title: Abigail's Party

text: The terrain is "the London side of Essex", "theoretical Romford" according to Leigh. Beverly Moss invites her new neighbours, Angela and Tony, who moved into the road just two weeks ago, over for drinks. She has also invited her neighbour Susan (Sue), divorced for three years, whose fifteen-year-old daughter Abigail is holding a party at home. Beverly's husband Laurence comes home late from work, just before the guests arrive. The gathering starts off in a stiff, insensitive, British middle-class way as the virtual strangers tentatively gather, until Beverly and Laurence start sniping at each other. As Beverly serves more drinks and the alcohol takes effect, Beverly flirts more and more overtly with Tony, as Laurence sits impotently by. After a tirade when Beverly insists on showing off her kitsch print "Wings of Love", Laurence suffers a fatal heart attack.


title: Abigail's Party

text: Beverly, Tony and, to a lesser extent Angela, all speak with an accent centred on Essex or Estuary English. Laurence's accent, more non-descript and less regional, makes him sound slightly more educated, while Sue's is much nearer to Received Pronunciation.


title: Abigail's Party

text: Sue represents the middle class, being the ex-wife of an architect and living in one of the older houses on the street. She also brings a bottle of wine, and has not yet eaten, indicating that she is expecting dinner, as opposed to an extended evening of drinks. The others present have already had their "tea". Beverly and Laurence represent the aspirational lower middle class, and Tony and Angela—the "new arrivals"—are also lower middle class, but Tony is less successful than Laurence.


title: Abigail's Party

text: Despite their similar background, Laurence seeks to differentiate between himself and Tony by highlighting the differences in their general level of culture, and makes a couple of condescending comments directed at him, and/or for Sue's benefit. For example, Laurence shows off a leather-bound collected works of Shakespeare to Sue (which we know are unread), after pointedly asking Tony if he reads, insinuating that he does not.


title: Abigail's Party

text: In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, "Abigail's Party" was placed 11th. It also appeared in a "Radio Times" poll to find the top 40 greatest TV shows on British television, published in August 2003.


title: Abigail's Party

text: Some critics, such as Tom Paulin, have responded more negatively, saying that "Abigail's Party" appears to represent a middle-class "schadenfreude", with the only true middle-class character, Sue, looking on at the antics of the couples with disdain. Likewise, Dennis Potter wrote a critical review of the play in "The Sunday Times", saying it was "based on nothing more edifying than rancid disdain, for it is a prolonged jeer, twitching with genuine hatred, about the dreadful suburban tastes of the dreadful lower middle classes". Leigh has rejected this, describing it as a tragi-comedy which is "sympathetic to all the characters, whatever their foibles, not least Beverly... The play is a lamentation, not a sneer". He has also argued that the characters (Beverly and Laurence in particular) reflected the real-life behaviour of aspiring couples in mid-1970s suburbia.


title: Abigail's Party

text: Writing in "The Independent" in 2002, David Thomson noted that Beverley's naive storing of the beaujolais in the refrigerator had become standard practice: "The gaffe has turned suave."


title: Abigail's Party

text: The play was staged in London's West End in 2003 with Elizabeth Berrington as Beverly. It was revived in Wolverhampton at the Grand Theatre (2005), and at the Northcott Theatre in Exeter (2006).


title: Abigail's Party

text: Interviewed in 2009, writer Leigh said: "Of course I recognise the enduring popularity of "Abigail's Party". It still hits a nerve about the way we live. It's real even though it's apparently a heightened and comic play. It's a reflection of the realities of how we live on several different levels. It's about aspirationalism and materialism, love and relationships. Like much of my work, it's about the disease I call 'the done thing'—basically, keeping up with the Joneses. It's actually quite a complex play. People may not analyse its complexity but it's so popular precisely for that reason."


title: Abigail's Party

text: In March 2012, a new revival of the play directed by Lindsay Posner opened at the Menier Chocolate Factory in London. Starring Jill Halfpenny as Beverly, Joe Absolom as Tony, Natalie Casey as Angela, Susannah Harker as Sue and Andy Nyman as Laurence, it subsequently transferred to Wyndham's Theatre in the West End. Commenting on the character, Halfpenny said, "To her mind Beverley isn't a monster and even warrants sympathy. "When you learn about her upbringing—her mother and father haven't spoken to her for 20 years—you see why a woman who's been brought up like that and carries so many insecurities could take them out on others."


title: Abigail's Party

text: In March 2017, a new revival of "Abigail's Party" opened at the Theatre Royal Bath as a 40th anniversary production, starring Amanda Abbington as Beverly, Ciarán Owens as Tony, Charlotte Mills as Angela, Rose Keegan as Sue, and Ben Caplan as Laurence.


title: Abigail's Party

text: In November 2021, a further revival of "Abigail's Party" opened at the Park Theatre Finsbury Park, starring Kellie Shirlie as Beverly, Matt Di Angelo as Tony and Ryan Early as Laurence.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: In military tactics, a flanking maneuver is a movement of an armed force around an enemy force's side, or flank, to achieve an advantageous position over it. Flanking is useful because a force's fighting strength is typically concentrated in its front, therefore, to circumvent an opposing force's front and attack its flank is to concentrate one's own offense in the area where the enemy is least able to concentrate defense.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The flanking maneuver is a basic military tactic with several variations. Flanking an enemy entails attacking from one or more sides, at an angle to the enemy's direction of engagement. There are three standard flanking maneuvers.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The first maneuver is the ambush, where a unit performs a surprise attack from a concealed position. Units friendly to the ambushing unit may be hidden to the sides of the ambush site to surround the enemy, but care must be taken in setting up fields of fire to avoid friendly fire. Ambush as a tactic is typically favored by smaller, more mobile forces, usually ones with favorable terrain.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The second type is used during an attack, where a unit encounters an enemy defensive position. Upon receiving fire from the enemy, the unit commander may decide to order a flank attack. A part of the attacking unit pins the enemy in place with suppressive fire, preventing them from returning fire, retreating or changing position to meet the flank attack. The flanking force then advances to the enemy flank and attacks them at close range. Coordination to avoid friendly fire is also important in this situation. This is employed largely by forces meeting each other with equal strength.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The third form of flanking maneuvers is the double envelopment, which involves simultaneous flank attacks on both sides of the enemy. An example is Hannibal's victory over the Roman army at the Battle of Cannae. Double envelopment can only be performed by widening friendly units or formations or opening gaps between them which results in weakening the center and similar battles to that of Gaugamela. Thus, it was often employed when severely outnumbering the opponent or against those without sufficient cavalry support.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: Flanking on land in the pre-modern era was usually achieved with cavalry (and rarely, chariots) due to their speed and maneuverability, while heavily armored infantry was commonly used to pin the enemy in place, as in the Battle of Pharsalus. Armored vehicles such as tanks replaced cavalry as the main force of flanking maneuvers in the 20th century, as seen in the Battle of France in World War II.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The use of flanking has been a consistent part of warfare since its invention. The responsibility of defending against flanks falls on the commander, who has to make the choice of how to best use terrain. In addition the proper adjustment and positioning of soldiers is imperative in ensuring a protected flank.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: A commander could prevent being flanked by anchoring one or both parts of his line on terrain impassable to his enemies, such as gorges, lakes or mountains. Notable examples of this being the Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae, Hannibal at the Battle of Lake Trasimene, and the Romans at the Battle of Watling Street. Although not strictly impassable, woods, forests, rivers, uneven, and marshy ground can also be used to anchor a flank: Henry V at Agincourt. However, in such instances, it was still wise to have skirmishers covering the flanks.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: In exceptional circumstances, an army may be fortunate enough to be able to anchor a flank with a friendly castle, fortress, or walled city. In such circumstances, it was necessary not to fix the line to the fortress but to allow a killing space between the fortress and the battle line so that any enemy forces attempting to flank the field forces could be brought under fire from the garrison. Natural strongholds formed by terrain can also be incorporated into the battle line: the Union positions of Culp's Hill, Cemetery Hill on the right flank, and Big Round Top and Little Round Top on the left flank at the Battle of Gettysburg. If time and circumstances allowed, field fortifications could be created or expanded to protect the flanks, as the Allied forces did with the hamlet of Papelotte and the farmhouse of Hougoumont on the left and right flanks at the Battle of Waterloo.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: When the terrain favors neither side, it is down to the disposition of forces in the battle line to prevent flanking attacks. As long as they have had a place on the battlefield, it was the role of cavalry to be placed on the flanks of the infantry battle line. With speed and greater tactical flexibility, the cavalry could both make flanking attacks and guard against them. It was the marked superiority of Hannibal's cavalry at the Battle of Cannae that allowed him to chase off the Roman cavalry and complete the encirclement of the Roman legions. With equally-matched cavalry, commanders have been content to allow inaction, with the cavalry of both sides preventing the other from action.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: In a case of no cavalry, inferior cavalry or in armies whose cavalry had gone off on their own (a common complaint), the lack of resulting advantage left the outcome depending on the disposition of the infantry to guard against flanking attacks. It was the danger of being flanked by the numerically superior Persians that led Miltiades to lengthen the Athenian line at the Battle of Marathon by decreasing the depth of the centre. The importance of the flank positions led to the practise, which became tradition of placing the best troops on the flanks. At the Battle of Platea, the Tegeans squabbled with the Athenians on who should have the privilege of holding a flank; both having conceded the honour of the right flank (the critical flank in the hoplite system) to the Spartans. That is the source of the tradition of giving the honour of the right to the most senior regiment present, which has persisted into the modern era.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: With troops confident and reliable enough to operate in separate dispersed units, the echelon formation may be adopted. That can take different forms with either equally strong "divisions" or a massively reinforced wing or centre supported by smaller formations in step behind it (forming either a staircase like, or arrow like arrangement). When the foremost unit engages with the enemy the echeloned units remain out of action. The idea is for the enemy to attack the exposed flanks of the foremost unit, but the units immediately echeloned behind the foremost unit would then push forward taking the flankers themselves in the flank. If the echeloned unit is being attacked in turn, the unit behind it would move forward to again attack the flanks of the would be flankers. In theory a cascade of such engagements could occur all along the line for as many units as there were in echelon. In practise, that almost never happened since most enemy commanders saw it for what it was and so resisted the temptation of the initial easy flanking attack.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: That prudence was used in the manifestation of the oblique order in which one wing was massively reinforced, creating a local superiority in numbers that could obliterate that part of the enemy line that it was sent against. The weaker echeloned units was sufficient to fix the greater portion of the enemy troops into inaction. With the battle on the wing won, the reinforced flank would turn and roll up the enemy battle line from the flank.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: In the Roman chequer board formation, readopted by Renaissance militaries, each of the units in the front line could be thought of as having two lines of units echeloned behind it.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: As warfare increased in size and scope and armies increased, armies could no longer hope to have a contiguous battle line. To be able to maneuver, it was necessary to introduce intervals between units and these intervals could be used to flank individual units in the battle line by fast acting-units such as cavalry. To guard against that, the infantry subunits were trained to be able to form squares rapidly that gave the cavalry no weak flank to attack. During the age of gunpowder, intervals between units could be increased because of the greater reach of the weapons, which raised the possibility of cavalry finding a gap in the line to exploit. Thus, the mark of good infantry was the rapid ability to form from line to square and back again.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: On an operational level army, commanders may attempt to flank and wrong foot entire enemy armies, rather than just being content with doing so at a tactical battalion or brigade level. The most infamous example of such an attempt was the modified Schlieffen Plan used by the Germans during the opening stages of the First World War. That was an attempt to avoid facing the French armies head on, but instead flank them by swinging through neutral Belgium.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: Just as at the tactical level, where a commander can attempt to anchor his flanks, commanders try to do the same at the operational level. Examples are the Second World War's German Winter Line in Italy anchored by the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas and the trench systems of the Western Front which ran from the North Sea to the Alps. Attacking such positions would be expensive in casualties and more than likely lead to stalemate. Flanking attacks into areas outside the main zone of contention might be attempted to break the stalemates.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: If successful, such operations can be shattering, such as at the Inchon, and break into lightly-held rear echelons of an enemy when its front line forces are committed elsewhere. Even when they are not entirely successful, such as at Anzio, the operations can relieve pressure on troops on the main battle front by forcing the enemy to divert resources to contain the new front.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The operations may have strategic objectives such as the Invasion of Italy itself, the Gallipoli, and the Normandy landings.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: Such a strategy is not new, as Hannibal attacked Rome by going over the Alps, rather than taking the obvious route. In return, Scipio Africanus was able to defeat Hannibal not by trying to face him in Italy but by first undermining his power base in Iberia and then attacking his home city, Carthage.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: Flank attacks on the strategic level are seen when a nation or group of nations surround and attack an enemy from two or more directions, such as the Allies surrounding Nazi Germany in World War II. In those cases, the flanked country usually has to fight on two fronts at once, placing it at a disadvantage.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The danger of being strategically flanked has driven the political and diplomatic actions of nations even in peacetime. For example, the fear of being strategically flanked by the other in The Great Game between the British and the Russian Empires led to the expansion of both of them into China and the British eastwards into South-East Asia. The British feared that British India would be surrounded by a Persian and Central Asia satellite to Russia in the west and north and a Russian-dominated China in the east. A China under British influence would mean that the Russians would be penned in from the south and the east. Initially, the Russians were more successful than the British in gaining territorial concessions in China, but the British were able to counteract that by cultivating the emerging Empire of Japan as a counterweight to the Russians, a relationship that culminated in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.


title: Flanking maneuver

text: The Cold War had its own Great Game, with the US and USSR competing for influence in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. The division of Europe, the Proxy wars in Asia, and events like the Cuban Missile Crisis were all of great strategic importance to the two competing hegemonies.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: The Passover Seder plate (, "ke'ara") is a special plate containing symbolic foods eaten or displayed at the Passover Seder. The purpose of the Passover Seder plate is to show all the foods that perpetuate and emphasize the ideas of the people of Israel, and are designed to express the uniqueness of the Seder. Another idea is to keep the foods close and ready for Seder night.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: Each of the six items arranged on the plate has special significance to the retelling of the story of Passover—the exodus from Egypt—which is the focus of this ritual meal. A seventh symbolic item used during the meal—the three matzos—is not considered part of the seder plate proper.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: "Maror" and "Chazeret" – Bitter herbs symbolizing the bitterness and harshness of the slavery that the Hebrews endured in Egypt. In Ashkenazi tradition, fresh romaine lettuce or endives (both representing the bitterness of the Roman invasions) or horseradish may be eaten as Maror in the fulfilment of the mitzvah of eating bitter herbs during the Seder. Chazeret are additional bitter herbs, usually romaine lettuce, that are used in the korech sandwich.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: "Charoset" – A sweet, brown mixture representing the mortar and brick used by the Hebrew slaves to build the structures of Egypt. In Ashkenazi Jewish homes, Charoset is traditionally made from chopped nuts, grated apples, cinnamon, and sweet red wine.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: "Karpas" – A vegetable other than bitter herbs representing hope and renewal, which is dipped into salt water at the beginning of the Seder. Parsley or another green vegetable. Some substitute parsley to slice of green onion (representing the bitterness of slavery in Egypt) or potato (representing the bitterness of the ghetto in Germany and in other European countries), both commonly used. The dipping of a simple vegetable into salt water and the resulting dripping of water off of said vegetables visually represents tears and is a symbolic reminder of the pain felt by the Hebrew slaves in Egypt. Usually, in a Shabbat or holiday meal, the first thing to be eaten after the kiddush over wine is bread. At the Seder table, however, the first thing to be eaten after the kiddush is a vegetable. This leads immediately to the recital of the famous question, "Ma Nishtana"—"Why is this night different from all other nights?" It also symbolizes the springtime, because Jews celebrate Passover in the spring.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: "Zeroah" – Also transliterated "Z'roa", this is typically a roasted lamb shank bone. It is special as it is the only element of meat on the Seder Plate, symbolizing the Korban Pesach (Passover sacrifice), or Pascal Lamb. It symbolizes the sacrifice of a lamb whose blood was painted on the doorway of enslaved Israelites houses so that God would pass over that house during the tenth plague.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: "Beitzah" – A roasted egg, symbolizing the "korban chagigah" (festival sacrifice) that was offered at the Temple in Jerusalem, is then roasted and eaten as part of the meal on Seder night. Although both the Pesach sacrifice and the "chagigah" were meat offerings, the "chagigah" is commemorated by an egg, a symbol of mourning (as eggs are the first thing served to mourners after a funeral), evoking the idea of mourning over the destruction of the Temple and the inability to offer the biblically mandated sacrifices for the Pesach holiday. The use of an egg in the seder is first attested in the 16th-century Shulchan Aruch commentary of Rabbi Moses Isserles, and it is not known when the custom began. It is not used during the formal part of the seder. Some people eat a regular hard-boiled egg dipped in salt water or vinegar as part of the first course of the meal, or as an appetizer. The egg also represents the circle of life: birth, reproduction, and death.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: Many decorative and artistic Seder plates sold in Judaica stores have pre-formed spaces for inserting the various symbolic foods.


title: Passover Seder plate

text: The sixth symbolic item on the Seder table is a plate of three whole matzot, which are stacked and separated from each other by cloths or napkins. The middle matzah will be broken and half of it put aside for the "afikoman". The top and another half of the middle matzot will be used for the "hamotzi" (blessing over bread), and the bottom matzah will be used for the "korech" (Hillel sandwich).


title: Passover Seder plate

text: A bowl of salt water, which is used for the first "dipping" of the Seder, is not traditionally part of the Seder Plate but is placed on the table beside it. However, it sometimes is used as one of the six items, omitting chazeret. The salt water represents the tears of the Israelites when they were enslaved.


title: In bocca al lupo

text: It has been proposed, for example by animal welfare activists, to instead reply with (IPA: [viva il lu:po]; “may the wolf live”), but this is not a standard or common reply.


title: In bocca al lupo

text: Equivalent to the English actor's idiom "break a leg", the expression reflects a theatrical superstition in which wishing a person "good luck" is considered bad luck. The expression is commonly used in Italy off stage, as superstitions and customs travel through other professions and then into common use, and it can sometimes be heard outside of Italy.


title: In bocca al lupo

text: Its use originated with hunters wishing each other to be in dangerous situations. The superstitious use of wishing a negative or dangerous situation as a way of wishing good luck is common in other languages. Indeed, the general image of the wolf in the common language, both in Italy and in the Western culture, is that of a dangerous, hungry and violent creature (e.g. "wolf in sheep's clothing", "cry wolf").


title: In bocca al lupo

text: An alternative operatic good luck charm is the phrase "toi toi toi", originally an idiom used to ward off a spell or curse, often accompanied by knocking on wood, and onomatopoeic spitting (or imitating the sound of spitting). Amongst English actors "break a leg" is the usual phrase, while for professional dancers the traditional saying is "merde", from French for "shit". In Spanish and Portuguese, the phrase is respectively and , or "lots of shit".


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: A source-to-source translator, source-to-source compiler (S2S compiler), transcompiler, or transpiler is a type of translator that takes the source code of a program written in a programming language as its input and produces an equivalent source code in the same or a different programming language. A source-to-source translator converts between programming languages that operate at approximately the same level of abstraction, while a traditional compiler translates from a higher level programming language to a lower level programming language. For example, a source-to-source translator may perform a translation of a program from Python to JavaScript, while a traditional compiler translates from a language like C to assembler or Java to bytecode. An automatic parallelizing compiler will frequently take in a high level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g., OpenMP) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran's codice_1 statements).


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Another purpose of source-to-source-compiling is translating legacy code to use the next version of the underlying programming language or an API that breaks backward compatibility. It will perform automatic code refactoring which is useful when the programs to refactor are outside the control of the original implementer (for example, converting programs from Python 2 to Python 3, or converting programs from an old API to the new API) or when the size of the program makes it impractical or time-consuming to refactor it by hand.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Transcompilers may either keep translated code structure as close to the source code as possible to ease development and debugging of the original source code or may change the structure of the original code so much that the translated code does not look like the source code. There are also debugging utilities that map the transcompiled source code back to the original code; for example, the JavaScript Source Map standard allows mapping of the JavaScript code executed by a web browser back to the original source when the JavaScript code was, for example, minified or produced by a transcompiled-to-JavaScript language.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: So called "Assembly language translators" are a class of source-to-source translators converting code from one assembly language into another, including (but not limited to) across different processor families and system platforms.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Intel marketed their 16-bit processor 8086 to be source compatible to the 8080, an 8-bit processor. To support this, Intel had an ISIS-II-based translator from 8080 to 8086 source code named CONV86 (also referred to as CONV-86 and CONVERT 86) available to OEM customers since 1978, possibly the earliest program of this kind. It supported multiple levels of translation and ran at 2 MHz on an Intel Microprocessor Development System MDS-800 with 8-inch floppy drives. According to user reports, it did not work very reliably.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Seattle Computer Products' (SCP) offered TRANS86.COM, written by Tim Paterson in 1980 while developing 86-DOS. The utility could translate Intel 8080 and Zilog Z80 assembly source code (with Zilog/Mostek mnemonics) into source code for the Intel 8086 (in a format only compatible with SCP's cross-assembler ASM86 for CP/M-80), but supported only a subset of opcodes, registers and modes, and often still required significant manual correction and rework afterwards. Also, performing only a mere transliteration, the brute-force single-pass translator did not carry out any register and jump optimizations. It took about 24 KB of RAM. The SCP version 1 of TRANS86.COM ran on Z80-based systems. Once 86-DOS was running, Paterson, in a self-hosting-inspired approach, utilized TRANS86 to convert itself into a program running under 86-DOS. Numbered version 2, this was named TRANS.COM instead. Later in 1982, the translator was apparently also available from Microsoft.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Also named TRANS86, Sorcim offered an 8080 to 8086 translator as well since December 1980. Like SCP's program it was designed to port CP/M-80 application code (in ASM, MAC, RMAC or ACT80 assembly format) to MS-DOS (in a format compatible with ACT86). In ACT80 format it also supported a few Z80 mnemonics. The translation occurred on an instruction-by-instruction basis with some optimization applied to conditional jumps. The program ran under CP/M-80, MP/M-80 and Cromemco DOS with a minimum of 24 KB of RAM, and had no restrictions on the source file size.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Much more sophisticated and the first to introduce optimizing compiler technologies into the source translation process was Digital Research's XLT86 1.0 in September 1981. XLT86 1.1 was available by April 1982. The program was written by Gary Kildall and translated source code for the Intel 8080 processor (in a format compatible with ASM, MAC or RMAC assemblers) into source code for the 8086 (compatible with ASM86). Using global data flow analysis on 8080 register usage, the five-phase multi-pass translator would also optimize the output for code size and take care of calling conventions (CP/M-80 BDOS calls were mapped into BDOS calls for CP/M-86), so that CP/M-80 and MP/M-80 programs could be ported to the CP/M-86 and MP/M-86 platforms automatically. XLT86.COM itself was written in PL/I-80 for CP/M-80 platforms. The program occupied 30 KB of RAM for itself plus additional memory for the program graph. On a 64 KB memory system, the maximum source file size supported was about 6 KB, so that larger files had to be broken down accordingly before translation. Alternatively, XLT86 was also available for DEC VAX/VMS. Although XLT86's input and output worked on source-code level, the translator's in-memory representation of the program and the applied code optimizing technologies set the foundation to binary recompilation.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: 2500 AD Software offered an 8080 to 8086 source-code translator as part of their XASM suite for CP/M-80 machines with Z80 as well as for Zilog ZEUS and Olivetti PCOS systems.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Since 1979, Zilog offered a Z80 to Z8000 translator as part of their PDS 8000 development system. Advanced Micro Computers (AMC) and 2500 AD Software offered Z80 to Z8000 translators as well. The latter was named TRANS and was available for Z80 CP/M, CP/M-86, MS-DOS and PCOS.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: The Z88DK development kit provides a Z80 to i486 source code translator targeting nasm named "to86.awk", written in 2008 by Stefano Bodrato. It is in turn based on an 8080 to Z80 converter written in 2003 by Douglas Beattie, Jr., named "toz80.awk".


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: In 2021, Brian Callahan wrote an 8080 CP/M 2.2 to MS-DOS source code translator targeting nasm named 8088ify.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: The first implementations of some programming languages started as transcompilers, and the default implementation for some of those languages are still transcompilers. In addition to the table below, a CoffeeScript maintainer provides a list of languages that compile to JavaScript.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: When developers want to switch to a different language while retaining most of an existing codebase, it might be better to use a transcompiler compared to rewriting the whole software by hand. Depending on the quality of the transcompiler, the code may or may not need manual intervention in order to work properly. This is different from "transcompiled languages" where the specifications demand that the output source code always works without modification. All transcompilers used to port a codebase will expect manual adjustment of the output source code if there is a need to achieve maximum code quality in terms of readability and platform convention.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: A transcompiler pipeline is what results from "recursive transcompiling". By stringing together multiple layers of tech, with a transcompile step between each layer, technology can be repeatedly transformed, effectively creating a distributed language independent specification.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: XSLT is a general-purpose transform tool that can be used between many different technologies, to create such a derivative code pipeline.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Recursive transcompilation (or recursive transpiling) is the process of applying the notion of transcompiling recursively, to create a pipeline of transformations (often starting from a single source of truth) which repeatedly turn one technology into another.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: By repeating this process, one can turn A → B → C → D → E → F and then back into . Some information will be preserved through this pipeline, from A → , and that information (at an abstract level) demonstrates what each of the components A–F agree on.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: In each of the different versions that the transcompiler pipeline produces, that information is preserved. It might take on many different shapes and sizes, but by the time it comes back to , having been transcompiled six times in the pipeline above, the information returns to its original state.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: This information which survives the transform through each format, from , is (by definition) derivative content or derivative code.


title: Source-to-source compiler

text: Recursive transcompilation takes advantage of the fact that transcompilers may either keep translated code as close to the source code as possible to ease development and debugging of the original source code, or else they may change the structure of the original code so much, that the translated code does not look like the source code. There are also debugging utilities that map the transcompiled source code back to the original code; for example, JavaScript source maps allow mapping of the JavaScript code executed by a web browser back to the original source in a transcompiled-to-JavaScript language.


title: Belteleradio

text: The National State TV and Radio Company of the Republic of Belarus (; ), known as Belteleradiocompany (; ) or simply Belteleradio, is the state television and radio broadcasting service in Belarus.


title: Belteleradio

text: From 1993 until 2021, it was a full active member of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) under the name Belarusian Television and Radio Company (BTRC). In May 2021, the EBU Executive Board agreed to suspend BTRC as a member of the broadcasting union effective 11 June 2021. The broadcaster later revealed that the suspension would expire in 2024.


title: Belteleradio

text: Belteleradiocompany gives particular importance to the development of international cooperation and is partnered with broadcasting companies all over the world. The company has concluded a total of 63 cooperation agreements with foreign broadcasters.


title: Belteleradio

text: The first service of Belarusian radio went on air on November 15, 1925 at the RV-10 radio stationnamed after the Council of People's Commissars of the BSSR. The programs were broadcast for 30 minutes a day within a radius of up to 300 km. Since 1926, broadcasts of radio newscasts for workers and peasants started, followed by broadcasts from theaters and clubs and music programs. Since 1928, wire broadcasting has been developing, a weekly broadcasting schedule has been formed, taking into account the professional and age characteristics of the target audience. In the 1930s, regional and district broadcasting developed.


title: Belteleradio

text: In 1933, the Committee for Radio Information and Radio Broadcasting of the Council of People's Commissars of the BSSR (Radio Committee of the BSSR) was created. Improvement of technical means (construction of a powerful radio station in Kolodischi, etc.) made it possible to broadcast live. In 1936, sound recording devices were used for the first time on Belarusian radio. In 1938, broadcasting began in the new Radio House, where there were three new studios and a mechanical broadcasting and sound recording workshop. During the Great Patriotic War, the radio station RV-10 named after the Council of People's Commissars of the BSSR temporarily ceased its activity. On January 1, 1942, the radio station "Soviet Belarus" began operating on short waves in Moscow. Through the transmitter of the Radio Station. The BSSR Council of People's Commissars, the German occupation administration launched the Landessender Minsk radio station. The radio station RV-10 named after the Council of People's Commissars of the BSSR went on the air again in 1944, first in the liberated Gomel, then in Minsk.


title: Belteleradio

text: In 1953, the Radio Committee of the BSSR was reorganized into the Main Directorate of Radio Information of the Ministry of Culture of the BSSR (Radio Administration of the BSSR). In the 1950s. Intensive work has begun to improve the quality of radio broadcasting. New equipment was installed in the House of Radio, which made it possible to improve the quality of recorded broadcasts. On January 1, 1956, the Radio Control of the BSSR launched its television service – "Belarusian Television" (BT). With the commissioning of the Minsk Television Center in 1955, a 2-program VHF radio broadcasting station was put into operation. The average daily volume of one-channel broadcasting was estimated at the time to be 2–3 hours, and the audience of the TV channel was 4.5 thousand viewers. The TV schedule was consisted mostly of feature films, chronicles, concerts and performances, materials filmed (sent from Moscow and local distribution). Information programs were illustrated with film and photographic materials. In the late 1950s, live broadcasts were organized (1957), and its own production of documentaries and television plays began.


title: Belteleradio

text: In 1957, the Radio Control of the BSSR was reorganized into the State Committee of the BSSR on Television and Radio Broadcasting (Gosteleradio BSSR). In the 1960s, 70% of the territory of Belarus was provided with television. A two-program TV was formed (based on the programs of the 1st program of the Moscow Central Television). In the 1960s, complete radio coverage of Belarus was completed, new radio stations appeared: "Belarus" (05.1962), which provided regular broadcasting to foreign countries, "Belarusian Youth" (02.1963), "Rural Life" (04.1964). The department of theory and practice of radio broadcasting and television was opened at the Faculty of Journalism of the Belarusian State University with the aim of training qualified personnel. The volume of its own broadcasting was 718 hours a year, 50% of which was occupied by social and political programs. In the mid-1960s, its own production of feature and documentary television films began (on the basis of the main editorial office of Telefilm). In 1962, with the starting of Intervision, an exchange of programs with other republics began. In 1961, the Minsk Television Studio and the Committee for Radio and Television were merged into one creative team, in March 1964 it was renamed into the Studio of the Belarusian Television.


title: Belteleradio

text: In the 1970s, 22 radio broadcasting stations operated on the territory of Belarus. During this period, the transition to 3-program wire broadcasting was carried out, stereo broadcasting was formed on ultrashort waves. In 1972 the State Television and Radio Broadcasting of the BSSR launched the Krynitsa radio station on medium waves. By the beginning of the 80s, there were 6 regional bureaux, 115 district, 12 city and 32 factory radios. In the 1970s and 1980s, television broadcasting covered already 95% of the territory of Belarus. Since 1972, the programs have been broadcast on 3 programs, including color programs of its own production (since 1974). In 1978, the hardware-studio complex of the Belarusian Radio Television Center was put into operation, which made it possible to increase the volume and quality of the color image. In January 1981, Channel 6 aired an independent Belarusian program, which was not covered by programs from Moscow. In terms of the volume of its own production, it occupied the 6th place in the USSR, and its programs were watched by 86% of the inhabitants of Belarus. The broadcasting structure of the national TV channel consisted of 3 blocks: information and journalistic, scientific and educational and artistic.


title: Belteleradio

text: In September 1991, the State Television and Radio Broadcasting of the BSSR was renamed into the State Committee of the Republic of Belarus on Television and Radio Broadcasting (State Television and Radio of the Republic of Belarus). In the early 1990s, the unified system of state television in Belarus included 6 television centers, 50 transmitters, and more than 2000 radio relay communication lines. This made it possible to repurpose the program to a more powerful 1st communication channel. The average daily volume of republican and regional broadcasting was 14.5 hours. Since January 1993, the State Television and Radio Broadcasting of the Republic of Belarus has become a full member of the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). In the 1990s, a new stage began in the development of Belarusian radio broadcasting: reforming the structure of the Belarusian radio, improving its program, ideological and creative components.


title: Belteleradio

text: In August 1994, by the Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus, on the basis of the State Committee on Television and Radio Broadcasting, the National State Television and Radio Company of the Republic of Belarus was established. In May of the same year, the radio broadcasting programs "Krinitsa" and "Belorusskaya Molodezhnaya" were combined into the program "Radio 2" (since 2002, "Kultura"), which began to be retransmitted on the second wire broadcasting channel. In 1995, the Television News Agency (ATN) was established to improve the process of informing the population. New information technologies and broadcasting models began to be used (direct lines, television debates, talk shows, etc.), national television series appeared ("The Cursed Cozy House", 1999). In 1998, the NGTRK of the Republic of Belarus launched the Stolitsa radio station, which began to be retransmitted on the third wire broadcasting channel. Since June 15, 1998 there has been a radio program "Belarus" broadcasting also in Russian and Ukrainian. In the 2000s, a number of TV channels were created in the Belteleradiocompany system: LAD (2003), Belarus-TV (2005). The introduction of test digital transmitters in 2004 made it possible to record broadcasts more efficiently and with high quality.


title: Belteleradio

text: Since 2005, all channels and radio stations of the Belarusian Radio were now being streamed live on the Internet. From December 22, 2005 to December 28, 2010 Alexander Zimovsky was the chairman of the Belteleradiocompany.


title: Belteleradio

text: From October 1, 2009 to December 31, 2012 (according to Presidential Decree No. 523, signed on October 23, 2009) the NGTRK and the organizations included in its system are exempt from paying taxes on profit and value added (except for value added tax levied upon import of goods into the customs territory of Belarus, unless otherwise provided by legislative acts).


title: Belteleradio

text: In November 2011, the channels were rebranded: on November 5, Channel One changed its name to "Belarus 1", on November 14 LAD became known as "Belarus 2", and the international "Belarus TV" on January 1, 2013 was renamed "Belarus 24". On February 8, 2013, the digital socio-cultural TV channel "Belarus 3" was launched. On April 1, 2016, the broadcasting of versions of the First National Channel of the Belarusian Radio on long and medium waves stopped.


title: Belteleradio

text: On August 17, 2020, protests and strikes were held against the results of the 2020 presidential elections in Belarus. State television also went on strike, Belarus 1 showed first an empty studio, and then reruns of old programs.


title: Belteleradio

text: On May 28, 2021, according to the results of post-election monitoring, the European Broadcasting Union suspended the membership of the BTRK in the Broadcasting Union. The indignation of the union was caused, among other things, by the broadcast on the air of "Belarus 1" of the "repentance" of political prisoners (in particular, Roman Protasevich and Sofia Sapieha), made under obvious pressure.


title: Belteleradio

text: Belteleradio operates six television channels, of which five are distributed nationally and one is distributed internationally.


title: Belteleradio

text: International experts and the Belarusian opposition name the state TV as one of the main instruments of propaganda by the authoritarian regime of Alexander Lukashenko. It is being accused of misinformation, advocating political repressions and rigging of elections, smearing regime critics.


title: Belteleradio

text: Employees and top managers of state TV channels, including channels of BTRC, have several times been subjects to sanctions from the EU and the United States.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Kavacham () is a 2018 Indian Telugu-language action thriller film directed by Sreenivas Mamilla (his directorial debut). It stars Bellamkonda Sreenivas, Neil Nitin Mukesh (his Telugu debut), Kajal Aggarwal and Mehreen Pirzada. Set in Vizag, the plot revolves around a police officer, who becomes a fugitive after being framed for a kidnapping, and must race against time in order to get his name cleared and catch the actual perpetrator.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: "Kavacham" was released on 7 December 2018, and became a commercial failure. It was later dubbed in Hindi as "Inspector Vijay" in 2019.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Inspector Vijay (Bellamkonda Sreenivas) saves a girl, Lavanya (Mehreen Pirzada), from goons and finds out she was going to elope with her boyfriend. He drops her at the rendezvous and, while waiting for her boyfriend, starts telling her about how he fell for Samyukta (Kajal Aggarwal), café waitress, after she returned him his lost purse. In the meanwhile, he also fought and got a criminal named Ajay Bhupati (Ajay) arrested for kidnapping a girl. Back to his personal life, he was left heartbroken to learn about Samyukta's engagement.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Vijay takes the girl to his house after her boyfriend doesn't turn up. The next morning, finding out that her boyfriend cheated on her, Vijay drops the girl at a bus stop where they witness his mother (Kalyani Natarajan)'s accident. At the hospital, the doctor demands an unaffordable sum of 50 lakh rupees for the operation. The girl, revealing herself to be billionaire Mahendra Varma (Mukesh Rishi)'s niece, asks him to fake her kidnapping and demand 50 lakhs as ransom. She convinces Vijay that by doing this, she would also be accepted by her family members since no one would question her disappearance. Following the call, Mahendra's son Vikramaditya Varma (Neil Nitin Mukesh) informs the police and is accompanied by them to the rendezvous, where Vijay intelligently acquires the ransom without revealing his identity. He deposits the money at the hospital, following which his mother is saved. Vijay drops the girl at a bus stop and informs Mahendra about it. On his way home, he witnesses a car accident. Finding the driver severely injured, Vijay calls the ambulance and sends him to the hospital.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: The next day, he learns that Samyukta is the actual niece of Mahendra Varma and that he has been framed for kidnapping her. Without revealing his identity, Ajay Bhupathi calls Vijay to tell him his game is over. With the help of his trusted Constable P. Sudarshan, Vijay locates Ajay and thrashes him but is shocked upon first learning he's not the kidnapper and then finding the corpse of the girl he had saved from goons. Upon being noticed, he is chased by cops but is rescued by Vaishnavi (Apoorva Srinivasan), Samyukta's friend. Revealing that Samyukta too loved him, she admits having lied about her engagement in order to test him. She also reveals Samyukta last called from a shopping mall. Through the mall's CCTV footage, Vijay learns of her kidnapping and, by tracing the kidnapper's vehicle number, finds him to be Aravindh, who lives at Aravindh Villa. Along with Vaishnavi, he goes to Aravindh Villa and, by looking at the pictures hanging there, realizes that Aravindh is the same man he had sent to hospital on the night of his accident. He had, however kept his phone with himself in order to answer if his family members called. Vikramaditya is revealed to be the conspirator when he calls on Aravindh's phone, and it's answered by Vijay who reveals the only mistake Vikramaditya made was to call him with the same phone Vijay had asked him to replace his own phone with, while acquiring the ransom.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Vikramaditya then reveals that Samyukta had decided to work as a café waitress in order to first understand the mindset of her customers, and since his father had chosen her over him to become his company's heir, he conspired to kill her. He first got her kidnapped and then got Vijay, as he loved her, framed for her kidnapping with the help of Lavanya, his girlfriend and the girl he had saved from goons. He also got his mother attacked in order to make him need money and thus execute the fake kidnapping. At the hospital, Aravindh is interrogated by Vikramaditya and reveals he couldn't kill Samyukta as she had tricked him into transferring all his money into her account. Leaving her in a secret chamber and following Vikramaditya's orders, he had gone to kill Lavanya, who in turn attacked him with a stone before getting killed herself. Injured, he couldn't drive properly and met with an accident. Vikramaditya kills Aravindh and informs Vijay about Samyukta's location while arriving at Aravindh villa himself to kill her. Vijay surprises him by revealing he had already rescued her and dropped Vaishnavi at a safe point, telling her to call the police. On his way to meet the commissioner, he learns that his mother has been taken hostage and, along with Samyukta, arrives on the spot where he fights off Vikramaditya and his goons, rescuing his mother and getting Vikramaditya arrested.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: During the end credit scenes, Samyukta is declared the heir of S. company and confesses her love to Vijay.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Producer Naveen Sonthineni announced that he would produce Bellamkonda Sreenivas's next film under his newly created production house, "Vamsadhara Creations". Kajal Aggarwal was cast as the lead heroine. Naveen Chandra was originally cast as the main antagonist for the film, but was subsequently replaced by Hindi actor, Neil Nitin Mukesh.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: The film was released on 7 December 2018. It was also later dubbed and released in Hindi as "Inspector Vijay" on YouTube by RKD Studios on 28 April 2019.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Sangeetha Devi Dundoo from The Hindu wrote that "A sliver of a story lies buried under the painstaking efforts to create a star aura" and criticises the film's reliance on over used cliches.


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Srivastan Nadadhur, from The Times of India, gave it a 2/5, stating that "Even if the story seems intriguing on a certain level, the filmmaker Sreenivas Mamilla seems more interested in making the hero wear smart tees, romance the ladies in scenic locations and have him thrash the goons to a pulp sequence after sequence." He wrote that "Kavacham should serve as an ideal reminder to Bellamkonda Sai Sreenivas that he needs to go beyond blazers, uniforms and abroad shoots to make a good film."


title: Kavacham (2018 film)

text: Manoj Kumar R from The Indian Express gave it a 1/5: "As far as the story goes, Kavacham doesn't have anything fresh to offer. It is just a star-vehicle that is intended to boost the young career of Bellamkonda Sai Sreenivas." He remarks that the heroines, Kajal and Mehreen, are not much more than "damsels in distress" and that the character of Neil Nitin Mukesh eventually "is reduced to nothing but a clown."


title: Edith Bowman

text: Edith Eleanor Smith (born January 1974) is a Scottish radio DJ and television presenter. She hosted "Colin and Edith", weekday afternoons, weekend breakfast, and "The Radio 1 Review" on BBC Radio 1 until 2014 and has presented a variety of music-related television shows and music festivals.


title: Edith Bowman

text: Bowman was brought up in Anstruther, Fife, Scotland. She attended secondary school at Waid Academy in Anstruther and then continued her studies in Media and Communication at Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh.


title: Edith Bowman

text: Bowman's first on-screen job on television was as a news reader on MTV UK. She went on to host many shows for the station, including co-presenting chart show "Hitlist UK" with Cat Deeley, with whom she also presented travel show "Roadtripping" for BBC Choice in 2002. She also worked as a presenter on Channel 4's breakfast show "" when it launched on 29 April 2002. In 2004, she co-presented the BBC Scotland series "Teen Commandments" with Cameron Stout. After occasional appearances in 2003, Bowman co-presented "Top of the Pops" until the end of the series, replacing Fearne Cotton while she was away. In total she appeared on the show ten times including the final weekly episode. She returned to "Top of the Pops" for the 2006 "Christmas Special". In 2020, during the Coronavirus pandemic, she remotely interviewed the film maker Sofia Coppola for the BBC4 series "Life Cinematic".


title: Edith Bowman

text: She has also presented various music programmes for Channel 4 such as "Channel 4 Presents...", "Evo Music Rooms", and "TBA". Bowman also appeared on children's art program "SMart" in 2007 and has appeared in coverage of festivals such as Glastonbury, T in the Park and Reading and Leeds Festival, for both BBC Radio and TV. On 29 April 2011, she was a reporter for BBC TV on their coverage of the wedding of Prince William and Kate Middleton. In 2011, she narrated Channel 5's documentary series "McFly on the Wall".


title: Edith Bowman

text: In December 2021, Bowman appeared in an episode of Celebrity Antiques Road Trip, alongside fellow Radio 2 broadcaster Mark Radcliffe.


title: Edith Bowman

text: Bowman presented "Hit Music Sunday" with Cat Deeley on Capital London from 2001–2002. On 29 March 2003, she teamed up with Colin Murray, who had also worked on "RI:SE", to co-host "Colin and Edith" on BBC Radio 1. In April 2004 this show moved from a weekend morning slot to weekday afternoons, broadcasting between 13:00 and 16:00, after the departure of Mark and Lard from the station. In August 2006, Bowman became the sole occupier of the BBC Radio 1 afternoon 13:00 to 16:00 slot, with Murray taking over a late-night specialist music programme. In September 2008, she returned to the station after maternity leave, initially taking over from Dick and Dom on the "Sunday Morning Lie In" from 10:00 to 13:00. She returned to weekday afternoons on 3 November 2008.


title: Edith Bowman

text: In July 2009 it was announced that Radio 1 was to change its daytime schedule, and this saw Bowman move to "Weekend Breakfast". She said that she felt she had taken her shows as far as she could, and the move meant she could create a new show for a new market. In February 2012, it was announced that Bowman was being replaced by Gemma Cairney on Weekend Breakfast, and would move to Tuesday evenings, in order to take over "The Review Show", from DJ Nihal. Bowman left weekends on 1 April 2012, but continued on different projects through out-of-house productions which air on the station. Her first show of the new "Review Show" was on 26 March 2013.


title: Edith Bowman

text: In November 2012, she started co-hosting a Saturday morning show on BBC Radio 6 Music, alongside Adam Buxton. In June 2014, Radio 1 announced that "The Review Show" would be cancelled on 1 September 2014, ending Bowman's career at the station.


title: Edith Bowman

text: In February 2016, she was announced as the only solo, female, breakfast show host on commercial radio, with the launch of Virgin Radio UK on 30 March. She left the programme on 29 September 2017. Bowman was an occasional stand-in presenter of "Kermode and Mayo's Film Review" on BBC Radio 5 Live, on BBC Radio 2 She also provides holiday cover for BBC Radio 2 presenters including Jo Whiley, Sara Cox, and Gary Davies on "Sounds of the 80s".


title: Edith Bowman

text: Bowman has presented "Soundtracking", a weekly half hour podcast in which she interviews film-makers about musical influences and their choice of music in films.


title: Edith Bowman

text: In 2005, Bowman presented BBC Scotland's coverage of the Live 8 event at Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh, and hosted the network's T in the Park programmes with Dougie Anderson who had also worked on "RI:SE". Also in 2005, she hosted the Q Awards with Colin Murray live on BBC Radio 1. She also presented the BBC Three coverage of Glastonbury, T in the Park and the Reading Festival with Colin Murray. She also hosted the TV coverage of the first Electric Proms with Zane Lowe. On 7 July 2007, she co-presented the BBC coverage of Live Earth.


title: Edith Bowman

text: After leaving Radio 1, Bowman presented several one-off film specials for Channel 4. She also presented Evo Music Rooms a late night music programme for Channel 4 and "The Vue Film Show", also for Channel 4. In 2011, she presented coverage of the T in the Park music festival for BBC Three. She also had a stint with BBC America as an entertainment presenter in 2014.


title: Edith Bowman

text: In May 2008, Bowman supported the "Fashion Targets Breast Cancer" campaign in support of Breakthrough Breast Cancer, alongside fellow celebrities: comedian Alan Carr, actress Anna Friel, singer Natalie Imbruglia and model Twiggy.


title: Edith Bowman

text: Bowman's television debut was on the Grampian Television talent show "The Big Break". At the age of 14, she covered Bananarama's "Venus" which was itself a cover of the Shocking Blue original, but finished joint last in her heat.


title: Edith Bowman

text: On 11 March 2005 she won the TV talent show "Comic Relief Does Fame Academy", a charity music contest in which she sang "Champagne Supernova" with Jools Holland's band. Earlier in the competition she sang a version of Blondie's "Hanging on the Telephone". The show also featured Al Murray, Kim Medcalf, Adrian Edmondson, Jon Culshaw, Konnie Huq, Dawn Steele, and other celebrities.


title: Edith Bowman

text: Bowman married Editors frontman Tom Smith in 2013, and the couple have two sons, born in 2008 and 2013.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: Australo-Melanesians (also known as Australasians or the Australomelanesoid, Australoid or Australioid race) is an outdated historical grouping of various people indigenous to Melanesia and Australia. Controversially, groups from Southeast Asia and South Asia were also sometimes included.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: While most authors included Papuans, Aboriginal Australians and Melanesians (mainly from Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu), there was controversy about the inclusion of the various Southeast Asian populations grouped as "Negrito", or a number of dark-skinned tribal populations of the Indian subcontinent.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: The concept of dividing humankind into three, four or five races (often called Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australoid) was introduced in the 18th century and further developed by Western scholars in the context of "racist ideologies" during the age of colonialism. With the rise of modern genetics, the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense has become obsolete. In 2019, the American Association of Biological Anthropologists stated: "The belief in “races” as natural aspects of human biology, and the structures of inequality (racism) that emerge from such beliefs, are among the most damaging elements in the human experience both today and in the past."


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: The term "Australoid" was coined in ethnology in the mid 19th century, describing tribes or populations "of the type of native Australians". The term "Australioid race" was introduced by Thomas Huxley in 1870 to refer to certain peoples indigenous to South and Southeast Asia and Oceania. In physical anthropology, "Australoid" is used for morphological features characteristic of Aboriginal Australians by Daniel John Cunningham in his "Text-book of Anatomy" (1902). An "Australioid" ("sic", with an additional "-i-") racial group was first proposed by Thomas Huxley in an essay "On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind" (1870), in which he divided humanity into four principal groups (Xanthochroic, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australioid). His original model included the native inhabitants of Deccan in India under the Australoid category, specifically "in a well-marked form" among the hill tribes of the Deccan Plateau. Huxley further classified the Melanochroi (Peoples of the Mediterranean race) as a mixture of the Xanthochroi (northern Europeans) and Australioids.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: Huxley (1870) described Australioids as dolichocephalic; their hair as usually silky, black and wavy or curly, with large, heavy jaws and prognathism, with skin the color of chocolate and irises which are dark brown or black.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: The term "Proto-Australoid" was used by Roland Burrage Dixon in his "Racial History of Man" (1923). In "The Origin of Races" (1962), Carleton Coon expounded his system of five races (Australoid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Congoid and Capoid) with separate origins. Based on such evidence as claiming Australoids had the largest, megadont teeth, this group was assessed by Coon as being the most archaic and therefore the most primitive and backward. Coon's methods and conclusions were later discredited and show either a "poor understanding of human cultural history and evolution or his use of ethnology for a racialist agenda."


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: Terms associated with outdated notions of racial types, such as those ending in "-oid" have come to be seen as potentially offensive and related to scientific racism.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: The populations grouped as "Negrito" (the Andamanese – from the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean), the Semang and Batek peoples (from Malaysia), the Maniq people (from Thailand), the Aeta people, the Ati people, and certain other ethnic groups in the Philippines, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and a number of dark-skinned tribal populations in the interior of the Indian subcontinent (some Dravidian-speaking groups and Austroasiatic-speaking peoples, like the Munda people) were also suggested by some to belong to the Australo-Melanesian group, but there were controversies about this inclusion.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: The inclusion of Indian tribes in the group was not well-defined, and was closely related to the question of the original peopling of India, and the possible shared ancestry between Indian, Andamanese, and Sahulian populations of the Upper Paleolithic.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: The suggested Australo-Melanesian ancestry of the original South Asian populations has long remained an open question. It was embraced by Indian anthropologists as emphasizing the deep antiquity of Indian prehistory. Australo-Melanesian hunter-gatherer and fisherman tribes of the interior of India were identified with the Nishada Kingdom described in the Mahabharata. Panchanan Mitra (1923) following Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1913) recognizes a Pre-Dravidian "Australo-Veddaic" stratum in India.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: Alternatively, the Dravidians themselves have been claimed as originally of Australo-Melanesian stock, a view held by Biraja Sankar Guha among others.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: South Indian tribes specifically described as having Australo-Melanesian affinities include the Oraon, Munda, Santal, Bhil, Gondi, the Kadars of Kerala, the Kurumba and Irula of the Nilgiris, the Paniyans of Malabar, the Uralis, Kannikars, Muthuvan and Chenchus.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: Individuals with Australo-Melanesian phenotypes existed possibly also in East Asia (in and toward the south of East Asia) at least since Middle Paleolithic, but were largely displaced by migrations of Eastern Eurasian rice farmers since Neolithic, who may have spread from Central China to Southeastern Asia during Mesolithic and Neolithic and after adopting farming to the rest of Southeast Asia and Oceania.


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "[T]he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."


title: Australo-Melanesian

text: The Pan-Asian genome project concluded that Negrito populations in Malaysia and the Negrito populations in the Philippines were more closely related to non-Negrito local populations, rather than to each other, highlighting the non-existence of a distinct Australo-Melanesian grouping.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Henry Jennings (died possibly 1745) was an 18th-century English privateer from the colony of Bermuda, who served primarily during the War of the Spanish Succession and later served as leader of the pirate haven or "republic" of New Providence.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings first recorded act of piracy took place in early 1716 when, with three vessels and 150–300 men, Jennings' fleet ambushed the Spanish salvage camp from the 1715 Treasure Fleet. After the Florida raid, Jennings and his crew also linked up with Ben Hornigold's "three sets of pirates" from New Providence Island. Starting in 1716 and for around a year and a half, Jennings sailed during the Golden Age of Piracy, sailing with individuals such as pirate "Black Sam" Bellamy.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Author Colin Woodard describes Jennings as "an educated ship captain with a comfortable estate" on Bermuda, and he had estates on both Bermuda and Jamaica. He described himself as a Bermudian, and the Jennings family was well established there, especially at Flatts Village, the affluent neighbourhood to the west of which is still known as "Jennings' Land" after Richard Jennings. Although little is known of Jennings' early life, he was first recorded as a privateer during the War of the Spanish Succession operating from Jamaica, then governed by Lord Archibald Hamilton. There is evidence that Jennings owned enough land in Jamaica to live comfortably, thus leaving his motivations for piracy to conjecture.


title: Henry Jennings

text: On July 31, 1715, all 11 vessels of the 1715 Treasure Fleet, a large Spanish treasure fleet heading out from Havana, wrecked in a hurricane along the coasts of Florida near Cape Canaveral. News of the wreck and their distress call reached Jamaica in November 1715, and Jennings and his ship "Bersheba" sailed immediately to the Florida coast. Jennings and the "Bersheba" had been granted a commission by the governor of Jamaica, Lord Archibald Hamilton, as had John Wills' "Eagle." They had been sanctioned to "Execute all manner of Acts of Hostility against pyrates according to the Law of Arms," with explicit instructions not to attack anyone except pirates. "History Today" states that it was later claimed that Hamilton had invested in the ships and endorsed a plan for them to attack the Spanish wrecks as well. Hamilton would later deny involvement in the upcoming attacks on Spanish wrecks. In December Jennings and Charles Vane captured a Spanish mail ship and got the exact position of the main Spanish salvage camp and "Urca de Lima" from her captain Pedro de la Vega.


title: Henry Jennings

text: By the time Jennings arrived in Florida in early 1716, most of the treasure from the 1715 Treasure Fleet had already been returned to Havana after collection by Indian divers. However, Jennings found the rest awaiting shipment on the beach in a lightly guarded fort at Palma de Ayz, possibly close to Vero Beach. Jennings' first recorded act of piracy took place when, with three vessels and 150-300 men, his fleet ambushed the Spanish salvage camp. The nucleus of the pirate force was a group of English ex-privateers: Jennings, Charles Vane (on the "Bersheba"), Samuel Bellamy, Benjamin Hornigold, and Edward England. When Jennings and his men raided the storehouses, they forced the retreat of around 60 soldiers with superior numbers of 300 privateers, stealing about £87,500 in gold and silver, equivalent to a ten-year salary.


title: Henry Jennings

text: The New Providence capital of Nassau by 1715 was the former capital of the collapsed Bahamian government. By the end of 1715, Jennings arrived in Nassau with £87,000 in recovered Spanish treasure, as the city was experiencing an expansion. According to Connor, shortly after arriving in Nassau, Jennings took a small Spanish trading sloop from Hornigold. As Jennings had 200 "well-armed" men under his command and at least two sloops, Hornigold was unable to stop him, with some of Jennings’ men moving aboard the taken sloop to relieve crowding on the others. The flotilla left for Jamaica "after a few days of revelry and the orderly distribution of the crew’s portion of the prize money." Jennings and his men then sailed for Jamaica to present their prizes to the Vice-Admiralty Court, which was presided over by Hamilton.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings set sail for Jamaica carrying back an estimated 350,000 peso, or 120,000 pieces of eight, accompanied by fellow Captain John Wills and his crew of the "Eagle." On the way his fleet encountered a Spanish merchant ship, which Jennings' captured and plundered. Afterwards he released the crew on their ship, which he did not sink. The Spanish captain followed Jennings' fleet back to Jamaica, and following it up the Cuban shore through Windward Passage and to the mouth of Port Royal Harbor. The Spanish captain then sailed to Cuba, and reported the plundering of his ship to the Spanish viceroy. As a result, the viceroy, who had also heard of Jennings' pillaging the shore camp, was "outraged," and contacted Hamilton to demand the pirates be hanged. The viceroy also threatened to kill Englishmen in locales such as Havana if Hamilton did not comply. With Hamilton stating he knew nothing of such pirates and there must have been a mistake, said he would, in turn, flog any Spanish he could find in Jamaica if the threat to English lives was carried out. The "Barsheba" dropped anchor in Jamaica on January 26, 1716. Jennings and Willis, in accordance with their commissions, brought their treasure to Hamilton. Although Hamilton later stated he did not take his share of the treasure, as "I heard it was taken from the shore," he did not arrest Jennings either, nor other privateers.


title: Henry Jennings

text: "History Today" related that "Jennings and Wills' arrival with their illicitly acquired fortune created a sensation in Jamaica," with many other privateers and pirates sailing to Florida to seek treasure from the wrecks along what would become known as the Treasure Coast. In Jamaica, "Jennings and his pirates were the toast of the town, not only for their daring attack but also for the many looted supplies they brought for sale to anyone with money." However, Hamilton complained to the local merchants about possible conflict with the Spanish over the pirates, who in turn advised Jennings to quietly leave Jamaica. Jennings sold the rest of his booty, and prepared to leave with his men. Shortly after leaving Jamaica, Jennings and his men overtook and plundered a Jamaican merchant vessel of Englishmen, stripping valuables down to the captain's clothing. The merchant ship sailed back to Jamaica and told of the incident, where Jennings was described as a pirate for preying on both English and Spanish ships. Around this time, a Spanish squadron of ships sent to capture Jennings instead burned the boats of several Englishmen on an island, while the Englishmen were ashore chopping wood. Jennings came across the moored men several days later, and offered to allow them to join his fleet, which they took him up on. The woodcutters were then put on the next ship captured for Jennings' fleet, with the ship also manned with some of Jennings' own crew. As his fleet and his fame grew, his fleet became too large and needed to be split into two groups.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings attacked the Spanish wrecks again in January 1716 with the "Bathsheba." He again went after a warehouse of salvaged Spanish treasure. The leader of the Spanish salvagers offered Jennings 25,000 pieces of eight to leave them alone, and while Jennings took the offering, he also continued pillaging the outmanned Spanish, taking even their personal possessions and some of their Spanish cannons before sailing away.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings and the crews remained in Jamaica until the end of February. At that time, when Jennings came to Hamilton about permission for a new cruise, Hamilton signed his departure papers personally, also signing another commission for Jennings. In early March 1716, Jennings sent word to fellow captains and his men that he would be making a new cruise to the Spanish wrecks. Of the responders, Leigh Ashworth assumed command of the sloop-of-war "Mary," another of Hamilton’s privateers. Two others, Samuel Liddell of the "Cocoa Nut" and James Carnegie of the "Discovery," joined with their small sloops without commission, accepting Jennings’ overall command. Charles Vane also rejoined Jennings’ crew.


title: Henry Jennings

text: When Jennings sailed with the "Bersheba" to the wrecks this third time, he was under direct orders of Daniel De Costa Alvarenga, a Jewish merchant from Kingston who was the new owner of the sloop. Hamilton tried to stop the "Bersheba" from sailing on this trip, but was ignored as it had official clearance.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings in April 1716 set out from Bluefield’s Bay in Jamaica in his sloop "Bersheba", along with a fleet of ships. His intention was to fish the Spanish wrecks, moving up from the Isle of Pines to Florida. They left Bluefields on the morning of March 9, regrouping a few days later at Isla de los Pinos near Cuba. They rounded Cape Corrientes on April 2. The following day off the coast of Cuba, "Bersheba" spotted Sam Bellamy and Paulsgrave Williams, who were looting a ship. The two pirate captains and their crews abandoned ship upon the sight of Jennings’ four sloops British colors, fleeing sailing canoes. Captain Young, of the ship being attacked by Bellamy, expected Jennings’ to rescue him, but Jennings’ instead commandeered the ship and began moving it into bay to decide what to do with it. In that process, his fleet encountered a large armed merchant ship flying French colors in a harbor, named the "St. Marie." He dropped anchor with his flotilla of five ships out of sight and sent several men in to hail the French ship to assess what was on board. Jennings’, meeting with the other captains, declared he would attack at night so the "Bersheba" would not be sunk in a direct attack. Only Liddell voted against the attack, arguing it was piracy, as the "St. Marie" was a legal vessel. He was outvoted, with 23 of his crew joining Jennings' forces for the attack as well.


title: Henry Jennings

text: That evening, Bellamy and Williams hailed Jennings, meeting him for the first time and joining the force preparing for the sneak attack. After the successful attack, on April 4, 1716, Jennings questioned the French crew. The French captain later reported that Jennings’ crew "tormented" the French crew, forcing them to reveal where they had hidden 30,000 pieces of eight onshore. Jennings kept the "St. Marie" and appointed Carnegie the captain, giving the French captain Carnegie’s "Discovery" instead. Furthermore, Jennings forced the French captain to write a letter to Hamilton, absolving the attackers of wrongdoing.


title: Henry Jennings

text: A sailing canoe later approached the "St. Marie" to trade while the crew was dividing spoils, and Jennings' then "inflicted punishments" on the new captives to locate their larger vessel. When he went off to find the "Marianne," he found that Hornigold had already commandeered the ship. Jennings set sail afterwards, ordering all vessels to chase Hornigold down. The crew of the newly captured "St. Marie," however, lagged behind the other ships, and the rest of the fleet was out of sight by the time they weighed anchor. Jennings, failing to capture Hornigold, returned to the bay several hours later with the "Barsheba" and "Mary", to discover that Bellamy and Williams had surprised Jennings' prize crew and the French prisoners to take control of the "St. Marie" at gunpoint. They had then rowed off in the wind with 28,500 pieces of eight.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings arrived to find Bellamy sailing away, and although he fruitlessly gave chase, he gave up and returned to the "St. Marie" to find the valuables taken. As a reward for betraying Jennings, Hornigold gave Bellamy the "Marianne", although Blackbeard had expected to be given that command himself.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings was furious at the loss of the valuables on the "St. Marie." He had the second of Bellamy's periaguas seized and "cut to pieces," presumably with the remainder of Bellamy's men onboard. He also ordered Captain Young's sloop burnt to the waterline. Afterwards, he ordered his fleet sail to Nassau to divide the remaining spoils.


title: Henry Jennings

text: When Bellamy double-crossed Jennings, Jennings' ruthlessness was evidenced in the brutal slaying of more than 20 Frenchmen and Englishmen, and the burning of an innocent Englishman's merchant sloop.


title: Henry Jennings

text: In April 1716, he captured the French vessel "Marianne". During the attack, he fired the "Bersheba's" Great Gun himself, easily taking the ship. At this time he encountered Benjamin Hornigold in the "Benjamin" attempting to join in the plunder of the "Marianne". Jennings harshly rebuffed Hornigold for interfering in his "official" operation, so Hornigold and other ships involved in the raid afterwards attacked other French ships instead.


title: Henry Jennings

text: After the raid on the "Marianne," Jennings, Ashworth, and another captain set sail for New Providence, an island in the Bahamas and former capital of the collapsed Bahamian government. On the way to New Providence, Jennings chased down Hornigold to secure the treasure from the "Mary", a ship Hornigold had just captured.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Reaching New Providence about April 22, 1716, Jennings used the island as a base to split the French spoils. According to Jennings’ quartermaster, there was some dispute on how the spoils were distributed among the men. After some of the men began to take spoils on their initiative, Jennings split the French spoils three ways: one third for the men, and one third each for sloop owners Daniel Axtell and Jasper Ashworth (brother of Leigh Ashworth). According to a deposition based on an eyewitness, when Jennings arrived in Providence he "bought in as prize a French ship ["Marianne"] mounted with 32 guns which he had taken at the Bay of Hounds [Bahia Honda], and there shared the cargo (which was very rich consisting of European goods for the Spanish trade) amongst his men, and then went in the said ship to the [Florida wrecks] where he served as Commodore and guardship."


title: Henry Jennings

text: Jennings continued to sail for the wrecks in Florida after his raids on the French, stopping ships such as Spanish mailboats along the way. In April 1716, the Spanish salvagers had left the site of Jennings' first two attacks, and Jennings returned again to the site, this time leading efforts to recover more sunken treasure. After political pressure, Hamilton issued proclamations in April 1716 forbidding all commissioned vessels in Jamaica from fishing the Florida wrecks for plunder. It was one of his last acts as governor before Hamilton was himself arrested, and overall he declared all passes issued to treasure hunters null and void, meaning that henceforth, any captain attacking Spanish forts or vessels in peacetime was a pirate. On his third trip to the wrecks, Jennings intercepted a Spanish vessel as it returned from the salvage site, and reappeared off Port Royal with 30,000 pieces of eight he’d forcibly taken from the Spanish vessel. Hamilton made it clear that Jennings would be arrested if the "Bersheba" entered Kingston harbor, and the sloop and the cargo impounded. Jennings and his crew chose to sail away with their cargo.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Declared a pirate by Lord Archibald Hamilton, Jennings couldn't return to Jamaica, and so he established Nassau as his base for further raids on Spanish wrecks. Also evicted from the mainland of Jamaica, many pirates followed Jennings’ example and headed for New Providence. Nassau's pirate population grew from dozens to hundreds after the Florida shipwreck raids, and by early 1716, the Governor of Bermuda stated that there were over 1000 pirates in Nassau and that they outnumbered the mere hundred of inhabitants in the town. Jennings became an unofficial mayor of the growing pirate colony in Nassau, or the Republic of Pirates, and author Johnson-Mist would later describe him as "Captain Jennings, who was [the Nassau pirates'] Commodore, and who always bore a great Sway among them, being a Man of good Understanding, and good Estate, before this Whim took him of going a Pyrating." The Republic of Pirates was dominated by Hornigold and Jennings, both famous pirates who were bitter rivals. At the start of 1716, Hornigold had proposed that he would lead the pirates of the Nassau Pirate Republic, with the pirates choosing the moniker "Flying Gang." With Hornigold mentor to pirates such as Edward "Blackbeard" Teach, Sam Bellamy and Stede Bonnet, Jennings mentored pirates such as Charles Vane, 'Calico' Jack Rackham, Anne Bonny, and Mary Read. Despite their rivalries, the pirates worked together through the 'Flying Gang' and quickly became infamous for their exploits. However, Nassau eye-witness John Vickers was not referring to Jennings or other Jamaican privateers as part of the Flying Gang by the summer of 1716.


title: Henry Jennings

text: Hamilton was arrested in October 1716 for the crime of violating treaties with the Spanish, and he left Jamaica on about September 22 to England, accompanied by a fleet of seventeen ships. The ships were afterwards separated by wind. On the journey in November 1716, the governor’s ship, "Hamilton Galley" with Captain Stone, was captured by Jennings with 134 men. They kept Stone for four days, but were recorded as having taken only twenty gallons of rum. Stone later related that his captors "treated him civil, & told him they hurt no English Men." Hamilton afterwards transferred to HMS "Bedford" for the remainder of the journey. The day after Stone was captured, another pirate tried to take Jennings, but he subdued the attempt. In December 1716 Jennings had his spoils transferred in Kingston. Details of Jennings life from this time have been reconstructed from the depositions of Peter Heywood, who became the new acting governor of Jamaica as Hamilton was removed.


title: Henry Jennings

text: The newly appointed Governor of the Bahamas, Woodes Rogers, issued a royal decree on September 5, 1717 which pardoned all pirates who surrendered within the year. In particular, the King's pardon allowed outlaws in the Bahamas to seek relief from British Authorities through a general amnesty declared. In early 1718, Jennings sailed to Bermuda to turn himself in, surrendering to authorities and accepting the reprieve. He was one of 400 pirates who took advantage of the amnesty, and, after serving as a privateer in the War of the Quadruple Alliance, retired to Bermuda to live the rest of his life "as a wealthy, respected member of society."


title: Henry Jennings

text: He retired as a wealthy plantation owner in Bermuda, and is one of very few pirates said to have enjoyed a successful retirement. It is unknown what his ultimate fate was, though some historians speculate that he was captured by the Spanish in his later years, dying in obscurity in a New Spain prison. Other legends have him growing old with his family in Bermuda.


title: Origin (TV series)

text: Origin is an American science fiction drama series created by Mika Watkins that premiered on November 14, 2018, on YouTube Premium. Watkins also serves as a writer for the series and executive produces alongside Andy Harries, Rob Bullock, Suzanne Mackie, Josh Appelbaum, André Nemec, Jeff Pinkner, and Scott Rosenberg. On March 25, 2019, YouTube cancelled the series after one season.


title: Origin (TV series)

text: "Origin" follows "a group of strangers stranded on a spacecraft bound for a distant planet. The abandoned passengers must work together for survival, but quickly realize that one of them is far from who they claim to be."


title: Origin (TV series)

text: On October 26, 2017, it was announced that YouTube had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes set to premiere in 2018. The series was created by Mika Watkins who was also expected to serve as a writer and executive producer alongside Andy Harries, Rob Bullock, and Suzanne Mackie from Left Bank and Josh Appelbaum, André Nemec, Jeff Pinkner and Scott Rosenberg. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Midnight Radio, Left Bank Pictures, CiTVC, and Sony Pictures Television.


title: Origin (TV series)

text: On January 24, 2018, it was reported that the series would premiere sometime around the end of 2018. On April 26, 2018, it was announced that Paul W. S. Anderson would direct the series' first two episodes. On August 27, 2018, it was announced on the show's official Twitter account that the series would premiere on November 14, 2018. On March 25, 2019, it was confirmed that YouTube had cancelled the series.


title: Origin (TV series)

text: On April 26, 2018, it was announced that Natalia Tena, Tom Felton, Sen Mitsuji, Nora Arnezeder, Fraser James, Philipp Christopher, Madalyn Horcher, and Siobhán Cullen had been cast as series regulars and that Adelayo Adedayo, Nina Wadia, Johannes Johannesson, Wil Coban, and Tara Fitzgerald would also appear in the series.


title: Origin (TV series)

text: On July 19, 2018, a teaser trailer for the series was released. On October 4, 2018, the first full-length trailer was released.


title: Origin (TV series)

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series was holding a 69% approval rating with an average rating of 6.2 out of 10 based on 16 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Origin"s overstuffed space drama mimics many genre classics to varying degrees of success; thankfully, its stellar cast and withholding premise are intriguing enough to encourage exploring its mysterious -- if familiar -- corridors."


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: Aladdin is a Disney media franchise comprising a film series and additional media. It began with the 1992 American animated feature of the same name, which was based on the tale of the same name, and was directed by Ron Clements and John Musker. The success of the film led to two direct-to-video sequels, a television series (which had a crossover episode with "Hercules: The Animated Series"), a Broadway musical, a live-action film adaptation, various rides and themed areas in Disney's theme parks, several video games, and merchandise, among other related works.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: "Aladdin" was released in 1992. The 31st Disney animated feature film was directed by John Musker and Ron Clements, and is based on the Arabic folktale of "Aladdin and the Magic Lamp" from the "One Thousand and One Nights". The plot follows street urchin Aladdin as he attempts to gain the affection of Princess Jasmine after acquiring a magic lamp.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: "Aladdin" was followed by Disney's first direct-to-video sequel, "The Return of Jafar" in 1994. The plot mainly focused on Jafar seeking revenge on Aladdin. However, this time, with Iago on Aladdin's side, Abis Mal becomes Jafar's new henchman. Now, Aladdin and co. must find a way to thwart Jafar, with his limitless genie power.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: In 1996, the second sequel to "Aladdin", "Aladdin and the King of Thieves" was released on video. The story concludes as Aladdin and Jasmine are about to have their wedding and Aladdin discovers that his father is still alive, but is the leader of the Forty Thieves.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: In 2005, screenwriter Robert Reece, who co-wrote "" and "", pitched a fourth "Aladdin" feature to DisneyToon Studios execs, although it never came to fruition. In 2007, DisneyToon Studios produced "Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams", a crossover film with "Sleeping Beauty". The second half of the film, "More Than a Peacock Princess", follows Princess Jasmine, sometime after the events of "Aladdin and the King of Thieves" as she becomes tired and bored of her usual princess duties, and upon requesting more responsibility from her father, is assigned the role of Royal Assistant Educator.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: A live-action "Aladdin" movie was released on May 24, 2019, directed by Guy Ritchie with John August as the writer and Dan Lin and Jonathan Eirich as the producers and stars Mena Massoud as Aladdin, Naomi Scott as Princess Jasmine, Marwan Kenzari as Jafar and Will Smith as Genie.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: On August 12, 2019, producer Dan Lin announced his enthusiasm for a sequel and revealed that Disney is in the early stages of developing a follow-up. The studio also hopes to bring back Guy Ritchie to direct and Will Smith to reprise his role as The Genie while also telling a story that's "fresh and new". On February 12, 2020, it was announced that Ritchie will be returning as director with Lin and Jonathan Eirich returning as producers. In addition, Ryan Halprin joined the film as executive producer.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: On December 6, 2019, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Disney was in the early stages of developing a spin-off of "Aladdin" for Disney+ centered on Prince Anders, tentatively titled "Prince Anders", with Jordan Dunn and Michael Kvamme writing the script and Billy Magnussen reprising his role.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: On July 15, 2015, it was reported that a live-action prequel to "Aladdin" (2019) was in development under the title "Genies". The new film will reportedly focus on genies and their realm and reveal how Aladdin's genie ended up in the lamp. The film was being written by Damian Shannon and Mark Swift. Tripp Vinson was to serve as a producer through Vinson Films.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: Shortly after "The Return of Jafar", an animated series was produced. The episodes focused on Aladdin's adventures after the events of the second film.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: The "Aladdin" characters later made a crossover with "Hercules: The Animated Series", and were featured as guests in the television series "House of Mouse" and related works to those series—Jafar was the leader of the villains in "Mickey's House of Villains".


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: "Descendants" is a live-action Disney Channel Original film series based on the lives of the children of various Disney heroes and villains when they attend the same prep school. Jafar appears in the first film as does his son, Jay, who additionally appears its two sequels.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: Agrabah is a fictional sultanate that serves as the setting for the "Aladdin" franchise. "Aladdin" was initially intended to be set in the Iraqi city of Baghdad, but after the Gulf War happened, the name Agrabah was chosen as an approximate anagram of the name of the city of Baghdad.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: Along with the film release, three different video games based on "Aladdin" were released. "Disney's Aladdin", an international co-production between Virgin Games and Walt Disney Feature Animation for the Genesis, was released in late 1993 and later ported to Nintendo Entertainment System, PC, Game Boy and Game Boy Color. That same year, Capcom released a Super NES game, also called "Disney's Aladdin", which was ported to the Game Boy Advance in 2002. In 1994, SIMS released another game called "Disney's Aladdin" for the Game Gear and Master System. These video games based on the original "Aladdin" film earned in sales revenue.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: The television series inspired another game by Argonaut Games, entitled "Aladdin: Nasira's Revenge" and released in 2000 for the PlayStation and PC. Also, in 2004 Vivendi Universal released "Disney's Aladdin Chess Adventures", a chess computer game with the Aladdin license.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: The "Kingdom Hearts" series features a playable "Aladdin" world known as Agrabah. In "Kingdom Hearts" and "", the plotline is loosely related to the storyline of the original film. In "Kingdom Hearts II", it is a mixture of "Aladdin" and "The Return of Jafar". Genie is also a recurring summon in the series.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: Aladdin, Jasmine, and the Genie appeared in the 2011 motion-controlled game, "", as meet-and-greet characters. "Aladdin" was also referenced throughout the "Disney Infinity" series via power discs and in-game toys, with Aladdin and Jasmine being added to the series as playable characters in the series' second game, "Disney Infinity 2.0".


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: During a limited time Event focused on "Aladdin", the world builder game "Disney Magic Kingdoms" included Aladdin, Jasmine, Genie, Abu, Carpet, Jafar and Iago as playable characters, along with some attractions based on the franchise, and costumes of Prince Ali and Purple Dress for Aladdin and Jasmine, respectively. The Sultan and Rajah were also included as playable characters in a later update of the game. In the game the characters are involved in new storylines that serve as a continuation of the "Aladdin" animated film (ignoring other material in the franchise).


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: "Disney's Aladdin" was developed for the Mega Drive by Virgin Interactive's studio of Virgin Games USA and published by Sega in 1993. This was due to the fact that Sega had both obtained a license for publishing video games based on Disney's motion picture and established a collaboration deal with Disney's animation studios which was a first in the video game industry, so Sega of America tasked the Virgin Games USA development team with the programming duties because of their successful previous efforts with McDonald's "Global Gladiators" and 7 Up's "Cool Spot". The game has been noted for its use of traditional animation, which was produced by Disney animators under the supervision of Virgin's animation staff, including animation producer Andy Luckey, technical director Paul Schmiedeke and animation director Mike Dietz, using an in-house "Digicel" process to compress the data onto the cartridge. The game also featured arrangements and original compositions composed by Donald S. Griffin.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: was developed for the Super NES and published by Capcom separately from Virgin's version, since Capcom still held Disney licensing rights for Nintendo consoles at the time of the film's release. Although the game is still a side-scrolling platformer, it is significantly different in both presentation and gameplay. Similarly following the movie's storyline, players control Aladdin as he jumps on enemies, vaults off stumps and performs various acrobatic feats to get through levels. Throughout the level, Aladdin can collect apples to throw at enemies and golden scarabs which unlock bonus stages. Throughout each level there are various diamonds (collecting all within a level also unlocking bonus stages), with players able to unlock an extra challenge if they collect 70 red diamonds. The game was later ported to the Game Boy Advance with extra stages, though all the songs based directly on the original movie were replaced with new music, possibly because of copyright reasons. It was also unofficially ported to the NES in 1995 by Hummer Team.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: "Disney's Aladdin" was developed by SIMS and published by Sega, and released in 1994 for the Game Gear worldwide and for the Master System in Europe. Sega went on to produce this game since they already had the necessary intellectual property licensing rights in order to publish the Virgin Interactive game on the Mega Drive/Genesis. The game is also significantly different in gameplay compared to its Mega Drive counterpart. There are three main types of level, chase levels in which Aladdin must outrun enemies while dodging obstacles, exploration levels in which Aladdin must carefully navigate traps and solve puzzles, similar to "Prince of Persia", and carpet levels in which Aladdin rides his flying carpet. It also, unlike its 16-bit counterparts, fairly closely follow the plot of the movie, even including cut scenes containing entire dialogue scenes from the movie.


title: Aladdin (franchise)

text: "Aladdin the Series: Tower of Gold Adventure" is a handheld electronic game that was developed and published by Tiger Electronics in 1994 in the United States. It is based on the television series of the same name.