title: 2016 United States Senate election in New Hampshire

text: Incumbent Republican Senator Kelly Ayotte ran for re-election to a second term in office and won the primary by a wide margin. The Governor of New Hampshire Maggie Hassan chose not to seek reelection to a third term as governor and instead sought the nomination of the Democratic Party for the Senate. Hassan was unopposed in the Democratic primary and won the general election by 1,017 votes, representing a winning margin of approximately 0.14%. This made the election the closest race of the 2016 Senate election cycle, and also the closest race in a New Hampshire Senate election since the disputed 1974–75 election. Hassan became the first Democratic senator elected in this seat since the latter election.


text: The Democratic Party also flipped New Hampshire’s 1st congressional district in the concurrent House election, thus marking the first time since 1854 that New Hampshire had an entirely Democratic congressional delegation.


text: As of 2022, this remains the last time that a Democratic candidate for Senate in New Hampshire has failed to win a majority of the vote, or failed to carry any county other than Belknap or Coös.


text: Ayotte was predicted to face opposition in the primary from a Tea Party candidate. In October 2013, former New Hampshire Republican State Committee Chairman Jack Kimball said: "There is no question in my mind that she will garner a primary challenger". Ultimately, she faced only token opposition.


text: On Saturday, January 16, 2016, the Libertarian Party of New Hampshire selected Brian Chabot to be their nominee for the U.S. Senate.


text: In February 2017, President Donald Trump (who had endorsed Ayotte) told a gathering of senators at the White House that fraudulent out-of-state voting had cost him and Ayotte the election in New Hampshire. On September 7, state House speaker Shawn Jasper (who also had endorsed Ayotte) alleged that voter fraud swung the election. He made the allegations based on a report by the New Hampshire House of Representatives saying that of the 6,540 voters who had registered to vote on Election Day, only 1,014 of those voters had obtained a New Hampshire drivers license by August 30 of the following year. The Washington Post was able to quickly contact 3 such voters who said that they were college students and kept the drivers license from their home state.


text: Several investigations by New Hampshire's Ballot Law Commission found no evidence of widespread fraud, and only 4 instances of fraud total in the state for the 2016 elections. Specifically addressing the claim of people being bussed in from out of state to vote, Associate Attorney General Anne Edwards noted that they found no evidence for such claims. When they investigated these claims, they found that the buses were chartered out of state, but the voters on the buses lived in New Hampshire and could legally vote there.


title: Formal verification

text: In the context of hardware and software systems, formal verification is the act of proving or disproving the correctness of intended algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods of mathematics.


title: Formal verification

text: Formal verification can be helpful in proving the correctness of systems such as: cryptographic protocols, combinational circuits, digital circuits with internal memory, and software expressed as source code.


title: Formal verification

text: The verification of these systems is done by providing a formal proof on an abstract mathematical model of the system, the correspondence between the mathematical model and the nature of the system being otherwise known by construction. Examples of mathematical objects often used to model systems are: finite-state machines, labelled transition systems, Petri nets, vector addition systems, timed automata, hybrid automata, process algebra, formal semantics of programming languages such as operational semantics, denotational semantics, axiomatic semantics and Hoare logic.


title: Formal verification

text: One approach and formation is model checking, which consists of a systematically exhaustive exploration of the mathematical model (this is possible for finite models, but also for some infinite models where infinite sets of states can be effectively represented finitely by using abstraction or taking advantage of symmetry). Usually, this consists of exploring all states and transitions in the model, by using smart and domain-specific abstraction techniques to consider whole groups of states in a single operation and reduce computing time. Implementation techniques include state space enumeration, symbolic state space enumeration, abstract interpretation, symbolic simulation, abstraction refinement. The properties to be verified are often described in temporal logics, such as linear temporal logic (LTL), Property Specification Language (PSL), SystemVerilog Assertions (SVA), or computational tree logic (CTL). The great advantage of model checking is that it is often fully automatic; its primary disadvantage is that it does not in general scale to large systems; symbolic models are typically limited to a few hundred bits of state, while explicit state enumeration requires the state space being explored to be relatively small.


title: Formal verification

text: Another approach is deductive verification. It consists of generating from the system and its specifications (and possibly other annotations) a collection of mathematical "proof obligations", the truth of which imply conformance of the system to its specification, and discharging these obligations using either proof assistants (interactive theorem provers) (such as HOL, ACL2, Isabelle, Coq or PVS), or automatic theorem provers, including in particular satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers. This approach has the disadvantage that it may require the user to understand in detail why the system works correctly, and to convey this information to the verification system, either in the form of a sequence of theorems to be proved or in the form of specifications (invariants, preconditions, postconditions) of system components (e.g. functions or procedures) and perhaps subcomponents (such as loops or data structures).


title: Formal verification

text: Formal verification of software programs involves proving that a program satisfies a formal specification of its behavior. Subareas of formal verification include deductive verification (see above), abstract interpretation, automated theorem proving, type systems, and lightweight formal methods. A promising type-based verification approach is dependently typed programming, in which the types of functions include (at least part of) those functions' specifications, and type-checking the code establishes its correctness against those specifications. Fully featured dependently typed languages support deductive verification as a special case.


title: Formal verification

text: Another complementary approach is program derivation, in which efficient code is produced from functional specifications by a series of correctness-preserving steps. An example of this approach is the Bird–Meertens formalism, and this approach can be seen as another form of correctness by construction.


title: Formal verification

text: These techniques can be "sound", meaning that the verified properties can be logically deduced from the semantics, or "unsound", meaning that there is no such guarantee. A sound technique yields a result only once it has covered the entire space of possibilities. An example of an unsound technique is one that covers only a subset of the possibilities, for instance only integers up to a certain number, and give a "good-enough" result. Techniques can also be "decidable", meaning that their algorithmic implementations are guaranteed to terminate with an answer, or undecidable, meaning that they may never terminate. By bounding the scope of possibilities, unsound techniques that are decidable might be able to be constructed when no decidable sound techniques are available.


title: Formal verification

text: Verification is one aspect of testing a product's fitness for purpose. Validation is the complementary aspect. Often one refers to the overall checking process as V & V.


title: Formal verification

text: The verification process consists of static/structural and dynamic/behavioral aspects. E.g., for a software product one can inspect the source code (static) and run against specific test cases (dynamic). Validation usually can be done only dynamically, i.e., the product is tested by putting it through typical and atypical usages ("Does it satisfactorily meet all use cases?").


title: Formal verification

text: Program repair is performed with respect to an oracle, encompassing the desired functionality of the program which is used for validation of the generated fix. A simple example is a test-suite—the input/output pairs specify the functionality of the program. A variety of techniques are employed, most notably using satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solvers, and genetic programming, using evolutionary computing to generate and evaluate possible candidates for fixes. The former method is deterministic, while the latter is randomized.


title: Formal verification

text: Program repair combines techniques from formal verification and program synthesis. Fault-localization techniques in formal verification are used to compute program points which might be possible bug-locations, which can be targeted by the synthesis modules. Repair systems often focus on a small pre-defined class of bugs in order to reduce the search space. Industrial use is limited owing to the computational cost of existing techniques.


title: Formal verification

text: The growth in complexity of designs increases the importance of formal verification techniques in the hardware industry. At present, formal verification is used by most or all leading hardware companies, but its use in the software industry is still languishing. This could be attributed to the greater need in the hardware industry, where errors have greater commercial significance. Because of the potential subtle interactions between components, it is increasingly difficult to exercise a realistic set of possibilities by simulation. Important aspects of hardware design are amenable to automated proof methods, making formal verification easier to introduce and more productive.


title: Formal verification

text: NICTA's Secure Embedded L4 microkernel, sold commercially as seL4 by OK Labs; OSEK/VDX based real-time operating system ORIENTAIS by East China Normal University; Green Hills Software's Integrity operating system; and SYSGO's PikeOS.


title: Formal verification

text: In 2016, a team led by Zhong Shao at Yale developed a formally verified operating system kernel called CertiKOS.


title: Formal verification

text: As of 2017, formal verification has been applied to the design of large computer networks through a mathematical model of the network, and as part of a new network technology category, intent-based networking. Network software vendors that offer formal verification solutions include Cisco Forward Networks and Veriflow Systems.


title: Formal verification

text: The SPARK programming language provides a toolset which enables software development with formal verification and is used in several high-integrity systems.


title: Service of process

text: Service of process is the procedure by which a party to a lawsuit gives an appropriate notice of initial legal action to another party (such as a defendant), court, or administrative body in an effort to exercise jurisdiction over that person so as to force that person to respond to the proceeding before the court, body, or other tribunal.


title: Service of process

text: Notice is furnished by delivering a set of court documents (called "process") to the person to be served.


title: Service of process

text: Each jurisdiction has rules regarding the appropriate service of process. Typically, a summons and other related documents must be served upon the defendant personally, or in some cases upon another person of suitable age and discretion at the person's residence or place of business or employment. In some cases, service of process may be effected through the mail as in some small claims court procedures. In exceptional cases, other forms of service may be authorized by procedural rules or court order, including service by publication when an individual cannot be located in a particular jurisdiction.


title: Service of process

text: Proper service of process initially establishes personal jurisdiction of the court over the person served. If the defendant ignores further pleadings or fails to participate in the proceedings, then the court or administrative body may find the defendant in default and award relief to the claimant, petitioner or plaintiff. The defendant may contest the default in his or her home state. Service of process must be distinguished from service of subsequent documents (such as pleadings and motion papers) between the parties to the litigation.


title: Service of process

text: Service of process in cases filed in the United States district courts is governed by Rule 4 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. In England and Wales, the rules governing service of documents are contained within Part 6 of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998. In Canada the rules vary from province to province and can be governed differently depending on what the type of case (i.e. family, small claims, criminal, etc.).


title: Service of process

text: Service on a defendant who resides in a country outside the jurisdiction of a court must comply with special procedures prescribed under the Hague Service Convention if the recipient's country is a signatory. Service on defendants in many South American countries and some other countries is effected through the letter rogatory process. Where a defendant's whereabouts are unknown, a court may permit service by publication, usually in a newspaper.


title: Service of process

text: When an individual party to be served is unavailable for personal service, many jurisdictions allow for substituted service. Substituted service allows the process server to leave service documents with another responsible individual, called a person of suitable age and discretion, such as a cohabiting adult or a teenager. Under the U.S. Federal Rules, substituted service may only be made at the abode or dwelling of the defendant. California, New York, Illinois, and many other United States jurisdictions require that in addition to substituted service, the documents be mailed to the recipient. Substituted service often requires a serving party show that ordinary service is impracticable, that due diligence has been made to attempt to make personal service by delivery, and that substituted service will reach the party and effect notice.


title: Service of process

text: Another method of substituted service is "service by publication" also called "constructive service" in some jurisdictions. Service by publication is used to give "constructive notice" to a defendant who is intentionally absent, in hiding, or unknown (such as a possible descendant of a former landowner), and only when allowed by a judge's order based on a sworn declaration of the inability to find the defendant after "due diligence". Service by publication is commonly used in a divorce action to serve a spouse who has disappeared without leaving a forwarding address. Service by publication usually involves placing the petition for divorce and the summons to a missing spouse in a local newspaper.


title: Service of process

text: In divorce cases, most states that permit service by publication will require due diligence to locate the missing spouse, which can include verifying with the post office that there is no forwarding address; contacting in writing all friends, relatives, and former employers of a spouse who may know his or her current address; checking all jails and prisons for any record of a spouse; and checking military records for a spouse.


title: Service of process

text: In addition, in some jurisdictions, substituted service may be effected through motion and public notice, followed by sending the documents by certified mail.


title: Service of process

text: Courts in at least two Canadian provincial jurisdictions have allowed for substituted service via Facebook. In 2018, the Ontario Superior Court of Justice allowed service via Instagram and LinkedIn's built-in messaging systems.


title: Service of process

text: Service by mail is permitted by most U.S. jurisdictions for service on defendants located in other U.S. states or foreign countries. Service by mail is not available if the country of destination has filed objections to service by mail pursuant to the multinational Hague Service Convention. In California, "Any person providing the <nowiki>[</nowiki>California Department of Motor Vehicles<nowiki>]</nowiki> with a mailing address shall consent to


title: Service of process

text: As a substitute for personal service by a process server, some jurisdictions may allow voluntary acceptance of service, also called waiver of service. It means that the served party agrees to voluntarily acknowledge receipt of the complaint or petition without the need to engage a process server.


title: Service of process

text: Acceptance or waiver of service is encouraged by some court systems, especially U.S. federal courts. Under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 4(d)(2), when a defendant refuses to waive service "without good cause", the defendant can be held liable for the cost of personal service.


title: Service of process

text: Personal service is service of process directly to a party named on the summons, complaint, or petition. In most lawsuits in the United States, personal service is required to prove service. Most states allow substituted service in almost all lawsuits unless a corporation, LLC, LLP, or other business entity is being served; in those cases, personal service must be achieved by serving the documents to the registered agent of a business entity. Some states, e.g. Florida, do not require that the documents actually be handed to the individual. In California and most other states, the documents must be visible to the person being served, i.e., not in a sealed envelope. If the individual refuses to accept service, flees, closes the door, etc., and the individual has been positively identified as the person to be served, the documents may be "drop served" (placed as close to the individual as possible); this is considered a valid service. In the US, personal service of process has been the hallmark for initiating litigation for nearly 100 years, primarily because it guarantees actual notice to a defendant of a legal action against him or her.


title: Service of process

text: In most states a person that serves the process simply must be 18 years of age or older and not a party to the litigation.


title: Service of process

text: Most jurisdictions require or permit process to be served by a court official, such as a sheriff, marshal, constable, or bailiff. There may be licensing requirements for private process servers, as is the case in New York City, Alaska, Arizona, California, Georgia, Illinois, Montana, Nevada, and Oklahoma. Arizona process servers are required to apply for certification with the clerk of the Superior Court in the county in which they reside. Non-resident applicants may apply in any county. Texas process servers are currently certified by order of the Texas Supreme Court and are regulated through the Process Server Review Board, consisting of members of the industry authorized by the supreme court.


title: Service of process

text: Other jurisdictions require a court order allowing a private person to serve process. Many private investigators perform process serving duties. Texas and Florida also have a required training course which must be completed prior to certification.


title: Service of process

text: An example of such a license would be in Rhode Island, where an applicant must complete 90 days of training with a constable that has 'full powers'. Once the 90 days of training is complete, a test is given at the local courthouse from the laws included in the constable manual. Once an applicant passed the written exam, one will be scheduled for an oral interview with the disciplinary board. If they find the applicant to be competent, they will pass a recommendation to the chief judge who will then swear in one with 'limited power'. These constables can only serve within the county they are appointed. After one year, a limited power constable can apply for his/her full powers to arrest, evict, and be able to serve statewide.


title: Service of process

text: In New York State, personal process is "required" in divorce and similar matrimonial law actions, absent court permission. Specific practice is that: See CPLR 308 and DRL 232.


title: Service of process

text: The service of federal civil process in the United States is governed by Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 4. Any person who is at least 18 years of age and is not a party to the case may serve a federal civil summons and complaint. This general rule also applies to the service of federal subpoenas under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 45.


title: Service of process

text: In civil law jurisdictions, which include all of Continental Europe and most Asian, African, and South American countries, service of process is generally performed by the court. This may be done in person by a bailiff, or by mail, depending on the jurisdiction.


title: Service of process

text: International service of foreign judicial and extrajudicial documents is governed in general by the 1965 Hague Service Convention. Prior to the enactment of the Hague Service Convention, service of process in civil cases was generally effected by a letter rogatory, a formal request from the court in the country where proceedings were initiated or underway to a court in another country where the defendant resided. This procedure generally required the use of consular and diplomatic channels as the request had to be made to the foreign minister (the Secretary of State in the United States) of the defendant's country by the foreign minister of the originating court.


title: Service of process

text: Since 1965, member states designate a central authority for service of process and requests go directly there. In addition, many states allow some type of service directly by mail or personal service by a person otherwise authorized to service process without involvement of local courts.


title: Service of process

text: In some instances, delivery to an agent for acceptance of service or "registered agent" can substitute for personal service on the principal party to be served. The registered agent is a person or company authorized in advance to accept service on behalf of the served party. For example, most corporations are required by local law to maintain a local agent of record for acceptance of service in each jurisdiction where they actively conduct business with the public. The identity of the agent for service can usually be ascertained by searching company filings with appropriate state corporate records or business registration agencies (often the business entity division of a state's secretary of state. Generally, these business registration records are searchable by the public on the secretary of state's website.


title: Service of process

text: In the UK an agent for acceptance of service is generally known as a process agent and is a contractual relationship rather than a statutory one.


title: Service of process

text: Once service of process has been effected, the responsible officer or process server must typically file a return of service or proof of service or affidavit of service with the court (or convey one to the plaintiff to file with the court). The return of service indicates the time and place at which service was effected, the person served, and any additional information needed to establish that service was properly made. It is signed by the process server, and operates as "prima facie" evidence that service of process was effectively made.


title: Service of process

text: Arizona Court Rules also require that any return or affidavit of service filed by a process server other than a sheriff or constable shall clearly state the county in which the process server is registered. Many Arizona process servers include their certification number on their returns/affidavits. Certification numbers are assigned by the clerk of the superior court in each county.


title: Service of process

text: Many states have process serving laws that govern the way service of process is effected, the licensing requirements to effect service, the forms to be used and the time deadlines that service of process may be accomplished upon individual respondents and corporations. These differences may be vast. For example, in New York, service of process may require licensing of the process server; in Pennsylvania, process may only be served by the sheriff or a sheriff's deputy in most cases (except in Philadelphia, where process may be served "by any competent adult"); and in New Jersey, process is effected if, after making an affidavit that diligent efforts to effect personal service had failed, the party sends two copies of the pleading by mail—one by regular mail and one by certified mail, return receipt requested—and either the certified mail receipt is returned signed or the certified mail envelope is returned unclaimed and the regular mail is not returned to the sender. Generally, there are specific procedures and rules for most courts, from local small claims courts to United States District courts. Each court has specific rules, forms, guidelines and procedures which must be followed in order to successfully effect service of process. Failure to follow these guidelines may deem the attempted service improper. Indeed, many defendants in court hearings use the affirmative defense of "I was not served" as an often successful line of defense in any lawsuit. Not surprisingly, this defense tends to be effective in many cases because service of process upon defendant did not follow legal procedure. As for United States federal courts, service of process rules are in the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, upon which most state service of process laws are based.


title: Service of process

text: It is universal that the laws of service of process must follow the laws that apply to the court that issues the process. A bias or confusion occurs in many jurisdictions where service is made. In Florida, for example, process servers seem to suggest Florida laws apply to all service of process made within the territory of Florida. In this reference, section 48.195 implies an authority of Florida process servers to serve foreign process. This was added to allow sheriffs to serve foreign process within limitations as the section provides, but it does not, and cannot give exclusivity, to "state-sanctioned licensed approved process servers to foreign process". This interpretation, however prevalent and beneficial to Florida process servers, is false.


title: Service of process

text: Florida governs only those processes that are issued from "Florida courts". An example would be a Wisconsin court process to be served upon a person in Florida. Wisconsin statutes would dictate the service requirements to the Florida participant. Simply, a person must be uninterested, a resident of Florida, and over the age of 18. This is not a popular position as many process servers who have a local Florida license prefer, for reasons of economics, to be considered the only legitimate process server for such a cause. This Wisconsin example is in the majority for all states in the US regarding out of state service in their jurisdiction. There are however a small number of states, such as Arizona, that permit a person of one state (e.g. Arizona) to serve another person in another state (e.g. Florida). The aforementioned Arizona rule is an exception to the majority of other states that require a process server to be 18 and over and an uninvolved party to serve its process in another state. Arizona law has never been challenged on the grounds of sovereignty as Arizona's statutes appear to give its courts legislative and judicial authority for its people to serve a person in a foreign state.


title: Service of process

text: In states where Indian reservations are located, the state generally has no legal jurisdiction over Indian territory – recognized tribes enjoy legal status as a sovereign nation. Thus a process server certified under the authority of the state (i.e. Arizona) cannot serve a party to a case while that person is on the reservation unless the tribal council consents to permit service.


title: Service of process

text: In nearly every state of the United States, process servers are restricted from trespassing on property as a means of serving process. Such invasions, no matter how innocuous, are regarded as not only invalid, but illegal and may result in penalties for offenders. Gated communities and apartment buildings have created a difficulty for process servers; however, most are required to allow process servers to enter them. However, this fact may be overcome where the process server is in the direct employment of a law enforcement agency, such as the U.S. Marshals Service, a county sheriff's department, or other law enforcement agency having responsibility to serve documents.


title: Service of process

text: In California, "Registered Process Servers" are granted "...a limited exemption against trespassing in gated communities." This allows servers to enter a private property for a reasonable period of time to attempt service of process. In California, gated communities which are "...staffed by a security guard, or where access is controlled, must allow a Registered Process Server to enter for service of process upon presenting valid identification, and indicating to which address the process server is going." This does not prevent the security guard from contacting the resident and alerting them that a process server is on his way to their residence.


title: Service of process

text: In Washington, "Registered Process Servers" are granted a limited exemption or affirmative defense against trespassing:


title: Service of process

text: Most states have a deadline for completing service of process after filing of the summons and complaint. In New York, for example, service must be completed in 120 days after filing for almost all cases, and Hawaii state circuit courts require service in a civil lawsuit must be effected within six months from commencing suit.


title: Service of process

text: Some states prohibit the delivery or serving of documents on Sundays, holidays or election days (""). However, some states will allow the service of documents under special circumstances. One such circumstance is when the service of process is pursuant to a court order.


title: Service of process

text: According to various laws, service of process cannot be performed on Sundays in Florida (unless with a court order), Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee (unless with a court order), Texas, Virginia, or West Virginia. It can also not be performed on election days or at a place of religious service on Sunday in Michigan, or on holidays in Minnesota. Finally, in New York, process cannot be served on Saturday upon a person who keeps Saturday as holy time.


title: Service of process

text: In 2011, New York’s City Council enacted a regulation requiring process servers to use GPS to prove that they attempted to locate someone. The data is stored for seven years. Those who attempt the deceit of “sewer service" (dumping papers) can be sued.


title: Freaked

text: Freaked is a 1993 American comedy film directed by Tom Stern and Alex Winter, both of whom wrote the screenplay with Tim Burns. Winter also starred in the lead role. Both were involved in the short-lived MTV sketch comedy show "The Idiot Box", and "Freaked" retains the same brand of surrealistic and absurdist humor as seen in the show. "Freaked" was Alex Winter's last feature film before he shifted to cameo and television films for many years until 2013's "Grand Piano".


title: Freaked

text: Originally conceived as a low-budget horror film featuring the band Butthole Surfers, "Freaked" went through a number of rewrites, eventually developing into a black comedy set within a sideshow, which was picked up by 20th Century Fox for a feature film. After several poor test screenings and a change in studio executives who then found the film too "weird", the film was pulled from a wide distribution (except for Australia and Japan) and only played on two screens in the United States.


title: Freaked

text: Skye Daley (Brooke Shields) is interviewing former child star Ricky Coogin (Alex Winter). Skye asks how Ricky so quickly went from one of America's sweethearts to a name that makes children scream in terror. Ricky, completely in silhouette, begins his story.


title: Freaked

text: Ricky is shown accepting an endorsement contract from slimy mega-corporation E.E.S. (Everything Except Shoes) to promote "Zygrot 24", a toxic fertilizer, in South America. Although hesitant at first, the greedy, self-centered Coogin caves in after CEO (William Sadler) offers him $5,000,000. Ricky travels to the South American town of "Santa Flan" with his friend Ernie (Michael Stoyanov). During their flight, the duo have a run-in with Ricky's 12-year-old fan Stuey Gluck (Alex Zuckerman). Stuey begs Ricky not to promote Zygrot 24 only to accidentally fall out of the plane.


title: Freaked

text: Once Ricky and Ernie arrive in Santa Flan, they cross paths with a group of environmentalists protesting Zygrot 24 and Ricky. In the group is Julie (Megan Ward), who Ricky becomes instantly smitten with. The two con Julie into thinking they're also environmentalists, with Ricky posing as a highly injured accident victim, his face covered in bandages, and she agrees to join them on a trip to another protest. However, she soon finds out their true identities and the three are stuck with each other for the rest of the drive. They decide to take a detour to see Freek Land, a local freak show, only to wind up in the clutches of demented proprietor and mad scientist Elijah C. Skuggs (Randy Quaid) and his henchman, Toad (Jaime Cardriche). Utilizing his "Tasty Freeks Machine", he merges Julie and Ernie into conjoined twins and turns Ricky into a hideous green mutation. Elijah runs out of Zygrot, resulting in only half of Ricky's body being mutated.


title: Freaked

text: Ricky meets the other freaks, including Ortiz the Dog Boy (Keanu Reeves), Worm (Derek McGrath) a giant arthropod, Cowboy (John Hawkes) a literal anthropomorphic cow, the Bearded Lady (Mr. T in a dress) and Sockhead (Bobcat Goldthwait), who has a sock puppet for a head. Ricky has trouble adjusting to his new life as a freak, though he opens up when some of the other freaks recount how they were captured and disfigured by Elijah. During his first performance, Ricky foregoes his originally intended act and performs a Shakespearean monologue which captivates the audience. Spotting an EES agent in the crowd, Ricky jumps off the stage hoping to be rescued, but flies into a murderous rage when the agent mocks him and his appearance. Ricky tears his agent's head off and the crowd runs screaming into the night, with an amused Elijah simply noting "that's what I call entertainment."


title: Freaked

text: The next day, Ricky discovers to his horror that he is seeing a floating specter of Stuey. He angrily shoos Stuey's astral form away, but Cowboy states that only a pair of soulmates can have such a strong telepathic bond. After multiple failed attempts to sell the story to newspapers Stuey manages to sell Ricky's story to the "Weekly World News", but ends up being captured by a group of businessmen that work for E.E.S.


title: Freaked

text: Ricky tries to escape by stealing the outfit of a milkman, only to be captured by the Rastafar-eyes, Skuggs's gun-toting Rastafarian eyeball henchmen and brought before Elijah. Skuggs tells Ricky he plans to have him fully-mutated into a blood-thirsty monster who will kill all the other freaks at the next show. On his way back to the freaks shed, he runs into the other freaks also making an escape attempt, all dressed as milkmen. Ricky butts heads with Ortiz and the two fight until Ortiz is distracted by a squirrel and runs off, the Rastafar-eyes in pursuit. With Ortiz gone, Ricky is named the new freaks leader. Ricky and the freaks break into Skuggs's lab to create a serum that will complete Ricky's mutation and have him kill Skuggs instead of the freaks. Ricky accidentally leaves the concoction in the lab, but finds a bag of macaroons which the freaks enjoy.


title: Freaked

text: Ricky eventually finds out that E.E.S. has been supplying Elijah's with Zygrot, and they arrive at Freek Land with a new shipment and an imprisoned Stuey Gluck. As they discuss their plans to mutate the world's population into a race of E.E.S. workers and consumers, Stuey follows a telepathic tip from Ricky and manages to escape, grabbing the coffee can of mutation goo left behind by Ricky along the way.


title: Freaked

text: On the night of the show, Stuey appears with the batch of Zygrot only to have an annoyed biker dump it onto him, which turns him into a grotesque seven-foot monster. Stuey kills the biker and prepares to storm the stage and save Ricky. The Rastafar-eyes attempt to kill Stuey but he kicks dust into their eyes, blinding them. Toad tries to attack Stuey only for Julie and Ernie to throw an M80 onto Toad's tongue which he swallows and promptly explodes. In response, Elijah infects Ricky with his own Zygrot, fully turning him into an equally grotesque seven-foot monster. As Ricky and Stuey battle to the death onstage, Elijah discovers the E.E.S. executives betraying him and trying to steal his equipment with the aid of their agents. Elijah stops them by soaking them all with a Zygrot bazooka; mutating and merging them all into a giant, fleshy shoe.


title: Freaked

text: Right before Ricky is about to destroy Stuey, Cowboy reminds him that Stuey is his soulmate. A wave of compassion comes over him, and he gives Stuey a hug. Enraged, Elijah unsuccessfully tries to fight Ricky, who also bashes him in the head, breaking his spine. Skuggs tries to get Ricky not to kill him by offering him the antidote for his mutation, telling him it was a time-delayed serum baked into a batch of macaroons. Ricky comments that he skimped on the coconut and punches Skuggs, tossing him into the vat of Zygrot 24. An FBI task force arrives to save Ricky after having learned of Stuey's article. Skuggs suddenly reemerges from the Vat, having taken the form of Skye Daley. The FBI task force guns Skuggs/Skye down.


title: Freaked

text: Back at the interview, it's revealed that Ricky has returned to normal (along with most of the other freaks, except for Worm, who hates Macaroons). They are then joined by Ortiz who has finally caught the squirrel and Stuey, still a giant super-freak. Skye comments on Elijah mutating to look like her, and Ricky realizes that Skye actually is Elijah. Skuggs lunges after Ricky with a machete, only to be gunned down by the now normal Julie. As she embraces Ricky, Skye rises again, this time to be gunned down by Ernie. Ricky and Julie kiss and everyone waves farewell to the audience until the film ends on a frozen shot of Skuggs once again rising up to attack.


title: Freaked

text: The film, under the working title of "Hideous Mutant Freekz", was conceived around the time Winter and Stern had directed 1988's "Bar-B-Que Movie", a short film starring and featuring the music of experimental rock band Butthole Surfers. Winter, Stern and Surfers frontman Gibby Haynes began work on the first draft of the script, envisioning it as an obscene, ultra-violent horror film once again featuring the Butthole Surfers, costing around $100,000. The idea was, as Alex Winter put it, ""Beach Blanket Bingo" meets "The Evil Dead"". The two fished the script around to various studios for years, but to no avail.


title: Freaked

text: Following the end of production on Stern and Winter's MTV sketch comedy show "The Idiot Box", staff writer Tim Burns was recruited to join the two in a number of rewrites. The film was completely revisioned, dropping the aspect of the Butthole Surfers entirely and turning it into a full comedy in the vein of the "Monty Python" and "MAD Magazine"-inspired humour that was present in "The Idiot Box".


title: Freaked

text: Winter and Stern pitched the idea to 20th Century Fox. Joe Roth, the head of the studio at that time, loved the idea and offered the two a twelve million dollar deal to direct it, despite the fact that neither of them had any experience directing a major Hollywood film and had never even shot on 35mm film before. The only condition was that the film had to be rewritten and toned down to fit a PG-13 rating; therefore, most of the profanity was written out of the final draft to fit MPAA standards. Within a month of being picked up, the film began production.


title: Freaked

text: The makeup effects requirements for the film were so substantial, and the lead time before filming was so short, the makeup effects characters for the film were designed and created by three different companies: Tony Gardner's company Alterian, Inc., Steve Johnson's XFX, Inc., and Screaming Mad George's Studio.


title: Freaked

text: 20th Century Fox had such high expectations for the film that they released a number of products based on it, including a line of action figures, a novelization and, most notably, a comic book released by Hamilton Comics (however, since the comic was drawn before most of the casting was completed, none of its characters look anything like their real-life counterparts). Four resin figures were sold at Spencer Gifts and Suncoast Motion Picture Company.


title: Freaked

text: During filming, Joe Roth was fired as studio head by Rupert Murdoch and replaced with Peter Chernin, who didn't like the film nor the fact that twelve million dollars was being invested in it. Chernin cut the film's post-production budget, thus forcing a lot of the soundtrack (including a demo song that Iggy Pop had recorded for the closing credits) and special effects to be greatly cut down or eliminated altogether. The film's title was changed, as well, from the poorly received ""Hideous Mutant Freekz"" to the supposedly more accessible ""Freaked"", a title neither Winter nor Stern much cared for.


title: Freaked

text: After several poor test screenings, Fox chose to pull the film from a nationwide release and cut its advertising budget, leaving no money for commercials or newspaper ads. "Freaked" had its official premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 1993. Despite initial positive critical response, the film opened October 3, 1993 in the United States on only two screens, making a mere $6,957 in its first weekend. It quickly dropped out of theatres, making less than $30,000 and becoming a failure at the box-office, and was released on VHS on April 20, 1994.


title: Freaked

text: "Freaked" received a mostly mixed response from critics. "Entertainment Weekly" described the film as "having more laughs than a month of "Saturday Night Live"", "The New York Times" hailed it as one of the top comedies of the nineties, and John Kricfalusi, the creator of "The Ren & Stimpy Show", called it "the funniest movie in years". Alternatively, "Variety" criticized the film, claiming "the filmmakers simply try too hard to displease", while Time Out New York stated "the sum is worse than (very ugly) parts". The movie currently holds a 50% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 18 reviews.


title: Freaked

text: "Freaked" eventually went on to win two awards: the Grand Prize at the 1995 Gérardmer Film Festival and Best Actor (for "The Creatures of the Film") at the 1994 Fantafestival. The film was also nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Make-up.


title: Freaked

text: On July 12, 2005, Anchor Bay Entertainment and 20th Century Fox released a special-edition two-disc DVD, featuring extra material, including deleted scenes, audio commentary, behind-the-scenes footage and two short films from Alex Winter and Tom Stern, the 15-minute film noir parody "Squeal Of Death" and a black-and-white skit titled "NYU Sight & Sound Project".


title: Freaked

text: On August 6, 2013, Anchor Bay and Starz Inc. released the movie on Blu-ray. The Blu-ray does not include any of the bonus features from the DVD release. Both the Blu-ray and DVD are out print and considered to be collectors items.


title: Freaked

text: A soundtrack release for "Freaked" was planned, but following the loss of their post-production budget, the idea never came to fruition. The score was composed by Kevin Kiner, with additional music by Paul Leary and Butthole Surfers, and Blind Idiot God. In 2020, Death Waltz Recording Co. released the soundtrack and score as a physical LP. The songs featured in the film were as follows:


title: 1956–57 European Cup

text: The 1956–57 European Cup was the second season of the European Cup, Europe's premier club football tournament. The competition was won for the second time by Real Madrid, who beat Fiorentina 2–0 in the final at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, Madrid, on 30 May 1957.


title: 1956–57 European Cup

text: After the great success of the first tournament, six new nations entered representatives: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, England, Luxembourg, Romania and Turkey. The English Football Association ("FA") had not allowed Chelsea to enter in 1955, and continued its stance on the European Cup as it being a "distraction". However, against the wishes of the FA, Manchester United entered the competition as English champions, becoming the first English team to play in Europe. An additional place was awarded to Real Madrid as the competition's reigning champions, occupying the free berth left by Saar after its reunification with West Germany. Spain, meanwhile, became the first association to provide two representatives to the premier European competition.


title: 1956–57 European Cup

text: The draw for the preliminary round took place in UEFA headquarters in Paris on 29 June 1956. The 21 challengers of Real Madrid were grouped geographically into three pots. The first four teams drawn in each pot would play the preliminary round in September, while the remaining three clubs received byes.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Nuristan, also spelled as Nurestan or Nooristan (Dari: ; Kamkata-vari: ), is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the eastern part of the country. It is divided into seven districts and is Afghanistan's least populous province, with a population of around 167,000. Parun serves as the provincial capital. Nuristan is bordered on the south by Laghman and Kunar provinces, on the north by Badakhshan province, on the west by Panjshir province.


title: Nuristan Province

text: The origins of the Nuristani people traces back to the 4th century BC. Some Nuristanis claim being descendants of the Greek occupying forces of Alexander the Great. It was formerly called Kafiristan () ("Land of the Infidels") until the inhabitants were forcibly converted from an animist religion; a form of ancient Hinduism infused with local variations, to Islam in 1895, and thence the region has become known as Nuristan ("land of illumination", or "land of light"). The region was located in an area surrounded by Buddhist civilizations which were later taken over by Muslims. The origin of the local Nuristani people has been disputed, ranging from being the indigenous inhabitants forced to flee to this region after refusing to surrender to invaders, to being linked to various ancient groups of people and the Turk Shahi kings.


title: Nuristan Province

text: The primary occupations are agriculture, animal husbandry, and day labor. Located on the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush mountains in the northeastern part of the country, Nuristan spans the basins of the Alingar, Pech, Landai Sin, and Kunar rivers. Most of Nuristan is covered by mountainous forests and it has a rich biodiversity with a domestically unique monsoon climate by air coming from the Indian Ocean. As of 2020, the entirety of Nuristan is now a protected national park.


title: Nuristan Province

text: The surrounding area fell to Alexander the Great in 330 BC. It later fell to Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryas introduced Buddhism to the region, and were attempting to expand their empire to Central Asia until they faced local Greco-Bactrian forces. Seleucus is said to have reached a peace treaty with Chandragupta by giving control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to the Mauryas upon intermarriage and 500 elephants.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Before their conversion to Islam, the Nuristanis or Kafir people practiced a form of ancient Hinduism infused with locally developed accretions. They were called "kafirs" due to their enduring paganism while other regions around them became Muslim. However, the influence from district names in Kafiristan of Katwar or Kator and the ethnic name Kati has also been suggested.


title: Nuristan Province

text: The area extending from modern Nuristan to Kashmir was known as "Puritan", a vast area containing a host of "Kafir" cultures and Indo-European languages that became Islamized over a long period. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist areas. The Islamization of the nearby Badakhshan began in the 8th century and Peristan was surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century with the Islamization of Baltistan. The Buddhist states temporarily brought literacy and state rule into the region. The decline of Buddhism resulted in it becoming heavily isolated.


title: Nuristan Province

text: There have been varying theories about the origins of Kafirs including the Arab tribe of Quraish, or Gabars of Persia, the Greek soldiers of Alexander as well as the Indians of eastern Afghanistan. George Scott Robertson considered them to be part of the old Indian population of Eastern Afghanistan and stated they fled to the mountains after the Muslim invasion in the 10th century. He added they probably found other races there whom they killed off and enslaved or amalgamated with them.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Oral traditions of some of the Nuristanis place themselves to be at the confluence of Kabul River and Kunar River a millennium ago. These traditions state they were driven off from Kandahar to Kabul to Kapisa to Kama with the Muslim invasion. They identify themselves as late arrivals in Nuristan, being driven by Mahmud of Ghazni who after establishing his empire forced the unsubmissive population to flee.


title: Nuristan Province

text: The name Kator was used by Lagaturman, last king of the Turk Shahi. Apparently due to its usage by the last Turk-Shahi ruler, it was adopted as a title by the ruler of the north-west region of the Indian subcontinent, comprising Chitral and Kafiristan. The title "Shah Kator" was assumed by Chitral's ruler Mohtaram Shah who assumed it upon being impressed by the majesty of the erstwhile pagan rulers of Chitral. The theory of Kators being related to Turki Shahis is based on the information of "Jami- ut-Tawarikh" and "Tarikh-i-Binakiti". The region was also named after its ruling elite. The royal usage may be the origin behind the name of Kator.


title: Nuristan Province

text: The high god of the pre-Islamic Nuristani religion was the god "Imra", derived from the Hindu god Yama, and was also called "Mara". Another god was Indr, derived from Indra. He was seen as the brother of the god Gisht and father of Pano and the goddess Dishani. There were also many other minor gods worshiped in the region.


title: Nuristan Province

text: The region was invaded by forces of Afghan Amir Abdur Rahman Khan in 1896 and most of the people were converted either by choice or did so to avoid the "jizya":


title: Nuristan Province

text: The region was renamed Nuristan, meaning "Land of the enlightened", a reflection of the "enlightening" of the pagan Nuristani by the "light-giving" of Islam.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Nuristan was once thought to have been a region through which Alexander the Great passed with a detachment of his army; thus the folk legend that the Nuristani people are descendants of Alexander (or "his generals").


title: Nuristan Province

text: In the 19th century, the Emirate of Afghanistan incorporated Nuristan into its territory via military conquest; this occurred around the same time as the beginning of European influence in Afghanistan. During this period, one of the most well known Afghan generals from this period, Abdul Wakil Khan, was born in Nuristan. He fought against the insurgent forces of Habibullāh Kalakāni and was accorded the honor of being buried on the same plateau where Afghan king Amanullah Khan is buried.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Since the creation of Pakistan in 1947, Afghan politicians (particularly Mohammed Daoud Khan) have been focused on re-annexing Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of what is now Pakistan. This has led to militancy on both sides of the Durand Line.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Nuristan was the scene of some of the heaviest guerrilla fighting during the 1980s Soviet–Afghan War. The province was influenced by Mawlawi Afzal's Islamic Revolutionary State of Afghanistan, which was supported by Pakistan nationalists and Saudi Arabia. It dissolved under the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Taliban rule) in the late 1990s.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Nuristan is one of the poorest and most remote provinces of Afghanistan. Few NGO's operate in Nuristan because of the Taliban insurgency and the lack of safe roads. Some road construction projects were launched linking Nangarej to Mandol and Chapa Dara to Titan Dara. The Afghan government also worked on a direct road route to Laghman province, in order to reduce dependence on the road through restive Kunar province to the rest of Afghanistan. Other road projects were started aimed at improving the primitive road from Kamdesh to Barg-i Matal, and from Nangalam in Kunar province to the provincial center at Parun.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Since Nuristan is a highly ethnically homogeneous province, there are few incidents of inter-ethnic violence. However, there are instances of disputes among inhabitants, some of which continue for decades. Nuristan has suffered from its inaccessibility and lack of infrastructure. The government presence is under-developed, even compared to neighboring provinces. Nuristan's formal educational sector is weak, with few professional teachers. Due to its proximity to Pakistan, many of the inhabitants are actively involved in trade and commerce across the border.


title: Nuristan Province

text: A map from the Afghan Ministry of the Interior produced in 2009 showed the western region of Nuristan to be under "enemy control". There have been numerous conflicts between militants and U.S.-led Afghan security forces. In April 2008 members of the 3rd Special Forces Group led Afghan soldiers from the Commando Brigade into the Shok valley in an unsuccessful attempt to capture warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. In July 2008 approximately 200 Taliban guerrillas attacked a NATO position just south of Nuristan, near the village of Wanat in the Waygal District, killing 9 U.S. soldiers. In the following year, in early October, more than 350 insurgents backed by members of the Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin and other militia groups fought U.S.-led Afghan security forces in the Battle of Kamdesh at Camp Keating in Nuristan. The base was nearly overrun; more than 100 Taliban fighters, eight U.S. soldiers, and seven members of the Afghan security forces were killed during the fighting. Four days after the battle, in early October 2009, U.S. forces withdrew from their four main bases in Nuristan, as part of a plan by General Stanley McChrystal to pull troops out of small outposts and relocate them closer to major towns. The U.S. has pulled out from some areas in the past, but never from all four main bases. A month after the U.S. pullout the Taliban was governing openly in Nuristan. According to "The Economist", Nuristan is "a place so tough that NATO abandoned it in 2010 after failing to subdue it."


title: Nuristan Province

text: The percentage of births attended by a skilled birth attendant increased from 1% in 2005 to 22% in 2011.


title: Nuristan Province

text: In 2002 the first gender assessment of women's conditions in Nuristan was completed. The overall literacy rate (6+ years of age) fell from 17.7% in 2005 to 17% in 2011.


title: Nuristan Province

text: As of 2021, the total population of the province is about 166,676. According to the Naval Postgraduate School, 87% are Nuristanis, 10% Pashtuns and less than 3% Gujars and ethnic Tajiks.


title: Nuristan Province

text: Approximately 90% of the population speak the following five Nuristani languages, as well as one Indo-Aryan language:


title: Protiviti

text: Protiviti Inc. (Protiviti) is a global consulting firm headquartered in Menlo Park and San Ramon, California, that provides consulting in internal audit, risk and compliance, technology, business processes, data analytics and finance. It is a subsidiary under Robert Half. Protiviti and its independently and locally owned Member Firms serve clients through a network of more than 85 locations in over 27 countries.


title: Protiviti

text: Protiviti was formed in 2002 when the Company hired more than 700 professionals who had been affiliated with the internal audit, business and technology risk consulting practice of Arthur Andersen, including more than 50 individuals who had been partners of that firm. These professionals formed the base of Protiviti.


title: Protiviti

text: Protiviti was listed on Forbes best management consulting firms from 2018 to 2022. Protiviti has also been listed as one of the 100 Best Companies to Work For by Fortune Magazine for 8 consecutive years from 2015 to 2022.


title: Protiviti

text: In 2006, Protiviti acquired the assets of PG Lewis & Associates, a leading national provider of Data Forensics and Cyber Security services founded in 2003 by serial technology entrepreneur, Paul G. Lewis. Financial terms were not disclosed.


title: Protiviti

text: In January 2019, Protiviti expanded its Middle East & North African presence by launching an office in Cairo, Egypt. The new location is the first Member Firm in North Africa, and is led by Managing Director Ashraf Fahmy, a former Deloitte partner in Egypt and with the firm's enterprise risk practice in Abu Dhabi.


title: Protiviti

text: In February 2019, Protiviti added Gauteng-based internal audit and forensic services firm SekelaXabiso CA (SkX) as its first member firm in South Africa. The new firm will serve domestic firms as well as international firms looking for support to enter the South African market. The firm houses over 200 consultants, and has offices in the major financial centres of Gauteng and Durban.


title: Protiviti

text: For fiscal year 2019, Protiviti's revenue exceeded US$1 billion for the first time in its 18-year history.


title: Protiviti

text: In March 2020, Protiviti expanded its European footprint by opening 3 new offices in Zurich, Switzerland, and Berlin and Düsseldorf, Germany. Protiviti's global network of member firms operate as independently owned and operated entities, but have access to the firm's resources despite not possessing agency to act on Protiviti's behalf.


title: Protiviti

text: In March 2022, Protiviti formed a new service line, "Protiviti Digital", which serves as a digital marketing agency. Protiviti Digital serves clients seeking to execute complex digital and marketing strategies as well as transform customer experiences.


title: Protiviti

text: In April 2022, Robert Half moved its legal consulting service line to Protiviti, which allows Protiviti to expand its legal consulting practice. The service line supports clients with a broader range of legal, compliance, governance, technology, investigation and transaction-related business needs.


title: Pepin of Italy

text: Pepin or Pippin (or "Pepin Carloman", "Pepinno", April 777 – 8 July 810), born Carloman, was the son of Charlemagne and King of the Lombards (781–810) under the authority of his father.


title: Pepin of Italy

text: Pepin was the second son of Charlemagne by his then-wife Hildegard. He was born Carloman, but was rechristened with the royal name Pepin (also the name of his older half-brother Pepin the Hunchback, and his grandfather Pepin the Short) when he was a young child. He was made "king of Italy" after his father's conquest of the Lombards, in 781, and crowned by Pope Hadrian I with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.


title: Pepin of Italy

text: He was active as ruler of Lombardy and worked to expand the Frankish empire. In 791, he marched a Lombard army into the Drava valley and ravaged Pannonia, while his father marched along the Danube into Avar territory. Charlemagne left the campaigning to deal with a Saxon revolt in 792. Pepin and Duke Eric of Friuli continued, however, to assault the Avars' ring-shaped strongholds. The great Ring of the Avars, their capital fortress, was taken twice. The booty was sent to Charlemagne in Aachen and redistributed to all his followers and even to foreign rulers, including King Offa of Mercia. A celebratory poem, "De Pippini regis Victoria Avarica", was composed after Pepin forced the Avar khagan to submit in 796. This poem was composed at Verona, Pepin's capital after 799 and the centre of Carolingian Renaissance literature in Italy. The "Versus de Verona" (c. 800), an urban encomium of the city, likewise praises king Pepin. The "Historia Langobardorum codicis Gothani" hails Pepin's campaign against Benevento and his liberation of Corsica "from the oppression of the Moors."


title: Pepin of Italy

text: His activities included a long, but unsuccessful siege of Venice in 810. The siege lasted six months and Pepin's army was ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and was forced to withdraw. A few months later Pepin died, on 8 July 810.


title: Pepin of Italy

text: The issue of Pepin's relationships is not entirely clear. A litany of "Liber confrater augiensis" attributes to him as his wife a certain Chrotais (or Ruadheid), married shortly before 796. However, the "Vita Hludowici" written by Thegan of Trier around 840 says that King Bernard of Italy was born of a concubine ("ex concubina natus"), an affirmation reinforced by a litany of St. Gallen placing Bernard in a list of Carolingians of illegitimate birth.


title: Pepin of Italy

text: We do not know the origin of Chrotais but her name, that of Bernard of Italy and the fact that Adalard of Corbie and his half-brother Wala are then the protectors of Bernard of Italy suggests a close relationship between Chrotais and these. This hypothesis is reinforced by the fact that the first names of Bernard, Gundrada and Theodrada are found in the brothers and sisters of Wala and Adalard. Only, it is chronologically improbable that Chrotais is daughter of Wala, impossible that it is daughter of a brother or sister of Wala, who were too young, and the "Vita Adalhardiis" formal about the fact that Bernard had only five children. It remains as an explanation that the wife of Pepin is a grand-niece of his namesake, the third wife of Charles Martel.


title: Pepin of Italy

text: Besides his son Bernard, Pepin had five daughters: Adelaide, who married Lambert I of Nantes; Atala; Gundrada; Bertha; and Tetrada, who married Adelaide's stepson, Lambert II of Nantes. All of whom but the eldest were born between 800 and Pepin's death. All except Adelaide and Tetrada died before their grandfather's death in 814. Pepin was expected to inherit a third of his father's empire, but he predeceased him. The Lombard crown passed on to his illegitimate son Bernard, but the empire went to Pepin's younger brother, Louis the Pious.


title: Kelli Ward

text: Kelli Ward ("née" Kaznoski; born January 25, 1969) is an American osteopathic physician and politician who has served as the chair of the Arizona Republican Party since 2019. She served in the Arizona State Senate from 2013 to 2015.


title: Kelli Ward

text: She challenged incumbent Senator John McCain in the Republican primary for the United States Senate in 2016. Resigning from the state senate to focus on the race, Ward was defeated 51% to 39%. She ran in the 2018 Republican primary election for the U.S. Senate, initially against Jeff Flake, and then against Martha McSally, after Flake's decision not to seek re-election. Ward was defeated by McSally in the Republican primary.


title: Kelli Ward

text: She became chair of the Arizona Republican Party in 2019. After the 2020 United States presidential election, in which incumbent President Donald Trump lost in 25 states, including Arizona, she filed lawsuits seeking to nullify the state's election results. She provided no evidence of wrongdoing in the election and by December 9, federal and state judges had dismissed all challenges against President-elect Joe Biden's victory in Arizona. Under her leadership, the Arizona Republican Party has lost their US Senate seat, the governor's seat, the office of the Secretary of State, and the office of the Arizona Attorney General.


title: Kelli Ward

text: Kelli Ward was born Kelli Kaznoski in Fairmont, West Virginia. She graduated from Bridgeport High School in 1987, as the class valedictorian. Ward obtained a BS in psychology from Duke University in Durham, North Carolina in 1991; a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree from West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine in Lewisburg, West Virginia in 1996; and a master's in public health (M.P.H.) from A.T. Still University of Health Sciences in Kirksville, Missouri in 2005.


title: Kelli Ward

text: After Republican state senator Ron Gould left the Legislature and left the District 5 seat open, Ward won the three-way August 28, 2012, Republican primary in a highly contested election with 9,925 votes (42.2%) in a field which included State Representative Nancy McLain. Ward won the November 6, 2012 general election with 49,613 votes (71.2%) against Democratic nominee Beth Weiser, who had run for a Senate seat in 2010.


title: Kelli Ward

text: Ward has changed her position on abortion over time. In 2012, Ward said that she wanted the government to play no role in the decision to have an abortion, saying, "My preference would be that a patient and a doctor talk to each other about the risks, the benefits, what is the potential outcome for the mother should she choose to have a procedure like that, instead of having the government trying to make those decisions." By 2016, she described herself as "pro-life". Her spokesman Stephen Sebastian said that she maintained a "pro-life record" in the state senate and supported a "human life amendment" to the U.S. Constitution.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In January 2014, Ward introduced the Arizona Fourth Amendment Protection Act, which would "ban the state from engaging in activities which help the NSA carry out their warrantless data-collection programs, or even make use of the information on a local level."


title: Kelli Ward

text: When Ward ran for re-election in November 2014, she was unopposed in both the primary and the general election.


title: Kelli Ward

text: On July 14, 2015, Ward announced she would be entering the race for the Republican nomination for U.S. Senate in Arizona, against long-time incumbent John McCain, who was viewed by many political analysts as a top target of the Tea Party movement and by other Republican conservatives. On December 2, 2015, Ward announced that per Arizona's resign-to-run laws, she would resign from the state senate, effective December 15, in order to dedicate her time to running for the U.S. Senate. She was succeeded by Sue Donahue.


title: Kelli Ward

text: On July 11, 2016, Ward published an ad on her Facebook page saying that John McCain, her primary opponent for the 2016 Republican primary Senate election, was too friendly with Secretary Hillary Clinton. The ad said that they were nearly identical in their political beliefs, stating that "they agree" on issues such as "amnesty for illegal immigrants," opposing President George W. Bush's tax cuts, a gasoline tax, and "blocking conservative judges". The ad was an identical copy of a 2008 ad published by then-presidential candidate Mitt Romney, except that Ward replaced Romney's approval message at the end of the video with her own. Romney's lawyers contacted Ward and her campaign ordering her to cease any further use of the ad, stating Romney for President did not authorize any use of the ad. Ward's campaign did not dispute the similarities, telling reporters that "Mitt Romney got it right." Stephen Sebastian, Ward's spokesman, added "If the shoe fits, wear it. The substance is still the same. Some things never change."


title: Kelli Ward

text: In October 2016, Ward announced that she would run in the 2018 Republican primary against incumbent Senator Jeff Flake (who later announced he would retire from the Senate). Ward criticized Flake for being "an open-borders, amnesty globalist," describing herself as "a build-the-wall, stop-illegal-immigration Americanist". In the primary, Ward faced U.S. Rep. Martha McSally and former Maricopa County sheriff Joe Arpaio. Arpaio and Ward were considered in contention for the same group of primary voters, as they are both highly conservative and staunchly pro-Trump, whereas McSally has a more moderate record.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In July 2017, after McCain was diagnosed with brain cancer, Ward said that she hoped that McCain would resign as quickly as possible. Ward said in a radio interview, "I hope that Senator McCain is going to look long and hard at this, that his family and his advisers are going to look at this, and they're going to advise him to step away as quickly as possible. So that the business of the country and the business of Arizona being represented at the federal level can move forward. ... We can't have until the 2018 election, waiting around to accomplish the Trump agenda, to secure the border and stop illegal immigration and repeal Obamacare and fix the economy and fix the veterans administration, all those things need to be done and we can't be at a standstill while we wait for John McCain to determine what he's going to do." Ward said that she hoped that Arizona's governor would consider appointing her to fill McCain's seat.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In August 2017, several events affected her campaign. She expressed her support for Trump's pardon of former Sheriff Joe Arpaio, who had been convicted of criminal contempt of court. Billionaire Robert Mercer—who had supported Ward's 2016 campaign—announced that he would donate $300,000 to a Super PAC supporting her 2018 run.


title: Kelli Ward

text: Also in that month, a video attack ad appeared accusing Ward of agreeing with the chemtrails conspiracy theory and referring to her as "Chemtrail Kelli". The advertisement was sponsored by the Senate Leadership Fund, aligned with Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell, and may have been the first time Ward came to the attention of "many outside Arizona" according to journalist Clare Malone, (an ad on the subject of chemtrails and Ward first appeared in the 2016 Senate race with McCain). Politifact rated the claim that Ward "hosted a town hall on 'chemtrail conspiracy theories' and is open to sponsoring chemtrails legislation" as "mostly false," and factcheck.org labeled the ad "misleading." Ward criticized the ad as demonstrating "sexism reserved for conservative women."


title: Kelli Ward

text: In October 2017, Ward was formally endorsed by former Senior Counselor to the President Steve Bannon in her 2018 campaign. Ward appeared together with Bannon to announce the endorsement. She was also endorsed by Great America PAC, which has been described as "an arm of Team Bannon". Bannon has said he believes Ward will help build a wall on the southern border of the US and repeal the Affordable Care Act. Ward later attempted to distance herself from Bannon in the aftermath of Bannon's public falling-out with Trump, whose endorsement Ward also sought, according to "The Arizona Republic". In January 2018, Ward said: "Steve Bannon, I don't know that I actually really got a full endorsement from Steve ... He's not somebody that I've reached out and talked to in any way, shape, or form ... I am distancing myself from Steve Bannon." Ward was also endorsed by Sean Hannity, Laura Ingraham, Rep. Steve King, and Sen. Rand Paul.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In May 2018, Arpaio accused Ward of having enticed him to bow out of the Republican primary in exchange for lucrative speaking gigs with a pro-Trump group; the Ward campaign denied the accusation. The primary was described as "contentious", with Ward refusing to say whether she would support McSally in the general election were she to win the Republican nomination.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In June 2018, "The Arizona Republic" reported that Ward's ties to controversial and fringe conservative figures were undermining her campaign. During the campaign, Ward disavowed Paul Nehlen, an anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim commentator whom she had previously praised and described as a "friend". Ward praised Nehlen when he unsuccessfully sought to unseat House Speaker Paul Ryan in 2016. She appeared together with Nehlen on a number of occasions. Ward's husband, who was also a campaign surrogate, has promoted conspiracy theories about Seth Rich, Bill and Hillary Clinton murdering people, and John McCain cooperating with the Islamic State. In August 2018, Ward announced a campaign bus tour featuring Mike Cernovich, an alt-right media personality and conspiracy theorist. Cernovich had promoted the Pizzagate conspiracy theory, falsely alleging the existence of a widespread pedophile network within the Clinton campaign, whose existence Ward refused to deny. When Ward was asked if she agreed with Cernovich's beliefs, she said that she didn't know much about his views.


title: Kelli Ward

text: On August 24, 2018, the day of the announcement that McCain was ceasing medical treatment for terminal brain cancer, one of Ward's campaign staffers questioned on Facebook if the announcement "was a plan to take media attention off [Ward's] campaign" on "the kickoff day of Kelli Ward's bus tour". In response, Ward wrote: "I think they wanted to have a particular narrative that they hope is negative to me." McCain died hours after Ward's initial comment, which was deleted or removed from public viewing. Ward then made a followup comment (later also deleted or hidden) that the "media loves a narrative ... it's the media making something out of nothing."


title: Kelli Ward

text: Ward was defeated by Martha McSally in the August 28, 2018, Republican primary, receiving 28% of the vote to McSally's 52% and Arpaio's 19%.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In 2019, Ward was elected chair of Arizona Republican Party on a campaign platform of the Republican Party of Arizona supporting Republican presidential incumbent Donald Trump in 2020. She was reelected to the position in January 2021 by a margin of 42 votes in the second round of voting. Two months after the election, a couple of party activists sued Ward over her refusal to conduct an audit of the results of her reelection. The basis for the lawsuit is that the election was not conducted in view of the media, unlike standard election practice.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In April 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, Ward encouraged protests against stay-at-home orders. She told protestors to dress up in scrubs and medical gear to imitate health care workers.


title: Kelli Ward

text: Early on election night 2020, the Associated Press and Fox News declared Biden the winner in Arizona as ballot counting continued. Trump and Ward sought to intervene, with Ward sending a text message to a Republican election official to say she had spoken with Trump and "We need you to stop the counting." She also asked the official to contact Trump attorney Sidney Powell, adding, "I know you don't want to be remembered as the guy who led the charge to certify a fraudulent election." Biden's lead shrank later in the night, though he still carried the state.


title: Kelli Ward

text: After Biden's victory, Trump spread falsehoods and conspiracy theories about election fraud, and Ward aided him in trying to subvert the election results. Throughout the period between the election and the inauguration of Joe Biden, Ward sent out fundraising mailings referencing a "stolen" election. Ward provided no evidence of wrongdoing in the election. The Arizona Republican Party dared Republicans to fight to the death for Trump.


title: Kelli Ward

text: When Ward's legal challenges were dismissed, Arizona Republicans raised concerns that the political division between Ward and Doug Ducey, who had acknowledged Biden's win in Arizona, would damage the party's future electoral prospects.


title: Kelli Ward

text: As Trump and his allies attempted to overturn the 2020 presidential election, on January 5, 2021, dozens of lawmakers from key states, including Arizona, asked Vice President Mike Pence to delay final certification of Biden's election for 10 days so that legislatures in those states could reconsider their earlier certifications. During the storming of the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021, which forced lawmakers to evacuate, Ward wrote on Twitter, "Congress is adjourned. Send the elector choice back to the legislatures." She also suggested without evidence that the Capitol rioters were fakes who were trying to undermine Trump supporters.


title: Kelli Ward

text: In 2021, Ward pushed false claims about the Arizona election in 2020. She and her husband were among eleven Republicans to sign a fraudulent certificate of ascertainment declaring Trump had won Arizona's electors, when actually Joe Biden had; Republicans in other key states also signed such documents. The Arizona signing ceremony was videotaped. Ward and her husband were among many Republicans in those states to receive federal subpoenas in June 2022. Ward fought a January 6 committee subpoena of her phone records to the United States Supreme Court, which denied her challenge in November 2022.


title: Kelli Ward

text: Poor results in the 2022 midterm elections, in which Republican candidates Blake Masters, Kari Lake, and Mark Finchem were defeated, led Republican gubernatorial candidate Karrin Taylor Robson to call for Ward's replacement. Robson called Ward's tenure an "unmitigated disaster" for the Arizona Republican Party.


title: Kelli Ward

text: While studying osteopathic medicine, Ward met her husband Michael, who served in the Arizona Air National Guard. They have two children.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The Vienna Circle () of Logical Empiricism was a group of elite philosophers and scientists drawn from the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics who met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the University of Vienna, chaired by Moritz Schlick. The Vienna Circle's influence on 20th-century philosophy, especially philosophy of science and analytic philosophy, is immense up to the present day.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The philosophical position of the Vienna Circle was called logical empiricism (German: "logischer Empirismus"), logical positivism or neopositivism. It was influenced by Ernst Mach, David Hilbert, French conventionalism (Henri Poincaré and Pierre Duhem), Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Albert Einstein. The Vienna Circle was pluralistic and committed to the ideals of the Enlightenment. It was unified by the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic. Main topics were foundational debates in the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics; the modernization of empiricism by modern logic; the search for an empiricist criterion of meaning; the critique of metaphysics and the unification of the sciences in the unity of science.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The Vienna Circle appeared in public with the publication of various book series – "Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung" ("Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception"), "Einheitswissenschaft" ("Unified Science") and the journal "Erkenntnis" – and the organization of international conferences in Prague; Königsberg (today known as Kaliningrad); Paris; Copenhagen; Cambridge, UK, and Cambridge, Massachusetts. Its public profile was provided by the "Ernst Mach Society" (German: "Verein Ernst Mach") through which members of the Vienna Circle sought to popularize their ideas in the context of programmes for popular education in Vienna.


title: Vienna Circle

text: During the era of Austrofascism and after the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany most members of the Vienna Circle were forced to emigrate. The murder of Schlick in 1936 by former student Johann Nelböck put an end to the Vienna Circle in Austria.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The pre-history of the Vienna Circle began with meetings on the philosophy of science and epistemology from 1908 on, promoted by Philipp Frank, Hans Hahn and Otto Neurath.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Hans Hahn, the oldest of the three (1879–1934), was a mathematician. He received his degree in mathematics in 1902. Afterwards he studied under the direction of Ludwig Boltzmann in Vienna and David Hilbert, Felix Klein and Hermann Minkowski in Göttingen. In 1905 he received the Habilitation in mathematics. He taught at Innsbruck (1905–1906) and Vienna (from 1909).


title: Vienna Circle

text: Otto Neurath (1882–1945) studied mathematics, political economy, and history in Vienna and Berlin. From 1907 to 1914 he taught in Vienna at the Neue Wiener Handelsakademie (Viennese Commercial Academy). Neurath married Olga, Hahn's sister, in 1911.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Philipp Frank, the youngest of the group (1884–1966), studied physics at Göttingen and Vienna with Ludwig Boltzmann, David Hilbert and Felix Klein. From 1912, he held the chair of theoretical physics in the German University in Prague.


title: Vienna Circle

text: A number of further authors were discussed in the meetings such as Brentano, Meinong, Helmholtz, Hertz, Husserl, Freud, Russell, Whitehead, Lenin and Frege.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Presumably the meetings stopped in 1912, when Frank went to Prague, to hold the chair of theoretical physics left vacant by Albert Einstein. Hahn left Vienna during World War I and returned in 1921.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The formation of "the" Vienna Circle began with Hahn returning to Vienna in 1921. Together with the mathematician Kurt Reidemeister he organized seminars on Ludwig Wittgenstein's "Tractatus logico-philosophicus" and on Whitehead and Russell's "Principia Mathematica".


title: Vienna Circle

text: With the support of Hahn, Moritz Schlick was appointed to the chair of philosophy of the inductive sciences at the University of Vienna in 1922 – the chair formerly held by Ernst Mach and partly by Boltzmann. Schlick had already published two important works "Raum und Zeit in die gegenwärtigen Physik" ("Space and Time in contemporary Physics") in 1917 and "Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre" ("General Theory of Knowledge") in 1918.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Immediately after Schlick's arrival in Vienna, he organized discussions with the mathematicians around Hahn. In 1924 Schlick's students Friedrich Waismann and Herbert Feigl suggested to their teacher a sort of regular "evening circle". From winter term 1924 on regular meetings were held at the Institute of Mathematics in Vienna's Boltzmanngasse 5 on personal invitation by Schlick. These discussions can be seen as the beginning of the Vienna Circle.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The group that met from 1924 on was quite diverse and included not only recognized scientists such as Schlick, Hahn, Kraft, Philipp Frank, Neurath, Olga Hahn-Neurath, and Heinrich Gomperz, but also younger students and doctoral candidates. In addition, the group invited foreign visitors.


title: Vienna Circle

text: In 1926 Schlick and Hahn arranged to bring Rudolf Carnap to the University of Vienna as a "Privatdozent" (private lecturer). Carnap's "Logical Structure of the World" was intensely discussed in the Circle.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Also Wittgenstein's "Tractatus logico-philosophicus" was read out loud and discussed. From 1927 on personal meetings were arranged between Wittgenstein and Schlick, Waismann, Carnap and Feigl.


title: Vienna Circle

text: In 1928 the "Verein Ernst Mach" ("Ernst Mach Society") was founded, with Schlick as its chairman. The aim of the society was the spreading of a "scientific world conception" through public lectures that were in large part held by members of the Vienna Circle.


title: Vienna Circle

text: In 1929 the Vienna Circle made its first public appearance under this name – invented by Neurath – with the publication of its manifesto "Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis" ("The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle" also known as "Viewing the World Scientifically: The Vienna Circle") The pamphlet is dedicated to Schlick, and its preface was signed by Hahn, Neurath and Carnap.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The manifesto was presented at the "Tagung für Erkenntnislehre der exakten Wissenschaften" ("Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences") in autumn 1929, organized by the Vienna Circle together with the Berlin Circle. This conference was the first international appearance of logical empiricism and the first of a number of conferences: Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934), Paris (1935), Copenhague (1936), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Mass. (1939), and Chicago (1941).


title: Vienna Circle

text: While primarily known for its views on the natural sciences and metaphysics, the public phase of the Vienna Circle was explicitly political. Neurath and Hahn were both socialists and believed the rejection of magic was a necessary component for liberation of the working classes. The manifesto linked Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche to their political and anti-metaphysical views, indicating a blur between what are now considered two separate schools of contemporary philosophy - analytic philosophy and continental philosophy.


title: Vienna Circle

text: In 1930 the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Society took over the journal "Annalen der Philosophie" and made it the main journal of logical empiricism under the title "Erkenntnis", edited by Carnap and Reichenbach. In addition, the Vienna Circle published a number of book series: "Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung" ("Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception", ed. by Schlick und Frank, 1928–1937), "Einheitswissenschaft" ("Unified Science", edited by Neurath, 1933–1939), and later the "International Encyclopedia of Unified Science" (edited by Neurath, Carnap and Charles W. Morris, 1938–1970).


title: Vienna Circle

text: From the beginning of the 1930s first signs of disintegration appeared for political and racist reasons: Herbert Feigl left Austria in 1930. Carnap was appointed to a chair at Prague University in 1931 and left for Chicago in 1935.


title: Vienna Circle

text: 1934 marks an important break: Hahn died after surgery, Neurath fled to Holland because of the victory of Austrofascism in the Austrian Civil War following which the "Ernst Mach Society" was dissolved for political reasons by the Schuschnigg regime.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The murder of Moritz Schlick by the former student Hans Nelböck for political and personal reasons in 1936 set an end to the meetings of the Schlick Circle.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Some members of the circle such as Kraft, Waismann, Zilsel, Menger and Gomperz continued to meet occasionally. But the annexation of Austria to Nazi Germany in 1938 meant the definite end of the activities of the Vienna Circle in Austria.


title: Vienna Circle

text: With the emigration went along the internationalization of logical empiricism. Many former members of the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Circle emigrated to the English-speaking world where they had an immense influence on the development of philosophy of science. The unity of science movement for the construction of an "International Encyclopedia of Unified Science", promoted mainly by Neurath, Carnap, and Morris, is symptomatic of the internationalization of logical empiricism, organizing numerous international conferences and the publication of the "International Encyclopedia of Unified Science".


title: Vienna Circle

text: Apart from the central figures of the Schlick Circle the question of membership in the Vienna Circle is in many cases unsettled. The partition into "members" and "those sympathetic to the Vienna Circle" produced in the manifesto from 1929 is representative only of a specific moment in the development of the Circle. Depending on the criteria used (regular attendance, philosophical affinities etc.) there are different possible distributions in "inner circle" and "periphery".


title: Vienna Circle

text: In the following list (in alphabetical order), the "inner circle" is defined using the criterion of regular attendance. The "periphery" comprises occasional visitors, foreign visitors and leading intellectual figures who stood in regular contact with the Circle (such as Wittgenstein and Popper).


title: Vienna Circle

text: Inner Circle: Gustav Bergmann, Rudolf Carnap, Herbert Feigl, Philipp Frank, Kurt Gödel, Hans Hahn, Olga Hahn-Neurath, Béla Juhos, Felix Kaufmann, Victor Kraft, Karl Menger, Richard von Mises, Otto Neurath, Rose Rand, Josef Schächter, Moritz Schlick, Friedrich Waismann, Edgar Zilsel.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Periphery: Alfred Jules Ayer, Egon Brunswik, Karl Bühler, Josef Frank, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Heinrich Gomperz, Carl Gustav Hempel, Eino Kaila, Hans Kelsen, Charles W. Morris, Arne Naess, Karl Raimund Popper, Willard Van Orman Quine, Frank P. Ramsey, Hans Reichenbach, Kurt Reidemeister, Alfred Tarski, Olga Taussky-Todd, Ludwig Wittgenstein.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The spread of logical positivism in the United States occurred throughout the 1920s and 1930s. In 1929 and in 1932, Schlick was a Visiting Professor at Stanford, while Feigl, who immigrated to the United States in 1930, became lecturer (1931) and professor (1933) at the University of Iowa. The definite diffusion of logical positivism in the United States was due to Carl Hempel, Hans Reichenbach, Rudolf Carnap, Philipp Frank, and Herbert Feigl, who emigrated and taught in the United States.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Another link to the United States is Willard Van Orman Quine, who traveled in 1932 and 1933 as a Sheldon Traveling Fellow to Vienna, Prague, and Warsaw. Moreover, American semiotician and philosopher Charles W. Morris helped many German and Austrian philosophers emigrate to the United States, including Rudolf Carnap, in 1936.


title: Vienna Circle

text: In the United Kingdom it was Alfred Jules Ayer who acquainted the British academia with the work of the Vienna Circle with his book "Language, Truth, and Logic" (1936). Karl Popper was also important for the reception and critique of their work, even though he never participated in the meetings of the Vienna Circle.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The Vienna Circle was very active in advertising their new philosophical ideas. Several congresses on epistemology and philosophy of science were organized, with the help of the Berlin Circle. There were some preparatory congresses: Prague (1929), Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934) and then the first congress on scientific philosophy held in Paris (1935), followed by congresses in Copenhagen (1936), Paris (1937), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Massachusetts. (1939). The Königsberg congress (1930) was very important, for Kurt Gödel announced that he had proven the completeness of first-order logic and the incompleteness of formal arithmetic. Another very interesting congress was the one held in Copenhagen (1936), which was dedicated to quantum physics and causality.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Between 1928 and 1937, the Vienna Circle published ten books in a collection named "Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung" ("Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception"), edited by Schlick and Frank. Karl Raimund Popper's book "Logik der Forschung" was published in this collection. Seven works were published in another collection, called "Einheitswissenschaft" ("Unified Science"). In 1930 Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach undertook the editorship of the journal "Erkenntnis", which was published between 1930 and 1940 (from 1939 the editors were Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris).


title: Vienna Circle

text: "Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung" ("Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception"), edited by Schlick and Frank:


title: Vienna Circle

text: "Einheitswissenschaft" ("Unified Science"), edited by Carnap, Frank, Hahn, Neurath, Jørgensen (after Hahn's death), Morris (from 1938):


title: Vienna Circle

text: These works are translated in "Unified Science: The Vienna Circle Monograph Series Originally Edited by Otto Neurath", Kluwer, 1987.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Monographs, arranged in chronological order, published in the "International Encyclopedia of Unified Science":


title: Vienna Circle

text: The Vienna Circle cannot be assigned "one" single philosophy. First, there existed a plurality of philosophical positions within the Circle, and second, members often changed their views fundamentally in the course of time and in reaction to discussions in the Circle. It thus seems more convenient to speak of "the philosophies (in the plural) of the Vienna Circle".


title: Vienna Circle

text: This states the scientific world-conception of the Vienna Circle, which is characterized "essentially by two features. First it is empiricist and positivist: there is knowledge only from experience. Second, the scientific world-conception is marked by the application of a certain method, namely logical analysis."


title: Vienna Circle

text: Logical analysis is the method of clarification of philosophical problems; it makes an extensive use of symbolic logic and distinguishes the Vienna Circle empiricism from earlier versions. The task of philosophy lies in the clarification—through the method of logical analysis—of problems and assertions.


title: Vienna Circle

text: Logical analysis shows that there are two different kinds of statements; one kind includes statements reducible to simpler statements about the empirically given; the other kind includes statements which cannot be reduced to statements about experience and thus they are devoid of meaning. Metaphysical statements belong to this second kind and therefore they are meaningless. Hence many philosophical problems are rejected as pseudo-problems which arise from logical mistakes, while others are re-interpreted as empirical statements and thus become the subject of scientific inquiries.


title: Vienna Circle

text: One source of the logical mistakes that are at the origins of metaphysics is the ambiguity of natural language. "Ordinary language for instance uses the same part of speech, the substantive, for things ('apple') as well as for qualities ('hardness'), relations ('friendship'), and processes ('sleep'); therefore it misleads one into a thing-like conception of functional concepts". Another source of mistakes is "the notion that "thinking" can either lead to knowledge out of its own resources without using any empirical material, or at least arrive at new contents by an inference from given states of affair". Synthetic knowledge a priori is rejected by the Vienna Circle. Mathematics, which at a first sight seems an example of necessarily valid synthetic knowledge derived from pure reason alone, has instead a tautological character, that is its statements are analytical statements, thus very different from Kantian synthetic statements. The only two kinds of statements accepted by the Vienna Circle are synthetic statements "a posteriori" (i.e., scientific statements) and analytic statements "a priori" (i.e., logical and mathematical statements).


title: Vienna Circle

text: However, the persistence of metaphysics is connected not only with logical mistakes but also with "social and economical struggles". Metaphysics and theology are allied to traditional social forms, while the group of people who "faces modern times, rejects these views and takes its stand on the ground of empirical sciences". Thus the struggle between metaphysics and scientific world-conception is not only a struggle between different kinds of philosophies, but it is also—and perhaps primarily—a struggle between different political, social, and economical attitudes. Of course, as the manifesto itself acknowledged, "not every adherent of the scientific world-conception will be a fighter". Many historians of the Vienna Circle see in the latter sentence an implicit reference to a contrast between the so-called 'left wing' of the Vienna Circle, mainly represented by Neurath and Carnap, and Moritz Schlick. The aim of the left wing was to facilitate the penetration of the scientific world-conception in "the forms of personal and public life, in education, upbringing, architecture, and the shaping of economic and social life". In contrast, Schlick was primarily interested in the theoretical study of science and philosophy. Perhaps the sentence "Some, glad of solitude, will lead a withdrawn existence on the icy slopes of logic" is an ironic reference to Schlick.


title: Vienna Circle

text: The manifesto lists Walter Dubislav, Josef Frank, Kurt Grelling, Hasso Härlen, Eino Kaila, Heinrich Loewy, F. P. Ramsey, Hans Reichenbach, Kurt Reidemeister, and Edgar Zilsel as people "sympathetic to the Vienna Circle" and Albert Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Ludwig Wittgenstein as its "leading representatives".