: The economist Carl Menger expanded upon the evolutionary nature of much social growth, but without ever abandoning methodological individualism. Many social institutions arose, Menger argued, not as "the result of socially teleological causes, but the unintended result of innumerable efforts of economic subjects pursuing 'individual' interests".


title: Superorganism

text: Spencer and Menger both argued that because it is individuals who choose and act, any social whole should be considered less than an organism, though Menger emphasized this more emphatically. Spencer used the idea to engage in extended analysis of social structure, conceding that it was primarily an analogy. So, for Spencer, the idea of the super-organic best designated a distinct level of social reality above that of biology and psychology, and not a one-to-one identity with an organism. Nevertheless, Spencer maintained that "every organism of appreciable size is a society", which has suggested to some that the issue may be terminological.


title: Superorganism

text: The term "superorganic" was adopted by the anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber in 1917. Social aspects of the superorganism concept are analysed by Alan Marshall in his 2002 book "The Unity of Nature". Finally, recent work in social psychology has offered the superorganism metaphor as a unifying framework to understand diverse aspects of human sociality, such as religion, conformity, and social identity processes.


title: Superorganism

text: Superorganisms are important in cybernetics, particularly biocybernetics. They are capable of the so-called "distributed intelligence", which is a system composed of individual agents that have limited intelligence and information. These are able to pool resources so that they are able to complete goals that are beyond reach of the individuals on their own. Existence of such behavior in organisms has many implications for military and management applications, and is being actively researched.


title: Superorganism

text: Superorganisms are also considered dependent upon cybernetic governance and processes. This is based on the idea that a biological system – in order to be effective – needs a sub-system of cybernetic communications and control. This is demonstrated in the way a mole rat colony uses functional synergy and cybernetic processes together.


title: Superorganism

text: Joel de Rosnay also introduced a concept called "cybionte" to describe cybernetic superorganism. This notion associate superorganism with chaos theory, multimedia technology, and other new developments.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Nicolas Pierre Armand Mahut (; born 21 January 1982) is a French professional tennis player who is a former world No. 1 in doubles.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: He is a five-time Grand Slam champion in doubles, having completed the career Grand Slam with victories at the 2015 US Open, 2016 Wimbledon Championships, 2018 French Open, and 2019 Australian Open, all partnering Pierre-Hugues Herbert. The pair also won the 2021 French Open and finished runners-up at the 2015 Australian Open, and Mahut was runner-up at the 2013 French Open and 2019 Wimbledon Championships, with Michaël Llodra and Édouard Roger-Vasselin respectively. Mahut became world No. 1 in doubles on 6 June 2016, holding the top ranking for a total of 39 weeks, and has won 35 doubles titles overall, including the 2019 and 2021 ATP Finals. He has also won seven Masters 1000 titles in doubles.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: In singles, Mahut reached a career-high ATP ranking of world No. 37 in May 2014, and has won four tour-level titles. All were on grass courts, where only Roger Federer (19), Andy Murray (8) and Novak Djokovic (6) have won more titles amongst active players. His best Grand Slam result in singles was at the 2016 Wimbledon Championships, where he reached the fourth round. At the 2010 Championships, Mahut was part of the longest match in professional tennis history, against John Isner in the first round. Isner defeated him 70–68 in the fifth set after over 11 hours of play.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Nicolas Mahut was born in 1982 in Angers, France. He first trained at the Beaucouzé tennis club when he was five years old. He joined a tennis club in Paris when he was 11.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: He currently lives in Boulogne-Billancourt, a suburb of Paris near the grounds of Roland Garros. He met his wife Virginie in 2007 and she gave birth to their son Natanel (Nathanaël) on 18 August 2011.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: His closest friends on the ATP Tour are fellow countrymen Michaël Llodra, Édouard Roger-Vasselin, Julien Benneteau, and Paul-Henri Mathieu.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut has also become good friends with the American tennis player John Isner, after they played together in the longest professional tennis match ever at Wimbledon 2010, which lasted over 11 hours.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut had excellent junior results, winning the Orange Bowl in 1999 and the Wimbledon Boys' Singles in 2000, turning professional the same year. His career-high singles ranking is world No. 37, achieved in July 2014. Mahut was runner-up to Andy Roddick at the 2007 Queen's Club Championships, and runner-up that same year at the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships. In June 2013, he won his first ATP singles title, winning the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships in the Netherlands, and he followed it up in July by winning the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships in Newport, Rhode Island.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut is known for being part of the longest match in professional tennis history against John Isner in the first round of the 2010 Wimbledon Championships. He holds a number of tennis records and awards for the match, including the most points won in a single match (502) and most games won by a losing player (91).


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut is also a prolific doubles player, reaching a career high of world No. 1 on 6 June 2016. He has won doubles titles with countrymen Julien Benneteau, Arnaud Clément, and Édouard Roger-Vasselin, before his most successful and current partnership with Pierre-Hugues Herbert. In 2013, he and Michaël Llodra lost the final of the French Open. In 2015, Mahut, with Pierre-Hugues Herbert,


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: lost the final of the Australian Open but won the US Open doubles title. In 2016, with Pierre-Hugues Herbert, he won the Wimbledon doubles title.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: In 1998, Mahut was champion of France for 15- and 16-year-olds and the 17- and 18-year-olds. 1999 saw Mahut win the Orange Bowl doubles title. In addition, Mahut was the winner of the Sunshine Cup, the 35th Coffee Bowl, and the Coupe Galéa-Valério. In Grand Slams, he won the 2000 Wimbledon Championships Boys' Singles, the 2000 Australian Open Boys' Doubles (alongside Tommy Robredo) and the 1999 US Open Boys' Doubles (alongside Julien Benneteau).


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: As a junior Mahut posted a 93–33 record in singles and a 76–21 record in doubles. He reached as high as No. 3 in singles and No. 1 in doubles (in January 2000 and December 1999 respectively).


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut made his grand slam debut at the 2000 French open. He won three minor titles on the ITF Men's Circuit.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: 2003 saw Mahut leapfrog in the rankings to breaking the top 100. September saw him collect his first doubles title at the Open de Moselle.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: The highlight of his season was making the doubles semifinal at the 2004 US open, losing to eventual champions Mark Knowles & Daniel Nestor.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: January saw him break the top 25 in doubles. In February, at the Cherbourg challenger in Cherbourg, France he defeated future 18 time grand slam champion Novak Djokovic in 3 sets.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Three challenger titles & making the third round at Wimbledon saw him return to the top 100 in the singles rankings.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: In June, at the Queen's Club Championships, he was awarded runner-up losing to Andy Roddick 6–4, 6–7(7–9), 6–7(2–7). He repeated that solid form the following month, making the final at the Campbell's Hall of Fame Championships. losing to Fabrice Santoro 4–6, 4–6.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut reached the 2010 Wimbledon Singles Championship via the qualifiers, during which he beat Alex Bogdanovic in a marathon match, winning 6–3, 3–6, 24–22. A week later, he was beaten in the first round of the championship proper by John Isner in the longest match in tennis history (see below), Isner winning 6–4, 3–6, 6–7, 7–6, 70–68. Mahut also reached the qualifiers for the 2010 US Open but lost to Júlio Silva in the third qualifying round.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: His continued success with Julien Benneteau saw them reach new heights at the Paris masters, collecting the runner-up to Rohan Bopanna & Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Partnering with Édouard Roger-Vasselin, together the collected titles at the Open Sud de France, the Open 13 & the Moselle Open.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Teaming up with doubles veteran Michaël Llodra, Mahut made his first doubles grand slam final at the French Open. They lost to the Bryan brothers in three sets.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut received a wildcard for the men's singles at Wimbledon and therefore did not have to play the qualifying tournament. He therefore decided to play at the 's-Hertogenbosch ATP tournament in Holland which ran at the same time. Mahut had to qualify for the event but went on to win his first ATP singles title, with a straight sets victory over Stanislas Wawrinka in the final. Mahut did not lose a set and his serve was only broken once during the tournament. As a result of his win, his ranking increased by more than 100 places, and he entered the top 125. Mahut received a wildcard for the 2013 Wimbledon tournament, and reached the second round where he lost to Tommy Robredo.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: After Wimbledon, Mahut received a wildcard for the 2013 Hall of Fame Tennis Championships. He went on to win the title, his second ATP tour championship in the space of a month, after defeating Lleyton Hewitt in three sets in the final, despite Hewitt serving for the match at 5–4 in the second set. Mahut's victory saw him enter the top 100 in the singles rankings, reaching number 75. As a result of rain delays, Mahut had played both the singles semi-final and final and the doubles semi-final with partner Édouard Roger-Vasselin on 14 July, and the doubles final was postponed to the following day as a result. The following day, Mahut and Roger-Vasselin won the doubles tournament by defeating Tim Smyczek and Rhyne Williams.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: After quite a successful 2013 season, especially in singles, Mahut didn't enjoy much success in 2014. For the majority of the year in singles, Mahut did not need to play through qualifying to advance to the main draw thanks to the good results he compiled from 2013, but only won 38% of the tour-level matches he played. He failed to advance past the first round in every Grand Slam, which is the first time in his career. Mahut did not reach a tour-level semifinals throughout the entire season. During the season Mahut reached 3 tour-level quarterfinals as well as two Challenger finals.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: However, Mahut enjoyed success in doubles. He reached the semifinals of Brisbane partnering Roger Federer to start off the season. The following week Mahut and Llodra lost in the first round at Sydney in the deciding tiebreak. The week after at the Australian Open, Mahut and Llodra were seeded 13th and reached the semifinals for the first time in his career without dropping a set, including wins against 2nd seeds Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares in the 3rd round and 5th seeds Leander Paes and Radek Štěpánek in the quarterfinals. Mahut then participated at Montepeiller partnering Marc Gicquel, where they reached the final without dropping a set, losing in 3 sets to another unseeded pair Nikolay Davydenko and Denis Istomin. Mahut's good form continued into next week, where he participated in Rotterdam with Llodra, and won the tournament while only dropping a set. Mahut then reached the quarterfinals of the Indian Wells Masters partnering Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, losing to world No. 1s the Bryan brothers in 2 tiebreaks. The next week at the Miami Masters, Mahut and Llodra reached the semifinals, again they were defeated by the Bryan Brothers, also in straight sets.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut then lost 4 consecutive matches before the French Open. At the French Open, Mahut and Llodra were seeded 5th, but was forced to retired during the third round after only playing 3 games. The next week, Mahut and Tsonga fell in the first round of the Queen's Club, after winning the first set in a tiebreaker and losing the second set in another tiebreak, and lost 12–14 in the decider tiebreak. At Wimbledon, he and Llodra were seeded 12th, and reached the semifinals for the first time in his career while only dropping one set en route, and was once more denied by the Bryan Brothers, also in straight sets. The week after Wimbledon, he partnered Sergiy Stakhovsky at the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships, and reached the semifinals defeated in straight sets.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: For the remainder of the season Mahut failed to win consecutive tour-level doubles matches, but won 2 Challengers near the end of the season, at Mons, Belgium, partnering Gicquel, without dropping a set in the process, and at Mouilleron Le Captif, France, partnering Pierre-Hugues Herbert and did not drop a set en route either. It is also his last tournament of the year during the last week of the regular season.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: At the Australian Open, Mahut participated in both singles and doubles draw. He fell in the first round of qualifying in singles, but battled his way to his second appearance in a Grand Slam men's doubles final. Mahut and Herbert, unseeded, lost the final against the unseeded Italians Simone Bolelli and Fabio Fognini. However, this marked the beginning of one of the most successful doubles pair in tennis.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut then played a few qualifying matches for singles but failed to win any tour-level matches after qualifying for the main draw. He also competed in a few Challengers in both singles and doubles. He won the St. Brieuc Challenger in singles during this time, defeating Yūichi Sugita in the final.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut then participated at the French Open, in both singles and doubles. In singles, Mahut was given a wild card, and defeated the 24th seed Latvian Ernests Gulbis in the second round but lost to the 12th seed countryman Gilles Simon in the third round in 5 sets, after leading 2 sets to 1. In doubles, he and Herbert were seeded 14th, and reached the third round where they lost to 2nd seeds Vasek Pospisil and Jack Sock in 2 tiebreaks.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: The week after, he competed in the Topshelf Open, during the first week of the grass season, in both singles and doubles. In singles, which he needed to qualify, Mahut won 3 consecutive qualifying matches to advance to the main draw. From there on, he defeated Lleyton Hewitt, 3rd seed and defending champion Roberto Bautista Agut, 6th seed Adrian Mannarino, wildcard Robin Haase, and 2nd seed David Goffin in the final to win his third ATP Tour singles title of his career, all of them on grass. In doubles, he and Herbert defeated 2nd seeds Daniel Nestor and Leander Paes in the quarterfinals and 3rd seeds Jamie Murray and John Peers both in straight sets before losing in the final.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut then participated in Queen's Club, in the doubles draw. He and Herbert were seeded 4th, and won the title without dropping a set, defeating 1st seeds Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares in the semifinals and 2nd seeds Marcin Matkowski and Nenad Zimonjić in the final.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: At Wimbledon, Mahut participated in both singles and doubles draw. In singles, Mahut opened against Filip Krajinović and won in 4 sets. In the second round he lost to 6th seed Tomáš Berdych in straight sets. In doubles, Mahut and Herbert were seeded 10th and reached the third round before Matkowski and Zimonjić avenged the loss earlier during the grass season.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: After several uneventful weeks, where Mahut failed to win any tour-level matches in singles and only won 1 in doubles, Mahut competed in both singles and doubles at the US Open. In singles, he defeated American world No. 38 Sam Querrey in tight straight sets and lost the next round to 31st seed, Spaniard Guillermo García López in 4 sets. In doubles, Mahut and Herbert, seeded 12th, won the men's doubles title with a straight sets win over 8th seeds Jamie Murray and John Peers in the final while only dropping a tiebreaker en route to the title. They thus became the first all-French pair to win the men's doubles title at the US Open and their US Open victory marked the sixth time that an all-French pair had won a Grand Slam men's doubles title in the Open Era.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: The next week Mahut participated at the Moselle Open, in singles and doubles. In singles, Mahut reached the quarterfinals with a 3 set win over 7th seed and countryman Mannarino en route, where he was defeated by another countryman, 3rd seed, and eventual champion Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. In doubles, he and Herbert were seeded 1st, and reached the finals where they lost to 2nd seeds Łukasz Kubot and Édouard Roger-Vasselin in 3 sets.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut and Herbert also qualified for the prestigious ATP World Tour Finals for the first time for both men, and were seeded 6th, but failed to advance past round robin stage after winning 1 of the 3 round robin matches.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: During the first few months of 2016, Mahut did one of his best performances in the start of the year. Reaching the quarterfinals in Sydney singles draws and Semis in Rotterdam, he enjoyed success in doubles. He won a doubles title in February 2016 in Rotterdam, an ATP World Tour 500 event, partnering Vasek Pospisil (and held 3 match points in the semifinal against eventual champion Martin Kližan in the singles draw, on what would have been his first tour-level final on hard court and his first final at an ATP World Tour 500 event), defeating Alexander Peya and Philipp Petzschner in the final. He and Pierre-Hugues Herbert then won the first three ATP World Tour Masters 1000 of the year: in Indian Wells, where he and Herbert defeated Pospisil and Jack Sock in straight sets in the final; in Miami, where he and Herbert defeated Raven Klaasen and Rajeev Ram in the final; and Monte Carlo, where he and Herbert defeated world No. 1 Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares in the final. By then, Mahut had won 17 consecutive matches in doubles (not including walkovers) which dated back to mid-February to Rotterdam. Unlike his ATP Tour singles titles, these came on hard and clay courts. He extended the streak to 19 when he reached the semifinals at the fourth Masters 1000 of the year at Madrid in May, succumbing to 3rd seeds, the No. 1 doubles team of 2015, and eventual champions Jean-Julien Rojer and Horia Tecău.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: At the French Open, in singles, unseeded Mahut defeated Lithuanian Ričardas Berankis in straight sets in the first round and reached the second round where he retired to Spaniard Marcel Granollers in the third set after trailing 0–2 in sets. In doubles, Mahut was seeded 1st in men's doubles in a Grand Slam event for the first time in his career. However, he and Herbert were upset in the third round by 15th seeds and eventual champions Feliciano López and Marc López. Despite the loss, on 6 June, Mahut became the 49th player and only the second Frenchman (the first was Yannick Noah, who held the No. 1 doubles ranking for a total of 19 weeks in 1986 and 1987) in history to be ranked No. 1 in the ATP Doubles Rankings. He held it for a week before losing it.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut had an outstanding grass season, winning all tournaments he entered in either singles or doubles draw. By the end of the first week, on 13 June, Mahut already clinched his fourth ATP Tour singles title by successfully defending the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships singles title, and won it for a record-tying third time in men's singles, defeating Luxembourgian Gilles Müller in straight sets in the final. Mahut then participated in Queen's Club Championships in the second week, where he faced defending champion and world No. 2 Andy Murray in the opening round, and came close to repeating the success of 2012 by taking Murray to 2 tight tiebreaks, however he was unable to produce the same upset again. Despite the setback in singles, however, in the doubles draw, he and Herbert successfully defended the title while only dropping a tiebreak in the process, defeating Australian Chris Guccione and Brazilian André Sá in straight sets in the final, which was Mahut's 5th doubles title of the year. As a result, Mahut became the first, and the only player to date, to defend a title in both singles and doubles on the ATP World Tour since the new format started in 2009.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut then competed at the Wimbledon Championships. In the singles draw, he defeated Brydan Klein in the first round in straight sets. He then upset 13th seed David Ferrer in the second round also in straight sets. In the third round he defeated his doubles partner Pierre-Hugues Herbert in four sets to advance to the singles fourth round of a Grand Slam event for the first time in his career. In the fourth round, he lost in straight sets to the 28th seed, Sam Querrey, who had unexpectedly defeated world No. 1 and top seed Novak Djokovic in the third round. In the doubles draw, again seeded 1st, he and Herbert fought their way to the final with a few tough matches en route, setting up a clash with unseeded pair of countrymen and friends Julien Benneteau and Édouard Roger-Vasselin, which is also the first ever all-French final in the history of Wimbledon. By reaching the final, Mahut has reached the men's doubles final of all four Grand Slams. He and Herbert defeated them in straight sets to win their 2nd Grand Slam men's doubles title. He also regained the No. 1 spot in doubles. He also tied with Novak Djokovic for most titles on the 2016 ATP Tour (7) to date with singles and doubles title combined, a feat Murray would later catch up to. He and Herbert also became the first pair to qualify for ATP World Tour Finals following results from Wimbledon. By then, Mahut and Herbert won another 10 consecutive doubles match that dates back to the Queen's Club championships, and extended it to 11 when they won their Davis Cup World Group quarterfinals rubber against Czech Republic. France eventually won 3–1. However, the streak came to a stop when they entered the Rio Olympics representing France and was taken out in the first round by unseeded Colombians Juan Sebastián Cabal and Robert Farah. Mahut later commented the result at Rio as "a failure, fiasco, and disaster".


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: After mediocre results in both singles and doubles at the Cincinnati Masters, the tournament he participated after the Olympics, Mahut competed in both singles and doubles draw at the US Open. In singles, Mahut was unseeded and defeated Philip Kolschreiber after winning the first 2 sets and Kolschreiber retired in the first round, and then he came up with another straight set victory against close friend and countryman Paul-Henri Mathieu. By reaching the third round, Mahut has now reached third round or better on all four Grand Slams in singles. It also marked the first time in his career that he participated in all four Grand Slams in singles without at least one first round exit. In the third round, he faced 6th seed Kei Nishikori and was off to a great start winning the first set, and had a lot more break point chances after the first set than Nishikori, but failed to convert any of them and lost the match while only winning 5 games in the last three sets. In doubles, as the defending champions, Mahut and Herbert was seeded 1st, and reached the semifinals for the second consecutive year and only dropped a set en route to set up a rematch of this year's Monte-Carlo Masters final against 4th seeds Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares, which they lost in 3 tight sets. Murray and Soares went on to win the tournament.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: The week after US Open, Mahut participated in the Davis Cup World Group semifinals against Croatia. Mahut and Herbert teamed up for the doubles rubber, but were upset by Marin Čilić and Ivan Dodig in 4 closely contested sets. France went on to lose the tie by a margin of a match, 2–3. Mahut was then out of action for 4 weeks, including skipping the Shanghai Masters, where Bruno Soares was a match away from overtaking Mahut as the new world No. 1 in doubles. Had Soares won the match, he would have become the 50th player in history to be ranked No. 1 in the ATP Doubles Rankings. Mahut came back to play the inaugural European Open at Antwerp, Belgium, again in both singles and doubles draws. In singles, Mahut was seeded 7th, but was upset by unseeded eventual runner-up Argentine Diego Schwartzman in 2 tight sets in the first round. In doubles, seeded 1st, Mahut and Herbert reached the final, including a revenge against Schwartzman in the quarterfinals where he dropped the only set en route, in which they were taken out by 2nd seeds, Canadian Daniel Nestor and Frenchman Édouard Roger-Vasselin in straight sets. This marked Mahut's first loss in an ATP tour-level final, singles and doubles combined, in 2016.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut then participated in the Swiss Indoors, another ATP World Tour 500 event, where he participated in both singles and doubles draw. In singles, he was unseeded and was defeated in the opening round by unseeded Italian Paolo Lorenzi. In doubles, he partnered Roger-Vasselin since Herbert did not compete this week and was seeded 2nd, and reached the semifinals without dropping a set where they lost in straight sets to the eventual champions and 4th seeds, Spaniard Marcel Granollers and American Jack Sock. The following week, Mahut will compete in the final tournament of the year, the Paris Masters, again in both singles and doubles draw. In singles, Mahut faced off against Martin Kližan in the first round, whom he faced earlier in the year, and avenged the loss by a 3 set win coming from a set down, and in the second round he was taken out by 8th seed David Goffin in straight sets. In doubles, Mahut and Herbert were seeded 1st and were the home favorites. After receiving a bye into the second round they cruised against João Sousa and Kližan, which was a double revenge in the same tournament. In the quarterfinals they faced 5th seeds, Spaniards Feliciano López and Marc López, who defeated Mahut and Herbert earlier this year in the third round of French Open on their opponents home soil. However, this time it is Mahut and Herbert who prevailed on home soil, in a close 3-set match. In the semifinals, the duo faced 8th seeds Rohan Bopanna and Daniel Nestor and again prevailed in a 3-set match to reach his second Paris Masters final. In the final, despite being the favorites on home soil, they lost to the unseeded pair Henri Kontinen and John Peers in another 3-set match.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut and Herbert made their second straight ATP World Tour Finals appearance to wrap up the season, this time seeded 1st. He and Herbert were drawn into the Fleming/McEnroe Group with 4th seeds Feliciano López and Marc López, 5th seeds Henri Kontinen and John Peers, and 7th seeds Raven Klaasen and Rajeev Ram. Mahut only needed to win 1 round robin match to secure his year-end No. 1 ranking in doubles, and winning the Tour Finals with 2 round robin match wins or a spot in the final with 3 round robin match wins. The pair was upset by Klaasen and Ram in straight sets in the first match in a rematch of 2016 Miami Masters Men's Doubles final, and was 2 points away from winning the second match against López and López in the decider tiebreak in a rematch of 2016 Paris Masters Men's Doubles semifinals, therefore eliminated again at round robin stage. In the final round robin match, Mahut and Herbert lost to Kontinen and Peers again in a decider tiebreak after winning the first set in a rematch of 2016 Paris Masters Men's Doubles final, resulting a last place finish in their group and putting his year-end No. 1 ranking and No. 1 doubles team of 2016 in danger. In contrary, 2nd seeds Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares won all of their 3-round robin matches, and finished 25 points ahead of Mahut and Herbert for the No. 1 doubles team of 2016. However, Murray and Soares was upset by Klaasen and Ram in the semifinals in straight sets, and as a result Mahut was able to finish 2016 ranked No. 1 in doubles. In singles, Mahut also finished 2016 at a career-best year-end ranking of No. 39.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Following on his stellar 2016 season in doubles, Mahut had a more difficult 2017 season, not progressing past the quarterfinal stage at any of the four Grand Slams events he participated in. He did, however, duplicate his doubles success of 2016 at the Masters series tournaments, reaching four finals again, and winning three of them. More importantly, he won all three of the doubles rubbers he played during France's successful Davis Cup campaign that ended with a 10th Davis Cup Trophy.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut and doubles partner Herbert became the third all-French pair in the open-era to claim the French Open title as they defeated Oliver Marach and Mate Pavić 6–2, 7–6 in the final. In doing so Mahut recorded his 300th doubles win along the way.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: At the ATP finals in their fourth attempt as a pair, Mahut and Herbert progressed past the round-robin stage of the tournament for the first time reaching the finals before being defeated by Jack Sock and Mike Bryan.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: In January, Mahut and doubles partner Herbert earned the Career Grand Slam in men's doubles after defeating Henri Kontinen and John Peers in the Australian Open final, 6–4, 7–6. In the singles at Roland Garros Mahut reached the third round beating former semifinalist Marco Ceccinato in the first round to do so.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Partnering with Édouard Roger-Vasselin Mahut reached the Wimbledon doubles final falling to Colombian duo Juan Sebastián Cabal and Robert Farah in five tight sets 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 7–6, 3–6. The pair then claimed the ATP 500 title of Tokyo defeating Nikola Mektic and Franko Skugor 7–6(7), 6–4.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut reunited with Pierre-Hugues Herbert to play the Paris Rolex Masters which they won defeating Karen Khachanov and Andrey Rublev 6–4, 6–1 in the final. The pair qualified for the ATP Finals for the 5th straight year. Mahut and Herbert went undefeated in the round robin stage, and then went on to lift the trophy, without dropping a set throughout the tournament. They defeated Raven Klaasen and Michael Venus in the final 6–3,6–4.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut continued partnering with Pierre-Hugues Herbert to play at the 2021 French Open where the pair won it for the second time in their career beating Alexander Bublik and Andrey Golubev in the final. The home favorites saved three match points en route to the final defeating second seeds Juan Sebastián Cabal/Robert Farah. They then defeated Alexander Bublik and Andrey Golubev to claim their second French Open doubles title.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut and Herbert continued their partnership at the 2021 Queen's Club Championships. They won the championships for the third time, beating Reilly Opelka and John Peers in straight sets. The pairing, however, had less success at the 2021 Wimbledon Championships – despite beating Facundo Bagnis and Albert Ramos Viñolas in the first round, Mahut and Herbert were forced to forfeit their second round match against Fabrice Martin and Jérémy Chardy, due to a thigh injury sustained by Herbert.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut represented France at the Olympics. He entered the men's doubles, with Pierre-Hugues Herbert, and the mixed doubles, with Kristina Mladenovic. However, Mahut lost both of his first round matches in straight sets; losing to the British pair Andy Murray and Joe Salisbury in the men's doubles, and the Russian pair and eventual finalists Elena Vesnina and Aslan Karatsev in the mixed doubles.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: After an unsatisfactory American hard court swing, Mahut played at the 2021 US Open with Pierre-Hugues Herbert, they reached the quarterfinals, after three wins. They lost to 8th seeds John Peers and Filip Polášek.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: In October, Mahut paired up with fellow French player Fabrice Martin for the 2021 European Open. They won the title by beating the Dutch pair of Wesley Koolhof and Jean-Julien Rojer, for the loss of only one game.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Following that win, Mahut paired up Pierre-Hugues Herbert again, for the 2021 Rolex Paris Masters. After navigating through 3 matches, including the 6th seeds John Peers and Filip Polášek, they lost in the final against Tim Pütz and Michael Venus on a match tiebreak, 9–11.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Next, Mahut and Herbert played in the 2021 ATP Finals, as one of the eight best teams of the year. They navigated through the group stage, for the loss of only one match to Rajeev Ram and Joe Salisbury. In the semifinals, they beat Marcel Granollers and Horacio Zeballos to advance to their third ATP Finals final. In the final, they successfully avenged their loss to Ram and Salisbury in the group stage, winning in straight sets. This was their second title as a pair at the season ending finale.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: At the 2022 Open Sud de France in February, he won his 40th title with partner Herbert as top seeds, defeating Lloyd Glasspool and Harri Heliövaara. It was their 21st title as a team.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Mahut is a solid baseliner who is also very adept at serve and volleying. He has an accurate first serve that puts his opponent out of position, and then comes to the net to finish the point, a tactic he often employs on grass. On a second serve or on other surfaces, Mahut engages more frequently in baseline rallies and attacks the net whenever he sees a chance. He has consistent and accurate strokes off both wings, and he is also capable of hitting winners from both wings with a combination of speed and angle.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: His consistent serve, skillful net play and clever placement of returns have also made him an exceptional doubles player.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: In what became a record-setting match, spanning three days, qualifier Mahut faced 23rd seed John Isner in the first round of the 2010 Wimbledon Championships on 22–24 June. Isner served a world record 113 aces in the single match alone, breaking Ivo Karlović's record of 78. Mahut would go on to surpass it as well with 103. Play was suspended at 21:11 on 23 June due to darkness at a score of 59–59. Isner eventually took the match the following day, winning 6–4, 3–6, 6–7, 7–6, 70–68. Although having won, Isner was not able to play his next match.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: The match is the longest match ever in a Tennis Open in terms of both time and number of games, lasting a total of 183 games, and a total of 11 hours and 5 minutes in duration; it beat, respectively, the Pancho Gonzales – Charlie Pasarell record of 112 games in the first round of Wimbledon in 1969, and the Fabrice Santoro – Arnaud Clément record of 6 hours, 33 minutes at the 2004 French Open.


title: Nicolas Mahut

text: Both players and the referee later received commemorative prizes for participating in the match. Mahut holds the record for most points won in a tennis match, at 502 points. He also holds the Wimbledon record for most games won in a match by a losing player with 91.


title: Rayman 3: Hoodlum Havoc

text: Rayman 3: Hoodlum Havoc is a 2003 platform game developed and published by Ubisoft, and the third major installment in the "Rayman" series. It tells the story of how Rayman stops André, an evil black lum, from taking over the world with his army of sack-like "Hoodlum" soldiers. Unlike the game's , "Rayman 3" took a more light-hearted turn, utilizing sarcastic self-referential undertones while also poking fun at the platforming video game genre. It was released for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox and Microsoft Windows, and on OS X by Feral Interactive in 2004. 2D versions of the game were developed for the Game Boy Advance, N-Gage and mobile phones since the Beta version and the Prototype versions were made in 2002.


title: Rayman 3: Hoodlum Havoc

text: A remastered HD version was released for PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade in 2012. A follow up game, "", was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2005. This would be the last main series "Rayman" game to be released until "Rayman Origins" in 2011. The game is also the latest in the series to be in 3D.