title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: Throughout their respective experiences of Rebecca at Philip's fundraiser and Dylan dating a woman, they grow closer. Becky realizes that Dylan is in love with her and she herself is also falling in love with him, so she tries to break off their communication. Becky's husband notices she has grown distant from him and he is puzzled and disturbed by her odd behavior he has seen when while she has been in mental contact with Dylan. One of her friends, thinking that Becky is either having an affair or is cracking up, brings her suspicions to him, and he and a medical colleague have her forcibly institutionalized. Dylan, on the other hand, loses his post-prison job at a car wash when customers are concerned with his mental state observing him seemingly talking to himself while he was in contact with Becky. While he is trying to make a clean break from his criminal past, he is menaced by two long-time criminal acquaintances trying to pressure him into using his skills as a burglar to help them do a heist.


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: Later, Dylan feels that Becky is in trouble so he violates his parole by stealing a truck to get to the airport and subsequently leaves the state without permission by taking a plane to New Hampshire to rescue Becky from the mental institution. Unable to rent a car at the airport, Dylan steals one. While she telepathically guides him on the roads between the airport and the institution, he uses his criminal smarts to guide Becky through her escape from the facility, including picking a lock on a door. Becky avoids detection until reaching the front door, where she runs into her husband and subsequently punches him in the face before fleeing the facility, while Dylan is being chased by several police cars. They both manage to elude their respective pursuers and end up on foot running through the woods towards a train. They manage to climb into an empty box car, where they finally unite in person and share a kiss.


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: Abigail Spencer was originally set to play the lead in the film, but the role was later given to Kazan.


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: Principal photography began late February 2012, in New Hampshire. Producer and co-founder of Bellwether Pictures Kai Cole elaborated on the choice, saying, “Location is very important to me. I think people can tell when you're tricking them with movie magic. We wanted everything to be authentic, from the architecture to the landscape and New Hampshire is perfect for us". Director Brin Hill added that resulting from the importance of it in the script, "we were chasing snow. We started out in Connecticut, but there was no snow, so we moved to Ohio, but there was no snow [...] and we kept moving north". The filming took place in Exeter, Manchester, Hooksett, Bedford, Windham, Claremont and Amherst.


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: The opening sequence at the sledding hill was filmed at McIntyre Ski Area, and some footage was also shot in the New Mexico desert. They wrapped their last day of filming on the East Coast in early March 2012, moving next to Los Angeles to shoot the other half. Hill shot the film digitally with an Arri Alexa, and said that he enjoyed the "versatility" of it, citing its proximity in look to film as a satisfying trait for both him and his DP, Elisha Christian. The screenplay was written by Joss Whedon in the early 90s, and went through multiple rewrites over the course of two decades. To Hill, "the most interesting aspect of the script was its theme of connection–and what it means to connect in today’s society".


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: Tony Morales composed the score for "In Your Eyes". It was recorded at Emoto Studios in 2013. On collaborating with Brin Hill and Joss Whedon, Morales said, "I primarily worked with Brin on the music for [the film]. Joss had a vision for the score that we were able to run with. As the sound of the score was coming together, Joss and the other producers were all part of the approval process". A hybrid of string instruments, piano sounds, and a variety of electronic music were used by Morales to convey a sense of "mystery" that could "weave in and out" of the "romantic energy". All music was released by Lakeshore Records. The score and soundtrack were digitally available on June 10, 2014.


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: "In Your Eyes" premiered on April 20 at the 2014 Tribeca Film Festival. In place of theatrical distribution, the film was put up for simultaneous release. The venture was announced after its debut screening in a video message from Joss Whedon, who said that the Tribeca premiere was "not just the premiere of the film. It is the worldwide release date". Brin Hill described the experimental method as "bittersweet, because it's uncharted territory. But there’s something thrilling about this. [...] There’s something exciting about just making it available everywhere to everyone at once".


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: According to Rotten Tomatoes, 61% of critics have given the film positive feedback (based on 18 reviews).


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: Kurt Loder of "Reason.com" complimented the director for making "a lustrous film out of Whedon's ingenious story", while Mark Adams of "ScreenDaily" lauded it by saying, "It has the perfect balance of humour and tenderness, with just a dash of danger and even melodrama on the side". John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" praised Brin Hill's ability to depict "the couple's growing intimacy", but felt that "the forces keeping both from being fulfilled" lacked development. Eric Kohn of "Indiewire" wrote that "In Your Eyes" "successfully offers the lightweight alternative to Whedon's bigger projects: It's cheesy and slight, but persistently smart and entertaining within those narrow parameters".


title: In Your Eyes (2014 film)

text: "The Guardian" scored the film two out of five stars, calling it "a rom-com version of "The Shining"". Peter Debruge of "Variety" said that the film's "setup never really matures beyond a sentimental teenage fantasy".


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber) is a species of ibis in the bird family Threskiornithidae. It inhabits tropical South America and part of the Caribbean. In form, it resembles most of the other twenty-seven extant species of ibis, but its remarkably brilliant scarlet coloration makes it unmistakable. It is one of the two national birds of Trinidad and Tobago, and its Tupi–Guarani name, guará, is part of the name of several municipalities along the coast of Brazil.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: This medium-sized wader is a hardy, numerous, and prolific bird, and it has protected status around the world. Its IUCN status is Least Concern. The legitimacy of "Eudocimus ruber" as a biological classification, however, is in dispute. Traditional Linnaean taxonomy classifies it as a unique species, but some scientists have moved to reclassify it as a subspecies of a more general American ibis species, along with its close relative, the American white ibis ("Eudocimus albus").


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The species was first classified by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Initially given the binomial nomenclature of "Scolopax rubra" (the name incorporates the Latin adjective "ruber", "red"), the species was later designated "Guara rubra" and ultimately "Eudocimus ruber".


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Biologically the scarlet ibis is very closely related to the American white ibis ("Eudocimus albus") and is sometimes considered conspecific with it, leaving modern science divided over their taxonomy. The two birds each have exactly the same bones, claws, beaks, feather arrangements and other features – their one marked difference lies in their pigmentation. Traditional taxonomy has regarded the two as separate and distinct.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Early ornithological field research revealed no natural crossbreeding among the red and white, lending support to the two-species viewpoint. More recent observation, however, has documented significant crossbreeding and hybridization in the wild. Researchers Cristina Ramo and Benjamin Busto found evidence of interbreeding in a population where the ranges of the scarlet and white ibises overlap along the coast and in the Llanos in Colombia and Venezuela. They observed individuals of the two species mating and pairing, as well as hybrid ibises with pale orange plumage, or white plumage with occasional orange feathers, and have proposed that these birds be classified as a single species. Hybridization has been known to occur frequently in captivity. However, the two color forms persist in the wild despite overlapping ranges and hybrid offspring having a distinctive color type, so according to the cohesion species concept they would be functionally different species.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Some biologists now wish to pair them with "Eudocimus albus" as two subspecies of the same American ibis. Others simply define both of them as one and the same species, with "ruber" being a color variation of "albus".


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Adult plumage is virtually all scarlet. The feathers may show various tints and shades, but only the tips of their wings deviate from their namesake color. A small but reliable marking, these wingtips are a rich inky black (or occasionally dark blue) and are found only on the longest primaries – otherwise the birds' coloration is "a vivid orange-red, almost luminous in quality." Scarlet ibises have red bills and feet however the bill is sometimes blackish, especially toward the end. They have a long, narrow, decurved bill. Their legs and neck are long and extended in flight.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: A juvenile scarlet ibis is a mix of grey, brown, and white. As it grows, a heavy diet of red crustaceans produces the scarlet coloration. The color change begins with the juvenile's second moult, around the time it begins to fly: the change starts on the back and spreads gradually across the body while increasing in intensity over a period of about two years. The scarlet ibis is the only shorebird with red coloration in the world.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Adults are long, and the males, slightly larger than females, typically weigh about . Their bills are also on average around 22% longer than those of females. The life span of the scarlet ibis is approximately sixteen years in the wild and twenty years in captivity. An adult scarlet ibis has a wingspan of around . Though it spends most of its time on foot or wading through water, the bird is a very strong flyer: they are highly migratory and easily capable of long-distance flight. They move as flocks in a classic V formation.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The range of the scarlet ibis is very large, and colonies are found throughout vast areas of South America and the Caribbean islands. Native flocks exist in Brazil; Colombia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; and Venezuela, as well as the islands of the Netherlands Antilles, and Trinidad and Tobago. Flocks gather in wetlands and other marshy habitats, including mud flats, shoreline and rainforest. Outlying colonies have been identified in the coastal areas of the states of Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo (for example in the Santos-Cubatão mangroves of the Baixada Santista district), Paraná and Santa Catarina. In recent years, bird colonies can be seen as far south as in the coastal areas of Joinville and the island of São Francisco do Sul.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The highest concentrations are found in the Llanos region of western Venezuela and eastern Colombia. The fertile and remote tropical grassland plain of the Llanos provides a safe haven far from human encroachment. Together with its relative the bare-faced ibis, the scarlet ibis is remarkably prolific and conspicuous in the region.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Scarlet ibis vagrants have been identified in Belize, Ecuador, and Panama; Aruba, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, and Jamaica; sightings have even been made in the United States. The species may well have been a natural vagrant to the Gulf Coast in the 19th century or earlier – in "The Birds of America", John James Audubon made brief remarks regarding three "rubra" specimens he encountered in Louisiana. However, virtually all modern occurrences of the species in North America have been introduced or escaped birds. In one notable example from 1962, scarlet ibis eggs were placed in white ibis nests in Florida's Greynolds Park, and the resulting population hybridised easily, producing "pink ibises" that are still occasionally seen.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Mating pairs build nests in a simple style, typically "loose platforms of sticks" of a quality sometimes described as "artless". They roost in leaf canopies, mostly preferring the convenient shelter of young waterside mangrove trees. Scarlet ibises like wet, muddy areas such as swamps, but for safety they build their nests in trees well above the water. If they can, they nest on islands, where their eggs and chicks are less likely to be in danger from predators.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: To attract a female, the male will perform a variety of mating rituals such as "preening, shaking, bill popping, head rubbing, and high flights. As with most birds, mating does not involve any coupling or insertion: instead, a transfer of seminal fluids occurs during external contact between the cloacal openings. After a gestation period of five to six days, the female lays a clutch of three to five smooth, matte eggs which typically incubate for 19–23 days. After a successful courtship, pairs remain faithful and cohabitant, sharing parental responsibilities for the young.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: In southeastern Brazil, the ibises gather in colonies in mid-September and build nests at the beginning of November. Egg laying within the colony was synchronous, with female birds laying eggs in three waves in early November, late December and late January.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Their distinctive long, thin bills are used to probe for food in soft mud or under plants. Popularly imagined to be eating only shrimp, a recent study in the Llanos has found that much of their diet consists of insects, of which the majority were scarabs and ground beetles. One species in particular, a scarab beetle "Dyscinetus dubius", formed a large part of the diet. Other insect prey include water beetles and water bugs. In contrast, the diet of the co-occurring American white ibis there differed, the latter consuming more bugs, fish and crustaceans.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: They do, however, eat much shrimp and other similar fare like small crabs, mollusks and other crustaceans, such as crayfish. The large quantity of shrimp and other red shellfish produces a surfeit of astaxanthin, a carotenoid which is the key component of the birds' red pigmentation. Frogs, small snakes, small fish, fruits and seeds are also occasional prey items for scarlet ibises. When kept in zoos, the birds' diet often contains beetroot and carrot supplement to maintain color vibrancy in their plumage.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The Llanos are notable in that these wetland plains support seven species of ibis in the one region. Here, scarlet ibis are the most aggressive, and attack other species to steal their food. They have also been observed trailing white-faced whistling ducks ("Dendrocygna viduata") and domestic livestock, and catching insects disturbed by them.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The scarlet ibis is a sociable and gregarious bird, and very communally-minded regarding the search for food and the protection of the young. They live in flocks of thirty or more. Members stay close, and mating pairs arrange their nests in close proximity to other pairs in the same tree.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: For protection, flocks often congregate in large colonies of several thousand individuals. They also regularly participate in mixed flocks, gaining additional safety through numbers: storks, spoonbills, egrets, herons and ducks are all common companions during feedings and flights.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The species has protected status throughout the world, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified the scarlet ibis as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Though several local populations appear to be in decline, global totals remain relatively large and the current rate of losses is not considered a threat to the species' survival. Nonetheless, recent losses by established populations in French Guiana have become a concern for conservationists, and in Brazil the bird has been included on a national list of endangered species.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: The scarlet ibis and the cocrico are the national birds of Trinidad and Tobago. Both birds are featured on the coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago. The cocrico is found on Tobago, Venezuela and Colombia. The scarlet ibis is associated with Trinidad; there are not documented records of the scarlet ibis on Tobago for the last fifteen years.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: An important local habitat for the scarlet ibis is the wildlife sanctuary of Caroni Swamp of Trinidad, a wetland reserve first designated in 1953 specifically to provide a habitat for the scarlet ibis.


title: Scarlet ibis

text: Using the bird as a literary symbol, American author James Hurst composed a popular short story, "The Scarlet Ibis" (1960). A more recent short story, "Scarlet Ibis" by Margaret Atwood, is included in "Bluebeard's Egg" (1983). The name also belongs to a book of verse by American poet Susan Hahn.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The German occupation of Albania occurred between 1943 and 1944 during World War II. Before the armistice between Italy and the Allied armed forces on 8 September 1943, Albania had been in a de jure personal union with and was de facto under the control of the Kingdom of Italy. After the armistice and the Italian exit from the Axis, German military forces entered Albania and it came under German occupation, creating the client-state, the Albanian Kingdom (Albanian: "Mbretëria Shqiptare"; German: "Königreich Albanien").


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The Germans favoured the nationalist Balli Kombëtar over King Zog I's Legalists and the occupation was marked by collaboration between them and the Germans. Albania under German occupation retained control of the areas it had received during Italian rule, including most of Kosovo, as well as Western Macedonia, the town of Tutin in Serbia and a strip of Eastern Montenegro. It was the policy of the Balli Kombëtar to have all Albanian populated territories under one state.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: In anticipation of such invasion, the Wehrmacht drew up a series of military plans for action against Italian holdings in the Balkans code-named "Konstantin". And for a more direct nature, units of German Military Intelligence (Abwehr) section II were sent to Mitrovica (present day Kosovo) in April 1943 in an attempt to gain some influence among the growing number of Albanians disaffected with the Italians. Even more directly, in July and August 1943, the German army occupied Albanian airports and ports, ostensibly to protect Italian Albania from the possibility of an Allied invasion. By mid-August there were some six thousand German troops in Albania.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The first political move made by the Foreign Ministry prior to the invasion was the appointment of Hermann Neubacher, a former mayor of Vienna, as Ribbentrop's special representative for southeastern Europe. Neubacher, already active in the Balkans as Hitler's representative for economic concerns, would become the key German figure in the Balkans during the second half of the war, although he was not officially assigned Albania as part of his responsibility until 10 September. Apart from the appointment of Neubacher, Major Franz von Scheiger was dispatched to Mitrovica. Scheiger, who had been to Albania before as an officer in the Austro-Hungarian army, was acquainted with many Albanian interwar politicians of influence on a personal basis.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The Germans planned to construct an independent neutral Albania controlled by a government friendly to the Germans. After the Mukje Agreement was broken by the Albanian Partisans, war broke out between the Albanian Partisans (who were backed by the Yugoslav Partisans, who in turn were backed by the Allies) and the Balli Kombëtar.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: After the capitulation of Italian forces on 8 September 1943, German troops swiftly occupied Albania with two divisions. The Germans formed a 'neutral government' in Tirana.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The Germans were intent on setting up an autonomous administration and endeavored to persuade Albanian leaders to form a government to take over the administration of the country themselves. Many hesitated, in particular when rumors spread that British forces were preparing to invade Albania. Kosovo Albanian leaders, however, realizing that a German defeat would mean a return to Yugoslav rule, were more willing to cooperate. On 14 September 1943, an Albanian government was then set up under Ibrahim Biçaku of Elbasan, Cafo Beg Ulqini Bedri Pejani and Xhafer Deva of Kosovo. The national assembly, composed of 243 members, began to function on 16 October 1943, electing a four-member High Regency Council (Këshilli i Lartë i Regjencës) to govern the country.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: German promises to preserve the 1941 borders of Albania, assurances of "non-interference" with the new Albanian administration and a general Pro-German outlook of most Albanians (dating from the years before and during the First World War where Austro-Hungarian foreign policies were supportive of an independent Albanian state), ensured that the new government initially enjoyed a large amount of support from the people. The new government, which promised to remain neutral in the war, succeeded in restoring a good deal of stability. The administration and justice systems functioned once again, and Albanian schools were reopened throughout northern and central Albania. Steps were also taken to implement a land reform.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The Germans made a genuine effort, often to their own disadvantage, to leave the Albanian people the impression that they possessed at least some level of autonomy. There was no effort to forcibly recruit labour from Albania for the Reich, as it was incompatible with the notion of Albanian independence. The regent Frashëri also came to an agreement with the Germans in February 1944 which stipulated that Albanian prisoners would not be transported out of the country, however the Germans did not always live up to this, particularly towards the end of 1944. In line with Neubacher's policies towards Albania, reprisals on the civilian population for attacks on the German army were uncommon and certainly not as brutal as in other occupied territories.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: Frashëri negotiated for as much independence as he could extract from the Germans and was able to convince Neubacher to recognise Albania's "relative" neutrality and "relative" sovereignty. Albania had a status similar to that of Croatia and Slovakia, having relative sovereignty under Nazi Germany. In late November 1943 the Albanian government asked the Germans to help them convince the Kingdom of Bulgaria to extend recognition to the new state; the Germans agreed. At the same time Frasheri began negotiations for the establishment of diplomatic relations with Switzerland and Turkey. This caused some alarm at the German foreign ministry who argued that these neutral states should not be approached, but that states under German control might be asked to extend recognition. Soon after Ante Pavelic's Ustashi regime in Croatia extended their recognition to the Albanians.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The new government and the Germans had to contend with the increasingly Communist dominated NLM and were subsequently able to coerce much of the nationalist resistance into its camp. The Germans launched a series of offensives against the Partisans, who were primarily concentrated in Southern Albania and to a lesser extent in Central Albania. The first offensive, operation "505", started in early November 1943 to clear Partisan units from the Pezë region and remove the threat to the Durrës-Tirana road. Within eight days the Germans declared the campaign a success having killed some 100 "bandits" and having taken over 1,650 prisoners, all of whom were, by earlier agreement turned over to the Albanian civil authorities. The Balli Kombëtar was also involved in fighting the Partisans during the Winter offensive and by late winter the NLM found itself in considerable difficulty. The NLM came perilously close to being destroyed by the German and Nationalist forces, with the units that managed to escape encirclement suffering from lack of food, clothing and ammunition (as the allies were unable to resupply them from the air). German figures put the number of partisan casualties at 2,239 by the end of January, 401 dead in February and 236 in March. By then all prefectures of the new state, except Gjirokstra in the south, remained in the hands of the Albanian government. Enver Hoxha himself acknowledged that "the situation is difficult".


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The success of the Winter campaign proved to be short lived, and the Partisans proved to be much more resilient than the Germans, British and many Albanians had anticipated. With the Grand Alliance established, the Germans began losing the war. With the current situation favouring the communists, the partisans began a full-scale attack on the Germans and Balli Kombëtar. British Liaison officers in Albania noted that the Communists were using the arms they received to fight fellow Albanians far more than to harass the Germans. The west noted that the Communists could not have won without the supplies and armaments from the British, America and Yugoslavia, and that the LNC were not afraid of murdering their country men.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: After the Union with Italy was officially dissolved; many of the laws passed after Italian invasion were revoked, and Albania was declared free, neutral and independent. At the same time, the assembly revoked the draft law of June 1940 that declared Albania to be a co-belligerent with Italy. The assembly announced that Albania would be governed by a regency of four, one representative from each of Albania's four major religious communities, for the remainder of the war. The Germans had created a government similar to the one that had ruled after the retreat of Prince Wied in September 1914, demonstrating an appreciation for not only Albanian history but also for Albania's religious makeup.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: Lef Nosi was chosen as the Orthodox representative. Representing the Sunni Muslims, the Germans were able to attract Fuat Dibra, a landowner from new Albania who, like Nosi, had a long and distinguished record. Unlike the others, Dibra had served in the collaborationist cabinet of Mustafa Kruja, but in November 1942 he had been elected to the central committee of the Balli Kombëtar and was therefore something of a catch for the Germans, he was replaced by Cafo Beg Ulqini. Albanian Catholics were represented by the prior of the Franciscans in Shkodër, Father Anton Harapi, who maintained connections with both the Kosovars and the Albanian partisans. Learning of his appointment, partisan emissaries unsuccessfully attempted to dissuade him from accepting. Hermann Neubacher seemed to have developed a warm personal relationship with Harapi, in part because Harapi had received some of his education at the monastery school of Meran and Hall in the Tyrol. Mehdi Frashëri, a Bektashi Muslim, was one of the most respected living Albanians. He agreed to head the Council of Regency.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The leadership of the council was originally designed to rotate, but Lef Nosi declined for health reasons and Anton Harapi argued that as a Catholic monk he could accept no position in which he would be forced to sanction the death penalty.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: Once committed, the regency moved to form a permanent government, which would begin the process of ending the chaos and stabilizing Albania. Following hurried negotiations, on 5 November, a government headed by the Kosovar, Rexhep Mitrovica was introduced. Mitrovica's cabinet, most of whom had credentials as nationalists as well as some German or Austrian connection, included Xhafer Deva, who had studied at the Robert College of Istanbul and in Vienna, as minister of the interior and Rrok Kolaj, a Catholic from Shkodër who had studied at the University of Graz, as minister of Justice. Austrian educated Vehbi Frasheri was appointed as foreign minister. The Orthodox Elbasaner, Sokrat Dodbiba, the nephew of Lef Nosi, became minister of finance.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: In line with the German policy of "non-interference" and a desire to save their own troops for deployment elsewhere an Albanian Army commanded by General Prenk Pervizi was formed soon after the new government was set up. The Germans added to the strength of several units of the regular Albanian army and also increased the effectiveness of the gendarmerie. Many units which had collaborated with the Italians were preserved and subsequently utilised by the Germans in anti-partisan operations, with the staunchly anti-communist Balli Kombetar (National Front) also being used. Soon after the Ballists and German forces pressed hard against the Communists. The Ballists destroyed a fairly large Communist partisan group south-west of Tirana. The partisan force of about 2,000 strong had been annihilated. With other major partisan forces losing, the Albanian Communists tactically retreated, establishing guerrilla warfare to fight the Balli Kombetar. The Ballists, along with the Germans, occupied the region of Chameria (Cham Albanian collaboration with the Axis). The Balli Kombetar forces were subsequently declared to be "co-operating with the Germans, who are exploiting them with arms in large quantities" according to a British Special Operations Executive report from December 1943.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: In Kosovo and western Macedonia, when it was a part of the independent state of Albania, the German and Ballist forces had occasional skirmishes with Yugoslav partisans. When Maqellarë, midway between Debar and Peshkopi, was recaptured by the Fifth Partisan Brigade, the Germans with the assistance of the Ballist forces of Xhem Hasa launched an attack from Debar, defeating the partisans. Fiqri Dine, Xhem Hasa and Hysni Dema as well as three German Majors directed military campaigns against the Albanian and Yugoslav partisans. By early November the newly established forces were engaged in fighting Macedonian and Albanian Partisan units in the town of Kicevo. After 7 days of fierce fighting, the Partisans were defeated and forced to retreat from the city. A volunteer militia known as the Vulnetari were also used as frontier guards of the re-organised Albanian state. Fighting in their own local areas (in Kosovo and Macedonia), they fought against both Partisans and Chetniks, "against whom they showed themselves skilled and determined fighters". This unit often carried out cross-border raids in Nedić's Serbia against civilian and military targets. The 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg, established in April 1944, was better known for murdering, raping, and looting in predominantly Serbian areas than for participating in combat operations on behalf of the German war effort.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The Albanian and Yugoslav partisans were the main threat to Albania, but not the only force. In the Sandzak regions that were part of the independent state of Albanian, Chetnik forces harassed the local populace. Džemail Koničanin and Ballist forces under Shaban Polluzha successfully repelled Chetnik forces back from Novi Pazar and crushed their stronghold in Banja.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: Xhafer Deva was the Minister of the Interior and therefore the head of the police and gendarmerie in the country. A native Kosovar Albanian and deemed the most "effective and reliable" by the Germans, Deva's forces were involved in targeting the internal enemies of the state. On 4 February 1944, police units under his authority were implicated in the massacre of 86 residents of Tirana suspected of being anti-fascists and other excesses committed by the Gestapo in collaboration with the Albanian gendarmerie. Large number of Serbs were killed across Kosovo or deported to camps in Albania starting from 1942. Local Albanian fighters (Ballists) saw an opportunity to take their revenge upon their Serbian neighbours for the suffering they had endured over previous two decades (Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars, Colonisation of Kosovo). The Ballists attacked the Serb colonists, burning perhaps as many as 30,000 houses belonging to Serb and Montenegrin settlers. Roma (Gypsies) were also targeted by the gendarmerie and police force.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: To maintain the military occupation in the new German state of Albania, the Wehrmacht and Waffen SS sought to utilise local manpower to maintain law and order, and fight off Yugoslav Partisan and communist Albanian Resistance activity in the region. For their part Albanian leaders hoped to form an "army, which will be able to safeguard the borders of Kosovo and liberate the surrounding regions". Led by German officers, in May 1944, some troops from the division were stationed in the Gjakova area to guard the mines.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: Using Italian estimates from July 1941 the population of the Albanian Kingdom was estimated at 1,850,000. The total population of "old Albania" (encompassing pre 1941 borders) stood at 1,100,000, while "new Albania" (consisting of Kosovo, Debar and parts of Montenegro) was 750,000. The Kingdom consisted of approximately 1,190,000 Muslims (Sunni and Bektashi) and 660,000 Christians (Catholic and Orthodox). The new state consisted of two main minority groups, the Serbs of Kosovo and recent Italian Colonists scattered across Albania.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: When Germans entered Tirana, they had hoped to find enough money in the national bank to pay their troops. This was to be considered a loan. In actuality, they only found 30million francs. Meanwhile, overhead expenses for the German army in Albania were about 40million francs a month. With some degree of urgency, they turned to the German authorities in Rome, where an SS commando raid had recently captured 120million francs in notes, the plates, 23 sacks of gold coins and 29 cases of gold bars from the main branch of the National Bank of Albania. The gold was sent to Berlin, and the notes were sent to Tirana. The substantial sums were immediately transferred to the National Bank of Albania in Tirana.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The money was used to pay German troops in Albania and Montenegro. It was also used to finance German construction projects such as buildings, roads, road repairs, airports and coastal gun emplacements.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: In the Albanian Kingdom, which Nazi Germany formally treated as a sovereign state, much of the industrial and economic activity was either monopolised, or given a high priority for exploitation, by Germany. Almost all of the export companies operating were managed by the Germans, and mostly by the German military. The chrome ore, magnesite and lignite mines and the oilfields present across Albania were under direct German control.


title: German occupation of Albania

text: The most important ore reserves for the Wehrmacht in Albania were chrome ore. Chrome was found both in Old Albania and in Kosovo. In the former, there were chrome ore deposits in Kukës, Klos and Pogradec. When the Germans entered the Kosovo region, there were functioning chrome mines in Gjakova and Letaj. From October 1943 to the end of August 1944 a total of 42,902 tons of chrome were extracted from these mines, of which 28,832 tons were exported to Germany. Magnesite mines in Golesh were also of significance. From mid September 1943 to the end of August 1944 an amount equalling 2,647 tons of processed and unprocessed Magnesite were exported to Germany. Aside from Romania, Albania was the only country in southeastern Europe that had substantial oil reserves. In Devoll roughly one million tons of crude oil were processed after the oilfields were up and running by May 1944.


title: Rhapsody of the Seas

text: After six years of sailing from Galveston, Texas, "Rhapsody of the Seas" repositioned on a world trip in the autumn of 2007, traveling through the South Pacific to Australia where she remained for two months, before moving to Asia, operating cruises from Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai and Busan, South Korea. For the summer of 2008, "Rhapsody of the Seas" operated out of Seattle, Washington, sailing to Alaska before repositioning back to Sydney, Australia for the winter of 2008/2009.


title: Rhapsody of the Seas

text: "Rhapsody of the Seas" sailed her final season in Australia during the winter 2014/2015 season, repositioning to Europe sailing from Rome in April 2015. During the 2015/2016 winter she sailed from São Paulo, Brazil.


title: Rhapsody of the Seas

text: After her 2016 summer season, "Rhapsody of the Seas" sailed to Tampa, Florida conducting cruises to the Western Caribbean. She will reposition to Cape Liberty, New Jersey for the 2017 summer season, sailing to the Bahamas and Canada/New England, before repositioning back to Tampa.


title: Rhapsody of the Seas

text: In March 2012, the ship received a US$54 million dry dock refit which added additional cabins, an outdoor movie screen near the pool, new dining areas and a nursery.


title: Rhapsody of the Seas

text: In late 2019, Rhapsody was in drydock in Cádiz, Spain for some routine maintenance, cosmetic improvements, and technology upgrades, but did not see any major reconfigurations.


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: Prince Faisal bin Hussein (; born 11 October 1963) is a son of King Hussein and Princess Muna, and the younger brother of King Abdullah II. Periodically he has served as regent during his brother's absences abroad.


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: Faisal was born in Amman, Jordan. After early schooling in Amman, Faisal was sent in 1970 to his mother's native United Kingdom where he attended St. Edmund's School in Hindhead, England. The following year, he moved to the United States where he attended the Bement School in Deerfield, Massachusetts for the next two years. He then moved schools again, this time to Eaglebrook School, also in Deerfield. In 1978, Faisal commenced his high school education at St. Albans School in Washington, D.C., from which he graduated in 1981. His initial university education was at Brown University from which he graduated in 1985 with a ScB degree in electrical engineering. The prince also earned a master's degree in management from the London Business School in 1988. During his university years, Faisal took flying lessons and obtained a private pilot's license.


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: Prior to graduating from Brown University, Faisal served in the Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF), where he received helicopter training. In the summer of 1985, he gained his RJAF wings and then underwent officer training with the Royal Air Force at Cranwell. Remaining at Cranwell, he did his RAF Basic Flying Training in 1986 before moving to RAF Valley where he completed Advanced Flying Training on jets and received his RAF wings in 1987. Later that year, Feisal completed further flying training at the Tactical Weapons Unit, at Chivenor in Devon.


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: In September 2004, Faisal was appointed an assistant to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, with the rank of Lieutenant General. He retired from the Jordan Arab Army in December 2017.


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: Faisal has been President of the Jordan Olympic Committee since 2003 and Chairman and Founder of Generations For Peace since 2007, a non-profit peace building organization, the brain child of his ex-wife Sarah Kabbani who was also his advisor for many years before their marriage. Following a period of strategic development and implementation of unique peace through sport programs run jointly by Sarah and Faisal, he was elected as a member of the Jordan Olympic Committee in 2010.


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: Prince Faisal has married three times. He married for the first time in August 1987. The bride, Alia Tabbaa is the daughter of Sayyid Tawfik al-Tabbah, founder and president of Royal Jordanian Airlines and his wife, Lamia Addem. They have four children together:


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: Prince Faisal's second wife was Sara Bassam Qabbani. They were engaged on 20 March 2010 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and were married on 24 May 2010. Prince Faisal and Sara were divorced on 14 September 2013. The couple had no children together.


title: Prince Faisal bin Hussein

text: On 4 January 2014, Prince Faisal married Jordanian radio presenter Zeina Lubbadeh, daughter of businessman Dr. Fares Lubbadeh. The wedding ceremony was held at her parents' home in Amman, Jordan. The couple have two sons:


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Amna Nawaz is an American broadcast journalist. She is chief correspondent and substitute anchor for the "PBS NewsHour". Before joining PBS in April 2018, Nawaz was an anchor and correspondent at ABC News and NBC News. She has received a number of awards, including an Emmy Award and a Society for Features Journalism award.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Nawaz was born in Virginia on September 18, 1979, to Pakistani parents. Her father, Shuja Nawaz (brother of Pakistani Army chief Asif Nawaz Janjua), had been a journalist in Pakistan. She attended Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Fairfax County, Virginia. In 2001, she earned a bachelor's degree from the University of Pennsylvania in politics, philosophy, and economics, where she co-captained the women's varsity field hockey team. She holds a master's degree in comparative politics from the London School of Economics.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Nawaz's career plan was to become a lawyer but after a fellowship at ABC News, she shifted to journalism. She initially worked for "Nightline".


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Nawaz joined NBC in 2003, later joining "Dateline NBC", where she worked on documentaries. At NBC's investigative unit, she was a producer of "Mortgage Crisis Investigations", which was nominated for the 2008 Emmy Awards for Business & Financial Reporting.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Nawaz received an International Reporting Project fellowship in 2009. In 2010, she shared a News & Documentary Emmy Award for the NBC News special "Inside the Obama White House". Later she was correspondent and bureau chief at NBC's Islamabad bureau.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Nawaz joined ABC News in 2015. She anchored U.S. election and national political coverage in 2016 and 2017. Nawaz also hosted the ABC podcast series "Uncomfortable". She joined PBS in April 2018.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Nawaz contributed as a correspondent on the PBS NewsHour's 2018 series "The Plastic Problem", which received a Peabody Award in 2019.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: In December 2019, Nawaz became the first Asian American and first Muslim to moderate a United States presidential debate when she co-moderated a Democratic Party presidential debate.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: In November 2022, she and Geoff Bennett were named co-anchors of the "PBS NewsHour", starting in January 2023, replacing Judy Woodruff.


title: Amna Nawaz

text: Nawaz is also a member of the Inter-American Dialogue, a Washington, District of Columbia based think tank.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: The defense industry of Russia is a strategically important sector and a large employer in Russia. It is also a significant player in the global arms market, with Russian Federation being the second largest conventional arms exporter after the United States, with $13.5 billion worth of exports in 2012. Combined, the US and Russia account for 57% of all major weapons exports.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: The Russian government has announced its intention to restructure the debts of Russian military–industrial complex in the amount of 750 billion rubles, half of this amount will be written off, Deputy Prime Minister, Yuri Borisov said, speaking at a board of the Ministry of Industry and Trade of Tatarstan.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: President Vladimir Putin considers the Syrian Civil War to be a good platform for advertisement of the capabilities of Russian weapons capable of boosting Russia's military sales.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Russia's defense industry employs 2.5 – 3 million people and accounts for 20% of all manufacturing jobs in Russia. Sevmash directly employs 27,000 people. The combined revenue of the industry's 20 largest companies in 2009 was $12.25 billion. Russian shipbuilders and naval missile manufacturers survived the difficult period of transition from a command to a market-driven economy, and kept skills needed for the development of advanced combat systems. With recently won orders for Project 955 and Project 885 submarines, the share of domestic military orders in Sevmash's portfolio has risen to above 70%.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Visiting Severodvinsk in February, deputy premier of the Russian Government in charge of defense industry, Dmitry Rogozin said the local shipbuilders are contracted to build eight fourth-generation nuclear submarines by 2020, and that more orders are coming. He further said the earlier program for scrapping third-generation submarines is being revised so that "these vessels will get newer missiles and be subjected to a series of repair efforts enabling them to serve for another seven years".


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: In November 2011, the Russian defense ministry awarded Sevmash contracts for construction of four Project 955A Borey-A strategic underwater cruisers armed with the Bulava intercontinental ballistic missiles. This order comes after construction of three Project 955 Boreys (Yuri Dolgorukiy, Aleksander Nevsky and Vladimir Monomakh). The Russian Navy also ordered five Project 885M Yasen-M fast attack submarines, in addition to the head vessel, the K-329 Severodvinsk. The exact sum of these contracts has not been made public. It is only known that the Alexander Nevsky was built under contract worth 23 billion Rubles.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: The last nuclear powered surface combatant built in St. Petersburg was the Peter the Great. The 23,800-tonne cruiser, fourth and the last in the Atlant series (after Ushakov, Lazarev and Nakhimov) was commissioned in 1998, and serves with the Northern Fleet. Saint Petersburg shipbuilders continue to work on civil projects. They have completed one floating nuclear electric power generation station known as Project 20870 with displacement of 21,500 tons. Six more such stations and five nuclear-powered ice-breakers are on order. During the last 20 years Moscow has repeatedly tried to attract the Turkish military with its advanced technology.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: A new attempt was made at the IDEF 2013 exhibition. Russia presented its Ka-50-based Ka-52 Alligator attack helicopter and the Mi-28NE Night Hunter. The proposal to start joint development of a surface-to-air missile system with Ankara was perhaps the most intriguing development of IDEF 2013. The SAM would be based on the Russian S-300V Antey-2500 system. Besides the Antey, Moscow has offered the Buk-M2E and the Tor-M2E surface-to-air missile system, and the Pantsir-S1 combined missile and artillery system. Exhibited mock-ups included the T-90S tank, Terminator fire support combat vehicle, the BMP-3M infantry combat vehicle, the BTR-80 and the BTR-80A Armored Personnel Carriers, the Smerch multiple rocket launcher, the Kornet and the Metis-M anti-tank missile systems, the Msta-S 152-millimeter howitzer, the 2S9 120-millimeter self-propelled mortar, and the Vena self-propelled automated artillery system.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Turkey was the first NATO member country to build close military and technical ties with Moscow. Peru will sign a contract to upgrade Lima's fleet of Mikoyan MiG-29 Fulcrum fighters, Peru is interested in buying 700 Kamaz trucks and a new batch of Mi-8/Mi-17 helicopters from Russia. Peru is also considering buying 100 T-90S tanks.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: During the crisis years of the Russian economy, the country's military industry survived mainly on exports. Today, domestic military procurement is an important source of income for the industry. State orders for military equipment have risen considerably during the last decade. While in 2002, the State Defense Order amounted to only RUB 62 billion, by 2007 the sum had risen to RUB 302.7 billion. When calculated in constant 2000 prices, this represents an increase by a factor of two.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: The State Defense Order for 2009 was expected to amount to a record of RUB 1.2 trillion, showing an increase of RUB 70 billion from the previous year. The order was expected to be raised by a further RUB 40 billion for 2010, and by RUB 60 billion for 2011. In total, the state plans to spend $128 billion in military procurement in the 2009–2011 period. Military-Industrial Commission of Russia is responsible for supervising the distribution and implementation of the State Defense Order. In 2005, Putin initiated an industry consolidation programme to bring the main aircraft producing companies under a single umbrella organization, the United Aircraft Corporation (UAC). The aim was optimize production lines and minimise losses. The program was divided in three parts: reorganization and crisis management (2007–2010), evolution of existing projects (2010–2015) and further progress within the newly created structure (2015–2025). The State Duma Defense Committee has announced that the nation's defense spending, including research and development R&D spending, will total $16.3 billion (RUB487 billion) in 2010, $19.2 billion (RUB574 billion) in 2011, $24.3 billion (RUB726 billion) in 2012, and $38.8 billion (RUB1.16 trillion) in 2013. While total defense spending will increase, the amount allocated for R&D will drop from the current 2010 level of 22 to 16 percent by 2013. The modernization of weaponry will instead receive a significant portion of total spending, with 13 percent designated for the 2010 fiscal year, 15 percent for 2011 and 2012, and 14 percent for 2013. The top procurement priorities are the following: RS-24 intercontinental ballistic missiles, Bulava submarine-launched ballistic missiles, Su-24 fighters, Su-35 long-range fighters, submarines, corvettes, frigates, and battlefield command-and-control systems. The plan for 2010-2013 only represents a small portion (16%) of that amount, just over RUB2.9 trillion ($98.6 billion). The government intends to spend RUB19 trillion ($613 billion) over the next decade to modernize the armed forces.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: The UAC, one of the so-called national champions and comparable to EADS in Europe, enjoyed considerable financial support from the Russian government, and injected money to the companies it had acquired to improve their financial standing. The deliveries of civilian aircraft increased to 6 in 2005, and in 2009 the industry delivered 15 civilian aircraft, worth 12.5 billion roubles, mostly to domestic customers. Since then Russia has successfully tested the fifth generation jet fighter, Sukhoi Su-57, and started the commercial production of the regional airliner Sukhoi Superjet 100, as well as started developing a number of other major projects.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Putin created the United Shipbuilding Corporation in 2007, which led to the recovery of shipbuilding in Russia. Since 2006, much efforts were put into consolidation and development of the Rosatom Nuclear Energy State Corporation, which led to the renewed construction of nuclear power plants in Russia as well as a vast activity of Rosatom abroad, buying huge shares in world's leading uranium production companies and building nuclear power plants in many countries, including India, Iran, China, Vietnam and Belarus. In 2007, the Russian Nanotechnology Corporation was established, aimed to boost the science and technology and high-tech industry in Russia. The gist of the new system is to encourage industry to continually reduce manufacturing expenses and improve resource management. Manufacturer profits are made directly dependent on savings it achieves during the series production of modern weapons. This requires more effective resource management, cutting manufacturing costs and making production more economically efficient.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: In 2012, Russia's military exports hit another record sum of $15 billion the structure of military exports had become more balanced. The biggest sales were in aviation equipment – 37 percent. Total exports of land-based weapons and military equipment grew to 27 percent. At the same time, the shares of naval equipment and anti-aircraft systems increased to 18 percent and 15 percent, respectively. Russia is the world's second largest conventional arms exporter after the United States. In 2012, Rosoboronexport received 1,877 enquiries from foreign clients, and, following consideration of the applications, 1,309 contracts were signed. This is 2.5 times more than in 2011. The most popular types of weaponry bought from Russia are Sukhoi and MiG fighters, air defense systems, helicopters, tanks, armored personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles. Russian arms were exported to 60 countries. The most significant supplies went to countries in Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region – 43 percent. The second most significant market remains the Near and Middle East, together with North Africa – 23 percent. For the period 2014–18, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI, found that Russian exports of major weapons had increased by 17 per cent between 2009-2013 and 2014–18. Russia delivered weapons to 56 states and to rebel forces in eastern Ukraine in 2010–14.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Since 2007, the government-controlled consortium Rosoboronexport has had a legal monopoly on Russian arms exports. All exports must proceed through Rosoboronexport, although 22 firms are allowed to independently export spare parts and components. In 2010, total Russian arms exports amounted to $10 billion. Rosoboronexport's share was $8.6 billion, with independent suppliers making up the difference.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: The Moscow-based independent military think-tank Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies has analysed the identified exports of Russian weapons in the year 2009. The share of different weapon types was the following: 61% Aerospace, 21% Ground, 9% Naval, 8% Air Defense and 1% other. In 2010–11, Algeria was the top customer (with an export share of 29%), followed by India (25%) (once India was the largest importer in terms of quantity, and it is still the largest importer in terms of value/money paid) and China (10%). Vietnam became Russia's largest weapons customer in terms of new contracts signed in 2009, especially due to a large order for six Project 636M Kilo-class submarines. Vietnam is expected to considerably increase its share of Russian arms exports in the future. Russia's military exports between 2008 and 2011 amounted to $29.8 billion. The top three customers were India ($8.2 billion), Algeria ($4.7 billion) and China ($3.5 billion). These importers accounted for 55.47 percent of its total exports during that period.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: As of 2012, Russia has managed to maintain its position as the number two exporter of arms to the world in spite of losing sales in some markets such as Libya and India, by selling products to new markets in Africa and Latin America."Between 2012 and 2015, India will once again become the number one importer ($14.3 billion), followed by Venezuela ($3.2 billion) instead of Algeria. Vietnam will rank third, with imports of $3.2 billion.that the Asia-Pacific now accounts for more than half of the company's deliveries. In recent years Russia approved about $7 billion worth of export loans under weapons contracts. This has enabled Rosoboron export to sign new deals with Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Moscow is determined to keep its share of the Indian defense market and to retain its status as the world's second-largest defence exporter. Last year Rosoboronexport signed $17.6 billion worth of new contracts, which represents an increase of 150 percent compared to 2011. The company's portfolio of contracts has reached an impressive $37.3 billion. Russia ranks second in the world's arms export. Moscow supplies arms and military equipment to 66 countries, has concluded agreements on military and technical cooperation with 85 countries and its portfolio of orders for defence-related products currently stands at a staggering $46.3 billion. Russian global arms exports reached $15.2 billion in 2012, up 12% compared to the previous year said Venezuela, Peru, Brazil, Argentina and Mexico were interested in buying helicopters and air defense systems. Grigory Kozlov, head of Helicopter Export Department at Rosoboronexport, said there is good potential for cooperation virtually with all the countries in the region, and especially with Brazil, where Mi-35M helicopters are successfully used. The main partner in the region is a traditional friend of Russia – Venezuela. It is now the second biggest purchaser of Russian arms, after India, that Russia needs to press ahead.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: The Sukhoi Su-57 fifth generation fighter and the BrahMos supersonic multiple usage cruise missile are the most visible outcomes of joint venture production with India. The Center for Analysis of the World Arms Trade estimates the value of equipment acquired by Caracas from the Russian defence industry at $4.4 billion. This includes 24 Su-30MK2V fighters, 100,000 AK-103 assault rifles, more than 40 Mi-17V-5 multipurpose helicopters, 10 Mi-35M2 attack helicopters, three Mi-26T2 heavy transport helicopters and 5,000 SVD sniper rifles.India is working on two co-design defense projects with Russia – the FGFA and the Multi-role Transport Aircraft, which is already in detailed design stage.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Before 1998, the Russian Federation did not have a comprehensive export control law, inheritance from the Soviet Union, in which legal basis for many things was unclear or secret. The legal basis for export control procedures rested on several presidential decrees, government resolutions and a federal law on state regulation of foreign economic activity (1995). From 1992 to 1997 Russia developed control lists for missile, biological, chemical, nuclear and dual-use related items and issued regulations governing the export of these items. At the time, Russian exporters of controlled items were required to obtain two licenses, one from the Federal Service for Currency and Export Control (VEK, under the authority of the Ministry of Defence), and another from the Ministry of Trade. Since 3 July 1998 (the date on which the State Duma adopted a comprehensive federal law on 'Military-Technical Cooperation of the Russian Federation with Foreign States'), the only body competent to deliver


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: a license has operated under the authority of the Ministry of Defense. With regard dual-use goods and services, the Russian government issued a "catch all" export control regulation in a resolution signed on 22 January 1998. Under the resolution, Russian firms are forbidden to sell dual-use goods if they know they will be used in WMD, even if the items are not specifically mentioned on 'control lists'. A comprehensive federal law 'On export control' took effect on 29 July 1999. The law provides, that export control lists should be drawn up by the President, in consultation with the Parliament and industry representatives. This represents a significant change from previous regulations, which gave the executive


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: branch sole discretion over the contents of the lists. In this respect, the law provides a new foundation for export control policy, empowering other actors than those from simply the executive branch.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: According to Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies (CAST), the most successful businesses in the sector are aerospace and air defense companies. The centre's 2007 rating puts the air defense missile producer Almaz-Antey in the top position (revenue of $3.122 billion), followed by Sukhoi ($1.863 billion) and Irkut Corporation ($1.207 billion). These companies employ 81,857, over 30,000 and 11,585 people, respectively. Across the top 20 rated companies, growth in military production averaged more than 25% in 2007.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: In 2008, the combined revenue of Russia's top 10 military-industrial companies grew by 26% from the previous year, amounting to almost $12 billion. The top company was again Almaz-Antey, which boosted its revenue to $4.3 billion. Russian Helicopters produced 122 aircraft in 2008, increasing its revenue from $724 million to $1.7 billion. Uralvagonzavod earned $640 million by making 175 T-90 tanks: 62 for the Russian military, 60 for India, and 53 for Algeria, according to CAST.


title: Defense industry of Russia

text: Problems in the industry include a high level of debt, inflation and lack of qualified personnel. The consequence is that whereas the age of the average defence industrial scientist or engineer in China is about 30 and around 40 in the US – it is 50 years or more in Russia in 2008, it was reported that only 36% of military-industrial enterprises are solvent, while 23% are on the verge of bankruptcy. Significant portions of the increases in Russia's military procurement budget are being eaten up by inflation: while the country's overall inflation rate in 2008 was 13%, in certain weapon categories the figure was more than 30%. Many skilled workers are nearing retirement age, and young graduates are hesitant to enter the industry due to low wages and insufficient career opportunities. In 2009, a senior official said that the Russian military industry had effectively "reached its ceiling" and could not take on any more orders. Further growth will require a serious upgrade of production facilities, as well as investment in skills and training. Yury Solomonov, chief designer of the Topol-M and Bulava ICBMs, has said that Russia is 10–15 years ahead of its rivals in the development of strategic nuclear weapons, but 30 years behind in the development of conventional arms. After collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia's nuclear shipbuilding industry has been transformed into something much smaller. Key enterprises on the Black Sea coast appeared to be on the territory of now-independent Ukraine - which proclaimed non-nuclear status. Admittedly, these enterprises had little to do with nuclear propulsion technology, except for some ambitions in the late 1980s when the Soviet navy planned the construction of nuclear-powered aircraft carriers. Russian defense industry proved unequal to the challenge of manufacturing battleships and other BMP-3, BMD heavy combatants T-90 tanks, artillery, missiles, space technology, nuclear technology even lack of funds from state.


title: Forage cap

text: Forage cap is the designation given to various types of military undress, fatigue or working headwear. These varied widely in form, according to country or period. The coloured peaked cap worn by the modern British Army for parade and other dress occasions is still officially designated as a forage cap.


title: Forage cap

text: In the 18th century, forage caps were small cloth caps worn by British cavalrymen when undertaking work duties such as foraging for food for their horses. The term was later applied to undress caps worn by men of all branches and regiments as a substitute for the full dress headdress.


title: Forage cap

text: During the French Revolutionary Wars, French soldiers made their own forage caps from the sleeve of an old coat. Known as the , these caps resembled a nightcap and were also worn by Santa Anna's army during the Mexican War, and by Confederate troops during the American Civil War. From the 1840s until World War I, French line infantry wore the blue and red kepi, but in 1915, the was reintroduced as the garrison cap. By the 1940s, the beret was also widely worn by paratroop and mountain units.


title: Forage cap

text: The German army was the first to use the peaked cap, in the final years of the Napoleonic Wars. When the Pickelhaube was introduced in the 1840s, the Germans adopted a new, peakless forage cap, resembling the sailor cap. Prior to 1914 these caps were worn in a wide variety of colours according to regiment or branch, with Prussian blue the most common.


title: Forage cap

text: However in the early weeks of World War I these were replaced with a slate grey version, with a dark green cap band. After World War I, the German Wehrmacht used a variant of the garrison cap called the Feldmütze, before adopting the Austrian-style ski cap of the Gebirgsjäger.


title: Forage cap

text: The Austro-Hungarian Army adopted a cap in the 19th Century fitted with a peak and cloth chinstraps (or "flaps"). The chinstraps could be buttoned over the forehead, either securing the folded-up peak or leaving it loose, or could be buttoned under the chin, extending the rear of the cap downwards to protect the ears from the elements. This cap continues in military (Österreichisches Bundesheer), border guard (Österreichs Garde), and police use with the Republic of Austria, although the camouflaged version worn today retains the only peak, not the chinstraps, of its predecessor). After the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Royal Hungarian Army had also continued to issue this type of cap. Variations on this cap were adopted by other armies, including the British Army.


title: Forage cap

text: In the British Army, infantry forage caps were first regulated by the War Office in 1811 as a practical head dress that could be worn off duty, in barracks or in camp, in place of the cumbersome shakos and various forms of helmet comprising regimental headdress. Before this date, forage caps were worn as ordered regimentally. Mentioned in sources as early as 1768, these took on various forms, in some instances being made up locally using parts of worn out uniforms. When not in use, forage caps could either be stowed in knapsacks or strapped to the cartouche case. The caps ordered in 1811 were of knitted and felted wool, blue-grey in colour with a white band around the base. Following the end of the Napoleonic wars, forage caps were once again sourced regimentally and took the form of round bonnets in a variety of shapes, frequently made up of cloth in regimental facing colours. In 1829, these regimental forage caps were regulated by order to impose uniformity and then in 1834 replaced by a plain cap of knitted felt wool, known as a Kilmarnock Bonnet (from the place of manufacture in southwest Scotland).


title: Forage cap

text: The Kilmarnock forage cap was superseded in kilted Highland regiments by the Glengarry bonnet in 1851. The rest of the infantry, including the foot guards, continued to wear versions of the Kilmarnock until 1868, when the remaining regiments of foot also adopted the Glengarry. The foot guards who retained a round forage cap, together with a folding side cap, worn in working dress and in camp. In 1897, the Glengarry was replaced by the ""Austrian cap"" (or side cap).


title: Forage cap

text: The "Dress Regulations for the Army" of 1900 described, and provided photographs of, several different models of forage cap. These included the "staff pattern" with wider crown and leather peak; the model worn by the Household Cavalry with straight sides and peak; and that worn by cavalry regiments a small round cap without a peak, braided and coloured according to regimental pattern, worn at an angle on the head and held in place by a leather chin strap.


title: Forage cap

text: In 1902 a new style of forage cap, named after the then Secretary of State for War, St John Brodrick, replaced the Austrian cap. The 'Brodrick cap' took the form of a stiffened and round shaped forage cap with no peak that was not dissimilar in appearance to a sailor's hat, although it was dark blue in colour and had a patch of facing colour cloth behind the regimental badge, which was worn centrally at the front.


title: Forage cap

text: In 1905 the Brodrick was replaced by a broad-topped cap with wired brim and leather peak, based on the pattern worn in the Royal Navy, which was introduced as a "forage cap" for off-duty 'walking out' and other semi-formal occasions. Under the same name, a slightly modified version of this cap is currently worn by most modern British regiments with No. 1 ceremonial and No. 2 khaki parade dress. The body of this headdress is generally dark blue (hussar and lancer regiments wear scarlet forage caps while The Rifles wear dark green), the cap bands are red for "royal" regiments and corps, or in regimental colours.


title: Forage cap

text: The Royal Marines continued to wear the Brodrick into the 1930s with parade and walking out dress. Before the First World War, a khaki cover with integral peak was issued to wear over it in the field with khaki service dress, but the army's khaki service dress cap replaced this during the war.


title: Forage cap

text: The Royal Air Force (RAF) field service cap is often called a forage cap (and is also colloquially known as the chip bag or Thunderbird hat). It has no peak, and because of its longitudinal cut is called a 'fore-and-after'. Its two ornamental buttons at the front can be unfastened in order to let down earflaps for harsh weather. (The German Army forage cap of the Second World War was similar, but of two distinct types, one with an eye-shading peak or bill, the other without.) Available to be worn by all ranks (officers and other ranks) when working dress is ordered, the field service caps worn by group captains and above have additional light blue ('Minerva blue') piping.


title: Forage cap

text: The field service cap was worn by RAF personnel for everyday purposes from 1936, completely superseding the previously worn peaked cap in December 1939, until about 1950, when it was superseded by the RAF blue beret (introduced after the Second World War) for officers of the RAF Regiment and all other ranks, and the SD cap for other officers. RAF field service caps can still be bought privately and worn on duty by all ranks as working dress. They are commonly worn with flying suits, as they are easier to stow in a side pocket or cockpit than SD caps, but only air vice-marshals and above are authorised to wear them with combat uniform. The fore-and-after is still worn by airmen in other services, such as the US Air Force and the Royal Canadian Air Force.


title: Forage cap

text: The M1825 forage cap (also known as the pinwheel cap) was worn by the United States military from 1825 to 1833 when it began to be replaced by the M1833 forage cap. It was used in conflicts such as the Black Hawk War of 1832, the 2nd Seminole war of 1835-1842, and the Winnebago War of 1827 by American forces. The cap was also adopted by the Texan Army and worn by American volunteers in the Texas revolution from 1835 to 1836. The M1839 cap of the Mexican War was of a somewhat similar pattern to the 1833 cap with it becoming a visor cap made in navy blue wool. It also added universal neck-flaps, whereas the 1833 only had neckflaps on the dragoon variant. In the Civil War the M1858 forage cap, based on the French kepi, was the most common headgear worn by union troops even though it was described by one soldier as "Shapeless as a feedbag". There were two types of brims: the first, called the McClellan cap was flat; the second, called the McDowell cap, was curved. U.S. Army regulations called for insignia to be put on the top of the cap, with branch of service (infantry, cavalry or artillery) in the middle, company letter above and the regimental number below. In 1863 the corps badge was introduced in the Army of the Potomac in an attempt to boost morale among the troops; this badge was also added to the cap. If the soldier was in the infantry the bugle horn was put below the disk, with the regimental number inside the infantry horn, the company letter above the horn and the corp badge above that. More frequently than not the soldier lacked this degree of insignia. Occasionally, the branch of service, company letter or regimental number insignia was also used. After the Civil War, the forage cap fell into disuse; it was rarely worn, but was in use until the 1870s.


title: Padmanabhapuram Palace

text: Padmanabhapuram Palace, also known as Kalkulam Palace, is a Travancore era palace located in Padmanabhapuram in the Kanyakumari district of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The palace is owned, controlled and maintained by the government of the neighbouring state of Kerala.


title: Padmanabhapuram Palace

text: Padmanabhapuram is the former capital city of the erstwhile Hindu kingdom of Travancore. It is around 20 km from Nagercoil, 39 km from Kanyakumari town and 52 km from Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala. The palace is complex inside with an old granite fortress around four kilometers long. The palace is located at the foot of the Veli Hills, which forms a part of the Western Ghats. The river Valli flows nearby.


title: Padmanabhapuram Palace

text: Another palace known as Kuttalam Palace is situated in Kuttalam in Tenkasi district, Tamil Nadu which is also under the ownership of Kerala government. It is situated in the Tenkasi District, Tamil Nadu (before state reorganisation, Kanyakumari District, Chenkottah Taluk, Tenkasi Taluk including the areas of Kuttalam are in the control of Travancore Kingdom in Kerala). It is owned, controlled and maintained by the Kerala Government.


title: Padmanabhapuram Palace

text: The palace was constructed around 1601 CE by Iravi Varma Kulasekhara Perumal who ruled Venad between 1592 and 1609. The founder of modern Travancore, King Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma (1706–1758) who ruled Travancore from 1729 to 1758, rebuilt the palace in around 1750. King Marthaanda Varma dedicated the kingdom to his family deity Sree Padmanabha, a form of Lord Vishnu and ruled the kingdom as Padmanabha dasa or servant of Lord Padmanabha. Hence the name Padmanabhapuram or City of Lord Padmanabha. In the late 18th century, precisely in 1795 the capital of Travancore was shifted from here to Thiruvananthapuram, and the place lost its former glory. However, the palace complex continues to be one of the best examples of traditional Kerala architecture, and some portions of the sprawling complex are also the hallmark of traditional Kerala style architecture. The Palace though surrounded entirely by the State of Tamil Nadu is still part of Kerala and the land and Palace belongs to the Government of Kerala. This Palace is maintained by the Govt. of Kerala Archaeology Department.


title: Padmanabhapuram Palace

text: The four-storeyed building is located at the centre of the palace complex. The ground floor houses the royal treasury. The first floor houses the King's bedrooms. The ornamental bedstead is made of 64 types of herbal and medicinal woods, and was a gift from the Dutch merchants. Most of the rooms here and in other parts of the palace complex have built-in recesses in walls for storing weapons like swords and daggers. The second floor houses the King's resting and study rooms. Here the King used to spend time during fasting days. The top floor (called "upparikka malika") served as the worship chamber of the royal household. Its walls are covered with exquisite 18th century murals, depicting scenes from the puranas, and also few scenes from the social life of the Travancore of that time. The top floor was supposed to be Sree Padmanabha Swamy's room. This building was constructed during the reign of King Marthandavarma. He was also designated as Padmanabha Dasa and used to rule the Travancore kingdom as a servant of Sree Padmanabha Swamy.


title: Padmanabhapuram Palace

text: The southern palace is as old as the 'Thai kottaram' (Mother's palace), which would make it about 400 years old. Now, it serves as a heritage museum, exhibiting antique household articles and curios. Collections of items give an insight into the social and cultural ethos of that period.


title: Padmanabhapuram Palace

text: To the northwest of Thai Kottaram is one of the most notable parts of the royal complex, Uppirikka malika. Uppiri, which means ‘multi- storied’. Back in 1745, the then King Anizham Tirunal Marthanda Varma built this grand complex. The ground floor of this Malika housed the coveted Tranvcore royal treasury. Above this treasury was the palace king's bed chambers. Therein lies the famous "sapramancha kattil". Supposedly, 64 timber samples with medicinal properties makes up this grand poster bed. A stair from the King's room leads us to his fasting Chambers. This is where the King resided when he fasted in devotion.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: In gridiron football, a lineman is a player who specializes in play at the line of scrimmage. The linemen of the team currently in possession of the ball are the offensive line, while linemen on the opposing team are the defensive line. A number of NFL rules specifically address restrictions and requirements for the offensive line, whose job is to help protect the quarterback from getting sacked for a loss, or worse, fumbling. The defensive line is covered by the same rules that apply to all defensive players. Linemen are usually the largest players on the field in both height and weight, since their positions usually require less running and more strength than skill positions.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: The offensive line consists of the center, who is responsible for snapping the ball into play, two guards who flank the center, and two offensive tackles who flank the guards. In addition, a full offensive line may also include a tight end outside one or both of the tackles.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: An offensive lineman's motion during a play is often limited to just a few quick steps (typically from a three-point stance) to establish position, followed by a wrestling match similar to sumo. Offensive linemen thus tend to be the largest and strongest players on the field after nose tackle, with excellent agility and balance but limited straight-line running speed and stamina.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: On some running plays, an offensive lineman will "pull" by backing out of his initial position and running behind the other offensive linemen to engage a defensive player beyond the initial width of the offensive line; in modern games this duty usually falls to guards.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: When an offensive lineman knocks a player down on a block, leaving the defensive player lying flat on his back, it is known as a pancake block.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: When an offensive line has an equal number of men on either side of the center, it is known as a "balanced line". The "interior offensive line" consists of the center and guards.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: Offensive linemen are not eligible to catch forward passes, and are not allowed to advance more than two yards past the line of scrimmage at the time a pass is thrown, whether they are engaged with a defensive player or not. Ends (tight ends and wide receivers) are eligible to catch passes. One exception to this rule is whenever a tackle-eligible play is executed, but such a play must be announced by the referee beforehand.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: On running plays, the primary job of the offensive line is to create space for the ball carrier to run, either by pushing all defensive players backwards past the line of scrimmage, or by pushing defensive players to the side to allow the ball carrier to run past them.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: On passing plays, the offensive line is responsible for stopping defensive players from tackling the quarterback before he has thrown the ball. Stopping these players indefinitely is usually not possible, so the main objective of the offensive line is to slow them down, providing the quarterback with several seconds to identify an open receiver and throw the ball.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: The defensive line consists of one or two defensive tackles and two defensive ends who play outside the defensive tackles. The defensive line works with the linebackers to try to control the line of scrimmage. The 4-3 defense, most commonly used in the NFL, employs two defensive tackles (and a defensive line of four men, with three linebackers behind them), while the 3-4 defense uses just a single defensive tackle, called the nose tackle (and a defensive line of three men, with four linebackers behind them). Defensive ends in a typical 3-4 have responsibilities more similar to a 4-3 defensive tackle than 4-3 defensive ends.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: On running plays, the goal is to tackle the ball carrier. The defensive line attempts to maintain their original formation (even spacing without holes), but also to prevent any members of the opposing offensive line from successfully engaging the linebackers, who chase down the ball carrier. The defensive tackles are usually the most skilled run defenders on the team.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: On passing plays, the defensive line tries to reach the quarterback. Ideally, the defensive players are able to tackle the quarterback for a loss (a sack), but in practice the quarterback will usually manage to throw the ball before an actual tackle is made; the goal is thus to put pressure on the quarterback as quickly as possible to force him to throw the ball before he can find an open receiver. Defensive ends are usually the most skilled pass rushers on the team. In order to increase the pressure on the quarterback, teams will often have players other than the defensive line attempt to tackle the quarterback; this is called a blitz.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: Because the defense does not know whether the offense is attempting to run a passing play or a running play (or whether a quarterback will give up on an attempt to pass and instead run with the ball), they must balance passing and running strategies: running around offensive linemen and avoiding contact may allow faster pressure on a quarterback, but it also leaves a hole in the defensive line and frees an offensive lineman to engage a linebacker, enabling a big running play.


title: Lineman (gridiron football)

text: Defensive linemen, particularly defensive ends are typically lighter and faster than defensive tackles and offensive linemen. Defensive tackles weight averages between 260-310 lbs.


title: Outnumbered (American TV program)

text: Outnumbered (sometimes stylized as Out#) is an American daytime news and talk show that airs weekdays on Fox News at 12 p.m. ET. Hosts Harris Faulkner, Emily Compagno, Kayleigh McEnany and a rotating female panelist with one male guest panelist, discuss the news and issues of the day.


title: Outnumbered (American TV program)

text: The following Fox News/Fox Business personalities appear on a rotating basis in the fifth spot on the shows couch, and occasionally fill in for the main hosts.


title: Outnumbered (American TV program)

text: On October 2, 2017, it was announced that "Outnumbered" would be moved to Studio M, and the show would have an extended hour titled "Outnumbered, Overtime with Harris Faulkner".


title: Outnumbered (American TV program)

text: On January 18, 2021, "Outnumbered Overtime" ended and was replaced by "America Reports". Harris Faulkner currently hosts "The Faulkner Focus", which airs before "Outnumbered", at 11 a.m. ET.


title: Outnumbered (American TV program)

text: "Outnumbered" broadcasts from Studio M at 1211 Avenue of the Americas (also known as the News Corp. Building), in New York City, after moving from Studio D on October 2, 2017.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Copper(II) nitrate describes any member of the family of inorganic compounds with the formula Cu(NO)(HO). The hydrates are blue solids. Anhydrous copper nitrate forms blue-green crystals and sublimes in a vacuum at 150-200 °C. Common hydrates are the hemipentahydrate and trihydrate.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: The same salts can be prepared treating copper metal with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate. That reaction illustrates the ability of copper metal to reduce silver ions.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: In aqueous solution, the hydrates exist as the aqua complex [Cu(HO)]. Such complexes are highly labile owing to the d9 electronic configuration of copper(II).


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Attempted dehydration of any of the hydrated copper(II) nitrates by heating affords the oxides, not Cu(NO). At 80 °C, the hydrates convert to "basic copper nitrate" (Cu(NO)(OH)), which converts to CuO at 180 °C. Exploiting this reactivity, copper nitrate can be used to generate nitric acid by heating it until decomposition and passing the fumes directly into water. This method is similar to the last step in the Ostwald process. The equations are as follows:


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Treatment of copper(II) nitrate solutions with triphenylphosphine, triphenylarsine, and triphenylstibine gives the corresponding copper(I) complexes [Cu(E(CH))]NO (E = P, As, Sb). The group V ligand is oxidized to the oxide.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Two polymorphs of anhydrous Cu(NO) are known. The so-called β-form is a covalent molecular complex, as evidenced by its tendency to sublime. It is one of the few anhydrous transition metal nitrates. It cannot be prepared by reactions containing or producing water. Instead, anhydrous Cu(NO) forms when copper metal is treated with dinitrogen tetroxide:


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Anhydrous copper(II) nitrate has been crystallized in two solvate-free polymorphs. α- and β-Cu(NO) are fully 3D coordination polymer networks. The alpha form has only one Cu environment, with [4+1] coordination, but the beta form has two different copper centers, one with [4+1] and one that is square planar. The nitromethane solvate also features "[4+ 1] coordination", with four short Cu-O bonds of approximately 200 pm and one longer bond at 240 pm. They are coordination polymers, with infinite chains of copper(II) centers and nitrate groups. In the gas phase, copper(II) nitrate features two bidentate nitrate ligands (see image at upper right). Thus, evaporation of the solid entails "cracking" to give the copper(II) nitrate molecule.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Five hydrates have been reported: the monohydrate (Cu(NO)·HO), the sesquihydrate (Cu(NO)·1.5HO), the hemipentahydrate (Cu(NO)·2.5HO), a trihydrate (Cu(NO)·3HO), and a hexahydrate ([Cu(HO)](NO)). The hexahydrate is interesting because the Cu-O distances are all equal, not revealing the usual effect of Jahn-Teller distortion that is otherwise characteristic of octahedral Cu(II) complexes. This non-effect is attributed to the strong hydrogen bonding that limits the elasticity of the Cu-O bonds.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Copper(II) nitrate finds a variety of applications, the main one being its conversion to copper(II) oxide, which is used as catalyst for a variety of processes in organic chemistry. Its solutions are used in textiles and polishing agents for other metals. Copper nitrates are found in some pyrotechnics. It is often used in school laboratories to demonstrate chemical voltaic cell reactions. It is a component in some ceramic glazes and metal patinas.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Copper nitrate, in combination with acetic anhydride, is an effective reagent for nitration of aromatic compounds, known as the Menke nitration.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: Hydrated copper nitrate adsorbed onto clay affords a reagent called "Claycop". The resulting blue-colored clay is used as a slurry, for example for the oxidation of thiols to disulfides. Claycop is also used to convert dithioacetals to carbonyls. A related reagent based on montmorillonite has proven useful for the nitration of aromatic compounds.


title: Copper(II) nitrate

text: No mineral of the ideal Cu(NO) formula, or the hydrate, are known. Likasite, Cu(NO)(OH)2HO and buttgenbachite, Cu(NO)(OH)Cl·2HO are related minerals.


title: Covariance and contravariance (computer science)

text: Many programming language type systems support subtyping. For instance, if the type is a subtype of , then an expression of type should be substitutable wherever an expression of type is used.


text: Variance refers to how subtyping between more complex types relates to subtyping between their components. For example, how should a list of s relate to a list of s? Or how should a function that returns relate to a function that returns ?


text: Depending on the variance of the type constructor, the subtyping relation of the simple types may be either preserved, reversed, or ignored for the respective complex types. In the OCaml programming language, for example, "list of Cat" is a subtype of "list of Animal" because the list type constructor is covariant. This means that the subtyping relation of the simple types are preserved for the complex types.


text: On the other hand, "function from Animal to String" is a subtype of "function from Cat to String" because the function type constructor is contravariant in the parameter type. Here, the subtyping relation of the simple types is reversed for the complex types.


text: In other words, covariance is the quality of being different by being more specific ( is covariant to ) while contravariance is the quality of being different by being more general ( is contravariant to ).


text: A programming language designer will consider variance when devising typing rules for language features such as arrays, inheritance, and generic datatypes. By making type constructors covariant or contravariant instead of invariant, more programs will be accepted as well-typed. On the other hand, programmers often find contravariance unintuitive, and accurately tracking variance to avoid runtime type errors can lead to complex typing rules.


text: In order to keep the type system simple and allow useful programs, a language may treat a type constructor as invariant even if it would be safe to consider it variant, or treat it as covariant even though that could violate type safety.


text: The variance of a C# generic interface is declared by placing the (covariant) or (contravariant) attribute on (zero or more of) its type parameters. For each so-marked type parameter, the compiler conclusively verifies, with any violation being fatal, that such use is globally consistent. The above interfaces are declared as , , and . Types with more than one type parameter may specify different variances on each type parameter. For example, the delegate type represents a function with a contravariant input parameter of type and a covariant return value of type .


text: The typing rules for interface variance ensure type safety. For example, an represents a first-class function expecting an argument of type , and a function that can handle any type of animal can always be used instead of one that can only handle cats.


text: Read-only data types (sources) can be covariant; write-only data types (sinks) can be contravariant. Mutable data types which act as both sources and sinks should be invariant. To illustrate this general phenomenon, consider the array type. For the type we can make the type , which is an "array of animals". For the purposes of this example, this array supports both reading and writing elements.


text: If we wish to avoid type errors, then only the third choice is safe. Clearly, not every can be treated as if it were a , since a client reading from the array will expect a , but an may contain e.g. a . So the contravariant rule is not safe.


text: Conversely, a cannot be treated as an . It should always be possible to put a into an . With covariant arrays this cannot be guaranteed to be safe, since the backing store might actually be an array of cats. So the covariant rule is also not safe—the array constructor should be "invariant". Note that this is only an issue for mutable arrays; the covariant rule is safe for immutable (read-only) arrays.


text: With C# you can play around this by using the dynamic keyword over array/collection/generics with duck typing, the intellisense is lost this way but it works.


text: Early versions of Java and C# did not include generics, also termed parametric polymorphism. In such a setting, making arrays invariant rules out useful polymorphic programs.


text: For example, consider writing a function to shuffle an array, or a function that tests two arrays for equality using the . method on the elements. The implementation does not depend on the exact type of element stored in the array, so it should be possible to write a single function that works on all types of arrays. It is easy to implement functions of type:


text: However, if array types were treated as invariant, it would only be possible to call these functions on an array of exactly the type . One could not, for example, shuffle an array of strings.


text: As discussed above, covariant arrays lead to problems with writes into the array. Java and C# deal with this by marking each array object with a type when it is created. Each time a value is stored into an array, the execution environment will check that the run-time type of the value is equal to the run-time type of the array. If there is a mismatch, an (Java) or (C#) is thrown:


text: In the above example, one can "read" from the array (b) safely. It is only trying to "write" to the array that can lead to trouble.


text: One drawback to this approach is that it leaves the possibility of a run-time error that a stricter type system could have caught at compile-time. Also, it hurts performance because each write into an array requires an additional run-time check.


text: With the addition of generics, Java and C# now offer ways to write this kind of polymorphic function without relying on covariance. The array comparison and shuffling functions can be given the parameterized types


text: Alternatively, to enforce that a C# method accesses a collection in a read-only way, one can use the interface instead of passing it an array .


text: Languages with first-class functions have function types like "a function expecting a Cat and returning an Animal" (written in OCaml syntax or in C# syntax).


text: Those languages also need to specify when one function type is a subtype of another—that is, when it is safe to use a function of one type in a context that expects a function of a different type.


text: It is safe to substitute a function "f" for a function "g" if "f" accepts a more general type of argument and returns a more specific type than "g". For example, functions of type , , and can be used wherever a was expected. (One can compare this to the robustness principle of communication: "be liberal in what you accept and conservative in what you produce.") The general rule is:


text: In other words, the → type constructor is "contravariant in the parameter (input) type" and "covariant in the return (output) type". This rule was first stated formally by John C. Reynolds, and further popularized in a paper by Luca Cardelli.


text: When dealing with functions that take functions as arguments, this rule can be applied several times. For example, by applying the rule twice, we see that formula_5 if formula_6. In other words, the type formula_7 is "covariant" in the position of formula_8. For complicated types it can be confusing to mentally trace why a given type specialization is or isn't type-safe, but it is easy to calculate which positions are co- and contravariant: a position is covariant if it is on the left side of an even number of arrows applying to it.


text: When a subclass overrides a method in a superclass, the compiler must check that the overriding method has the right type. While some languages require that the type exactly matches the type in the superclass (invariance), it is also type safe to allow the overriding method to have a "better" type. By the usual subtyping rule for function types, this means that the overriding method should return a more specific type (return type covariance), and accept a more general argument (parameter type contravariance). In UML notation, the possibilities are as follows (where Class B is the subclass that extends Class A which is the superclass):


text: For a concrete example, suppose we are writing a class to model an animal shelter. We assume that is a subclass of , and that we have a base class (using Java syntax)


text: In a language which allows covariant return types, a derived class can override the method to return a more specific type:


text: Among mainstream OO languages, Java, C++ and C# (as of version 9.0 ) support covariant return types. Adding the covariant return type was one of the first modifications of the C++ language approved by the standards committee in 1998. Scala and D also support covariant return types.


text: Similarly, it is type safe to allow an overriding method to accept a more general argument than the method in the base class:


text: Only a few object-oriented languages actually allow this (for example, Python when typechecked with mypy). C++, Java and most other languages that support overloading and/or shadowing would interpret this as a method with an overloaded or shadowed name.