title: Cutthroat trout

text: Throughout their native and introduced ranges, cutthroat trout vary widely in size, coloration and habitat selection. Their coloration can range from golden to gray to green on the back. Cutthroat trout can generally be distinguished from rainbow trout by the presence of basibranchial teeth at the base of tongue and a maxillary that extends beyond the posterior edge of the eye. Depending on subspecies, strain and habitat, most have distinctive red, pink, or orange linear marks along the underside of their mandibles in the lower folds of the gill plates. These markings are responsible for the common name "cutthroat", first given to the trout by outdoor writer Charles Hallock in an 1884 article in "The American Angler". These markings are not unique to the species. Some coastal rainbow trout and Columbia River redband trout populations also display reddish or pink throat markings.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: At maturity, different populations and subspecies of cutthroat trout can range from in length, depending on habitat and food availability. Sea-run forms of coastal cutthroat trout average . The length and weights of mature inland forms vary widely depending on their particular environment and availability of food. Stream-resident fish are much smaller, , while lacustrine populations have attained weights ranging from in ideal conditions. The largest cutthroat trout subspecies is the Lahontan cutthroat trout . These fish average in small streams and in larger rivers and lakes. In ideal environments, the Lahontan cutthroat trout attains typical weights of . The world record cutthroat trout is a Lahontan at and .


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Cutthroat trout usually inhabit and spawn in small to moderately large, clear, well-oxygenated, shallow rivers with gravel bottoms. They are native to the alluvial or freestone streams typical of tributaries of the Pacific Basin, Great Basin and Rocky Mountains. They spawn in the spring, as early as February in coastal rivers and as late as July in high mountain lakes and streams. Spawning begins when water temperatures reach . Cutthroat trout construct a redd in the stream gravel to lay eggs. The female selects the site for and excavates the redd. Females, depending on size, lay between 200 and 4,400 eggs. Eggs are fertilized with milt (sperm) by an attending male. Eggs hatch into alevins or sac fry in about a month and spend two weeks in the gravel while they absorb their yolk sack before emerging. After emergence, fry begin feeding on zooplankton. Juvenile cutthroat trout typically mature in three to five years. Lake-resident cutthroat trout are usually found in moderately deep, cool lakes with adequate shallows and vegetation for good food production. Lake populations generally require access to gravel-bottomed streams to be self-sustaining, but occasionally spawn on shallow gravel beds with good water circulation.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Cutthroat trout naturally interbreed with the closely related rainbow trout, producing fertile hybrids commonly called "cutbows". This hybrid generally bears similar coloration and overall appearance to the cutthroat trout, usually retaining the characteristic orange-red slash. Cutbow hybrids often pose a taxonomic difficulty when trying to distinguish any given specimen as a rainbow or cutthroat trout. In addition, cutthroat trout may hybridize with , the Gila trout and , the Apache trout in regions where their ranges overlap.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Cutthroat trout are native to western North America and have evolved through geographic isolation into 14 subspecies, each native to a different major drainage basin. Native cutthroat trout species are found along the Pacific Northwest coast from Alaska through British Columbia into northern California, in the Cascade Range, the Great Basin and throughout the Rocky Mountains including southern Alberta. Some coastal populations of the coastal cutthroat trout are semianadromous, spending a few months in marine environments to feed as adults and returning to fresh water from fall through early spring to feed on insects and spawn. Cutthroat trout have the second-largest historic native range of North American trout; the lake trout having the largest. Ranges of some subspecies, particularly the westslope cutthroat trout , have been reduced to less than 10 percent of their historic range due to habitat loss and introduction of non-native species.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Although members of "Oncorhynchus", the Pacific trout/salmon species, three subspecies—the westslope , the greenback and Yellowstone cutthroat trout —evolved populations east of the Continental Divide in the upper Missouri River basin, upper Arkansas and Platte River basins and upper Yellowstone River basin, each which drain into the Atlantic basin via the Mississippi River (in 2005, researchers published a report stating that a natural distribution of , the Conchos trout, is also located in an Atlantic basin drainage). Scientists believe that the climatic and geologic conditions 3-5 million years ago allowed cutthroat trout from the Snake River to migrate over the divide into the Yellowstone plateau via Two Ocean Pass. There is also evidence that Yellowstone Lake once drained south into the Snake River drainage. Evidence suggests that the westslope cutthroat trout was able to establish populations east of the divide via Summit Lake at Marias Pass which at one time connected the Flathead River drainage with the upper Missouri River drainage. Scientists speculate that there are several mountain passes associated with the headwaters of the Colorado River drainage and Arkansas/Platte River drainages that would have allowed migration of cutthroat trout east of the divide.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Cutthroat trout have been introduced into non-native waters outside their historic native range, but not to the extent of the rainbow trout . Within the native range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout, U.S. Fisheries Bureau and National Park Service authorities introduced Yellowstone cutthroat trout into many fishless lakes in Yellowstone National Park. Cutthroat trout were introduced into Lake Michigan tributaries in the 1890s and sporadically in the early 20th century, but never established wild populations. A population of Yellowstone cutthroat trout purportedly has been established in Lake Huron. Although cutthroat trout are not native to Arizona, they are routinely introduced by the Arizona Game and Fish Department into high mountain lakes in the White Mountains in the northeastern region of that state.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Cutthroat trout require cold, clear, well-oxygenated, shallow rivers with gravel bottoms or cold, moderately deep lakes. Healthy stream-side vegetation that reduces siltation is typical of healthy cutthroat trout habitat and beaver ponds may provide refuge during periods of drought and over winter. Most populations stay in fresh water throughout their lives and are known as nonmigratory, stream-resident or riverine populations. The coastal cutthroat trout is the only cutthroat trout subspecies to coevolve through its entire range with the coastal rainbow trout ("O. m. irideus"). Portions of the westslope cutthroat trout's range overlap with the Columbia River redband trout , but the majority of its native range is in headwater tributary streams above major waterfalls and other barriers to upstream migration. At least three subspecies are confined to isolated basins in the Great Basin and can tolerate saline or alkaline water.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Cutthroat trout are opportunistic feeders. Stream-resident cutthroat trout primarily feed on larval, pupal and adult forms of aquatic insects (typically caddisflies, stoneflies, mayflies and aquatic dipterans), and adult forms of terrestrial insects (typically ants, beetles, grasshoppers and crickets) that fall into the water, fish eggs, small fish, along with crayfish, shrimp and other crustaceans. As they grow the proportion of fish consumed increases in most populations. In saltwater estuaries and along beaches, Coastal cutthroat trout feed on small fish such as sculpins, sand lance, salmon fry and herring. They also consume shrimp, small squid and krill. In fresh water, they consume the same diet as stream resident trout—aquatic insects and crustaceans, amphibians, earthworms, small fish and fish eggs. Within the range of the bull trout the cutthroat trout is a forage fish for the piscivorous bull trout.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Various subspecies of cutthroat trout are raised in commercial, state and federal hatcheries for introduction into suitable native and non-native riverine and lacustrine environments. In the early 20th century, several hatcheries were established in Yellowstone National Park by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. These hatcheries not only produced stocks of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout for the park, but also took advantage of the great spawning stock of cutthroat trout to supply eggs to hatcheries around the U.S. Between the years 1901 and 1953 a total of 818 million trout eggs were exported from the park to hatcheries throughout the U.S. The Lahontan National Fish Hatchery operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service exists to restore populations of the Lahontan cutthroat trout in Pyramid, Walker, Fallen Leaf, June, Marlette, and Gull Lakes and the Truckee River in California and Nevada. The hatchery produces about 300,000–400,000 Lahontan cutthroat trout fry annually. The Jackson National Fish Hatchery produces around 400,000 Snake River fine-spotted cutthroat trout annually to support fisheries in Idaho and Wyoming. The Leadville National Fish Hatchery produces 125,000–200,000 Snake River fine-spotted, greenback cutthroat and rainbow trout annually to support fishing in the Fryingpan and Arkansas River drainages and other Colorado waters. The Bozeman Fish Technology Center, formerly a cutthroat trout fish hatchery in Bozeman, Montana, plays a major role in the restoration of the greenback and westslope cutthroat trout subspecies.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: The historic native range of cutthroat trout has been reduced by overfishing, urbanization and habitat loss due to mining, livestock grazing and logging. Population densities have been reduced and in some cases populations have disappeared though competition with non-native brook, brown, lake and rainbow trout, kokanee salmon, lake whitefish and mysis shrimp which were introduced in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Scientists believe the westslope cutthroat trout will eventually be extirpated from the large lakes in Western Montana due to the trophic cascades resulting from lake trout and mysis shrimp introductions. The most serious current threats to several subspecies are interspecific breeding with introduced rainbow trout, creating hybrid cutbows, and intraspecific breeding with other introduced cutthroat trout subspecies. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the presence of lake trout in Yellowstone Lake in Yellowstone National Park has caused a serious decline in Yellowstone cutthroat trout . Outbreaks of whirling disease in major spawning tributaries within the native ranges have also caused declines. Most subspecies of cutthroat trout are highly susceptible to whirling disease, although the Snake River fine-spotted cutthroat trout appears to be resistant to the parasite.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: The most serious impact on the genetic purity of most cutthroat trout subspecies results from interspecific and intraspecific breeding resulting in hybrids that carry the genes of both parents. In inland populations, the introduction of rainbow trout from hatchery stocks have resulted in cutbow hybrids that continue to diminish the genetic purity of many cutthroat trout subspecies. The introduction of hatchery-raised Yellowstone cutthroat trout into native ranges of other cutthroat trout subspecies, particularly the westslope cutthroat trout, has resulted in intraspecific breeding and diminished genetic purity of the westslope subspecies. As such, populations of genetically pure westslope cutthroat trout are very rare and localized in streams above barriers to upstream migrations by introduced species. Fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke attributes the extinction of the yellowfin cutthroat trout and Alvord cutthroat trout subspecies to the introduction of non-native rainbow trout.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: The population at the core of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout's native range, in Yellowstone Lake, declined significantly in the 1960s due to overharvest of mature cutthroat trout by anglers, as well as overharvesting of eggs by hatcheries in the early 20th century. Managers implemented catch and release, which required anglers to return their catches to the lake, and they terminated hatchery operations in the park, which allowed the cutthroat trout to recover. Then, in 1994, park officials discovered lake trout in Yellowstone Lake. Although lake trout were established in Shoshone, Lewis and Heart Lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. government stocking operations in 1890, they were never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage and their presence there is probably the result of accidental or illegal introductions. By 2000, the cutthroat trout population had declined to less than 10 percent of its early 20th century abundance. However, aggressive lake trout eradication programs have killed over 1 million lake trout since 1996, and the hope is that this will lead to a restoration of cutthroat numbers. Cutthroat trout co-exist with lake trout in Heart Lake, an isolated back-country lake at the head of the Heart River that gets little angling pressure.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Cutthroat trout are prized as a gamefish, particularly by fly anglers. They are regulated as a gamefish in every state and province they occur in. From the Yellowstone cutthroat trout fishery in Yellowstone National Park, the unique Lahontan cutthroat trout fishery in Pyramid Lake in Nevada, and the small stream fisheries of the westslope cutthroat trout to saltwater angling for sea-run cutthroat trout on the Pacific coast, cutthroat trout are a popular quarry for trout anglers throughout their ranges. The all-tackle world record is caught in Pyramid Lake in December 1925. Their propensity to feed on aquatic and terrestrial insects make them an ideal quarry for the fly angler.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: From Alaska to Northern California, coastal cutthroat trout in sea-run, resident stream and lacustrine forms are sought by anglers. Puget Sound in Washington is a stronghold of sea-run cutthroat trout fishing with its many tributaries and protected saltwater inlets and beaches. Fly anglers search for sea-run cutthroat trout along beaches, river mouths and estuaries year round. In the lower reaches of larger rivers, anglers in drift boats float the rivers searching for trout along the wooded shorelines. In addition to a cutthroat trout sport fishery managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the Federal Subsistence Management Program manages coastal cutthroat trout subsistence fisheries in Southeast Alaska.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872. By the 1890s, the Yellowstone cutthroat trout fishery in the Yellowstone River and Yellowstone Lake were well known and being promoted in national guidebooks.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: In 1902, anticipating the completion of the east entrance road from Cody, Wyoming, Captain Hiram M. Chittenden supervised the construction of the first "Fishing Bridge" across the outlet of Yellowstone Lake. Fishing Bridge was rebuilt in 1919, and reconstructed in


title: Cutthroat trout

text: 1937, primarily to accommodate vehicle traffic. Between 1916 and 1931, a large development of campgrounds, cabins, stores and service facilities were built just east of the bridge to support anglers. This area is now known as the Fishing Bridge Historic District. The 1937 bridge boasted pedestrian walkways on either side of the roadway to give more room to anglers. Angling in the river, at Fishing Bridge and in the lake, boomed during the 1950s and 1960s and over harvest caused a significant decline in the fishery. Consequently, in 1973, fishing was no longer permitted from Fishing Bridge.


title: Cutthroat trout

text: The Pyramid Lake strain of the Lahontan cutthroat trout, source of the world record and native to Pyramid Lake, Lake Tahoe and the Truckee River, was brought to near-extinction in the two decades between the 1920s-40s from overharvest, introduced species and loss of spawning habitat. In the 1970s, Pyramid Lake was stocked with Lahontan cutthroat trout strains still surviving in some nearby lakes, but they were not the large Pyramid Lake strain. Although the Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe had been successful in re-establishing a cutthroat trout fishery on the reservation in Pyramid Lake, the cutthroat trout were not the large fish of the late 19th and early 20th century. In the late 1970, biologists discovered a surviving population of a pure Pyramid Lake strain in a small headwaters stream on the Nevada-Utah border that had at some point around 1900 been introduced into the stream. In 1995, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began rearing these fish in the Lahontan National Fish Hatcheryin Gardnerville, Nevada. In 2006, the Pyramid Lake strain of Lahontan cutthroat trout were reintroduced into the lake. As Pyramid Lake has a very shallow shoreline, anglers use ladders to stand comfortably in of water and cast to trout cruising along shoreline breaks. Considered a "world-class" fishery, anglers routinely catch cutthroat trout exceeding .


title: Cutthroat trout

text: The cutthroat trout is the state fish of Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, while particular subspecies of cutthroat are the state fish of Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah.


title: Nautch

text: The nautch (; meaning "dance" or "dancing") was a popular court dance performed by girls (known as "nautch girls") in India. The culture of the performing art of the nautch rose to prominence during the later period of Mughal Empire, and the rule of the East India Company. Over time, the nautch traveled outside the confines of the Imperial courts of the Mughals, the palaces of the Nawabs and the princely states, and the higher echelons of the officials of the British Raj, to the places of smaller zamindars.


title: Nautch

text: Some references use the terms "nautch" and "nautch girls" to describe Devadasis who used to perform ritual and religious dances in the Hindu temples of India. However, there is not much similarity between the Devadasis and the nautch girls. The former performed dances, mostly Indian classical dances, including the ritual dances, in the precincts of the Hindu temples to please the temple deities, whereas the nautch girls performed nautches for the pleasure of men. In 1917, attributing the adjective to a woman in India would suggest her entrancing skill, tempting style and alluring costume could mesmerize men to absolute obedience.


title: Nautch

text: Earlier, devotional dances were performed in the temples by the devdasi for spiritual reasons only. During the mughal era, dance for entertainment became popular, and many rulers took dance girls in their entourages even at their battle-camps. The early British migrants to India were often given tawaifs as welcome gifts or rewards. In 18th century, young princes were sent to nautch girls to learn "tehzeeb" (elegance and court manners) and culture.


title: Nautch

text: During the Mughal and British era, nautch girls regularly performed at durbars. Nautch girls were also invited to perform on the special events of the native Indians where guests congregated in a separate performance hall, nautch girls sat with the nautch party, composed of attendant musicians and two or more nautch girls, whose numbers vary depending on the status of the host.


title: Nautch

text: The nautch, performed only by the girls, evolved into several styles, three of which were most essential, the "mor nach" (the dance of peacock to attract peahens), "patang nach" (the kite dance imitating both the kite and the kite flier) and "qahar ka nach" (the palki pallbearer's dance, erotic and suggestive dance performed as finale) were popular types of dance.


title: Nautch

text: The "zamindari nautch" patronised by the Zamindar of Baghmundi was known as the "araiha", in which two or four nautch girls and two jhumar singers in company of about 20 male dancers took part in the singing and dancing. Part of the songs were repeated by the dancing girls and by the male dancers, and the nautch girls formed a line or a circle to perform a dance similar to the fox-trot as two or three sang, and they repeated the refrain.


title: Nautch

text: The nautch girls performed in small troupes called the "nautch parties", which consisted of just one or two people to 10 or more, including dancers and singer, and their husbands often played the role of musicians and handlers.


title: Nautch

text: A nautch girl is a dancer who makes a living by entertaining men, women and children of all social classes, regions, castes and religions on various occasions including parties, weddings, christenings, religious ceremonies, and other social events. Their dances were simplified combination of kathak, dasi attam and folk dance. Wandering troops of nautch girls often traveled to different places, performed impromptu roadside dance performances or just turned up uninvited to perform at the homes of their richer patrons who were customarily obliged to pay them. They performed everywhere, in the homes of their patrons, public places or on stage, also in Mughal courts, palaces of nawabs, mahals (castles) of rajas, bungalows of British officers, homes of nobles, havelis (mansions) of zamindars (landowners) and many other places.


title: Nautch

text: The nautch party musicians historically played four instruments: sarangi, tabla, manjeera and dholak. A fifth instrument, the harmonium, was introduced in the beginning of the 20th century. Musicians performed while standing in the courts, palaces and the homes of rich patrons. They performed while sitting in the homes of poor patrons and in public performances. Singers of the nautch party used thumri, dadra, ghazal and geet.


title: Nautch

text: A "mama", usually an older experienced maidservant, who sat in a corner of the dais preparing paan (betel nut) and beedi (Indian cigar) for patrons, was responsible for taking care of nautch girls, their meals, and safekeeping of the jewelry worn by them. A "muhafiz" was an unarmed guard who maintained order, acted as usher, and ensured protection during performance and travel. "Mashalchis" (one or two lamp bearers) of the troupe were responsible for the lighting during night performances.


title: Nautch

text: Roopmati was a famous Hindu nautch girl from Saharanpur, who married Baz Bahadur, the Muslim sultan of Malwa. Akbar the Great is said to have invaded Malwa after hearing about her beauty. In 1561 Akbar's army, led by Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad Khan, attacked Malwa and defeated Baz Bahadur in the battle of Sarangpur (29 March 1561). One of the reasons for Adham Khan's attack seems to be his lust for Rani Roopmati. She, however, poisoned herself upon hearing of the fall of Mandu. Baz Bahadur fled to Khandesh.


title: Nautch

text: In the mid-nineteenth century, with the spread of western education and pressure from the increased number of Christian missionaries after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, dance was stigmatized and shunned by Europeans and Indians alike. Consequently, nautch girls abandoned by their patrons were often forced to take up prostitution for survival, and by the early 20th century the respectable art of the nautch had acquired a derogatory connotation.


title: Vapor Trails

text: Vapor Trails is the seventeenth studio album by Canadian rock band Rush. It was released on May 14, 2002, on Anthem Records, and was their first studio release since "Test for Echo" (1996), the longest gap between two Rush albums. After the "Test For Echo" tour finished in July 1997, drummer and lyricist Neil Peart suffered the loss of his daughter and then his wife in separate tragedies. As a result, the group entered an extended hiatus during which it was not certain they would continue. They eventually reunited in January 2001 to rehearse material for a new album, recording for which lasted until December. For the first and only time since "Caress of Steel" (1975), the group did not use any keyboards or synthesizers in their music, incorporating many layers of guitar, bass and drums instead.


title: Vapor Trails

text: "Vapor Trails" reached No. 3 in Canada and No. 6 in the United States. "One Little Victory" was released as the album's lead single in March 2002 and went to No. 10 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock chart in the United States. The next single was "Secret Touch". The album went gold in Canada in August 2002. The Vapor Trails Tour lasted from June to December 2002, which saw the band play to the largest crowds of its career in Brazil. Following the band's dissatisfaction with the album's overall production, two tracks were remixed for the "" compilation album. The positive feedback from this resulted in the entire "Vapor Trails" album being remixed by David Bottrill and released on October 1, 2013, as "Vapor Trails Remixed", both as a separate release and as part of "The Studio Albums 1989–2007".


title: Vapor Trails

text: After Rush finished their Test for Echo Tour in July 1997, the group entered a five-year hiatus following the personal tragedies in drummer Neil Peart's life, losing his daughter Selena in August 1997 and wife Jackie in June 1998. Peart took a hiatus and rode around North America on a motorcycle, covering . At some point in his journey, Peart decided to return to the band. In his book "", Peart writes of how he had told his bandmates at Selena's funeral, "consider me retired." However, in October 2000, after a period of recuperation, Lee announced during promotional interviews for his solo album "My Favourite Headache" that Rush were to get together in the following January with the intention to write and rehearse material for a new studio album. Lee said that the album was not made for simply new music, but for "the psychological health and welfare of all the people who have gone through a very difficult time."


title: Vapor Trails

text: The trio gathered at Reaction Studios in Toronto on January 9, 2001, but did not play anything for three weeks. They discussed what they wanted to achieve and how the album should take shape. Lifeson said it was to get "a feel for each other's frame of mind. We needed to see if everybody was really up for it.". Lee and Lifeson said that they chose the studio based on its "artist friendly environment, that was very comfortable and accommodating". Among the topics discussed was the album's musical direction which became a source of difficulty as initially, there was little agreement on what it should be. Upon reaching a consensus, Lifeson said the three found common ground "on every aspect of the recording."


title: Vapor Trails

text: The band started working, adopting a three-week-on, one-week-off schedule with no one present apart from a technical assistant. The group was hopeful there was still chemistry amongst them to make an album. They adopted their usual method of writing with Lee and Lifeson working together on musical ideas in the studio control room while Peart worked elsewhere on the lyrics, this time using a pen, paper and a computer. Peart wrote about their attitude towards the sessions: "We laid out no parameters, no goals, no limitations, only that we would take a relaxed, civilized approach." Peart looked through his scrapbook of notes and phrases he'd collected and explored ways of connecting them together to form a complete lyrical idea. Lee and Lifeson developed ideas largely through jam sessions typically kicked off by setting a pattern on a drum machine and playing along, recording every session using Logic Pro. This was to avoid making a demo tape of a collection of songs and re-record them at a later point. This way early takes became the basis of the songs which kept the music fresh using as many original takes where possible.


title: Vapor Trails

text: After several weeks Peart presented the ideas he'd formed, but Lee and Lifeson had not put down any concrete pieces of music. Peart recalled they were not yet "serious" and still wanted to play and explore ideas as sifting through what they had put to tape was a tedious process and disrupted their creative flow. Peart had completed six sets of lyrics at this point but was not getting feedback from his bandmates as he had before, so he paused on lyrics and focused on his book "". The three became dissatisfied with what they'd come up with and thought it was too forced, which led to their decision to take some weeks off. They felt refreshed and more focused upon resuming and were able to work out complete songs and not just sections. The songs that emerged from these early jams were "Peaceable Kingdom," "Ceiling Unlimited" and "Nocturne," and they contain some parts put down from the original takes. According to Lifeson, no tracks were completely re-recorded.


title: Vapor Trails

text: "Vapor Trails" is the first album since "Caress of Steel" (1975) not to feature a keyboard instrument. This was an important factor for Lifeson, who often worried about their presence on previous Rush albums, but Lee agreed not to use them. Instead, Lifeson spent a greater amount of time devising guitar parts that were "richer on tonality and harmonic quality" that were adequate enough for the background tracks. Lifeson avoided sound effects on his guitar to achieve a more raw sound. At certain points in recording his drum parts, Peart had been influenced by Who drummer Keith Moon and played in his style.


title: Vapor Trails

text: After taking a break in June 2001, Rush began to record their new songs in mid-August. Initially they decided to write 13 tracks for the album and pick the best 10 or 11 for the final selection, but when the time arrived they agreed to include all of them. They were joined by English producer Paul Northfield, who had worked on several previous Rush albums and assisted in the arrangement to some tracks when the group felt stuck. The band are credited as co-producers. In December 2001, the group left the Reaction Studios and started mixing the album at Metalworks Studios with David Leonard. The mixing was complete in March 2002, after which it was sent to Masterdisk in New York City for mastering by Howie Weinberg. Rush chose him having liked the sound of the other albums that Weinberg had worked on.


title: Vapor Trails

text: The production of "Vapor Trails" has been criticized by the band themselves, critics and fans alike because of the album's "loud" sound quality. It has overly compressed (clipped) audio levels during mastering, which generates additional digital distortion during the CD production. The trend, known as the loudness war, was very common on modern CD production at the time. Alex Lifeson stated:


title: Vapor Trails

text: It was a contest, and it was mastered too high, and it crackles, and it spits, and it just crushes everything. All the dynamics get lost, especially anything that had an acoustic guitar in it.


title: Vapor Trails

text: "Vapor Trails Remixed" is a remixed version of "Vapor Trails" mixed by David Bottrill. The album was released by Atlantic Records and Rhino Entertainment on September 27, 2013, and entered at No. 35 on the "Billboard" 200 chart. The band had been unhappy with the original album's overall sonic production. Influenced by the positive reaction to the remixes of "One Little Victory" and "Earthshine" featured on by Richard Chycki, Rush and Bottrill remixed the entire album. In an interview with Modern Guitars, Lifeson remarked that, since the remixes were so good, there had been talk of doing an entire remix of the album. "Vapor Trails Remixed" peaked in the US Billboard Charts at number 35.


title: Vapor Trails

text: "Vapor Trails Remixed" is also included in the box-set of Atlantic Studio Albums called "The Studio Albums 1989–2007", in lieu of the original version.


title: Vehicle inspection in the United States

text: In the United States, vehicle safety inspection and emissions inspection are governed by each state individually. Fifteen states have a periodic (annual or biennial) safety inspection program, while Maryland requires a safety inspection and Alabama requires a VIN inspection on sale or transfer of vehicles which were previously registered in another state. An additional 16 states require periodic emissions inspections.


title: Vehicle inspection in the United States

text: In 1977, the federal Clean Air Act was amended by Congress to require states to implement vehicle emissions inspection programs, known as I/M programs (for Inspection and Maintenance), in all major metropolitan areas whose air quality failed to meet certain federal standards. New York's program started in 1982, California's program (Smog Check) started in 1984, and Illinois's program started in 1986. The Clean Air Act of 1990 required some states to enact vehicle emissions inspection programs. States impacted were those in metropolitan areas where air quality did not meet federal standards. Some states, including Kentucky and Minnesota, have discontinued their testing programs in recent years with approval from the federal government.


title: Volatile memory

text: Volatile memory, in contrast to non-volatile memory, is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information; it retains its contents while powered on but when the power is interrupted, the stored data is quickly lost.


title: Volatile memory

text: Volatile memory has several uses including as primary storage. In addition to usually being faster than forms of mass storage such as a hard disk drive, volatility can protect sensitive information, as it becomes unavailable on power-down. Most general-purpose random-access memory (RAM) is volatile.


title: Volatile memory

text: There are two kinds of volatile RAM: dynamic and static. Even though both types need continuous electrical current to retain data, there are some important differences between them.


title: Volatile memory

text: Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is very popular due to its cost-effectiveness. DRAM stores each bit of information in a different capacitor within the integrated circuit. DRAM chips need just one single capacitor and one transistor to store each bit of information. This makes it space-efficient and inexpensive.


title: Volatile memory

text: The main advantage of static RAM (SRAM) is that it is much faster than dynamic RAM. Its disadvantage is its high price. SRAM does not need continuous electrical refreshes, but it still requires constant current to sustain the difference in voltage. Every single bit in a static RAM chip needs a cell of six transistors, whereas dynamic RAM requires only one capacitor and one transistor. As a result, SRAM is unable to accomplish the storage capabilities of the DRAM family. SRAM is commonly used as CPU cache and for processor registers and in networking devices.


title: Shaun Parkes

text: At 16, Parkes enrolled at Seltec College to study drama. Two years later, he was accepted into RADA. Having acted in both theatre and television support roles, Parkes made his breakthrough in the 1999 film "Human Traffic". His work since then includes films such as "Clubbed", "The Mummy Returns", "Things to Do Before You're 30" and the acclaimed "Notes on a Scandal". Television work includes "Lock, Stock..., Servants" and Russell T Davies' "Casanova" and "Doctor Who".


title: Shaun Parkes

text: Parkes continued to forge a career as a theatre actor. He has starred alongside David Threlfall and Neil Stuke in Joe Penhall's award-winning play "Blue/Orange" in the West End and in Kwame Kwei-Armah's "Elmina's Kitchen" and at Shakespeare's Globe as Aaron in "Titus Andronicus." Parkes also starred as the lead in BBC Two's detective series "Moses Jones", with a supporting cast that included Matt Smith.


title: Shaun Parkes

text: Since 2001 Shaun has been collaborating with the DJ production team AudioFly (Anthony Middleton and Luca Saporito). Together they have been working regularly on dance tracks featuring Parkes' vocals, and are planning to produce a new album.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The "Kronshtadt"-class battlecruisers, with the Soviet designation as Project 69 heavy cruisers, (), were ordered for the Soviet Navy in the late 1930s. Two ships were started but none were completed due to World War II. These ships had a complex and prolonged design process which was hampered by constantly changing requirements and the Great Purge in 1937.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: They were laid down in 1939, with an estimated completion date in 1944, but Stalin's naval construction program was more ambitious than the shipbuilding and armaments industries could handle. Prototypes of the armament and machinery had not even been completed by 22 June 1941, almost two years after the start of construction. This is why the Soviets bought twelve surplus SK C/34 guns, and their twin turrets, similar to those used in the s, from Germany in 1940. The ships were partially redesigned to accommodate them, after construction had already begun, but no turrets were actually delivered before Germany invaded the following year.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: Only "Kronshtadt"s hull survived the war reasonably intact being 10% complete in 1945, although she was considered to be obsolete. The Soviets considered converting her into an aircraft carrier, but the idea was rejected and both hulls were scrapped in 1947.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The "Kronshtadt"-class battlecruisers had their origin in a mid-1930s requirement for a large cruiser () capable of destroying cruisers built to the limits imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty, of which the Soviets were not a signatory. Several designs were submitted by the end of 1935, but the Navy was not satisfied and rejected all of them. It asked for another design, displacing and armed with guns, in early 1936, eventually designated Project 22, but this design was cancelled after the Soviets began negotiations in mid-1936 with the British that ultimately resulted in the Anglo-Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty which limited battleships to a displacement of . The Soviets had been working on a small battleship design (Battleship 'B') for service in the Baltic and Black Seas and had to shrink it as a result of these discussions to a size close to that of the Project 22 large cruiser so that the latter was cancelled. Battleship 'B' was redesignated as Project 25 and given the task of destroying Treaty cruisers and German pocket battleships. The Project 25 design was accepted in mid-1937 after major revisions in the armor scheme and the machinery layout and four were ordered with construction to begin in late 1937 and early 1938. However, this decision occurred right before the Great Purge began to hit the Navy in August 1937 and two of the ship's designers were arrested and executed within a year. The Project 25 design was then rejected on the grounds that it was too weak compared to foreign ships and the whole program was cancelled in early 1938 after an attempt to modify the design with larger guns had been made.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: However the Soviet Navy still felt a need for a fast ship that could deal with enemy cruisers and the original concept was revived as Project 69. They wanted a ship not to exceed 23,000 metric tons with a speed of and an armament of nine 254 mm guns, but the requirement proved to be too ambitious for the specified size and it increased to in the design submitted in June 1938. By this time, however, details were becoming available for the s and the ship was deemed inferior to the German ships. The State Defense Committee revised the requirements and specified a size about , an armament of nine guns, an armor belt thick and a speed about . A revised design was finished by October which was wargamed against the Japanese s, the French s as well as the "Scharnhorst" class. It was deemed superior to the "Kongo"s at medium range and inferior to the "Dunkerque"s at the same range, but generally superior to the "Scharnhorst"s, although it is doubtful that the Soviets were fully aware of the true specifications of the "Kongō"s as rebuilt or of the "Scharnhorst"s as the displacement of the latter had been given as , more than short of their true displacement. The Navy's Shipbuilding Administration thought that the original secondary armament of guns was too small and that the armor on the turrets, conning tower and the forward transverse bulkhead was too thin. A revised, 35,000-ton design with guns and extra armor was submitted to the State Defense Council in January 1939.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: This was approved and the detailed design work began with the basic concept that the ship should be superior to the "Scharnhorst"-class ships and able to outrun the "Bismarck"-class battleships. At this time the horizontal protection was revised after full-scale trials revealed that a bomb would penetrate both a upper deck and a middle deck to burst on the main armor deck. So the middle deck was thickened to with the lower deck intended to catch any splinters penetrating the armor deck. This meant that the main belt had to be extended upwards to meet the main armor deck at a significant penalty in weight. The Defense Committee approved the sketch design on 13 July 1939, but the detailed design was not approved until 12 April 1940, after construction had already begun on the first two ships.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: It was already apparent that the 305 mm guns and turrets were well behind schedule when Joseph Stalin asked the German representatives in Moscow on 8 February 1940 to negotiate a trade agreement if it would be possible to use the triple turrets in lieu of the triple 305 mm turrets of the Project 69 ships. They replied that the turrets were out of production, but new ones could be built. He then asked if twin turrets could be used instead. The Germans said that they would have to check back for the technical details. Krupp had six incomplete turrets on hand that had originally been ordered before the war to rearm the "Scharnhorst"-class battleships, but they were cancelled after the start of World War II when the Germans decided that they could not afford to have the ships out of service during the war. A preliminary purchase agreement was made to buy twelve guns and six turrets later that month, well before any studies were even made to see if the substitution was even possible. The Shipbuilding Commissariat reported on 17 April that it was possible so the agreement was finalized in November 1940 with the deliveries scheduled from October 1941 to 28 March 1943. The order also included rangefinders and searchlights.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The Soviets never did get the detailed data required to redesign the ship's barbettes and magazines, but they did know that the 380-mm barbettes were bigger in diameter than that of the 305 mm turret as well as being taller than the Russian turrets. So the barbette of turret number two had to be raised to clear turret number one and the height of the conning tower had to be raised to clear turret number two. Similarly the anti-aircraft guns behind turret number three had to be raised as well. The new turrets required more electrical power which meant that the output of the turbo generators had to be increased to 1,300 kilowatts. All of these changes added over to the ships' displacement and the sketch design was completed by 16 October 1940, as Project 69-I ("Importnyi"—Imported), even though they still lacked data for the turrets and their barbettes. This was presented to the State Defense Committee on 11 February 1941, but the design was not approved until 10 April when it ordered that the first two ships be completed with German guns while the others would continue to use the 305 mm guns. The detailed design was supposed to be completed by 15 October 1941, but it was rendered pointless when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The "Project 69"-class ships were long overall and had a waterline length of . They had a beam of and at full load a draft of . As designed they displaced at standard and at full load. The displacement of the two "Project 69-I"-class ships increased to at standard load and at full load which increased the draft to at full load while the waterline length grew to simply because the extra draft submerged more of the sharply raked stem and spoon-shaped stern. The speed remained the same as the deeper draft was offset by a more efficient propeller form.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The hull form was very full with a block coefficient of 0.61 which compared badly to the 0.54 of the "Dunkerque", the 0.52 of the German or the 0.5266 of the American . This meant that a lot of horsepower was necessary to achieve even modest speeds. Stalin's decision that the Project 69 ships would use three shafts increased the shaft loading and reduced propulsive efficiency, although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement. The riveted hull was subdivided by 24 transverse bulkheads and used longitudinal framing in the citadel, but transverse framing for the structure fore and aft of the citadel. The metacentric height was for the 305 mm gunned ships, but dropped to in the 380 mm gunned ships. The tactical diameter was estimated at about .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The "Kronshtadt"-class ships were provided with two KOR-2 flying boats which would be launched by the catapult mounted between the funnels.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The power plant was laid out on a unit system. The forward boiler room contained eight boilers and was followed by an engine room for the two wing propeller shafts. The second boiler room contained four boilers and was followed by a turbine room for the central shaft. The single-reduction, impulse-reduction geared steam turbines were an imported Brown Boveri design shared with the , but the factory in Kharkiv that was to build them never finished a single turbine before the Germans invaded. They produced a total of . Twelve 7u-bis water-tube boilers worked at a pressure of and temperature of . There were two other small boilers for harbor service and to power the auxiliary machinery. The electrical plant originally consisted of four 1200 kW turbo generators and four 650 kW diesel generators, but these were upgraded for the Project 69-I ships.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: Maximum speed was estimated at , using the revised propeller design, although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot. The normal fuel oil capacity was , which provided an estimated endurance of at full speed. Maximum fuel capacity was which gave a range of at and at .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The main armament was initially going to consist of three electrically powered triple-gun turrets, each with three 54-caliber 305 mm B-50 guns. The turrets were based on the MK-2 turrets planned for the Project 25 large cruiser. The guns could be depressed to −3° and elevated to 45°. They had a fixed loading angle of 6° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to relay the gun. It ranged from 2.36 to 3.24 rounds per minute depending on the elevation. The turrets could elevate at a rate of 10 degrees per second and traverse at 5.1 degrees per second. 100 rounds per gun were carried. The gun fired armor-piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The secondary armament consisted of eight 57-caliber B-38 152 mm guns mounted in four twin-gun turrets concentrated at the forward end of the superstructure. The forward turrets were inboard and above the outer turrets which provided both turrets with good arcs of fire. Their elevation limits were -5° to +45° with a fixed loading angle of 8°. Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7.5 to 4.8 rounds per minute. The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second. They had a maximum range of with a shell at a muzzle velocity of .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: Heavy anti-aircraft (AA) fire was provided by eight 56-caliber 100 mm B-34 dual-purpose guns in four twin turrets mounted at the aft end of the superstructure with the aft turrets mounted inboard of the forward turrets. They could elevate to a maximum of 85° and depress to -8°. They could traverse at a rate of 12° per second and elevate at 10° per second. They fired high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of against surface targets, but their maximum ceiling against aerial targets was .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: Light AA defense was handled by six quadruple, water-cooled mounts fitted with 70-K guns. Two mounts were abreast the forward funnel, two just abaft the rear funnel and the last two on the centerline of the aft superstructure superfiring over the rear main-gun turret. Initially seven mounts were planned, but the one above the conning tower was exchanged for a director for the 100 mm guns in early 1940 when the Navy realized that the other directors were blocked by the superstructure. The guns fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . Their maximum range was .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The Germans sold the Soviets twelve 52-caliber SKC/34 guns and their associated Drh LC/34 turrets as part of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Their elevation range was -5.5° to +30° with a fixed loading angle of 2.5°. Their rate of fire was 2.3 rounds per minute. The guns had a maximum range of with an shell at a muzzle velocity of .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: Two KDP-8-III fire-control directors were used to control the main armament. These had two stereoscopic rangefinders, one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship's own shell splashes. Two of these were protected by of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower-mast. Two KDP-4t-II directors, with two rangefinders each, controlled the secondary armament. The dual-purpose guns were controlled by two, later three, stabilized directors, each with a rangefinder.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The ships had relatively light armor. The main belt was thick, with a taper to the lower edge, and inclined outwards six degrees. It was high of which was intended to be submerged as originally designed. The belt was long and covered 76.8 percent of the waterline; forward of this was a 20 mm belt that extended all the way to the bow. The forward transverse bulkhead was 330 mm thick while the rear bulkhead was thick. The upper deck was only thick and was intended to initiate shell and bomb fuzes. The main armor deck, which was even with the top of the waterline belt, was thick and a splinter deck was underneath it, although it tapered to in thickness over the torpedo protection system. The underwater protection was an American-style design with a bulge and four longitudinal bulkheads intended to withstand a warhead of TNT. It covered 61.5% of the ship's length and had a total depth of , that reduced to forward and aft where the hull lines became finer.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The main turrets had 305 mm faces and backs and sides and roofs. Their barbettes were protected with 330 mm of armor. The secondary turrets had 100 mm faces with sides and roofs and barbettes. The dual-purpose mountings had 50 mm armor with barbettes. The conning tower had 330 mm sides and a 125 mm roof with a 230 mm communications tube running down to the armor deck. The admiral's bridge was protected with 50 mm armor. Each of the directors had 14 mm of armor as did the 37 mm gun mounts. The funnels had 20 mm armor for their entire height above the deck and a 50 mm box protected the smoke generators.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of the four "Sovetsky Soyuz"-class battleships as well as the two "Kronshtadt"-class battlecruisers at the same time. The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the s and even they had suffered from a number of production problems, but the Soviet leadership preferred to ignore the industrial difficulties when making their plans. The shipyards in Leningrad and Nikolayev had less than half the workers intended. Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1939–1940 and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications. An attempt to import of steel and armor plate from the United States in 1939 failed, probably as a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939. Armor plate production was even more problematic as only were delivered in 1940 of the anticipated and 30–40% of that was rejected. Furthermore, the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm and inferior face-hardened plates had to be substituted for all thicknesses over .


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943–44. The Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941. Another problem were the 305 mm guns and turrets as the armament factories were focused on the higher-priority guns for the "Sovetsky Soyuz"-class battleships. Prototypes of neither had been completed by the time the Germans invaded. The situation was not much better for the smaller guns as mountings for both the 152 mm and 100 mm guns were still incomplete on 22 June 1941 and all of these programs were terminated quickly afterwards.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: The ships were originally intended to be laid down 1 September 1939, but they were delayed until November to allow improvements to the shipyards to be completed. A total of sixteen ships were planned in the August 1939 building program, but this was scaled back to four in July 1940 and two in October 1940 when it became clear just how unprepared the Soviets were for any large-scale naval construction program. Work on these ships ceased shortly after the German invasion.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: "Kronshtadt" () was built by the Shipyard No. 194, Marti in Leningrad. She was laid down 30 November 1939 and judged 10.6% complete when the Germans invaded. Her building slip was too short for her entire length so her stern was built separately. Some of her material was used during the siege of Leningrad to repair other ships and in defensive works, but she could have been finished after the end of the war. Proposals were made to complete her as an aircraft carrier and as a base ship for a whaling flotilla, but both ideas were rejected and she was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947. Her dismantling began shortly afterwards and was completed the following year.


title: Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser

text: "Sevastopol" () was built by Shipyard No. 200, 61 Communards in Nikolayev. She was laid down on 5 November 1939 and estimated as 11.6% complete on 22 June 1941. She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Nikolayev in late 1941, but the Germans did little with her other than to use some of her material for defensive positions and some was apparently shipped to Germany. Before the Germans evacuated the city they damaged her building slip and hull with explosives and made her a constructive total loss. She was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947 and her dismantling began shortly afterwards. It was completed in 1948.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: Kevin A. Mayer (born 1962) is an American business executive who is the co-founder and co-CEO of Candle Media, alongside Thomas O. Staggs, the former COO and CFO of The Walt Disney Company. Backed by Blackstone Inc., Candle Media acquired Hello Sunshine (founded by Reese Witherspoon) for $900 million, Moonbug Entertainment (the producer of CoCoMelon) for $3 billion, 10% of Westbrook (founded by Will Smith and Jada Pinkett Smith) for $60 million, and for $100 million.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: Mayer previously served as the CEO of TikTok and the COO of its parent company ByteDance Ltd. Prior to joining TikTok, Mayer was Chairman of Direct-to-Consumer at Disney, where he was responsible for launching Disney+, ESPN+, and Hulu+. Kevin managed over 25,000 employees around the world and over 60% of Disney revenues. He was also the Chief Strategy Officer of Disney, and led the acquisitions of Pixar, Marvel, Lucasfilm, and 21st Century Fox.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: In addition to his role at Candle Media, Kevin serves as Chairman of DAZN Group and a co-founder and Managing Partner at Smash Capital, a growth stage venture capital firms with investments in Epic Games and Manscaped. He sits on the board of directors of Nexon, and is an advisor to David Zaslav of Warner Bros. Discovery, Len Blavatnik of Access Industries, and Marc Benioff of Salesforce.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: Mayer earned a bachelor of science in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and a master of science in electrical engineering from San Diego State University, as well as an MBA from Harvard Business School.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: In 1993, Mayer began working at The Walt Disney Company handling strategy and business development for Disney's Interactive/Internet and television businesses worldwide. He was later promoted to head the Disney Internet group as executive vice president.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: Mayer was then named Chief Executive Officer of Playboy.com, the digital subsidiary of Chicago's Playboy Enterprises in February 2000. In September 2000, Mayer left Playboy and was appointed Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Clear Channel Interactive, a division of Clear Channel Worldwide. He served in that position until December 2001. He joined L.E.K. Consulting as a partner and head of the global media and entertainment practice in February 2002.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: Mayer rejoined Disney as Executive Vice President, Corporate Strategy, Business Development, and Technology in June 2005, then was designated in October 2005 as an executive officer. Mayer was involved with the purchases of BamTech Media, Pixar, Marvel Entertainment, Lucasfilm, Club Penguin and Maker Studios, as well as its agreement reached in December 2017 to acquire most of the 21st Century Fox assets. In 2010, he arranged the sale of Miramax to Filmyard Holdings.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: In March 2018, Mayer was named chairman of Walt Disney Direct-to-Consumer & International, a new segment division, to head Disney's global streaming business, ad sales and distribution and the media and studio operations of the company. Mayer led the successful launches of Disney+ in 2019 and of ESPN+ in 2018, and led Hulu after Disney acquired majority ownership in 2019.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: In May 2020, Mayer resigned from The Walt Disney Company to become COO of Chinese internet technology company ByteDance Ltd and CEO of its popular social media app TikTok. On August 26, Mayer announced that he would step down from both roles and leave ByteDance altogether, three months after taking the position. His decision was reported by the "New York Times" as due to the sharp changes in the political environment in which ByteDance was ordered to sell its U.S. operations by the Donald Trump administration, effectively eliminating the role Mayer had accepted, though the "imminent" sale was subsequently halted by the Chinese government, and White House attention to it waned.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: In October 2020, he and Tom Staggs, also formerly of Disney, led the founding of special-purpose acquisition company (SPAC) Forest Road Acquisition Corp. The company began public trading on November 25, 2020 (NYSE:FRX), having raised over $300 million in capital, and having been joined by Shaquille O'Neal, Mark Burg, Martin Luther King III, and others. In February 2021, Forest Road Acquisition Corp. entered a 2.9 billion agreement to merge with Beachbody and Myx Fitness Holdings. On February 18, 2021, the company filed for an IPO for a second SPAC, Forest Road Acquisition Corp II (NYSE:FRXB), of which Mayer and Staggs will be co-chairs and co-CEOs. The new consumer-facing technology, media and telecommunications SPAC raised $350 million during its IPO.


title: Kevin A. Mayer

text: In November 2020, Mayer joined Access Industries as a senior advisor. In March 2021, he was named chairman of the board of directors of its subsidiary DAZN Group, parent company of DAZN, a global sports streaming platform most active in European and Asian markets. On November 3, 2021, he became as a consultant of Discovery's streaming services.


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) is an economic initiative launched by United States President Joe Biden on May 23, 2022. The framework launched with a total of fourteen participating founding member nations, with the late entry of Fiji, the first South Pacific Island to join, with an open invitation for other countries to join at any time.


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: Biden described the initiative as "writing the new rules for the 21st century economy", stating that the agreement would make the participant's economies "grow faster and fairer". Commerce Secretary Gina Raimondo argued that the framework constituted "the most significant international economic engagement that the United States has ever had in this region". Analysts have compared it to the Trans-Pacific Partnership which the United States withdrew from in 2017.


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: The initiative is intended to be a precursor for later negotiations, as it does not include a uniform lowering of tariffs.


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi criticized the initiative as an attempt to further economic decoupling from China. Wang Yi argued that the initiative, and the US Indo-Pacific strategy as a whole, created divisions and "incited confrontation". Wang stated that such an agreement would "ultimately be a failure".


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: Many analysts have criticized the lack of inclusion of Taiwan in the framework, with "Taiwan News" calling the lack of inclusion a "snub". An opinion piece published in "The Hill" asserted that Taiwan was excluded in order to appease key "fence-sitter" countries such as Indonesia whose governments feared angering China.


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: Former Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad criticized the grouping as an initiative intended to isolate China, saying "many countries recognize that this is not an economic grouping but it is truly a political grouping."


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: The Indo-Pacific Economic Framework is relied on four pillars namely tax, anti-corruption, clean energy and data and privacy. So far, India has agreed to three pillars relating to supply chains: tax, anti-corruption and clean energy, but the fourth pillar on data and privacy is yet to be completely agreed upon. Prabir De of the Research and Information System for Developing Countries, a think tank of the MEA, wrote that India may be uncomfortable with the US high standards, and would like to avoid risks. He further added, “Some areas proposed in the IPEF do not appear to serve India’s interests. For example, the IPEF talks about digital governance but the IPEF formulation contains issues that directly conflict with India’s stated position.”, Minister of Commerce & Industry Piyush Goyal also said at the press conference that India was in the process of firming up its own digital framework and laws, particularly regarding privacy and data, and it would wait for more information. In the meantime, officials will be participating in the discussions “with an open mind”.


title: Indo-Pacific Economic Framework

text: The Indo-Pacific Economic Framework would "outweigh" in both population and gross domestic product the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership. The only RCEP members not also included in the IPEF are China, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos; while non-RCEP members are the United States, India, and Fiji.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: A crop (sometimes also called a croup or a craw, ingluvies, or sublingual pouch) is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. This anatomical structure is found in a wide variety of animals. It has been found in birds, and in invertebrate animals including gastropods (snails and slugs), earthworms, leeches, and insects.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: Cropping is used by bees to temporarily store nectar of flowers. When bees "suck" nectar, it is stored in their crops.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: Other Hymenoptera also use crops to store liquid food. The crop in eusocial insects, such as ants, has specialized to be distensible, and this specialization enables important communication between colonial insects through trophallaxis.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: In a bird's digestive system, the crop is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. It is a part of the digestive tract, essentially an enlarged part of the esophagus. As with most other organisms that have a crop, it is used to temporarily store food. Not all bird species have one. In adult doves and pigeons, it can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: Scavenging birds, such as vultures, will gorge themselves when prey is abundant, causing their crop to bulge. They subsequently sit, sleepy or half torpid, to digest their food.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: Most raptors, including hawks, eagles and vultures (as stated above), have a crop; however, owls do not. Similarly, all true quail (Old World quail and New World quail) have a crop, but buttonquail do not. Chickens, turkeys, ducks and geese possess a crop, as do parrots.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: In the Sherlock Holmes story "The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle" (1892), author Arthur Conan Doyle hid a valuable gem inside a goose's crop.


title: Crop (anatomy)

text: "Craw" is an obsolete term for "crop", and this is still seen in the saying "it sticks in my craw" meaning "I can't [metaphorically] swallow it", that is, that a situation or other entity is unacceptable, or at any rate annoying.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: The double-crested cormorant (Nannopterum auritum) is a member of the cormorant family of water birds. It is found near rivers and lakes, and in coastal areas, and is widely distributed across North America, from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska down to Florida and Mexico. Measuring in length, it is entirely black except for a bare patch of orange-yellow facial skin and some extra plumage that it exhibits in the breeding season, when it grows a double crest in which black feathers are mingled with white. Five subspecies are recognized. It mainly eats fish and hunts by swimming and diving. Its feathers, like those of all cormorants, are not waterproof and it must spend time drying them out after spending time in the water. Once threatened by the use of DDT, the numbers of this bird have increased markedly in recent years.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: The double-crested cormorant was described by René Primevère Lesson in 1831. It was formerly classified in the genus "Phalacrocorax", but a 2014 study supported reclassifying it and several other American cormorant species into the genus "Nannopterum". The IOC followed this classification in 2021.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: Its scientific genus name is derived from the Greek words : "nános", "small" and : "pterón", "wing". This genus name was originally coined for the flightless cormorant ("N. harrisi"), which does have very small wings; although the double-crested cormorant has normal-sized wings, it (along with the neotropic cormorant, "N. brasilianum") was still reclassified into the genus "Nannopterum" when the relationship between it and the flightless cormorant became apparent. The species name is from the Latin "", "eared", referring to its nuptial crests. Its common name refers to the same nuptial crests.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: The double-crested cormorant is a large waterbird with a stocky body, long neck, medium-sized tail, webbed feet, and a medium-sized hooked bill. It has a body length of between long, with a wingspan of between . Double-crested cormorants weigh between . Males and females do not display sexual dimorphism.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: This species has dark-colored plumage with bare supra-loreal skin and gular skin that is yellow or orange. An adult in breeding plumage will be mostly black with the back and coverts being a dark grayish towards the center. Nuptial crests, for which the species is named, are either white, black or a mix of the two. These are located just above the eyes with the bare skin on the face of a breeding adult being orange. A non-breeding adult will lack the crests and have more yellowish skin around the face. The bill of the adult is dark-colored. The double-crested cormorant is very similar in appearance to the larger great cormorant, which has a more restricted distribution in North America, mainly on the Canadian maritime provinces; it can, however, be separated by having more yellow on the throat and the bill. The neotropic cormorant also looks very similar, and the two species can sometimes be found together where their ranges meet.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: The plumage of juvenile double-crested cormorants is more dark gray or brownish. The underparts of a juvenile are lighter than the back with a pale throat and breast that darkens towards the belly. As a bird ages, its plumage will grow darker. The bill of a juvenile will be mostly orange or yellowish.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: A very common and widespread species, it winters anywhere that is ice-free along both coasts, as far north as southern Alaska (on the west coast) and southern New England (on the east coast). It can be found as far south as Mexico and the Bahamas. It migrates from the coldest parts of its breeding range, such as eastern Canada, and has occurred in Europe as a very rare vagrant, for example in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Azores.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: It is resident on Pacific Coast from Aleutian Islands south to Nayarit, Mexico (but excluding parts of British Columbia and the Southern California Bight) and inland to the Colorado River, resident on Atlantic Coast in Long Island and surrounding areas, southern New England, Florida, Cuba, and Yucatán Peninsula Its breeding range extends north throughout most of north-central North America, from Utah north to Alberta east through the Great Lakes states to Nova Scotia, and south to northern Massachusetts, along with parts of Alaska adjoining Bristol and Kuskowim Bays. Its nonbreeding range extends throughout all coastal plains in the US, including the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains south to Campeche, as well as the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, and Cayman Islands, along with all areas previously stated to be resident. On the Pacific Coast, range includes all areas previously mentioned to be resident, along with British Columbia and the Southern California Bight.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: The double-crested cormorant swims low in the water, often with just its neck and head visible, and dives from the surface. It uses its feet for propulsion and is able to dive to a depth of for 30–70 seconds. After diving, it spends long periods standing with its wings outstretched to allow them to dry, since they are not fully waterproofed. This species flies low over the water, with its bill tilted slightly upward, sometimes leaving the colony in long, single-file lines.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: Food can be found in the sea, freshwater lakes, and rivers. Like all cormorants, the double-crested dives to find its prey. It mainly eats fish, but will sometimes also eat amphibians and crustaceans. Fish are caught by diving under water. Smaller fish may be eaten while the bird is still beneath the surface but bigger prey is often brought to the surface before it is eaten. Double-crested cormorants are also considered pests to aquaculturists because of their intense predation on fish ponds which can cause thousands of dollars in losses to farmers.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: Cormorants regurgitate pellets containing undigested parts of their meals such as bones. These pellets can be dissected by biologists in order to discover what the birds ate.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: Breeding occurs in coastal areas as well as near inland rivers and lakes. They build stick nests in trees, on cliff edges, or on the ground on suitable islands. They are gregarious birds usually found in colonies, often with other aquatic birds, and have a deep, guttural grunt call.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: The double-crested cormorant's numbers decreased in the 1960s due to the effects of DDT. Colonies have also been persecuted from time to time in areas where they are thought to compete with human fishing.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: Recently the population of double-crested cormorants has increased. Some studies have concluded that the recovery was allowed by the decrease of contaminants, particularly the discontinued use of DDT. The population may have also increased because of aquaculture ponds in its southern wintering grounds. The ponds favor good over-winter survival and growth.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: In 1894, Thomas McIlwraith in his book, "Birds of Ontario", concludes his section on double-crested cormorants by saying: "When the young are sufficiently grown, they gather into immense flocks in unfrequented sections, and remain until the ice-lid has closed over their food supply, when they go away, not to return till the cover is lifted up in the spring."


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: For populations nesting in the Great Lakes region, it is believed that the colonization of the lakes by the non-native alewife (a small prey fish) has provided optimal feeding conditions and hence good breeding success. Double-crested cormorants eat other species of fish besides alewives and have been implicated in the decline of some sport-fish populations in the Great Lakes and other areas. Some anglers and commercial fishing outfits believe that double-crested cormorants may be a factor for some populations and in some locations.


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: In light of this belief, and because of calls for action by the public, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (the U.S. federal government agency charged with their protection) has recently extended control options to some other government entities. This includes culling of populations and measures to thwart reproduction, in an effort to control their growing numbers. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service retains oversight and the control measures are not extended to the general public (no hunting season).


title: Double-crested cormorant

text: In May 2008, the Canadian government reduced significantly the number of nests of the birds on Middle Island, a small island in Lake Erie and part of Point Pelee National Park. This is an attempt to keep the small island in balance and preserve its vegetation but opponents to the plan have argued that it is based on faulty information, provided in part by anglers who view cormorants as competitors.


title: KGBeast

text: KGBeast (Anatoli Knyazev) is a supervillain appearing in comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Jim Starlin and Jim Aparo, the character first appeared as an adversary of Batman.


title: KGBeast

text: KGBeast has appeared in numerous cartoon television shows and films. Anatoli appeared in his first live adaptation as a recurring cast member on The CW Arrowverse television series "Arrow" played by David Nykl. Anatoli also appeared as a secondary antagonist and a henchman for Lex Luthor in the DC Extended Universe film "" played by Callan Mulvey.


title: KGBeast

text: Anatoli Knyazev (, ), code-named "The Beast", and known to the C.I.A. as the "KGBeast" is trained as an assassin by "The Hammer", a top secret cell of the KGB. In addition to being the master of several martial arts, his strength is cybernetically enhanced, and he also masters the use of every known deadly weapon. At the time of his first appearance, he is rumored to have killed at least 200 people.


title: KGBeast

text: The Beast made his first appearance in the storyline, "Ten Nights of The Beast" "Batman" #417 (March 1988), which was later reprinted as a trade paperback of the same name. It was written by Jim Starlin and drawn by Jim Aparo and Mike DeCarlo.


title: KGBeast

text: The Hammer's general, angry that the Soviet government is working to better relations with the United States, sends Knyazev on a mission to kill 10 high-ranking U.S. officials in an attempt to cripple the Strategic Defense Initiative program. These include scientists, civilian administrators, military figures, and politicians, the last of whom being then-U.S. President Ronald Reagan, scheduled to visit Gotham City.


title: KGBeast

text: Despite Batman's best efforts, the Beast eliminates nearly all of his targets. In particular, he showcases his ruthlessness by poisoning an entire banquet, killing over 100 people, just to ensure that his target dies.


title: KGBeast

text: When Batman finally faces the Beast in hand-to-hand combat, the Beast quickly gains the upper hand, at the time, proves himself better than Batman in both tactical planning and engagement. However, failed to realize that he had advantages over Batman in abilities, the Beast flees because he thinks Batman has contingencies based on the hero's reputation, looses his opportunity to kill Batman as the Dark Knight later improved his skills since then.


title: KGBeast

text: During the rematch between the two, Batman snares the Beast's left wrist with the Batrope. Rather than be captured, the Beast grabs a nearby axe and chops off the restrained hand. The Beast quickly has the limb replaced with a cybernetic gun, made by one of Gotham's top weapons dealers.


title: KGBeast

text: Before the final confrontation between Batman and the Beast, C.I.A. Agent Ralph Bundy reminds Batman that, if the Beast is captured alive, he will have to be handed over to the Soviets, and likely escape justice. Knowing this, Batman, after thwarting the Beast's assassination attempt on Reagan, destroys the Beast's gun-arm, lures him into the sewers, and then corners him in an underground room. The Beast invites Batman to fight him to the death, but instead Batman locks the room, effectively burying the assassin alive.


title: KGBeast

text: In the later story, "", Batman notes that he then contacted the police to pick up the subdued villain.


title: KGBeast

text: However, the Beast escapes and goes into hiding, from where he sees the Soviet Union dissolve. His protégé, the NKVDemon, surfaces in Russia, but is killed by Batman's ally, Soviet police detective Nikita Krakov. The Beast becomes a traditional supervillain, engaging in a counterfeiting scheme and having additional cybernetic implants inserted into his body. He fights Robin and the Huntress, but is ultimately defeated by King Snake. He later acquires a small nuclear bomb that he uses to threaten Gotham City. He is defeated by Robin and ultimately locked up in Blackgate Penitentiary.


title: KGBeast

text: In the "No Man's Land" storyline, the Beast appears as a henchman of Lock-Up, during the latter's tenure as the unofficial warden of Blackgate.


title: KGBeast

text: One year after the events of Infinite Crisis, the Beast is thrown from a roof by a man thought to be Two-Face, after the Beast botches an assassination. His lifeless body is later found by the police, his death caused by two gunshots to the head. Two-Face appears to be innocent of the murder; the killer seems to be the Tally Man, hired by the Great White Shark. The Beast's body is later stolen by a mysterious group who are reanimating corpses and turning them into zombie-like soldiers. His head is shown floating in a tank with several life support devices, indicating that he will return at some point in the future.


title: KGBeast

text: As part of the "Blackest Night" story arc, KGBeast's corpse is reanimated by a black power ring and recruited to the Black Lantern Corps during the "Blackest Night: Batman" miniseries. He uses his ring to form a black energy construct of his gun arm.


title: KGBeast

text: As part of the New 52, the character gets a new backstory on the "New Suicide Squad" #2 (October 2014). KGBeast/Commander Anatoli Knyazev is a citizen of the USSR until it dissolves. He is trained by Boris Ulyanov/Hammer, as well as others like Kanto, and masters several forms of martial arts. In addition, he gains cybernetic abilities which increase his strength. He fights against the Suicide Squad as a Russian military soldier. After losing many times, he becomes a member of Suicide Squad.


title: KGBeast

text: In DC Rebirth KGBeast is now simply The Beast. He is described as one of the world's best contract killers, who formerly worked for the U.S. government and typically is exclusive to Washington D.C. His logo is a 666 symbol. He has his own private island constructed for the purposes of taking his captured enemies there and engaging them in a hunt to the death, free from any national jurisdictions. He is hired by the Penguin, Black Mask, and Great White to kill Batman and Two-Face after the latter threatens to release his collection of blackmail data to the world. Anatoli is last seen when, to stop him killing a group of rioting civilians, Batman lunges into him and over a cliff. Only Batman is saved by Duke Thomas, leaving Beast's fate uncertain.


title: KGBeast

text: He is hired by Bane to break Batman by assassinating his protege Nightwing. He is cornered by Batman after he murdered his father at the cabin. He's been hit in the neck, and Batman decides to walk away, leaving his fate unknown once again. It is later revealed that KGBeast was saved by government agents who had been watching their fight from a distance.


title: KGBeast

text: In the alternate timeline of the "Flashpoint" event, KGBeast is imprisoned in military Doom prison. During the prison break, KGBeast is shot with a blast by corrections officer Amazo.


title: KGBeast

text: KGBeast appears as an NPC in the NES version of "". This version is a ninja who wields a sword and shuriken.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk is a tandem, two-seat, single-engined primary trainer aircraft designed and developed by Canadian aircraft manufacturer de Havilland Canada. It was developed shortly after the Second World War and sold in large numbers during the immediate post-war years, being typically employed as a replacement for the de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The Chipmunk was the first postwar aviation project conducted by de Havilland Canada. It performed its maiden flight on 22 May 1946 and was introduced to operational service that same year. During the late 1940s and 1950s, the Chipmunk was procured in large numbers by military air services such as the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), Royal Air Force (RAF), and several other nations' air forces, where it was often utilised as their standard primary trainer aircraft. The type was produced under licence by de Havilland in the United Kingdom, who would produce the vast majority of Chipmunks, as well as by OGMA ("Oficinas Gerais de Material Aeronáutico") in Portugal.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The type was slowly phased out of service beginning in the late 1950s, although in the "ab initio" elementary training role, this did not happen in the Royal Air Force until 1996, when it was replaced by the Scottish Aviation Bulldog.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: Many Chipmunks that had been in military use were sold to civilians, either to private owners or to companies, where they were typically used for a variety of purposes, often involving the type's excellent flying characteristics and its capability for aerobatic manoeuvres. More than 70 years after the type having first entered service, hundreds of Chipmunks remain airworthy and are in operation around the world. The Portuguese Air Force still operates six Chipmunks, which serve with Esquadra 802, as of 2018.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: Immediately following the conclusion of the Second World War, there was a desire within Canadian aviation circles to take advantage during the peace years of the recently expanded aircraft manufacturing industry which had been rapidly built up in Canada. Out of this desire, it was decided to embark on developing aircraft which would replace designs rendered obsolete by the rapid advances made during the war in the aviation field. One such company, de Havilland Aircraft of Canada Ltd, was interested in developing its own aircraft designs, and chose to focus on producing a contemporary aircraft for pilot training, specifically intending for the envisioned type to serve as a successor to the de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane trainer, which had been produced by the thousands before and during the Second World War, and saw military service with a number of nations in that conflict.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: Wsiewołod Jakimiuk, a Polish pre-war engineer, served as the principal designer and led the design team in the development of the new aircraft, which became known as the "Chipmunk". He designed a cantilever monoplane that incorporated numerous advances over typical trainer aircraft then in widespread service. These included an enclosed cockpit complete with a rear-sliding canopy, and various aerodynamic features to manage the aircraft's flight performance. Strakes were fitted to deter spin conditions and stall breaker strips along the inboard leading edges of the wing ensured that a stall would originate in this position as opposed to the outboard section. The Chipmunk would become the first indigenous aircraft design to be produced by de Havilland Canada.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The Chipmunk prototype, "CF-DIO-X", first flew on 22 May 1946 at Downsview, Toronto, piloted by Pat Fillingham, a test pilot who had been seconded from the parent de Havilland company. The prototype was powered by a 145 hp (108 kW) de Havilland Gipsy Major 1C air-cooled reciprocating engine, this was replaced on the production version of the Chipmunk by a inline de Havilland Gipsy Major 8 engine.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: de Havilland Canada constructed the type at its factory in Downsview, Toronto, Ontario, where it produced 217 Chipmunks during the 1940s and 1950s, the final example of which having been completed during 1956. In addition, 1,000 Chipmunks were produced under licence in the United Kingdom by British aircraft manufacturer de Havilland; manufacturing was initially performed at the company's facility at Hatfield Aerodrome, Hertfordshire; it was later decided to transfer production to another of its plants, located at Hawarden Aerodrome, Broughton near Chester. A further 66 Chipmunks were licence-manufactured by OGMA ("Oficinas Gerais de Material Aeronáutico"), at Alverca from 1955 to 1961 in Portugal for the Portuguese Air Force.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: Both British-built and early Canadian-built Chipmunks are notably different from the later Canadian-built RCAF/Lebanese versions. The later Canadian-built aircraft were fitted with a bubble canopy, which replaced the multi-panelled sliding canopy that had been used upon early Canadian-produced Chipmunks, along with all of the Portuguese and British-built aircraft. On the early-built canopy, the rearmost panels intentionally bulged in order to provide the instructor's position with superior visibility. British-built Chipmunks also differed by a number of adjustments to suit the expressed preferences of the RAF. These included the repositioning of the undercarriage legs, anti-spin strakes, landing lights, and an all-round stressed airframe.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: At one point, work was being conducted on a derivative of the Chipmunk which featured an extensive cabin modification to accommodate a side-by-side seating arrangement; the aircraft, which was referred to as the "DHC-2", ultimately remained unbuilt. The DHC-2 designation was subsequently reallocated to the company's next product, the DHC-2 Beaver.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk is a two-seat, single-engine aircraft that has been heavily used as a primary trainer aircraft. The basic configuration of the aircraft included a low-mounted wing and a two-place tandem cockpit, which was fitted with a clear perspex canopy covers the pilot/student (front) and instructor/passenger (rear) positions and provided all-round visibility. The Chipmunk uses a conventional tailwheel landing gear arrangement and is fitted with fabric-covered flight control surfaces; the wing is also fabric-covered aft of the spar. In terms of handling, the Chipmunk exhibited a gentle and responsive flight attitude. Early production aircraft were only semi-aerobatic, while later production models were almost all fully aerobatic.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The structure of the Chipmunk makes heavy use of metal, the majority of the airframe being composed of a stress-skinned alloy; this allowed the adoption of thinner wings and consequently provided for increased performance as well as a greater degree of durability. Numerous features were incorporated so that the type could better perform as a trainer, including hand-operated single-slotted wing flaps, anti-spin strakes, disc brakes on the wheeled undercarriage, a thin propeller composed of a solid lightweight alloy, the adoption of an engine-driven vacuum pump in place of external venturi tubes to power cockpit instrumentation, electric and Coffman cartridge engine starters as alternative options, cockpit lighting, onboard radio system, and an external identification light underneath the starboard wing.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: In civilian service, individual aircraft would often be modified. Examples of these adaptations include extensive modifications that enabled it to perform competitive aerobatics, for which aircraft are often re-engined and fitted with constant speed propellers and inverted fuel systems; larger numbers of Chipmunks have been tasked as dedicated glider tows. It has become commonplace for Chipmunks to be re-engined, typically using the 180 hp Lycoming O-360.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The Royal Air Force (RAF) had been one of the operators to quickly take notice of the new Canadian trainer, and encouraged its formal evaluation with an eye towards procuring it. Accordingly, a total of three Chipmunk aircraft were transported to the United Kingdom, where they underwent an evaluation by the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at RAF Boscombe Down, Wiltshire. Based upon this favourable evaluation, the British Air Ministry proceeded to formulate and release Air Ministry specification T.8/48 around the type as a replacement for the de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane then in use. This specification was also contested by the rival Fairey Primer, which lost out to the Chipmunk and ultimately did not enter production.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The fully aerobatic Chipmunk was ordered to serve as an "ab initio" trainer for new pilots. The RAF received 735 Chipmunks, which were designated in British service as the "de Havilland Chipmunk T.10"; these aircraft had been manufactured in the United Kingdom by de Havilland, the parent company of de Havilland Canada.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The Chipmunk T.10 initially served with Reserve Flying Squadrons (RFS) of the RAF Volunteer Reserve (VR), as well as the University Air Squadrons. During 1958, multiple Chipmunks were pressed into service in Cyprus for conducting internal security flights during the height of civil unrest during the Cyprus dispute. Eight disassembled aircraft were flown out in the holds of Blackburn Beverley transports; following their reassembly, these Chipmunks, which were operated by No. 114 Squadron, were operated for some months into 1959.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: From 1956 to 1990, the Chipmunks of the RAF Gatow Station Flight were used to conduct covert reconnaissance missions by BRIXMIS over the Berlin area. A number of Chipmunk T.10s were also used by the Army Air Corps and Fleet Air Arm to conduct primary training. Notably, Prince Philip had his first flying lesson in a Chipmunk in 1952; he has declared the type to be his favourite aircraft.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: Until 1996, Chipmunks remained in service with Air Training Corps (ATC) for Air Experience Flights (AEFs); the final of these AEF flights to use the Chipmunk was No. 10 Air Experience Flight, RAF Woodvale, when they were replaced by the Scottish Aviation Bulldog. The last Chipmunks in military service are still operated by the British historic flights – the RAF Battle of Britain Memorial Flight (including one of the Gatow aircraft), the Royal Navy and Army historic flights, to keep their pilots current on tailwheel aircraft. In addition, the cockpit sections of some former RAF Chipmunks have been used as ground training aids; these are colloquially known as "Chippax" trainers.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: In 1995 and 1996 the RAF planned for a pair of Chipmunks to circumnavigate the northern hemisphere to establish a route for light aircraft from Europe to North America via Russia. The RAF chose the Chipmunk because of its reliability and ability to operate with minimal ground support. Modifications were made before the journey, including expanding fuel capacity and updating navigation equipment. The Chipmunks were accompanied on the journey by a support aircraft. In 1996, the RAF started the journey, but had to stop in Moscow due to forest fires in central Siberia. The RAF successfully completed the journey in 1997, flying 16,259 miles over 64 days, visiting 62 airfields along the way. One of the two Chipmunks was added to the collection at the RAF Museum. The other belongs to a private owner, who has restored the Chipmunk to its condition during the round-the-world flight and flies it to aviation events.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: In 1948 the RCAF accepted its first DHC-1 Chipmunk trainers, having received the first batch of a production run of 217 Chipmunks that would be manufactured in Canada. The Chipmunk was the first Canadian-designed aircraft to be made abroad under licence and as such, the majority of the home-grown production were destined for the RCAF. However, Canadian-built Chipmunks were also delivered to some overseas customers, including Egypt, Lebanon and Thailand.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: Of the 113 Chipmunks that entered RCAF service, 79 were assigned to serve as "ab initio" trainers, while 34 were assigned to flying clubs for use in refresher training for RCAF Reserve pilots. The type remained in use as a trainer until the early 1970s, the last example being retired from service by the Canadian Armed Forces in 1972, three years after unification of the Canadian Armed Forces. The Chipmunk's long service was due, in part, to its fully aerobatic capabilities and superb flying characteristics, which had contributed towards pilots frequently referring to it as being "a delight to fly".


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: On 2 June 2015, with the landing of his Chipmunk at Pearson International Airport in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, retired de Havilland Canada test pilot George Neal established a new world record for the oldest active licensed pilot at the age of 96 years 194 days.


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: The Portuguese Air Force (FAP) received its first DHC-1 Chipmunk Mk. 20 in 1951, being delivered to the Military Aeronautical School in Sintra. It was the first of an eventual 76 that would be delivered, replacing its almost two decade old de Havilland Tiger Moths. Its first 10 were constructed in the United Kingdom while the following 66 were licence-built by OGMA in Portugal. The Chipmunks would fly with the Elementary Flying Training Squadron (Esquadra de Instrução Elementar de Pilotagem).


title: De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk

text: By 1986 only 36 Chipmunks still remained in service, flying with Esquadra de Instrução 101. With the Chipmunks being a 40-year-old design and with the annual attrition rate of the fleet being two aircraft, in October 1987 a decision was made by the FAP to replace the Chipmunks with 18 Aérospatiale TB 30 Epsilons. Epsilon deliveries was made throughout 1989, with all remaining Chipmunks being withdrawn from service by the time the last Epsilon was delivered. Shortly afterwards 7 Chipmunks were handed over to the Air Force Academy (AFA) to be used for glider towing.