title: Syntactic sugar

text: Syntactic salt may defeat its purpose by making the code unreadable and thus worsen its quality – in extreme cases, the essential part of the code may be shorter than the overhead introduced to satisfy language requirements.


title: Syntactic sugar

text: An alternative to syntactic salt is generating compiler warnings when there is high probability that the code is a result of a mistake – a practice common in modern C/C++ compilers.


title: Syntactic sugar

text: Other extensions are "syntactic saccharin" and "syntactic syrup", meaning gratuitous syntax that does not make programming any easier.


title: Syntactic sugar

text: Data types with core syntactic support are said to be "sugared types". Common examples include quote-delimited strings, curly braces for object and record types, and square brackets for arrays.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: Legislative elections were held in Romania on 6 December 2020 to elect the 136 members of the Senate and the 330 constituent members of the Chamber of Deputies.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: While the Social Democratic Party (PSD) remained the largest political party in the Parliament, its popular vote share dropped considerably, more specifically by a third. Following the elections, a center-right coalition government was formed by the National Liberal Party (PNL), USR PLUS, and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians (UDMR/RMDSZ) (i.e. the former Cîțu Cabinet) with Florin Cîțu as Prime Minister.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The final voter turnout was approximately 32%, the lowest since the end of the Communist era in Romania, partially due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The 330 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by several methods: 308 are elected from 42 multi-member constituencies based on counties and Bucharest, using proportional representation, four are elected using proportional representation from a constituency representing Romanians living abroad. Parties must pass a threshold of 5% of the national vote or at least 20% of the vote in four constituencies. Further seats (currently 18) can be added for ethnic minority groups that compete in the elections and pass a special (lower) threshold (calculated as 10% of the votes needed to obtain one of the regular 312 seats).


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The 136 members of the Senate are also elected using party-list proportional representation, but from 43 constituencies based on the 41 counties (a total of 121 seats), Bucharest (13 seats), and one for Romanians living overseas (two seats).


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The previous election saw the Social Democratic Party (PSD) led by Liviu Dragnea emerge as the largest political party in the parliament, although they fell short of an absolute majority. Nevertheless, the PSD eventually established a coalition agreement with the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats (ALDE), forming the Grindeanu Cabinet in January 2017. However, the new government did not last long and was replaced by the Tudose Cabinet in June 2017, which was also short-lived. Ultimately, the Dăncilă Cabinet took office in January 2018. It was dismissed by a motion of no confidence in October 2019, and replaced by a National Liberal Party (PNL) minority government under Ludovic Orban in November 2019. The Orban Cabinet was dismissed by a motion of no confidence on the 5 February 2020, but took office again on 14 March 2020.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The government decided parliamentary elections would be held on 6 December 2020. On 30 September 2020, the president of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats (ALDE), Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu, proposed on Facebook that the elections be postponed to March 2021. On 2 October 2020, former Save Romania Union (USR) deputy Adrian Dohotaru submitted a bill to the Senate, proposing the parliamentary elections be held on 14 March 2021, which received support from the Social Democratic Party (PSD). On 7 October 2020, the first vice-president of the PSD, Sorin Grindeanu, claimed that the government's plan would lead to a surge in COVID-19 cases. On 8 October, Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu and Victor Ponta announced in a press conference that their parties will run in the elections on a shared list under a single name: Social-Liberal PRO Romania ().


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: PSD president Marcel Ciolacu announced on 15 October that the World Health Organization's representative in Romania, Alexandru Rafila, was one of the party's candidates for the parliamentary elections. He will be top of the list of deputies for the Bucharest circumscription, while Gabriela Firea will lead the list of senators.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The following table presents the composition of the Parliament of Romania during the 2016–2020 legislative term.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The chart below shows opinion polls conducted for the next Romanian legislative election. The trend lines represent local regressions (LOESS).


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: An 80-year-old man from Teiu, Argeș fell into cardiac arrest and died outside a polling station on election day. He was known to have heart problems.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: Two polling stations from Sector 3 of Bucharest had their voting suspended: for about an hour at polling station 551, after a member of the electoral bureau tested positive for COVID-19; and for two and a half hours at station 643, after the death of a voter.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: Participation was 33.30% and 5.9 million valid votes were cast. After counting all votes, but before the settlement of any appeals, PSD has won around 29.5% of the votes, PNL around 25.5%, USR PLUS around 15.5%, AUR around 9%, and UDMR around 6%. The high result of the quasi-unknown party AUR was considered a huge surprise, while PMP and PRO Romania both failed to get 5% of the votes required to win any seats.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: On 18 December, the National Liberal Party (PNL), the USR PLUS, and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (UDMR) announced that they had reached a coalition agreement, and proposed finance minister Florin Cîțu as prime minister. The government would have two deputy prime ministers (one from USR PLUS and one from UDMR) and 18 ministries, with 9 allocated for the PNL, 6 for USR PLUS, and 3 for UDMR. The allocations are as follows (with newly created ministries "italicized"):


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: Cîțu was officially appointed as Prime Minister-designate on 22 December by President Klaus Iohannis. On 23 December, the Cabinet was invested by the parliament and took oath of office on the same evening.


title: 2020 Romanian legislative election

text: The Romanian Electoral Authority stated that the campaign financing publicly subsidies amounted to a grand total of 166,850,315.50 Romanian Lei. The parties/candidates were required to achieve at least 3% of the vote to apply for a public subsidy of their campaign expenditures.


title: Rowther

text: Rowther (anglicised as "Irauttar", "Rawther, Ravuttar" "Ravutta", "Rahtore", "Ravuthar") is a Tamil Speaking Muslim community from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Rowthers are Tamil tribes converted to Islam by Preacher Natharshah. Even after converstion they retained their caste name. the Madurai district Gazeratteer mentions that Rowthers Cavalry under the Tamil Rulers and they were a martial class They were elite cavalrymen of Chola and Pandya kingdoms. They were traditionally a martial clan like the Maravars, and constitute large part of the multi-ethnic Tamil Muslim community. They follow the Hanafi school of "fiqh". Ravuttars have also been found as Tamil polygars, zamindars and chieftains from the 16th to 18th centuries. In the modern era, they are successful entrepreneurs, businesspeople, professionals and landlords.


title: Rowther

text: The name "Ravuttar" meaning King, Horseman Cavalry Warrior in tamil language (or "Ravutta," "Ravuthar", "Rahtore", "Rathaur", "Rowther", "Rawther") is derived ("Rājaputra"), in the sense of 'prince', 'nobleman', or 'horseman'. D.C. Sircar points out that "Ravutta" or "Rahutta", as a title, means a 'subordinate ruler'. Some scholars claim that the name comes from Rathore, a name common among the Muslim Rajputs of North India. Historically, they are parts of clans traditionally holding positions as rulers and military folk. Ravuta means a high-ranking title King, lord, feudatory ruling chief.


title: Rowther

text: Rahut or Rowt means "Warrior", Raya means "Captain" "Rāvuttarayan" or "Rāvuttakartan" means high military chief of cavalry.


title: Rowther

text: Rawther are found all over Tamil Nadu and in some southern districts of Kerala. Their mother tongue is Tamil in Tamil Nadu and Malayalam in Kerala. Many of them are familiar with the Perso-Arabic script. They follow the tenets of Islam and read the Quran and other religious texts in Arabic.


title: Rowther

text: Rowthers generally speak Tamil follow Tamil cultural practices and They celebrate tamil festivals. They have their own "Ravuthar Cuisine" and "Rawther Biryani". The elderly men wear white Vēṭṭi or White "kayili" while elderly women wear a white "thupatti" draped over a sari.


title: Rowther

text: Ravuttars are Soldiers, officials and literati attached to Muslim Court in the Deccan. In described as a Rāuta, Rāutta or Rāvutta derived from Sanskrit "Rajaputra" and was often assumed by subordinate rulers.


title: Rowther

text: Sundara Pandyan sought help, in a civil war, from Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji who ruled much of northern India from Delhi. Khilji agreed to help Sundara Pandyan and ordered General Malik Kafur's army to march into the peninsula in 1311. Thus the first invasion of Tamil Nadu from Delhi was a direct result of the internal quarrel in the Pandyan royal family.


title: Rowther

text: Later, Chola kings too invited artisans of the Seljuk Empire who belonged to the Hanafi school. During 8th-10th centuries, an armada of Turkish traders settled in Tharangambadi, Nagapattinam, Karaikal, Muthupet, Koothanallur and Podakkudi.


title: Rowther

text: These new settlements were now added to the Rowther community. Hanafi factions have a mix of fair and pale complexions. There are some Anatolian and Safavid inscriptions found in a wide area from Tanjore to Thiruvarur and in many villages. These inscriptions are seized by Madras museum. Some Turkish inscriptions were also stolen from the Big Mosque of Koothanallur in 1850.


title: Rowther

text: There are two factions of Rowthers in Tamil Nadu, Tamils cavalry warriors covers majority of Tamil Nadu while Seljuk Turkic clans remains in Tharangambadi, Nagapattinam, Karaikal, Muthupet, Koothanallur and Podakkudi. Both now tamil and turkish Hanafi expanded with Population and some circumstantial evidence in historical sources that the Rowthers are part related to Maravar converts. Ravuttars worked in the administration of the Vijayanagar Nayaks.


title: Rowther

text: The Rowthers are an endogamous group. "The concern is for matching spouses who share the same economic backgrounds and the same cultural and particularly religious tradition. Specific religious and social practices vary widely among the different Muslim Tamil sub-divisions and attitudes about what is not vary too. Nevertheless, in cities, inter-marriages do occur, although they are rare" (Mines, 1973).


title: Rowther

text: The Rowthers of Tamil Nadu and Kerala to this day address father as Aththa(அத்தா) meaning father or ancestor in Tamil languages.


title: Rowther

text: Extended families are more frequent among the Rawther than nuclear families. Both sons and daughters inherit property. A daughter gets half of what a son gets.


title: Rowther

text: Nevertheless, in cities, inter-marriages do occur, although they are rare" (Vines, 1973). Parallel and cross-cousins are potential spouses. Earlier, marriages were performed soon after a girl attained puberty, but now girls get married between 18 and 20 and boys between 22 and 25. Most marriages are negotiated by the elders. Monogamy is the norm. They remember their historic valour during their marriage ceremonies, where the bridegroom is conducted in a horseback procession.


title: Rowther

text: Traditionally the Rowthers were landlords and land owning community (historically mentioned as Rowthers are brave cavaliers and early Muslim horse-traders in Tamil literature) but now they are engaged in various occupations, mostly their own businesses. They deal in gemstones, gold, textiles, and real estate and participate in the restaurant industry, construction work, and general merchandising. Some are professionals, such as doctors, engineers, advocates and teachers.


title: Rowther

text: There is no traditional caste council or panchayat as such among the Rawthers. Learned and elderly persons act as advisers. The Rawther have an association which preaches against dowry, and collects funds for charity.


title: Rowther

text: The Rawther belong to the Sunni sect of Islam and the Hanafi school. They follow the five basic tenets of Islam, which are, reciting the Kalima, offering prayer ("thozhugai") five times a day, observe fasting ("nonbu") during the month of Ramzan, giving charity (zakah) to the poor, and going on the Haj pilgrimage. The two major festivals celebrated are Ramzan and Bakr-id.


title: Rowther

text: The Rawther share a ritual and social linkage with other sects of Muslims. They mix freely with their neighbors and friends belonging to other communities, and exchange food and sweets during festivals. They share mosques and burial grounds with others belonging to the Sunni sect.


title: Rowther

text: The well-known legend of the Shiva saint Manikkavacakar of the 9th century is connected with the purchase of horses for the Pandya king. In that the god Shiva who appeared in disguise as a horse trader to protect the saint and he is called as Rowther. Also, the Tamil god Murugan is praised by saint Arunagirinathar as "soor kondra ravuttane" (Oh Ravuttan, who vanquised the Demon) and "maamayilerum ravuttane" (Oh Ravuttan, who rides on the great peacock) in his Kanthar Alangaram (கந்தர் அலங்காரம்) and in Kanthar Venba (கந்தர் வெண்பா).


title: Rowther

text: Initially, most horses and warriors were drawn from Persia and Central Asia. For the Indian population the most prominent feature of these warriors was their distinctive religion or ethnic identity but their military and equine expertise, which was always for hire. Apart from being loosely labelled Muslims or Turks (Turushka), these mounted men were known as "Ashvapatis" or "Irauttars (lords of horses)".


title: Rowther

text: There were Tamil Ravuttars working in the administration of the Vijayanagara Empire in the Khurram Kunda. The inscription details the dedication of the land by the Rowther to a Murugan temple in Cheyyur.


title: Rowther

text: Muththaal Ravuttar (meaning Muslim Rowther is a Prakrit derivation from "raja-putra") figures as Tamil male deities who protect Tamil land.


title: Rowther

text: The Rowthers give importance to education. Fathima Beevi, India's first female Supreme Court judge, hails from a prominent Rowther family in Pathanamthitta.


title: XD

text: XD, sometimes stylized as xD, is an emoticon commonly used to symbolise happiness. It represents two closed eyes with the X and mouth with the D. It may also refer to:


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: Disney Infinity (sometimes also referred to as Disney Infinity 1.0 to differentiate it from later games) is a toys-to-life action-adventure sandbox video game developed by Avalanche Software and published by Disney Interactive Studios. It was announced on January 15, 2013. The game used collectible figurines that were then synchronized with the game, unlocking characters from Disney and Pixar properties that interact and go on adventures. The game was released for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii, Wii U, and Nintendo 3DS in August 2013. A PC version of Toy Box was also released on November 14, 2013. The game had a budget approaching $100 million. A sequel, "Disney Infinity 2.0", was released on September 23, 2014. The third edition, "Disney Infinity 3.0", was released on August 30, 2015, and introduced support for the Apple TV. This game was also later released on Microsoft Windows in 2013.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: "Disney Infinity" is an action-adventure game with physical toys, open-world creation, and story-driven gameplay. Characters, playsets, and other features are brought into the game using figurines and discs with the included Infinity Base. With the exception of non-humanoid characters, such as those from the "Cars" series, each character has a double jump and a default set of attacks, as well as an ability unique to each figure. For example, Sulley and Jack Skellington can roar to scare others while Violet and Randall can turn invisible. There were two main modes in this game: Play Set and Toy Box. Each playset is essentially a self-contained world with its own gameplay, based on a specific film or series with recognizable characters and storylines. In play set mode, the player can earn items, tools, and characters to use in Toy Box mode. Characters from one world cannot enter into another world, but players can put any characters together in Toy Box mode. Toy Box is a sandbox mode that players can fully customize and explore, and earn items, tools, and characters to customize and explore from play sets.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: There are a number of playsets available, which are accessed via placing the relevant playset piece onto the Infinity Base. Some examples include "Pirates of the Caribbean", "Monsters University", "The Incredibles", "Cars", "The Lone Ranger" and "Toy Story". These playsets have their own unique campaign, which could be played with up to two players. However, all characters from a specific franchise can only play in their respective playset (for example, Mr. Incredible cannot be used in the "Pirates of the Caribbean" playset), meaning two figures from the same series are required to play a play set in split-screen multiplayer. Playing through Play Set mode unlocks objects and vehicles that can be used in the Toy Box mode.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: Toy Box mode allowed players to create their own game in an open-world arena. Players can mix and match everything that is unlocked within each of the play sets including characters, weapons and gadgets. By unlocking new content in the "Disney Infinity" play sets, players are able to build their own worlds and essentially create their own game. There are various "adventures" in this mode, which help teach the player how to use the mode's tools. Players can also earn "spins" by playing through playsets or leveling up their characters, which can be used to unlock additional items. The mode supports online multiplayer, in which players can play around with items that only the other player has, albeit only during that session.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: A portable Toy Box became available in late 2013, for the iPad. A version of the Toy Box is also available for Windows PC. These versions of the Toy Box utilized the web codes included with each "Disney Infinity" character.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: The Starter Pack edition of the game was bundled with three figurines and an "Infinity Base". The "Infinity Base" has two round spots to place figurines, and a hexagonal spot to place world discs. When the figurines are placed on the "Infinity Base", the characters are imported into the game, while world discs unlock Play Sets.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: Power Discs are discs that can be placed on the Infinity Base along with their characters to add new elements to the game. Players can use up to three environment enhancements (Hexagonal Power Discs) that can only be used in the Toy Box mode and up to two character enhancements (Circular Power Discs) per character. The environment enhancements can alter the terrain, change the background "sky", add new vehicles or add new weapons. The character enhancements will alter things about the character such as damage done, replenish health, allow for faster experience gain for leveling and so on. One Power Disc is included with the Starter Pack while additional discs are sold in blind bags each containing two discs.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: Following a delay, the PC version of "Disney Infinity" was released on November 14, 2013. This version was available free of charge and could be downloaded from the "Disney Infinity" website. It originally contained the game's Toy Box mode, similar to the iPad version. However, a patch was released on February 28, 2014 that added in all six Play Sets, putting it on par with the console versions. The game featured several changes from the console version, however. The game did not support the Infinity Base. Instead, characters were unlocked either by purchasing them from the "Disney Infinity" website (at a discounted rate, due to the lack of a physical figurine) or by redeeming a web code card included with the physical figurines. Since Power Discs do not come with web codes, they had to be purchased from the PC Shop. The game also did not support multiplayer, though players could link up with the console version to share Toy Boxes between the two versions.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: Due to the space limitations of the Wii platform, some design decisions had to be made in the game. The gameplay does not have online play or multiplayer in Play Sets, but there is multiplayer in Toy Box. That means that there are smaller playset worlds and no downloadable or shareable Toy Box worlds. Toy Box has six different worlds, each with different toys and tools. On August 21, 2014, the "Disney Infinity" software was released as a free download for the North American Wii U eShop, for the convenience of upgrading to the superior Wii U version for players who originally own the Wii Starter Pack, although the Wii version is backwards-compatible on Wii U. The game's subsequent sequels, "Disney Infinity 2.0" and "Disney Infinity 3.0" were not available for Wii.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: Different from the console and PC versions, the Nintendo 3DS version of the game is a party game, in which up to four players play on various themed game boards and participate in various minigames. The Toy Box mode can be used to create new game boards. This version uses its own Infinity Base, which has only one character slot compared to the console version, and connects to the 3DS wirelessly.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: The idea for the game emerged out of Avalanche's previous work on the of Toy Story 3. One of the more well-received modes of the game was an open world section called "The Toybox", and the team set out to make a spiritual successor to the mode which would have been set at Star Command. The team was challenged by Disney Interactive's new president John Pleasants who asked the developers "What is the biggest idea you can think of" at which point the team decided to switch from making a single game to making a platform that would use multiple IPs.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: "Disney Infinity" received generally positive reviews from critics (except for the 3DS version, which received negative reviews). It received a 75 and 74 out of 100 on review aggregator site Metacritic, for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 respectively.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: The sandbox mode, namely the Toy Box Mode, received much praise. Steven O'Donnell of "" stated that "it's a bit like "Minecraft" in that you're dropped into an open world that you can then build some pretty spectacular structures in." Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot called the Toy Box "a gleefully entertaining shared space," and greatly preferred it over the story mode.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: The figurines of the playable characters received mixed to positive reactions. Daniel Krupa of IGN said that they're "well-made statues," and that "each one really captures the personality of that character with a charismatic stance." The soundtrack and dialogue of "Disney Infinity" also received mixed reactions. Andrew Reiner of "Game Informer" said that "characters repeat dialogue way too often," and that the soundtrack is "often surprisingly absent." Andy Robertson of "Forbes" stated that his children loved playing the figurines, both in the game and as toys.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: The overall price of the game and all of the toys received media coverage. Jeff Cork of "Game Informer" said that to purchase all items at the launch (the game, all launch toys, and power discs) it costs a minimum of AUD$460. Kevin VanOrd of "GameSpot" called "Disney Infinity" "a platform designed to keep you spending money." Nick Cowen of "The Guardian" warned parents to "get ready with those wallets."


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: In September 2013, Disney revealed that the game had sold 294,000 copies in the United States during its first two weeks on sale.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: On October 18, 2013, Disney Interactive announced that the game had sold more than one million copies worldwide. With more figures not yet released, Disney hoped the number of units sold would continue to grow. As of January 20, 2014, three million starter packs had been sold.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: The game was nominated for the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards in 2014, but lost to "Just Dance 2014".


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: On May 10, 2016, the future plans for "Disney Infinity" were cancelled, although the reasons why are not clear. After the announcement, Disney continued to release concept art of characters that were being planned for release but were never produced, including characters such as Marvel's Doctor Strange and Spider-Gwen.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: On April 30, 2014, Disney announced a follow-up game, "Disney Infinity 2.0", for release on Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, Wii U, iOS, Android, Microsoft Windows, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4 in Q4 2014, featuring characters from the Marvel Comics universe. The game features improved Toy Box editor tools and introduces Toy Box Games, discs which allow players to create games based on genres such as tower defense. The game is also compatible with all figurines and accessories from the previous "Disney Infinity". The starter pack contains figures of Iron Man, Thor, and Black Widow, with figures being released separately alongside the game such as Captain America, Hulk, Hawkeye, Falcon, Loki, Stitch, Maleficent, Donald Duck, Tinker Bell, Princess Merida, Hiro Hamada, Baymax, Aladdin, Jasmine, the Guardians of the Galaxy, Ronan the Accuser, Spider-Man, Nova, Iron Fist, Venom, Nick Fury and the Green Goblin.


title: Disney Infinity (video game)

text: On May 5, 2015, Disney announced a follow-up game through "Game Informer", "Disney Infinity 3.0", for release on Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii U, iOS, PC, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4 in 2015, featuring characters from the "Star Wars" universe and Iron Man Hulkbuster.


title: Force between magnets

text: Magnets exert forces and torques on each other due to the rules of electromagnetism. The forces of attraction field of magnets are due to microscopic currents of electrically charged electrons orbiting nuclei and the intrinsic magnetism of fundamental particles (such as electrons) that make up the material. Both of these are modeled quite well as tiny loops of current called magnetic dipoles that produce their own magnetic field and are affected by external magnetic fields. The most elementary force between magnets is the magnetic dipole–dipole interaction. If all of the magnetic dipoles that make up two magnets are known then the net force on both magnets can be determined by summing up all these interactions between the dipoles of the first magnet and that of the second.


title: Force between magnets

text: It is often more convenient to model the force between two magnets as being due to forces between magnetic poles having magnetic charges spread over them. Positive and negative magnetic charge is always connected by a string of magnetized material; isolated magnetic charge does not exist. This model works well in predicting the forces between simple magnets where good models of how the magnetic charge is distributed are available.


title: Force between magnets

text: The field of a magnet is the sum of fields from all magnetized volume elements, which consist of small magnetic dipoles on an atomic level. The direct summation of all those dipole fields would require three-dimensional integration just to obtain the field of one magnet, which may be intricate.


title: Force between magnets

text: In case of a homogeneous magnetization, the problem can be simplified at least in two different ways, using Stokes' theorem. Upon integration along the direction of magnetization, all dipoles along the line of integration cancel each other, except at the magnet's end surface. The field then emerges only from those (mathematical) magnetic charges spread over the magnet's end facets. On the contrary, when integrating over a magnetized area orthogonal to the direction of magnetization, the dipoles within this area cancel each other, except at the magnet's outer surface, where they (mathematically) sum up to a ring current. This is called Ampère model. In both models, only two-dimensional distributions over the magnet's surface have to be considered, which is simpler than the original three-dimensional problem.


title: Force between magnets

text: Magnetic-charge model: In the magnetic-charge model, the pole surfaces of a permanent magnet are imagined to be covered with so-called "magnetic charge", north pole particles on the north pole and south pole particles' on the south pole, that are the source of the magnetic field lines. The field due to magnetic charges is obtained through Coulomb's law with magnetic instead of electric charges. If the magnetic pole distribution is known, then the pole model gives the exact distribution of the magnetic field intensity H both inside and outside the magnet. The surface charge distribution is uniform, if the magnet is homogeneously magnetized and has flat end facets (such as a cylinder or prism).


title: Force between magnets

text: Ampère model: In the Ampère model, all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular "bound currents", also called "Ampèrian currents" throughout the material. The net effect of these microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic electric current flowing in loops in the magnet with the magnetic field normal to the loops. The field due to such currents is then obtained through the Biot–Savart law. The Ampère model gives the correct magnetic flux density B both inside and outside the magnet. It is sometimes difficult to calculate the Ampèrian currents on the surface of a magnet.


title: Force between magnets

text: Far away from a magnet, its magnetic field is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic dipole moment, m. This is true regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet's center.


title: Force between magnets

text: The magnetic moment of a magnet is therefore a measure of its strength and orientation. A loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an electron, a molecule, and a planet all have magnetic moments. More precisely, the term "magnetic moment" normally refers to a system's magnetic dipole moment, which produces the first term in the multipole expansion of a general magnetic field.


title: Force between magnets

text: Both the torque and force exerted on a magnet by an external magnetic field are proportional to that magnet's magnetic moment. The magnetic moment is a vector: it has both a magnitude and direction. The direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to north pole of a magnet (inside the magnet). For example, the direction of the magnetic moment of a bar magnet, such as the one in a compass is the direction that the north poles points toward.


title: Force between magnets

text: In the physically correct Ampère model, magnetic dipole moments are due to infinitesimally small loops of current. For a sufficiently small loop of current, "I", and area, A, the magnetic dipole moment is:


title: Force between magnets

text: where the direction of m is normal to the area in a direction determined using the current and the right-hand rule. As such, the SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is ampere meter. More precisely, to account for solenoids with many turns the unit of magnetic dipole moment is Ampere-turn meter.


title: Force between magnets

text: In the magnetic-charge model, the magnetic dipole moment is due to two equal and opposite magnetic charges that are separated by a distance, "d". In this model, m is similar to the electric dipole moment p due to electrical charges:


title: Force between magnets

text: where "q" is the ‘magnetic charge’. The direction of the magnetic dipole moment points from the negative south pole to the positive north pole of this tiny magnet.


title: Force between magnets

text: Magnets are drawn along the magnetic field gradient. The simplest example of this is the attraction of opposite poles of two magnets. Every magnet produces a magnetic field that is stronger near its poles. If opposite poles of two separate magnets are facing each other, each of the magnets is drawn into the stronger magnetic field near the pole of the other. If like poles are facing each other though, they are repulsed from the larger magnetic field.


title: Force between magnets

text: The magnetic-charge model predicts a correct mathematical form for this force and is easier to understand qualitatively. For if a magnet is placed in a uniform magnetic field then both poles will feel the same magnetic force but in opposite directions, since they have opposite magnetic charge. But, when a magnet is placed in the non-uniform field, such as that due to another magnet, the pole experiencing the large magnetic field will experience the large force and there will be a net force on the magnet. If the magnet is aligned with the magnetic field, corresponding to two magnets oriented in the same direction near the poles, then it will be drawn into the larger magnetic field. If it is oppositely aligned, such as the case of two magnets with like poles facing each other, then the magnet will be repelled from the region of higher magnetic field.


title: Force between magnets

text: In the Ampère model, there is also a force on a magnetic dipole due to a non-uniform magnetic field, but this is due to Lorentz forces on the current loop that makes up the magnetic dipole. The force obtained in the case of a current loop model is


title: Force between magnets

text: where the gradient ∇ is the change of the quantity per unit distance, and the direction is that of maximum increase of . To understand this equation, note that the dot product , where "m" and "B" represent the magnitude of the m and B vectors and "θ" is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then the dot product is positive and the gradient points 'uphill' pulling the magnet into regions of higher B-field (more strictly larger m · B). B represents the strength and direction of the magnetic field. This equation is strictly only valid for magnets of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions having their own m then summing up the forces on each of these regions.


title: Force between magnets

text: The magnetic-charge model assumes that the magnetic forces between magnets are due to magnetic charges near the poles. This model works even close to the magnet when the magnetic field becomes more complicated, and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet than just the magnetic dipole contribution. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octopole field, etc. in the Ampère model, but this can be very cumbersome mathematically.


title: Force between magnets

text: Calculating the attractive or repulsive force between two magnets is, in the general case, a very complex operation, as it depends on the shape, magnetization, orientation and separation of the magnets. The magnetic-charge model does depend on some knowledge of how the ‘magnetic charge’ is distributed over the magnetic poles. It is only truly useful for simple configurations even then. Fortunately, this restriction covers many useful cases.


title: Force between magnets

text: If both poles are small enough to be represented as single points then they can be considered to be point magnetic charges. Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:


title: Force between magnets

text: The pole description is useful to practicing magneticians who design real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulas given below will be more useful.


title: Force between magnets

text: The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the volume of the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material, the force for each magnetized surface is:


title: Force between magnets

text: The derivation of this equation is analogous to the force between two nearby electrically charged surfaces, which assumes that the field in between the plates is uniform.


title: Force between magnets

text: The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end at great distance formula_6 is approximately:


title: Force between magnets

text: Note that these formulations assume point-like magnetic-charge distributions instead of a uniform distribution over the end facets, which is a good approximation only at relatively great distances. For intermediate distances, numerical methods must be used.


title: Force between magnets

text: For two cylindrical magnets with radius formula_9, and length formula_10, with their magnetic dipole aligned, the force can be computed analytically using elliptic integrals. In the limit formula_6, the force can be approximated by,


title: Force between magnets

text: Where formula_13 is the magnetization of the magnets and formula_14 is the distance between them. For small values of formula_14, the results are erroneous as the force becomes large for close-to-zero distance.


title: Force between magnets

text: If the magnet is long (formula_16), a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet formula_17 is roughly related to formula_13 by the formula


title: Force between magnets

text: where formula_21 is the volume of the magnet. For a cylinder this is formula_22, and formula_13 is the magnetisation field of the dipole.


title: Force between magnets

text: French scientist André Marie Ampère found that the magnetism produced by permanent magnets and the magnetism produced by electromagnets are the same kind of magnetism. Because of that, the strength of a permanent magnet can be expressed in the same terms as that of an electromagnet.


title: Force between magnets

text: The strength of magnetism of an electromagnet that is a flat loop of wire through which a current flows, measured at a distance that is great compared to the size of the loop, is proportional to that current and is proportional to the surface area of that loop.


title: Force between magnets

text: For purpose of expressing the strength of a permanent magnet in same terms as that of an electromagnet, a permanent magnet is thought of as if it contains small current-loops throughout its volume,


title: Force between magnets

text: and then the magnetic strength of that magnet is found to be proportional to the current of each loop (in Ampere), and proportional to the surface of each loop (in square meter), and proportional to the density of current-loops in the material (in units per cubic meter), so the dimension of strength of magnetism of a permanent magnet is Ampere times square meter per cubic meter, is Ampere per meter.


title: Force between magnets

text: That is why Ampere per meter is the correct unit of magnetism, even though these small current loops are not really present in a permanent magnet.


title: Force between magnets

text: The validity of Ampere's model means that it is allowable to think of the magnetic material as if it consists of current-loops, and the total effect is the sum of the effect of each current-loop, and so the magnetic effect of a real magnet can be computed as the sum of magnetic effects of tiny pieces of magnetic material that are at a distance that is great compared to the size of each piece.


title: Force between magnets

text: It involves summing a large amount of small forces and you should not do that by hand, but let your computer do that for you ;


title: Force between magnets

text: All that the computer program needs to know is the force between small magnets that are at great distance from each other.


title: Force between magnets

text: In such computations it is often assumed that each (same-size) small piece of magnetic material has an equally strong magnetism, but this is not always true :


title: Force between magnets

text: For permanent magnets this is usually only a small change, but if you have an electromagnet that consists of a wire wound round an iron core, and you bring a permanent magnet near to that core, then the magnetization of that core can change drastically (for example, if there is no current in the wire, the electromagnet would not be magnetic, but when the permanent magnet is brought near, the core of the electromagnet becomes magnetic).


title: Force between magnets

text: Thus the Ampere model is suitable for computing the magnetic force-field of a permanent magnet, but for electromagnets it can be better to use a magnetic-circuit approach.


title: Force between magnets

text: If two or more magnets are small enough or sufficiently distant that their shape and size is not important then both magnets can be modeled as being magnetic dipoles having a magnetic moments m and m. In case of uniformly magnetized spherical magnets this model is precise even at finite size and distance, as the outside field of such magnets is exactly a dipole field.


title: Force between magnets

text: This is "exactly" the field of a point dipole, "exactly" the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and "approximately" the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances.


title: Force between magnets

text: If the coordinate system is shifted to center it on m and rotated such that the x-axis points in the direction of m then the previous equation simplifies to


title: Force between magnets

text: where the variables r and "θ" are measured in a frame of reference with origin in m and oriented such that m is at the origin pointing in the x-direction. This frame is called Local coordinates and is shown in the Figure on the right.


title: Force between magnets

text: The force of one magnetic dipole on another is determined by using the magnetic field of the first dipole given above and determining the force due to the magnetic field on the second dipole using the force equation given above. Using vector notation, the force of a magnetic dipole m on the magnetic dipole m is:


title: Force between magnets

text: where r is the distance-vector from dipole moment m to dipole moment m, with . The force acting on m is in opposite direction. As an example the magnetic force for two magnets pointing in the z-direction and aligned on the z-axis and separated by the distance z is:


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: Wilhelm Emil "Willy" Messerschmitt (; 26 June 1898 – 15 September 1978) was a German aircraft designer and manufacturer. In 1934, in collaboration with Walter Rethel, he designed the Messerschmitt Bf 109, which became the most important fighter aircraft in the Luftwaffe as Germany rearmed prior to World War II. It remains the second most-produced warplane in history, with some 34,000 built, behind the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2. Another Messerschmitt aircraft, first called "Bf 109R", purpose-built for record setting, but later redesignated Messerschmitt Me 209, broke the absolute world airspeed record and held the world speed record for propeller-driven aircraft until 1969. Messerschmitt's firm also produced the first jet-powered fighter to enter service — the Messerschmitt Me 262.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: He was born in Frankfurt am Main, the son of Baptist Ferdinand Messerschmitt (1858–1916) and his second wife, Anna Maria Schaller (1867–1942).


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: As a young man, Messerschmitt befriended German sailplane pioneer Friedrich Harth. Harth joined the German army in 1914 and while he was away at war, Messerschmitt continued work on one of Harth's designs, the S5 glider. In 1917, Messerschmitt himself signed up for military service. Following the war, the two were reunited and continued to work together while Messerschmitt commenced study at the Munich Technical College and Harth built aircraft at the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW – Bavarian Aircraft Works). The S8 glider they designed and built together in 1921 broke a world duration record (albeit unofficially) and they went into partnership for a while running a flying school. The same year, the first plane entirely designed by Messerschmitt flew — the S9 glider.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: In 1923 Messerschmitt graduated from the Munich Institute of Technology. The same year Harth and Messerschmitt had a falling out and went their separate ways, with Messerschmitt founding his own aircraft company at Augsburg. At first, Messerschmitt built sailplanes, but within two years had progressed via motor gliders to small powered aircraft - sports and touring types. These culminated in the Messerschmitt M 17 and Messerschmitt M 18 designs, which Messerschmitt sold to BFW in 1927, when the Bavarian state government encouraged a merger between the two companies. These were followed by the Messerschmitt M20 light transport in 1928, which proved a disaster for BFW and Messerschmitt himself. Two Deutsche Luft Hansa M20s were involved in serious crashes very soon after purchase, and this led the airline to cancel their order for the type. This caused a serious cashflow problem for the company and led to its bankruptcy in 1931. The M20 crashes also created a powerful enemy for Messerschmitt in the person of Erhard Milch, the head of Lufthansa, who had lost a close friend in one of the crashes.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: The ties that Messerschmitt had formed with leading Nazis Rudolf Hess and Hermann Göring (through Theo Croneiss) saved him from sharing the fate of Milch's other great enemy, Hugo Junkers. To stay in business in the face of Milch ensuring that he would get no government contracts, Messerschmitt had signed agreements with Romania for sales of the M35 and a transport plane, the Messerschmitt M 36. When Milch learned of this, he publicly denounced Messerschmitt as a traitor, and the Gestapo was sent to question him and other BFW officials. Probably due to Croneiss' intervention, no further action was taken.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: The establishment of the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium" ("Reich Aviation Ministry" - RLM) by the Nazi government in 1933, headed by Milch, led to a resurgence in the German aircraft industry and the resurrection of BFW. Collaborating with Robert Lusser, Messerschmitt designed the flagship product of the relaunched company. This was a low-wing four seater monoplane called the Messerschmitt M37, but better known by its later RLM designation of Bf 108. The following year, Messerschmitt incorporated many advanced design features of the Bf 108 into the Bf 109 fighter.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: In 1936, the Messerschmitt Bf 109 won the RLM's single-seat fighter contest, and became one of the main Luftwaffe aircraft types. Messerschmitt and his factory thus took an important role in the RLM's armament plans. This role expanded even further when the Messerschmitt Bf 110 also won the multi-purpose fighter contest.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: On 11 July 1938, Messerschmitt was appointed chairman and managing director of BFW and the company was renamed after him to Messerschmitt AG. This same year, the company began work on what would eventually become the Me 262, and on the Messerschmitt Me 210, planned as successor for the Bf 110. The Me 210 turned out to be plagued by massive development problems that were solved only by evolving the type into the Messerschmitt Me 410. The resulting problems and delays again put the reputation of both Messerschmitt and his namesake company in jeopardy.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: Following World War II, Messerschmitt was tried by a denazification court for using slave labor, and in 1948 was convicted of collaborating with the Nazi regime. After two years in prison, he was released and resumed his position as head of his company. Since Germany was forbidden to manufacture aircraft until 1955, he turned his company to manufacturing prefabricated buildings, sewing machines, and small cars — most notably the Messerschmitt Kabinenroller. Exporting his talents, he designed the Hispano HA-200 jet trainer for Hispano Aviación in Spain in 1952 before eventually being allowed to return to aircraft manufacturing in Germany to licence-produce the Fiat G91 and then Lockheed F-104 Starfighter for the West German Luftwaffe. He designed the later Helwan HA-300, a light supersonic interceptor, for the Egyptian air forces. This was his last aircraft design.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: Messerschmitt saw his company through mergers first with Bölkow in 1968 and then Hamburger Flugzeugbau in 1969, at which point it became MBB (Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, that became part of EADS now named Airbus) with Messerschmitt as chairman until 1970 when he retired. He died eight years later, on 15 September 1978 in a Munich hospital in undisclosed circumstances.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: Messerschmitt's designs were characterized by a clear focus on performance, especially by striving for lightweight construction, but also by minimizing parasitic drag from aerodynamic surfaces. His critics accused him of taking this approach too far in some designs. His falling out with Harth had been over designs Harth felt to be dangerously unstable, and the Me 210 displayed instability, too, which could be cured only by enlarging the airframe and the aerodynamic surfaces, increasing drag and weight. Messerschmitt's design philosophy also is evident in his arguments with Alexander Lippisch, who was designing the tailless Me 163 rocket fighter for production at the Messerschmitt works. While Lippisch maintained that the tailless design had an advantage, in principle, with regard to total drag, Messerschmitt pointed out that the design compromises, which are necessary to make a tailless aircraft safely controllable, defeated this purpose by increasing drag to the original level and above.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: Messerschmitt was appointed Honorary Professor by the Munich Technical College in 1930, and the Vice-President of the "Deutsche Akademie für Luftfahrtforschung" (German Academy of Aeronautical Research). The German government also awarded him the title of "Wehrwirtschaftsführer" (defense industry leader). In 1938, Adolf Hitler bestowed upon Messerschmitt the German National Prize for Art and Science.


title: Willy Messerschmitt

text: In 1979, Messerschmitt was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: David Miller (born April 14, 1973) is an American tenor. Since 2004, he has been a member of the successful classical crossover group Il Divo, who have sold over 30 million copies worldwide. As well, Miller shared a Tony Award with the other members of the ensemble cast of Baz Luhrmann's 2002 revival of "La bohème" in 2003.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: Miller was born in San Diego, California, but raised in the suburbs of Denver, Colorado. As a student at Heritage High School in Littleton, he starred in high school productions as the Rooster in "Annie" and Noah in "Two by Two". He was also a member of the Colorado Children's Chorale but only took music seriously in high school after being asked to audition for "Annie" due to the lack of male cast members with the ability to sing. Uninterested in his father's suggestion that he join the military, he went on to Oberlin Conservatory of Music, where he graduated in 1995 with a bachelor's degree in Vocal Performance and a master's degree in Opera Theatre.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: Miller has been married to soprano Sarah Joy Miller, a member of the Three Graces, since 2009. They live in New York's financial district with their dog, Cosmo, a Maltese-Havanese mix.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: Miller was a member of the Pittsburgh Opera Center in 1996–7. He first came to attention after his highly acclaimed Washington Opera debut in March 1997 as Alfredo in Giuseppe Verdi's "La traviata".


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: On May 6, 1998, he performed, along with other opera singers, for President Bill Clinton in the White House.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: In 1999, he appeared with the Los Angeles Opera in the role of Tybalt in Thor Steingraber's production of "I Capuleti e i Montecchi" by Vincenzo Bellini. He reprised this role at the Teatro Municipal in Santiago de Chile, and at the Savonlinna Festival in Finland.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: In 2000, he made his debut with Opera Australia and at Teatro alla Scala in Milan, singing Tony in "West Side Story". In 2003, he sang with the Los Angeles Philharmonic and Audra McDonald at the Hollywood Bowl in excerpts from "West Side Story".


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: Miller made his debut in the Vlaamse Opera as Cassio in 2001 and 2002. In addition he performed in Jules Massenet's "Manon" in Teatro Verdi in Trieste under the baton of Daniel Oren. In the US, he sang the title role in Offenbach's "The Tales of Hoffmann" at the now-defunct Connecticut Opera in Hartford, Connecticut. He also interpreted the role of Percy in Donizetti's "Anne Boleyn" at Pittsburgh Opera with John Mauceri during 2000/2001. During the 2002/2003 season he performed in the world premiere of the opera Vita by Marco Tutino at Teatro alla Scala in Milan. He has worked with American opera companies in several roles, including Des Grieux in "Manon", Romeo in "Romeo et Juliette", "Werther", Alfredo in "La Traviata" and Tamino in "The Magic Flute" with Opera Pacific.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: His best known work to date is considered to be his role as Rodolfo in Baz Luhrmann's 2002 version of Puccini's "La Boheme". This show modernized the opera in an effort to lure young audiences to Broadway. Luhrmann staged a Broadway show as he did with "Moulin Rouge!" and his "Romeo et Juliette". Luhrmann's version of "La bohème" premiered in Sydney ten years before it debuted on Broadway. David was one of 3 Rodolfos in the original Broadway cast and shared Tony Award with the other members of the ensemble cast of Baz Luhrmann's 2002 revival of "La bohème" in 2003.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: Outside of Il Divo he has also taken roles such as Don Ottavio in Mozart's "Don Giovanni", Belmonte in "Abduction from the Seraglio" and Tom Rakewell in "The Rake's Progress".


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: In December 2007, while Il Divo was taking a break from their world tour, David made a return to the classical opera stage. He performed in recital with the Chicago Pops Orchestra, singing a variety of tenor arias as well as some show tunes and Christmas favorites.


title: David Miller (tenor)

text: In December 2003, he became a member of the international musical quartet Il Divo along with Swiss operatic tenor Urs Bühler, French pop singer Sébastien Izambard, and Spanish baritone Carlos Marín. Their eponymous first album became a worldwide multiplatinum-selling record when released in November 2004, entering "Billboard" at number four and selling five million copies worldwide in less than a year, knocking Robbie Williams from the number one spot in the charts. Their second album, "Ancora", was released on November 7, 2005, in the United Kingdom. Il Divo's third album, "Siempre", was released on November 21, 2006, in the United States and on November 27, 2006, internationally. Their next album, "The Promise", was released on November 10, 2008 (internationally) and on November 17, 2008 (in Canada & the US), and shot straight to number 1 in the UK.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The phenakistiscope (also known by the spellings phénakisticope or phenakistoscope) was the first widespread animation device that created a fluent illusion of motion. Dubbed and ('stroboscopic discs') by its inventors, it has been known under many other names until the French product name became common (with alternative spellings). The phenakistiscope is regarded as one of the first forms of moving media entertainment that paved the way for the future motion picture and film industry. Like a GIF animation, it can only show a short continuous loop.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: When it was introduced in the French newspaper "Le Figaro" in June 1833, the term 'phénakisticope' was explained to be from the root Greek word "phenakistikos" (or rather from φενακίζειν "phenakizein"), meaning "deceiving" or "cheating", and ὄψ "óps", meaning "eye" or "face", so it was probably intended loosely as 'optical deception' or 'optical illusion'.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The term phénakisticope was first used by the French company Alphonse Giroux et Compagnie in their application for an import license (29 May 1833) and this name was used on their box sets. Fellow Parisian publisher Junin also used the term 'phenakisticope' (both with and without the accent).


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Inventor Joseph Plateau did not give a name for the device when he first published about it in January 1833. Later in 1833 he used 'phénakisticope' in an article to refer to the published versions that he was not involved with. By then, he had an authorized set published first as "Phantasmascope" (by Ackermann in London), which some months later was changed into "Fantascope" for a new edition and sets by other animators. In many writings and presentations Plateau used both the terms "phénakisticope" and "fantascope", seemingly accepting "phénakisticope" as the better known name and holding on to "fantascope" as the name he preferred.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The spelling 'phenakistiscope' was possibly introduced by lithographers Forrester & Nichol in collaboration with optician John Dunn; they used the title "The Phenakistiscope, or, Magic Disc" for their box sets, as advertised in September 1833. The corrupted part 'scope' was understood to be derived from Greek 'skopos', meaning "aim", "target", "object of attention" or "watcher", "one who watches" (or rather from "skopein") and was quite common in the naming of optical devices (e.g. Telescope, Microscope, Kaleidoscope, Fantascope, Bioscope).


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The misspelling 'phenakistoscope' can already be found in 1835 in "The American Journal of Science and Arts" and later ended up as a standard name through encyclopedias, for instance in "A Dictionary of Science, Literature, & Art" (London, 1842)"Iconographic Encyclopaedia of Science, Literature, and Art" (New York, 1852).


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The phénakistiscope usually comes in the form of a spinning cardboard disc attached vertically to a handle. Arrayed radially around the disc's center is a series of pictures showing sequential phases of the animation. Small rectangular apertures are spaced evenly around the rim of the disc. The user would spin the disc and look through the moving slits at the images reflected in a mirror. The scanning of the slits across the reflected images keeps them from simply blurring together so that the user can see a rapid succession of images that appear to be a single moving picture.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: When there is the same number of images as slots, the images will animate in a fixed position, but will not drift across the disc. Fewer images than slots and the images will drift in the opposite direction to that of the spinning disc. More images than slots and the images will drift in the same direction as the spinning disc.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Unlike the zoetrope and other successors, common versions of the phénakisticope could only practically be viewed by one person at a time.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The pictures of the phénakisticope became distorted when spun fast enough to produce the illusion of movement; they appeared a bit slimmer and were slightly curved. Sometimes animators drew an opposite distortion in their pictures to compensate for this. However, most animations were not intended to give a realistic representation and the distortion isn't very obvious in cartoonish pictures.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The distortion and the flicker caused by the rotating slits are not seen in most phénakisticope animations now found online (for instance the GIF animation on this page). These are usually animations created with software. These do not replicate the actual viewing experience of a phénakisticope, but they can present the work of the animators in an optimized fashion. Some miscalculated modern re-animations also have the slits rotating (which would appear motionless when viewed through an actual phénakisticope) and the figures moving across the discs where they were supposed to stand still (or standing still when they were supposed to move around).


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Most commercially produced discs are lithographic prints that were colored by hand, but also multi-color lithography and other printing techniques have been used by some manufacturers.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The phenakisticope was invented almost simultaneously around December 1832 by the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau and the Austrian professor of practical geometry Simon Stampfer.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: As a university student Plateau noticed in some early experiments that when looking from a small distance at two concentric cogwheels that turned fast in opposite directions, it produced the optical illusion of a motionless wheel. He later read Peter Mark Roget's 1824 article "Explanation of an optical deception in the appearance of the spokes of a wheel when seen through vertical apertures" which addressed the same illusion. Plateau decided to investigate the phenomenon further and later published his findings in "Correspondance Mathématique et Physique" in 1828. In a letter to the same scientific periodical dated December 5, 1829 he presented his (still nameless) Anorthoscope, a disc that turns an anamorphic picture into a normal picture when it is spun fast and seen through the four radial slits of a counter-rotating black disc. This invention was later marketed, for instance by Newton & Co in London.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: On 10 December 1830 Michael Faraday presented a paper at the Royal Institution of Great Britain called "On a Peculiar Class of Optical Deceptions" about the optical illusions that could be found in rotating wheels. He referred to Roget's paper and described his associated new findings. Much was similar to what Plateau had published and Faraday not only acknowledged this publicly but also corresponded with Plateau personally and sent him his paper. Some of Faraday's experiments were new to Plateau and especially the one with a fixed image produced by a turning wheel in front of the mirror inspired Plateau with the idea for new illusions. In July 1832 Plateau sent a letter to Faraday and added an experimental disc with some "anamorphoses" that produced a "completely immobile image of a little perfectly regular horse" when rotated in front of a mirror. After several attempts and many difficulties he constructed a working model of the phénakisticope in November or December 1832. Plateau published his invention in a 20 January 1833 letter to "Correspondance Mathématique et Physique". He believed that if the manner of producing the illusions could be somehow modified, they could be put to other uses, "for example, in phantasmagoria".


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Stampfer read about Faraday's findings in December 1832 and was inspired to do similar experiments, which soon led to his invention of what he called "Stroboscopischen Scheiben oder optischen Zauberscheiben" (stroboscope discs or optical magic discs). Stampfer had thought of placing the sequence of images on either a disc, a cylinder (like the later zoetrope) or, for a greater number of images, on a long, looped strip of paper or canvas stretched around two parallel rollers (much like film reels). He also suggests covering up most of the disc or the mirror with a cut-out sheet of cardboard so that one sees only one of the moving figures and painting theatrical coulisses and backdrops around the cut-out part (somewhat similar to the later Praxinoscope-Theatre).


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Stampfer also mentioned a version which has a disc with pictures on one end and a slotted disc on the other side of an axis, but he found spinning the disc in front of a mirror more simple. By February 1833 he had prepared six double-sided discs, which were later published by Trentsensky & Vieweg. Matthias Trentsensky and Stampfer were granted an Austrian patent (Kaiserlichen königlichen Privilegium) for the discs on 7 May 1833.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Publisher and Plateau's doctoral adviser Adolphe Quetelet claimed to have received a working model to present to Faraday as early as November 1832. Plateau mentioned in 1836 that he thought it difficult to state the exact time when he got the idea, but he believed he was first able to successfully assemble his invention in December. He stated to trust the assertion of Stampfer to have invented his version at the same time.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Peter Mark Roget claimed in 1834 to have constructed several phénakisticopes and showed them to many friends as early as in the spring of 1831, but as a consequence of more serious occupations he did not get around to publishing any account of his invention.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: According to Mathias Trentsensky, of art dealer and publishing company Trentsensky & Vieweg, Stampfer had prepared six double-sided discs as early as February 1833 and had repeatedly demonstrated these to many friends. In April 1833 Trentsensky applied for an Austrian patent (k.k. Privilegium) together with Stampfer, which was granted on 7 May 1833. A first edition of four double-sided discs was soon published, but it sold out within four weeks and left them unable to ship orders. These discs probably had round holes as illustrated in an 1868 article and a 1922 reconstruction by William Day, but no original copies are known to still exist.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Trentsensky & Vieweg published an improved and expanded set of eight double-sided discs with vertical slits in July 1833. English editions were published not much later with James Black and Joseph Myers & Co. A total of 28 different disc designs have been credited to Professor Stampfer.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Joseph Plateau never patented his invention, but he did design his own set of six discs for Ackermann & Co in London. The series was published in July 1833 as "Phantasmascope". In October 1833, Ackermann & Co changed the name of the series to "Fantascope" and released two more sets of six discs each, one designed by Thomas Talbot Bury and one by Thomas Mann Baynes.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: In the meantime some other publishers had apparently been inspired by the first edition of Professor Stampfer's Stroboscopische Scheiben:


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Alphonse Giroux et Compagnie applied for a French import license on 28 May 1833 for 'Le Phénakisticope' and were granted one on 5 August 1833. They had a first set of 12 single sided discs available before the end of June 1833. Before the end of December 1833 they released two more sets.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: By 16 June 1833, Joh. Val. Albert published "Die belebte Wunderscheibe" in Frankfurt and soon marketed internationally. This version had uncut discs with pictures and a separate larger disc with round holes. The set of "Die Belebte Wunderscheibe" in Dick Balzer's collection shows several discs with designs that are very similar to those of Stampfer and about half of them are also very similar to those of Giroux's first set.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: It is unclear where these early designs (other than Stampfer's) originated, but many of them would be repeated on many discs of many other publishers. It is unlikely that much of this copying was done with any licensing between companies or artists.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Joseph Plateau and Simon Stampfer both complained around July 1833 that the designs of the discs they had seen around (besides their own) were poorly executed and they did not want to be associated with them.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The phénakisticope became very popular and soon there were very many other publishers releasing discs with numerous names, including:


title: Phenakistiscope

text: After its commercial introduction by the Milton Bradley Company, the Zoetrope (patented in 1867) soon became the more popular animation device and consequently fewer phénakisticopes were produced.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Many versions of the phénakisticope used smaller illustrated uncut cardboard discs that had to be placed on a larger slotted disc. A common variant had the illustrated disc on one end of a brass axis and the slotted disc on the other end; this was slightly more unwieldy but needed no mirror and was claimed to produce clearer images.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Fores offered an "Exhibitor": a handle for two slotted discs with the pictures facing each other which allowed two viewers to look at the animations at the same time, without a mirror.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: A few discs had a shaped edge on the cardboard to allow for the illusion of figures crawling over the edge. Ackermann & Co published three of those discs in 1833, including one by inventor Joseph Plateau.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Joseph Plateau created a combination of his phénakisticope and his Anorthoscope sometime between 1844 and 1849, resulting in a back-lit transparent disc with a sequence of figures that are animated when it is rotated behind a counter-rotating black disc with four illuminated slits, spinning four times as fast. Unlike the phénakisticope several persons could view the animation at the same time. This system has not been commercialised; the only known two handmade discs are in the Joseph Plateau Collection of the Ghent University. Belgian painter Jean Baptiste Madou created the first images on these discs and Plateau painted the successive parts.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: In 1849 Joseph Plateau discussed the possibilities of combining the phénakisticope with the stereoscope as suggested to him by its inventor Charles Wheatstone. In 1852 Duboscq patented such a "Stéréoscope-fantascope, stéréofantscope ou Bïoscope". Of three planned variations only one was actually produced but without much success. Only one extant disc is known, which is in the Plateau collection of Ghent University.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The first known plan for a phénakisticope projector with a transparent disc was made by Englishman T.W. Naylor in 1843 in the "Mechanical's Magazine – Volume 38". His letter was illustrated with a detailed side view of the device. Naylor suggested tracing the pictures of available phenakisticopes onto glass with transparent paint and painting the rest black. Nothing else is known of Naylor or his machine.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Franz von Uchatius possibly read about Naylor's idea in German or Austrian technical journals and started to develop his own version around 1851. Instrument maker Wenzel Prokesch made a first model for him which could only project images of a few inches in diameter. A more successful second model by Prokesch had a stationary disc with transparent pictures with a separate lens for each picture focused on the same spot on a screen. A limelight revolved rapidly behind the disc to project the sequential images one by one in succession. This model was demonstrated to the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1853. Prokesch marketed the machine and sold one to magician Ludwig Döbler who used it in his shows that also included other magic lantern techniques, like dissolving views.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: From around 1853 until the 1890s J. Duboscq in Paris marketed different models of a projection phénakisticope. It had a glass disc with a diameter of 34 centimeters for the pictures and a separate disc with four lenses. The discs rotated at different speeds.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: An "Optical Instrument" was patented in the U.S. in 1869 by O.B. Brown, using a phenakistiscope-like disc with a technique very close to the later cinematograph; with Maltese Cross motion; a star-wheel and pin being used for intermittent motion, and a two-sector shutter.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Thomas Ross developed a small transparent phénakisticope system, called "Wheel of life", which fitted inside a standard magic lantern slide. A first version, patented in 1869, had a glass disc with eight phases of a movement and a counter-rotating glass shutter disc with eight apertures. The discs depicted Ice Skaters, Fishes, Giant's Ladder, Bottle Imp and other subjects. An improved version had 13 images and a single slot shutter disc and received British Patent 2685 on 10 October 1871.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Henry Renno Heyl presented his "Phasmatrope" on 5 February 1870 at the Philadelphia Academy of Music. This modified magic lantern had a wheel that could hold 16 photographic slides and a shutter. The wheel was rotated in front of the light source by an intermittent mechanism to project the slides successively (probably with a speed of 3 fps). The program contained three subjects: All Right (a popular Japanese acrobat), Brother Jonathan and a waltzing couple. Brother Jonathan addressed the audience with a voice actor behind the screen and professed that "this art will rapidly develop into one of the greatest merit for instruction and enjoyment." The pictures of the waltzing couple survived and consist of four shots of costumed dancers (Heyl and a female dancing partner) that were repeated four times in the wheel. The pictures were posed. Capturing movement with "instantaneous photography" would first be established by Eadward Muybridge in 1878.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Eadward Muybridge created his "Zoopraxiscope" in 1879 and lectured until 1894 with this projector for glass discs on which pictures in transparent paint were derived from his chronophotographic plates.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The phénakisticope was invented through scientific research into optical illusions and published as such, but soon the device was marketed very successfully as an entertaining novelty toy. After the novelty wore off, it was mostly seen as a toy for children. Nonetheless, some scientists still regard it as a useful demonstration tool.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The Czech physiologist Jan Purkyně used his version, called Phorolyt, in lectures since 1837. In 1861 one of the subjects he illustrated was the beating of a heart.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: German physicist Johann Heinrich Jakob Müller published a set of 8 discs depicting several wave motions (waves of sound, air, water, etcetera) with J.V. Albert in Frankfurt in 1846.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The famous English pioneer of photographic motion studies Eadweard Muybridge built a phenakisticope projector for which he had his photographs rendered as contours on glass discs. The results were not always very scientific; he often edited his photographic sequences for aesthetic reasons and for the glass discs he sometimes even reworked images from multiple photographs into new combinations. An entertaining example is the sequence of a man somersaulting over a bull chased by a dog. For only one disc he chose a photographic representation; the sequence of a running horse skeleton, which was probably too detailed to be painted on glass. This disc was most likely the very first time a stop motion technique was successfully applied. Muybridge first called his apparatus Zoogyroscope, but soon settled on the name Zoöpraxiscope. He used it in countless lectures on human and animal locomotion between 1880 and 1895.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: The Joseph Plateau Award, a trophy resembling a phénakisticope, was a Belgian movie award given yearly between 1985 and 2006.


title: Phenakistiscope

text: Several vinyl music releases have phénakistiscope-like animations on the labels or on the vinyl itself. In 1956 Red Raven Movie Records started a series of 78 RPM 8" singles with animations to be viewed with a device with small mirrors similar to a praxinoscope to be placed on the center of the disc. Since 2010 audio-visual duo Sculpture has released several picture discs with very elaborate animations to be viewed under a stroboscope flashing exactly 25 times per second, or filmed with a video camera shooting progressively at a very high shutter speed with a frame rate of 25fps.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Lee Smolin (; born June 6, 1955) is an American theoretical physicist, a faculty member at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, an adjunct professor of physics at the University of Waterloo and a member of the graduate faculty of the philosophy department at the University of Toronto. Smolin's 2006 book "The Trouble with Physics" criticized string theory as a viable scientific theory. He has made contributions to quantum gravity theory, in particular the approach known as loop quantum gravity. He advocates that the two primary approaches to quantum gravity, loop quantum gravity and string theory, can be reconciled as different aspects of the same underlying theory. He also advocates an alternative view on space and time he calls temporal naturalism. His research interests also include cosmology, elementary particle theory, the foundations of quantum mechanics, and theoretical biology.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin was born in New York City. His brother, David M. Smolin, became a professor in the Cumberland School of Law in Birmingham, Alabama.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin dropped out of Walnut Hills High School in Cincinnati, Ohio, and was educated at Hampshire College. He received his Ph.D in theoretical physics from Harvard University in 1979. He held postdoctoral research positions at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics in Santa Barbara and the University of Chicago, before becoming a faculty member at Yale, Syracuse and Pennsylvania State Universities. He was a visiting scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1995 and a visiting professor at Imperial College London (1999-2001) before becoming one of the founding faculty members at the Perimeter Institute in 2001.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin contributed to the theory of loop quantum gravity (LQG) in collaborative work with Ted Jacobson, Carlo Rovelli, Louis Crane, Abhay Ashtekar and others. LQG is an approach to the unification of quantum mechanics with general relativity which utilizes a reformulation of general relativity in the language of gauge field theories, which allows the use of techniques from particle physics, particularly the expression of fields in terms of the dynamics of loops. With Rovelli he discovered the discreteness of areas and volumes and found their natural expression in terms of a discrete description of quantum geometry in terms of spin networks. In recent years he has focused on connecting LQG to phenomenology by developing implications for experimental tests of spacetime symmetries as well as investigating ways elementary particles and their interactions could emerge from spacetime geometry.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Between 1999 and 2002, Smolin made several proposals to provide a fundamental formulation of string theory that does not depend on approximate descriptions involving classical background spacetime models.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin is among those theorists who have proposed that the effects of quantum gravity can be experimentally probed by searching for modifications in special relativity detected in observations of high energy astrophysical phenomena. These include very high energy cosmic rays and photons and neutrinos from gamma ray bursts. Among Smolin's contributions are the coinvention of doubly special relativity (with João Magueijo, independently of work by Giovanni Amelino-Camelia) and of relative locality (with Amelino-Camelia, Laurent Freidel and Jerzy Kowalski-Glikman).


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin has worked since the early 1980s on a series of proposals for hidden variables theories, which would be non-local deterministic theories which would give a precise description of individual quantum phenomena. In recent years, he has pioneered two new approaches to the interpretation of quantum mechanics suggested by his work on the reality of time, called the real ensemble interpretation and the principle of precedence.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin's hypothesis of cosmological natural selection, also called the "fecund universes" theory, suggests that a process analogous to biological natural selection applies at the grandest of scales. Smolin published the idea in 1992 and summarized it in a book aimed at a lay audience called "The Life of the Cosmos".


title: Lee Smolin

text: Black holes have a role in natural selection. In fecund theory a collapsing black hole causes the emergence of a new universe on the "other side", whose fundamental constant parameters (masses of elementary particles, Planck constant, elementary charge, and so forth) may differ slightly from those of the universe where the black hole collapsed. Each universe gives rise to as many new universes — its "offspring" — as it has black holes, giving an evolutionary advantage to universes in which black holes are common, which are similar to our own. The theory thus explains why our universe appears "fine-tuned " for the emergence of life as we know it. Because the theory applies the evolutionary concepts of "reproduction", "mutation," and "selection" to universes, it is formally analogous to models of population biology.


title: Lee Smolin

text: When Smolin published the theory in 1992, he proposed as a prediction of his theory that no neutron star should exist with a mass of more than 1.6 times the mass of the sun. Later this figure was raised to two solar masses following more precise modeling of neutron star interiors by nuclear astrophysicists. Smolin also predicted that inflation, if true, must only be in its simplest form, governed by a single field and parameter. Both predictions have held up, and they demonstrate Smolin's main thesis: that the theory of cosmological natural selection is Popper falsifiable.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin has contributed to the philosophy of physics through a series of papers and books that advocate the relational, or Leibnizian, view of space and time. Since 2006, he has collaborated with the Brazilian philosopher and Harvard Law School professor Roberto Mangabeira Unger on the issues of the reality of time and the evolution of laws; in 2014 they published a book, its two parts being written separately.


title: Lee Smolin

text: A book length exposition of Smolin's philosophical views appeared in April 2013. "Time Reborn" argues that physical science has made time unreal while, as Smolin insists, it is the most fundamental feature of reality: "Space may be an illusion, but time must be real" (p. 179). An adequate description according to him would give a "Leibnizian universe": indiscernibles would not be admitted and every difference should correspond to some other difference, as the principle of sufficient reason would have it. A few months later a more concise text was made available in a paper with the title "Temporal Naturalism".


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin's 2006 book "The Trouble with Physics" explored the role of controversy and disagreement in the progress of science. It argued that science progresses fastest if the scientific community encourages the widest possible disagreement among trained and accredited professionals prior to the formation of consensus brought about by experimental confirmation of predictions of falsifiable theories. He proposed that this meant the fostering of diverse competing research programs, and that premature formation of paradigms not forced by experimental facts can slow the progress of science.


title: Lee Smolin

text: As a case study, "The Trouble with Physics" focused on the issue of the falsifiability of string theory due to the proposals that the anthropic principle be used to explain the properties of our universe in the context of the string landscape. The book was criticized by physicist Joseph Polchinski and other string theorists.


title: Lee Smolin

text: In his earlier book "Three Roads to Quantum Gravity" (2002), Smolin stated that loop quantum gravity and string theory were essentially the same concept seen from different perspectives. In that book, he also favored the holographic principle. "The Trouble with Physics", on the other hand, was strongly critical of the prominence of string theory in contemporary theoretical physics, which he believes has suppressed research in other promising approaches. Smolin suggests that string theory suffers from serious deficiencies and has an unhealthy near-monopoly in the particle theory community. He called for a diversity of approaches to quantum gravity, and argued that more attention should be paid to loop quantum gravity, an approach Smolin has devised. Finally, "The Trouble with Physics" is also broadly concerned with the role of controversy and the value of diverse approaches in the ethics and process of science.


title: Lee Smolin

text: In the same year that "The Trouble with Physics" was published, Peter Woit published "Not Even Wrong", a book for nonspecialists whose conclusion was similar to Smolin's, namely that string theory was a fundamentally flawed research program.


title: Lee Smolin

text: More and more, I have the feeling that quantum theory and general relativity are both deeply wrong about the nature of time. It is not enough to combine them. There is a deeper problem, perhaps going back to the beginning of physics.


title: Lee Smolin

text: I am convinced that quantum mechanics is not a final theory. I believe this because I have never encountered an interpretation of the present formulation of quantum mechanics that makes sense to me. I have studied most of them in depth and thought hard about them, and in the end I still can't make real sense of quantum theory as it stands.


title: Lee Smolin

text: In a 2009 article, Smolin articulated the following philosophical views (the sentences in italics are quotations):


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin views rejecting the idea of a creator as essential to cosmology on similar grounds to his objections against the multiverse. He does not definitively exclude or reject religion or mysticism but rather believes that science should only deal with that of which is observable. He also opposes the anthropic principle, which he claims "cannot help us to do science."


title: Lee Smolin

text: He also advocates "principles for an open future" which he claims underlie the work of both healthy scientific communities and democratic societies:


title: Lee Smolin

text: "(1) When rational argument from public evidence suffices to decide a question, it must be considered to be so decided.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin was named as #21 on Foreign Policy Magazine's list of Top 100 Public Intellectuals. He is also one of many physicists dubbed the "New Einstein" by the media. "The Trouble with Physics" was named by "Newsweek" magazine as number 17 on a list of 50 "Books for our Time", June 27, 2009. In 2007 he was awarded the Majorana Prize from the Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics, and in 2009 the Klopsteg Memorial Award from the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT) for "extraordinary accomplishments in communicating the excitement of physics to the general public," He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and the American Physical Society. In 2014 he was awarded the Buchalter Cosmology Prize for a work published in collaboration with Marina Cortês.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin was born in New York City. His father was Michael Smolin, an environmental and process engineer and his mother was the playwright Pauline Smolin. Lee Smolin has stayed involved with theatre becoming a scientific consultant for such plays as "A Walk in the Woods" by Lee Blessing, "Background Interference" by Drucilla Cornell and "Infinity" by Hannah Moscovitch.


title: Lee Smolin

text: Smolin is married to Dina Graser, a lawyer and urban policy consultant in Toronto, Ontario. He was previously married to Fotini Markopoulou-Kalamara. His brother is law professor David M. Smolin.


title: Sharad Yadav

text: Sharad Yadav (born 1 July 1947) is a politician from Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) party. He has been elected to Lok Sabha seven times and to Rajya Sabha thrice from JD(U). He was the first national president of Janata Dal (United) since its formation in 2003 till year 2016. He was disqualified from Rajya Sabha and removed from party leadership positions for engaging in anti-party activities.


title: Sharad Yadav

text: Yadav was born on 1 July 1947 to Nand Kishore Yadav and Sumitra Yadav in Babai village in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh. He obtained his Bachelor of Science degree from Robertson College Jabalpur which branched into Government Science College, Jabalpur and Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical Engineering from Jabalpur Engineering College. He is an agriculturist, educationist and engineer by profession. Most of his political career is from Bihar state. He married Rekha Yadav on 15 February 1989, with whom he has a son and a daughter. His daughter Subhashini Raja Rao joined Indian National Congress just before 2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election and announced her plans to contest from Bihariganj seat. She contested the seat as a candidate of RJD and lost. Sharad Yadav's son Shantanu Bundela is a post graduate from University of London.


title: Sharad Yadav

text: Yadav was elected to Lok Sabha for the first time from Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh in 1974 in a by-poll. It was the time when JP Movement was at its peak and he was the first candidate chosen by Shri Jai Prakash Narayan for political arena on election symbol of Haldar Kisan. In 1977, he was re-elected from the same constituency. When Janata Party split in 1979, he sided with Charan Singh faction. When Rajiv Gandhi first entered Lok Sabha by winning by-poll from Amethi in 1981, Sharad Yadav was the losing candidate on Lok Dal ticket. He lost from Badaun in UP in 1984 on Lok Dal ticket under Charan Singh's leadership. He was elected from Badaun (Lok Sabha constituency) in the year 1989 as Janata Dal member.


title: Sharad Yadav

text: Thereafter, he has been contesting from Madhepura Lok Sabha constituency in Bihar except in the by election caused by Lalu Yadav resigning his seat in 2004. He has won the Madhepura seat four times in 1991, 1996, 1999 and 2009. He has been defeated four times from Madhepura constituency - twice by Lalu Prasad Yadav in 1998 and 2004, by Pappu Yadav of RJD in 2014, and by JD-U's Dinesh Yadav in 2019 when Sharad Yadav contested on RJD's ticket.


title: Sharad Yadav

text: In 2017, he gave a speech comparing votes to daughter's honour and suggesting to prefer the former. He was one of the accused in the hawala scandal; however, the charges were dismissed by the Supreme Court of India.


title: Sharad Yadav

text: The Loktantrik Janata Dal (LJD) is a political party in India launched by Sharad Yadav in May 2018 after he parted ways from Janata Dal (United) due to its alliance with Bharatiya Janata Party in Bihar.


title: Sharad Yadav

text: A merger with Bahujan Mukti Party (founded on 6 December 2012) was proposed but was called off. and was set up as a political wing of All India Backward (SC, ST, OBC) and Minority Communities Employees' Federation (BAMCEF). V. L. Matang is the current President of the Bahujan Mukti Party.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: Lehi ( ) is a city in Utah County, Utah, United States. It is named after Lehi, a prophet in the Book of Mormon. The population was 75,907 at the 2020 census, up from 47,407 in 2010. The rapid growth in Lehi is due, in part, to the rapid development of the tech industry region known as Silicon Slopes. The center of population of Utah is located in Lehi.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: A group of Mormon pioneers settled the area now known as Lehi in the fall of 1850 at a place called Dry Creek in the northernmost part of Utah Valley. It was renamed Evansville in 1851 after David Evans, a local bishop in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Other historical names include Sulphur Springs and Snow's Springs.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: The land was organized into parcels of and new settlers received a plot of this size until the entire tract was exhausted. There was little water to irrigate the rich soil, so it became necessary to divert a portion of American Fork Creek. Evansville consumed up to one-third of the creek's water, as authorized by the Utah Territorial Legislature.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: The settlement grew so rapidly that, in early 1852, Bishop Evans petitioned the Utah Territorial Legislature to incorporate the settlement. Lehi City was incorporated by legislative act on February 5, 1852. It was the sixth city incorporated in Utah. The legislature also approved a request to call the new city Lehi, after a Book of Mormon prophet of the same name. The first mayor of Lehi was Silas P. Barnes, from 1853-1854.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: The downtown area has been designated the Lehi Main Street Historic District by the National Park Service and is on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of of which is land and , or 1.28%, is water.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: As of the American Community Survey (ACS) Demographic and Housing Estimates of 2016, there were 56,314 people living in the city with 14,853 housing units. The estimated racial makeup of the city was 94.6% European American, 0.1% African American, 0.5% Native American, 1.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 1.3% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.5% of the population. An estimated 51.2% of the population was male with 48.8% female. The median age as of 2016 was 24.7.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: According to the 2010 Census, there were 12,402 households, out of which 61.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 78.4% were husband-wife families living together, 3.2% had a male householder with no wife present, 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 11.3% were non-families. 9.0% of all households were made up of individuals (living alone) and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.81 and the average family size was 4.08.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: As of 2018, the median income for a household in Lehi was $74,200, and the median income for a family was $88,278. The per capita income for the city was $25,894, including all adults and children. The unemployment rate for Lehi was 3.0%. The job growth rate was at 2.6% and was expected to grow 54.8% over the next 10 years.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: Lehi has been transitioning from an agricultural economy to a technological economy. This first started with the lengthy construction of a DRAM microchip plant by Micron Technology, which eventually evolved into a NAND flash memory business called IM Flash Technologies that was founded by both Micron and the Intel Corporation with headquarters in Lehi. Currently, 1 out of every 14 flash memory chips in the world is produced in Lehi. On June 30th, 2021, Texas Instruments announced that they would be purchasing this facility.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: Adobe Systems based one of its U.S. buildings in Lehi, which is home to about 900 employees. According to the Adobe website, "The team in Utah is focused on engineering, product development, sales, marketing, and operations for the industry-leading Adobe Marketing Cloud."


title: Lehi, Utah

text: IASIS Healthcare built Lehi's first hospital, which opened in June 2015. The company broke ground for the medical center in February 2014. The 23-acre campus houses a 40-bed, full-service facility with an emergency department, intensive care unit, medical imaging, cardiac lab, surgical suites, and labor and delivery.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: Ancestry.com moved its headquarters from Provo to Lehi in May 2016. The headquarters building is located in The Corporate Center at Traverse Mountain.


title: Lehi, Utah

text: Microsoft has an engineering department specializing in the next version of its MDOP (Microsoft Desktop Optimization Pack), code-named "Park City." Initially employing 100, Microsoft has built a second building to house its staff. Microsoft Southwest District is located at 3400 N. Ashton Blvd., Suite 300 Lehi, Utah 84043.