title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In 2009, former Dragons captain Trent Barrett switched to Cronulla-Sutherland after two years in the Super League. In his return match to Kogarah in round 3, 2009, Barrett was injured and with him went any hopes Cronulla had of winning the premiership (in the preceding year, the Cronulla club had finished equal-first) that year. Other players to have switched clubs include Lance Thompson and Jeremy Smith (St. George Illawarra to Cronulla), Beau Scott, Sam Isemonger and Matt Bickerstaff (Cronulla to St. George Illawarra) and Colin Best (Cronulla to St. George Illawarra) and then back again, as of 2011). In another match in 2009, Cronulla captain Paul Gallen was found guilty of a racial slur involving then Dragons forward Mickey Paea.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: St. George won 15 premierships before forming a joint-venture with Illawarra. In 2010, they won their first NRL premiership as a joint-venture. South Sydney have won the most premierships with 21, the Sydney Roosters next on 15 premierships. South Sydney and St. George have met several times in grand finals prior to the joint-venture and being the north-eastern neighbours of St. George, had many fierce encounters. One of the biggest matches in this rivalry is the Charity Shield, a pre-season fixture between the two sides that was abandoned after the 1999 match but was revived after Souths were re-admitted to the NRL in 2002.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In 2001, South Sydney chairman and club legend George Piggins said there would be no chance of the Charity Shield being revived if Souths were to be included back into the NRL saying "The Dragons: They sold us out". This was in reference to St. George signing an affidavit at the time which included that it would be detrimental if Souths were returned to the competition.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In 2018, both sides met for the first time in a finals match since 1984. After 80 tense minutes of absorbing action, Souths won a close semi-final 13-12.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: St. George has another fierce rivalry with the Sydney Roosters. St. George's first premiership was a 31–14 victory over Easts in the 1941 NSWRFL season Grand Final.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In 1960 Eastern Suburbs reached their first grand final since 1945 where they faced St. George but were beaten 31-6.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In 1975 Eastern Suburbs defeated St. George 38-0 in the grand final which until the 2008 NRL season was the biggest winning margin in a grand final.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: During 1995, in the midst of the Super League War, Eastern Suburbs had secret discussions to merge with the St. George club, with St. George's jersey and emblem to disappear. Fans of both clubs were outraged, and the attempt aborted. St. George Illawarra annually contests the Club ANZAC Game against the Sydney Roosters, a tradition dating back to the 1970s, and contested annually since 2002.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: After St. George formed a joint venture with the Illawarra Steelers in 1999 to form St. George Illawarra the two clubs have met each other twice in finals matches, the first coming in 1999 which St. George Illawarra won and in the 2010 NRL Grand Final where St. George Illawarra won its first premiership as a joint venture defeating the Sydney Roosters 32-8 at ANZ Stadium.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: Prior to the joint-venture, both St George and Illawarra had created strong rivalries with Brisbane in the early 1990s. St George and Brisbane Broncos contested the 1992 and 1993 Grand Finals, creating a fierce rivalry (see New South Wales Rugby League season 1993). Also, Illawarra had produced some memorable performances against Brisbane, including the infamous 1989 Panasonic Cup Final (which Brisbane won) and the 1992 Tooheys Challenge Cup Final (won by Illawarra).


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: The St George Illawarra Dragons had the longest winning streak against the Brisbane Broncos than any other club (eight, from round 23, 2005 to round 4, 2009 inclusive, including one final in 2006), across five years. With former Brisbane Broncos coach Wayne Bennett at the helm of St George Illawarra, and Wendell Sailor, a popular face in the NRL and a former Bronco, the rivalry only increased. In 2009, the Dragons defeated the Broncos at Suncorp Stadium early, and were then beaten in Wollongong by the Broncos later on in the season. One game a piece, the two sides met up in Brisbane in the finals, where they lost to the Broncos 24–10, thus ending the Dragons season and also that of Wendell Sailor's career. Ironically, his first and last games for the Dragons were both against the Broncos.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: Players who played for the Dragons who have won premierships with Brisbane include Darius Boyd and Luke Priddis, who also won a premiership with Penrith in 2003. Others of note include Nick Emmett who was brought to the club by Wayne Bennett, and Neville Costigan, who was sacked just before the Broncos' 2006 success.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: These two teams played against each other in the 1999 NRL Grand Final. It is remembered for the penalty try conceded by St. George Illawarra winger Jamie Ainscough that cost the club the premiership. It was the club's first NRL Grand Final appearance as a joint-venture and Melbourne's first Grand Final appearance in just its second year in existence. St. George Illawarra had led 14–0 at halftime only for Melbourne to come back and claim a controversial 20–18 win following the penalty try two minutes from time.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: The two teams have also had some memorable, not to mention controversial matches in the decade that followed, none more so than the Grand Final rematch in 2000 which saw Melbourne beat St. George Illawarra 70–10 at the MCG (this remains St George Illawarra's biggest defeat as a joint-venture to date).


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In the lead up to that match, then-Saints five-eighth Anthony Mundine had claimed that the Melbourne club were not worthy premiers, sparking anger from Melbourne's fans and players, thus the catalyst for the huge win. St. George Illawarra however did claim revenge later that year with a 50-4 win at WIN Stadium (that also remains Melbourne's worst ever defeat to date).


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: The 2009 season opened with these two teams going head-to-head in another much talked about match. St. George Illawarra five-eighth Jamie Soward was labelled a 'rag doll' in defence whilst trying to stop Melbourne's Greg Inglis scoring a try, however ever since that match Soward's game has matured. The club lost 17–16 in extra time, with Inglis scoring the match winning field goal. In the return match, Soward was also the centre of attention as he used his foot to prevent Inglis again from scoring, resulting in an eight-point try and Soward being put on report (he was reprimanded for this). St. George Illawarra won this match 26–12. In round 4, 2010, St. George Illawarra were the last team to lose premiership points to Melbourne before their salary cap scandal was revealed.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: St. George Illawarra were also involved in a controversial loss to Melbourne at the start of the 2014 season. In their round 6 game at AAMI Park, a refereeing and timekeeping error resulted in Melbourne scoring a try after the siren had gone, to win them the match. In the 80th minute, St. George Illawarra were ahead 24–22. The full-time siren sounded in the 80th minute, prior to a Melbourne player in possession being tackled. After the tackle was completed, the referees allowed play to continue, rather than ending the match, which gave Melbourne the chance to spread the ball in an elongated play, which resulted in a try and conversion in the 81st minute, giving them the win, 28–24.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: Due to the merger with Illawarra, the St George Illawarra Dragons hold a NSW Regional City rivalry with both the Canberra Raiders and fellow steel city side, Newcastle Knights.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: These are extenuations of such rivalries the Illawarra Steelers held with each side due to the Steelers' (side of the Joint Venture) locality in the NSW City of Wollongong.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: The rivalry the Steelers held with their Wollongong cousin, the Newcastle Knights, was quite often dubbed the Steel City showdown due to 2 cities, Newcastle and Wollongong, being industrious with BHP Steel.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: The St George Illawarra Dragons wore their away jersey in 2018 in their match against the Knights at WIN Stadium; given the greater amount of red on the jersey, it brought back that traditional rivalry.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In 2022, the St George Illawarra Dragons wore their heritage Illawarra Steelers commemorative jersey against the Canberra Raiders at WIN Stadium. This also commemorated the inception of the 2 clubs in 1982 and their Regional City rivalry from that year forward.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: Since the foundation of the St. George Illawarra Dragons, the club has achieved the following Win/Loss Record:


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In December 2017, the St. George Illawarra Dragons expressed their interest in applying for a licence to participate in the inaugural NRL Women's season. In March 2018, they were awarded one of four licences for the league's inaugural season, to commence in September of the same year. Daniel Lacey was appointed to coach the side.


title: St. George Illawarra Dragons

text: In June 2018, Sam Bremner, Kezie Apps and Talesha Quinn were unveiled as the club's first three signings.


title: Homi Adajania

text: Homi Adajania (born 1972) is an Indian film director and writer. He made his directorial debut with "Being Cyrus" (2006), an English-language psychological drama. He followed this with the commercially successful Hindi-language romantic comedy "Cocktail" (2012). After this Adajania directed the satire "Finding Fanny".


title: Homi Adajania

text: Adajania entered the film industry directing and co-writing the English-language psychological drama "Being Cyrus" (2006) starring Saif Ali Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, Dimple Kapadia, and Boman Irani. The film earned critical acclaim, despite being commercially unsuccessful. Film critic Rajeev Masand called it "a stylish thriller that's told in an immensely engaging style."


title: Homi Adajania

text: Adajania's second directorial venture was the Hindi-language romantic comedy "Cocktail" (2012). The film was written by filmmaker Imtiaz Ali and produced by Saif Ali Khan and Dinesh Vijan under their banner Illuminati Films. The lead roles were played by Khan, Deepika Padukone, and debutante actress Diana Penty, while Kapadia and Boman Irani featured in supporting roles. After its three-week run, Box Office India declared the film a hit in India and abroad. It earned mixed to positive reviews from critics.


title: Homi Adajania

text: Adajania's third directorial venture, the satirical comedy "Finding Fanny", was released in September 2014 in both English and Hindi. The film starred an ensemble cast including Shah, Kapadia, Pankaj Kapur, Padukone, and Arjun Kapoor. The film received mostly positive reviews, and had a steady run at the box office.


title: Homi Adajania

text: His next project was a Hindi film, "Angrezi Medium", starring Irrfan Khan, Radhika Madan and Deepak Dobriyal which released on March 12 2020.


title: Homi Adajania

text: Adajania was born in a Parsi family. His father, Aspy Adajania, was an Indian Army officer and a pioneer of amateur boxing in India who went onto serve as a top administrator of the sport and as a referee officiated high profile matches. Homi lost his sister, Zia Diwan Adajania, to a stroke in 2014.


title: Homi Adajania

text: He is married to fashion stylist and the Fashion Director of "Vogue India", Anaita Shroff Adajania and has two children. His sister-in-law, Scherezade Shroff - a well known YouTuber, is married to actor Vaibhav Talwar.


title: Homi Adajania

text: He played in his youth for the Bombay Gymkhana rugby football team in Mumbai. He is a certified CMAS (Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques) dive instructor, and used to teach in the Lakshadweep islands.


title: Level of analysis

text: The term "level of analysis" is used in the social sciences to point to the location, size, or scale of a research target.


title: Level of analysis

text: "Level of analysis" is distinct from the term "unit of observation" in that the former refers to a more or less integrated set of relationships while the latter refers to the distinct unit from which data have been or will be gathered. Together, the unit of observation and the level of analysis help define the population of a research enterprise.


title: Level of analysis

text: Level of analysis is closely related to the term unit of analysis, and some scholars have used them interchangingly, while others argue for a need for distinction. Ahmet Nuri Yurdusev wrote that "the level of analysis is more of an issue related to the framework/context of analysis and the level at which one conducts one's analysis, whereas the question of the unit of analysis is a matter of the 'actor' or the 'entity' to be studied". Manasseh Wepundi noted the difference between "the unit of analysis, that is the phenomenon about which generalizations are to be made, that which each 'case' in the data file represents and the level of analysis, that is, the manner in which the units of analysis can be arrayed on a continuum from the very small (micro) to very large (macro) levels."


title: Level of analysis

text: Although levels of analysis are not necessarily mutually exclusive, there are three general levels into which social science research may fall: micro level, meso level or middle range, and macro level.


title: Level of analysis

text: The smallest unit of analysis in the social sciences is an individual in their social setting. At the micro level, also referred to as the local level, the research population typically is an individual in their social setting or a small group of individuals in a particular social context. Examples of micro levels of analysis include, but are not limited to, the following individual analysis type approach:


title: Level of analysis

text: In general, a meso-level analysis indicates a population size that falls between the micro and macro levels, such as a community or an organization. However, meso level may also refer to analyses that are specifically designed to reveal connections between micro and macro levels. It is sometimes referred to as mid range, especially in sociology. Examples of meso-level units of analysis include the following:


title: Level of analysis

text: Macro-level analyses generally trace the outcomes of interactions, such as economic or other resource transfer interactions over a large population. It is also referred to as the global level. Examples of macro-level units of analysis include, but are not limited to, the following:


title: Level of analysis

text: According to David Marr, information processing systems must be understood at three distinct yet complementary levels of analysis – an analysis at one level alone is not sufficient.


title: Level of analysis

text: The computational level of analysis identifies "what" the information processing system does (e.g.: what problems does it solve or overcome) and similarly, why does it do these things.


title: Level of analysis

text: The algorithmic/representational level of analysis identifies "how" the information processing system performs its computations, specifically, what representations are used and what processes are employed to build and manipulate the representations.


title: Level of analysis

text: The physical level of analysis identifies how the information processing system is "physically realized" (in the case of biological vision, what neural structures and neuronal activities implement the visual system).


title: Level of analysis

text: After thirty years of the book "Vision" (David Marr. 1982. W. H. Freeman and Company), Tomaso Poggio added one higher level beyond the computational level, that is the learning.


title: Level of analysis

text: In political science, level of analysis is generally divided into three categories – individual, state, and international system. However, newer discussions of globalization have led to a newer level of analysis to be considered.


title: Level of analysis

text: The framework of analysis originated from K. Waltz's 1959 book entitled "Man, the State, and War". An examination is J. Singer's "The Level-of-Analysis Problem in International Relations" (1961). While the framework is widely discussed, not many scholarly articles use it. Two writings may shed light on its advantages and disadvantages: M. Brawley's 2005 case studies of international economic relations and S. Hu's 2015 analysis of small states' diplomatic recognition of Taiwan.


title: Level of analysis

text: The three (or four) levels of analysis cannot describe every effect and there is unlimited number of levels between the three primary ones, levels of analysis will help understand how one force in political power affects another. Generally, power is the concept that collects all the analysis together. For example, the struggle for power may be the cause of war, but the struggle for power may originate in the individual human being's lust for power. The lust for power is individual level of analysis, while the struggle for power is systemic level of analysis.


title: Level of analysis

text: The individual level of analysis locates the cause of events in individual leaders or the immediate circle of decision makers within a particular country. It focuses on human actors on the world stage identifying the characteristics of human decision making. For example, the cause of World War I is from the particular leaders in power at that time. Kaiser Wilhelm II is considered to be the level from which the cause originated. It may have been his need for power to hide a sense of inferiority, or it may have been his inability to understand the intricacies of statecraft, the way Otto von Bismarck did. Or it may have been his idea about the monarchy and German destiny. All three possibilities are drawn from an individual level of analysis.


title: Level of analysis

text: The domestic level of analysis locates causes in the character of the domestic system of specific states. Thus, war is caused by aggressive or warlike states, not by evil, inept, or misguided people or the structure of power in the international system. The failure of domestic institutions may also cause war. In World War I, the internal collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, or the brittle coalition inside Germany of agricultural and industrial interest, such as rye and iron, are often cited as important causes. Domestic level cases may come from various characteristics of the domestic system. Capitalist and socialist economies generate different attitudes and behavior.


title: Level of analysis

text: The Muslim and Christian religions or democratic and nondemocratic political ideologies do as well. Stable and failed institutions are domestic level factors affecting state behavior. A great worry today is the existence of failed states, meaning states whose domestic institutions have broken down, such as Somalia. Another worry here is existence of a rogue state, such as North Korea, which may pass nuclear weapons on to terrorists. Any type of state come from the domestic level of analysis, but a failed state usually means an institutional breakdown at domestic level of analysis, whereas a rogue state often implies evil intentions by individual – individual level of analysis.


title: Level of analysis

text: The systemic level of analysis explains outcomes from a system wide level that includes all states. It seeks explanations for international phenomena by considering the nature or structure of the international political system at the period under study. It takes into account both the position of states in the international system and their interrelationships. The position of states constitutes the systemic structural level of analysis. This involves the relative distribution of power, such as which state; great, middle, or small power, and geopolitics; such as which state is sea or land power. The interaction of states constitutes the systemic process level of analysis. At this level, we are concerned with which state aligns with which other states and which state negotiates with which other states. Thus, we can explain World War I in terms of the absence of system wide institutions, such as League of Nations, which was not created until after World War I to prevent such wars in the future. However, system wide institution does not always mean harmony among nations, as seen in the World War II. The cause of World War II is seen as the failure of a systemic institution, which led new institutions of the United Nations to carry on reformed legacy of the League of Nations.


title: Level of analysis

text: Global level factors are much like Systemic level factors, however the core difference is that global factors are not necessarily created by states, whereas systemic factors are. Global factors "can" be the outcome of individuals, interest groups, states, nonstate actors or even natural conditions – however they cannot be "traced" to the actions of any one state or even group of states. An example can be how the internet can shape how policy is formed, through social media or forums – where an idea is formed over time by a group of individuals, but the source is generally hard to determine. An environmental natural example is how global warming can help shape how society views certain policies, or help shape new policies themselves. Droughts caused by rising temperatures can cause global actors to form alliances to help procure critical resources – and as writers such as Peter Gleik and Michael Klare have shown, the possibility of "Water Wars" in dry countries in Africa and the Middle East are very possible.


title: Charivari

text: Charivari (, , , alternatively spelled shivaree or chivaree and also called a skimmington) was a European and North American folk custom in which a mock parade was staged through a community accompanied by a discordant mock serenade. Since the crowd aimed to make as much noise as possible by beating on pots and pans or anything that came to hand these parades are often referred to as rough music.


title: Charivari

text: Parades were of three types. In the first, and generally most violent form, a wrongdoer or wrongdoers might be dragged from their home or place of work and paraded by force through a community. In the process they were subject to the derision of the crowd, they might be pelted and frequently a victim or victims were dunked at the end of the proceedings. A safer form involved a neighbour of the wrongdoer impersonating the victim whilst being carried through the streets. The impersonator was obviously not themselves punished and often cried out or sang ribald verses mocking the wrongdoer. In the common form, an effigy was employed instead, abused and often burnt at the end of the proceedings.


title: Charivari

text: Communities used "rough music" to express their disapproval of different types of violation of community norms. For example, they might target marriages of which they disapproved such as a union between an older widower and much younger woman, or the too early remarriage by a widow or widower. Villages also used charivari in cases of adulterous relationships, against wife beaters, and unmarried mothers. It was also used as a form of shaming upon husbands who were beaten by their wives and had not stood up for themselves. In some cases, the community disapproved of any remarriage by older widows or widowers. "Charivari" is the original French word, and in Canada it is used by both English and French speakers. "Chivaree" became the common variant in Ontario, Canada. In the United States, the term "shivaree" is more common.


title: Charivari

text: As species of popular justice rituals Charivaric events were carefully planned and they were often staged at times of traditional festivity thereby blending delivering justice and celebration.


title: Charivari

text: The origin of the word "charivari" is likely from the Vulgar Latin "caribaria", plural of "caribarium", already referring to the custom of rattling kitchenware with an iron rod, itself probably from the Greek καρηβαρία (karēbaría), literally "heaviness in the head" but also used to mean "headache", from κάρα "head" and βαρύς "heavy". In any case, the tradition has been practised for at least 700 years. An engraving in the early 14th-century French manuscript, "Roman de Fauvel", shows a charivari underway.


title: Charivari

text: So-called "Rough Music" practices in England were known by many regional or local designations. In the North the most commonly employed term was "stang riding", a stang being a long pole carried on the shoulders of two men between which an object or a person could be mounted. In the South, the term skimmington, or skimmington ride, was most commonly employed, a skimmington being a type of large wooden ladle with which an unruly wife might beat her husband. Other terms include "lewbelling", "tin-panning", "ran tanning", a "nominey" or "wooset". Where effigies of the "wrongdoers" were made they were frequently burned as the climax of the event (as the inscription on the Rampton photograph indicates) or "ritually drowned" (thrown into a pond or river).


title: Charivari

text: The very essence of the practice was public humiliation of the victim under the eyes of their neighbours Rough music practices were irregularly scattered throughout English communities in the nineteenth century. In the twentieth they declined but endured in a few places, such as Rampton, Nottinghamshire (1909), Middleton Cheney (1909) and Blisworth (1920s and 1936), Northamptonshire. There were in fact some examples after the Second World War in Sussex, at West Hoathly in 1947 and Copthorne around 1951, and an attempt at traditional rough music practice was last documented by the folklorist Theo Brown in a Devonshire village around 1973.


title: Charivari

text: In Warwickshire, the custom was known as "loo-belling" or "lewbelling", and in northern England as "riding the stang". Other names given to this or similar customs were "rough-musicking" and "hussitting" (said to be a reference to the Hussites or followers of John Huss).


title: Charivari

text: Noisy, masked processions were held outside the home of the accused wrongdoer, involving the cacophonous rattling of bones and cleavers, the ringing of bells, hooting, blowing bull's horns, the banging of frying pans, saucepans, kettles, or other kitchen or barn implements with the intention of creating long-lasting embarrassment to the alleged perpetrator. During a rough music performance, the victim could be displayed upon a pole or donkey (in person or as an effigy), their "crimes" becoming the subject of mime, theatrical performances or recitatives, along with a litany of obscenities and insults. Alternatively, one of the participants would "ride the stang" (a pole carried between the shoulders of two or more men or youths) while banging an old kettle or pan with a stick and reciting a rhyme (called a "nominy") such as the following:


title: Charivari

text: Rough music processions are well attested in the medieval period as punishments for violations of the assumed gender norms. Men who had allowed themselves to be dominated by their shrewish wives were liable to be targeted and a frieze from Montecute House, an Elizabethan Manor in Somerset depicts just such an occurrence. However, in the nineteenth century the practice seems to have been somewhat refocused; whilst in the early period rough music was often used against men who had failed to assert their authority over their wives, by the end of the nineteenth century it was mostly targeted against men who had exceeded their authority by beating them. Thus, in contrast to the verses above referring to a shrewish wife there were also songs referring to the use of rough music as a protection for wives.


title: Charivari

text: The participants were generally young men temporarily bestowed with the power of rule over the everyday affairs of the community. As above, issues of sexuality and domestic hierarchy most often formed the pretexts for rough music, including acts of domestic violence or child abuse. However, rough music was also used as a sanction against those who committed certain species of economic crimes such as blocking footpaths, preventing traditional gleaning, or profiteering at times of poor harvests. Occupational groups, such as butchers, employed rough music against others in the same trade who refused to abide by the commonly agreed labour customs.


title: Charivari

text: Rough music practices would often be repeated for three or up to seven nights in a row. Many victims fled their communities and cases of suicide are not unknown. As forms of vigilantism that were likely to lead to public disorder, ran-tanning and similar activities were banned under the Highways Act of 1882.


title: Charivari

text: Skimmingtons are recorded in England in early medieval times and they are recorded in colonial America from around the 1730s. The term is particularly associated with the West Country region of England and, although the etymology is not certain, it has been suggested that it derived from the ladle used in that region for cheesemaking, which was perceived as a weapon used by a woman to beat a weak or henpecked husband. The rationale for a skimmington varied, but one major theme was disapproval of a man for weakness in his relationship with his wife. A description of the custom in 1856 cites three main targets: a man who is worsted by his wife in a quarrel; a cuckolded man who accepts his wife's adultery; and any married person who engages in licentious conduct. To "ride such a person skimmington" involved exposing them or their effigy to ridicule on a cart, or on the back of a horse or donkey. Some accounts describe the participants as carrying ladles and spoons with which to beat each other, at least in the case of skimmingtons prompted by marital discord. The noisy parade passed through the neighbourhood, and served as a punishment to the offender and a warning to others to abide by community norms; Roberts suggests that the homes of other potential victims were visited in a pointed manner during a skimmington. According to one citation, a skimmington was broken up by the police in a village in Dorset as late as 1917; and incidents have been reported from the 1930s, the 1950s and perhaps even the 1970s.


title: Charivari

text: The antiquary and lexicographer Francis Grose described a skimmington as: "Saucepans, frying-pans, poker and tongs, marrow-bones and cleavers, bulls horns, etc. beaten upon and sounded in ludicrous processions" "(A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue", 1796).


title: Charivari

text: During the Western Rising of 1628–31, which was a rebellion in south-west England against the enclosure of royal forest lands, the name "Lady Skimmington" was adopted by the leader of the protest movement. According to some sources the name was used by a number of men involved with the Western Rising, who dressed in women's clothes not only as a method of disguise, but also in order to symbolise their protest against a breach of the established order.


title: Charivari

text: Tuneless, cacophonous "rough music", played on horns, bugles, whistles, tin trays and frying pans, was a feature of the custom known as "Teddy Rowe's Band". This had taken place annually, possibly for several centuries, in the early hours of the morning, to herald the start of Pack Monday Fair at Sherborne, Dorset, until it was banned by the police in 1964 because of hooliganism the previous year. The fair is still held, on the first Monday after Old Michaelmas Day (10 October) – St Michael's Day in the Old Style calendar.


title: Charivari

text: The "Tin Can Band" at Broughton, Northamptonshire, a seasonal custom, takes place at midnight on the third Sunday in December. The participants march around the village for about an hour, rattling pans, dustbin lids, kettles and anything else that will make a noise. The council once attempted to stop the tin-canning; participants were summoned and fined, but a dance was organised to raise money to pay the fines and the custom continues. The village is sufficiently proud of its custom for it to feature on the village sign.


title: Charivari

text: The custom has been documented back to the Middle Ages but it is likely that it was traditional before that. It was first recorded in France, as a regular wedding activity to celebrate the nuptials at some point after the vows had been taken. But charivari achieved its greatest importance as it became transformed into a form of community censure against socially unacceptable marriages; for example, the marriage of widows before the end of the customary social period of formal mourning. In the early 17th century at the Council of Tours, the Catholic Church forbade the ritual of charivari and threatened its practitioners with excommunication. It did not want the community taking on the judgment and punishment of parishioners. But the custom continued in rural areas.


title: Charivari

text: The charivari as celebration was a custom initially practised by the upper classes, but as time went on, the lower classes also participated and often looked forward to the next opportunity to join in. The two main purposes of the charivari in Europe were to facilitate change in the current social structure and to act as a form of censure within the community. The goal was to enforce social standards and to rid the community of socially unacceptable relationships that threatened the stability of the whole.


title: Charivari

text: In Europe various types of charivari took place that differed from similar practices in other parts of the world. For example, the community might conduct a stag hunt against adulterers by creating a mock chase of human "stags" by human "hounds". The hounds would pursue the stags (that is, those who were committing the adulterous relationship) and dispense animal blood on their doorsteps. European charivaris were highly provocative, leading to overt public humiliation. The people used them to acknowledge and correct misbehaviour. In other parts of the world, similar public rituals around nuptials were practised mostly for celebration.


title: Charivari

text: Humiliation was the most common consequence of the European charivari. The acts which victims endured were forms of social ostracism often so embarrassing that they would leave the community for places where they were not known. Sometimes the charivari resulted in murder or suicide. Examples from the south of France include five cases of a charivari victim's firing on his accusers: these incidents resulted in two people being blinded and three killed. Some victims committed suicide, unable to recover from the public humiliation and social exclusion.


title: Charivari

text: Norman Lewis recorded the survival of the custom in 1950s Ibiza "in spite of the energetic disapproval of the Guardia Civil". It was called "cencerrada", consisted of raucous nocturnal music, and was aimed at widows or widowers who remarried prematurely.


title: Charivari

text: It is possible that the blowing of car horns after weddings in France (and indeed in many European countries) today is a holdover from the charivari of the past.


title: Charivari

text: Charivari has been practiced in much of the United States, but it was most frequent on the frontier, where communities were small and more formal enforcement was lacking. It was documented into the early 20th century, but was thought to have mostly died out by mid century. In Canada, charivaris have occurred in Ontario, Quebec, and the Atlantic provinces, but not always as an expression of disapproval.


title: Charivari

text: The early French colonists took the custom of charivari (or "shivaree" in the United States) to their settlements in Quebec. Some historians believe the custom spread to English-speaking areas of Lower Canada and eventually into the American South, but it was independently common in English society, so was likely to be part of Anglo-American customs. Charivari is well documented in the Hudson Valley from the earliest days of English settlers through the early 1900s. The earliest documented examples of Canadian charivari were in Quebec in the mid-17th century. One of the most notable was on June 28, 1683. After the widow of François Vézier dit Laverdure remarried only three weeks after her husband’s death, people of Quebec City conducted a loud and strident charivari against the newlyweds at their home.


title: Charivari

text: As practised in North America, the charivari tended to be less extreme and punitive than the traditional European custom. Each was unique and heavily influenced by the standing of the family involved, as well as who was participating. While embellished with some European traditions, in a North American charivari participants might throw the culprits into horse tanks or force them to buy candy bars for the crowd.


title: Charivari

text: This account from an American charivari in Kansas exemplifies the North American attitude. In contrast to punitive charivari in small villages in Europe, meant to ostracize and isolate the evildoers, North American charivaris were used as "unifying rituals", in which those in the wrong were brought back into the community after what might amount to a minor hazing. In some communities the ritual served as a gentle spoof of the newlyweds, intended to disrupt for a while any sexual activities that might be under way. In parts of the midwest US, such as Kansas, in the mid 1960-1970s, shivaree customs continued as good natured wedding humour along the lines of the musical "Oklahoma!". Rituals included wheeling the bride about in a wheelbarrow or tying cowbells under a wedding bed. This ritual may be the base of the fastening of tin cans to the newlyweds car.


title: Charivari

text: In Tampa, Florida in September 1885, a large chivaree was held on the occasion of local official James T. Magbee's wedding. According to historian Kyle S. Vanlandingham, the party was "the wildest and noisiest of all the chivaree parties in Tampa's history," attended by "several hundred" men and lasting "until near daylight." The music produced during the chivaree was reportedly "hideous and unearthly beyond description."


title: Charivari

text: The use of excessive noise was a universal practice in association with variations in the custom. Loud singing and chanting were common in Europe, including England, and throughout North America. For an 1860 English charivari against a wife-beater, someone wrote an original chant which the crowd was happy to adopt:


title: Charivari

text: In Europe the noise, songs, and chants had special meanings for the crowd. When directed against adulterers, the songs represented the community’s disgust. For a too-early remarriage of a widow or widower, the noises symbolized the scream of the late husband or wife in the night.


title: Charivari

text: Perhaps the most common usage of the word today is in relation to circus performances, where a 'charivari' is a type of show opening that sees a raucous tumble of clowns and other performers into the playing space. This is the most common form of entrance used in today's classical circus, whereas the two and three-ring circuses of the last century usually preferred a parade, or a 'spec'.


title: Charivari

text: Charivari was sometimes called "riding the 'stang", when the target was a man who had been subject to scolding, beating, or other abuse from his wife. The man was made to "ride the 'stang", which meant that he was placed backwards on a horse, mule or ladder and paraded through town to be mocked, while people banged pots and pans.


title: Charivari

text: The charivari was used to belittle those who could not or would not consummate their marriage. In the mid-16th century, historic records attest to a charivari against Martin Guerre in the small village of Artigat in the French Pyrenees for that reason. After he married at the age of 14, his wife did not get pregnant for eight years, so villagers ridiculed him. Later in his life, another man took over Guerre's identity and life. The trial against the impostor was what captured the events for history. In the 20th century, the events formed the basis of a French film, "Le Retour de Martin Guerre" (1982) and the history, "The Return of Martin Guerre", by the American history professor Natalie Zemon Davis.


title: Charivari

text: With the charivari widely practised among rural villagers across Europe, the term and practice were part of common culture. Over time, the word was applied to other items. In Bavaria, "charivari" was adopted as the name for the silver ornaments worn with Lederhosen; the items consist of small trophies from game, like teeth from wild boar, or deer, jaws and fangs from foxes and various marters, feathers and claws from jaybirds and birds of prey. A Bavarian Charivari resembles the so-called "chatelaine", a women's ornament consisting of a silver chain with numerous pendants like a mini silver box of needles, a small pair of scissors, a tiny bottle of perfume, etc..


title: Charivari

text: In the Philippines, the term "Charivari" is used by the Revised Penal Code for a type of criminalised public disorder. Defined in Article 155 as a medley of discordant voices, it is classed under alarm and scandal and is punishable by a fine.


title: Charivari

text: Charivari would later be taken up by composers of the French Baroque tradition as a 'rustic' or 'pastoral' character piece. Notable examples are those of the renowned viola da gamba virtuoso Marin Marais in his five collections of pieces for the "basse de viole" and continuo. Some are quite advanced and difficult and subsequently evoke the title's origins.


title: Charivari

text: The British period instrument/early music ensemble, Charivari Agréable (founded in 1993), states that their name translates as, "'pleasant tumult' (from Saint-Lambert’s 1707 treatise on accompaniment)".


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: The Vice Chief of the Army Staff (VCOAS) is a statutory position in the Indian Armed Forces usually held by a three star lieutenant general. As the second highest ranking officer to serve in the Indian Army, the VCOAS is the deputy professional head of the Indian Army and a senior adviser to the Minister of Defence. The office holder is usually the second most senior army officer unless the Chief of Defence is an army officer.


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: The current VCOAS is Lt. General B. S. Raju who assumed the office on 1 May 2022. Lt. Gen. Raju's appointment is one of rare instances where an officer has been promoted as Vice Chief without heading any of the Army’s regional commands.


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: In the British Indian Army, the Chief of the General Staff (CGS) assisted the Commander-in-Chief, India.


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: After the Independence, the CGS remained the number two officer in the Indian Army below the Commander-in-Chief, India. and later the Chief of Army Staff. In January 1959, the post of Deputy Chief of the Army Staff (DCOAS) was created to replace the CGS at the Army HQ. The DCOAS was the second-in-command and was equivalent to an Army Commander (GOC-in-C).


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: In January 1965, the CGS post became the Vice Chief of the Army Staff, with the DCOAS becoming a PSO appointment.


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: The VCOAS ranks at No. 23 on the Indian order of precedence, along with the Vice Chiefs of Staff of the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force and the Army Commanders (GOC-in-C), Naval Commanders (FOC-in-C) and Air Commanders (AOC-in-C).


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: The Vice Chief of Army staff is appointed by the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister, from among the senior general officers of the Army. Since the appointment is of Commander-in-Chief grade, the appointees are usually one of the Army Commanders of the seven commands.


title: Vice Chief of the Army Staff (India)

text: Unlike the Chief of Army Staff, there is no fixed term nor term limit to the position of the VCOAS, although most of those appointed to the office have typically served for two or three year tenures.


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: The Occupation of the Rhineland from 1 December 1918 until 30 June 1930 was a consequence of the collapse of the Imperial German Army in 1918, after which Germany's provisional government was obliged to agree to the terms of the 1918 armistice. This included accepting that the troops of the victorious powers occupied the left bank of the Rhine and four right bank "bridgeheads" with a radius around Cologne, Koblenz, Mainz and a radius around Kehl. Furthermore, the left bank of the Rhine and a strip east of the Rhine was declared a demilitarized zone. The Treaty of Versailles repeated these provisions, but limited the presence of the foreign troops to fifteen years after the signing of the treaty (until 1934).


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: The purpose of the occupation was on the one hand to give France security against a renewed German attack, and on the other to serve as a guarantee for reparations obligations. After this was apparently achieved with the Young Plan, the occupation of the Rhineland was prematurely ended on 30 June 1930. The administration of occupied Rhineland was under the jurisdiction of the Inter-Allied Rhineland High Commission with its seat at the Upper Presidium of the Rhine Province in Koblenz.


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: The United States occupied the central area of the Rhineland along the Mosel river and the Koblenz bridgehead. General John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (A. E. F.), created the Third US Army for this purpose, giving the command to Major General Joseph T. Dickman. In early 1919, the Third Army comprised some 250,000 men. The Americans opened their headquarters in a Prussian government building by the Rhine in Koblenz. In these days, the US flag flew over Ehrenbreitstein Fortress. In July 1919, the Third Army was disbanded and replaced by the American Forces in Germany (AFG) under the command of Major General Henry Tureman Allen. After a constant troop withdrawal, the AFG comprised some 20,000 men in a reduced territory in late 1919. Compared to the French occupation zone, the Americans got along with the German population much better, including a number of love affairs. General Allen even took part in saving Ehrenbreitstein Fortress from destruction by the Allied forces in 1922. After more than four years of occupation, the Harding administration decided to bring the troops back home. Finally, the last Americans left their headquarters in Koblenz in January 1923. The American occupation zone was consequently handed over to the French, who from that moment on controlled the major portion of the occupied Rhineland.


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: This consisted of 20,000 soldiers (five divisions) with its headquarters at Aachen, and with its troops stationed in Krefeld. They were commanded by Armand Huyghé.


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: The British Army entered German territory on 3 December 1918. The British Army of the Rhine was established as the occupying force in March 1919. Based at Cologne, they published "The Cologne Post".


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: The French Eighth and Tenth armies originally constituted the French forces involved in the occupation. The Eighth Army was commanded by General Augustin Gérard and occupied the Palatinate. The Tenth Army was commanded by General Charles Mangin and was responsible for the rest of the French zone from its headquarters in Mainz.


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: In 1919, the Italian "Alpi" Brigade was also used by the French in occupation duties in the far south of the zone. France also stationed between 25,000 and 40,000 French colonial soldiers in the Rhineland. Some German women married African soldiers from the occupying forces, while others had children by them out of wedlock (hence the disparaging label "Rhineland Bastards") and were considered by right-wing Germans to constitute a public disgrace. General Henry Tureman Allen reported to US Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby that from the start of the occupation until June 1920 there were 66 cases of formal accusations against colored colonial troops, out of which there were 28 convictions, and admits there were many more unreported cases. Despite these occasional cases, "the wholesale atrocities by French negro Colonial troops alleged in the German press, such as the alleged abductions, followed by rape, mutilation, murder and concealment of the bodies of the victims are false and intended as political propaganda".


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: French occupation of Frankfurt occurred from 6 April to 17 May 1920. On the second day nine civilians were shot by Moroccan troops in an incident outside the Hauptwache. This incident was used to launch a racist campaign against the French use of colonial troops, linking the incident with allegations of wide spread assaults by Black soldiers in the French occupation army on local women including accusations of systemic rape and other atrocities targeting the German civilian population and attributed mainly to Senegalese Tirailleurs. The events resulted in a widespread campaign by the German right-wing press, which dubbed them as "The Black Shame" ("Die schwarze Schande" or "Die schwarze Schmach") and depicted them as a form of French humiliation of the German nation.


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: In 1923, in response to German failure to pay reparations under the Treaty of Versailles, France and Belgium occupied the industrial Ruhr area of Germany, most of which lies across the river on the east bank of the Rhine, until 1925. Many Germans were killed during civil disobedience protests. e.g. against dismissal of German officials.


title: Occupation of the Rhineland

text: The Siamese Expeditionary Forces also participated in the occupation until 1919 with their troops being stationed in Neustadt an der Weinstraße, located in the French area.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: The Serbian Revolution ( / "Srpska revolucija") was a national uprising and constitutional change in Serbia that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which this territory evolved from an Ottoman province into a rebel territory, a constitutional monarchy, and modern Serbia. The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1817, was marked by a violent struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire with two armed uprisings taking place, ending with a ceasefire. The later period (1817–1835) witnessed a peaceful consolidation of political power of the increasingly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule by Serbian princes in 1830 and 1833 and the territorial expansion of the young monarchy. The adoption of the first written Constitution in 1835 abolished feudalism and serfdom, and made the country suzerain. The term "Serbian Revolution" was coined by a German academic historiographer, Leopold von Ranke, in his book "Die Serbische Revolution", published in 1829. These events marked the foundation of modern Serbia.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: "The Proclamation" (1809) by Karađorđe in the capital Belgrade probably represented the apex of the first phase. It called for national unity, drawing on Serbian history to demand the freedom of religion and formal, written rule of law, both of which the Ottoman Empire had failed to provide. It also called on Serbs to stop paying taxes to the Porte, deemed unfair as based on religious affiliation. Apart from dispensing with poll tax on non-Muslims (jizya), the revolutionaries also abolished all feudal obligations in 1806, only 15 years after the French revolution, peasant and serf emancipation thus representing a major social break with the past. The rule of Miloš Obrenović consolidated the achievements of the Uprisings, leading to the proclamation of the first constitution in the Balkans and the establishment of the first Serbian institution of higher learning still in existence, the Great Academy of Belgrade (1808). In 1830 and again in 1833, Serbia was recognized as an autonomous principality, with hereditary princes paying annual tribute to the Porte. Finally, "de facto" independence came in 1867, with the withdrawal of Ottoman garrisons from the principality; "de jure" independence was formally recognized at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: New circumstances, such as the Austrian occupation of Serbia, rise of the Serbian elite across the Danube, Napoleon's conquests in the Balkans, and reforms in the Russian Empire, exposed Serbs to new ideas. They could now clearly compare how their compatriots made progress in Christian Austria, the Illyrian provinces and elsewhere, while the Ottoman Serbs were still subjects to a religion-based tax that treated them as second class citizens.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: During the Austrian occupation of Serbia (1788–91), many Serbs served as soldiers and officers in Habsburg armies, where they acquired knowledge about military tactics, organization and weapons. Others were employed in administrative offices in Hungary or in the occupied zone. They began to travel in search of trade and education, and were exposed to European ideas about secular society, politics, law and philosophy, including both rationalism and Romanticism. They met with the values of the French Revolution, which would affect many Serbian merchants and educated people. There was an active Serbian community in the southern Habsburg Empire, from where ideas made their way southwards (across the Danube). Another role model was the Russian Empire, the only independent Slavic and Orthodox country, which had recently reformed itself and was now a serious menace to the Turks. The Russian experience implied hope for Serbia.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Other Serbian thinkers found strengths in the Serbian nation itself. Two top Serbian scholars were influenced by Western learning to turn their attention to Serbia's own language and literature. One was Dositej Obradović (1743), a former priest who left for Western Europe. Disappointed that his people had so little secular literature which was mainly written not in the vernacular but either in Old Church Slavonic or in newly emerging Russo-Serbian hybrid language called Slavo-Serbian, he decided to bring written language closer to vernacular Serbian language common people spoke and thus assembled grammars and dictionaries, wrote some books himself and translated others. Others followed his lead and revived tales of Serbia's medieval glory. He later became the first Minister of Education of modern Serbia (1805).


title: Serbian Revolution

text: The second figure was Vuk Karadžić (1787). Vuk was less influenced by Enlightenment rationalism like Dositej Obradović and more by Romanticism, which romanticized rural and peasant communities. Vuk collected and published Serbian epic poetry, work that helped to build Serbian awareness of a common identity based in shared customs and shared history. This kind of linguistic and cultural self-awareness was a central feature of German nationalism in this period, and Serbian intellectuals now applied the same ideas to the Balkans.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: During the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813), Serbia perceived itself as an independent state for the first time after 300 years of Ottoman and short-lasting Austrian occupations. Encouraged by the Russian Empire, the demands for self-government within the Ottoman Empire in 1804 evolved into a war of independence by 1807. Combining patriarchal peasant democracy with modern national goals the Serbian revolution was attracting thousands of volunteers among the Serbs from across the Balkans and Central Europe. The Serbian Revolution ultimately became a symbol of the nation-building process in Southeast Europe, provoking peasant unrest among the Christians in both Greece and Bulgaria. Following a successful siege with 25,000 men, on 8 January 1807 the charismatic leader of the revolt, Karađorđe Petrović, proclaimed Belgrade the capital of Serbia.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Serbs responded to Ottoman brutalities by establishing separate institutions: Governing Council (Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet), the Great Academy (Velika škola), the Theological Academy (Bogoslovija) and other administrative bodies. Karađorđe and other revolutionary leaders sent their children to the Great Academy, which had among its students Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787–1864), the reformer of the Serbian alphabet. Belgrade was repopulated by local military leaders, merchants and craftsmen, but also by an important group of enlightened Serbs from the Habsburg Empire who gave a new cultural and political framework to the egalitarian peasant society of Serbia. Dositej Obradović, a prominent figure of the Serbian Enlightenment, the founder of the Great Academy, became the first Minister of Education of Serbia in 1811.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Following the Treaty of Bucharest (May 1812) and French invasion of Russia in June 1812, the Russian Empire withdrew its support for the Serb rebels; unwilling to accept anything less than independence, a quarter of Serbia's population (at the moment around 100,000 people) were exiled into Habsburg Empire, including the leader of the Uprising, Karađorđe Petrović. Recaptured by the Ottomans in October 1813, Belgrade became a scene of brutal revenge, with hundreds of its citizens massacred and thousands sold into slavery as far as Asia. After the Pashalik of Belgrade fell back to the Ottoman rule, various acts of violence and confiscation of people's properties took place. Islamized Serbs and Albanians especially took part in such actions. Direct Ottoman rule also meant the abolition of all Serbian institutions and the return of Ottoman Turks to Serbia.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Despite losing the battle, tensions nevertheless persisted. In 1814 an unsuccessful "Hadži Prodan's revolt" was launched by Hadži Prodan Gligorijević, one of the veterans of the First Serbian Uprising. He knew the Turks would arrest him, so he decided to resist them. Miloš Obrenović, another veteran, felt the time was not right for an uprising and did not provide assistance.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Hadži Prodan's Uprising soon failed and he fled to Austria. After a riot at a Turkish estate in 1814, the Turkish authorities massacred the local population and publicly impaled 200 prisoners at Belgrade. By March 1815, Serbs had held several meetings and decided upon a new revolt.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: The Second Serbian Uprising (1815–1817) was a second phase of the national revolution of the Serbs against the Ottoman Empire, which erupted shortly after the brutal annexation of the country to the Ottoman Empire and the failed Hadži Prodan's revolt. The revolutionary council proclaimed an uprising in Takovo on April 23, 1815, with Miloš Obrenović chosen as the leader (while Karađorđe was still in exile in Austria).


title: Serbian Revolution

text: The decision of the Serb leaders was based on two reasons. First, they feared a general massacre of knezes. Secondly, they learned that Karađorđe was planning to return from exile in Russia. The anti-Karađorđe faction, including Miloš Obrenović, was anxious to forestall Karađorđe and keep him out of power.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Fighting resumed at Easter in 1815, and Miloš became supreme leader of the new revolt. When the Ottomans discovered this they sentenced all of its leaders to death. The Serbs fought in battles at Ljubic, Čačak, Palez, Požarevac and Dublje and managed to reconquer the Pashaluk of Belgrade.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Miloš advocated a policy of "restraint": captured Ottoman soldiers were not killed and civilians were released. His announced goal was not independence but an end to abusive misrule.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: Wider European events now helped the Serbian cause. Political and diplomatic means in negotiations between the Prince of Serbia and the Ottoman Porte, instead of further war clashes coincided with the political rules within the framework of Metternich's Europe. Prince Miloš Obrenović, an astute politician and able diplomat, in order to confirm his hard won loyalty to the Porte in 1817 ordered the assassination of Karađorđe Petrović. The final defeat of Napoleon in 1815 raised Turkish fears that Russia might again intervene in the Balkans. To avoid this the sultan agreed to make Serbia a vassal state, semi-independent but nominally responsible to the Porte.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: In mid-1815, the first negotiations began between Obrenović and Marashli Ali Pasha, the Ottoman governor. The result was acknowledgment of a Serbian Principality by the Ottoman Empire. Although a vassal state of the Porte (yearly tax tribute), it was, in most respects, an independent state. By 1817, Obrenović succeeded in forcing Marashli Ali Pasha to negotiate an unwritten agreement, thus ending the Second Serbian uprising. The same year, Karađorđe, the leader of the First Uprising (and Obrenović's rival for the throne) returned to Serbia and was assassinated by Obrenović's orders; Obrenović subsequently received the title of "Prince of Serbia".


title: Serbian Revolution

text: During the "intermezzo period" ("virtual autonomy" – the negotiation process between Belgrade and Constantinople 1817–1830) Prince Miloš Obrenović I secured a gradual but effective reduction of Turkish power and Serbian institutions inevitably filled the vacuum. Despite opposition from the Porte, Miloš created the Serbian army, transferred properties to the young Serbian bourgeoisie and passed the "homestead laws" which protected peasants from usurers and bankruptcies.


title: Serbian Revolution

text: New school curriculum and the re-establishment of the Serbian Orthodox Church reflected the Serbian national interest. Unlike the Serbian medieval tradition, Prince Miloš separated education from religion, on the grounds that he could oppose the Church through independent education (secularism) more easily. By that time the Great Academy in Belgrade had been in operation for decades (since 1808).


title: Serbian Revolution

text: The Akkerman Convention (1828), the Treaty of Adrianople (1829) and finally, the Hatt-i Sharif (1830), formally recognized the Principality of Serbia as a vassal state with Miloš Obrenović I as its hereditary Prince.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: Francisco Gaudencio Lope Belardo Mañalac (born March 21, 1976), popularly known as Bamboo Mañalac or simply by the mononym Bamboo, is a Filipino-American musician and singer-songwriter. He began his career as vocalist and original frontman of Rivermaya and later fronted his own band, Bamboo. Bamboo band disbanded in 2011 and Mañalac then pursued a solo career and released his first solo album, "No Water, No Moon".


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: Mañalac is known for his distinct vocals, which combines elements of rock with a mellow technique; he also has a notably eccentric style in live performances. His musical and singing style as well as his band's polished sound have made him an icon in the Philippine music industry.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: Mañalac was born in Quezon City, Philippines to Filipino parents. His family immigrated to San Francisco, California when he was 10 years old and spent the rest of his childhood there. He was named after a combination of his grandfathers' names and coincidentally after his home city. His mother gave him the nickname "Bamboo" when he was still a kid.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: Rivermaya's roots came from a band named Xaga consisting of Jesse Gonzales on vocals, Kenneth Ilagan on guitars, Nathan Azarcon on bass guitar, Rome Velayo on drums, and Rico Blanco on keyboards and backing vocals. The band was managed by Lizza Nakpil and director Chito S. Roño. In the process of grueling practice sessions, Azarcon's former schoolmate Mañalac replaced Gonzales, as well as Azarcon's childhood friend, Mark Escueta, replaced Velayo, and later, Ilagan was replaced with Perf de Castro. With Mañalac as frontman, the band members themselves decided to disband Xaga and form the band Rivermaya. They started putting together original songs like "Ulan", "214", and "Awit ng Kabataan" in demo form for prospective recording companies. Since its formation, the band has launched several successful albums, received numerous awards, and has undertaken several successful concerts and tours.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: After the band's successful US and Canada tours, Mañalac decided to leave the band and stay with his family in the United States. His last performance with the band was on October 10, 1998, in Oakland, CA. Despite of the popular belief and rumors saying that he was removed from the group due to drug addiction, Mañalac dismissed this as a mere "fan theory" claiming that he does not even smoke and have not tried taking drugs ever since, even out of curiosity. He actually went back to school in San Francisco and Los Angeles and took up English, Philosophy and Film which were his majors and did several odd jobs.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: In 2002, after living in Los Angeles following the Rivermaya tour in America, Mañalac returned to the Philippines. His former bandmate in Rivermaya, Nathan Azarcon, introduced him to Ira Cruz and Vic Mercado. Later, all of them joined together and formed the band Bamboo. Since then, the band had launched four successful albums, and received numerous awards.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: Rumors were initially spreading on January 10, 2011, after KC Montero tweeted on Twitter that the band has decided to call it quits. On January 11, 2011, Mañalac published an official statement in the band's official website. He said:


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: In November 2011, Mañalac released his solo debut album, "No Water, No Moon", under the label of PolyEast Records. The album consists 12 tracks with "Questions" as its carrier single. The album reached gold record in February 2013 after selling more than 7,500 copies.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: On February 10, 2013, during an appearance on the last episode of "Sarah G. Live", Bamboo Mañalac hinted that he would be working with Sarah Geronimo after they both finished performing a production number together. On February 14, 2013, ABS-CBN aired a promotional plug during the airtime of the pre-primetime television drama "Kahit Konting Pagtingin", confirming Bamboo Mañalac's stint in "The Voice of the Philippines" as coach and judge. In an interview made by "ABS-CBN News", Mañalac provided a statement regarding his stint on the show, "I'm ready to be a coach. There's a time for everything and this is it." When asked on what kind of artist will he would like to coach, he said, "I’ve been listening to rock for a long time but I also listen to other genres from rock to pop to folk to everything. I want someone who is open to all kinds of music; someone who is willing to listen and willing to learn."


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: Bamboo, alongside Sarah Geronimo, and Lea Salonga returned as coaches for "The Voice Kids Philippines" from 2014 to present.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: In October 2015, four years after the release of his first album, Bamboo released his second solo album entitled "Bless this Mess". The 10-track album was recorded in Grand Street Recording Studio, Brooklyn, New York.


title: Bamboo Mañalac

text: NOTE: "This list only includes Mañalac's regular television shows. Short television guestings are not included."


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa is a 1972 book written by Walter Rodney that describes how Africa was deliberately exploited and underdeveloped by European colonial regimes. One of his main arguments throughout the book is that Africa developed Europe at the same rate that Europe underdeveloped Africa.


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: Rodney argues that a combination of power politics and economic exploitation of Africa by Europeans led to the poor state of African political and economic development evident in the late 20th century. Though, he did not intend "to remove the ultimate responsibility for development from the shoulders of Africans... [He believes that] every African has a responsibility to understand the [capitalist] system and work for its overthrow."


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: This book, along with Frantz Fanon's "The Wretched of the Earth", is a popular example of 20th century books concerning African development and post-colonial theory.


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: First published in London by Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications in 1972 (in partnership with Tanzanian Publishing House), the book shaped the study of Africa in many disciplines. Rodney wrote the text during his time in Dar es Salaam, during the presidency of Julius Nyerere. Tanzanian scholar Karim F Hirji has described the work as, "no doubt the 20th century's most important and influential book on African history." In the late 1990s many academics became more sharply critical of the book's central thesis and argued that the book oversimplifies the complex historical forces surrounding the colonial era.


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: This book was groundbreaking in that it was among the first to bring a new perspective to the question of underdevelopment in Africa. Rodney's analysis went far beyond the heretofore accepted approach in the study of Third World underdevelopment and it was met with heavy criticism.


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: Rodney had determined that the only path to true human development and liberation for the majority of the people of his country was through the transformation of their own lives in a struggle to replace and reshape the neo-colonialist government that dominated their society and prescribed their existence.


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: Rodney argues that to fully appreciate and understand the effect of European exploitation on Africa, four distinct issues need to be addressed: a reconstruction of pre-European Africa’s developmental condition, that of pre-expansionist Europe, and their contributions to each other’s present condition, developed or otherwise. After an introductory chapter in which he definitionally discusses development, underdevelopment, and associated terminologies in their historical and contemporary contexts, he devotes a chapter to each of these four issues. He concludes the book with a chapter critiquing arguments that promote the "supposed benefit of colonialism". In this chapter, he also explicates on the means through which colonialism is linked to Africa's present underdevelopment.


title: How Europe Underdeveloped Africa

text: Rodney explicitly referred to Africa as "underdeveloped", not "developing", because of its past and also present of exploitation that has created its socio-economic position. Underdevelopment is not defined by a lack of resources but an uneven and, he argued, unjust distribution of the wealth of those resources.


title: Paul Reed (basketball)

text: Paul Reed (born June 14, 1999), nicknamed "BBall Paul", is an American professional basketball player for the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the DePaul Blue Demons.


title: Paul Reed (basketball)

text: Reed grew up in Orlando, Florida, and attended Wekiva High School. Reed grew from being 6'2" as a freshman in high school to 6'6" as a junior and was 6'8" by the start of his senior year. As a senior, he averaged 18.2 points and 11.4 rebounds and was named the Central Florida Player of the Year as he led the Mustangs to the state championship game. Rated a three-star recruit and the No. 235 prospect in his class, Reed committed to play college basketball at DePaul over offers from Clemson, Kansas State, Rutgers and Murray State.


title: Paul Reed (basketball)

text: As a true freshman, Reed averaged 3.6 points, and 3.1 rebounds in 28 games played off the bench. He received more playing time towards the end of the season and averaged 5.6 points and 4.6 rebounds over the final 14 games of the season. As a sophomore, Reed averaged 12.3 points and a Big East Conference-leading 8.5 rebounds per game and was named the Big East Conference Most Improved Player. In the 2019 College Basketball Invitational Reed averaged 18.3 points, 10.3 rebounds, 2.7 blocks, and 2.2 steals as he helped lead the Blue Demons to the best-of-three final.


title: Paul Reed (basketball)

text: Reed entered his junior season as a preseason All-Big East selection. Reed recorded ten double-doubles and was named to the Big East Weekly Honor Roll four times during DePaul's 13-game non-conference schedule at the start of the season. Reed scored 23 points on 8-of-9 shooting with nine rebounds in DePaul's 79–66 upset of No. 5 Butler on January 18. Reed missed several games in February and March with a hip pointer injury. After the regular season, Reed was named Second Team All-Big East after averaging 15.1 points and finishing second in the conference in rebounds (10.7), blocks (2.6) and steals (1.9). He had 18 double-doubles for the season. After the season, Reed declared for the 2020 NBA draft, forgoing his final season of eligibility.


title: Paul Reed (basketball)

text: Reed was drafted in the second round with 58th overall selection in the 2020 NBA draft by the Philadelphia 76ers. On December 3, he signed with the 76ers on a two-way contract, meaning he would split time between the 76ers and their G League affiliate, the Delaware Blue Coats. Reed made his NBA debut on January 4, 2021, playing the final 90 seconds of the game and scoring two points on his sole field goal attempt in a 118–101 win over the Charlotte Hornets. Paul played with the Blue Coats during the shortened single-site G League season in 2021, where he won the league's Most Valuable Player and Rookie of the Year awards. On March 26, 2021, the Philadelphia 76ers announced that they had converted Reed to a standard NBA contract.


title: Paul Reed (basketball)

text: Reed's father played college basketball at Old Dominion and UCF, then played professional basketball in Europe. He has four sisters.


title: TDR Capital

text: TDR Capital was co-founded in 2002 by Manjit Dale, Stephen Robertson, and Tudor Capital. It is located on Bentinck Street in Marylebone, central London.


title: TDR Capital

text: In 2014 they acquired 85% of the developers Keepmoat. The remaining 15% was acquired by Sun Capital Partners (UK).


title: TDR Capital

text: In March 2015, it negotiated to acquire LeasePlan. In October 2015, they acquired a stake in Euro Garages.


title: TDR Capital

text: In October 2020, it purchased Asda from Walmart for £6.8 billion, as part of a consortium with Zuber and Mohsin Issa, with whom it owns EG Group.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Michele Alboreto (; 23 December 1956 – 25 April 2001) was an Italian racing driver. He was runner up to Alain Prost in the 1985 Formula One World Championship, as well as winning the 1997 24 Hours of Le Mans and 2001 12 Hours of Sebring sports car races. Alboreto competed in Formula One from until , racing for a number of teams, including five seasons (1984–88) for Ferrari.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: His career in motorsport began in 1976, racing a car he and a number of his friends had built in the Formula Monza series. The car, however, achieved very little success and two years later Alboreto moved up to Formula Three. Wins in the Italian Formula Three championship and a European Formula Three Championship crown in 1980 paved the way for his entrance into Formula One with the Tyrrell team.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Two wins, the first in the final round of the season in Las Vegas, and the second a year later in Detroit, earned him a place with the Ferrari team. Alboreto took three wins for the Italian team and challenged Alain Prost for the 1985 Championship, eventually losing out by 20 points. The following three seasons were less successful, however, and at the end of the season, the Italian left Ferrari and re-signed with his former employers Tyrrell, where he stayed until joining Larrousse midway through .


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Further seasons with Footwork, Scuderia Italia and Minardi followed during the tail end of his F1 career. In 1995, Alboreto moved on to sportscars and a year later the American IndyCar series. He took his final major victories, the 1997 Le Mans 24 Hours and 2001 Sebring 12 Hours, with German manufacturers Porsche and Audi respectively. In 2001, a month after his Sebring victory, he was killed testing an Audi R8 at the Lausitzring in Germany.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Michele Alboreto started his career in 1976 racing in Formula Monza with a car he and his friends built, known as the "CMR". The car itself proved to be uncompetitive and in 1978 Alboreto, now in a more competitive March, moved over to Formula Italia where he began to take race wins. Two years later Alboreto moved up to Formula Three, racing in a "Euroracing"-entered March-Toyota in both the European and Italian series. In his début Formula Three season, Alboreto finished 6th and 2nd respectively in the two championships, scoring three wins in the Italian series.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: 1980 would prove to be the Italian's final, and most successful, year in Formula Three where he took the European crown and finished third in the Italian championship, taking five wins between the two series. An appearance in the British Championship was also made that year.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto's European title earned him a move into Formula Two, a feeder series for Formula One, with the Minardi team. He scored Minardi's only F2 victory, at Misano, during the 1981 season where he finished eighth in the championship.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Despite his career in open wheel racing, Alboreto was chosen by Lancia to be part of their official squad in the World Championship for Makes, running in rounds which did not conflict with his other races. He shared the Group 5 category Lancia Beta Montecarlo with Walter Röhrl or Eddie Cheever on four occasions during the 1980 season, scoring three second-place finishes and a fourth.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto again ran a partial schedule in 1981 even though he was also running Formula Two and Formula One. This season included his first participation in the 24 Hours of Le Mans. He earned an eighth-place finish overall, second in class, and was the highest finishing Lancia. He followed this with his first win in the championship, at the Six Hours of Watkins Glen with co-driver Riccardo Patrese. Alboreto finished the year 52nd in the Drivers' Championship, the highest ranked Lancia driver.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: When Lancia chose to move to a new class of competition with the Lancia LC1 as the championship concentrated solely on endurance races in 1982, further success came for Alboreto. A small schedule for the championship, as well as an emphasis on European circuits allowed him to compete in every race that year. Although the LC1 suffered from mechanical problems on its debut, Alboreto and teammate Patrese were able to rebound to earn a victory at the 1000 km of Silverstone. Teo Fabi joined the duo for the 1000 km of the Nürburgring, where they once again earned a victory. He was not able to repeat his previous success at Le Mans when the LC1's engine failed, and was unable to complete an event at Spa when the car broke in the closing laps. A third victory was earned by Alboreto and new teammate Piercarlo Ghinzani at their home circuit, Mugello. The final two races of the World Championship season had Alboreto's car eliminated from contention due to accidents. At the end of the season, he had secured fifth in the Drivers' Championship.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Lancia changed classes and cars once again in 1983 World Sportscar Championship season, but Alboreto remained as one of the team's primary drivers. He brought the new Lancia LC2 to a ninth-place finish in its debut at the 1000 km of Monza, but the new car struggled to finish the next few races of the season. His entries would not finish another race until round five, where he earned eleventh. While Lancia chose to skip later rounds of the championship, he would not return to the team in order to concentrate fully on his commitments to Formula One. His troubles with the LC2 and early departure from the team earned him only two points in the championship.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: At the age of 24, Alboreto made his Formula One debut at the 1981 San Marino Grand Prix for the Cosworth-powered Tyrrell Racing team, replacing Ricardo Zunino after the Argentine failed to impress team boss Ken Tyrrell. Unfortunately for the Italian, a collision with fellow countryman Beppe Gabbiani put him out of the race after completing 31 of the 60 laps. Alboreto failed to score a single point during his debut year, his highest position being ninth at the Dutch Grand Prix.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: In comparison to the previous season, Alboreto had a more successful 1982 campaign. The Italian took the first podium of his Grand Prix career at Imola and, at the final round in Las Vegas, Alboreto took his first Grand Prix win. He is the last winner of the Caesars Palace Grand Prix as the following year, the track was axed from the calendar. Alboreto scored a total of 25 points during his second season of F1, finishing as the top Italian in eighth place overall.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Despite a win in Detroit, registered as the last victory for a naturally aspirated car until the end of the turbo-era in 1989, after Nelson Piquet's leading Brabham suffered a rear tyre deflation in the closing stages, Alboreto failed to finish in the points consistently and, with only one further points finish at Zandvoort, the Italian finished the season with ten points and down in twelfth position. However, it was announced that the Italian would partner René Arnoux at Ferrari. Replacing Patrick Tambay, he became the first Italian driver to race for the marque in over a decade.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: In his debut season for Ferrari, Alboreto took victory in the third round at Zolder becoming the first Italian driver to win an F1 Grand Prix for Ferrari since Ludovico Scarfiotti won the 1966 Italian Grand Prix. He finished on the podium a further three times: at the Österreichring where he finished third; Ferrari's home circuit of Monza where he finished second; and at the Nürburgring, where he also finished in second place despite running out of fuel going into the final turn (the close following Brabham-BMW of reigning World Champion Nelson Piquet also ran out of fuel at the final turn allowing Alboreto to keep his 2nd place). Alboreto finished the 1984 season in fourth with 30.5 points, the half point coming from his sixth place at the Monaco Grand Prix which was cut to under half its original race distance due to heavy rain, resulting in half points being awarded.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: In Ferrari's new car, the F1/86 designed by Harvey Postlethwaite, proved to be slower and less reliable than its predecessor as Alboreto retired from nine races, of which seven were mechanical failures. Alboreto only scored one podium, at the Austrian Grand Prix – even then both Williams cars of Nigel Mansell and Nelson Piquet had retired and Alboreto finished a full lap behind race winner Alain Prost. The Italian finished the season ninth in the Drivers' Championship with fourteen points. While the Ferrari V6 turbo was rated as one of the more powerful engines on the grid, both Alboreto and his teammate Stefan Johansson were hampered by the F1/86 which refused to handle on tracks which had a bumpy surface. Johansson finished 5th in the championship with 20 points despite being the #2 driver in the team, causing many to question why the team chose to re-sign Alboreto and let Johansson go.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Austrian Gerhard Berger joined Ferrari in which signalled the end of Alboreto's time as leader of the Ferrari team. Berger soon established himself as the team's number one driver thanks to his wins in Japan and Australia at the end of the season, while Alboreto could only manage a handful of podiums at Imola, Monaco and a second place at the final round in Australia to make it a Ferrari one-two. The Italian finished the year in seventh overall with 17 points, 13 points behind his teammate.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: The 1988 season would be Alboreto's final year with Ferrari. With the McLarens of Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost dominating the season, the Ferrari team only managed a single win during the year at the Italian Grand Prix which Berger won from Alboreto in second place. Ferrari refused to offer the Italian a new contract and so Alboreto looked elsewhere for a drive. This announcement came at the French Grand Prix in July and pit lane rumours had Michele re-joining Tyrrell for 1989 (in France, where Alboreto finished 3rd and Berger a distant 4th, was the only time in 1988 the Italian would finish in front of the Austrian in a race where both finished). After France he received an offer from Frank Williams, head of the Williams team who would have exclusive use of the new V10 Renault engine in 1989. Later that year before the Italian GP at Monza, Alboreto had not received any word from Williams and requested confirmation of his seat at the team. Williams replied by saying that "he wanted him" and "not to move". At Monza, however, Williams announced he had signed Belgian Thierry Boutsen instead while also confirming that the teams number 2 driver, Alboreto's former Lancia sportscar teammate Riccardo Patrese, would be staying with the team. As it was late in the season, Alboreto was left with few options for the coming season.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto competed in eighty Grands Prix for Ferrari, which established a new record. It stood until the 1995 Argentine Grand Prix, when it was surpassed by Berger.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: A lack of a drive had left Alboreto in a difficult situation and he later said that he contemplated retirement – an option of which his family were very much in favour. However, he was offered a drive at his former employer Tyrrell, which he accepted. The relationship between Alboreto and team boss, Ken Tyrrell, soon turned sour. At the Monaco Grand Prix, Alboreto was told to drive the 1988 model Tyrrell 017, due to the newer 018 model not being completed. Teammate Jonathan Palmer was chosen to drive the new monoshock 018. Meanwhile, the Italian would have to wait until the following day for the 018 and so he decided not to accept this. The result was Alboreto boycotting the Thursday practice session. Alboreto finished the race in fifth position during while Palmer finished ninth. This was followed by a strong performance at the next race in Mexico, where Alboreto finished 3rd – the only podium the team would achieve during the season.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: By the French Grand Prix, Ken Tyrrell had found a new sponsor in Camel cigarettes for the race and told Alboreto to end his personal sponsorship deal with Marlboro, a rival brand to Camel. Alboreto was disappointed, as thanks to his Marlboro backing, the team had managed to fund his wages. Following Alboreto's refusal to cut his ties with his sponsor, Tyrrell replaced him with the up-and-coming Jean Alesi. Alesi finished fourth in his first Grand Prix for the team.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto soon lost his Marlboro sponsorship as well after they refused to find him another drive for the rest of the 1989 season. He was, however, soon hired by the French Larrousse team, incidentally co-sponsored by Camel, for the German Grand Prix and the rest of the season. Although his new teammate Philippe Alliot showed that the Lola LC89 with its Lamborghini V12 engine could be a competitive car with high grid positions and challenging for points in various races, Alboreto failed to score a single point for the rest of the season, and twice he failed to pre-qualify. During qualifying for the Hungarian Grand Prix the Italian cut one of the chicanes and broke two of his ribs in the process. After competing the year for two teams, Alboreto finished the year eleventh in the Drivers' Championship with six points.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: saw Alboreto move to the Arrows team, which was in the process of being sold to sponsor Footwork. It was seen mainly as a "transition year" for him, as the chassis was in its second year and severe uncompetitiveness would be expected. Despite this, the 33-year-old finished in the top ten a number of times and only retired three times. Alboreto finished the season, however, as one of 21 drivers who failed to score a point.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Footwork secured Porsche works engines for and sponsorship from Japan, as the Footwork company completed its takeover of the team. The package did not, however, live up to its expectations as it failed to qualify a number of times. Soon the overweight and unreliable Porsche engines were replaced by Hart-supplied Cosworth engines for the rest of the season, the short-term fix not improving the team's competitiveness. This would be Alboreto's second season in succession that he failed to score a point.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Thanks to Footwork's Japanese connections the team received a supply of Mugen Honda V10 engines for . The FA13 was reliable in comparison to its predecessor and Alboreto scored points four times, in addition to finishing in seventh place six times. With a season total of six points, the 35-year-old finished the year tenth overall.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto joined Italian team Scuderia Italia, which had enjoyed a number of successes in its short history, most notably when Andrea de Cesaris and JJ Lehto had scored podium positions at the 1989 Canadian Grand Prix and 1991 San Marino Grand Prix respectively. At the start of 1993, however, the team moved away from its Dallara-built chassis and onto Lolas, a move considered "disastrous" by many Grand Prix journalists. The Italian failed to score any points over the year, and failed to qualify several times as the slowest runner in the 26-car field. Scuderia Italia withdrew before the end of the season, and merged with fellow Italian team Minardi for .


title: Michele Alboreto

text: The Minardi cars proved to be mostly uncompetitive and unreliable, with a total of nine retirements from sixteen rounds. A sixth position in Monaco was Alboreto's only points finish. At the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, which was overshadowed by the deaths of Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger, whilst leaving the pitlane after a scheduled stop, Alboreto's car lost his loose right rear wheel which bounced through the Benetton, Ferrari, and Lotus pit areas and crews, injuring several mechanics. At the end of the season, he decided to retire from Grand Prix racing, with a record of 194 starts and five Grand Prix wins.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Following his departure from Formula One in 1995, Alboreto embarked on a career in the German Touring Car Championship, known as the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft. Racing for Alfa Romeo's factory team, Alfa Corse, the Italian finished 22nd in the championship, scoring four points. Further entries in the International Touring Car Championship and World Sportscar Championship, the latter being with Ferrari, also proved to be fruitless ventures.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto returned to open-wheel racing in 1996, entering the newly formed Indy Racing League (IRL) with Scandia/Simon Racing. The then 39-year-old competed in all three rounds where he finished fourth on his debut at Walt Disney World Speedway; eighth at the Phoenix International Raceway; and retired, due to gearbox problems, at the 1996 Indianapolis 500, his sole entry into the race. Alboreto also ran sports prototypes for Scandia/Simon while in the United States, entering the IMSA World Sports Car Championship with a Ferrari 333 SP. He also entered the Le Mans 24 Hours in a Joest Racing-entered Porsche WSC-95 alongside fellow Italian and former F1 teammate Pierluigi Martini and Belgian Didier Theys, but retired due to an engine failure after completing 300 laps. The following year, Alboreto earned his first and only podium in the IRL at the "True Value 200" held in New Hampshire, where he finished third. A further fifth place at Las Vegas earned Alboreto 62 points during his 1997 campaign which resulted in a 32nd place overall in the drivers' championship.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Also in 1997, Alboreto was called to testify at the trial following Ayrton Senna's fatal accident in 1994. He told the tribunal that, in his opinion, Senna's accident was likely caused by a technical failure rather than a driver error.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto won the 1997 24 Hours of Le Mans with the same car as the previous year, but this time alongside Swede Stefan Johansson, another former F1 teammate, and Dane Tom Kristensen, who would later go onto beat Jacky Ickx's record for winning the most Le Mans 24 Hour races. The trio completed 361 laps, one more than second placed Gulf Team Davidoff's BMW-powered McLaren F1 GTR. This would prove to be the peak of Alboreto's sportscar success as he failed to finish at Le Mans in 1998 with Porsche once again. However, a fourth place at the 1999 24 Hours of Le Mans with the newcomer Audi, a third at the 2000 Le Mans 24 Hours, a victory at the 2000 Petit Le Mans and a win at the 2001 Sebring 12 Hours gave the Italian some final success prior to his death a month after his win at Sebring.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: In late April 2001, Alboreto and a small group of Audi engineers travelled to the EuroSpeedway Lausitz near Dresden in eastern Germany to perform a series of tests on an Audi R8 in preparation for their participation at the 24 Hours of Le Mans in June. Alboreto mainly drove the car in the area of the facility that is used for public racing events, using the tri-oval for quicker laps and the Grand Prix circuit for slower laps, but some testing also took place within the limits of the adjacent proving ground, which features an elongated oval track with two long straights.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Around 5.30 p.m. local time on 25 April 2001, Alboreto accelerated the R8 along one of the two long straights at the proving ground. When the car reached the speed of approximately 300 kph, its left rear tyre failed. The R8 was subsequently launched into the air, somersaulting over the Armco barrier and landing inverted. Alboreto's head struck the ground, killing him instantly. Initially, Audi gave no reason for the crash, stating the R8 had "already completed thousands of test kilometres on numerous circuits without any problems." Five days later, an investigation into the accident was reported to have concluded. The tyre failure was attributed to a gradual loss of air pressure, caused by a loose screw that had found its way into the tyre. As there was no indication of a mechanical problem or driver error, the tyre failure was determined to be the sole cause of the crash. The finding motivated Audi to expedite the implementation of a new sensor-based TPMS in their racecars.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto's death brought much anguish among his family and friends. Michele's cousin Marisa told Italian news agency ANSA "You can't imagine what we're going through as a family. We're really distraught."


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Fellow Italian Giancarlo Fisichella dedicated his podium finish at the 2005 Italian Grand Prix to Alboreto, "I know Alboreto was the last Italian on the podium at Monza before me. I was lucky enough to race together with him in touring cars, and he was a great person, really special. I want to dedicate the result to his memory."


title: Michele Alboreto

text: On 28 August 2021, it was announced that the final corner at Monza, the "Curva Parabolica", will be officially renamed the "Curva Alboreto" during the 2021 Italian Grand Prix weekend to mark the 20th anniversary of Alboreto's death.


title: Michele Alboreto

text: Alboreto's helmet was blue with a yellow stripe with white edges covering the centre of the helmet. The colours were a tribute to Swedish driver Ronnie Peterson, whose helmet design also used them to reflect the Swedish flag. Alboreto and Peterson first met in 1972 and were friends until the Swedish driver's death in 1978.


title: Free public transport

text: Free public transport, often called fare-free public transit or zero-fare public transport, refers to public transport funded in full by means other than by collecting fares from passengers. It may be funded by national, regional or local government through taxation, or by commercial sponsorship by businesses. Alternatively, the concept of "free-ness" may take other forms, such as no-fare access via a card which may or may not be paid for in its entirety by the user.


title: Free public transport

text: On 29 February 2020, Luxembourg became the first country in the world to make all public transport in the country (buses, trams, and trains) free to use. On 1 October 2022, Malta became the second country in the world to make its public transport system free for all residents. Germany is considering making their public transit system fare-free in response to the EU's threatening to fine them for their air pollution levels.


title: Free public transport

text: As some transit lines intended to operate with fares initially start service, they may elect to not collect fares for an introductory period to create interest or test operations.