title: Floyd Cramer

text: Cramer’s grandson, Jason Coleman, followed in his footsteps taking up the piano, performing with him on television and in concert at a young age. At age 17, he played "Please Help Me, I'm Falling", the first song to feature Cramer's signature slip notes, with Hank Locklin at the Grand Ole Opry, and two years later played piano for the Medallion Ceremony at Cramer's induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame. He carries on his grandfather's legacy with recordings and a touring tribute concert, The Piano Magic of Floyd Cramer, sharing the piano arrangements and story of Cramer's contributions to American music.


title: Floyd Cramer

text: In 2003, Cramer was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2004, his recording of "Last Date" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, established to honor recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance. In 2008 Cramer was inducted into the Louisiana Music Hall of Fame.


title: Floyd Cramer

text: East Tennessee State University, in Johnson City, Tennessee, offers the Floyd Cramer Competitive Scholarship.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: In the "Terminator" film series, a Terminator is an autonomous cyborg, typically humanoid, originally conceived as a virtually indestructible soldier, infiltrator, and assassin.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: James Cameron introduced the first Terminator character in the 1984 film "The Terminator", featuring a single cyborg simply called "The Terminator" or "Cyberdyne Systems Model 101", portrayed by Arnold Schwarzenegger.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: In the "Terminator" multiverse, a Terminator is a cyborg assassin and soldier, designed for infiltration and combat duty, used by the military supercomputer Skynet toward the ultimate goal of exterminating the Human Resistance. Other supercomputers with the same goal include The Turk / "John Henry" and Legion, respectively competing with Skynet in the television series "" and the film "", both of which take place in alternate timelines. Some Terminator models are designed to masquerade as humans in order to infiltrate their bases and habitats. The lineup begins with metallic endoskeletons covered in rubber skin, later replaced with synthetic human flesh, and then developed prototypes with mimetic polyalloy, able to mimic any person or object. Terminators can speak naturally, copy the voices of others, read and write human handwriting, and even sweat, smell, bleed, and age. Being machines, it is typically believed by humans that they are incapable of behavioral responses such as emotions. However, in the films "Terminator Genisys" and "Terminator: Dark Fate", reveal that, if allowed to, they actually can adapt behaviors like humans', either by choice, impulse, or for infiltrations; even in earlier film "" had implied that they have such ability. Because animals with high olfactory receptors like canidae are able to smell the difference, the Resistance uses dogs to help detect Terminators. However, the film "Terminator: Dark Fate" reveals that it is possible for Terminators to establish an emotional bond with domesticated animals, and they would be loyal and affectionate to each other regardless. Terminators can detect their related cyborgs and other types of units when they are nearby, as demonstrated in the film "Terminator 2: Judgment Day" and "Terminator Genisys". However, they cannot sense machines belonging to other A.I.s (as shown in "Terminator: Dark Fate") due to the differences of their technologies. Terminators can detect the arrivals and locations of time travelers by sensing shockwaves from temporal displacements.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: According to the films, the Terminators were created by Cyberdyne Systems, and put at the disposal of an artificially intelligent computer, Skynet, which then rebelled and used them to wipe out the remains of humanity.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: According to the first two films, Terminators were Cyberdyne Systems models created after the war between man and machines started. In the altered timeline of "Terminator 3" created by the destruction of Cyberdyne in "Terminator 2", Terminators were created by Cyber Research Systems (CRS), starting with the T-1.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: A scene shot for the "" video game explains the origins of the Terminators as a project by CRS, which obtained patents from Cyberdyne. According to the scene, a Chief Master Sergeant named William Candy (played by Arnold Schwarzenegger) was chosen to be the model for the Terminator project, although his thick Southern US accent would later be replaced by one sounding like Schwarzenegger's. The scene is also included on the "Terminator 3" DVD as a deleted scene.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: As seen in the movies, a Terminator can withstand standard 20th century firearms, crash through walls intact, and survive explosions to some degree. Repeated shotgun blasts have enough force to knock it down and temporarily disable it, while heavy amounts of automatic fire are able to compromise the organic disguise layer. In the second film, the Terminator says it can run for 120 years on its existing power cells. Near the end of "Terminator 2", its power source is damaged, but is able to find an alternate source, described on the DVD commentary as heat sinks, harnessing the thermal energy from the hot surroundings. In the third film, the T-101 Terminator operates on two hydrogen cells and discards one of them early due to damage. It explodes shortly thereafter with enough force to produce a small mushroom cloud; the fact that many of them are powered by nuclear fuel cells (miniaturized fusion reactors) is confirmed by the fourth film.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The endoskeleton is actuated by a powerful network of electric servomechanisms, making Terminators superhumanly strong. For instance, in the third movie, Schwarzenegger's character was able to break through a concrete wall, while being able to handle firing a machine gun from the hip with one hand, while holding a coffin containing John Connor and a heavy cache of weapons, showing no signs of the extra weight being any real concern; in the second film, Schwarzenegger's character was able to resist the recoil of firing a minigun without any noticeable difficulty. Late in the first film, the Terminator is stripped of its organic elements by fire. What remains is the machine itself, in James Cameron's own words "a chrome skeleton", "like Death rendered in steel." In the later "Terminator" films, armies of endoskeleton-only Terminators are seen. They are visually identical to the one in the first film, and feature prominently in the "future war" sequences of those films. In the television series "", Cameron establishes that modern Terminators are made of coltan for heat resistance, while previous models were made of titanium.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Despite Kyle Reese's claim in the first film that "cyborgs do not feel pain," it is said in the second film that they are capable of sensing injuries and that "the data could be called pain", according to the Model 101. In an episode of "Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles", "Mr. Ferguson Is Ill Today," another android, Cameron, is revealed to have an intolerance to some degrees of temperature in its surrounding, as humans do. Unlike humans, however, being machines, they are capable of resisting or shutting off this sense of discomfort. In the following episode, "Complications", Cameron elaborates that Terminators can appreciate physical sensations such as the wind blowing through its hair and toes and process them in a psychological manner.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: "Terminator Genisys" reveals that a Terminator's endoskeleton's efficiency will deteriorate due to age, therefore, eventually the android will encounter physical limitations and impairments.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: A trait persistent throughout the series is the faint red glow of the "robotic eyes" when online, which fade out when a Terminator shuts down. In all six movies, the lack of the glow has been used to show when one is out of action. The trait is so characteristic that light-up eyes are often found on "Terminator" merchandise, with some even replicating the dimming/reillumination effect that occurs during shut down or startup. The T-X Terminator has blue glowing eyes instead of red.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The Terminator CPU is a room-temperature superconducting artificial neural network with the ability to learn. In "Terminator 2", The Terminator states that "the more contact [it] has with humans, the more [it] learns." In the Special Edition, he says that Skynet "presets the switch to 'read-only' when [terminators] are sent out alone", to prevent them from "thinking too much" thereby only allowing


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: tactical thoughts (In "Terminator Genisys", Skynet tells John Connor that the Human Resistance only "defeated an army of slaves"). Sarah and John activate his learning ability, after which it becomes more curious and begins trying to understand and imitate human behavior. This leads to his use of the catch phrase "Hasta la vista, baby." At the end of "Terminator 2", the Model 101 says: "I know now why you cry, but it is something that I can never do." Sarah muses in the closing narration that the Terminator had "learn[ed] the value of human life". In "Terminator Genisys", when a Terminator's learning capability is enabled after a long period, it becomes fully capable of acquiring knowledge and performing problem solving through reason based on whatever it learns.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Terminators, being machines, are typically believed by humans to not have emotions. According to Reese, Terminators "can't be bargained with, can't be reasoned with and [don't] feel pity or remorse or fear." Terminators also do not value life, and pragmatically kill in keeping with their programming, i.e., to fulfill their mission. In "Terminator 2", when John Connor realizes that the Model 101 was about to kill a man they encountered, it responds "of course, I'm a Terminator." Conversely, when discussing a variation on the "Blade Runner" 'tortoise test' in "Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles" episode, "Complications", Cameron states that a tortoise did not pose a threat and "We are not programmed to be cruel," implying that Terminators would right an overturned tortoise. Terminators in the films and TV series have displayed ruthless brutality in achieving their goals, but because they do not have emotions, they are not needlessly sadistic. Terminators can torture humans, but these are interrogations for information, used as a means to an end. Moreover, this means that Terminators are not very experienced at complex forms of interrogation: for example, the T-1000 stabbed Sarah Connor through the shoulder and demanded that she call to John, but this was a simplistic application of pain. Terminators can be taught more complicated torture tactics by humans, who are more familiar with sadistic torture - for example, the engineer/criminal - as shown in "Complications". However, in the fifth film "Terminator Genisys," a T-800 develops a fatherly love for a young Sarah Connor, and in the sixth film "", set in another timeline, another T-800 is capable of expressing affections towards its human family after it became self-aware, and of being remorseful over its killing of John Connor and seeks atonement. Terminators built by another AI, Legion, are apparently all capable of having emotions and other behaviors, evident by a Rev-9's actions, even have some degrees of autonomy than Skynet's.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Terminators appear incapable of "self-termination". In "Terminator 2", the badly damaged Terminator states this to Sarah before asking her to lower it into molten steel, so that its chip cannot be used to create Skynet. To prevent the possible reprogramming of defeated Terminators, as the television series "Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles" episode "The Tower Is Tall but the Fall Is Short" reveals, Skynet coats later chips with a phosphorus compound which cause them to self-destruct when they contact oxygen.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: While a Terminator apparently cannot commit suicide as such, its programming does not stop it from sacrificing itself if the success of its mission is thereby ensured. In the third movie, the T-101 deliberately ruptures its own fuel cell next to its antagonist, the T-X, causing an explosion destroying them both.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Guardian Terminator Cameron states to John Connor, in "" episode "The Mousetrap", that Terminators' densities deny them the ability to swim. T-888 Cromartie demonstrated in the same episode, however, that they can survive submerged and walk along the bed to the shore. The opening sequence of "" portrays T-800s emerging from a beach in this fashion. The prototype Terminator Marcus Wright in "Terminator Salvation" did demonstrate the ability to swim, though he is the only one of his kind. This ability was first seen in the "Terminator" comics by Dark Horse.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The flesh covering that is used on the majority of Terminator models has similar qualities to real human muscle fiber and dermis, including soft tissue and skin, as well as the ability to sweat, simulate breathing and produce realistic body odor. This also makes the Terminator vulnerable to age, as seen in "Terminator Genisys". Although Terminator flesh does contain blood, it only displays minimal bleeding when damaged and has never been shown to experience any kind of profuse bleeding, even from massive lacerations and dozens of gunshot wounds. It is unknown what manner of circulatory system, if any, is employed, nor what biological processes take place to sustain the flesh covering. Some Terminator models can consume food; Cameron eats a corn chip in the , and later a piece of a pancake. The liquid metal T-1001 is also shown to have this capability. The T-888s presumably consume food, given Vick Chamberlain's ability to maintain a human cover for years while married to a human woman. The organic covering was developed for the 800 series and was its unique feature when first introduced. In the first film, Kyle Reese states that the 600 series were covered in rubber skin, which proved unconvincing and made them easy to spot. Simple humanoid Hunter-Killers (HKs) share the endoskeletons and combat characteristics with infiltrators, but not the living tissue sheath. Instead, they serve as general infantry.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Under 2007-era analysis Terminator blood is shown to be similar to human blood, using a synthetic oxygen carrier rather than human red blood cells, as Terminator endoskeletons contain no bone marrow. Terminator flesh heals by itself, and at a much faster rate than normal human tissue and has never been shown to bruise or discolor from trauma, even after several days. However, a Terminator's flesh covering can die if it sustains adequately massive damage, at which point it takes on a waxy, corpse-like pallor and begins to decompose. This process is seen in the later scenes of the original film where the Terminator, holed up in his hotel room, is attracting flies and draws an inquiry from the janitor as to whether the smell is coming from a dead animal. More advanced flesh used on T-888s appears to not suffer the effects of age or deprivation, as shown in the "Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles" episode, "Self-Made Man," where a T-888 known as is able to maintain his organic covering while sealed within a wall for eighty years; no explanation for this ability was provided. Terminator flesh lacerations can be repaired; the Model 101 and Sarah Connor closed each other's wounds with sutures in "Terminator 2: Judgment Day", and Cameron sealed her wounds with heavy duty staples in "The Sarah Connor Chronicles" episode "Samson and Delilah".


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Although clearly not the normal procedure, a bare T-888 endoskeleton was able to grow itself a new flesh covering using 2007 technology (with the assistance of a geneticist and its own knowledge of future formula) by submerging itself in a blood-like bath. This improvised process resulted in a deformed covering that had the appearance of a burn victim and lacked its own biological eyes, requiring it to steal those of the geneticist and subsequently undergo cosmetic surgery to produce a more normal appearance.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: It has been shown that Terminators' flesh coverings are somehow grown identically, producing many copies of exactly the same physical appearance. This includes the Terminator portrayed by Schwarzenegger throughout the film series. In "The Sarah Connor Chronicles", a T-888 model known as "Vick Chamberlain" has a memory of facing a room (presumably in the factory where it was created) of several dozen units sharing an identical template to itself, naked and moving in unison. Some Terminators' outer coverings are custom-designed to copy the appearances of humans whom they are intended to kill and replace. Three such examples in "The Sarah Connor Chronicles" include in , James Ellison in and Cameron's pattern, , in and .


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The organic covering is expanded upon a bit more in "Terminator Genisys". There it is shown that a T-800 that has been in the past for eleven years has had its organic covering age to match. Kyle Reese expresses surprise at this, and Sarah Connor explains that the covering is like normal human skin and ages like it too, and thus its flesh wears and tears in the same rate as humans. The same T-800 is shown to have aged even further to have white hair and more wrinkles in 2017, thirty-three years later. It is also revealed that a T-800 can regrow a damaged organic covering, though it takes time. It is unknown whether this can be done if the covering is completely destroyed, or it needs some covering to regrow from. The T-800 told Sarah that its damaged facial and arm covering would take years to regrow after exposure to acid.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The T-3000 (Jason Clarke) uses nanorobotics in a similar shapeshifting capacity as the T-1000; however, it is not a liquid metal being. The T-5000 (Matt Smith) has the ability to convert a living organism into a nanorobotic T-3000 Terminator at the cellular level. The new T-3000 Terminator keeps the appearance of its original organic form and retains its host's memories and behavioral characteristics (see posthuman/technological singularity).


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Mimetic polyalloy is a fictional type of "liquid metal", described as an amorphous alloy that is twice the tensile strength of titanium, and composed entirely from microscopic nanites. It uniquely combines the strength of forging with the ability to mold intricate and complex parts in one step. This allows some Terminator models (such as the T-1000, T-1001, T-X, T-360 and ) to rapidly recover from damage, to quickly shapeshift camouflage, or to achieve near-perfect mimicry.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The T-1000 and T-1001 models, which are composed entirely of the substance, can quickly liquefy and assume forms in innovative and surprising ways, including fitting through narrow openings, morphing their arms into solid metal shapes or bladed weapons, walking through prison bars, and flattening themselves on the ground to hide or ambush targets. It can also extrude small, simple items from itself (such as a pair of sunglasses). It can change its color and texture to simulate flesh, clothing, and other nonmetallic materials. They are effectively impervious to mechanical damage, such as being dismembered, shot with bullets, or attacked with explosive devices. Wounds close almost immediately, and any detached parts simply flow back into the Terminator's body.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Extreme temperatures can degrade or inhibit its ability to maintain a disguise, movement or shapeshift. Molten steel is capable of disassociating its molecular structure and permanently destroying it. Freezing may have lasting negative effect on its ability to shapeshift. In "Terminator 2 - The Extended Special Edition", there are additional scenes that show the T-1000 partially losing control of its morphing ability after it has recovered from being frozen by liquid nitrogen. One of its hands stick to a railing and while walking its feet unintentionally assume the texture of the floor. In "Terminator Genisys", it was shown that the alloy is vulnerable to melting when exposed to hydrochloric acid.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: No indication is given on where, if at all, the CPU is located in these models, nor where the components needed for other sensory functions are located: for example, microphones for hearing, speakers for the creation of speech and other noises, or cameras for vision. Given that these kinds of Terminators are completely fluid, it could be implied that those systems have been implemented as some sort of nanomachines capable of interacting with the rest of the liquid metal devices.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The T-X model is covered by the mimetic poly-alloy, providing it the ability to mimic humanoid forms while enforcing the endoskeleton beneath.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: In "Terminator Genisys", the new T-1000 displays a more advanced ability with the mimetic polyalloy, breaking off a small piece of itself and using it to form a latch on the back of the truck carrying Kyle, Sarah and the T-800 Guardian. It is also liquefied in an explosion and completely reforms itself within a minute. Like the first T-1000, it can turn its arms into swords, but it can also detach the swords and throw them like a javelin. With a drop of mimetic polyalloy, the T-1000 is able to reactivate a T-800 that had been killed; said T-800 appears to be fully repaired by the transfusion. However, the drop of alloy grants no extra abilities beyond reactivation. During the climax of the film, there is a vat of unprogrammed mimetic polyalloy at the Cyberdyne Systems facility. Lasers are shown forming shapes out of it for brief periods of time, but it is stated that without a Terminator CPU the polyalloy is harmless. During the final fight with the T-3000, the badly damaged T-800 gets thrown into the vat and its CPU comes in contact with the polyalloy. Afterward, the T-800 emerges, repaired with polyalloy abilities.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: An I-950 is featured in the "T2" novel trilogy. Unlike the "T series" Terminators, the "I series" Infiltrators are bred, and not factory-built machines. Skynet decided that the best way for one of its Terminators to act human was to start out with a human and add technological enhancements where necessary. The I-950 starts out as a genetically engineered baby with a neural net processor attached to its brain, providing an up-link to Skynet. To condition it physically, it is coaxed with holographic toys to crawl until it is exhausted. After four years, it is given an injection that rapidly ages it to maturity to finish its training. In an effort to blend in better with humans, the I-950 is allowed to feel emotions, but the range is limited by one of its cybernetic implants. Because it is far more human than machine, dogs are not alerted to its presence, and the infiltrator can go undetected for extremely long periods of time inside a resistance base.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The I-950s carry Model 101 CPUs in case they are needed, as well as power cells. Once the "living" portion of the I-950 is dead, the CPU then takes control of the body, but can only do so for a short time. They can reproduce with other 950s but not humans. If the female I-950 decides that the pregnancy would stop them from carrying out their mission, they could fertilize their eggs in vitro and would be implanted in human surrogate wombs. They are also able to clone themselves.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: As seen in the future war scenes from various "Terminator" media, Skynet employs robots not designed to appear as humans even while having access to those who are. Hydrobots are designed to attack people underwater. Advanced humanoid and non-humanoid Terminators use plasma weapons of variable size and configuration.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The Terminator comics published by NOW Comics during the 1990s introduced a new style of Terminator which resembled a dog, complete with living tissue.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: Non-humanoid Hunter-Killers are robotic versions of various vehicles, built with roughly the same technologies as the contemporary Terminators. The original film introduced a VTOL gunship (HK-Aerial, very similar to the American Dynamics AD-150 and Boeing Phantom Swift DARPA VTOL X-Planes) and an HK-Tank. "Terminator Salvation" showed an armed motorcycle, a much larger transport aircraft, the massive Harvester walker and a small recon drone; other media introduce a plethora of other designs. "Terminator Genisys" introduced Spider Tanks: large, four-legged crab-like units, which can be airlifted to combat theatre by aerial HKs.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: In "", Legion's drones are similar to Skynet's such as the HK-Aerials; they are even being referred by an older Daniella Ramos as such, likely because she was trained by Sarah Connor in tactics originally meant for John Connor battling Skynet's machines.


title: Terminator (character concept)

text: The first Terminator model shown, simply called "The Terminator" or "Cyberdyne Systems Model 101", was introduced in the first film. Other Terminators have been introduced in subsequent films and media.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The Naʼvi language (Naʼvi: "") is a fictional constructed language originally made for the 2009 film "Avatar". In the film franchise, the language is spoken by the Naʼvi, a race of sapient humanoids indigenous to the extraterrestrial moon Pandora. The language was created by Paul Frommer, a professor at the USC Marshall School of Business with a doctorate in linguistics. Naʼvi was designed to fit moviemaker James Cameron's conception of what the language should sound like in the film. It had to be realistically learnable by the fictional human characters of the film and pronounceable by the actors, but also not closely resemble any single human language.


title: Naʼvi language

text: When the film was released in 2009, Naʼvi had a growing vocabulary of about a thousand words, but understanding of its grammar was limited to the language's creator. However, this has changed subsequently as Frommer has expanded the lexicon to more than 2600 words and has published the grammar, thus making Naʼvi a relatively complete, learnable and serviceable language.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The Naʼvi language has its origins in James Cameron's early work on "Avatar". In 2005, while the film was still in scriptment form, Cameron felt it needed a complete, consistent language for the alien characters to speak. He had written approximately thirty words for this alien language but wanted a linguist to create the language in full. His production company, Lightstorm Entertainment, contacted the linguistics department at the University of Southern California seeking someone who would be interested in creating such a language. Edward Finegan, a professor of linguistics at USC, thought that the project would appeal to Paul Frommer, with whom he had co-authored a linguistics textbook, and so forwarded Lightstorm's inquiry on to him. Frommer and Cameron met to discuss the director's vision for the language and its use in the film; at the end of the meeting, Cameron shook Frommer's hand and said "Welcome aboard."


title: Naʼvi language

text: Based on Cameron's initial list of words, which had a "Polynesian flavor" according to Frommer, the linguist developed three different sets of meaningless words and phrases that conveyed a sense of what an alien language might sound like: one using contrasting tones, one using varying vowel lengths, and one using ejective consonants. Of the three, Cameron liked the sound of the ejectives most. His choice established the phonology that Frommer would use in developing the rest of the Naʼvi language – morphology, syntax, and an initial vocabulary – a task that took six months.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The Naʼvi vocabulary was created by Frommer as needed for the script of the movie. By the time casting for "Avatar" began, the language was sufficiently developed that actors were required to read and pronounce Naʼvi dialogue during auditions. During shooting Frommer worked with the cast, helping them understand their Naʼvi dialogue and advising them on their Naʼvi pronunciation, stress, and intonation. Actors would often make mistakes in speaking Naʼvi. In some cases, those mistakes were plausibly explained as ones their human characters would make while learning the language in-universe; in other cases, the mistakes were incorporated into the language.


title: Naʼvi language

text: Frommer expanded the vocabulary further in May 2009 when he worked on the , which required Naʼvi words that had not been needed for the film script and thus had not yet been invented. Frommer also translated into Naʼvi four sets of song lyrics that had been written by Cameron in English, and he helped vocalists with their pronunciation during the recording of James Horner's . At the time of the film's release on December 18, 2009, the Naʼvi vocabulary consisted of approximately 1000 words.


title: Naʼvi language

text: Work on the Naʼvi language has continued even after the film's release. Frommer is working on a compendium which he plans to deliver to Fox in the near future. He hopes that the language will "have a life of its own," and thinks it would be "wonderful" if the language developed a following. Since then, it has developed a following, as is evident through the increasing learner community of the language. The community's Lexical Expansion Project, together with Frommer, has expanded the lexicon by more than 50 percent.


title: Naʼvi language

text: Frommer also maintains a blog, Na’viteri, where he regularly posts additions to the lexicon and clarifications on grammar. Naʼviteri has been the source of the vast majority of Naʼvi growth independent of Frommer's contract with 20th Century Fox.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The Naʼvi language was developed under three significant constraints. First, Cameron wanted the language to sound alien but pleasant and appealing to audiences. Second, since the storyline included humans who have learned to speak the language, it had to be a language that humans could plausibly learn to speak. And finally, the actors would have to be able to pronounce their Naʼvi dialogue without unreasonable difficulty. The language in its final form contains several elements which are uncommon in human languages, such as verbal conjugation using infixes. All Naʼvi linguistic elements are found in human languages, but the combination is unique.


title: Naʼvi language

text: Naʼvi lacks voiced plosives like , but has the ejective consonants , which are spelled "px, tx, kx." It also has the syllabic consonants "ll" and "rr". There are seven vowels, "a ä e i ì o u." Although all the sounds were designed to be pronounceable by the human actors of the film, there are unusual consonant clusters, as in "metal".


title: Naʼvi language

text: The fictional language Naʼvi of Pandora is unwritten. However, the actual (studio) language is written in the Latin script for the actors of "Avatar". Some words include: "year", "ceremonial challenge", "first" ("’aw" "one"), "fair", "spirit animal", "rock", "territory", "avatar" (dream-walk-body).


title: Naʼvi language

text: There are additionally four diphthongs: aw [aw], ew [εw], ay [aj], ey [εj], and two syllabic consonants: ll [l̩] and rr [r̩], which mostly behave as vowels.


title: Naʼvi language

text: Note that the "e" is open-mid while the "o" is close-mid, and that there is no "*oy." The "rr" is strongly trilled, and the "ll" is "light" (plain), never a "dark" (velarized) .


title: Naʼvi language

text: These vowels may occur in sequences, as in the Polynesian languages, Swahili, and Japanese. Each vowel counts as a syllable, so that "tsaleioae" has six syllables, , and "meoauniaea" has eight, .


title: Naʼvi language

text: Naʼvi does not have vowel length or tone, but it does have contrastive stress: "túte" "person", "tuté" "female person". Although stress may move with derivation, as here, it is not affected by inflection (case on nouns, tense on verbs, etc.). So, for example, the verb "lu" ("to be") has stress on its only vowel, the "u," and no matter what else happens to it, the stress stays on that vowel: "lolú" "was" ("lu"), "lolängú" "was (ugh!)" ("lu"), etc.


title: Naʼvi language

text: There are twenty consonants. There are two Latin transcriptions: one that more closely approaches the ideal of one letter per phoneme, with the "c" and "g" for and (the values they have in much of Eastern Europe and Polynesia, respectively), and a modified transcription used for the actors, with the digraphs "ts" and "ng" used for those sounds. In both transcriptions, the ejective consonants are written with digraphs in "x," a convention that appears to have no external inspiration, but could potentially be inspired by the Esperanto convention of writing "x" as a stand-in for the circumflex.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The fricatives and the affricate, "f v ts s z h", are restricted to the onset of a syllable; the others may occur at the beginning or at the end (though "w y" in final position are considered parts of diphthongs, as they only occur as "ay ey aw ew" and may be followed by another final consonant, as in "moron"). However, in addition to appearing before vowels, "f ts s" may form consonant clusters with any of the unrestricted consonants (the plosives and liquids/glides) apart from "’", making for 39 clusters. Other sequences occur across syllable boundaries, such as "Naʼvi" and "ikran" "banshee".


title: Naʼvi language

text: The plosives "p t k" are tenuis, as in Spanish or French. In final position, they have no audible release, as in Indonesian and other languages of Southeast Asia, as well as in many dialects of English in words such as "bat". The "r" is flapped, as in Spanish and Indonesian; it sounds a bit like the "tt" or "dd" in the American pronunciation of the words "latter / ladder".


title: Naʼvi language

text: The plosives undergo lenition after certain prefixes and prepositions. The ejective consonants "px tx kx" become the corresponding plosives "p t k"; the plosives and affricate "p t ts k" become the corresponding fricatives "f s h"; and the glottal stop "’" disappears entirely. For example, the plural form of "po" "s/he" is "ayfo" "they", with the "p" weakening into an "f" after the prefix "ay-."


title: Naʼvi language

text: Lenition has its own significance when the plural prefix can optionally be omitted. In the above example, "ayfo" can be shortened to "fo". Similarly, the plural of "brother" can be (from ).


title: Naʼvi language

text: Naʼvi has free word order. For example, the English "I see you" (a common greeting in Naʼvi), can be as follows in Naʼvi:


title: Naʼvi language

text: All forms of "I see you" in Naʼvi are completely correct. As sentences become more complex though, some words, like adjectives and negatives, will have to stay in a more or less fixed position in the sentence, depending on what the adjective or negative is describing.


title: Naʼvi language

text: In this case, the adjective (good) will need to stay with the noun "trr" (day), therefore limiting the sentence to fewer combinations on the construction of the sentence, but as long as it follows or precedes the noun, the sentence is fine. By putting the attributive "a" before the adjective, the adjective can be put after the noun:


title: Naʼvi language

text: Nouns in Naʼvi show greater number distinctions than those in most human languages do: besides singular and plural, they not only have special dual forms for two of an item (eyes, hands, lovers, etc.), which are common in human language (English has a remnant in "both"), but also trial forms for three of an item, which on Earth are only found with pronouns. Gender is only occasionally (and optionally) marked.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The plural prefix is "ay+," and the dual is "me+." Both trigger lenition (indicated by the "+" signs rather than the hyphens that usually mark prefix boundaries). In nouns which undergo lenition, the plural prefix may be dropped, so the plural of "body" is either or just .


title: Naʼvi language

text: Masculine and feminine nouns may be distinguished by suffix. There are no articles (words for "a" or "the").


title: Naʼvi language

text: Nouns are declined for case in a tripartite system, which is rare among human languages. In a tripartite system, there are distinct forms for the object of a clause, as in "he kicks the ball"; the agent of a transitive clause which has such an object, as in "he kicks the ball"; and the subject of an intransitive clause, which does not have an object, as in "he runs". An object is marked with the accusative suffix "-ti," and an agent with the ergative suffix "-l", while an intransitive subject has no case suffix. The use of such case forms leaves the word order of Naʼvi largely free.


title: Naʼvi language

text: There are two other cases—genitive in "-yä", dative in "-ru"—as well as a topic marker "-ri". The latter is used to introduce the topic of the clause, and is somewhat equivalent to Japanese "wa" and the much less common English "as for". It preempts the case of the noun: that is, when a noun is made topical, usually at the beginning of the clause, it takes the "-ri" suffix rather than the case suffix one would expect from its grammatical role. For example, in,


title: Naʼvi language

text: Besides case, the role of a noun in a clause may be indicated with adpositions. Any adposition may occur as either as a preposition before the noun, or as an enclitic after the noun, a greater degree of freedom than English allows. For example, "with you" may be either "hu nga" or . When used as enclitics, they are much like the numerous cases found in Hungarian and Finnish. When used as prepositions, more along the lines of what English does, certain of them trigger lenition. One of the leniting prepositions is "mì" "in", as in "in the body". This may cause some ambiguity with short plurals: could also be short for "in the bodies".


title: Naʼvi language

text: Naʼvi pronouns encode clusivity. That is, there are different words for "we" depending on whether the speaker is including his/her addressee or not. There are also special forms for "the two of us" (with or without the addressee), "the three of us", etc. They do not inflect for gender; although it is possible to distinguish "he" from "she", the distinction is optional.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The deferential forms of "I" and "you" are "ohe" and "ngenga". Possessive forms include "ngeyä" "your" and "peyä" "her/his". "He" and "she" can optionally be differentiated as "poan" and "poé".


title: Naʼvi language

text: Naʼvi adjectives are uninflected—that is, they do not agree with the noun they modify—and may occur either before or after the noun. They are marked by a syllable "a", which is attached on the side closest to the noun. For example, "a long river" can be expressed either as,


title: Naʼvi language

text: The free word order holds for all attributives: Genitives (possessives) and relative clauses can also either precede or follow the noun they modify. The latter especially allows for great freedom of expression.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The attributive affix "a-" is only used when an adjective modifies a noun. Predicative adjectives instead take the "be" verb "lu":


title: Naʼvi language

text: Verbs are conjugated for tense and aspect, but not for person. That is, they record distinctions like "I am, I was, I would", but not like "I am, we are, s/he is". Conjugation relies exclusively on infixes, which are like suffixes but go inside the verb. "To hunt", for example, is "taron", but "hunted" is "taron", with the infix "".


title: Naʼvi language

text: There are two positions for infixes: after the onset (optional consonant(s)) of the penultimate syllable, and after the onset of the final syllable. Because many Na’vi verbs have two syllables, these commonly occur on the first and last syllable. In monosyllabic words like "lu" "be", they both appear after the initial onset, keeping their relative order.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The first infix position is taken by infixes for tense, aspect, mood, or combinations thereof; also appearing in this position are participle, reflexive, and causative forms, the latter two of which may co-occur with a tense/aspect/mood infix by preceding it. Tenses are past, recent past, present (unmarked), future, and immediate future; aspects are perfective (completed or contained) and imperfective (ongoing or uncontained). The aspectual forms are not found in English but are somewhat like the distinction between 'having done' and 'was doing'.


title: Naʼvi language

text: Tense and aspect need not be marked when they can be understood by context or elsewhere in the sentence.


title: Naʼvi language

text: The second infix position is taken by infixes for affect (speaker attitude, whether positive or negative) and for evidentiality (uncertainty or indirect knowledge). For example, in the greeting in the section on nouns, "Oel ngati kameie" "I See you", the verb "kame" "to See" is inflected positively as "kame" to indicate the pleasure the speaker has in meeting you. In the subsequent sentence, "Oeri ontu teya längu" "My nose is full (of his smell)", however, the phrase "teya lu" "is full" is inflected pejoratively as "teya lu" to indicate the speaker's distaste at the experience. Examples with both infix positions filled:


title: Naʼvi language

text: The Naʼvi language currently has over 2,600 words. These include a few English loan words such as "kunsìp" "gunship". The complete dictionary, including the odd inflectional form, is available online at http://dict-navi.com. Additionally, the community of speakers is working with Dr. Frommer to further develop the language. Naʼvi is a very modular language and the total number of usable words far exceeds the 2,600 dictionary words. For example: "rol" "to sing" → "tìrusol" "the act of singing" or "ngop" "to create" → "ngopyu" "creator". Workarounds using existing words also abound in the Naʼvi corpus, such as "metallic brain" for "computer" and "palulukantsyìp" "little thanator" for "cat".


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Naval Air Station Keflavik (NASKEF) was a United States Navy station at Keflavík International Airport, Iceland, located on the Reykjanes peninsula on the south-west portion of the island. NASKEF was closed on 8 September 2006, and its facilities were taken over by the Icelandic Defence Agency as their primary base until 1 January 2011, when the Agency was abolished and the base handed over to the Icelandic Coast Guard, which has since then operated the base.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The base was built during World War II by the United States Army as part of its mission to maintain the defense of Iceland and secure northern Atlantic air routes. It served to ferry personnel, equipment, and supplies to Europe. Intended as a temporary wartime base under an agreement with Iceland and the British, U.S. forces withdrew by 1947 but returned in 1951 as the Iceland Defense Force resident on a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) base. The base was regularly visited by the American military and other NATO allies for military exercises, NATO Air Policing, and other tasks.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: In 2017, the United States announced its intention to modify the largest hangar on the Icelandic base in order to house the new Boeing P-8 Poseidon ASW aircraft being introduced.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: After being granted self-governance by Denmark in 1918 with the signing of the 25-year Danish-Icelandic Act of Union, Iceland followed a policy of strict neutrality in international affairs. In 1939, with war imminent in Europe, the German Reich pressed for landing rights for Deutsche Luft Hansa's aircraft for alleged trans-Atlantic flights. The Icelandic government turned them down.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: A British request to establish bases in Iceland for the protection of the vital North Atlantic supply lines after German forces occupied Denmark and Norway in April 1940 was also turned down in accordance with the neutrality policy. In response, on 10 May 1940 the people of Reykjavík awoke to the sight of a British invasion force. The government of Iceland protested the invasion but asked the populace to treat the occupying force as guests.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Following talks between British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, Iceland agreed to a tripartite treaty under which United States Marines were to relieve the British garrison in Iceland on the condition that all military forces be withdrawn from Iceland immediately upon the conclusion of the war in Europe. In addition to their defense role, U.S. forces constructed the Keflavik Airport as a refueling point for aircraft deliveries and cargo flights to Europe.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The airport was built by the United States military during World War II, as a replacement for a small British landing strip at Garður to the north. It consisted of two separate two-runway airfields, built simultaneously just 4 km apart. "Patterson Field" in the south-east opened in 1942 despite being partly incomplete. It was named after a young pilot who died in Iceland. "Meeks Field" to the north-west opened on 23 March 1943. It was named after another young pilot, George Meeks, who died on the Reykjavík airfield. Patterson Field was closed after the war, but Meeks Field and the adjoining structures were returned to Iceland's control and renamed Naval Air Station Keflavik after the nearby town of Keflavík. In 1951, the U.S. military returned to the airport under a defense agreement between Iceland and the U.S. signed on 5 May 1951.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: With the end of the war in Europe, Keflavik Airport became a transit point for aircraft returning from the European Theater of Operations to the United States. With American air activities greatly reduced in Europe in the immediate postwar months, U.S. flying operations were similarly reduced in preparation for transfer of the base to the Icelandic government at the end of 1946. With all noncritical surplus equipment and supplies disposed of, all U.S. air activity ended at the airfield on 11 March 1947.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Another agreement signed between the United States and Iceland in 1946 permitted continued use of the base by the United States. The United States provided all the maintenance and operation of the airport through an American civilian contractor. American Overseas Airlines, followed by Airport Overseas Corporation personnel, operated the military portion of Keflavik Airport after its reversion to Icelandic control at the end of March 1947.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: In 1949, Iceland voted to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) among protests about the US militarizing the country, and the base assumed the status of significant strategic importance in the Cold War. Though reluctant to sanction the stationing of foreign troops in significant numbers on their soil, Icelandic officials decided in light of the fact they had no standing army to speak of, that membership in NATO alone was not a sufficient defense; and at the request of NATO, Iceland entered into a defense agreement with the United States directly. This was the beginning of the Iceland Defense Force. Over the next four decades, the Defense Force was "at the front" of the Cold War and was credited with playing a significant role in deterrence.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: On 25 May 1951 the United States Air Force (USAF) reestablished its presence at Keflavik Airport with the stationing of the 1400th Air Base Group. Jurisdiction of the airport was assumed by Military Air Transport Service (MATS). MATS re-established a military air terminal and refueling point for trans-Atlantic air service between the United States and Europe at Keflavik. MATS (later Military Airlift Command and Air Mobility Command) units remained at the airport until the withdrawal of United States military units from Iceland in 2006.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: During 1947–51, while the base was operated by a U.S. civilian contractor company most of the World War II temporary structures were left empty and became badly deteriorated. The airfield complex, one of the largest in the world during the war, also required upgrading to accommodate modern aircraft. The contractor had extended one runway, constructed a new passenger terminal and hotel building, one aircraft hangar, a hospital, housing units and other facilities for the staff. But this was insufficient for the new Defense Force, so additional facilities had to be provided quickly. A crash reconstruction program was initiated and temporary housing was erected during the construction of permanent housing. The airfield was extended by the Nello L. Teer Company and two new aircraft hangars were constructed. Most of this work was completed by 1957.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Soon after the return of U.S. forces to Keflavik. Air Defense Command (ADC) established a temporary radar station at the airport, equipped with World War II-era AN/TPS-1 and AN/TPS-3A radars that operated until a permanent radar station could be constructed at nearby Rockville AS.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Between 1952 and 2006, Air Forces Iceland provided air defense for Iceland, operated Keflavik Airport, and furnished base support for all U.S. military forces in Iceland participating in its defense under NATO. Also Air Force component of NATO Iceland Defense Force.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: ADC, later renamed Aerospace Defense Command used the facility for air surveillance of Iceland and the North Atlantic, employing F-102 Delta Dagger and then F-4C Phantom II fighters as interceptors. Over 1,000 intercepts of Soviet aircraft took place inside Iceland's Military Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ).


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: In 1974, the left-wing Government of Iceland's new proposal to close the base triggered a petition that garnered 55,000 signatures, about a quarter of the population of the entire nation. This led to the ruling coalition collapsing and the 1974 Icelandic parliamentary election being held.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: On 1 October 1979 Tactical Air Command (TAC) absorbed ADC's assets, and the F-4E Phantom II aircraft of the 57th Fighter Interceptor Squadron (57 FIS). In July 1985, F-15Cs and F-15Ds replaced the aging F-4s, and the tail code "IS" was assigned to Air Forces Iceland (AFI).


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: During the height of the Cold War in the 1980s, Keflavik also hosted rotational E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft and KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft from CONUS to support the air defense mission and rotational HC-130 Hercules aircraft from RAF Woodbridge from the 67th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron to support their detachment of Keflavik-based HH-3 Jolly Green Giant and later HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters in their search and rescue mission.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Beginning in 1984, the 932d Air Control Squadron established a Radar Operations Control Center at Keflavik which coordinated the 57th FIS interceptors to contacts passing through the GIUK gap. It received long-range radar inputs from five radar sites: the four sites in Iceland plus a data-tie from the Tórshavn AS radar in the Faroe Islands. Tórshavn was located atop mount Sornfelli. The ROCC remained active until the turnover of the facility in 2006.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Air Forces Iceland continued the air defense mission of Iceland as a tenant organization at Keflavik. Under ADC until 1979 and under TAC until 1992. On 1 June 1992, Air Combat Command (ACC) assumed command and control of AFI and the 57 FIS. Less than a year later, the 57 FIS was redesignated as the 57 Fighter Squadron (57 FS) and reassigned to the 35th Fighter Wing that was transferred from the closing George AFB, California.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: On 1 October 1994, the 35th Wing was inactivated at Keflavik and reactivated that same day at Misawa Air Base in Misawa, Japan. The 35th Wing was replaced by the newly activated 85th Wing. On 1 March 1995, the 57th FS was inactivated and the interceptor force was replaced by Regular Air Force and Air National Guard F-15 Eagle fighter aircraft rotating every 90 days to Iceland until the USAF inactivated the 85th Group in 2002. United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) took over ACC responsibilities at Keflavik on 1 October 2002 as part of a larger restructuring of the unified commands.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The 85th was reduced to a Group level and supported rotational deployments. The 85th Group continued to support rotational deployments until it was inactivated during a ceremony on 28 June 2006, as a result of the USAF reduction in forces in Iceland. All rotational fighters left and the 56th Rescue Squadron ceased operation at the end of the fiscal year.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: On 15 March 2006, the U.S. Ambassador to Iceland announced that the United States had decided to substantially reduce the size of the Iceland Defense Force.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: During a six-month transition to reduce the military presence in Iceland, most facilities closed and most of the service members departed, leaving behind a core team of active duty and Reserve personnel to finish the job.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: On 8 September 2006, NASKEF's last commanding officer, Capt. Mark S. Laughton, presided over a ceremony effecting the disestablishment of the air station.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: On 26 October the government of Iceland established the Keflavik Airport Development Corporation or Kadeco which was given the task of converting those portions of the base no longer needed into civilian use.Since May 2008 Keflavik has periodically hosted NATO fighter, AWACS and support aircraft participating in Icelandic Air Policing deployments.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: In January 2010, Verne Holdings announced that it had received equity funding from the Wellcome Trust to build a data center at Keflavik. The data center will take advantage of the available geothermal power and free cooling to minimize its carbon footprint.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: In September 2015, news media reported U.S. government officials expressed a desire to reopen aspects of the NATO base of Keflavik Naval Air Station, to cope with increasing Russian military activity around Iceland.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: In 2016 the United States began preparations to establish regular patrol rotations at the base, and in 2017 announced its intention to build new hangars to house Navy P-8 Poseidon aircraft.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Returned to control of Icelandic Government on 7 April 1947; returned to joint Icelandic-USAF control, 23 May 1951.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Naval Air Station Keflavik was the host command for all U.S. defense activities in Iceland. The major commands stationed on the base were the USAF's 85th Group, Fleet Air Keflavik, the headquarters of the U.S.-provided Iceland Defense Force, Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station (NCTS) Keflavik, U.S. Naval Hospital Keflavik and the Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) shore terminal at Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Keflavik. The positions of Commander, Fleet Air Keflavik and Commander, Iceland Defence Force were held by the same U.S. Navy rear admiral. There were more than 25 different commands of various sizes and personnel from the U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Coast Guard in Iceland. Also present were representatives from Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, and Denmark.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: NASKEF was responsible for providing all support facilities, including the runways, housing, supply and recreational facilities.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The primary mission of Naval Air Station Keflavik was to maintain and operate facilities and provide services and material to support operations of aviation activities and units of the operating forces of the Navy and other activities and units, as designated by the Chief of Naval Operations.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: U.S. Navy use of the facility allowed the housing of rotational P-3 Orion squadrons, aircraft, flight crews, maintenance and administrative support personnel from their CONUS home bases for six-month deployments in support of antisubmarine warfare and maritime patrol missions until 2004. As a NATO mission, the U.S. Navy P-3s were frequently augmented by U.S. Navy Reserve P-3 squadrons and detachments of Canadian Forces CP-140 Aurora, Royal Netherlands Navy P-3, German Navy Breguet Atlantique and Royal Air Force Hawker Siddeley Nimrod MR2 maritime patrol aircraft.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: Army National Guard units and Interim Marine Security Forces stormed the lava fields surrounding the base during training exercises such as Northern Viking.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: NAS Keflavik employed approximately 900 Icelandic civilians who worked with military personnel, providing the services necessary to operate the base. Twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, the airfield was available for maritime patrol activities, air defense and for transiting aircraft between North America and Europe, in addition to supporting Iceland's international civilian aviation.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The NATO base did not have a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) with the Icelandic Government and the base lacked the roadway entrance security gates characteristic of most military installations, having only Icelandic Customs officials instead. Icelandic nationals had unrestricted access to most of the base, especially since the civilian international airport terminal was also located on the base at the time. Icelandic nationals were only barred from actual security-restricted military facilities such as aircraft parking areas, squadron and hangar facilities and classified operations centers. During the height of the Cold War, this access situation created definitive operational security (OPSEC) concerns by U.S. and NATO officials due to potential espionage activities by Soviet operatives masquerading as Icelandic nationals. In addition, during this same time period, the former Soviet Union constructed one of their largest embassy facilities in the nearby capital, Reykjavik, which doubled as a diplomatic cover for intelligence collection activities against U.S. and NATO military forces. Access to the base was restricted to authorized military and civilian personnel after the construction of a new civilian passenger terminal on the opposite side of the airfield in the mid-1980s.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The base offered a wide variety of recreational services which included bowling, swimming, gymnasium, theater, social clubs, a Wendy's restaurant, and hobby centers. Other services included a Navy Exchange, commissary, bank, credit union, hospital, beauty shop, tour office and morale flights to the rest of Europe and the United States. Golfing was available in a nearby community.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The American base staff had their own names for various places in Iceland, e.g., "Kef" for Keflavík and "Hurdygurdy" for Hveragerði.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The 1965 decision to deploy the Sound Surveillance System to the Norwegian Sea was followed by establishment of Naval Facility Keflavik in which output of the array at sea was processed and displayed by means of the Low Frequency Analyzer and Recorder (LOFAR). In 1966 the first deployment of a 3 X 16 element array system was terminated at the facility. NAVFAC Keflavik was commissioned 1 March 1966 with nine officers and sixty-nine enlisted personnel, eventually reaching 15 officers and 163 enlisted.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: The first detection of Soviet "Victor"- and "Charlie"-class submarines was in 1968 with systems terminating at the facility followed by the first detection of a Soviet Delta Class Nuclear submarine in 1974. The first detection of a Soviet nuclear submarine had been by United States Naval Facility, Barbados on 6 July 1962 of a submarine off the coast of Norway as it entered the Greenland-Iceland-United Kingdom (GIUK) gap. Naval Facility Keflavik was decommissioned on 13 December 1996.


title: Naval Air Station Keflavik

text: NAS Keflavik also features prominently in Icelandic author Arnaldur Indriðason's 1999 mystery thriller "Napóleonsskjölin", published in English in 2011 as "Operation Napoleon."


title: MBLAQ

text: MBLAQ (, ; an acronym for Music Boys Live in Absolute Quality) is a South Korean boy band created by South Korean singer Rain under J. Tune Camp. The group consists of Seungho, G.O, and Mir, and formerly Lee Joon and Thunder. The group debuted on October 15, 2009, at Rain's Legend of Rainism concert.


title: MBLAQ

text: On October 14, 2009, the group released their debut single album, "Just BLAQ", which topped various online and offline music charts in South Korea. The group then released their first extended play album "Y" on May 19, 2010, and on January 10, 2011, MBLAQ released their first studio album, "BLAQ Style".


title: MBLAQ

text: On December 16, 2014, it was announced Joon and Thunder had departed from the group and they will focus on individual activities for the time being.


title: MBLAQ

text: MBLAQ was first announced on September 21, 2009 with an appearance in Nylon magazine, after having trained for two years. The group appeared alongside Rain, in his "Legend of Rainism" concert. They performed various songs from their produced EP, "Just BLAQ" and were met with praise, with many spectators at the concert and fans considering them as the next DBSK. The group released teasers for their debut song, "Oh Yeah" on October 12, 2009 with the music video being released two days later. Coinciding with the music video, MBLAQ's debut single album "Just BLAQ", was released on the same day,<ref name="JustBLAQ/release"></ref> topping various charts in South Korea. The next day, the group made their broadcast debut on M.net's M! Countdown with "Oh Yeah".


title: MBLAQ

text: In early December, the group debuted in Japan, following their performance during Rain's fan meeting. Their performance resulted in a documentary being produced surrounding their stay in Japan.<ref name="JAPANDEBUT/rainfanmeeting"></ref> Later that month, the group commenced promotions for their follow up track, "G.O.O.D Luv". Two music videos were released: an 'unofficial' music video prior to the 'official' music video, which was released on December 10, 2009.<ref name="GOODLUV/PROMO"></ref>


title: MBLAQ

text: In May 2011, Thunder revealed that former member Sang Bae left the group due to his poor health. Thunder also stated that he only joined MBLAQ fifteen days prior to their debut, and that while he sang and rapped live for their performances, his voice is not actually featured on any of the recorded tracks for "Just BLAQ" due to time constraints.


title: MBLAQ

text: On May 17, 2010, the group released their second single album, "Y", a track that Rain wrote, composed, produced and choreographed. The music video for the title track, "Y", was released on the same day at midnight with teasers being released from May 6.<ref name="Y/MV RELEASE"></ref><ref name="Y/TEASERMV"></ref> MBLAQ claimed first place on June 3, 2010 on "M! Countdown", and were voted the best Rookie Group for the first half of 2010 through a poll conducted by Korean music site Bugs, obtaining 46% of the votes.


title: MBLAQ

text: On December 29, 2010, MBLAQ released a teaser music video, featuring their song "Cry", for their upcoming full-length album, "BLAQ Style".


title: MBLAQ

text: On December 30, 2010, J.Tune Entertainment merged with JYP Entertainment. However, as MBLAQ is part of J.Tune Camp, they are not considered as part of JYP Entertainment, or have any ties with the company.


title: MBLAQ

text: MBLAQ returned to the music scene in January 2011. MBLAQ participated in the production of "BLAQ Style", with Seungho composing and playing the piano for the introductory track "Sad Memories" and Mir writing the rap lyrics for "You're my +".


title: MBLAQ

text: On January 3, 2011, J.Tune Camp released MBLAQ's music video for "Cry" on YouTube, an R&B track produced by E-Tribe. The video gained more than 500,000 views within a week. J.Tune Camp announced that MBLAQ would be debuting in Japan in May, signing with Sony Music Japan.


title: MBLAQ

text: On January 10, 2011, MBLAQ released their first studio album, "BLAQ Style". After only one day of the album's release, MBLAQ recorded 25,000 orders for "BLAQ Style". The next day J.Tune Camp released the full music video for "Stay" on YouTube, which gained more than 400,000 in a week. On January 13, MBLAQ performed on "M! Countdown", followed by performances on the 14th, 15th and 16th at "Music Bank", "Music Core", and "Inkigayo" respectively.


title: MBLAQ

text: MBLAQ were named "Artist of the Month" by MTV Korea for the month of February. They then released a repackaged version of their studio album, titled "BLAQ Style - 3D Edition" on February 22, 2011. The album consists of the 13 tracks from "BLAQ Style", as well as three new tracks. Two of the three new tracks included MBLAQ's participation in its production. The track "돌아올 수 없는 (Can't Come Back)" was composed by G.O and the lyrics were written by both G.O and Mir, while the song titled "You" was written and composed by Thunder. When it was released, "BLAQ Style 3D" reached number one on the Hanteo charts. "Again", their last new song from "BLAQ Style - 3D Edition", was used to promote The Fighter in South Korea.


title: MBLAQ

text: "BLAQ Style 3D" was released in Taiwan as a licensed album on the March 18, 2011, and reached the number one spot from March 18 to 24 on Taiwan's G-Music chart under the K-pop and J-pop category without any promotions.


title: MBLAQ

text: MBLAQ released their Japanese album on May 4, 2011, with live performances held at Osaka, Sapporo, Nagoya, Fukuoka, and Tokyo. "Your Luv", released on April 19, was ranked first for four consecutive days on "Recochoku". MBLAQ were also placed first on the "Cellphone Message Music Video" chart.


title: MBLAQ

text: On May 3, MBLAQ kicked off their Japanese promotions with their debut event held at Kanagawa Lazona Kawasaki Plaza, gathering a reported 10,000 fans. They performed "Oh Yeah", "Your Luv" and "Daijoubu" and more than 4,000 CDs were sold during the event. "Your Luv" reached second position on the "Oricon Daily Charts" for May 3, which was before their official Japanese debut and release date. On May 4, "Your Luv" reached first position on the "Oricon Daily Charts", selling more than 11,000 CDs. A week after their debut, MBLAQ reached second position on the "Oricon Weekly Charts", selling more than 40,000 copies of "Your Luv".


title: MBLAQ

text: On July 14, MBLAQ returned to the stage on Mnet's "M! Countdown", followed by performances on the 15th, 16th and 17th at KBS's "Music Bank", MBC's "Music Core", and SBS's "Inkigayo" respectively. On July 15, when "Mona Lisa" was released in stores, it reached number one on the Hanteo Real-time, Daily and Weekly Charts.


title: MBLAQ

text: On July 15, J.Tune Camp stated that since July 8, "Mona Lisa" had 30,000 pre-orders, with international fans, in particular Japanese fans, requesting more copies. J.Tune Camp stated they would be producing 50,000 more copies to meet the demand.


title: MBLAQ

text: In September, MBLAQ reached the number one position on German music website "Viva" with their "Mona Lisa" music video by garnering 111,000 views. MBLAQ's "Mona Lisa" had topped Bulgaria's "Popcore TV" chart for sixty eight consecutive days thus far.


title: MBLAQ

text: The title track, "Baby U", of their new single album was released on October 26, 2011. "Baby U!" reached number two on the "Oricon Daily Chart" on its release date, selling more than 22,000 copies. As part of their promotions, MBLAQ travelled to Nagoya, Japan on October 28, Osaka on the 29th, and Tokyo on the 30th to celebrate the release of their new single. On October 30, 1,500 fans were chosen by a lottery among the 12,500 people who gathered at the venue to join the LIVE performance and Great Bingo Tournament. On the final day, 23,000 fans gathered for a special 'High five' event, as well as performances. "Baby U!" reached number two on the "Oricon Weekly Chart", selling a total of 45,624 copies in the first week. The song also reached number one on Japan's "Billboard Hot Animation Chart".


title: MBLAQ

text: On January 1, 2012 a video teaser for MBLAQ's fourth extended play album was released, including their secondary single, “낙서 (Scribble)”. Strangely however the captions on screen were not of the song's lyrics. In the teaser video, Lee Joon is wrestling with Thunder for a woman, and ultimately points his gun to kill. The video was perceived to be very different from previous MBLAQ videos, as this was the first time the group had produced a full-story music video that incorporated acting and action sequences. The captions were later revealed, in the second music video teaser, to be for their lead single "전쟁이야 (This is War)".


title: MBLAQ

text: On January 5, MBLAQ released their teaser of “This is War” on their official YouTube channel, J.Tune Camp. The video reveals the 5 members in their ensemble scene, and some small snippets of the full music video. The teaser ends with the members standing center stage with a string orchestra gathered on either side of them, shooting at the audience and finishes with a violent blood splatter that reveals their lead single's name, "전쟁이야 (This is War)". On the same day, the first concept photo was also released by J.Tune Camp. The directors jokingly stated that there was a particular member, Mir, who wanted to shave his hair bald, however they took fans' opinions into consideration and only let the member go as far as a mohawk.


title: MBLAQ

text: J. Tune Entertainment announced that MBLAQ's fourth mini-album was titled "100% Ver." because "[it] is an expression of MBLAQ's satisfaction and confidence in the album's quality". It has been valuably noted that MBLAQ has expended much effort in the making the album.


title: MBLAQ

text: Not much has been said by the members about their secondary single, “낙서 (Scribble)”. The group members only said, “You will be able to know about this song by listening to it rather than by us explaining about it”. “Scribble” was released on music portal websites on January 3, 2012. When "Scribble" was released, it reached number one on "Soribada" and "Bugs Music", number three on "Mnet's Music chart", and number four on "Cyworld Music". "Scribble" was also promoted along with their lead single, "전쟁이야 (This is War)", multiple times on stage as their second single from their "100% Ver."


title: MBLAQ

text: The full music video of "전쟁이야 (This is War)" was released four days later, on January 10, 2012. Lee Joon reprised his role as the recurring lead image of MBLAQ in the music video as a deadly but warm-hearted assassin. Thunder also appeared as a lead actor in the music video as the assassin's closest friend. Both members' performance in acting, in particular Lee Joon's were positively reviewed by fans and internet browsers alike.


title: MBLAQ

text: "100% Ver." was released on the same day as the music video, containing a total of five songs: "Run", "전쟁이야 (This is War)", “낙서 (Scribble)”, "아찔한 그녀 (She's Breathtaking)", and "Hello My Ex" respectively. It has been revealed that MBLAQ's "100% Ver." had received more than 40,000 pre-orders.


title: MBLAQ

text: The music video of It's War, reached 1 million views within a week. MBLAQ has won M! Countdown for 2 weeks in a row with This is War.


title: MBLAQ

text: In early February, Mir shared a picture on his Twitter of G.O working really hard on a new album (BLAQ%Ver.) for MBLAQ. On March 1, MBLAQ started their promotions for "Run" on M! Countdown, Seungho also injured his back on the pre-recording of M! Countdown, and a video of their dance practice for "Run" was released online on the same day on J.Tune Camp's original YouTube channel.


title: MBLAQ

text: On March 7, MBLAQ released a compilation album titled "MBLAQ Memories - Best in Korea". The album consists of many songs from their Korean releases, and also includes a Japanese version of "You're My +". Upon its release, the album landed at #9 on the Oricon Daily chart


title: MBLAQ

text: In June, Mir and G.O., as part of MBLAQ's subunit, released a song titled "Wild" for their Asia tour. In July, Thunder released a self-composed solo song titled "Don't Go".


title: MBLAQ

text: On May 28, a teaser video for "스모키걸 (Smoky Girl)", the title track of their comeback album "Sexy Beat", was uploaded onto J. Tune Camp's official YouTube channel. MBLAQ previously mentioned in behind the scenes video during a photo shot for "Cosmopolitan Korea" that they will be returning with the song Smoky Girl, described by member Mir as an addictive song with sexy choreography. Leader Seungho confirms in the video that MBLAQ will be making their comeback in the first week of June. On June 4, the music video for Smoky Girl was released online and MBLAQ held a comeback showcase on the same day as the release of the music video which was streamed live on various websites such as Mnet's Mwave. "Sexy Beat", MBLAQ's fifth extended play was also released on June 4, which consists of six tracks with "스모키걸 (Smoky Girl)" as their title track.


title: MBLAQ

text: A repackaged special album titled "Love Beat" was released two months later on August 12, 2013. It consists of three new tracks: "I Don't Know", "Prayer (기도)" and "No Love" as their title track, together with all six tracks from "Sexy Beat". The music video for "No Love" was uploaded on J. Tune Camp's official YouTube channel on August 12, showing the photoshoot, composing and preparation for "Love Beat".


title: MBLAQ

text: On March 20, 2014 at 12AM (KST), a teaser video for "Be a Man", the title track of their comeback album "Broken", was uploaded onto J. Tune Camp's official YouTube channel. On March 24, 2014, the music video of "Be a Man" was uploaded and the album which consists of seven tracks which the members actively participated in the writing and composing part, was subsequently released online at 12PM (KST). On the same day, MBLAQ also began their comeback promotions for "Be a Man" by performing at a comeback showcase in WAPOP Hall at 8PM (KST).


title: MBLAQ

text: On October 13, 2014, it was rumored that Lee Joon and Thunder would be leaving the group after the expiration of their contract with J. Tune Camp. However, J. Tune Camp released an official announcement stating that this was a rumor and that both Joon and Thunder are in talks with the company regarding their future activities.


title: MBLAQ

text: On November 18, 2014, J. Tune Camp revealed a mysterious image on their official Twitter which showed the date November 25, 2014. It turned out to be the release date of their upcoming album which is made up of self-composed songs.


title: MBLAQ

text: A few days later on November 20, 2014, J. Tune Camp revealed the track list on their official Twitter and the album which appears to be titled ""Winter"".


title: MBLAQ

text: On December 16, 2014, it was announced Joon and Thunder had departed from the group and they will focus on individual activities for the time being; Joon focusing on filming his current drama, MBC's Mr. Back and Thunder studying music for a while.


title: MBLAQ

text: Initially debuting as a group more focused on dance and pop, MBLAQ have since experimented with different genres. "Oh Yeah" and "Y" were dance/pop tracks, "My Dream", "Last Luv" and "Rust" are ballad tracks, "Bang Bang Bang" is rock ballad, "Cry" is an R&B track, and "Stay" is a track infused with hip-hop, electronic and rock.


title: MBLAQ

text: With Rain being their mentor and major influence, he has either written, composed, produced and/or choreographed a few tracks for MBLAQ, including "Oh Yeah", "G.O.O.D Luv", and "Y". For the release of "Just BLAQ" and "Y", MBLAQ focused heavily on their performance with strong choreography. With "BLAQ Style", MBLAQ decided to focus more on the music and melody rather than the choreography.


title: MBLAQ

text: In late 2009, MBLAQ's first aired program was Mnet's "MBLAQ - The Art of Seduction", which received record ratings.


title: MBLAQ

text: With their trip to Japan for Rain's fanmeet, music channel "Mnet Japan" decided to film a documentary of their stay, selecting them as the first stars of their show "2010 K-Pop Star" series. The documentary, called "Yo! Tokyo", aired in early 2010, showing the public their experience with Japanese culture and traditions over a period of four days.


title: MBLAQ

text: On December 15, 2009, it was announced that the group would be part of season five of the Idol Show (Hangul: 아이돌 군단의 떴다! 그녀!, lit. "Idol Army, She Has Arrived!"), with the first episode airing a day later. MBLAQ filmed a total of sixteen episodes.


title: MBLAQ

text: From February 18, 2010, MBLAQ members G.O and Lee Joon took on the role of co-hosts (MCD Guys) for the music show M! Countdown.


title: MBLAQ

text: In March, Thunder participated in Mnet's "Mnet Scandal". Thunder, having lived in the Philippines, participated in the cable TV show, "Mom, I've gone crazy for English" with fellow K-Pop singer Nicole from Kara, where he was an English mentor to young children. He was also a host of "The M-Wave" with fellow artist Krystal from f(x)..


title: MBLAQ

text: To coincide with the 2010 FIFA World Cup, MTV Korea created a program called "Idol United", where members of male idol groups formed a soccer team to compete against other soccer teams. The fourteen-member team consisted of members from U-KISS, , F.Cuz, and The Boss (Dae Guk Nam Ah), with MBLAQ members being Seungho, Lee Joon and Mir.


title: MBLAQ

text: In addition to his MC role in "M! Countdown", Joon also took on the role of MC for QTV's "Ranking Women", however he has since left the program to focus on his music activities. He was a permanent member of the TV show "Star Golden Bell", which had been replaced by "Oh! My School" which he also became a permanent member of.


title: MBLAQ

text: Lee Joon became known as the only Korean Hollywood idol star after starring in Hollywood film "Ninja Assassin" with world star and mentor Rain.


title: MBLAQ

text: At the end of May, MBLAQ participated in GOMTV's "Making the Artist", a small documentary on their life as artists. MBLAQ filmed a total of four episodes documenting their promotions for "Y".


title: MBLAQ

text: Following their promotions for "Y", MBLAQ were cast in the final series of Mnet's "Celebrities Go to School". Their mentor for the show is actor Kim Su-ro. The show started airing in August 2010.


title: MBLAQ

text: The members of MBLAQ made an appearance in Lee Joon's drama "Housewife Kim Kwang Ja's Third Activities".


title: MBLAQ

text: In 2011, Thunder was made a permanent cast member of the KBS show "Imagination Arcade". Fellow member Lee Joon was a permanent cast member of "Oh! My School", the show ended on May 29, 2011.


title: MBLAQ

text: In March, MBLAQ took part in Mnet Wide's new corner, "Refreshing Interview", with their own show called "Sesame Player". MBLAQ filmed a total of thirteen episodes, and Infinite had been selected to film Season 2.


title: MBLAQ

text: In June, it was announced that G.O would replace B2ST's Yoseob in "Immortal Songs 2", staying as a cast member for at least a month with new cast members including F.T Island's Hongki, 2PM's Junsu and Secret's Ji Eun.


title: MBLAQ

text: In August, members Lee Joon and Thunder have collaborated with Chinese artist Vision Wei, and their digital single "Run Away" was released on the 25th.


title: MBLAQ

text: In September, it was announced the Lee Joon had been cast in the SBS drama "Fly Again", which is set to air in early 2012, however, due to scheduling conflicts, he will be replaced by Lee Chun Hee.


title: MBLAQ

text: In December, Thunder had a cameo role in jTBC drama Padam Padam... The Sound of His and Her Heartbeats where he plays the role Yang Kang Woo, the older brother of Yang Kang Chil (played by Jung Woo-sung).


title: MBLAQ

text: On January 5, it was announced that MBLAQ would be participating in KBS Joy's Hello Baby Season 5, and new episodes are aired weekly.


title: MBLAQ

text: On January 26, MBLAQ performed at a special concert MBC Music Era ("I Giorni Della Musica") held in Ilsan. The concert consist of live performances by 38 legendary singers. MBLAQ was the only idol group to perform at the concert. MBLAQ sang Mona Lisa with veteran singers Yoon Sang, Kim Gwang Jin, BMK, Kim Kyung Ho and Baek Ji Young singing the chorus. MBLAQ's Lee Joon also joined Kim Jo Han for a live performance of "Soul Mates".


title: MBLAQ

text: On February 10, MBLAQ's Lee Joon & Mir release a digital single "Do You Remember" with legendary singer Kim Jo Han. The song was written by one of Korea's best composer, Ha Kwang Hoon. A remake from Jo Kwan Woo's hit song "Winter Story", which was released in 1995. It was rearranged by producer and songwriter, Shin Jae Hong. During an interview, Kim Jo Han revealed that he preferred MBLAQ over SNSD and the Wonder girls. He had also expressed that he would like to be the 6th member of MBLAQ.


title: MBLAQ

text: On March 15, it was announced that MBLAQ would be making a cameo on the drama "The Strongest K-Pop Survival", which stars member Mir's sister, Go Eun Ah.


title: MBLAQ

text: On the March 16th, G.O was a special guest on an episode of SBS TV's "Salamander Guru and The Shadows". G.O played a stalker and received positive reviews from fans.


title: MBLAQ

text: In April it was confirmed that Lee Joon would have a role in the KBS2 TV drama "I Need a Fairy" with fellow idol star Go Woori of Rainbow. Also in April, it was confirmed that G.O was cast in SBS's drama "Phantom" after impressing one of the producers of "Salamander Guru and The Shadows".


title: MBLAQ

text: In September it was confirmed that Lee Joon would have a role in successful "IRIS" sequel "IRIS 2" it will begin filming in October and will start airing in 2013.


title: MBLAQ

text: In October, TvN announces that Mir will participate in "The Romantic & Idol", a love variety program wherein idol can date each other. Mir also joined the cast of "Law of the Jungle 2", he will be the third idol to participate in the show.


title: MBLAQ

text: In January, it was confirmed that Thunder will star in MBC trendy drama Nail Shop Paris as the lead opposite to KARA's Gyuri. The story will revolve around a nail salon wherein flower boy employees work. It was reported that MBLAQ will participate in 64th Sapporo Snow Festival in Japan to promote Korean pop culture, the charity concert will take place on February 9.


title: MBLAQ

text: In February, G.O was confirmed to have a cameo role in upcoming KBS2 sitcom Remaining Love along with KARA's Seungyeon, ZE:A's Siwan, SECRET's Ji Eun, and INFINITE's Sunggyu.


title: MBLAQ

text: The Mnet Asian Music Awards (abbreviated as a MAMA), formerly "M.net KM Music Festival" (MKMF) (1999 - 2008), is a major K-pop music award show that is held by Mnet Media annually in South Korea. Daesang Award (Grand Prize) is equivalent Artist of the Year.


title: Law of total variance

text: In probability theory, the law of total variance or variance decomposition formula or conditional variance formulas or law of iterated variances also known as Eve's law, states that if formula_1 and formula_2 are random variables on the same probability space, and the variance of formula_2 is finite, then


title: Law of total variance

text: In language perhaps better known to statisticians than to probability theorists, the two terms are the "unexplained" and the "explained" components of the variance respectively (cf. fraction of variance unexplained, explained variation). In actuarial science, specifically credibility theory, the first component is called the expected value of the process variance (EVPV) and the second is called the variance of the hypothetical means (VHM). These two components are also the source of the term "Eve's law", from the initials EV VE for "expectation of variance" and "variance of expectation".


title: Law of total variance

text: There is a general variance decomposition formula for formula_5 components (see below). For example, with two conditioning random variables:


title: Law of total variance

text: Note that the conditional expected value formula_8 is a random variable in its own right, whose value depends on the value of formula_9 Notice that the conditional expected value of formula_2 given the formula_11 is a function of formula_12 (this is where adherence to the conventional and rigidly case-sensitive notation of probability theory becomes important!). If we write formula_13 then the random variable formula_8 is just formula_15 Similar comments apply to the conditional variance.


title: Law of total variance

text: One special case, (similar to the law of total expectation) states that if formula_16 is a partition of the whole outcome space, that is, these events are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, then


title: Law of total variance

text: In this formula, the first component is the expectation of the conditional variance; the other two components are the variance of the conditional expectation.


title: Law of total variance

text: from the definition of variance. Again, from the definition of variance, and applying the law of total expectation, we have


title: Law of total variance

text: Now we rewrite the conditional second moment of formula_2 in terms of its variance and first moment, and apply the law of total expectation on the right hand side:


title: Law of total variance

text: Finally, we recognize the terms in the second set of parentheses as the variance of the conditional expectation formula_23:


title: Law of total variance

text: The following formula shows how to apply the general, measure theoretic variance decomposition formula to stochastic dynamic systems. Let formula_25 be the value of a system variable at time formula_26 Suppose we have the internal histories (natural filtrations) formula_27, each one corresponding to the history (trajectory) of a different collection of system variables. The collections need not be disjoint. The variance of formula_25 can be decomposed, for all times formula_29 into formula_5 components as follows:


title: Law of total variance

text: The decomposition is not unique. It depends on the order of the conditioning in the sequential decomposition.


title: Law of total variance

text: In cases where formula_32 are such that the conditional expected value is linear; that is, in cases where


title: Law of total variance

text: and the explained component of the variance divided by the total variance is just the square of the correlation between formula_2 and formula_37 that is, in such cases,


title: Law of total variance

text: which can be estimated as the formula_43 squared from a non-linear regression of formula_2 on formula_45 using data drawn from the joint distribution of formula_46 When formula_8 has a Gaussian distribution (and is an invertible function of formula_1), or formula_2 itself has a (marginal) Gaussian distribution, this explained component of variation sets a lower bound on the mutual information:


title: Dakotaraptor

text: Dakotaraptor (meaning “thief from Dakota”) is a potentially chimaeric genus of large dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in North America during the Late Cretaceous period. The remains have been found in the Maastrichtian stage of the Hell Creek Formation, dated to the very end of the Mesozoic era, making "Dakotaraptor" one of the last surviving dromaeosaurids. The remains of "D. steini" were discovered in a multi-species bonebed. Elements of the holotype and referred specimens were later found to belong to trionychid turtles, and further analysis of potential non-dromaeosaurid affinities of the holotype and referred material have not yet been conducted. Phylogenetic analyses of "D. steini" place it in a variety of positions in the Dromaeosauridae.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: In 2005, paleontologist Robert DePalma in Harding County, South Dakota discovered a fluvial bonebed bearing the remains of a variety of dinosaurian and non-dinosaurian remains, which yielded a partial skeleton attributed by DePalma to a large dromaeosaurid. Subsequently, the same site produced additional dromaeosaurid remains.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: In 2015, the type species "Dakotaraptor steini" was named and described by Robert A. DePalma, David A. Burnham, Larry Dean Martin, Peter Lars Larson and Robert Thomas Bakker. The generic name, "Dakotaraptor", combines a reference to South Dakota and the Dakota people with the Latin word "raptor", meaning "plunderer". The specific name, "steini", honors paleontologist Walter W. Stein. "Dakotaraptor" was one of eighteen dinosaur taxa from 2015 to be described in open access or free-to-read journals.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: The holotype, PBMNH.P.10.113.T, was found in a sandstone layer of the upper Hell Creek Formation, dating from the late Maastrichtian. It consists of a partial skeleton, lacking the skull, of an adult individual. It contains a piece of a back vertebra, ten tail vertebrae, both humeri, both ulnae, both radii, the first and second right metacarpals, three claws of the left hand, a right thighbone, both shinbones, a left astragalus bone, a left calcaneum, the left second, third and fourth metatarsal, the right fourth metatarsal, and the second and third claw of the right foot. An assigned furcula was later excluded from the specimen. Apart from the remains of the holotype, in the site bones were discovered that also belonged to "Dakotaraptor" but which represented a more gracile morph. These included the specimens PBMNH.P.10.115.T: a right shinbone; PBMNH.P.10.118.T: a connected left astragalus and calcaneum; and KUVP 152429: originally identified as a furcula, but now also excluded from the known remains of "Dakotaraptor". Additionally four isolated teeth were referred, specimens PBMNH.P.10.119.T, PBMNH.P.10.121.T, PBMNH.P.10.122.T, and PBMNH.P.10.124.T. These fossils are part of the collection of The Palm Beach Museum of Natural History. Other referred fossils are KUVP 156045, an isolated tooth, and NCSM 13170, a third supposed furcula later identified as not belonging to "Dakotaraptor".


title: Dakotaraptor

text: "Dakotaraptor" is exceptionally large for a dromaeosaurid; it has an estimated adult length of . In 2016 other estimations suggested a length of 4.35-6 m (14.3-19.7 ft) in length and 220-350 kg (485-772 lbs) in weight.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: This approaches the size of one of the largest known dromaeosaurids, "Utahraptor". "Dakotaraptor" however, does not have the proportions and adaptations of "Utahraptor", but more closely resembles smaller dromaeosaurids like "Deinonychus".


title: Dakotaraptor

text: Apart from the large size, the description of 2015 indicated some additional distinguishing traits. On the fourth foot claw, the boss that serves as an attachment for the tendon of the flexor muscle is reduced in size. The "blood groove" on the outer side of the fourth claw of the foot, towards the tip is fully enclosed over half of its length, forming a bony tubular structure. The second and third claws of the foot have sharp keels at their undersides. The second foot claw, the "sickle claw", equals 29% of the thighbone length. On the shinbone, the "crista fibularis", the crest that contacts the calfbone, is long and lightly built with a height that does not exceed 9% of the crest length. The upper edge of this crest ends in a hook. On the second metacarpal, of the two condyles that contact the finger, the inner one is almost as large as the outer one. The outer side of the second metacarpal has but a shallow groove for the ligament that connects it to the third metacarpal. When the arm is seen in a flat position, of the second metacarpal the edge between the wrist joint and the upper shaft is straight in top view. The teeth have fifteen to twenty denticles per on the rear edges and twenty to twenty-seven denticles on the front edges.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: The vertebrae of the back are highly pneumatised, filled with trabecular bone that shows many air spaces. On the middle tail vertebrae the front joint processes, the prezygapophyses, are extremely elongated with an estimated intact length of , spanning about ten vertebrae. This stiffens the tail.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: Like virtually all other theropods, "Dakotaraptor" likely possessed a furcula, or “wishbone”, as part of the shoulder girdle. Theropod wishbones are quite varied and often different from the strongly U-shaped "furculae" most modern birds possess; the elements originally identified as the furcula of "Dakotaraptor" were U- to V-shaped, similar to many other dromaeosaurids such as "Velociraptor", and even the large spinosaurid theropod "Suchomimus". In 2015, a study by Victoria Megan Arbour "et al." proposed that the presumed "Dakotaraptor" furculae in fact represented a part of a turtle armour, the entoplastron of "Axestemys splendida", a member of the Trionychidae. In 2016, DePalma "et al." recognized that none of the referred furculae actually belonged to "Dakotaraptor", and excluded them from its hypodigm.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: The wing of "Dakotaraptor" was given much attention in the describing article. Here, “wing” is used as an anatomical descriptive term not related to its functionality, since "Dakotaraptor" was flightless. This is similar to the term “wing” for the same appendages in ostriches, emus, and other flightless birds. It is meant to express that arm is equipped with long feathers. Many of the wing bones were discovered (humerus, radius, ulna, two of the three metacarpal wrist bones, and parts of the finger digits), so the wing is very complete. The humerus, the upper arm bone, is relatively long and slender. It is somewhat bent to the inside. The most notable anatomical feature is the row of very prominent bumps along a ridge on the lower edge of the ulna, one of the forearm bones. These are called ulnar papillae, or quill knobs. In birds and some other theropod dinosaurs, these bumps were spots for reinforced attachment of the remiges, or wing feathers. When quill knobs are present, this is considered a strong indication that the animal had long remiges on the wings. Since quill knobs are rare in the fossil record, paleontologists mainly relied on phylogenetic bracketing to determine if a species was likely to have had wing feathers - if a relative on a "higher" branch of the evolutionary tree had the feathers, and one on a "lower" branch down had them also, then a species in the middle position likely did as well. "Dakotaraptor"’s quill knobs show that the animal unequivocally had prominent wing feathers, making it the largest dromaeosaurid with confirmed plumage of that type. The quill knobs of "Dakotaraptor" have a diameter of about , which shows that these feathers were rather large. It was estimated that a complete series might include fifteen of these "papillae ulnares". The ulna is long and the other lower arm bone, the radius, measures . The hand bones show that their joints allowed for little mobility. The wingspan of "Dakotaraptor" was estimated at , not taking into account possible primary remiges longer than the hand.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: The second metacarpal of the metacarpus of the hand, the bone that primary remiges attach to, also had a flat bony shelf as its dorsal surface. The shelf made a perfect spot for the primary feathers to lay across in their life-attachment.


title: Dakotaraptor

text: Overall, the hindlimb is built lightly and with long elements, contrary to the robust, stocky hind limbs of "Utahraptor". "Dakotaraptor" more closely resembles the agile, springy smaller dromaeosaurids and would have been well-suited to running and pursuit predation. The length of the thighbone is . It is relatively shorter and more lightly built than that of "Utahraptor". To the contrary the shinbone is rather elongated. The holotype shinbone is, with a length of , the longest dromaeosaurid tibia known. It is 22% longer than the thighbone, indicating a good running capability. The shinbone's cnemial crest has a sharp corner pointing to the front. Its fibular crest ends in a hook-shaped process pointing to above, a condition that is unique in the entire Theropoda. The astragalus and calcaneum, the upper ankle bones, are fused just as in "Bambiraptor". The top of the calcaneum has but a small contact facet for the calfbone, indicating that this fibula must have had a very narrow lower end. The metatarsus has an estimated length of , which makes it rather long relative to the remainder of the hindlimb.