title: Fizz (cocktail)

text: A gin fizz is the best-known cocktail in the fizz family. A gin fizz contains gin, lemon juice, and sugar, which are shaken with ice, poured into a tumbler and topped with carbonated water. The drink is similar to a Tom Collins, with a possible distinction being a Tom Collins historically used "Old Tom gin" (a slightly sweeter precursor to London Dry Gin), whereas the kind of gin historically used in a gin fizz is unknown.


title: Fizz (cocktail)

text: A Ramos gin fizz (also known as a "Ramos fizz" or "New Orleans fizz") contains gin, lemon juice, lime juice, egg white, sugar, cream, orange flower water, and soda water. It is served in a large non-tapered 12 to 14 ounce Collins glass.


title: Fizz (cocktail)

text: The orange flower water and egg significantly affect the flavor and texture of a Ramos, compared to a regular gin fizz. The key to making this egg cocktail is dissolving the sugar before adding ice; the sugar acts as an emulsifier, and it and the alcohol "cook" the egg white.


title: Fizz (cocktail)

text: Henry C. Ramos invented the Ramos gin fizz in 1888 at his bar, the Imperial Cabinet Saloon on Gravier Street, New Orleans, Louisiana. It was originally called a "New Orleans fizz", and is one of the city's most famous cocktails. Before Prohibition, the drink's popularity and exceptionally long 12-minute mixing time had over 20 bartenders working at the Imperial at once making nothing but the Ramos gin fizz and still struggling to keep up with demand. During the carnival of 1915, 32 staff members were on at once, just to shake the drink.


title: Fizz (cocktail)

text: The Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans also popularized the drink, abetted by Governor Huey Long's fondness for it. In July 1935, Long brought a bartender named Sam Guarino from the Roosevelt Hotel to the New Yorker Hotel in New York City to teach its staff how to make the drink so he could have it whenever he was there. The Museum of the American Cocktail has newsreel footage of this event. The Roosevelt Hotel group trademarked the drink name in 1935 and still makes it today.


title: Fizz (cocktail)

text: A traditional sloe gin fizz contains sloe gin (a blackthorn plum flavored spirit), grapefruit juice, simple syrup, egg white, and carbonated water.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: "Good Feeling" is a song by American rapper Flo Rida from his 2012 EP of the same name, also appearing on his fourth studio album, "Wild Ones". It was released as the album's lead single on August 29, 2011, in the United States. The song was written by Flo Rida, Dr. Luke, Cirkut, Breyan Isaac, Arash Pournouri, Avicii, Etta James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods. It was also produced by Dr. Luke and Cirkut.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The song contains vocal samples from Etta James's 1962 single "Something's Got a Hold on Me", which is why James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods received writing credits. Avicii and Arash Pournouri received credits as well because Avicii's song "Levels", which also sampled the Etta James song, is used as the primary musical interpolation throughout "Good Feeling". In addition, this is Flo Rida's fourth collaboration with Dr. Luke (after "Right Round", "Touch Me" and "Who Dat Girl") and second collaboration with Cirkut (after "Who Dat Girl"). The three would next collaborate with Taio Cruz on the song "Hangover".


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: "Good Feeling" peaked at number 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Flo Rida's sixth top-ten and fourth top-five single on the chart. The song became a top ten hit in 16 countries.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: "Good Feeling" is the lead single from his album "Wild Ones". The track was written by Flo Rida, Dr. Luke, Cirkut, Breyan Issac, Arash Pournouri, Avicii, Etta James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods, while production was helmed by Dr. Luke and Cirkut. Dr. Luke has previously produced Flo Rida's songs "Right Round", "Touch Me" and "Who Dat Girl"; Cirkut has previously teamed with Flo Rida on the latter song as well. "Good Feeling" is written in the key of D♭ minor and features acoustic-driven guitars, computerized beats and charging keyboards over a prominent sample from Avicii's song "Levels", which in turn samples Etta James's 1962 gospel-tinged hit "Something’s Got a Hold on Me".


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The first use of the Etta James vocal sample in a popular track was by Pretty Lights in the song "Finally Moving" in 2006, with a remix surfacing in 2008.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The song has received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. Trent Fitzgerald of "Pop Crush" gave the song four stars (out of possible five), writing that "the song is certainly destined to be a dance floor burner." The reviewer also said that "We have a good feeling that Flo Rida has a chart-topping hit on his hands with this club banger. It feels like an anthem for the fist-pumping crowd that idolizes MTV's Guido-ville show ‘The Jersey Shore.’" In a more favorable review, Katherine St Asaph of "Pop Dust" wrote that the track "might be the most listenable Flo Rida track ever" and that it's "pretty damn good."


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: In a more negative review, Digital Spy's Robert Copsey rated it two stars (out of possible five) and wrote that "the sampling of DJ Avicii's 'Levels' – which in turn samples Etta James's 'Something's Got a Hold on Me' – makes this club-rap number sound about as authentic as Asda's tinned spaghetti." Following James's death on January 20, 2012, Flo Rida dedicated the song in her memory.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: "Good Feeling" debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at No. 82 in its first week of release, and peaked at No. 3 in its 16th week on the Hot 100 in January 2012. It reached 3 million in sales by April 2012, and has sold over 4 million in the U.S. as of March 2014.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: In the UK, "Good Feeling" reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart in January 2012 eight weeks after release. It became Flo Rida's fourth No. 1 in the UK with sales of 51,000 that week. The song has sold 1,200,000 copies in the UK as of December 2020.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: A lyric video was uploaded to Flo Rida's YouTube channel on August 29, 2011. He shot the music video on September 27, 2011, and it was then later officially released to YouTube on October 21, 2011.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The music video for "Good Feeling" follows Flo Rida on a tour around Europe. A lot of his exercise regimen can be seen in detail. American rap artist Snoop Dogg can be seen in this video shaking hands with Flo Rida during a Marseilles show.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: It also shows Flo Rida holding an Apple iPad in front of his face. He also rides a 'Tron Bike', created by Parker Brothers.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The song was featured in an advert for British travel company First Choice in late 2011 promoting all inclusive holidays.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The song was used as a promotional song for the Australian television station Channel Ten for their revival of "Young Talent Time", and was also used as a background for the title sequence and credits for the second series of BBC Three's "". The song was used in a 2011 Express Holiday Collection commercial. A mashup with The Cult's "She Sells Sanctuary" was featured in Budweiser's "Eternal Optimism" ad that aired during Super Bowl XLVI. This song is used in Nickelodeon South East Asia's and Nickelodeon Philippines's commercial for the Good Friday special. The same sampling used in "Levels" by Avicii and "Die Young" by Kesha is used in the first trailer for "Wreck-It Ralph" and in the teaser trailer for its sequel, "Ralph Breaks the Internet". The song is also featured in the video game "Just Dance 4".


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The song is also used in Buick and Royal Caribbean commercials. The song was used in the 2012 movie "".


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: For the 2011–12 and 2012–13 seasons, "Good Feeling" was the unofficial victory song of the National Hockey League (NHL)'s New York Rangers. The song was played after every Rangers home win at Madison Square Garden until it was replaced with "Wake Me Up", also by the song's producer, for the 2013–14 season. The song can also be heard in the second episode of HBO's "24/7", "Road to the 2012 Winter Classic" following a scene of the Rangers last second win against the Phoenix Coyotes on December 17, 2011.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: “Good Feeling” was played to introduce the Super Bowl XLVI champion New York Giants during a celebration at the state's City Hall. Following this, each player received a key to New York City by Mayor Michael Bloomberg.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The WWE used this song as the official theme song to WWE Survivor Series 2011 and it was one of two Flo Rida songs that were used as one of the official theme songs to WrestleMania XXVIII with the other being "Wild Ones". Flo Rida also performed "Good Feeling" along with "Wild Ones" live at WrestleMania XXVIII prior to The Rock entrance for his "Once In A Lifetime" match against John Cena.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The song was also used at Arthur Ashe Court during the 2012 US Open in Flushing, Queens, New York as a warm-up song.


title: Good Feeling (song)

text: The song was played at Oracle Arena after every Golden State Warriors home win until the Warriors' move to San Francisco in 2019 where it has continued to be played after every home win at Chase Center.


title: Fouke Monster

text: In Arkansas folklore, the Fouke Monster , also known as the Boggy Creek Monster and the Swamp Stalker, is purported to be an ape-like creature, similar to descriptions of Bigfoot, that was allegedly sighted in the rural town of Fouke, Arkansas during the early 1970s. The creature was alleged to have attacked a local family. It has since become a part of Arkansas folklore. It has also influenced local culture in Fouke, with some businesses capitalizing on the local lore. Stories of the creature influenced the 1972 docudrama horror film "The Legend of Boggy Creek", which became the 11th highest-grossing film of 1972 and is today considered to be a cult classic.


title: Fouke Monster

text: The creature was named by journalist Jim Powell, who reported on it for the "Texarkana Gazette" and the "Texarkana Daily News".


title: Fouke Monster

text: Various reports between 1971 and 1974 described it as being a large, bipedal creature covered in long dark hair. It was estimated to be about tall with a weight of . Later reports claimed that it was far larger, with one witness describing it as tall, with an estimated weight of . Some accounts describe the Fouke Monster as running swiftly with a galloping gait and swinging its arms in a fashion similar to a monkey. Reports also describe it as having a terrible odor, the odor being described as a combination of a skunk and a wet dog, and as having bright red eyes about the size of silver dollars.


title: Fouke Monster

text: A variety of tracks and claw marks have been discovered which are claimed to belong to the creature. One set of foot prints reportedly measured in length and wide, while another appeared to show feet that only possessed three toes.


title: Fouke Monster

text: Prior to the 20th century, several alleged sightings in the general area related to a large, hairy creature circulated in an 1851 report in the "Memphis Enquirer", and an 1856 report in the "Caddo Gazette".


title: Fouke Monster

text: Local residents claim that the creature had roamed the area since 1964, but those sightings had not been reported. Local folklore also holds that the creature can be further traced back to sightings in 1946. Most early sightings were allegedly in the region of Jonesville as the creature was known as the "Jonesville Monster" during this period.


title: Fouke Monster

text: In 1955 the creature was allegedly spotted by a 14-year-old boy who described it as having reddish brown hair, sniffing the air, and not reacting when it was fired upon with birdshot. Investigator Joe Nickell observed that the description was consistent with a misidentified black bear ("Ursus americanus").


title: Fouke Monster

text: The Fouke Monster first made local headlines in 1971, when it was reported to have attacked the home of Bobby and Elizabeth Ford on May 2, 1971.


title: Fouke Monster

text: According to Elizabeth Ford, the creature, which she initially thought was a bear, reached through a screen window that night while she was sleeping on a couch. It was chased away by her husband and his brother Don. During the alleged encounter, the Fords fired several gun shots at the creature and believed that they had hit it, though no traces of blood were found. An extensive search of the area failed to locate the creature, but three-toed footprints were found close to the house, as well as scratch marks on the porch and damage to a window and the house's siding. According to the Fords, they had heard something moving around outside late at night several nights prior but, having lived in the house for less than a week, had never encountered the creature before.


title: Fouke Monster

text: The creature was allegedly sighted again on May 23, 1971, when three people, D. C. Woods, Jr., Wilma Woods, and Mrs. R. H. Sedgass, reported seeing an ape-like creature crossing U.S. Highway 71. More sightings reports were made over the following months by local residents and tourists, who found additional footprints. The best known footprints were found in a soybean field belonging to local filling station owner Scott Keith. They were scrutinized by game warden Carl Galyon, who was unable to confirm their authenticity. Like the Ford prints, they appeared to indicate that the creature had only three toes.


title: Fouke Monster

text: The incident began to attract substantial interest after news spread about the Ford sighting. The Little Rock, Arkansas, radio station KAAY posted a $1,090 bounty on the creature. Several attempts were made to track the creature with dogs, but they were unable to follow its scent. When hunters began to take interest in the Fouke Monster, Miller County Sheriff Leslie Greer was forced to put a temporary "no guns" policy in place in order to preserve public safety. In 1971, three people were fined $59 each "for filing a fraudulent monster report."


title: Fouke Monster

text: After an initial surge of attention, public interest in the creature decreased until it gained national recognition in 1973 when Charles B. Pierce released a docudrama horror film about the creature in 1972, "The Legend of Boggy Creek".


title: Fouke Monster

text: By late 1974, interest had waned again and sightings all but stopped; only to begin again in March 1978 when tracks were reportedly found by two brothers prospecting in Russellville, Arkansas. There were also sightings in Center Ridge, Arkansas. On June 26 of that same year, a sighting was reported in Crossett, Arkansas. During this period the creature was blamed for missing livestock and attacks on several dogs.


title: Fouke Monster

text: Since the initial clusters of sightings during the 1970s, there have been sporadic reports of the creature. In 1991 the creature was reportedly seen jumping from a bridge. There were forty reported sightings in 1997 and, in 1998, the creature was reportedly sighted in a dry creek bed south of Fouke.


title: Fouke Monster

text: One month after the Ford sighting, Southern State College (now known as Southern Arkansas University) archaeologist Frank Schambach determined that "There is a 99 percent chance the tracks are a hoax."


title: Fouke Monster

text: According to Schambach, the tracks could not be from a species of ape, as claimed by witnesses, because they were from a three-toed creature, whereas all primates, including hominids, have five toes. In addition to the number of toes, Schambach cited several other anomalies as part of his conclusion: the region had no history of primate activity, ruling out the possibility of the creature being the remnants of an indigenous species; all apes are completely diurnal, as the Fouke Monster was reported to be nocturnal.


title: Fouke Monster

text: By 1986, the mayor of Fouke, Virgil Roberts, and former Miller County Sheriff Leslie Greer, were of the opinion that the alleged Fouke Monster tracks were man-made. Greer's working colleague at that time, Chief Deputy H. L. Phillips, said that he had not taken calls regarding the monster in years. He does not believe the creature exists, stating, "...I don't believe in it. But I'd say you don't argue with people who say they've seen it. Many were respectable and responsible folks".


title: Fouke Monster

text: The "Skeptoid" podcast concludes "So in total, every last shred of evidence that the Fouke Monster exists at all is anecdotal. Not a single piece is testable. The Fouke Monster fits very poorly with the model of a living animal, but fits very well with a local legend."


title: Fouke Monster

text: Since 2013, the "Fouke Monster Festival", previously called the "Boggy Creek Festival", has been an annual event dedicated to discussions, presentations, and lore related to the creature and other similar monsters. Proceeds benefit the Fouke School District, with over $3,000 having been raised in 2019.


title: Fouke Monster

text: The story of Bobby Ford's encounter with the Fouke Monster was the subject of a 1972, docudrama horror film, "The Legend of Boggy Creek" (initially titled "Tracking the Fouke Monster"), which played in movie and drive-in theaters around the country. It was written by Earl E. Smith and directed by Charles B. Pierce. The part of Bobby Ford was played by Glenn Carruth and the part of Elizabeth Ford was played by Bunny Dees. Fouke Garage owner Willie E. Smith, on whose land three-toed footprints were found, starred as himself. Many characters were named after the people who played them. Much of the film was shot on location in Fouke and nearby Texarkana, though some scenes also were filmed in Shreveport, Louisiana. Most of the cast were local people or Texarkana college students. The film is believed to have cost $160,000 to make. It grossed $20 million at the box office.


title: Fouke Monster

text: A second Fouke Monster film, "Return to Boggy Creek", was filmed and released in 1977. The movie had an entirely fictional plot and was not intended to be a sequel. It was directed by Tom Moore, written by John David Woody, and starred Dawn Wells as the mother of three children who become lost in the swamp. Some of the film's scenes were shot on location in Dallas, Texas, and Loreauville and Iberia Parish, Louisiana.


title: Fouke Monster

text: Originally titled "The Barbaric Beast of Boggy Creek, Part II", the third Fouke Monster film was written as a sequel to the original film. Charles B. Pierce wrote, directed, and played the role of Brian Lockart, a University of Arkansas professor who leads a group of students into the swamps around Fouke. The film was shot on location in Fouke but included some scenes shot at the University of Arkansas.


title: Fouke Monster

text: In 1999, "Boggy Creek II: And The Legend Continues" was lampooned in an episode of "Mystery Science Theater 3000".


title: Fouke Monster

text: "Boggy Creek: The Legend Is True" was released to home video in 2011. Early buzz suggested that the film, directed by Brian T. Jaynes, was to be a remake of Charles B. Pierce's original 1972 film. However, it is an unrelated story set in the fictional town of Boggy Creek, Texas. Even so, the film obviously draws influence from Pierce's film with its small-town setting and use of spooky swampscapes for this Southern Sasquatch horror slasher.


title: Fouke Monster

text: This low-budget indie film was originally released in 2009 under the title "The Skunkape Story", but was later re-edited and released to home video in 2011 as "The Legacy of Boggy Creek". The docudrama chronicles the events that began after the original attacks in Fouke. It was written and directed by Dustin Ferguson.


title: Fouke Monster

text: In 2016, a documentary film about the Fouke Monster entitled "Boggy Creek Monster" was released. Directed by Seth Breedlove, who co-produced the film with Lyle Blackburn under the banner of Breedlove's production company Small Town Monsters, it was filmed in Fouke and features accounts from claimed eyewitnesses of the purported creature.


title: Persecution

text: Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another individual or group. The most common forms are religious persecution, racism, and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these terms. The inflicting of suffering, harassment, imprisonment, internment, fear or pain are all factors that may establish persecution, but not all suffering will necessarily establish persecution. The threshold of severity has been a source of much debate.


title: Persecution

text: As part of the Nuremberg Principles, crimes against humanity are part of international law. Principle VI of the Nuremberg Principles states that


title: Persecution

text: Telford Taylor, who was Counsel for the Prosecution at the Nuremberg Trials wrote "[at] the Nuremberg war crimes trials, the tribunals rebuffed several efforts by the prosecution to bring such 'domestic' atrocities within the scope of international law as 'crimes against humanity". Several subsequent international treaties incorporate this principle, but some have dropped the restriction "in connection with any crime against peace or any war crime" that is in Nuremberg Principles.


title: Persecution

text: The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which is binding on 111 states, defines crimes against humanity in Article 7.1. The article criminalizes certain acts "committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack". These include:


title: Persecution

text: Religious persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group due to their religious affiliation. Not only theorists of secularization (who presume a decline of religiosity in general) would willingly assume that religious persecution is a thing of the past. However, with the rise of fundamentalism and religiously related terrorism, this assumption has become even more controversial. Indeed, in many countries of the world today, religious persecution is a Human Rights problem.


title: Persecution

text: Atheists have experienced persecution throughout their history. Persecution may refer to unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, beating, torture, or execution. It also may refer to the confiscation or destruction of property.


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of Baháʼís refers to the religious persecution of Baháʼís in various countries, especially in Iran, which has the seventh largest Baháʼí population in the world, with just over 251,100 as of 2010. The Baháʼí Faith originated in Iran, and it represents the largest religious minority in that country.


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of Buddhists has been a widespread phenomenon throughout the history of Buddhism, a phenomenon which is continuing today. As early as the 3rd century AD, Buddhists were persecuted by Kirder, the Zoroastrian high priest of the Sasanian Empire.


title: Persecution

text: Anti-Buddhist sentiment in Imperial China between the 5th and 10th century led to the "Four Buddhist Persecutions in China" of which the "Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution" of 845 was probably the most severe. However, Buddhism managed to survive in China, but it was greatly weakened. During the Northern Expedition, in 1926 in Guangxi, the Kuomintang Muslim General Bai Chongxi led his troops on a campaign to destroy Buddhist temples and smash idols, they turned the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters. During the Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai, the Muslim General Ma Bufang and his army wiped out many Tibetan Buddhists in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and destroyed Tibetan Buddhist temples.


title: Persecution

text: The Muslim invasion of the Indian subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion of the Indian subcontinent. According to William Johnston, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and shrines were destroyed, Buddhist texts were burnt by the Muslim armies, monks and nuns were killed on the Indo-Gangetic Plain during the 12th and 13th centuries. The Buddhist university of Nalanda was mistaken for a fort because of its walled campus. The Buddhist monks who had been slaughtered were mistaken for Brahmins according to Minhaj-i-Siraj. The walled town, the Odantapuri monastery, was also destroyed by his forces. Sumpa based his account on that of Śākyaśrībhadra who was at Magadha in 1200, states that the Buddhist university complexes of Odantapuri and Vikramshila were also destroyed and the monks were massacred. Muslim forces attacked the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent many times. Many places were destroyed and renamed. For example, Odantapuri's monasteries were destroyed in 1197 by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji and the town was renamed. Likewise, Vikramashila was destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200. The sacred Mahabodhi Temple was almost completely destroyed by the Muslim invaders. Many Buddhist monks fled to Nepal, Tibet, and South India to avoid the consequences of war. Tibetan pilgrim Chöjepal (1179-1264), who arrived in India in 1234, had to flee advancing Muslim troops multiple times, as they were sacking Buddhist sites.


title: Persecution

text: In Japan, the haibutsu kishaku during the Meiji Restoration (starting in 1868) was an event which was triggered by the official policy of separation of Shinto and Buddhism (or shinbutsu bunri). This policy caused great destruction to Buddhism in Japan, the destruction of Buddhist temples, images and texts took place on a large scale all over the country and Buddhist monks were forced to return to secular life.


title: Persecution

text: During the 2012 Ramu violence in Bangladesh, a 25,000-strong Muslim mob set fire to at least five Buddhist temples and dozens of homes throughout the town and throughout the surrounding villages after they saw a picture of an allegedly desecrated Quran, which they claimed had been posted on Facebook by Uttam Barua, a local Buddhist man.


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of Christians is religious persecution that Christians may be subjected to as a consequence of professing their faith, both historically and in the modern era. Early Christians were persecuted for their faith at the hands of both Jews from whose religion Christianity arose and the Roman Empire which controlled much of the land across which early Christianity was distributed. Early in the fourth century, the religion was legalized by the Edict of Milan, and it eventually became the State church of the Roman Empire.


title: Persecution

text: Christian missionaries, as well as the people that they converted to Christianity, have been the target of persecution, many times to the point of being martyred for their faith.


title: Persecution

text: There is also a history of individual Christian denominations suffering persecution at the hands of other Christians under the charge of heresy, particularly during the 16th century Protestant Reformation as well as throughout the Middle Ages when various Christian groups deemed heretical were persecuted by the Papacy.


title: Persecution

text: In the 20th century, Christians have been persecuted by various groups, and by atheistic states such as the USSR and North Korea. During the Second World War members of many Christian churches were persecuted in Germany for resisting the Nazi ideology.


title: Persecution

text: In more recent times the Christian missionary organization Open Doors (UK) estimates 100 million Christians face persecution, particularly in Muslim-dominated countries such as Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. According to the International Society for Human Rights, up to 80% of all acts of persecution are directed against people of the Christian faith.


title: Persecution

text: The Missouri extermination order forced Mormons to move to Illinois. This was after Sidney Rigdon gave his July 4th Oration which meant to state that Mormons would defend their lives and property. This speech was taken critically by the state government. Missouri state militia troops slaughtered Mormons in what is now known as the Haun's Mill massacre. Their forcible expulsion from the state caused the death of over a hundred due to exposure, starvation, and resulting illnesses. The founder of the church, Joseph Smith, was killed in Carthage, Illinois by a mob of about 200 men, almost all of whom were members of the Illinois state militia including some members of the militia who were assigned to guard him. The Mormons suffered through tarring and feathering, their lands and possessions being repeatedly taken from them, mob attacks, false imprisonments, and the US sending an army to Utah to deal with the "Mormon problem" in the Utah War which resulted in a group of Mormons led by John D. Lee massacring settlers at the Mountain Meadows Massacre.


title: Persecution

text: Throughout the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, their beliefs, doctrines and practices have engendered controversy and opposition from local governments, communities, and mainstream Christian groups.


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of Copts is a historical and ongoing issue in Egypt against Coptic Orthodox Christianity and its followers. It is also a prominent example of the poor status of Christians in the Middle East despite the religion being native to the region. Copts are the Christ followers in Egypt, usually Oriental Orthodox, who currently make up around 10% of the population of Egypt — the largest religious minority of that country. Copts have cited instances of persecution throughout their history and Human Rights Watch has noted "growing religious intolerance" and sectarian violence against Coptic Christians in recent years, as well as a failure by the Egyptian government to effectively investigate properly and prosecute those responsible.


title: Persecution

text: The Muslim conquest of Egypt took place in AD 639, during the Byzantine empire. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained a mainly Christian, but Copts lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there, accompanied by heavy taxes for those who refused to convert. From the Muslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslims regimes, such as the Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate, Mamluk Sultanate, and Ottoman Empire; the persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches and forced conversion to Islam.


title: Persecution

text: Since 2011 hundreds of Egyptian Copts have been killed in sectarian clashes, and many homes, Churches and businesses have been destroyed. In just one province (Minya), 77 cases of sectarian attacks on Copts between 2011 and 2016 have been documented by the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights. The abduction and disappearance of Coptic Christian women and girls also remains a serious ongoing problem.


title: Persecution

text: For almost 1000 years, the Dogon people, an ancient tribe of Mali had faced religious and ethnic persecution—through jihads by dominant Muslim communities. These jihadic expeditions were to forced the Dogon to abandon their traditional religious beliefs for Islam. Such jihads caused the Dogon to abandon their original villages and moved up to the cliffs of Bandiagara for better defense and to escape persecution—often building their dwellings in little nooks and crannies.


title: Persecution

text: In the early era of French colonialism in Mali, the French authorities appointed Muslim relatives of El Hadj Umar Tall as chiefs of the Bandiagara—despite the fact that the area has been a Dogon area for centuries.


title: Persecution

text: In 1864, Tidiani Tall, nephew and successor of the 19th century Senegambian jihadist and Muslim leader—El Hadj Umar Tall, chose Bandiagara as the capital of the Toucouleur Empire thereby exacerbating the inter-religious and inter-ethnic conflict. In recent years, the Dogon accused the Fulanis of supporting and sheltering Islamic terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda in Dogon country, leading to the creation of the Dogon militia Dan Na Ambassagou in 2016—whose aim is to defend the Dogon from systematic attacks. That resulted in the Ogossagou massacre of Fulanis in March 2019, and a Fula retaliation with the Sobane Da massacre in June of that year. In the wake of the Ogossagou massacre, the President of Mali, Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and his government ordered the dissolution of Dan Na Ambassagou—whom they hold partly responsible for the attacks. The Dogon militia group denied any involvement in the massacre and rejected calls to disband.


title: Persecution

text: Historically the relationship between the Druze and Muslims has been characterized by intense persecution. The Druze faith is often classified as a branch of Isma'ili. Even though the faith originally developed out of Ismaili Islam, most Druze do not identify as Muslims, and they do not accept the five pillars of Islam. The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the Shia Fatimid Caliphate, Mamluk, Sunni Ottoman Empire, and Egypt Eyalet. The persecution of the Druze included massacres, demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam. Those were no ordinary killings in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative. Most recently, the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, saw persecution of the Druze at the hands of Islamic extremists.


title: Persecution

text: Ibn Taymiyya a prominent Muslim scholar muhaddith, dismissed the Druze as non-Muslims, and his fatwa cited that Druzes: "Are not at the level of ′Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) nor mushrikin (polytheists). Rather, they are from the most deviant kuffār (Infidel) ... Their women can be taken as slaves and their property can be seized ... they are to be killed whenever they are found and cursed as they described ... It is obligatory to kill their scholars and religious figures so that they do not misguide others", which in that setting would have legitimized violence against them as apostates. Ottomans have often relied on Ibn Taymiyya religious ruling to justify their persecution of Druze.


title: Persecution

text: Falun Gong was introduced to the general public by Li Hongzhi in Changchun, China, in 1992. For the next few years, Falun Gong was the fastest growing "qigong" practice in Chinese history and, by 1999, there were millions of practitioners. Following the seven years of widespread popularity, on July 20, 1999, the government of the People's Republic of China began a nationwide persecution campaign against Falun Gong practitioners, except in the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau. In late 1999, legislation was created to outlaw "heterodox religions" and retroactively applied to Falun Gong. Amnesty International states that the persecution is "politically motivated" with "legislation being used retroactively to convict people on driven charges, and new regulations introduced to further restrict fundamental freedoms".


title: Persecution

text: Persecution of Hindus refers to the religious persecution inflicted upon Hindus that may undergo as a consequence of professing their faith, both historically and in the current era. Hindus have been brutally persecuted during the historical Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent and during Portuguese rule of Goa.


title: Persecution

text: Even in modern times, Hindus in Pakistan and Bangladesh have suffered persecution. Most recently, thousands of Hindus from Sindh province in Pakistan have been fleeing to India voicing fear for their safety. After the Partition of India in 1947, there were 8.8 million Hindus in Pakistan (excluding Bangladesh) in 1951. In 1951, Hindus constituted 22% of the Pakistani population (including present-day Bangladesh which formed part of Pakistan). Today, the Hindu minority amounts to 1.7 percent of Pakistan's population.


title: Persecution

text: The Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) resulted in one of the largest genocides of the 20th century. While estimates of the number of casualties was 3,000,000, it is reasonably certain that Hindus bore a disproportionate brunt of the Pakistan Army's onslaught against the Bengali population of what was East Pakistan. An article in "Time" magazine dated 2 August 1971, stated "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Muslim military hatred." Senator Edward Kennedy wrote in a report that was part of United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations testimony dated 1 November 1971, "Hardest hit have been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, mass rape and in some places, painted with yellow patches marked "H". All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from Islamabad". In the same report, Senator Kennedy reported that 80% of the refugees in India were Hindus and according to numerous international relief agencies such as UNESCO and World Health Organization the number of East Pakistani refugees at their peak in India was close to 10 million. In a syndicated column "The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored", Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Sydney Schanberg wrote about his return to liberated Bangladesh in 1972. "Other reminders were the yellow "H"s the Pakistanis had painted on the homes of Hindus, particular targets of the Muslim army" (by "Muslim army", meaning the Pakistan Army, which had targeted Bengali Muslims as well), (Newsday, 29 April 1994).


title: Persecution

text: In Bangladesh, on 28 February 2013, the International Crimes Tribunal sentenced Delwar Hossain Sayeedi, the Vice President of the Jamaat-e-Islami to death for the war crimes committed during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War. Following the sentence, activists of Jamaat-e-Islami and its student wing Islami Chhatra Shibir attacked the Hindus in different parts of the country. Hindu properties were looted, Hindu houses were burnt into ashes and Hindu temples were desecrated and set on fire. The violence included the looting of Hindu properties and businesses, the burning of Hindu homes, the rape of Hindu women, and the desecration and destruction of, according to community leaders, more than 50 Hindu temples; 1,500 Hindu homes were destroyed in 20 districts. While the government has held the Jamaat-e-Islami responsible for the attacks on the minorities, the Jamaat-e-Islami leadership has denied any involvement. The minority leaders have protested the attacks and appealed for justice. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh has directed the law enforcement to start "suo motu" investigation into the attacks. US Ambassador to Bangladesh express concern about attack of Jamaat on Bengali Hindu community.


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of Jews is a recurring phenomenon throughout Jewish history. It has occurred on numerous occasions in widely different geographic locations. It may include pogroms, looting and the demolition of private and public Jewish property (e.g., Kristallnacht), unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, torture, killing, or even mass execution (in World War II alone, approximately six million people were deliberately killed because they were Jewish). They have been expelled from their hometowns/countries, hoping to find safe havens in other polities. In recent times anti-Semitism has often been manifested as Anti-Zionism, where Anti-Zionism is a prejudice against the Jewish movement for self-determination and the right of the Jewish people to a homeland in the State of Israel. Anti-Zionism can include threats to destroy the State of Israel (or otherwise eliminate its Jewish character), unfounded and inaccurate characterizations of Israel’s power in the world, and language or actions that hold Israel to a different standard than other countries.


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of Muslims has been a recurring phenomenon throughout the history of Islam. Persecution may refer to unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, beatings, torture, or execution. It may also refer to the confiscation or destruction of property, or incitement to hate Muslims.


title: Persecution

text: Persecution can extend beyond those who perceive themselves to be Muslims and include those who are perceived by others as Muslims, or it can include Muslims who are considered non-Muslims by fellow Muslims. The Ahmadiyya regard themselves as Muslims, but are seen by many other Muslims as non-Muslims and "heretics". In 1984, the Government of Pakistan, under General Zia-ul-Haq, passed Ordinance XX, which banned proselytizing by Ahmadis and also banned Ahmadis from referring to themselves as Muslims. According to this ordinance, any Ahmadi who refers to oneself as a Muslim by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation, directly or indirectly, or makes the call for prayer as other Muslims do, is punishable by imprisonment of up to 3 years. Because of these difficulties, Mirza Tahir Ahmad migrated to London.


title: Persecution

text: Philosophers throughout the history of philosophy have been held in courts and tribunals for various offenses, often as a result of their philosophical activity, and some have even been put to death. The most famous example of a philosopher being put on trial is the case of Socrates, who was tried for, amongst other charges, corrupting the youth and impiety. Others include:


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of the Serer people of Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania is multifaceted, and it includes both religious and ethnic elements. Religious and ethnic persecution of the Serer people dates back to the 11th century when King War Jabi usurped the throne of Tekrur (part of present-day Senegal) in 1030, and by 1035, introduced Sharia law and forced his subjects to submit to Islam. With the assistance of his son (Leb), their Almoravid allies and other African ethnic groups who have embraced Islam, the Muslim coalition army launched jihads against the Serer people of Tekrur who refused to abandon Serer religion in favour of Islam. The number of Serer deaths are unknown, but it triggered the exodus of the Serers of Tekrur to the south following their defeat, where they were granted asylum by the lamanes. Persecution of the Serer people continued from the medieval era to the 19th century, resulting in the Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune. From the 20th to the 21st centuries, persecution of the Serers is less obvious, nevertheless, they are the object of scorn and prejudice.


title: Persecution

text: The 1984 anti-Sikh riots or the 1984 Sikh Massacre was a series of pogroms directed against Sikhs in India, by anti-Sikh mobs, in response to the assassination of Indira Gandhi, on 31 October 1984, by two of her Sikh bodyguards in response to her actions authorising the military operation Operation Blue Star. There were more than 8,000 deaths, including 3,000 in Delhi. In June 1984, during Operation Blue Star, Indira Gandhi ordered the Indian Army to attack the Golden Temple and eliminate any insurgents, as it had been occupied by Sikh separatists who were stockpiling weapons. Later operations by Indian paramilitary forces were initiated to clear the separatists from the countryside of Punjab state.


title: Persecution

text: The Indian government reported 2,700 deaths in the ensuing chaos. In the aftermath of the riots, the Indian government reported 20,000 had fled the city, however the People's Union for Civil Liberties reported "at least" 1,000 displaced persons. The most affected regions were the Sikh neighbourhoods in Delhi. The Central Bureau of Investigation, the main Indian investigating agency, is of the opinion that the acts of violence were organized with the support from the then Delhi police officials and the central government headed by Indira Gandhi's son, Rajiv Gandhi. Rajiv Gandhi was sworn in as Prime Minister after his mother's death and, when asked about the riots, said "when a big tree falls, the earth shakes" thus trying to justify the communal strife.


title: Persecution

text: There are allegations that the government destroyed evidence and shielded the guilty. The "Asian Age" front-page story called the government actions "the Mother of all Cover-ups" There are allegations that the violence was led and often perpetrated by Indian National Congress activists and sympathisers during the riots. The chief weapon used by the mobs, kerosene, was supplied by a group of Indian National Congress Party leaders who owned filling stations.


title: Persecution

text: The Persecution of Yazidis has been ongoing since at least the 10th century. The Yazidi religion is regarded as devil worship by Islamists. Yazidis have been persecuted by Muslim Kurdish tribes since the 10th century, and by the Ottoman Empire from the 17th to the 20th centuries. After the 2014 Sinjar massacre of thousands of Yazidis by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, Yazidis still face violence from the Turkish Armed Forces and its ally the Syrian National Army, as well as discrimination from the Kurdistan Regional Government. According to Yazidi tradition (based on oral traditions and folk songs), estimated that 74 genocides against the Yazidis have been carried out in the past 800 years.


title: Persecution

text: Persecution of Zoroastrians is the religious persecution inflicted upon the followers of the Zoroastrian faith. The persecution of Zoroastrians occurred throughout the religion's history. The discrimination and harassment began in the form of sparse violence and forced conversions. Muslims are recorded to have destroyed fire temples. Zoroastrians living under Muslim rule were required to pay a tax called jizya.


title: Persecution

text: Zoroastrian places of worship were desecrated, fire temples were destroyed and mosques were built in their place. Many libraries were burned and much of their cultural heritage was lost. Gradually an increasing number of laws were passed which regulated Zoroastrian behavior and limited their ability to participate in society. Over time, the persecution of Zoroastrians became more common and widespread, and the number of believers decreased by force significantly.


title: Persecution

text: Most were forced to convert due to the systematic abuse and discrimination inflicted upon them by followers of Islam. Once a Zoroastrian family was forced to convert to Islam, the children were sent to an Islamic school to learn Arabic and study the teachings of Islam, as a result some of these people lost their Zoroastrian faith. However, under the Samanids, who were Zoroastrian converts to Islam, the Persian language flourished. On occasion, the Zoroastrian clergy assisted Muslims in attacks against those whom they deemed Zoroastrian heretics.


title: Persecution

text: A Zoroastrian astrologer named Mulla Gushtasp predicted the fall of the Zand dynasty to the Qajar army in Kerman. Because of Gushtasp's forecast, the Zoroastrians of Kerman were spared by the conquering army of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar. Despite the aforementioned favorable incident, the Zoroastrians during the Qajar dynasty remained in agony and their population continued to decline. Even during the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the dynasty, many Zoroastrians were killed and some were taken as captives to Azerbaijan. Zoroastrians regard the Qajar period as one of their worst. During the Qajar dynasty, religious persecution of the Zoroastrians was rampant. Due to the increasing contacts with influential Parsi philanthropists such as Maneckji Limji Hataria, many Zoroastrians left Iran for India. There, they formed the second major Indian Zoroastrian community known as the Iranis.


title: Persecution

text: Ethnic persecution refers to perceived persecution based on ethnicity. Its meaning is parallel to that of racism, (based on race). The Rwandan genocide remains an atrocity that the indigenous Hutu and Tutsi peoples still believe is unforgivable. The Japanese occupation of China caused the death of millions of people, mostly peasants who were murdered after the Doolittle Raid in early-World War II.


title: Persecution

text: Due to their Christian faith and ethnicity, the Assyrians have been persecuted since their adoption of Christianity. During the reign of Yazdegerd I, Christians in Persia were viewed with suspicion as potential Roman subversives, resulting in persecutions while at the same time, they promoted Nestorian Christianity as a buffer between the Churches of Rome and Persia. Persecutions and attempts to impose Zoroastrianism continued during the reign of Yazdegerd II.


title: Persecution

text: During the eras of Mongol rule under Genghis Khan and Timur, there was indiscriminate slaughter of tens of thousands of Assyrians and destruction of the Assyrian population of northwestern Iran and central and northern Iran.


title: Persecution

text: More recent persecutions since the 19th century include the Massacres of Badr Khan, the Massacres of Diyarbakır (1895), the Adana massacre, the Assyrian genocide, the Simele massacre, and the al-Anfal campaign.


title: Persecution

text: The persecution of ethnic Germans refers to systematic acts of persecution which were committed against groups of ethnic Germans based on their ethnicity.


title: Persecution

text: Historically, anti-German sentiment and the persecution of ethnic Germans have both been due to two causes: the German population was believed to be , whether factually or not, linked with German nationalist regimes such as those of the Nazis or Kaiser Wilhelm. This was the case in the World War I era persecution of Germans in the United States, and it was also the case in Eastern and Central Europe following the end of World War II in Europe. While many victims of these persecutions did not, in fact, have any connection to those regimes, cooperation between German minority organisations and the Nazi regime had occurred, as the example of the Selbstschutz shows, which is still used as a pretext for hostilities against those who did not belong to such organisations. After World War II, many Volksdeutsche were killed or driven from their homes in acts of vengeance, others were killed or driven from their homes during the ethnic cleansing of territories which occurred before they were populated with citizens of the annexing countries. In other cases (e.g. in the case of the formerly large German-speaking populations of Russia, Estonia, or the Transylvanian (Siebenbürgen) German minority in Rumania and the Balkans) the persecution was a crime which was committed against innocent communities which had not collaborated with the Third Reich.


title: Persecution

text: The Hazara people of central Afghanistan have been persecuted by Afghan rulers at various times in the history. Since the tragedy of 9/11, Sunni Muslim terrorists have been attacking the Hazara community in southwestern Pakistani town of Quetta, home to some 500,000 Hazara who fled persecution in neighbouring Afghanistan. Some 2,400 men, women and children have been killed or wounded with Lashkar-e-Jhangvi claiming responsibility for most of the attacks against the community. Consequently, many thousands have fled the country seeking asylum in Australia.


title: Persecution

text: Antiziganism is hostility, prejudice, discrimination or racism directed against the Romani people as an ethnic group, or people who are perceived as being of Romani heritage.


title: Persecution

text: The "Porajmos" was the planned and attempted effort, often described as a genocide, during World War II by the government of Nazi Germany and its allies to exterminate the Romani (Gypsy) people of Europe. Under the rule of Adolf Hitler, a supplementary decree to the Nuremberg Laws was issued on 26 November 1935, defining Gypsies as "enemies of the race-based state", the same category as Jews. Thus, the fate of Roma in Europe in some ways paralleled that of the Jews. Historians estimate that 220,000 to 500,000 Romani were killed by the Nazis and their collaborators, or more than 25% of the slightly less than 1 million Roma in Europe at the time. Ian Hancock puts the death toll as high as 1.5 million.


title: Persecution

text: The UN human rights chief slammed Myanmar's apparent "systematic attack" on the Rohingya minority, warning that "ethnic cleansing" seemed to be underway.


title: Persecution

text: Ethnic Rohingya Muslims who fled from security forces in Myanmar’s Rakhine State have described killings, shelling, and arson in their villages that have all the hallmarks of a campaign of “ethnic cleansing,” Human Rights Watch said.


title: Persecution

text: “Rohingya refugees have harrowing accounts of fleeing Burmese army attacks and watching their villages be destroyed,” said Meenakshi Ganguly, South Asia director. “Lawful operations against armed groups do not involve burning the local population out of their homes.”


title: Persecution

text: Widespread attacks on Sri Lankan Tamils came in the form of island wide ethnic riots, including The 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom and the Black July riots. Further persecution through murders, targeted rape and kidnapping occurred. Whilst previously, the majority of Tamils demanded instead for a separate state, by 1983 armed struggles against Sinhalese extremists began to rise, culminating in the formation of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.


title: Persecution

text: Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples in modern-day Xinjiang (called East Turkestan by independence activists) declared two short-lived independent East Turkestan Republics in the 20th century. In late 1949, the region and the rest of China came under the control of the People's Republic of China.


title: Persecution

text: Uyghur activist groups have said that anger towards the Chinese government has been fueled by years of state-sponsored oppression and discrimination. In 2017, the China began a large-scale crackdown on the Xinjiang region, which it justifies as a counterterrorism campaign following sporadic terrorist attacks in Xinjiang. Scholars estimate that the Chinese government detained over one million Uyghurs in internment camps (also called re-education camps) in order to indoctrinate them away from religion and Sinicize them (assimilate them into Chinese culture). Critics of the policy have described it as the Sinicization of Xinjiang and they have also called it an ethnocide or a cultural genocide, while some governments, activists, independent NGOs, human rights organizations, academics, government officials, and the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile have called it a genocide.


title: Persecution

text: Persecution on the basis of albinism is frequently based on the belief that albinos are inferior to persons with higher concentration of melanin in their skin. As a result, albinos have been persecuted, killed and dismembered, and graves of albinistic people dug up and desecrated. Such people have also been ostracized and even killed because they are presumed to bring "bad" luck in some areas. Haiti also has a long history of treating albinistic people as accursed, with the highest incidence under the influence of François "Papa Doc" Duvalier.


title: Persecution

text: People with autism spectrum disorders have commonly been victims of persecution, both throughout history and in the present era. In Cameroon children with autism are commonly accused of witchcraft and singled out for torture and even death.


title: Persecution

text: Additionally, it is speculated that many of the disabled children murdered during Action T4 in Nazi Germany may have been autistic, making autistic people among the first victims of The Holocaust.


title: Persecution

text: A number of countries, especially those countries in the Western world, have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some countries have also legalized same-sex marriages or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as those which are granted to opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution which recognizes LGBT rights and, in 2015, same-sex marriages were legalized in all states of the United States.


title: Psychocandy

text: Psychocandy is the debut studio album by Scottish rock band the Jesus and Mary Chain. It was released in November 1985 on Blanco y Negro Records. The album is considered a landmark recording: its combination of guitar feedback and noise with traditional pop melody and structure proved influential on the forthcoming shoegazing genre and alternative rock in general. The band moved from its abrasive sound with the release of their second album, 1987's "Darklands".


title: Psychocandy

text: After quitting their jobs in 1980, brothers Jim and William Reid formed The Jesus and Mary Chain with bass player Douglas Hart. Taking inspiration from German industrial band Einstürzende Neubauten, girl group the Shangri-Las and "The Velvet Underground & Nico", they bought a Portastudio in 1983 when their father lost his job in a local factory and gave the brothers £300 from his redundancy money. The band recorded a demo tape containing the songs "Upside Down" and "Never Understand" which was heard by Glaswegian musician Bobby Gillespie, who in turn passed it on to his friend Alan McGee of Creation Records. McGee was impressed with the tape and invited the band to play at a Creation Records showcase event in London, becoming the band's manager shortly afterwards.


title: Psychocandy

text: Following more London concerts, the Jesus and Mary Chain entered Alaska Studios in Waterloo, South London and recorded their debut single, "Upside Down". Released by Creation Records in November 1984 and featuring a B-side produced by Slaughter Joe, "Upside Down" sold out its initial pressing and ended the year by being placed at number 37 in John Peel's Festive Fifty. After recruiting Gillespie as their drummer in late 1984, the Jesus and Mary Chain signed to the WEA subsidiary label Blanco y Negro, which had been established by Rough Trade founder Geoff Travis. The band entered Island Studios to record with engineer Stephen Street but the sessions proved to be fruitless and the band returned to Alaska Studios for the recording of their second single, "Never Understand". The single was released by Blanco y Negro in February 1985, and in March that year they began recording their debut album with engineer John Loder at Southern Studios in Wood Green, North London. "Psychocandy" was recorded in six weeks and totalled £17,000 in recording and production costs.


title: Psychocandy

text: "Psychocandy" contains fourteen tracks with a total running time of thirty-nine minutes. The music has been described as "bubblegum pop drowned in feedback", that fused "melody with obnoxious bursts of white noise." Critics have noted the influence of classic '60s pop groups such as the Beach Boys and the Rolling Stones alongside the work of rock bands the Velvet Underground, the Stooges and Suicide on the album.


title: Psychocandy

text: Lead vocals are handled by Jim Reid on this album, with the exception of "It's So Hard", sung by William Reid.


title: Psychocandy

text: The album includes the singles "Never Understand", "You Trip Me Up" and "Just Like Honey". Following reissue on CD in August 1986, the bonus track "Some Candy Talking", which was originally released on the namesake EP, was included on the album, only on the UK Blanco y Negro CDs released in 1986 and 1997; in the US, it was released on CD by Reprise in 1986 and American Recordings in 1993 without the bonus track. In 2006, the album was remastered and released in DualDisc format without "Some Candy Talking" to conform with the original playlist. In 2011, it was re-released (along with the other five studio albums) by Edsel in collaboration with Rhino as a two-CD set with extra tracks (singles, B-sides, demos and Peel Sessions) and a DVD (NTSC, all-region).


title: Psychocandy

text: On release "Psychocandy" received favourable reviews. Writing for "NME", Andy Gill described the album as "a great searing citadel of beauty whose wall of noise, once scaled, offers access to endless vistas of melody and emotion", while William Shaw of "Smash Hits" called it "a wonderful LP which should bring the Scottish brats the success they've missed out on so far". Tim Holmes of "Rolling Stone" praised the band as "a perfect recombinant of every Edge City outlaw ethic ever espoused in rock." In the end of year-roundups, the album placed at number two in "NME"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s list of best albums of 1985, number 3 in "The Face", and number 5 in "Melody Maker".


title: Psychocandy

text: Subsequently, the album has frequently appeared in "best ever" album lists, such as "Q" magazine's "100 Greatest British Albums Ever", where it placed at number 88 in 2000. In 2006, "Q" magazine placed the album at number 23 in its "40 Best Albums of the '80s" list. In 2003, the album was ranked number 268 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" list, and 269 in a 2012 revised list. The magazine also ranked the album number 45 on its list of the 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time. AllMusic described the album as one that "created a movement without meaning to."


title: Psychocandy

text: In 2002 "Pitchfork" listed "Psychocandy" as the 23rd best album of the 1980s. In their 2018 update of the list, the album was listed at number 40. Slant Magazine listed the album at number 38 in its "Best Albums of the 1980s" list, saying, "Shaping fuzz into a potent, tactile instrument, The Jesus and Mary Chain helped establish the style of distortion-laden fogginess that would eventually become the foundation for shoegaze." The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". "PopMatters" included "Psychocandy" in their list of the "12 Essential 1980s Alternative Rock Albums" saying, "it may still be the only noise pop LP anyone ever really needs to own".


title: Psychocandy

text: Note: the 1986 CD release contains the extra track "Some Candy Talking", between "Taste of Cindy" and "Never Understand".


title: Alentejo

text: Alentejo ( , ) is a geographical, historical, and cultural region of south–central and southern Portugal. In Portuguese, its name means "beyond () the Tagus river" ("Tejo").


title: Alentejo

text: Alentejo includes the regions of Alto Alentejo and Baixo Alentejo. It corresponds to the districts of Beja, Évora, Portalegre, and Alentejo Litoral. Its main cities are Évora, Beja, Sines, Serpa, Estremoz, Elvas, and Portalegre.


title: Alentejo

text: It has borders with Beira Baixa in the north, with Spain (Andalucia and Extremadura) in the east, Algarve in the south, and the Atlantic Ocean, Ribatejo, and Estremadura in the west.


title: Alentejo

text: Alentejo is a region known for its traditional polyphonic singing groups, similar to those found in Tuscany, Corsica, and elsewhere.


title: Alentejo

text: The comarca of the Alentejo became the Alentejo Province, divided into upper (Alto Alentejo Province) and lower (Baixo Alentejo Province) designations. The modern NUTS statistical region, Alentejo Region, was expropriated from the medieval provinces and historical territories of Estremadura Province (specifically the 1936 portions of the Ribatejo).


title: Alentejo

text: The term "Entre-Tejo-e-Guadiana" has become obsolete; it referred to roughly the same land area between the Tagus and the Guadiana rivers as part of the Kingdom of Portugal.


title: Alentejo

text: Alentejo's area extends to (29.6% of the country) and has a population of 537,556 (5.1% of the country). Excluding Ponte de Sor, its area is and its population 520,834. The population density of Alentejo is .


title: Alentejo

text: Topographically, the countryside varies from the open rolling plains of the south of Alentejo to the granite hills that border Spain in the northeast. To feed the water needs of this considerable area, a number of public dams have been constructed, most notably the Alqueva Dam.


title: Alentejo

text: The landscape is primarily one of soft rolling hills and plains, with conspicuous shrubs and the native cork oaks and holly/holm oaks, the established olive trees and grapevines, as well as eucalyptus trees and some native trees. Managed oak landscapes are locally known as "montados".


title: Alentejo

text: In the north, traditional economic activity may be more livestock-based as typified by cattle, sheep, and pig (both white and black) farming. To the south, agriculture may be more predominant.


title: Alentejo

text: Parque Natural da Serra de São Mamede, a nature park area located to the east of Portalegre, includes medieval villages.


title: Alentejo

text: In the south, near Mértola, there is another nature park area, named Parque Natural do Vale Guadiana. This is more sparsely inhabited than the former.


title: Alentejo

text: To the west, the coastal strip that runs from the port of Sines down to Cape St. Vincent comprises the Southwest Alentejo and Vicentine Coast Natural Park.


title: Alentejo

text: The Alentejo region has a Mediterranean climate, typically warm-to-hot and dry for a large part of the year, with summer temperatures regularly reaching up to , while winters are relatively mild and wet. The climate is not uniform throughout the region, however: mid-summer temperatures in coastal areas are usually much lower (often around ) than inland ones (which frequently hover around ). This resembles the contrast between Casablanca and the Moroccan interior, where the presence of the nearby Atlantic Ocean gives rise to marked temperature differences between coastal and even nearby inland zones.


title: Alentejo

text: Usually, the warmest temperatures can be found in the southernmost inland parts of the region, along the Guadiana valley between Mértola and Juromenha, particularly in the areas close to Moura. However, the hottest days tend to deviate from the usual pattern and will arise when the winds are east or southeast and very hot air with temperatures reaching or more at 850 mbar level (usually around 1,500 m.a.s.l.) enter Iberia from Africa. If the winds are strong enough, the deep and low-lying valley of the Sado river becomes extremely warm by European standards. Places like Alvalade do Sado and Alcácer do Sal and others below can reach under extreme circumstances, and in the summer is regularly reached each year despite the fact that they are relatively close to the coast.


title: Alentejo

text: The highest temperature ever recorded in Portugal was measured on 1 August 2003 in Amareleja and reached . Since the meteorological station is about above the nearby valley near Moura, it is very likely that temperatures above were reached there but no measurements were taken. What is most impressive and unique in Europe was a stretch of no less than seventeen consecutive days at Amareleja with a maximum temperature of or more (reaching an average over the period of ). This was only equalled over the same period in Córdoba, Spain; although slightly lower over the same period at . Finally, the average daytime maximum temperatures reach in July and August near Moura, in the Sado Valley (and other inland valleys away from the coast). Many parts, however, are above altitude, which leads to lower average temperatures also in summer. It is very likely that the Guadiana river valley away from the coast is the hottest on average in Europe, along with the inland part of the Spanish Guadalquivir region, especially near Córdoba. The extremes in this valley, however, are somewhat lower (most just above ).


title: Alentejo

text: Portugal, including the Alentejo region, is affected by climate change and average temperatures are clearly on the rise. Some climate models indicate daytime average maximum temperatures nearing in the Guadiana river valley by 2100.


title: Alentejo

text: By acceptable standards of a developed country, the illiteracy rate in the region may still be surprisingly high among those older than sixty, in contrast with younger generations. The rate of coverage of pre-primary education is among the highest in the country.


title: Alentejo

text: The area is commonly known as the "breadbasket" of Portugal, a region of vast open countryside with undulating plains and rich fertile soil. With very few exceptions, all the major towns are mainly reliant on agriculture, livestock, and forestry. There are several types of traditional cheeses, wines, and smoked hams and sausages made in the Alentejo region, including "Queijo Serpa", "Queijo de Évora", and "Queijo de Nisa" (PDO cheeses); "Vinho do Alentejo" and "Vinho do Redondo" (wines); and presunto (smoked ham). Marble, cork, olive oil, and mining industries are other important activities in the region and tourism is expected to have growth potential. The Alqueva Dam is an important irrigation and hydroelectricity generation facility that supports part of Alentejo's economy.


title: Alentejo

text: The region is home to the world's most important area for the growing of cork. Cork oak, known in Portugal as "sobreiro", has been grown commercially in the region for the past 300 years, with the areas between the trees typically given over to grazing, or on the more productive soils, to the growing of citrus fruit, vines or olives. As a consequence, a uniquely rich and varied ecosystem has developed. The bark of the cork oak is still harvested by teams of men using locally made hand-axes. No mechanical method has yet been invented that will allow the harvest to be achieved as effectively. The stripping of the bark is performed only in midsummer, when the bark can be removed more easily. The cork oak is the only tree known that will allow this regular stripping of bark without damage. The harvest of one mature tree provides sufficient bark to produce about 4,000 wine bottle corks. The industry provides employment for about 60,000 workers.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Intensive care medicine, also called critical care medicine, is a medical specialty that deals with seriously or critically ill patients who have, are at risk of, or are recovering from conditions that may be life-threatening. It includes providing life support, invasive monitoring techniques, resuscitation, and end-of-life care. Doctors in this specialty are often called intensive care physicians, critical care physicians or intensivists.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Intensive care relies on multidisciplinary teams composed of many different health professionals. Such teams often include doctors, nurses, physical therapists, respiratory therapists, and pharmacists, among others. They usually work together in intensive care units (ICUs) within a hospital.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Patients are admitted to the intensive care unit if their medical needs are greater than what the general hospital ward can provide. Indications for the ICU include blood pressure support for cardiovascular instability (hypertension/hypotension), sepsis, post-cardiac arrest syndrome or certain cardiac arrhythmias. Other ICU needs include airway or ventilator support due to respiratory compromise. The cumulative effects of multiple organ failure, more commonly referred to as multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, also requires advanced care. Patients may also be admitted to the ICU for close monitoring or intensive needs following a major surgery.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: There are two common ICU structures: closed and open. In a closed unit, the intensivist takes on the primary role for all patients in the unit. In an open ICU, the primary physician, who may or may not be an intensivist, can differ for each patient. There is increasingly strong evidence that closed units provide better patient outcomes. Patient management in intensive care differs between countries. Open units are the most common structure in the United States, but closed units are often found at large academic centers. Intermediate structures that fall between open and closed units also exist.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Intensive care is usually provided in a specialized unit of a hospital called the intensive care unit (ICU) or critical care unit (CCU). Many hospitals also have designated intensive care areas for certain specialities of medicine. The naming is not rigidly standardized, and types of units are dictated by the needs and available resources of each hospital. These include:


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Medical studies suggest a relation between ICU volume and quality of care for mechanically ventilated patients. After adjustment for severity of illness, demographic variables, and characteristics of the ICUs (including staffing by intensivists), higher ICU volume was significantly associated with lower ICU and hospital mortality rates. For example, adjusted ICU mortality (for a patient at average predicted risk for ICU death) was 21.2% in hospitals with 87 to 150 mechanically ventilated patients annually, and 14.5% in hospitals with 401 to 617 mechanically ventilated patients annually. Hospitals with intermediate numbers of patients had outcomes between these extremes. ICU delirium, formerly and inaccurately referred to as ICU psychosis, is a syndrome common in intensive care and cardiac units where patients who are in unfamiliar, monotonous surroundings develop symptoms of delirium (Maxmen & Ward, 1995). This may include interpreting machine noises as human voices, seeing walls quiver, or hallucinating that someone is tapping them on the shoulder. There exists systematic reviews in which interventions of sleep promotion related outcomes in the ICU have proven impactful in the overall health of patients in the ICU.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: The English nurse Florence Nightingale pioneered efforts to use a separate hospital area for critically injured patients. During the Crimean War in the 1850s, she introduced the practice of moving the sickest patients to the beds directly opposite the nursing station on each ward so that they could be monitored more closely. In 1923, the American neurosurgeon Walter Dandy created a three-bed unit at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. In these units, specially trained nurses cared for critically ill postoperative neurosurgical patients.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: The Danish anaesthesiologist Bjørn Aage Ibsen became involved in the 1952 poliomyelitis epidemic in Copenhagen, where 2722 patients developed the illness in a six-month period, with 316 of those developing some form of respiratory or airway paralysis. Some of these patients had been treated using the few available negative pressure ventilators, but these devices (while helpful) were limited in number and did not protect the patient's lungs from aspiration of secretions. Ibsen changed the management directly by instituting long-term positive pressure ventilation using tracheal intubation, and he enlisted 200 medical students to manually pump oxygen and air into the patients' lungs round the clock. At this time, Carl-Gunnar Engström had developed one of the first artificial positive-pressure volume-controlled ventilators, which eventually replaced the medical students. With the change in care, mortality during the epidemic declined from 90% to around 25%. Patients were managed in three special 35-bed areas, which aided charting medications and other management.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: In 1953, Ibsen set up what became the world's first intensive care unit in a converted student nurse classroom in Copenhagen Municipal Hospital. He provided one of the first accounts of the management of tetanus using neuromuscular-blocking drugs and controlled ventilation. The following year, Ibsen was elected head of the department of anaesthesiology at that institution. He jointly authored the first known account of intensive care management principles in the journal "Nordisk Medicin", with Tone Dahl Kvittingen from Norway.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: For a time in the early 1960s, it was not clear that specialized intensive care units were needed, so intensive care resources were brought to the room of the patient that needed the additional monitoring, care, and resources. It became rapidly evident, however, that a fixed location where intensive care resources and dedicated personnel were available provided better care than "ad hoc" provision of intensive care services spread throughout a hospital. In 1962, in the University of Pittsburgh, the first critical care residency was established in the United States. In 1970, the Society of Critical Care Medicine was formed.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Monitoring refers to various tools and technologies used to obtain information about a patient's condition. These can include tests to evaluate blood flow and gas exchange in the body, or to assess the function of organs such as the heart and lungs. Broadly, there are two common types of monitoring in the ICU: noninvasive and invasive.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Noninvasive monitoring does not require puncturing the skin and usually does not cause pain. These tools are more inexpensive, easier to perform, and faster to result.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Invasive monitoring generally provides more accurate measurements, but these tests may require blood draws, puncturing the skin, and can be painful or uncomfortable.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Intensive care usually takes a system-by-system approach to treatment. In alphabetical order, the nine key systems considered in the intensive care setting are: cardiovascular system, central nervous system, endocrine system, gastro-intestinal tract (and nutritional condition), hematology, integumentary system, microbiology (including sepsis status), renal (and metabolic), and respiratory system. As such, the nine key systems are each considered on an observation–intervention–impression basis to produce a daily plan.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: A wide array of drugs including but not limited to: inotropes, sedatives, broad spectrum antibiotics and analgesics.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Interventions such as early mobilization or exercises to improve muscle strength are sometimes suggested.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Intensive care units are associated with increased risk of various complications that may lengthen a patient's hospitalization. Common complications in the ICU include:


title: Intensive care medicine

text: ICU care requires more specialized patient care; this need has led to the use of a multidisciplinary team to provide care for patients. Staffing between Intensive care units by country, hospital, unit, or institution.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Critical care medicine is an increasingly important medical specialty. Physicians with training in critical care medicine are referred to as intensivists.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Most medical research has demonstrated that ICU care provided by intensivists produces better outcomes and more cost-effective care. This has led the Leapfrog Group to make a primary recommendation that all ICU patients be managed or co-managed by a dedicated intensivist who is exclusively responsible for patients in one ICU.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: In the UK, doctors can only enter intensive care medicine training after completing two foundation years and core training in either emergency medicine, anaesthetics, acute medicine or core medicine. Most trainees dual train with one of these specialties; however, it has recently become possible to train purely in intensive care medicine. It has also possible to train in sub-specialties of intensive care medicine including pre-hospital emergency medicine.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: In the United States, the specialty requires additional fellowship training for physicians having completed their primary residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, anesthesiology, surgery or emergency medicine. US board certification in critical care medicine is available through all five specialty boards. Intensivists with a primary training in internal medicine sometimes pursue combined fellowship training in another subspecialty such as pulmonary medicine, cardiology, infectious disease, or nephrology. The American Society of Critical Care Medicine is a well-established multi professional society for practitioners working in the ICU including nurses, respiratory therapists, and physicians.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Intensive care physicians have some of the highest percentages of physician burnout among all medical specialties, at 48 percent.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Nurses that work in the critical care setting are typically registered nurses. Nurses may pursue additional education and training in critical care medicine leading to certification as a CCRN by the American Association of Critical Care Nurses a standard that was begun in 1975. These certifications became more specialized to the patient population in 1997 by the American Association of Critical care Nurses, to include pediatrics, neonatal and adult.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Nurse practitioners and physician assistants are other types of non-physician providers that care for patients in ICUs. These providers have fewer years of in-school training, typically receive further clinical on the job education, and work as part of the team under the supervision of physicians.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Critical care pharmacists work with the medical team in many aspects, but some include, monitoring serum concentrations of medication, past medication use, current medication use, and medication allergies. Their typically round with the team, but it may differ by institution. Some pharmacist after attaining their doctorate or pharmacy may pursue additional training in a postgraduate residency and become certified as critical care pharmacists. Pharmacists help manage all aspects of drug therapy and may pursue additional credentialing in critical care medicine as BCCCP by the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties. Many critical care pharmacists are a part of the multi-professional Society of Critical Care Medicine. Inclusion of pharmacist decreases drug reactions and poor outcomes for patients.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Nutrition in intensive care units presents unique challenges due to changes in patient metabolism and physiology while critically ill. Critical care nutrition is rapidly becoming a subspecialty for dieticians who can pursue additional training and achieve certification in enteral and parenteral nutrition through the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN).


title: Intensive care medicine

text: Respiratory therapists often work in intensive care units to monitor how well a patient is breathing. Respiratory therapists may pursue additional education and training leading to credentialing in adult critical care (ACCS) and neonatal and pediatric (NPS) specialties. These therapists have been trained to monitor a patient's breathing, provide treatments to help their breathing and evaluate for respiratory improvement. They may be involved in emergency care like managing an airway, humidification of oxygen, administering diagnostic test, invasive or non-invasive mechanical ventilation management, training patients weaning the ventilator, aerosol therapy, inhaled Nitric oxide therapy, artery blood gas analysis and providing physiotherapy.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: In general, it is the most expensive, technologically advanced and resource-intensive area of medical care. In the United States, estimates of the 2000 expenditure for critical care medicine ranged from US$19–55 billion. During that year, critical care medicine accounted for 0.56% of GDP, 4.2% of national health expenditure and about 13% of hospital costs.


title: Intensive care medicine

text: In 2011, hospital stays with ICU services accounted for just over one-quarter of all discharges (29.9%) but nearly one-half of aggregate total hospital charges (47.5%) in the United States. The mean hospital charge was 2.5 times higher for discharges with ICU services than for those without.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: Berkeley sockets is an application programming interface (API) for Internet sockets and Unix domain sockets, used for inter-process communication (IPC). It is commonly implemented as a library of linkable modules. It originated with the 4.2BSD Unix operating system, which was released in 1983.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: A socket is an abstract representation (handle) for the local endpoint of a network communication path. The Berkeley sockets API represents it as a file descriptor (file handle) in the Unix philosophy that provides a common interface for input and output to streams of data.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: Berkeley sockets evolved with little modification from a "de facto" standard into a component of the POSIX specification. The term POSIX sockets is essentially synonymous with "Berkeley sockets", but they are also known as BSD sockets, acknowledging the first implementation in the Berkeley Software Distribution.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: Berkeley sockets originated with the 4.2BSD Unix operating system, released in 1983, as a programming interface. Not until 1989, however, could the University of California, Berkeley release versions of the operating system and networking library free from the licensing constraints of AT&T Corporation's proprietary Unix.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: All modern operating systems implement a version of the Berkeley socket interface. It became the standard interface for applications running in the Internet. Even the Winsock implementation for MS Windows, created by unaffiliated developers, closely follows the standard.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The BSD sockets API is written in the C programming language. Most other programming languages provide similar interfaces, typically written as a wrapper library based on the C API.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: As the Berkeley socket API evolved and ultimately yielded the POSIX socket API, certain functions were deprecated or removed and replaced by others. The POSIX API is also designed to be reentrant and supports IPv6.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The STREAMS-based Transport Layer Interface (TLI) API offers an alternative to the socket API. Many systems that provide the TLI API also provide the Berkeley socket API.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: Non-Unix systems often expose the Berkeley socket API with a translation layer to a native networking API. Plan 9 and Genode use file-system APIs with control files rather than file-descriptors.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The Berkeley socket interface is defined in several header files. The names and content of these files differ slightly between implementations. In general, they include:


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The function "socket()" creates an endpoint for communication and returns a file descriptor for the socket. It uses three arguments:


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The function returns if an error occurred. Otherwise, it returns an integer representing the newly assigned descriptor.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: "bind()" associates a socket with an address. When a socket is created with "socket()", it is only given a protocol family, but not assigned an address. This association must be performed before the socket can accept connections from other hosts. The function has three arguments:


title: Berkeley sockets

text: After a socket has been associated with an address, listen() prepares it for incoming connections. However, this is only necessary for the stream-oriented (connection-oriented) data modes, i.e., for socket types (SOCK_STREAM, SOCK_SEQPACKET). listen() requires two arguments:


title: Berkeley sockets

text: Once a connection is accepted, it is dequeued. On success, 0 is returned. If an error occurs, -1 is returned..


title: Berkeley sockets

text: When an application is listening for stream-oriented connections from other hosts, it is notified of such events (cf. select() function) and must initialize the connection using function "accept()". It creates a new socket for each connection and removes the connection from the listening queue. The function has the following arguments:


title: Berkeley sockets

text: "accept()" returns the new socket descriptor for the accepted connection, or the value "-1" if an error occurs. All further communication with the remote host now occurs via this new socket.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: Datagram sockets do not require processing by accept() since the receiver may immediately respond to the request using the listening socket.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: "connect()" establishes a direct communication link to a specific remote host identified by its address via a socket, identified by its file descriptor.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: When using a connection-oriented protocol, this establishes a connection. Certain types of protocols are connectionless, most notably the User Datagram Protocol. When used with connectionless protocols, "connect" defines the remote address for sending and receiving data, allowing the use of functions such as "send" and "recv". In these cases, the connect function prevents reception of datagrams from other sources.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: "connect()" returns an integer representing the error code: "0" represents success, while "–1" represents an error. Historically, in BSD-derived systems, the state of a socket descriptor is undefined if the call to "connect" fails (as it is specified in the Single Unix Specification), thus, portable applications should close the socket descriptor immediately and obtain a new descriptor with socket(), in the case the call to connect() fails.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The functions "gethostbyname()" and "gethostbyaddr()" are used to resolve host names and addresses in the domain name system or the local host's other resolver mechanisms (e.g., /etc/hosts lookup). They return a pointer to an object of type struct hostent, which describes an Internet Protocol host. The functions use the following arguments:


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The functions return a NULL pointer in case of error, in which case the external integer may be checked to see whether this is a temporary failure or an invalid or unknown host. Otherwise a valid struct hostent * is returned.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: These functions are not strictly a component of the BSD socket API, but are often used in conjunction with the API functions. Furthermore, these functions are now considered legacy interfaces for querying the domain name system. New functions that are completely protocol-agnostic (supporting IPv6) have been defined. These new functions are getaddrinfo() and getnameinfo(), and are based on a new "addrinfo" data structure.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The Berkeley socket API is a general interface for networking and interprocess communication, and supports the use of various network protocols and address architectures.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The following lists a sampling of protocol families (preceded by the standard symbolic identifier) defined in a modern Linux or BSD implementation:


title: Berkeley sockets

text: A socket for communications is created with the function, by specifying the desired protocol family (-identifier) as an argument.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The original design concept of the socket interface distinguished between protocol types (families) and the specific address types that each may use. It was envisioned that a protocol family may have several address types. Address types were defined by additional symbolic constants, using the prefix instead of . The -identifiers are intended for all data structures that specifically deal with the address type and not the protocol family.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: However, this concept of separation of protocol and address type has not found implementation support and the -constants were defined by the corresponding protocol identifier, leaving the distinction between and constants as a technical argument of no practical consequence. Indeed, much confusion exists in the proper usage of both forms.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: Raw sockets provide a simple interface that bypasses the processing by the host's TCP/IP stack. They permit implementation of networking protocols in user space and aid in debugging of the protocol stack. Raw sockets are used by some services, such as ICMP, that operate at the Internet Layer of the TCP/IP model.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: A blocking socket does not return control until it has sent (or received) some or all data specified for the operation. It is normal for a blocking socket not to send all data. The application must check the return value to determine how many bytes have been sent or received and it must resend any data not already processed. When using blocking sockets, special consideration should be given to accept() as it may still block after indicating readability if a client disconnects during the connection phase.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: A non-blocking socket returns whatever is in the receive buffer and immediately continues. If not written correctly, programs using non-blocking sockets are particularly susceptible to race conditions due to variances in network link speed.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The operating system does not release the resources allocated to a socket until the socket is closed. This is especially important if the "connect" call fails and will be retried.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: When an application closes a socket, only the interface to the socket is destroyed. It is the kernel's responsibility to destroy the socket internally. Sometimes, a socket may enter a state, on the server side, for up to 4 minutes.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: On SVR4 systems use of may discard data. The use of or SO_LINGER may be required on these systems to guarantee delivery of all data.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol that provides a variety of error correction and performance features for transmission of byte streams. A process creates a TCP socket by calling the function with the parameters for the protocol family (), the socket mode for Stream Sockets (), and the IP protocol identifier for TCP ().


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol with no guarantee of delivery. UDP packets may arrive out of order, multiple times, or not at all. Because of this minimal design, UDP has considerably less overhead than TCP. Being connectionless means that there is no concept of a stream or permanent connection between two hosts. Such data are referred to as datagrams (Datagram Sockets).


title: Berkeley sockets

text: UDP address space, the space of UDP port numbers (in ISO terminology, the TSAPs), is completely disjoint from that of TCP ports.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: An application may set up a UDP server on port number 7654 as follows. The programs contains an infinite loop that receives UDP datagrams with function "recvfrom()".


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The following is a client program for sending a UDP packet containing the string "Hello World!" to address 127.0.0.1 at port number 7654.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: In this code, "buffer" is a pointer to the data to be sent, and "buffer_length" specifies the size of the data.


title: Berkeley sockets

text: The "de jure" standard definition of the Sockets interface is contained in the POSIX standard, known as:


title: Steve Hutchinson (American football)

text: Steven J. Hutchinson (born November 1, 1977) is an American former professional football player who was a guard for twelve seasons in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the University of Michigan, and was named a unanimous All-American. The Seattle Seahawks picked him in the first round of the 2001 NFL Draft, and he also played for the Minnesota Vikings and Tennessee Titans. He is a seven-time Pro Bowl selection. He was voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2020. In 2020, Hutchinson joined the Seattle Seahawks front office as a football consultant.


title: Steve Hutchinson (American football)

text: Hutchinson was born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He attended Coral Springs High School in Coral Springs, Florida, and played high school football for the Coral Springs Colts. He graduated in 1996. In 2007, he was named to FHSAA's All-Century Team that listed the Top 33 football players in the state of Florida's 100-year history of high school football.


title: Steve Hutchinson (American football)

text: While attending the University of Michigan, Hutchinson played for coach Lloyd Carr's Michigan Wolverines football team from 1996 to 2000. During his redshirt year in 1996, he moved from defensive tackle to offensive guard, and earned a starting position on the 1997 Michigan team that won the Associated Press national championship. Hutchinson excelled as a four-year starter, and did not allow a sack during his final two seasons as a Wolverine. He was a two-year team captain, four-year All-Big Ten selection, Big Ten Offensive Lineman of the Year, and a two-time All-American—including unanimous first-team All-American honors as a senior in 2000. He also won the Jim Parker Award from the Touchdown Club of Columbus, and was an Outland Trophy finalist.


title: Steve Hutchinson (American football)

text: Drafted in the first round of the 2001 NFL Draft by the Seattle Seahawks, Hutchinson spent his first five seasons with Seattle. In March 2006, Hutchinson, a free agent, was designated as Seattle's transition player.


title: Steve Hutchinson (American football)

text: While with the Seahawks, Hutchinson made it to 3 Pro Bowls and earned 3 All-Pro honors. He was also a key lineman who blocked for Shaun Alexander in his 2005 MVP season on the way to the Seahawks appearance in Super Bowl XL, where they lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers 21-10. This would be his final game as a member of the Seattle Seahawks.