title: Pauline Bonaparte

text: Upon Napoleon's fall, Pauline liquidated all of her assets and moved to Elba, using that money to better Napoleon's condition. She was the only Bonaparte sibling to visit her brother during his exile on Elba. Her home in Paris, the Hôtel de Charost, was sold to the British government and used by the Duke of Wellington as his official residence during his tenure as British Ambassador to France. Today the house is still the home of the British ambassador.


title: Pauline Bonaparte

text: After Waterloo Pauline moved to Rome, where she enjoyed the protection of Pope Pius VII (who once was her brother's prisoner), as did her mother, Letizia, (then at a palace on the Piazza Venezia) and other members of the Bonaparte family. Pauline lived in a villa between the Porta Pia and the Porta Salaria that was called Villa Paolina after her and decorated in the Egyptomania style she favored. Her husband, Camillo, lived in the Palazzo Borghese, but then moved to Florence to distance himself from her and had a ten-year relationship with a mistress. Even so, Pauline persuaded the Pope to convince the prince to take her back only three months before her death from pulmonary tuberculosis. She died in his Palazzo Salviati-Borghese in Florence.


title: Pauline Bonaparte

text: Pauline was of frail health for much of her life, probably due to salpingitis. She died on 9 June 1825 at the age of forty-four at the Palazzo Salviati-Borghese in Florence, the cause of death being given as 'tumor on the stomach' but it may have been pulmonary tuberculosis.


title: Gumnaam

text: Gumnaam (translation: "Unknown" or "Anonymous") is a 1965 Indian Bollywood thriller film directed by Raja Nawathe, starring Manoj Kumar, Nanda, Pran, Helen and Mehmood. The film is a loosely-inspired adaptation of the 1939 mystery novel "And Then There Were None" by Agatha Christie.


title: Gumnaam

text: The film came to wider attention in the English-speaking world when its opening song "Jaan Pehechan Ho" (a Hindi-Urdu phrase roughly translated as "we should get to know each other") was included in the opening credits of "Ghost World" and used in the 2011 commercial "The Date" for Heineken. The song was sung by Bollywood music legend Mohammed Rafi. The lead dancer in the song as shot in the film was Laxmi Chhaya. The psychedelic choreography was done by Herman Benjamin, who also sang the song as picturised in the film. It was remade in Tamil as "Naalai Unathu Naal"


title: Gumnaam

text: Khanna, a wealthy man, hires an assassin to murder his rival, Sohanlal. Khanna then informs the victim's niece, Asha, of his death, on the phone. As Asha screams, an intruder enters and shoots Khanna dead.


title: Gumnaam

text: A few days later, Asha wins a trip to a foreign country with six others: Barrister Rakesh, Dharamdas, Kishan, Dr Acharya, Madhusudan Sharma, and Kitty Kelly. The aircraft carrying the six winners and crew member Anand is forced to make an emergency landing at an unknown island. However, as soon as Anand and all the passengers alight from the plane, it takes off, leaving everyone stranded.


title: Gumnaam

text: A mysterious, unseen woman starts singing a song. The song is heard at different points in time during the film without the woman being seen. Then the group notices a mansion and enters it. The mansion seems to be unoccupied except for a butler. Dharamdas finds a diary that reveals that they are all connected to a crime, and that they will all be killed.


title: Gumnaam

text: Anand discovers Dr Acharya has brought with him a bottle of poison, and Dharamdas has brought a dagger. The butler's actions indicate the presence of an unknown person in the house.


title: Gumnaam

text: Anand starts flirting with Asha while Rakesh and Kitty become close. Everyone is suspicious of everyone else.


title: Gumnaam

text: Anand and Asha find Kishan's corpse. The killer has left a note stating that Kishan had murdered Sohanlal. The group deduces Dharamdas killed Kishan but he pleads innocence. Dharamdas is later found dead. Anand concludes the culprit is among them.


title: Gumnaam

text: It becomes clear that everyone in the house was connected to Sohanlal. Kitty was Sohanlal's secretary. Rakesh wrote Sohanlal's will on Khanna's orders. Kitty sent the will to Rakesh on Khanna's instructions, though neither knew about the other.


title: Gumnaam

text: Anand notices Rakesh hiding an axe. Later, Dr. Acharya arrives, screaming that Sharma has been killed with an axe. The killer leaves another note stating Sharma was Khanna's co-conspirator in Sohanlal's murder.


title: Gumnaam

text: Anand accuses Rakesh of Sharma's murder. Dr. Acharya catches the butler acting suspiciously. He learns the butler's secret and a scuffle ensues between them. The doctor enters the dining room, utters Anand's name, and collapses in the presence of Asha and Kitty. They realise that he has been stabbed. Asha starts questioning her faith in Anand.


title: Gumnaam

text: Kitty goes for a walk by herself and is strangled. Rakesh and Asha, searching for Kitty, find her corpse. Anand's hat is lying near the corpse. Rakesh sees Anand and starts chasing him, but loses his trail. In a fit of rage, Rakesh tries to rape Asha. She escapes but runs into Rakesh again as he collapses with two daggers in his back. The mansion's lights go out, which indicates the killer has arrived and that Asha is next.


title: Gumnaam

text: The killer approaches her and she faints. He carries her into a secret room and revives her. Sharma, the killer, tells Asha he convinced Dr. Acharya to help him fake his own death. He then murdered the doctor. Anand appears and reveals he is a police inspector. Sharma is an escaped convict whose real name is Madanlal.


title: Gumnaam

text: Madanlal reveals that he, Khanna, and Sohanlal were partners in smuggling. However, after Madanlal was caught by the police, the other two betrayed him. Khanna then had Sohanlal killed to usurp his share of the money as well. After Madanlal was released, he killed Khanna and ensured his targets "won" the lucky draw and took the trip.


title: Gumnaam

text: Madanlal ties up Anand and Asha and plays Russian Roulette with them. However, the butler secretly frees Anand. As Madanlal is about to shoot Asha with the only bullet, Anand attacks Madanlal. In the ensuing melee, Madanlal escapes the mansion and runs toward the shore. A plane full of policemen arrives and Madanlal is arrested. The "ghost" woman who sings the ominous song turns out to be the butler's mentally ill sister. Anand, Asha, the butler and his sister leave on the plane.


title: Gumnaam

text: Critic Shahid Khan rated the soundtrack 9 out of 10 stating, "Gumnaam is sometimes unfairly overlooked but I believe that it is one of Shankar–Jaikishan's best albums."


title: Gumnaam

text: According to film expert Rajesh Subramanian, a cold war prevailed between Mehmood and Manoj Kumar during the making of the film. Kumar tried to convince the director to discard the song "Hum kaale hain toh kya hua", which was picturised on Mehmood, from the film. However, it was kept and went on to become a hit and one of the highlights of the film. An English-language version of the song titled "The She I Love", sung by Mohammed Rafi, was also recorded.


title: Gumnaam

text: The plane used in the movie was a 1943 Douglas C-47A-85-DL built for the United States Airforce. It was serial #43-15546,


title: Gumnaam

text: Construction #20012. It saw a long multi-national career until it was purchased by Kasturi and Sons,India (VT-DTS) to deliver The Indu newspaper in distant areas. It was decommissioned and transferred to Nadargul airstrip where it is used by the Flytech Aviation Academy for ground training (2018)


title: Gumnaam

text: Gumnaam became a box office hit. It was the 8th highest-grossing film in India in 1965, grossing 2.6 crore. This was equivalent to $5.46 million in 1965, and is equivalent to US$ million or 275 crore in 2016.


title: Augur

text: An augur was a priest and official in the classical Roman world. His main role was the practice of augury, the interpretation of the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds. Determinations were based upon whether they were flying in groups or alone, what noises they made as they flew, the direction of flight, what kind of birds they were, etc. This practice was known as ""taking the auspices"".


title: Augur

text: The augural ceremony and function of the augur was central to any major undertaking in Roman society – public or private – including matters of war, commerce, and religion. Augurs sought the divine will regarding any proposed course of action which might affect Rome's "pax", "fortuna", and "salus" (peace, good fortune, and well-being).


title: Augur

text: Although ancient authors believed that the term "augur" contained the words "avis" and "gerō" – Latin for "directing the birds" – historical-linguistic evidence points instead to the root "augeō": "to increase, to prosper".


title: Augur

text: Historically, augury was performed by priests of the college of augurs on behalf of senior magistrates. The practice itself likely comes from the neighboring region of Etruria, where augers were highly respected as officials. Magistrates were empowered to conduct augury as required for the performance of their official duties. Magistracies included senior military and civil ranks, which were therefore religious offices in their own right, and magistrates were directly responsible for the "pax", "fortuna", and "salus" of Rome and everything that was Roman.


title: Augur

text: The presiding magistrate at an augural rite held the "right of augury" ("ius augurii"). The right of "nuntiatio" – announcing the appearance of "auspicia oblativa" (unexpected sign) – was reserved for the officiating augur, which would require the interruption of the proceedings then underway.


title: Augur

text: The Roman historian Livy stressed the importance of the augurs: "Who does not know that this city was founded only after taking the auspices, that everything in war and in peace, at home and abroad, was done only after taking the auspices?"


title: Augur

text: In the Regal period, which ended 509 BC, tradition holds that there were three augurs at a time; they numbered nine by the third century BC; Sulla increased their number to fifteen. By the Principate, their numbers swelled even further to an estimated 25 members.


title: Augur

text: During the Republic, priesthoods were prized as greatly as the consulship, the censorship, and the triumph. Membership gave the lifelong right to participate prominently in processions at "ludi" and in public banquets; augurs proudly displayed the symbol of the office, the "lituus".


title: Augur

text: Roman augurs were part of a college (Latin "collegium") of priests who shared the duties and responsibilities of the position. At the foundation of the Republic in 510 BC, the patricians held sole claim to this office; by 300 BC, the office was open to plebeian occupation as well. Senior members of the "collegium" put forth nominations for any vacancies, and members voted on whom to co-opt.


title: Augur

text: According to Cicero, the "auctoritas" of "ius augurum" included the right to adjourn and overturn the process of law: Consular election could be – and was – rendered invalid by inaugural error. For Cicero, this made the augur the most powerful authority in the Republic. Cicero himself was co-opted into the college only late in his career.


title: Augur

text: In the later Republic, augury was supervised by the college of "pontifices", a priestly-magistral office whose powers were increasingly woven into the "cursus honorum". The office of "pontifex maximus" eventually became a "de facto" consular prerogative.


title: Augur

text: The effectiveness of augury could only be judged retrospectively; the divinely ordained condition of peace ("pax deorum") was an outcome of successful augury. Those whose actions had led to divine wrath ("ira deorum") could not have possessed a true right of augury ("ius augurum"). Of all the protagonists in the Civil War, only Octavian could have possessed it, because he alone had restored the "pax deorum" to the Roman people. Lucan, writing during the Principate, described the recent Civil War as "unnatural" – a mirror to supernatural disturbances in the greater cosmos. His imagery is apt to the traditional principles of augury and its broader interpretation by Stoic apologists of the Imperial cult. In the Stoic cosmology the "pax deorum" is the expression of natural order in human affairs.


title: Augur

text: When his colleague Lepidus died, Augustus assumed his office as "pontifex maximus", took priestly control over the State oracles (including the Sibylline books), and used his powers as censor to suppress the circulation of "unapproved" oracles.


title: Augur

text: Despite their lack of political influence under the Empire, the augurate, as with its fellow "quattuor amplissima collegia", continued to confer prestige on its members.


title: Augur

text: In ancient Rome the "auguria" (augural rites) were considered to be in equilibrium with the "sacra" ("sacred things" or "rites") and were not the only way by which the gods made their will known.


title: Augur

text: The "augures publici" (public augurs) concerned themselves only with matters related to the state. The role of the augur was that of consulting and interpreting the will of gods about some course of action such as accession of kings to the throne, of magistrates and major "sacerdotes" to their functions (inauguration) and all public enterprises. It sufficed to say that the augur or magistrate had heard a clap of thunder to suspend the convocation of the comitia.


title: Augur

text: Since "auguria publica" and inaugurations of magistrates are strictly connected to political life this brought about the deterioration and abuses that condemned augury to progressive and irreversible debasement, stripping it of all religious value.


title: Augur

text: According to Varro, before his time augures had distinguished five kinds of territory: ager Romanus, ager Gabinus, ager peregrinus, ager hosticus, ager incertus. These distinctions clearly point to the times of the prehistory of Latium and testify the archaic quality of the art of augury.


title: Augur

text: The "jus augurale" (augural law) was rigorously secret, therefore very little about the technical aspects of ceremonies and rituals has been recorded. We have only the names of some "auguria":


title: Augur

text: The terms "augurium" and "auspicium" are used indifferently by ancient authors. Modern scholars have debated the issue at length but have failed to find a distinctive definition that may hold for all the known cases. By such considerations Dumezil thinks that the two terms refer in fact to two aspects of the same religious act:


title: Augur

text: In Varro's words ""Agere augurium, aves specit"", "to conduct the "augurium", he observed the birds".


title: Augur

text: The auspicia were divided into two categories: requested by man ("impetrativa") and offered spontaneously by the gods ("oblativa"). Both "impetrativa" and "oblativa" auspices could be further divided into five subclasses:


title: Augur

text: Only some species of birds ("aves augurales") could yield valid signs whose meaning would vary according to the species. Among them were ravens, woodpeckers, owls, ossifragae, and eagles.


title: Augur

text: Signs from birds were divided into "alites", from the flight, and "oscines", from the voice: The "alites" included region of the sky, height and type of flight, behaviour of the bird and place where it would come to rest. The "oscines" included the pitch and direction of the sound.


title: Augur

text: Magistrates endowed by the law with the right of "spectio" (observation of auspices) would establish the requested "auspicium" (observation platform) before taking the "auspicia impetrativa" ("requested" or "sought" auspices; see above). The "templum", or sacred space within which the operation would take place had to be established and delimited (it should be square and have only one entrance) and purified ("effari", "liberare").


title: Augur

text: The enunciation of the requested auspicia that began the observation portion of the ceremony was called "legum dictio". Observation conditions were rigorous and required absolute silence for validity of the operation. Technically the sky was divided into four sections or regions: "dextera", "sinistra", "antica", and "postica" (right, left, anterior and posterior).


title: Augur

text: The prototype of the ritual of inauguration of people is described in Livy's description of the inauguration of king Numa Pompilius:The augur asks Jupiter: ""Si fas est"" (i.e. if it is divine justice to do this) "... send me a certain "signum" (sign)" then the augur listed the "auspicia" he wanted to see. When they appeared Numa was declared king.


title: Augur

text: Since the observation was complex, conflict among signs was common. A hierarchy among signs was devised: e.g. a sign from the eagle would prevail on that from the woodpecker and the ossifragae (parra).


title: Augur

text: During the last centuries of the republic the auspices "ex caelo" and "ex tripudiis" supplanted other types, as the other forms could be easily used in a fraudulent way, i.e. bent to suit the desire of the asking person.


title: Augur

text: Cicero condemned the fraudulent use and denounced the decline in the level of knowledge of the doctrine by the augurs of his time, but in fact the abuse developed from the evasion of negative signs, described in the next subsection.


title: Augur

text: The interpretation of signs was vast and complex, and magistrates devised protective tricks to avoid being paralysed by negative signs. Against the negative "auspicia oblativa" the admitted procedures included:


title: Augur

text: Contrary to other divinatory practices present in Rome (e.g. haruspicina, consultation of the libri Sibyllini) augury appears to be autochthonous: originally Latin or Italic. The art has its roots in the prehistory of the Italic people and is attested in the Iguvine Tables ("avif aseria") and among other Latin tribes.


title: Augur

text: The very story or legend of the foundation of Rome is based on augury, i.e. the ascertaining of the will of gods through observation of the sky and of birds. Romulus and Remus indeed acted as augurs and Romulus was considered a great augur throughout the course of his life.


title: Augur

text: The character that best represented and portrayed the art however was Attus Navius. His story is related by Cicero:


title: Augur

text: He was born into a very poor family. One day he lost one of his pigs. He then promised the gods that if he found it, he would offer them the biggest grapes growing in his vineyard. After recovering his pig he stood right at the middle of his grape yard facing South. He divided the sky into four sections and observed birds: when they appeared he walked in that direction and found an extraordinary large grape that he offered to the gods.


title: Augur

text: His story was immediately famous and he became the augur of the king (see above the episode with king Tarquinius narrated by Livy). Henceforth he was considered the patron of the augurs.


title: Marathon Oil

text: Marathon Oil Corporation is an American company engaged in hydrocarbon exploration incorporated in Ohio and headquartered in the Marathon Oil Tower in Houston, Texas. A direct descendant of Standard Oil, it also runs international gas operations focused on Equatorial Guinea, offshore Central Africa.


title: Marathon Oil

text: As of December 31, 2020, the company had of estimated proven reserves, of which 86% was in the United States and 14% was in Equatorial Guinea. The company's proved reserves consisted 52% of petroleum, 30% natural gas and 18% natural gas liquids. In 2020, the company sold per day, of which 26% was from the Eagle Ford Group, 27% was from the Bakken formation, 17% was from Oklahoma, 7% was from the Northern Delaware Basin, 2% was from other U.S. sources, and 20% was from Equatorial Guinea.


title: Marathon Oil

text: Marathon Oil began as "The Ohio Oil Company" in 1887. In 1889, the company was purchased by John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil. It remained a part of Standard Oil until Standard Oil was broken up in 1911. In 1930, The Ohio Oil Company bought the Transcontinental Oil Company and established the "Marathon" brand name. In 1962, the company changed its name to "Marathon Oil Company".


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 1981, Mobil made a hostile takeover offer to buy the company. However, the board of Marathon Oil rejected the offer and instead sold the company to United States Steel. A legal battle ensued thereafter.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 1990, the headquarters was moved to Houston, Texas, but the company's refining subsidiary maintained its headquarters in Findlay, Ohio.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 1998, Marathon and Ashland Global contributed their refining operations to Marathon Ashland Petroleum LLC, now Marathon Petroleum.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 2001, USX, the holding company that owned United States Steel and Marathon, spun off the steel business and, in 2002, USX renamed itself Marathon Oil Corporation.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 2007, Marathon acquired Western Oil Sands for $6.6 billion and gained ownership of its 20% stake in the Athabasca oil sands in northern Alberta and other assets in the midwestern United States.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 2011, Marathon completed the corporate spin-off of Marathon Petroleum, distributing a 100% interest to its shareholders.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In September 2013, Marathon sold a 10% stake in an oil and gas field offshore Angola for $590 million to Sonangol Group.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In October 2014, the company sold its business in Norway to Det Norske Oljeselskap ASA for $2.1 billion.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 2017, it sold its interests in the Athabasca oil sands for $2.5 billion and acquired assets in the Permian Basin for $1.2 billion.


title: Marathon Oil

text: In 2020, the company derived 13% of its revenues from sales to Marathon Petroleum and 12% of its revenues from sales to Koch Industries.


title: Marathon Oil

text: Since 2003, Marathon Oil and its partners Noble Energy and AMPCO, have invested in the Bioko Island Malaria Control Project (BIMCP) in Equatorial Guinea. The project includes distribution of insecticide nets, indoor residual spraying and larval source management, preventive therapy for pregnant women and malaria case management, and investment in a possible malaria vaccine. The project has resulted in a 63% reduction in malaria parasite prevalence and a 63% reduction in the mortality rate and 97% reduction in severe anemia in children under 5 years old.


title: Marathon Oil

text: According to a 2017 study, the company was responsible for 0.19% of global industrial greenhouse gas emissions from 1988 to 2015.


title: Marathon Oil

text: The company was investigated for payments made to Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, the president of Equatorial Guinea. The SEC completed its investigation in 2009 and did not recommend any enforcement action in the matter.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Junoon () is a 1992 Indian Hindi-language fantasy horror film directed by Mahesh Bhatt. It stars Rahul Roy as a young man who is cursed to become a tiger every full moon night. "Junoon" was reportedly inspired by the 1981 film "An American Werewolf in London".


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: "Junoon" makes use of morphing, a special effect in which an image changes (or morphs) into another, to transform a human face into a tiger and back from a tiger to a human. The film was successful at the box office and received favorable reviews.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Vikram goes on a hunting trip with his friend Arun into the forest on a full moon night. While in the forest, Vikram is warned by a tribesman named Bheema, who tries to persuade him to go back home, stating that the night of the full moon is the cursed tiger's night to hunt. Vikram laughs it off and decided to go after the tiger, not believing that this tiger is the cursed tiger. Arun finds something fishy and asks Vikram to go back. Suddenly it starts raining and the duo have to find a place to stay. Some strange voices were heard by the duo and they find the voices were coming from a den, but as the duo have to find a place to stay in, they decided to enter the den.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Within the den, Arun discovers writings on the walls in Sanskrit. These writings describe the tale of a king who could not have a child. One day, a tantric told him if he caught a pair of tigers who were in love, and on a full moon night, to kill one tiger and drink his blood, the king could have a child. The king did everything he was told, but when he killed one tiger, the surviving mate cursed him. The curse transformed the king into a tiger each full moon night and he hunted man. The curse also entailed that anybody who killed the king when he was in the tiger's form would in turn get cursed and so the curse would carry on forever. Vikram berates his friend for believing an age-old myth and they are then attacked by the cursed tiger. Vikram tries to shoot the tiger, but he missed the shot, Arun is killed on the spot by the tiger and Vikram becomes very scared. The shot fired by Vikram hits the fire lamp and a chain of fire was built in the den, the tiger hides due to this, but the tiger roars from somewhere. Vikram was unable to find the tiger. Scared, Vikram fired shots everywhere in the den with the hope that the tiger will run away, but the tiger attacks Vikram and Vikram fell in the ring of fire. The tiger did not again attack Vikram as tigers are afraid of fire and the tiger disappears.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: The shots fired by Vikram are heard by Harry and the Forest Officer Bhaskar Inamdar, who rush to the spot. There they find Bheema attacking Vikram to kill him. He claims that Vikram has gotten cursed and if he is killed before the curse reaches him, it will save him from a cursed life. Bhaskar, however, transfer Vikram to a hospital in an attempt to save his life.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Later on in the hospital, Vikram's hopes of survival are minimal and he is confirmed dead. The spirit of the tiger then enters Vikram and he returns from the dead, much to the shock and amazement of the doctors. Vikram is treated by Dr. Nita and he begins to like her. As the days go by, Vikram realises that there is an evil present in him. His dead friend's spirit tells him about the cursed tiger and that he himself will become the same beast on the upcoming full moon and every full moon thereafter. His friend also tells Vikram to kill himself, but Vikram refuses.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Vikram's liking for Dr. Nita turns into an obsession after he discovers that she is in love with an up-and-coming singer, Ravi. The evil in Vikram comes forward and he plots to separate Nita and Ravi. Then he consoles and convinces Nita's father to allow him to marry Nita. The night of their marriage is the night of the full moon, and that night Vikram transforms into a tiger in the hotel and kills an unknown woman. The following nights, Vikram's hunting spree continues as he kills more people after transforming into a tiger. The case of these murders is handled by Inspector Sudhir Pai, who enlists Forest Officer Bhaskar's assistance, since the victims resemble victims of animal attacks. Bhaskar begins suspecting Vikram after he finds direct and indirect evidences of his presence at each scene of crime, but is unable to gather enough evidence against Vikram to have him arrested.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Bheema approaches Bhaskar and Ravi and warns them of the danger that Nita is in, being Vikram's wife. Ravi tries to talk Nita into leaving Vikram for fear of her being harmed, but is berated by her. Ravi approaches Inspector Sudhir asking him to imprison Vikram on suspicion of the murders, but the Inspector berates Ravi for making unfounded allegations. Requiring evidence against Vikram, Bhaskar, Bheema and Ravi head over to Vikram's home. Meanwhile, Vikram's disappearances each night and Ravi's allegations against Vikram make Nita suspicious of Vikram and she decides to keep him at home. As soon as the moon is out, Vikram transforms into a tiger and tries to kill Nita, but she manages to escape and runs into Ravi, who has come to save her along with Bheema and Bhaskar. She tells them of how she saw Vikram transform into a tiger and based upon Bheema's suggestion, they build a ring of fire around themselves, since tigers are afraid of fire and Vikram won't attack them due to this. Vikram, in the form of the tiger, approaches them, but is unable to cross into their little circle of fire and moves away.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Bhaskar offers to bring the car around so that they can leave for safety. He takes a firebrand from the inferno and heads towards the car. Unbeknownst to them, Vikram is hiding inside the car lying in wait. He pulls Bhaskar inside the car and kills him as the group watches in horror.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: The group then approaches Harry asking for a way to kill Vikram and end the curse. Harry combs through ancient manuscripts and finds a way that involves locating an ancient temple within the mountains that contains an enchanted dagger that can kill the beast and end the curse. As soon as they leave for the mountain, Vikram approaches Harry. Harry attempts to kill Vikram with his gun, but discovers that normal weapons have no effect on him. Vikram, in his human form, proceeds to kill Harry, but manages to learn about the dagger and that Ravi, Nita and Bheema are on their way to find this dagger.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: At the mountain, the group locates a cave. Bheema is too scared to enter the cave and opts to stay out and wait. After a while, Vikram reaches the mountain and promises to spare Bheema if he reveals the location of the cave to him. When Bheema points towards the cave, Vikram throws him over the mountain and heads towards the cave.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: Within the cave, Ravi and Nita are dismayed to discover that there is not one but a row of daggers, only one of which is the right dagger. They read through the manuscript that was given to them by Harry and discover that the setting sun will point towards the right dagger. At sunset, a magical ray enters the cave and enlightens the enchanted dagger. Ravi is overjoyed to see the dagger, but when he claims it, he discovers that Vikram has entered the cave and taken Nita hostage. Vikram offers to exchange Nita with Ravi for the dagger and Ravi agrees to it, but tricks Vikram and a fight ensues. The curse has made Vikram so strong that even in his human form he bests Ravi, but is interrupted before he can finish Ravi when the moon rises. While he is transforming into the tiger, Ravi gets the time to look for the dagger, but is unable to find it due to the mist in the cave. Just before Vikram can finish transforming and kill Ravi, Nita manages to find the dagger and tosses it to Ravi who stabs Vikram with it. This ends the curse as well as killing Vikram, thus bringing to an end the "Junoon" of the curse.


title: Junoon (1992 film)

text: The film's soundtrack was composed by Nadeem-Shravan, with lyrics written by Sameer, Surinder Saathi, Rani Malik and Santosh Anand. All songs were sung by Anuradha Paudwal along with Kumar Sanu, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam and Vipin Sachdeva.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The Yamaha FJR1300A and FJR1300AE/AS are sport touring motorcycles made by Yamaha Motor Company. Both models have a 1,298 cc inline-four engine. The AE/AS model has an electronically controlled clutch and gear shifting system called YCC-S. The clutch and transmissions of the AE/AS models are identical to that of the standard FJR model.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The FJR1300 was introduced to Europe in 2001, before arriving in North America in 2002, with the 2003 model year designation, and offered in a non-ABS version only. The 2003 model garnered several awards in the sport touring category from various magazines.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The 2004 North American models included both a non-ABS version with traditional blue anodized brake calipers and a new ABS version with silver calipers. Other refinements included an upgrade to the suspension rates, 320 mm front brake discs (was 298 mm), and a fairing pocket for small items.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: In 2006, the U.S. and rest of the world model years synchronized with the introduction of what has become known as the 'Gen-II' version of the machine. The design changes included significant trailing arm changes, revised final drive ratio, a curved radiator exhibiting a larger surface area, instrumentation changes, an upgraded alternator and significant attention to airflow changes to deal with reported heat issues in previous years. Yamaha added adjustable vents to the FJR1300, allowing the rider to direct air closer to or away from the body. Starting with the 2006 models Anti-Lock Brakes (ABS) and a linked braking scheme Yamaha calls 'Unified Braking System' (UBS) became standard.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Also, the FJR1300AS model (FJR1300AE in the U.S.A. and Canada) was introduced which had a semi-automatic transmission. The AE variant was discontinued for 2010, although the AS model continued to be sold in markets outside of the US and Canada.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: For 2007, some very minor changes were made to the ECU to deal with potential issues related to altitude changes under certain circumstances. In 2008 changes were made to throttle 'feel', to improve low speed on/off throttle transitions. As well as Yamaha changed suppliers for the ABS system. Further refinements in the throttle control were introduced with the 2009 model.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: For 2013 the FJR1300 received a substantial number of updates, becoming the 'Gen-III' version. Bodywork is all new on the front half of the bike for better airflow and engine heat management, and a new faster-acting windshield mechanism was introduced. Front turn signal/position lights are now LEDs and there are LED accent lights around the headlights, and there is now one horn instead of two on prior years. In markets outside the US and Canada, the AS (AutoShift) model received an electrically adjustable suspension and inverted front forks - those suspension changes were introduced into the North American models in the following year as a model option known as the 'ES'.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Mechanically, the engine was given plated-on (rather than pressed in) cylinder linings for better heat dissipation. The ECU is new and now employs Yamaha Chip Controlled Throttle (YCCT) system, which is a ride-by-wire system. The implementation on the FJR1300 includes 'D-Mode', which incorporates two driving modes, 'sport' and 'touring', the primary difference being smoothness of throttle response. In addition to that, the new ECU incorporates as standard has an integrated Traction Control System (TCS) which can be disabled and cruise control. Cruise control is limited to 80 mph in 2013 (raised in 2014 to 100 mph).


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: In 2014 the FJR1300 split off into two models: the FJR1300A and the FJR1300ES. The FJR1300ES adds inverted forks and electronically adjustable suspension over the FJR1300A. Both models include an update in which the cruise control programming was changed to raise the maximum set-speed from 83MPH to 100MPH.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The suspension on the ES model can be adjusted via a menu system built into the gauge cluster. The front forks have adjustable damping, with three main settings (Soft, Standard, Hard) and seven adjustments within each level for fine-tuning. The rear shock has electronically adjustable preload, with four settings. While the damping can be adjusted on the fly, the preload can only be changed while stopped.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: In December 2015 Yamaha revised FJR for 2016 giving the machine a 6-speed transmission (both in standard and auto-shift versions), slipper/assist clutch, LED headlights and taillights, and a revised instrument cluster data layout. On the auto-shift and Electronically adjustable suspension versions progressive LED cornering lights were added as well.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Current sub-models outside the U.S. and Canada are the A (standard), AE (with electronic suspension and cornering LEDs), and AS (which has the features of the AE and also includes the YCC-S system replacing the gear shift actuator and clutch).


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The FJR1300 uses a five-speed sequential manual gearbox (six-speed from 2016 model onwards) with wide-ratio gears. The final-drive is via shaft, encased within the swingarm, which has mono-shock suspension with a remote quick-set two-position adjustable pre-load.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The FJR1300AE/AS model has an electrically-actuated gearshift and an EFM auto-clutch, the entirety of the system Yamaha calls YCC-S. It's a semi-automatic transmission, so there is no hand-clutch lever on this model. Instead, the YCC-S system allows the rider to shift using a set of manually-operated push-buttons on the left handlebar or via the standard foot-operated gear shift lever. The clutch is controlled by engine power, the computer momentarily reduces the fuel feed, and the solenoid affects the gear change allowing gear shifts to complete in approximately 0.2 seconds. The gearbox pattern is also unconventional in that neutral is at the bottom end of the range, otherwise, the gearbox is identical to the A model. The ECU automatically controls the electronic clutch and ignition timing to ensure smooth gear shifting and will actuate the clutch at standstill. Stalling the engine is not normally possible.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The 2016 model, introduced in December 2015, has a 6-speed transmission and the traditional shift models are equipped with a slipper clutch. Of note is that the new clutch can be retro-fitted to prior models of the FJR1300 if owners are so inclined


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The frame of the FJR1300 is a twin-spar design manufactured from aluminum alloy; the engine is a fully stressed member.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The FJR1300 has a standard 12 volt, negative ground electrical system. The 2006 and later models have a fused, switched cigarette-lighter style accessory jack in the left central locking glovebox. The 2003 U.S. model does not have a glovebox or electrical outlet; while model years 2004 and 2005 have glove boxes, they do not include the electrical outlet. As well, 2006 and later models have larger alternators and so can support more electrical accessories than their predecessors.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: The FJR1300 has an electrically adjusted windshield controlled by a rocker switch on the handlebars. In Generation I and Gen II models, by default the shield returns to its lowest position when the key is off, however some riders choose to disable the 'return' function. In the Gen III model, the windshield maintains its position until changed with the rocker switch, even when the ignition is turned off.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: A number of changes were made beginning with the 2006 model year, including adding a rider-adjustable airflow system.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: All Gen-II AE/AS models (and some A models, depending on year and market) have standard integrated heated handlebar grips with speed-sensitive adjustment (available as an aftermarket OEM kit for models not so equipped by the factory). The handlebars are position adjustable, with 3 settings, and the seat is adjustable to high or low, with about an inch between the two.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Locking side panniers are supplied as standard in most markets and some markets include cloth 'liners' which can be used as a carry-all for the contents of the cases. Each case will take a full-face helmet. Factory options include foot protectors, handguards, fairing protectors, larger windshield, and a color-coordinated top box to name but a few.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Many riders equip their bikes with a servo-operated cruise control system. There are several providers supplying the market. 2013 and later models have cruise control standard.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Sadly the FJR1300 cannot meet the latest Euro emission standard so was discontinued in 2021, after 20 years.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: In 2008 in Ireland it replaced the Honda ST1100 Pan-European and the BMW R1150RT in the Traffic Corps of Ireland's National Police Force, the Garda Síochána, and stayed in service until 2016 when it was itself replaced by the BMW R1200RT. In the UK, the FJR1300 has replaced the Honda ST1300 Pan-European as the patrol motorcycle with several police forces, following that model's withdrawal due to concerns over high-speed handling. In addition the FJR is used by the Blood Bikes organisation, volunteers who move blood and or organs around the UK between hospitals. The FJR is the patrol vehicle used by the police force of Trinidad and Tobago including the units in the convoy of the President and the Prime Minister. It is also used as the standard patrol motorcycle of the Royal Netherlands Marechaussee. The Danish, French and Australian Federal Police, the Lithuanian Police and the Spanish Guardia Civil also use the FJR1300. Vietnamese Police only use for special events like Xi Jinping visit or Trump - Kim summit.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Both outfitters had different styles in modifying the civilian version of the machine for police service. Enforcement Motors removed the Yamaha crash bars, rear trunk, and foot wind deflectors, opting for larger "canyon cages", a larger and heavier aluminum fabricated trunk and large lights mounted high. EVS opts for keeping the factory Yamaha parts, with a much narrower overall body, and adding lighting to flow with the motorcycle. The Enforcement Motors package moved the center of gravity up to about knee height for an average rider, while the EVS package kept the original Yamaha designed center of gravity, at slightly above the ankle.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Yamaha's factory FJR1300 police edition was formally introduced into the United States in 2018. The US version does not have the ES electronically controlled suspension, opting for a more traditional suspension setup. They have taller front windscreens, wind deflectors on the handguards, and wind deflectors mounted by the feet. The rear trunk and crash bars are Yamaha Police specific. The 1300P has ABS with linked braking and integrated siren and light controls for police equipment. The engine power output is the same as the civilian versions, at 141 wheel horsepower and 99.9 wheel foot lbs of torque. The US versions are the newer 6 speed motorcycles with LED lighting.


title: Yamaha FJR1300

text: Multiple jurisdictions have tested and switched to the motorcycle for its comfort, handling, acceleration, and factory integrated controls of police equipment. The St George Police department in St George Utah, as well as the Logan Police Department in Logan Utah have both switched to the motorcycles. The St George Police Department runs the motorcycles year round, on every day of the year except severe weather, due to the desert climate it is located in. Several other agencies across the United States have also made the switch due to the Yamaha's ruggedness, dependability, and control. Butte-Silver Bow Police Department in Montana, Several smaller agencies in South Carolina and others have gone to the Yamaha for price and performance compared to other police motorcycle manufacturers.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon is one of the first e-commerce companies in Russia, sometimes referred to as "the Amazon of Russia." Established in 1998 as an online bookstore, Ozon was one of the three biggest online retail platforms in the country by 2019. It was named as the #3 most valuable Russian internet company of 2020 by Forbes.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon is part of Ozon Group, which also owns the online travel booking platform Ozon.Travel and a stake in Russia's largest digital bookstore Litres. The current chief executive officer of Ozon is Alexander Shulgin, who joined the company after serving as chief financial officer and later chief operating officer of Yandex.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In October 2020 it was reported that Ozon plans to hold an IPO in the United States that could value the company at $3-5 billion. In November 2020, Ozon went public on the Nasdaq in an IPO that valued the company at $6.2 billion.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon.ru was established in 1998 as an online bookseller by the Russian software house Reksoft. The company soon expanded its assortment to CDs and DVDs before going on to sell a wide range of goods from clothing to electronics. In 2012, it acquired the shoe seller Sapato.ru and sold it in 2015 to the online fashion retailer KupiVIP. In 2014, it acquired a stake in Litres, a major Russia's e-book marketplace.


title: Ozon (company)

text: After a series of Russian chief executive officers, in 2005 Ozon appointed Bernard Lukey, who had advised the company on behalf of Baring Vostok. In 2011 Maelle Gavet became the new chief executive officer of Ozon. During her tenure, the firm worked to popularize e-commerce in the mainly cash-based Russian retail market. Gavet stepped down as chief executive officer in 2015; her deputy Danny Perekalsky was appointed successor. Since 2017 the chief executive officer of has been Alexander Shulgin, the former chief financial officer and chief operating officer of the Russian tech company Yandex. In April 2022, Mr. Shulgin bowed out as CEO and member of the board of directors of Ozon due to international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In 1999, ru-Net Holdings, founded by Leonid Boguslavsky along with the Western Baring Vostok Group, UFG and Rex Capital, purchased a controlling stake in the company for $3 million. In 2000, Baring Vostok became a controlling shareholder after investing $3 million into the company. In 2007, Ozon raised $18 million in a funding round led by the Geneva-based Index Ventures. In 2011, Ozon attracted $100 million in investment from Japanese e-commerce company Rakuten, Boguslavsky's ru-Net and others, followed by another $150 million funding deal with the Russian conglomerate Sistema and the Russian mobile operator MTS in 2014. MTS and Baring Vostok invested another $92 million into Ozon in 2018. In 2019, Boguslavsky sold his share in Ozon to the company's main shareholders, Baring Vostok and Sistema, for $70 million.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In 2019 Ozon secured a $150 million round of financing with the participation of U.S. venture capital firm Princeville Capital, in what was reported to be one of the largest Russian tech investment deals involving Western backers since 2014.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon reported a "hypergrowth" stage in 2019 as sales for the year increased by 93% to $1.1 billion and the volume of orders more than doubled to 32.2 million. Company turnover by gross merchandise volume (GMV) grew 188% year on year in the second quarter of 2020 and reached RUB 77.4 billion by H12020, an increase of 152% from the same period in the previous year. According to Daniil Fedorov, Ozon's chief financial officer at the time, the coronavirus pandemic created a new habit of shopping online among Russian consumers.


title: Ozon (company)

text: On August 3rd 2022 a large fire destroyed approx 50,000SQM of warehouse (Approx 1/3rd of the building) including the contents of the building the external walls and roof. At least one person died and 13 were injured in the fire. The emergencies ministry initially said the fire had spread to an area of 35,000 square metres but later revised this to approx 50,000SQM. A fire-pumping station, an Mi-8 helicopter, two Ka-32 helicopters, 150 firefighters and 40 other pieces of equipment were deployed to the scene, it said.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon offers more than 9 million products across more than 20 product categories including clothing, groceries, home goods and electronics. After a large increase in the available assortment, the volume of orders more than doubled in 2019 to 32.2 million.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In early 2019, the company launched a service called Ozon.Invest that grants loans to small and medium-sized businesses that sell their products on the Ozon marketplace. Ozon was also the first online retailer in Russia to launch consumer loans for multi-category online purchases, as well as its own debit card with a cashback feature.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon has been operating a marketplace platform for third-party sellers since 2018. In June 2020, the marketplace had more than 13,000 sellers who accounted for more than 85% of the assortment on the site.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In November 2021 “Ozon” announced the opening of pilot pickup mini-points, at least 15 square meters each, in small Russian towns from the beginning of 2022.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In August 2022, Ozon announced the launch of an ad service for the sale of goods from individuals. The pilot region was the Rostov region.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon developed its own fulfillment infrastructure to deliver orders in Russia's 11 time zones. In 2018 the company had seven fulfillment centers in the Moscow region as well as St. Petersburg, Tver, Kazan, Ekaterinburg, Rostov-On-Don and Novosibirsk. It more than doubled its fulfilment capacity in 2019 to almost 200,000 sqm, as well as investing in its last-mile delivery infrastructure.


title: Ozon (company)

text: The company operates its own delivery logistics platform and has a network of over 16,000 pickup points, including automated parcel lockers across Russia, . The use of brick-and-mortar pickup points where customers can pick up their orders arose out of a lack of reliable third-party delivery services in many parts of Russia. In 2019, Ozon launched an express grocery delivery service in Moscow, and rolled out its contactless home delivery service, which became a popular option during the coronavirus pandemic in the spring of 2020.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In March 2020, Ozon announced plans to spend more than $300 million to expand its logistics in advance of a potential IPO.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In October 2021, “Ozon Express” brand launched in Moscow inhouse ready-to-serve food production with one hour delivery with up to 30 dishes by the end of 2021. “Ozon Express” culinary production is expected to be available in other regions of Russia.


title: Ozon (company)

text: In December 2021, "Ozon" announced to be ready to launch by the end of the year 2021 the 15-minutes delivery of groceries and pre-prepared food in 30 districts of Moscow by virtue of company`s darkstores.


title: Ozon (company)

text: Ozon reported record sales growth during the coronavirus pandemic, as quarantine measures in Russia drove more people to shop online. During the crisis, the company capped prices on the most sought-after goods to prevent price gouging by marketplace sellers and expanded its contactless home delivery service to limit the spread of infection. In July 2020, Ozon and four other Russian retailers commissioned a monument to delivery workers who continued to work during lockdown in Moscow.


title: Open API

text: An open API (often referred to as a public API) is a publicly available application programming interface that provides developers with programmatic access to a proprietary software application or web service. APIs are sets of requirements that govern how one application can communicate and interact with another. APIs can also allow developers to access certain internal functions of a program, although this is not typically the case for web APIs. In the simplest terms, an API allows one piece of software to interact with another piece of software, whether within a single computer via a mechanism provided by the operating system or over an internal or external TCP/IP-based or non-TCP/IP-based network. Currently, many APIs are provided by organizations for access with HTTP. APIs may be used by both developers inside the organisation that published the API or by any developers outside that organisation who wish to register for access to the interface.


title: Open API

text: A private API is an interface that opens parts of an organization's backend data and application functionality for use by developers working within (or contractors working for) that organization. Private APIs are only exposed to internal developers therefore the API publishers have total control over what and how applications are developed. Private APIs offer substantial benefits with regards to internal collaboration. Using a private API across an organization allows for greater shared awareness of the internal data models. As the developers are working for (or contracted by) one organization, communication will be more direct and therefore they should be able to work more cohesively as a group. Private APIs can significantly diminish the development time needed to manipulate and build internal systems that maximise productivity and create customer-facing applications that improve market reach and add value to existing offerings.


title: Open API

text: In contrast to a private API, an open API is publicly available for all developers to access. They allow developers, outside of an organization's workforce, to access backend data that can then be used to enhance their own applications. Open APIs can significantly increase revenue without the business having to invest in hiring new developers making them a very profitable software application. However, it is important to remember that opening back end information to the public can create a range of security and management challenges. For example, publishing open APIs can make it harder for organisations to control the experience end users have with their information assets. Open API publishers cannot assume client apps built on their APIs will offer a good user experience. Furthermore, they cannot fully ensure that client apps maintain the look and feel of their corporate branding.


title: Open API

text: Open APIs can be used by businesses seeking to leverage the ever-growing community of freelancing developers who have the ability to create innovative applications that add value to their core business. Open APIs are favoured in the business sphere as they simultaneously increase the production of new ideas without investing directly in development efforts. Businesses often tailor their APIs to target specific developer audiences that they feel will be most effective in creating valuable new applications. However, an API can significantly diminish an application's functionality if it is overloaded with features.


title: Open API

text: For example, Yahoo's open search API allows developers to integrate Yahoo search into their own software applications. The addition of this API provides search functionality to the developer's application whilst also increasing search traffic for Yahoo's search engine hence benefitting both parties. With respect to Facebook and Twitter, we can see how third parties have enriched these services with their own code. For example, the ability to create an account on an external site/app using your Facebook credentials is made possible using Facebook's open API.


title: Open API

text: Many large technology firms, such as Twitter, LinkedIn and Facebook, allow the use of their service by third parties and competitors.


title: Open API

text: With the rise in prominence of HTML5 and Web 2.0, the modern browsing experience has become interactive and dynamic and this has, in part, been accelerated through the use of open APIs. Some open APIs fetch data from the database behind a website and these are called Web APIs. For example, Google's YouTube API allows developers to integrate YouTube into their applications by providing the capability to search for videos, retrieve standard feeds, and see related content.


title: Open API

text: Web APIs are used for exchanging information with a website either by receiving or by sending data. When a web API fetches data from a website, the application makes a carefully constructed HTTP request to the server the site is stored on. The server then sends data back in a format your application expects (if you requested data) or incorporates your changes to the website (if you sent data).


title: Boolean function

text: In mathematics, a Boolean function is a function whose arguments and result assume values from a two-element set (usually {true, false}, {0,1} or {-1,1}). Alternative names are switching function, used especially in older computer science literature, and truth function (or logical function), used in logic. Boolean functions are the subject of Boolean algebra and switching theory.


title: Boolean function

text: A Boolean function takes the form formula_1, where formula_2 is known as the Boolean domain and formula_3 is a non-negative integer called the arity of the function. In the case where formula_4, the function is a constant element of formula_2. A Boolean function with multiple outputs, formula_6 with formula_7 is a "vectorial" or "vector-valued" Boolean function (an S-box in symmetric cryptography).


title: Boolean function

text: There are formula_8 different Boolean functions with formula_3 arguments; equal to the number of different truth tables with formula_10 entries.


title: Boolean function

text: Every formula_3-ary Boolean function can be expressed as a propositional formula in formula_3 variables formula_13, and two propositional formulas are logically equivalent if and only if they express the same Boolean function.


title: Boolean function

text: In order to optimize electronic circuits, Boolean formulas can be minimized using the Quine–McCluskey algorithm or Karnaugh map.


title: Boolean function

text: Circuit complexity attempts to classify Boolean functions with respect to the size or depth of circuits that can compute them.


title: Boolean function

text: A Boolean function may be decomposed using Boole's expansion theorem in positive and negative "Shannon" "cofactors" (Shannon expansion), which are the (k-1)-ary functions resulting from fixing one of the arguments (to zero or one). The general (k-ary) functions obtained by imposing a linear constraint on a set of inputs (a linear subspace) are known as "subfunctions".


title: Boolean function

text: The "Boolean derivative" of the function to one of the arguments is a (k-1)-ary function that is true when the output of the function is sensitive to the chosen input variable; it is the XOR of the two corresponding cofactors. A derivative and a cofactor are used in a Reed–Muller expansion. The concept can be generalized as a k-ary derivative in the direction dx, obtained as the difference (XOR) of the function at x and x + dx.


title: Boolean function

text: The "Möbius transform" (or "Boole-Möbius transform") of a Boolean function is the set of coefficients of its polynomial (algebraic normal form), as a function of the monomial exponent vectors. It is a self-inverse transform. It can be calculated efficiently using a butterfly algorithm (""Fast Möbius Transform""), analogous to the Fast Fourier Transform. "Coincident" Boolean functions are equal to their Möbius transform, i.e. their truth table (minterm) values equal their algebraic (monomial) coefficients. There are 2^2^("k"−1) coincident functions of "k" arguments.


title: Boolean function

text: The "Walsh transform" of a Boolean function is a k-ary integer-valued function giving the coefficients of a decomposition into linear functions (Walsh functions), analogous to the decomposition of real-valued functions into harmonics by the Fourier transform. Its square is the "power spectrum" or "Walsh spectrum". The Walsh coefficient of a single bit vector is a measure for the correlation of that bit with the output of the Boolean function. The maximum (in absolute value) Walsh coefficient is known as the "linearity" of the function. The highest number of bits (order) for which all Walsh coefficients are 0 (i.e. the subfunctions are balanced) is known as "resiliency", and the function is said to be correlation immune to that order. The Walsh coefficients play a key role in linear cryptanalysis.


title: Boolean function

text: The "autocorrelation" of a Boolean function is a k-ary integer-valued function giving the correlation between a certain set of changes in the inputs and the function ouput. For a given bit vector it is related to the Hamming weight of the derivative in that direction. The maximal autocorrelation coefficient (in absolute value) is known as the "absolute indicator". If all autocorrelation coefficients are 0 (i.e. the derivatives are balanced) for a certain number of bits then the function is said to satisfy the "propagation criterion" to that order; if they are all zero then the function is a bent function. The autocorrelation coefficients play a key role in differential cryptanalysis.


title: Boolean function

text: The Walsh coefficients of a Boolean function and its autocorrelation coefficients are related by the equivalent of the Wiener–Khinchin theorem, which states that the autocorrelation and the power spectrum are a Walsh transform pair.


title: Boolean function

text: These concepts can be extended naturally to "vectorial" Boolean functions by considering their output bits ("coordinates") individually, or more thoroughly, by looking at the set of all linear functions of output bits, known as its "components". The set of Walsh transforms of the components is known as a "Linear Approximation Table" (LAT) or "correlation matrix"; it describes the correlation between different linear combinations of input and output bits. The set of autocorrelation coefficients of the components is the "autocorrelation table", related by a Walsh transform of the components to the more widely used "Difference Distribution Table" (DDT) which lists the correlations between differences in input and output bits (see also: S-box).


title: Boolean function

text: Any Boolean function formula_14 can be uniquely extended (interpolated) to the real domain by a multilinear polynomial in formula_15, constructed by summing the truth table values multiplied by indicator polynomials:formula_16For example, the extension of the binary XOR function formula_17 isformula_18which equalsformula_19Some other examples are negation (formula_20), AND (formula_21) and OR (formula_22). When all operands are independent (share no variables) a function's polynomial form can be found by repeatedly applying the polynomials of the operators in a Boolean formula. When the coefficients are calculated modulo 2 one obtains the algebraic normal form (Zhegalkin polynomial).


title: Boolean function

text: Direct expressions for the coefficients of the polynomial can be derived by taking an appropriate derivative:formula_23this generalizes as the Möbius inversion of the partially ordered set of bit vectors:formula_24where formula_25 denotes the weight of the bit vector formula_26. Taken modulo 2, this is the Boolean "Möbius transform", giving the algebraic normal form coefficients:formula_27In both cases, the sum is taken over all bit-vectors "a" covered by "m", i.e. the "one" bits of "a" form a subset of the one bits of "m".


title: Boolean function

text: When the domain is restricted to the n-dimensional hypercube formula_28, the polynomial formula_29 gives the probability of a positive outcome when the Boolean function "f" is applied to "n" independent random (Bernoulli) variables, with individual probabilities "x". A special case of this fact is the piling-up lemma for parity functions. The polynomial form of a Boolean function can also be used as its natural extension to fuzzy logic.


title: Boolean function

text: Often, the Boolean domain is taken as formula_30, with false ("0") mapping to 1 and true ("1") to -1 (see Analysis of Boolean functions). The polynomial corresponding to formula_31 is then given by:formula_32Using the symmetric Boolean domain simplifies certain aspects of the analysis, since negation corresponds to multiplying by -1 and linear functions are monomials (XOR is multiplication). This polynomial form thus corresponds to the "Walsh transform" (in this context also known as "Fourier transform") of the function (see above). The polynomial also has the same statistical interpretation as the one in the standard Boolean domain, except that it now deals with the expected values formula_33 (see piling-up lemma for an example).


title: Boolean function

text: Boolean functions play a basic role in questions of complexity theory as well as the design of processors for digital computers, where they are implemented in electronic circuits using logic gates.


title: Boolean function

text: The properties of Boolean functions are critical in cryptography, particularly in the design of symmetric key algorithms (see substitution box).


title: Boolean function

text: In cooperative game theory, monotone Boolean functions are called simple games (voting games); this notion is applied to solve problems in social choice theory.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Early thermal weapons, which used heat or burning action to destroy or damage enemy personnel, fortifications or territories, were employed in warfare during the classical and medieval periods (approximately the 8th century BC until the mid-16th century AD).


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Incendiary devices were frequently used as projectiles during warfare, particularly during sieges and naval battles: some substances were boiled or heated to inflict damage by scalding or burning; other substances relied on their chemical properties to inflict burns or damage. These weapons or devices could be used by individuals, thrown by siege engines, or utilised as army strategy. Incendiary mixtures, such as the petroleum-based Greek fire, could be launched by throwing machines or administered through a siphon. Sulfur- and oil-soaked materials were sometimes ignited and thrown at the enemy, or attached to spears, arrow and bolts and fired by hand or machine.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The simplest and most common thermal projectiles were boiling water and hot sand, which could be poured over attacking personnel. Other anti-personnel weapons included the use of hot pitch, oil, resin, animal fat and other similar compounds. Smoke was used to confuse or drive off attackers. Substances such as quicklime and sulfur could be toxic and blinding.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Fire and incendiary weapons were also used against enemy structures and territory, sometimes on a massive scale. Large tracts of land, towns and villages were frequently ignited as part of a scorched earth strategy. Some siege techniques—such as mining and boring—relied on combustibles and fire to complete the collapse of walls and structures.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Towards the latter part of the period, gunpowder was invented, which increased the sophistication of the weapons, starting with fire lances, which led to the eventual development of the cannon and other firearms. Development of the early weapons has continued ever since, with modern war weapons such as napalm, flame throwers, and other explosives having direct roots in the original early thermal weapons. Fire-raising and other destructive strategies can still be seen in modern strategic bombing.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The destruction of enemy possessions and territory was a fundamental strategy of war, serving the dual purpose of punishment and deprivation of resources. Until the 5th century BC, the Greeks had little expertise in siege warfare and relied on a strategy of devastation to draw the enemy out; they destroyed crops, trees and houses. Centuries later, the Byzantines recommended this strategy, even though they had developed siege technology.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Fire was the easiest way of harrying and destroying territories, and could be done easily and quickly by small forces. It was a strategy put to good use by the Scots during the Wars of Independence; they repeatedly launched raids into northern England, burning much of the countryside until the whole region was transformed. King Edward II of England pursued one raiding party in 1327 by following the lights of burning villages.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The tactics were replicated by England during the Hundred Years' War; fire became their chief weapon as they laid waste to the French countryside during lightning raids called chevauchées, in a form of economic warfare. One estimate records the destruction of over 2000 villages and castles during one raid in 1339.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: As well as causing the destruction of lands, food and belongings, fire could also be used to divert manpower. 13th century Mongol armies regularly sent out small detachments from their main forces to start grass fires and fire settlements as diversions.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Devastation by fire was not only used as an offensive tactic; some countries and armies employed "scorched earth" policies on their own land to deprive invading armies of all food and forage. Robert I of Scotland reacted to the English invasion of 1322 by launching punitive and diversionary chevauchées into north-west England, then retreating to Culross, burning as he went the Scottish lands which lay in the path of the English army. The English ran out of food and had to abandon the campaign.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Such acts of aggression were not limited to wars against territorial enemies, but could form part of the strategies of conquest, subjugation and punishment of rebellion. Alexander the Great suppressed a revolt in Thebes, Greece in 335 BC, after which he ordered the city to be torched and laid waste. Alexander ordered (or allowed) a similar arson at Persepolis in 330 BC. It was a policy which was repeated throughout the period. William I of England, following his conquest of England in the 11th century, asserted his control of Northumbria by destructive campaigns throughout the region: "He ordered that crops and herds, tools and food should be burned to ashes. More than 100,000 people perished of hunger", reported Orderic Vitalis, a contemporary chronicler. It was a scene repeated the following century, during the anarchy of Stephen of England's reign. Civil war erupted between Stephen's supporters and those of the Empress Matilda, a rival claimant for the throne. The "Gesta Stephani" tells of the deeds of one of Stephen's supporters, Philip of Gloucester, by describing how he "raged in all directions with fire and sword, violence and plunder", reducing territory to "bare fields and dreadful desert".


title: Early thermal weapons

text: At the simplest level, fire itself was used as a weapon to cause large-scale destruction, or to target specific enemy positions or machinery. It was frequently used against siege engines and wooden structures. Incendiary weapons could be used to set fire to towns and fortifications, and a wide range of thermal weapons were used against enemy personnel. Some armies developed specialised "fire-troops". By 837, many Muslim armies had groups of "naffatin" (fire archers), and when the Mamluk Sultanate raised a fleet for an attack on Cyprus they had "nafata", or firetroops.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The burning of enemy positions and equipment was not necessarily a complicated procedure, and many fires were set by individuals using common materials. When William of Normandy's army besieged Mayenne in 1063, they shot fire into the castle to panic the garrison, while two boys stole into the castle in order to start a fire within. The garrison surrendered.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Besieged forces would sometimes launch sorties in an attempt to fire the attackers' camps or equipment. When Hugh Capet besieged Laon in 986–987, his troops became drunk one night, and Duke Charles's men sallied forth and torched the camp, forcing Hugh to abandon the siege.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The besieged were not the only ones who might fire siege equipment; when Frederick I Barbarossa abandoned his siege of Alessandria in 1175, he burned his own camp and equipment.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: However, like all weapons, fire-raising had its own dangers. In 651 Penda of Mercia attempted to win Bamburgh Castle by building a pyre at its base from planks, beams, wattle and thatch. The wind changed direction and the fire blew back on Penda's men, who had to abandon the attack. This fortuitous wind-change was credited to Saint Aidan, who saw the smoke from the Farne Islands and prayed for the defenders.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Various throwing machines were in use throughout the classical and medieval periods. Generally referred to as "artillery", these engines could hurl, fire or shoot missiles and most could be used or adapted for throwing thermal weapons, by attacking and defending forces. Barrels, fire pots and other breakable containers of pitch, Greek fire, and other incendiary mixtures could be thrown; other machines fired arrows and bolts, which could be ignited, or adapted to carry flammable mixtures. From the 12th century, Muslims in Syria were using clay and glass grenades for fire weapons, thrown by machines.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Most of the terms used for throwing machines were vague, and could refer to different engines, all of which went through changes and developments over the period. Among the most common were the ballista, mangonel and trebuchet. The ballista was similar in form to a crossbow, though much larger, and used a string-winding mechanism to fire a missile or bolt placed in a groove. Other giant crossbows were used throughout the period, and an "espringal", based on the ballista, which threw large bolts, was developed in the 13th century. Torsion-powered arrow firers had been used from 400 BC, and were adapted for stones. A mangonel had a wooden spoon-shaped arm, to hold a stone or other projectile, which was manipulated under tension from a twisted rope. The trebuchet was an advanced development of the 12th or 13th century, which used a counter-weight to power the throwing arm, and was the major siege engine until the cannon became widespread.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Forces attacking a castle or other strong fortification sometimes sought to undermine the foundations by digging "mines" or tunnels underneath them. Usually, such mining or digging machinery was protected by a "tortoise" (also called a "cat", "sow", or "owl"): a covered shed on wheels, which shielded the miners from missile attack.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: As the tunnels were constructed, they were generally supported by wooden beams and posts. Once the mine had been finished, the internal space was filled with combustibles, such as brushwood, firewood, resin, and other incendiary substances; once ignited, these would burn the supporting props, causing the mine to collapse, bringing down with it the structures lying above. From the 15th century, gunpowder was also used, although the aim remained to burn the props.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Defenders might sometimes dig counter-tunnels in order to reach the enemy's mines and launch an attack; frequently thermal weapons were used to drive the besiegers from the tunnels.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Rather than undermining a structure, some besiegers used borers to drill holes in the outer walls in an effort to destroy them; such methods were more effective than rams on brick walls (which tended to absorb the shocks from the ram). Borers differed in size and mechanism, but a typical machine was made from a log of wood, tipped with iron and supported and driven by windlasses or ropes. Once a series of holes had been bored along the length of a wall, the holes were typically filled with rods of dry wood, saturated with sulfur or pitch and then ignited. Bellows could be used to encourage a blaze.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Fire ships were used on several occasions throughout the period. In 332 BC Alexander the Great laid siege to Tyre, a coastal base of the Phoenicians. In order to bring his siege engines within range, Alexander ordered the construction of moles. The Tyrians responded by attacking the first mole with a large fireship, which destroyed it. A large horse transport ship was packed with cedar torches, pitch, dried brush and other combustibles; above this were suspended cauldrons of sulfur, bitumen and "every sort of material apt to kindle and nourish flame". This was towed to the mole, and lit by the Phoenicians before they jumped overboard and swam away.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Another example occurred during the 886 Siege of Paris, when the Vikings filled three warships with combustible material and pulled them upriver in a failed attempt to destroy the Franks' fortified bridges. Fire ships containing straw and powder were also used during the Chinese Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Often ingenious methods were developed for administering the weapons. The 10th-century Olga of Kiev is reported to have tied burning tinder to birds which, when released, flew back to their nests in the hostile town and set them alight.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Siege towers and ladders could be fitted with a long, narrow tilting beam at the top, gouged with a groove, so that hot oil and water could be poured down on the enemy defenders during an escalade.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: During an attack, castle or fortification defenders could launch or pour the substances on the heads of attackers below. This could be done over the battlements, but also through purpose-built holes such as machicolations and murder-holes. Indian records suggest smoke and fire was used defensively within a fortress to confuse and disorient attackers; iron grills could also be heated and used to block passageways. During night attacks, defenders could drop lighted bundles over the walls so the enemy could be seen; Chinese and Muslim sources also describe the light gained by torches hung on the walls.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Stone castles were susceptible to fire, since they contained many combustible materials. In 1139, Henry de Tracy forced the surrender of Torrington Castle by the simple expedient of tossing lighted torches through the keep's loopholes.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Stone was also susceptible to intense heat, which would cause it to crack and collapse. Byzantine sources recorded the demolition of stone structures caused by placing clay pots of burning charcoal at the base of walls moistened with vinegar or urine, and the 6th century treatise by an engineer in Justinian's army includes the lighting of fires beneath the walls amongst its instructions for sieges.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Stone castles sometimes offered other inflammatory targets. During the Crusades, Muslim defenders frequently hung bundles of straw against their walls as buffers against stones and rams; in turn, the Crusader archers would set these alight with fire arrows.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Defense from thermal weapons and fire attacks was usually water or other liquids such as urine; hides were soaked and draped over vulnerable wooden hoardings and siege engines, vats and barrels of liquid were collected and stored by defenders and attackers. Hides were hung in an overlapping manner so that any water would run down the whole structure to extinguish flames.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Some thermal weapons (such as quicklime or oil) could not be extinguished or eased by water, in which case sand or earth could be used. Wooden structures were frequently soaked in alum to increase their fire resistance. The Romans covered their "tortoises" (mobile siege sheds) with raw hides packed with vinegar-soaked seaweed or chaff, to serve as protection against regular and incendiary missiles. Throughout the period, sacks or nets might be filled with vinegar-moistened chaff, seaweed or wet moss and hung on the exterior. The wooden siege engines of the Crusaders were vulnerable to attack from the Byzantine and Muslim fire-weapons, so the troops inside siege towers kept stores of water and vinegar.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: During the High Middle Ages, the majority of Poland's castles were still made of wood, so uncut stone was frequently added to the front to improve their fire defences.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Both attackers and defenders needed to be prepared for incendiary and thermal attack. When the Athenians besieged Syracuse in 416 BC they lost many siege engines to fire. The Syracusan ruler Dionysius I must have taken note of this success, for when he laid siege to Motya in 398 BC he organised special fire "brigades", who successfully doused the fires when his siege engines were bombarded.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: During the First English Civil War, incendiary devices were used to raze city centers. Defenders in London were advised to combat the flames using milk, sand, earth, and urine. In Colchester, fires caused by hand grenades (the weapon was called "wildfire" by the combatants) were extinguished using wet clothes saturated in milk and vinegar.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Lit torches (burning sticks) were likely the earliest form of incendiary device. They were followed by incendiary arrows, which were used throughout the ancient and medieval periods. The simplest flaming arrows had oil- or resin-soaked tows tied just below the arrowhead and were effective against wooden structures. Both the Assyrians and the Judeans used flaming arrows at the siege of Lachish in 701 BC. More sophisticated devices were developed by the Romans which had iron boxes and tubes which were filled with incendiary substances and attached to arrows or spears. These arrows needed to be shot from loose bows, since swift flight extinguished the flame; spears could be launched by hand or throwing machine.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Flaming arrows required the shooter to get quite close to their desired target and most will have extinguished themselves before reaching the target. In response, another form of fire arrow was developed which consisted of curved metal bars connecting a tip and hollow end for the shaft. The resulting cage was filled with hot coals or other solid object which could be fired from a much stronger bow or ballista without fear of extinguishing and would be used to ignite straw or thatch roofs from a safer distance.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Flaming arrows and crossbow bolts were used throughout the period. Fifteenth-century writer Gutierre Diaz de Gamez witnessed a Spanish attack on the Moorish town of Oran in 1404 and later described how "During the most part of the night, the galleys did not cease from firing bolts and quarrells dipped in tar into the town, which is near the sea. The noise and the cries which came from the town were very great by reason of the havoc that was wrought."


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The Chinese Song Dynasty created fire arrowsrockets attached to arrows and launched en masse through platforms, and later created rockets such as the huo long chu shui, a multistage rocket used in naval combat. Primitive rockets made from bamboo and leather were used by the Mongols, under Genghis Khan, but were inaccurate. However, the Fatimids used "Chinese arrows" from the 11th Century, which probably included saltpetre. The Mamluks experimented with a rocket-powered weapon described as "an egg which moves itself and burns".


title: Early thermal weapons

text: A iron crossbow-bolt probably designed to carry a fire cartridge was found in a 13th-14th-century castle in Vladimir, Russia. Such large machine-thrown bolts were ideal for incendiary weapons. The Mongols used an "ox-bow" machine to throw bolts which had been dipped in burning pitch, with a range of 2500 paces.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: During the British Civil Wars (mid-17th century in Great Britain), both the Parliamentarian and Royalist armies used various incendiary devices to attack enemies and destroy property that might be used for military purposes, according to historian Stephen Porter in "Destruction in the English Civil Wars". The flaming arrow attack was used to set fire to buildings at a distance. An arrow with a flammable substance attached to the shaft, close to the tip, was shot from a bow or short-muzzled musket. Such arrows shot from a musket had their feathers removed, to fit inside the muzzle, and were called fire-darts. These devices were cheap to make and easy to prepare. Although used infrequently during the wars, the flaming arrows and darts proved to be destructive. The Royalists shot flaming arrows into the thatched homes in the suburbs of Chester causing extensive damage. Lyme Regis was partly razed using flaming arrows.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Greek fire was one of the most effective thermal devices, although it was extremely dangerous for the users. A combustible liquid, it could be shot from siphons or catapults, and it burst into flames on impact. First developed by the Byzantines in the 7th century, it was later used by the Turks during the Crusades, and was probably first used in Western Europe in the 12th century. Early experiments by the Byzantines in the 6th century used a mixture of sulfur and oil, which would have been terrifying if not destructive. Various versions seem to have existed, and the recipes were frequently kept secret; experts today still debate the exact composition, although some recipes are known. It probably had regional variations; the Islamic derivative was known as "naft" and had a petroleum base, with sulfur; the Persian word for "petroleum" is نفت ("naft").


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The combustible liquid could be shot from catapults, and would burst into flames on impact. Siphons, frequently of copper, were also developed, first appearing in the 10th and 11th centuries. The siphons could shoot a blazing stream, which a 10th-century Mesopotamian source claimed could engulf twelve men. Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi, who wrote a military manual for Saladin in the 12th century, suggested that "naft" could be placed inside blown eggshells, which could be thrown from horseback. From the 12th century, mouth-blown tubes were developed for use in mines.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Similar petroleum and bitumen-based incendiary mixtures had been known for centuries before the invention of Greek fire, but this new recipe created a blaze which was extremely difficult to extinguish. It burned on water, and was used effectively in naval warfare, although it was primarily an anti-personnel weapon rather than a ship-burner. It remained effective at sea even after its use had declined on land after the 13th century.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The Greek fire recipes continued to be developed over the centuries, and by the High Middle Ages was much more sophisticated than the early versions. Saltpetre (also called "Chinese salt") was added to the mixture in the Islamic world, and China developed a dry saltpetre mixture in the 12th century, which eventually became gunpowder. Both the Parliamentarian and Royalist armies used Greek-fire-like petroleum-based incendiary devices known as "wildfire" during the British Civil Wars.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 listed weapons made by Javanese people, including Greek fire. Zhang Xie in Dong Xi Yang Kao (1618) mentioned that city of Palembang, which has been conquered by Javanese, produces the furious fiery oil ("ming huo yu"), which according to the "Hua I Kao" is a kind of tree secretion ("shu chin"), and is also called mud oil ("ni yu"). Zhang Xie wrote:It much resemble camphor, and can corrode human flesh. When ignited and thrown on water, its light and flame become all the more intense. The barbarians use it as a fire-weapon and produce great conflagrations in which sails, bulwarks, upperworks and oars all catch fire and cannot withstand it. Fishes and tortoises coming in contact with it cannot escape from being scorched.Because there was no mention of projector pump, the weapon is probably breakable bottles with fuses.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Oil of various kinds could be heated to high temperatures and poured over an enemy, although, since it was extremely expensive, its use was limited, both in frequency and quantity. Moreover, it could be dangerous and volatile. Since the smoke point of oil is lower than its boiling point, the oil was only heated and not boiled.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Pouring-oil was used in historic battles, and Josephus described its use at Jotapata in AD 67, saying "the oil did easily run down the whole body from head to foot, under their entire armour, and fed upon their flesh like flame itself."


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Oil was usually used to create incendiary devices. The Roman-Byzantine armies of the 6th century created "fire-pots", oil-based incendiary weapons which could be launched by hand or with ballistae.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: During the siege at Montreuil-en-Bellay in 1147, a mixture of oils from nuts, "cannabis" and flax, was heated in iron containers, launched by mangonel, and burst into flames on impact. The Chinese made early grenades out of oil-soaked hemp and cotton, which were ignited and thrown by mangonels.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Another use of oil can be seen in the naval battle of La Rochelle during the Hundred Years' War; the Castilians sprayed oil on the decks of English ships then ignited it by shooting flaming arrows down.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Hot oil was considerably less common than boiling water or heated sand, which were cheap and extremely effective; even "dust from the street" could be used. These would penetrate armour and cause terrible burns. Sand, especially, could work its way through very small gaps in armour. The Phoenicians at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC) dropped burning sand down on the attacking Greeks, which got in behind the armour and burned the flesh.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Such heated missiles have also been used in mining situations; the 1st century Roman writer Vitruvius describes a counter-mine dug above the attackers' gallery by defenders at the siege of Apollonia. Piercing the floor between the mines, the Apollonian defenders poured down boiling water, hot sand and hot pitch onto the heads of their enemy. Other mixtures were more innovative; the defenders at Chester in 918 boiled a mixture of water and ale in copper tubs and poured it over the Viking besiegers, causing their skin to peel off.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: When Frederick I Babarossa besieged Crema, Italy in the 12th century, the defenders threw red-hot iron objects down on their attackers.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Burning pitch was used on occasion. The Sasanians threw fire pots containing sulfur, pitch, and naptha ("oil of Medea") against Roman siege engines during the Siege of Petra (550–551). the Mongols were known to fire containers of burning tar during sieges using catapults and trebuchets. Wheels could be covered in pitch, set alight, and rolled along; this technique was commonly used during the Crusades. The besieged Carthaginians in Motya, 398 BC, set alight the siege engines of the attacking Syracusan forces under Dionysius I by dropping burning charred logs and resin-soaked oakum; however, the Syracusans were able to put out the fires.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Pitch was a base ingredient in many incendiary devices throughout the period. The Boeotians developed a fire machine, which they used against the Athenian wooden fortifications during the Battle of Delium in 424 BC. A cauldron of burning coals, pitch and sulfur was suspended at one end of a hollowed-out log and bellows were fixed to the other end. A similar mixture was used 1700 years later by the Scots, when they dropped bales of wood, tar and sulfur by crane onto the English "sow" (a large protective shield covering the battering ram) at the 1319 siege of Berwick-upon-Tweed.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: At the 1215 siege of Rochester Castle, King John ordered that fat from 40 pigs be used to set fire to the mines beneath the keep, which caused it to collapse; a cheap and effective technique in place of the more complicated mixture of sulfur, tallow, gum, pitch and quicksilver he had used in France the previous year. Animal fat was not uncommon as an accelerant; in the 13th century French sortie-parties would often be equipped with animal fat, straw and flax to use as fuel when setting fires amongst enemy siege engines.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: There were some other intriguing uses of animal parts; during the Siege of Paris in 886 AD, the Franks dropped bucket-loads of a hot mixture of pitch (or oil), wax and fish on the attacking Vikings; the mixture got under the armour and stuck to the skin. Konrad Kyeser's " Bellifortis" of 1405 describes a poisonous mixture of sulfur, tar and horses' hooves. Other incendiary ingredients included egg yolks, and pigeon and sheep droppings.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Some documented uses of animals were not thermal or incendiary. Live insects were also used, to sting the enemy. 4th century BC writer Aeneas Tacticus suggested defenders should let wasps and bees into enemy mines, and jars of scorpions were sometimes fired during early bombardment in naval battles. In 189 BC Ambracia was besieged by the Romans, who dug mines under the walls. The defenders filled a clay jar with chicken feathers, which they then lit, using bellows to blow the acrid smoke down the tunnel; unable to approach the pot due to defensive spears, the Romans were forced to abandon their works.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The 15th-century engineer Taccola recommended quicklime, although its use went back to ancient times, and might well have been a component of Greek fire. Quicklime reacts violently with water, and can cause blindness and burns. While quicklime was used in some naval battles, it does not appear to have been standard issue on board ships, due to the danger of the quicklime blowing back and burning the user.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Other substances smoked rather than flamed. Sacks of burning sulfur were effective at clearing enemy mines due to the toxic smoke produced. Any smoke could be used in small confines; the Greek military writer Aeneas Tacticus recommended burning wood and straw to drive out enemy sappers by the smoke.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The discovery of gunpowder was probably the product of centuries of alchemical experimentation. Saltpetre was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpetre and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations. The impetus for the development of gunpowder weapons in China was increasing encroachment by tribes on its borders. The earliest known formula for gunpowder can be found in a Chinese work dating probably from the 9th century. The Chinese wasted little time in applying it to warfare, and they produced a variety of gunpowder weapons, including flamethrowers, rockets, bombs, and mines, before inventing firearms. European descriptions of gunpowder first appear in "Opus Maius" and "Opus Tertium", written by the English philosopher Roger Bacon in the mid-13th century, although the mixture was not very effective. The composition of gunpowder varied throughout the period, and did not settle into the current ratios of saltpetre, sulfur and charcoal until the 17th century.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: The years 904–906 saw the use of incendiary projectiles called 'flying fires' ("fei-huo"). Needham (1986) argues that gunpowder was first used in warfare in China in 919 as a fuse for the ignition of another incendiary, Greek fire. Initially, gunpowder mixtures were utilised through traditional engines and throwing mechanisms; containers and grenades were thrown by mangonels and trebuchets, and explosive rockets and arrows were developed, along with gunpowder flamethrowers.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Like firearms, cannon are a descendant of the fire-lance, a gunpowder-filled tube used as a flamethrower; was sometimes placed in the barrel so that it would fly out together with the flames. In due course, the proportion of saltpeter in the propellant was increased to increase its explosive power. To better withstand that explosive power, the paper and bamboo of which fire-lance barrels were originally made came to be replaced by metal. And to take full advantage of that power, the shrapnel came to be replaced by projectiles whose size and shape filled the barrel more closely. With this, we have the three basic features of the gun: a barrel made of metal, high-nitrate gunpowder, and a projectile which totally occludes the muzzle so that the powder charge exerts its full potential in propellant effect.


title: Early thermal weapons

text: Firearms remained in use in China throughout the following centuries. Meanwhile, gunpowder and firearms spread elsewhere very quickly. Gunpowder seems to have been widely known by the 13th century. The Europeans, Arabs, and Koreans all obtained firearms in the 14th century. The Turks, Iranians, and Indians all got firearms no later than the 15th century, in each case directly or indirectly from the Europeans. The Japanese did not acquire firearms until the 16th century, and then from the Portuguese rather than the Chinese.