title: At-Tawbah

text: Al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210), on this occasion quoted an early exegetical authority, Abū Rawq (d. 140/757), who explained that this verse was not a unilateral condemnation of all Jews and Christians, but those "who do not heed the prescriptions contained in the Torah and the Gospel, respectively". Similarly Al-Qurṭubī (d. 671/1273) "did not read into Qurān 9:29 a wholesale denunciation of the People of the Book as an undifferentiated collectivity". Modern Muslim scholars like Muhammad Abduh shared similar views, agreeing that this verse was revealed on the occasion of the military campaign in Tabuk, and this verse specifically deals with the People of the Book", and also that "the only kind of legitimate war on which there is unanimity among Muslim scholars is the defensive war when proclaimed by the Imām in the event of an attack upon Muslim territory". The Grand Imam of al-Azhar from 1935 to 1945, Mustafa Al-Maraghi, notes that 9:29 means: "fight those mentioned when the conditions which necessitate fighting are present, namely, aggression against you or your country, oppression and persecution against you on account of your faith, or threatening your safety and security, as was committed against you by the Byzantines, which was what led to Tabuk."


title: At-Tawbah

text: In Kitab al-Kafi, Ja'far al-Sadiq has narrated that Imams are not needy to what people own but rather collect religious tax on accord that Allah said, "Take from their wealth (religious tax) and charity by which you purify them and cause them to increase and invoke blessings upon them." Therefore, it is the people who need that the Imam accepts from them.


title: At-Tawbah

text: Verses 122-129 are preserved in Folio 22 of the Sanaa manuscript. The sequence of Sanaa 1 chapters do not follow any other known quranic order and folio 22 is shared with Chapter 19 (Mary). Saudi-based experts in Quranic history emphasize that while Muhammad was alive, Quranic texts did not follow any standard sequence of surahs.


title: At-Tawbah

text: The first and foremost exegesis/tafsir of the Qur'an is found in hadith of Muhammad. Ḥadīth (حديث) is literally "speech" or "report", that is a recorded saying or tradition of Muhammad validated by isnad; with Sirah Rasul Allah these comprise the sunnah and reveal shariah. According to Aishah, the life of Muhammad was practical implementation of Qur'an. Therefore, higher count of hadith elevates the importance of the pertinent surah from a certain perspective. This surah was held in special esteem in hadith, which can be observed by these related narratives.


title: At-Tawbah

text: The idea of textual relation between the verses of a chapter has been discussed under various titles such as "nazm" and "munasabah" in non-English literature and "coherence", "text relations", "intertextuality", and "unity" in English literature. Hamiduddin Farahi, an Islamic scholar of the Indian subcontinent, is known for his work on the concept of nazm, or coherence, in the Quran. Fakhruddin al-Razi (died 1209 CE), Zarkashi (died 1392) and several other classical as well as contemporary Quranic scholars have contributed to the studies. The entire Qur'an thus emerges as a well-connected and systematic book. Each division has a distinct theme. Topics within a division are more or less in the order of revelation. Within each division, each member of the pair complements the other in various ways. The seven divisions are as follows:


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Second Lieutenant Arun Khetarpal PVC (14 October 1950 – 16 December 1971) born in Pune, Maharashtra, was an officer of the Indian Army and a posthumous recipient of the Param Vir Chakra, India's highest military decoration for valour in face of the enemy. He was killed in action in the Battle of Basantar in the Battlefield of Shakargarh during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 where his actions earned him his honour.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Arun Khetarpal was born in Pune, Maharashtra on 14 October 1950 into a Hindu Punjabi Khatri family. His family belonged to Sargodha, in present-day Pakistan, and had migrated to India after partition as refugees. His father Lt Col (later Brigadier) M. L. Khetarpal was a Corps of Engineers officer serving in the Indian Army and his family traced a long history of military service, with his grandfather having fought in WW1 and great-grandfather having served in Sikh Khalsa Army. Attending Rashtriya Military School, he distinguished himself both as an able student and sportsman and was the school prefect. Khetarpal joined the National Defence Academy in June 1967. He belonged to Foxtrot Squadron where he was the Squadron Cadet Captain of the 38th Course. His NDA No was 7498/F/38. He subsequently went on to join the Indian Military Academy. In June 1971, Khetarpal was commissioned into the 17 Poona Horse.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: During the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971, the 17 Poona Horse was assigned to the command of the 47th Infantry Brigade of the Indian Army. Through the duration of the conflict, the 47th Brigade saw action in the Shakargarh sector in the Battle of Basantar.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Among the tasks set for the 47th Brigade was to establish a bridgehead across the River Basantar. By 21:00 hours of 15 December, the brigade had captured its objectives. However, the place was extensively mined, which prevented the deployment of the tanks of the Poona Horse, and the engineers clearing the mines were halfway through their tasks when Indian troops at the bridge-head reported alarming enemy armour activity, asking for immediate armour support. It was at this critical juncture that the 17 Poona Horse decided to push through the mine-field. The regiment was able to link-up with the infantry at the bridge-head by first light the next day.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: At 08:00 hours on 9 December, Pakistani armour launched the first of their counter-attacks under the cover of a smokescreen at the pivot of the 17th Poona Horse at Jarpal. At 08:00 hours, the Pakistani 13th Lancers, equipped with the then state-of-the-art US-made 50 ton Patton tanks, launched the first of their counter-attacks under the cover of a smokescreen at 'B' Squadron, The Poona Horse, at Jarpal. Its squadron commander urgently called for reinforcements. Arun Khetarpal, who was in 'A' squadron and was stationed close by with his Centurion tank troop, responded with alacrity, as did the rest of his regiment. The first counter-attack was decimated by accurate gunnery, coolness by Indian tank troop and individual tank commanders from the CO, Lt Col Hanut Singh down to its troop leader, Arun Khetarpal. The 13th Lancers desperately launched two more squadron-level counter-attacks and managed to achieve a breakthrough.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Khetarpal rushed to meet the Pakistani armour and launched right into the Pakistani attack. With his troop, he was able to run over the enemy advance with his tanks. However, the commander of the second tank was killed in this attack. Alone in charge, Khetarpal continued his attack on the enemy strongholds. The enemy fought very bravely and did not retreat even after taking losses. Disappointed by his failure so far, he desperately attacked the incoming Pakistani troops and tanks, knocking out a Pakistani tank in the process. However Pakistani forces regrouped and counter-attacked. In the ensuing tank battle, Lt. Arun Khetarpal with his 2 remaining tanks fought off and destroyed 10 tanks before he was killed in action.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: The skirmish however took its toll on the lieutenant as he was hit by enemy fire, but instead of abandoning the tank he fought on destroying one final tank before he was finally overwhelmed. However, his actions had denied a vital breakthrough for Pakistani forces and instead put the Indians in a stronger position in the Shakargarh bulge. His final words over the radio to a superior officer who had ordered him to abandon his burning tank were,


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Khetarpal's body and his tank, named "Famagusta", were later captured by Pakistan and eventually returned to the Indian military. This tank is on display back in India now.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: For his conspicuous bravery and extreme gallantry in the face of fierce and unrelenting attacks and assaults by the enemy (the Pakistani military), Khetarpal was honoured with India's most-prestigious and highest-standard military medal for courage and gallantry, the Param Vir Chakra, posthumously.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Arun Khetarpal's body was cremated on 17 December near the Samba district and his ashes were sent to his family, who were unaware of his death until 26 December.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: The crew of the "Famagusta" was Sowar Prayag Singh (the driver), Sowar Nand Singh (the radio operator), Sowar Nathu Singh (the gunner) and 2nd/Lt. Arun Khetarpal, the tank's commander. Nand Singh was first casualty (killed in action; KIA) when the tank was fatally hit in the final encounter with Pakistani Army Major Nasser's Patton tank. Arun was the second one to be killed after he sustained severe injuries when his tank was knocked out and eventually succumbed to his wounds. Both Prayag Singh and Nathu Singh were also badly wounded but survived and were captured by Pakistani troops who seized the "Famagusta". Both men were later given medical treatment by their Pakistani captors and survived to the end of the war when they were repatriated and retired from the Indian Army as honorary captains.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Khetrapal is an iconic figure in the ethos of the Indian Army with prominent constructions being named after him. The parade ground at NDA is named Khetarpal Ground while the auditorium and one of the main gates bear his name at the IMA.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Arun Khetarpal's Centurion was called Famagusta Jx 202. It was restored after the war and is presently preserved in the Armoured Corps Centre and School in Ahmednagar.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: The Commander of the Pakistan tank battalion is said to have met the Indian battalion commander after the battle and made enquiries about 2nd Lieutenant Khetarpal's tank since he was very impressed with the gallantry of this particular tank's commander.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: In 2001, Brigadier M.L. Khetarpal – then 81 years old – felt a strong desire to visit his birthplace at Sargodha, now in Pakistan. At Lahore airport, Brigadier M.L. Khetarpal was met by Brigadier Khawja Mohammad Naser, who took it upon himself to be Brigadier M.L. Khetarpal host and guide. Brigadier Naser really went out of way to ensure that Brigadier M.L. Khetarpal had a satisfying and nostalgic visit to his old house in Sargodha. Upon his return to Lahore he was once again the guest of Brigadier Naser for three days.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Brigadier M.L. Khetarpal was overwhelmed by the extreme kindness, deference, courtesy and respect bestowed upon him by Brigadier Naser and by all the members of his family and his many servants. However Brigadier Khetarpal felt that something was amiss but could not make out what it was. Was it the long silences that punctuated their animated conversation or was it the look of compassion in the eyes of the women in the family? He could not make out but was sure he was being treated as someone very special.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: Brigadier M.L. Khetarpal was silent as he did not know how to react. To be enjoying the hospitality of the person who had killed his son was a confusing feeling. However being a soldier himself he genuinely admired the chivalry of an officer whose complete squadron was decimated by his son. Both the Brigadiers retired for the night deep in thought.


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: The next day photographs were taken and Brigadier M.L. Khetarpal returned to Delhi. Later the photos reached Delhi along with a note from Brigadier Naser that said:


title: Arun Khetarpal

text: A biopic on Arun Khetarpal is being directed by Sriram Raghavan displaying his courage in the 1971 Battle of Basantar. Actor Varun Dhawan will be playing the lead role in the film.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Charles Edward Finley (born November 26, 1962) is an American retired professional baseball pitcher. He pitched from 1986 to 2002 for three teams in Major League Baseball (MLB), primarily with the California Angels (later renamed the Anaheim Angels). After a 14-year tenure with the Angels, he played for the Cleveland Indians for two-and-a-half seasons, then was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals and played there for a half-season. Listed at and , he threw and batted left-handed. During a 17-year major-league career, Finley compiled 200 wins, 2,610 strikeouts, and a 3.85 earned run average. He holds multiple Angels team records for a career, including games started (379), wins (165), losses (140), and innings pitched (2,675).


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley was born in Monroe, Louisiana, and pitched for West Monroe High School. After first playing college baseball for Louisiana Tech University, he transferred to Northeast Louisiana University. His ability to pitch for more than two or three innings was initially limited by mechanical issues, as his delivery at this time was "crude" and inconsistent. He was selected by the California Angels in the 15th round of the 1984 MLB draft, held in June, but he did not sign. The Angels chose Finley again with the fourth overall pick of the secondary phase of the draft, held in January 1985. After pitching for Northeast Louisiana during the spring, he signed with the Angels by late May.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley began his professional baseball career in 1985 with the minor league Salem Angels, a Class A Short Season team in the Northwest League. In 18 appearances, all in relief, he recorded a 4.66 earned run average (ERA) and a 3–1 win–loss record while earning five saves. In 1986, he made 10 relief appearances for the Quad Cities Angels of the Class A Midwest League, allowing only four hits and no earned runs in 12 innings pitched while striking out 16 batters and notching six saves. He was called up to the major-league Angels in late May.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley made his MLB debut with the Angels on May 29, 1986, during a 7–4 loss to the Detroit Tigers. In relief of starting pitcher Don Sutton, Finley allowed two runs on two hits in one inning pitched. He also recorded his first major-league strikeout, coming against Pat Sheridan. Finley made a total of 25 appearances, all in relief, with the 1986 Angels, pitching to a 3.30 ERA and a 3–1 record while striking out 37 batters in innings. In his only postseason appearances with the Angels, Finley played in three games of the 1986 American League Championship Series against the Boston Red Sox, allowing just one hit in two innings pitched.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley pitched to a 2–7 record with a 4.67 ERA in 1987, appearing in 35 games including three starts at the end of the season. The 32 relief appearances he made were the last of his major league career, as he was subsequently used exclusively as a starter. During 1988, Finley made 31 starts, accruing a 9–15 record with 4.17 ERA. His first MLB win as a starting pitcher came on April 13, a 5–2 win over the Chicago White Sox, and later that month he recorded his first complete game, a 6–1 win over the Toronto Blue Jays on April 30.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley was selected to the MLB All-Star Game in both 1989 and 1990. In the former season, he was 16–9 in 29 starts with a 2.57 ERA, while in the latter season he was 18–9 with a career-low 2.40 ERA in 32 starts. He received one vote in 1990 Cy Young Award balloting for the American League (AL), with the award going to Bob Welch of the Oakland Athletics. Finley again was 18–9 in 1991, albeit with a higher ERA of 3.80. His ERA further increased to 3.96 in 1992, and his record fell to 7–12.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley led the major leagues in complete games in 1993, with 13, en route to a 16–14 record with a 3.15 ERA in a career-high innings pitched. In the strike-shortened 1994 season, he led the AL in starts (25) and innings pitched () while going 10–10 with a 4.32 ERA. Finley was selected to his third and fourth MLB All-Star Games in 1995 and 1996, winning 15 games each season, against 12 losses in 1995 with a 4.21 ERA, and 16 losses in 1996 with a 4.16 ERA. Finley became a free agent for the first time following the 1995 season, and was re-signed by the Angels.


title: Chuck Finley

text: In 1997, the team changed its name from California Angels to Anaheim Angels. During spring training, Finley was struck by a bat and sustained a broken orbital bone under his right eye. He made two rehabilitation starts, with the Class A-Advanced Lake Elsinore Storm of the California League. For the major-league season, he registered a 4.23 ERA and 13–6 record with the Angels. In 1998, he was 11–9 with a 3.39 ERA. During the 1999 season, Finley made 33 starts, compiling a 12–11 record with a 4.43 ERA. Finley also became the first pitcher in major league history to record four strikeouts in a single inning more than once, accomplishing the feat for the Angels on May 12 and August 15; he later accomplished it for a third time on April 16, 2000.


title: Chuck Finley

text: After the 1999 season, Finley again became a free agent, and did not return to the Angels. In his 14 seasons with the team, he accrued an overall record of 165–140 with 3.72 ERA in 2,675 innings pitched; he won 15 or more games six times and pitched over 200 innings eight times.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley signed with the Cleveland Indians in mid-December 1999. In 2000, he went 16–11 with a 4.17 ERA and was named an MLB All-Star for the fifth and final time of his career. In January 2001, Finley underwent arthroscopic knee surgery, and went on the disabled list twice during the season for neck and shoulder spasms. He made two rehabilitation appearances with the Akron Aeros of the Double-A Eastern League, and in 22 appearances with Cleveland posted an 8–7 record with a 5.54 ERA. In the 2001 American League Division Series, Finley started two games against the Seattle Mariners, losing both and pitching to a 7.27 ERA. In 2002, he was 4–11 in 18 starts for Cleveland with a 4.44 ERA before being traded.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals on July 19, 2002, for minor-league outfielder Luis Garcia and a player to be named later. Outfielder Coco Crisp was sent to Cleveland in early August to complete the deal, making his MLB debut later that month. Finley went 7–4 with a 3.80 ERA in 14 starts through the remainder of the season. In the 2002 postseason, Finley started one game of the 2002 National League Division Series, getting a no decision as the Cardinals swept the Arizona Diamondbacks. In the 2002 National League Championship Series, he won his only start, a 5–4 win over the San Francisco Giants in Game 3, as the Cardinals were eliminated in five games.


title: Chuck Finley

text: In November 2002, Finley filed for free agency. He remained unsigned into the 2003 season, and did not play again professionally. Overall, during his 17 seasons in MLB, Finley compiled a record of 200–173 with a 3.85 ERA and 1.376 WHIP. Defensively, he had a .907 fielding percentage, while offensively he had three hits in 53 at bats for an .057 batting average. He was only ejected from two MLB games, one each in 1990 and 1991.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley was married to actress Tawny Kitaen from 1997 to 2002. They had two daughters, Wynter and Raine. Finley and Kitaen were featured together in the 1999 "Sports Illustrated" Swimsuit Issue.


title: Chuck Finley

text: On April 4, 2002, Finley filed for divorce three days after Kitaen was charged with committing domestic violence against him, twisting his ear and having beaten him repeatedly with a stiletto heel in the arm, leg and foot while he was driving a car in Orange County, California, two weeks earlier. In the divorce filings, he stated, "I am fearful that (Kitaen)... will harm herself or will harm others, including me or including my children." He received a temporary restraining order preventing her from seeing him and he received temporary custody of the children. During hearings on the domestic violence charge of spousal abuse, Kitaen initially pleaded not guilty but admitted that she was addicted to prescription medications which she had taken for two years for migraines, and voluntarily both entered substance abuse treatment and attended anger management classes for 52 weeks to get the charges dropped. Tawny Finley, in a declaration to the Orange County Superior Court, claimed Finley used steroids, among other drugs. She also claimed he bragged about being able to circumvent MLB's testing policy. When told of his wife's accusations, which also included heavy marijuana use and alcohol abuse, Finley replied: "I can't believe she left out the cross-dressing."


title: Chuck Finley

text: As Finley took the mound for a April 16, 2002, road game against the Chicago White Sox, the Comiskey Park musical director took a subtle dig at Finley's messy divorce, and played "Here I Go Again" by the band Whitesnake, referencing Kitaen's appearance in that band's videos and her previous marriage to the band's lead singer, David Coverdale. Lasting only innings, Finley gave up nine runs (eight earned) including two home runs. The musical director was later fired, and the White Sox apologized.


title: Chuck Finley

text: In the show "Burn Notice", the character Sam Axe, played by Bruce Campbell, frequently uses the alias Chuck Finley (or Charles Finley for more sophisticated circumstances), which is said to be chosen by Sam because he successfully bet on Chuck Finley many times. Reportedly, Campbell's father was once friends with a coworker also named Chuck Finley.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley became eligible for the National Baseball Hall of Fame as of 2008; he received one vote, and was dropped from future consideration for falling below the 5% threshold required to remain on the ballot.


title: Chuck Finley

text: Finley was inducted to the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 2006. In November 2007, the Louisiana–Monroe Warhawks baseball program (known as Northeast Louisiana when Finley played there) retired Finley's no. 31 jersey; he was previously inducted to the university's hall of fame in 1996. Finley was inducted to the Angels Hall of Fame on August 27, 2009.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul (; also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants) is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region. It is from the Guatemalan border. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul was a major Maya power within the northern Petén Basin region of the Yucatán Peninsula of southern Mexico. Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign, to be read "Kaan". Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Kingdom of the Snake or Snake Kingdom. This Snake Kingdom reigned during most of the Classic period. Calakmul itself is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 people and had governance, at times, over places as far away as 150 kilometers (93 mi). There are 6,750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul, the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site. Structure 2 is over high, making it one of the tallest of the Maya pyramids. Four tombs have been located within the pyramid. Like many temples or pyramids within Mesoamerica the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the existing temple to reach its current size. The size of the central monumental architecture is approximately and the whole of the site, mostly covered with dense residential structures, is about .


title: Calakmul

text: Throughout the , Calakmul maintained an intense rivalry with the major city of Tikal to the south, and the political maneuverings of these two cities have been likened to a struggle between two Maya superpowers.


title: Calakmul

text: Rediscovered from the air by biologist Cyrus L. Lundell of the Mexican Exploitation Chicle Company on December 29, 1931, the find was reported to Sylvanus G. Morley of the Carnegie Institute at Chichen Itza in March 1932.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul is a modern name; according to Cyrus L. Lundell, who named the site. In Maya, "ca" means "two", "lak" means "adjacent", and "mul" signifies any artificial mound or pyramid, so "Calakmul" is the "City of the Two Adjacent Pyramids". In ancient times the city core was known as "Ox Te' Tuun", meaning "Three Stones". Another name associated with the site, and perhaps a larger area around it, is "Chiik Naab"'. The lords of Calakmul identified themselves as "k'uhul kaanal ajaw", Divine Lords of the Snake, but the connection of the title to the actual site is ambiguous.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul is located in Campeche state in southeastern Mexico, about north of the border with Guatemala and north of the ruins of El Mirador. The ruins of El Tintal are to the southwest of Calakmul and were linked to both El Mirador and Calakmul itself by causeway. Calakmul was about south of the contemporary city of Oxpemul and approximately southwest of La Muñeca. The city is located on a rise about above a large seasonal swamp lying to the west, known as the El Laberinto "bajo" (a Spanish word used in the region to denote a low-lying area of seasonal marshland). This swamp measures approximately and was an important source of water during the rainy season. The "bajo" was linked to a sophisticated water-control system including both natural and artificial features such as gullies and canals that encircled a area around the site core, an area considered as Inner Calakmul. The location of Calakmul at the edge of a "bajo" provided two additional advantages: the fertile soils along the edge of the swamp and access to abundant flint nodules. The city is situated on a promontory formed by a natural high limestone dome rising above the surrounding lowlands. This dome was artificially levelled by the Maya. During the Preclassic and Classic periods settlement was concentrated along the edge of the El Laberinto "bajo", during the Classic period structures were also built on high ground and small islands in the swamp where flint was worked.


title: Calakmul

text: At the beginning of the 21st century the area around Calakmul remained covered by dense forest. During the 1st millennium AD the area received moderate and regular rainfall, although there is less surface water available than further south in Guatemala. Calakumul is now located within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. The area conserved within the Reserve was conceptualized by the Centro de Investigaciones Historicas y Sociales de Universidad Autónomous de Campeche (CIHS/UAC).


title: Calakmul

text: At its height in the Late Classic period the city is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 inhabitants and to have covered an area of over . The city was the capital of a large regional state with an area of about . During the Terminal Classic the city's population declined dramatically and the rural population plummeted to 10% of its former level.


title: Calakmul

text: The Late Classic population density of Calakmul has been calculated at 1000/km² (2564 per square mile) in the site core and 420/km² (1076 per square mile) in the periphery (an area of . Calakmul was a true urban city and not just an elite centre surrounded by commoner residences. The site core of Calakmul was known in ancient times as Ox Te' Tuun ("Three Stones") which may have been because of the triadic pyramid Structure 2.


title: Calakmul

text: The Calakmul kingdom included 20 secondary centres, among which were large cities such as La Muñeca, Naachtun, Sasilha, Oxpemul and Uxul. The total population of these secondary centres has been estimated at 200,000. The kingdom also included a large number of tertiary and quaternary sites, mostly fairly small and consisting of a number of groups arranged around courtyards, although there are also larger rural sites situated on ridges along the edges of the "bajos" that include temples, palaces and stelae. The total rural population of the kingdom is calculated at 1.5 million people. The entire population of the Calakmul kingdom, including the city itself and the rural population in the area of the regional state, is calculated at 1.75 million people in the Late Classic period.


title: Calakmul

text: The Emblem Glyph of Calakmul has a greater distribution than the Emblem Glyph of any other Maya city. The Glyph is also found in more hieroglyphic texts than any other Emblem Glyph, including that of Tikal. Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign, to be read "Kaan". Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Snake Kingdom. At times the city had governance over places as far away as 150 kilometers.


title: Calakmul

text: At Calakmul's peak in the 7th century, the polity was known as Kan. The Preclassic political state in the Mirador Basin also used the title Kan. There is the idea that, after the collapse of the Mirador state, its refugees migrated north towards Calakmul, where they founded a new Kan polity. However, epigraphical studies of the monuments at Calakmul show that prior to the 7th century AD the emblem glyph of Calakmul had nothing to do with a snake, but with a bat. It seems that a different polity ruled there. The Kan emblem glyph, before being associated with Calakmul, is found (once) at Dzibanché, a site more towards the east. Perhaps during the late 6th/early 7th century, the polity at Dzibanché moved to Calakmul in order to establish a more strategically placed capital. After Calakmul's power dwindled in the 8th century, after the rule of Yuknoom Took K'awiil, it appears that the bat emblem glyph made its resurgence. Still, many uncertainties remain and new epigraphical studies have to be done to fill the gaps.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul has a long occupational history and excavations have revealed evidence from the Middle Preclassic right through to the Postclassic. The causeway network that linked Calakmul with the cities of El Mirador, Nakbe and El Tintal suggest strong political links between the four cities that may have begun in the Preclassic, when both Calakmul and El Mirador were important cities, and continued into the Classic period when Calakmul itself was the most powerful city in the region. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands.


title: Calakmul

text: The history of the Maya Classic period is dominated by the rivalry between Tikal and Calakmul, likened to a struggle between two Maya "superpowers". Earlier times tended to be dominated by a single larger city and by the Early Classic Tikal was moving into this position after the dominance of El Mirador in the Late Preclassic and Nakbe in the Middle Preclassic. However Calakmul was a rival city with equivalent resources that challenged the supremacy of Tikal and engaged in a strategy of surrounding it with its own network of allies. From the second half of the 6th century AD through to the late 7th century Calakmul gained the upper hand although it failed to extinguish Tikal's power completely and Tikal was able to turn the tables on its great rival in a decisive battle that took place in AD 695. Half a century later Tikal was able to gain major victories over Calakmul's most important allies. Eventually both cities succumbed to the spreading Classic Maya collapse.


title: Calakmul

text: The great rivalry between these two cities may have been based on more than competition for resources. Their dynastic histories reveal different origins and the intense competition between the two powers may have had an ideological grounding. Calakmul's dynasty seems ultimately derived from the great Preclassic city of El Mirador while the dynasty of Tikal was profoundly affected by the intervention of the distant central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan. With few exceptions, Tikal's monuments and those of its allies place great emphasis upon single male rulers while the monuments of Calakmul and its allies gave greater prominence to the female line and often the joint rule of king and queen.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul was already a large city in the Preclassic period. The early history of Calakmul is obscure, although a dynastic list has been pieced together that extends back into an ancestral past. This dynasty has been reconstructed in part from Late Classic ceramics from the region of great Preclassic cities of El Mirador and Nakbe. This may mean that Calakmul ultimately inherited its political authority from one of these cities, with its dynasty originating in the Late Preclassic in the Mirador Basin and relocating itself to Calakmul in the Classic period after the collapse of these cities.


title: Calakmul

text: Both Calakmul and Tikal were sizeable Preclassic cities that survived into the Classic Period. Early hieroglyphic texts from stelae found in Structure 2 record the probable enthronement of a king of Calakmul in AD 411 and also records a non-royal site ruler in 514. After this there is a gap in the hieroglyphic records that lasts over a century, although the Kaan dynasty experienced a major expansion of its power at this time. The lack of inscriptions recording the events of this period may be either due to the fact that the Kaan dynasty was located elsewhere during this time or perhaps that the monuments were later destroyed.


title: Calakmul

text: The earliest legible texts referring to the kings of the Kaan dynasty come from excavations of the large city of Dzibanche in Quintana Roo, far north of Calakmul. A hieroglyphic stairway depicts bound captives, their names and the dates they were captured together with the name of king Yuknoom Che'en I, although the exact context of the king's name is unclear - the captives may have been his vassals captured by an enemy or they may have been rulers captured by the king of Calakmul. The dates are uncertain but two of them may fall within the 5th century AD. The nearby Quintana Roo site of El Resbalón has a jumbled hieroglyphic text, including a date in 529, that indicates that the city was within the control of the Kaan dynasty.


title: Calakmul

text: By the middle of the 6th century AD Calakmul was assembling a far-reaching political alliance, activity that brought the city into conflict with the great city of Tikal. The influence of Calakmul extended deep into the Petén; king Tuun K'ab' Hix of Calakmul oversaw the enthronement of Aj Wosal to the rulership of Naranjo in 546. Another vassal of Tuun K'ab' Hix was taken captive by Yaxchilan on the banks of the Usumacinta River in 537.


title: Calakmul

text: In 561, the king now known as Sky Witness installed a ruler at the site of Los Alacranes. Sky Witness played a major part in the political events of the Maya region. He became the overlord of the city of Caracol, to the south of Naranjo, which had previously been a vassal of Tikal. In 562, according to a damaged text at Caracol, Sky Witness defeated Tikal itself and sacrificed its king Wak Chan K'awiil, thus ending his branch of the royal dynasty at Tikal. This catastrophic defeat began a 130-year hiatus for Tikal, reflecting an extended period of dominance by Calakmul. This event is used as a marker to divide the Early Classic from the Late Classic. Sky Witness is also mentioned at Okop, a site much further north in Quintana Roo. The last reference to Sky Witness occurs at Caracol and is dated to AD 572. The text is damaged but probably records the death of this powerful king.


title: Calakmul

text: Sky Witness was quickly succeeded by First Axewielder, who is mentioned in a text from Dzibanche celebrating the K'atun-ending of 573. First Axewielder ruled for about six years. In 579 Uneh Chan became king of Calakmul. Uneh Chan engaged in an aggressive campaign in the western Maya region and attacked Palenque on 23 April 599 with his ally Lakam Chak, lord of the small city of Santa Elena east of Palenque, defeating Palenque's queen Lady Yohl Ik'nal and sacking the city. The defeat is recorded on a series of hieroglyphic steps at Palenque itself and the event initiated a long-lasting grudge against Calakmul. Lady Yohl Ik'nal survived the battle and ruled for several more years, although she perhaps paid tribute to Calakmul.


title: Calakmul

text: Uneh Chan maintained his alliances with cities in the east and he is depicted on Caracol Stela 4 supervising an event involving king Yajaw Te' K'inich of that city that occurred before 583. Calakmul again sacked Palenque on 7 April 611 under the personal direction of Uneh Chan. Palenque was now ruled by king Ajen Yohl Mat who had gained some sort of independence from Calakmul, provoking the new invasion. The immediate aftermath of this second victory over Palenque involved the deaths of the two most important nobles at the city, Ajen Yohl Mat himself and Janab Pakal, a high-ranking member of the royal family and possibly co-ruler. Janab Pakal died in March 612 and Ajen Yohl Mat a few months later. Their deaths so soon after the sacking of the city suggests that their demise was directly linked to Calakmul's triumph. Palenque suffered a lengthy decline in its fortunes after this date before it was able to recover from its disastrous war with Calakmul. The wars against Palenque may have been undertaken by Uneh Chan in order to seize control of wealthy trade routes that passed through the western Maya region.


title: Calakmul

text: King Yuknoom Chan of Calakmul supervised an event at Caracol in 619. Caracol Stela 22 records the accession of Tajoom Uk'ab' K'ak' to the Calakmul throne in 622. Two stelae were erected at Calakmul in 623 but their texts are too badly damaged to reveal the names of the royal couple involved. Approximately at this time Naranjo, a vassal of Calakmul, broke away when its king Aj Wosal died relatively soon after the death of Uneh Chan of Calakmul. Naranjo was independent of Calakmul by at least AD 626, when it was twice defeated by Caracol and Yuknoom Chan may have been attempting to bring Naranjo back under Calakmul control. His attempts were brought to an end by his death in 630. In 631 Yuknoom Head, the new king of Calakmul, finally regained control of Naranjo. Texts relate that the king of Naranjo was already captive at Calakmul on the day that his city was overrun and his punishment on the very same day is described by the word "k'uxaj" () meaning either "tortured" or "eaten". Yuknoom Head conquered another city in March 636, although the exact site is unknown.


title: Calakmul

text: The Kaan dynasty was not originally established at Calakmul but rather re-located there in the 7th Century from another city. Calakmul experienced its highest achievements during the reign of king Yuknoom Che'en II, sometimes called Yuknoom the Great by scholars. Yuknoom Che'en II was 36 years old when he came to the throne of Calakmul in AD 636. A significant increase in the production of stelae at the city began with his reign and 18 stelae were commissioned by the king. Yuknoom Che'en II was probably responsible for the construction of the palace complexes that form a major part of the site core.


title: Calakmul

text: In 629 Tikal had founded Dos Pilas in the Petexbatún region, some to its southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. In AD 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and gained an overwhelming victory that included the death of a Tikal lord. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by Yuknoom Che'en II but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of the Calakmul king, and went on to attack Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol. In 677 Calakmul counterattacked against Dos Pilas, driving Tikal out and reinstalled B'alaj Chan K'awiil on his throne. In 679 Dos Pilas, probably aided by Calakmul, gained an important victory over Tikal, with a hieroglyphic description of the battle describing pools of blood and piles of heads.


title: Calakmul

text: Troubles continued in the east, with renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol. Naranjo completely defeated Caracol in 680 but Naranjo's dynasty disappeared within two years and a daughter of B'alaj Chan K'awiil founded a new dynasty there in 682, indicating that Calakmul had probably intervened decisively to place a loyal vassal on the throne. The patronage of Yuknoom Che'en II as overlord is recorded at a range of important cities, including El Peru where he oversaw the installation of K'inich B'alam as king and strengthened the tie with the marriage of a Calakmul princess to that king. The power of Calakmul extended as far as the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá, where Motul de San José is recorded as its vassal in the 7th century, although it was traditionally aligned with Tikal. Yuknoom Che'en II commanded the loyalty of three generations of kings at Cancuen, to the south, and supervised the enthronement of at least two of them, in 656 and 677. King Yuknoom Che'en II was involved, directly or indirectly, in the crowning of a king at Moral to the west in Tabasco and one of Yuknoom's nobles supervised a ritual at Piedras Negras on the Guatemalan bank of the Usumacinta River. Yuknoom Che'en II died in his eighties, probably at the beginning of 686. When he died, Calakmul was the most powerful city in the central Maya lowlands.


title: Calakmul

text: Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' succeeded Yuknoom Che'en II, his crowning on 3 April 686 was recorded on monuments at Dos Pilas and El Peru. He was born in 649 and was likely to have been the son of his predecessor. He already held high office before he was named king and may have been responsible for the major successes of the latter part of Yuknoom Che'en II's reign. He retained the loyalty of K'inich B'alam of El Peru and B'alaj Chan K'awiil of Dos Pilas and gained that of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Chaak in 693, when he was installed on the throne of Naranjo at the age of five. However, the texts on sculpted monuments do not reveal the full complexity of diplomatic activity, as revealed by a painted ceramic vase from Tikal, which depicts an ambassador of Calakmul's king kneeling before the enthroned king of Tikal and delivering tribute. Just four years later, in August 695, the two states were once again at war. Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' led his warriors against Jasaw Chan K'awiil I in a catastrophic battle that saw the defeat of Calakmul and the capture of the image of a Calakmul deity named Yajaw Maan. It is unknown what happened to Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'; a stucco sculpture from Tikal shows a captive and the king is mentioned in the accompanying caption but it is not certain if the captive and the king are the same person. This event marked the end of Calakmul's apogee, with diplomatic activity dropping away and fewer cities recognising Calakmul's king as overlord. No stelae remain standing in the site core recording Yuknoom Yich'aal K'ak, although there are some in the Northeast Group and 2 broken stelae were buried in Structure 2.


title: Calakmul

text: The next ruler of Calakmul, Split Earth, is mentioned on a pair of carved bones in the tomb of Tikal king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. He was ruling by November 695 but it is not known if he was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or whether he was a pretender placed on the throne by Tikal.


title: Calakmul

text: The next known king used a number of name variants, and is referred to by different name segments within and outside of Calakmul. A partial reading of his name is Yuknoom Took' K'awiil. He erected seven stelae to celebrate a calendrical event in 702 and is named at Dos Pilas in that year, presumably demonstrating that Dos Pilas was still a vassal of Calakmul. El Peru also continued as a vassal and Yuknoom Took' K'awiil installed a new king there at an unknown date. La Corona received a queen from Yuknoom Took'. Naranjo also remained loyal. Yuknoom Took' K'awiil commissioned seven more stelae to mark the k'atun-ending of 731. A new defeat at the hands of Tikal is evidenced by a sculpted altar at that city, probably dating to sometime between 733 and 736, depicting a bound lord from Calakmul and possibly names Yuknoom Took' K'awiil.


title: Calakmul

text: After this the historical record of Calakmul becomes very vague, due both to the poor state of the heavily eroded monuments at the city itself and also its reduced political presence on the wider Maya stage. Wamaw K'awiil is named at Quiriguá on the southern periphery of Mesoamerica. Quiriguá traditionally had been a vassal of its southern neighbour Copán, and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, king of Copán, installed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá's throne as his vassal. By 734 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as "k'ul ahaw", holy lord, instead of using the lesser term "ahaw", subordinate lord; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph. This local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between Tikal and Calakmul. In 736, only two years later, K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K'awiil of Calakmul, while Copán was one of Tikal's oldest allies. The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant, falling between the accession of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow. This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the Motagua Valley. It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne. In 738 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the powerful but elderly king of Copán, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil. An inscription at Quiriguá, although difficult to interpret, suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738, when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán's patron deities. The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual.


title: Calakmul

text: In the Late Classic, alliance with Calakmul was frequently associated with the promise of military support. The fact that Copán, a much more powerful city than Quiriguá, failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul. Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state, even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán. The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage: Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence.


title: Calakmul

text: Five large stelae were raised in 741, although the name of the king responsible is illegible on all of them and he has been labelled as Ruler Y. Calakmul's presence in the wider Maya area continued to wane, with two of the city's major allies suffering defeats at the hands of Tikal. El Peru was defeated in 743 and Naranjo a year later and this resulted in the final collapse of Calakmul's once powerful alliance network, while Tikal underwent a resurgence in its power.


title: Calakmul

text: In 751 Ruler Z erected a stela that was never finished, paired with another with the portrait of a queen. A hieroglyphic stairway mentions someone called B'olon K'awiil at about the same time. B'olon K'awiil was king by 771 when he raised two stelae and he was mentioned at Toniná in 789. Sites to the north of Calakmul showed a reduction in its influence at this time, with new architectural styles influenced by sites further north in the Yucatán Peninsula.


title: Calakmul

text: A monument was raised in 790 although the name of the ruler responsible is not preserved. Two more were raised in 800 and three in 810. No monument was erected to commemorate the important Bak'tun-ending of 830 and it is probable that political authority had already collapsed at this time. Important cities such as Oxpemul, Nadzcaan and La Muñeca that were Calakmul's vassals at one time now erected their own monuments, where before they had raised very few; some continued producing new monuments until as late as 889. This was a process that paralleled events at Tikal. However, there is strong evidence of an elite presence at the city continuing until AD 900, possibly even later.


title: Calakmul

text: In 849, Calakmul was mentioned at Seibal where a ruler named as Chan Pet attended the K'atun-ending ceremony; his name may also be recorded on a broken ceramic at Calakmul itself. However, it is unlikely that Calakmul still existed as a state in any meaningful way at this late date. A final flurry of activity took place at the end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th. A new stela was erected, although the date records only the day, not the full date. The recorded day may fall either in 899 or 909 with the latter date the most likely. A few monuments appear to be even later although their style is crude, representing the efforts of a remnant population to maintain the Classic Maya tradition. Even the inscriptions on these late monuments are meaningless imitations of writing.


title: Calakmul

text: Ceramics dating to the Terminal Classic period are uncommon outside of the site core, suggesting that the population of the city was concentrated in the city centre in the final phase of Calakmul's occupation. The majority of the surviving population probably consisted of commoners who had occupied the elite architecture of the site core but the continued erection of stelae into the early 10th century and the presence of high status imported goods such as metal, obsidian, jade and shell, indicate a continued occupation by royalty until the final abandonment of the city. The Yucatec-speaking Kejache Maya who lived in the region at the time of Spanish contact in the early 16th century may have been the descendants of the inhabitants of Calakmul.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul was first reported by Cyrus Lundell in 1931. A year later he informed Sylvanus Morley of the site's existence and the presence of more than 60 stelae. Morley visited the ruins himself on behalf of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1932. In the 1930s surveys mapped the site core and recorded 103 stelae. Investigations stopped in 1938 and archaeologists did not return to the site until 1982 when William J. Folan directed a project on behalf of the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, working at Calakmul until 1994. Calakmul is now the subject of a large-scale project of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) under the direction of Ramón Carrasco.


title: Calakmul

text: The site core of Calakmul covers an area of approximately , an area that contains the remains of roughly 1000 structures. The periphery occupied by smaller residential structures beyond the site core covers an area of more than within which archaeologists have mapped approximately 6250 structures. Calakmul matches the great city of Tikal in size and estimated population, although the density of the city appears to have been greater than that city.


title: Calakmul

text: The stone used in construction at the site is a soft limestone. This has resulted in severe erosion of the site's sculpture. The city of Calakmul was built in a strongly concentric fashion and can be divided into zones as one moves outwards from the centre of the site. The innermost zone covers an area of approximately It contains most of the monumental architecture and has 975 mapped structures, about 300 of which are built from vaulted stone masonry. About 92 structures were built on large pyramids laid out around plazas and courtyards. The city's core was bordered on the north side by a high wall that controlled access from the north and may also have had a defensive function.


title: Calakmul

text: Many commoners residences were built along the edge of El Laberinto swamp to the west of the site core, although some high-status residences and public buildings were interspersed among these. The area between the residences was used for horticulture.


title: Calakmul

text: The site is surrounded by an extensive network of canals and reservoirs. There are five major reservoirs, including the largest example in the Maya world, measuring . This reservoir is filled by a small seasonal river during the rainy season and continues to hold enough water for it to be used by archaeologists in modern times.


title: Calakmul

text: Thirteen reservoirs have been identified at Calakmul. The combined capacity of all the reservoirs is estimated at over . This quantity of water could have supported 50,000 to 100,000 people; there is no evidence that the reservoirs were used to irrigate crops.


title: Calakmul

text: Eight "sacbe" (causeways) have been located around Calakmul. Two of these have been mapped, three have been identified visually on the ground and three more identified with remote sensing. They have been numbered as Sacbe 1 through to Sacbe 7. The causeway network not only linked Calakmul with local satellite sites but also with more distant allies and rivals, such as the great cities of El Mirador, El Tintal and Nakbe. Those causeways that cross swampy land are elevated above the surrounding wetland and they now tend to support denser vegetation than the surrounding forest.


title: Calakmul

text: Sacbe 1 is long and is lined and filled with stone. It is located within the mapped urban area of the site core. Sacbe 1 was first mapped in the 1930s by the Carnegie Institution of Washington.


title: Calakmul

text: Sacbe 2 is long. It has been mapped within the urban area of the site core. Sacbe 2 is built of packed earth and was discovered during the archaeological excavation of a nearby quarry. This causeway may have been built to transport stone from the quarry in order to build Structures 1 and 3.


title: Calakmul

text: Sacbe 3 extends northeast from the site core and is visible from the summit of Structure 1. It was first discovered in 1982.


title: Calakmul

text: Sacbe 4 runs southeast from the site core, it is also visible from the summit of Structure 1 and was discovered in 1982.


title: Calakmul

text: Sacbe 5 runs westwards from the main watering hole, across El Laberinto seasonal swamp and carries on for a total distance of or more towards Sasilhá.


title: Calakmul

text: Sacbe 6 runs southwest across El Laberinto "bajo" and links Calakmul with El Mirador ( to the southwest) and, beyond it, El Tintal (an additional .


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 1 (or Structure I) is a pyramid to the east of the site core. A number of stelae were erected at its base by Yuknoom Took' K'awiil in 731. Because it was built on a low hill, Structure 1 appears to be higher than Structure 2, although this is not the case.


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 2 (or Structure II) is a massive north-facing pyramid temple, one of the largest in the Maya world. Its base measures square and it stands over high. In common with many temple pyramids in the Mesoamerican cultural region, the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the pre-existing temple in order to increase its bulk. The core of the building (Structure 2A) is a triadic pyramid dating to the Late Preclassic period, with this ancient building still forming the highest point of the structure. In the Early Classic a massive extension was added to the front of the pyramid, covering an earlier stucco-covered building on the north side. Three new shrines were built upon this extension (Structures 2B, 2C and 2D), each of these shrines had its own access stairway. Structure 2B was the central shrine, 2C was to the east and 2D to the west. The facade possessed six large masks set between these stairways, three arranged vertically on each side of the central stairway. Structure 2 is similar in date, size and design to the El Tigre pyramid at El Mirador, and associated ceramics are also similar. At a later time buildings were erected along the base of the facade, each of these contained stelae. In the 8th century AD, Structure 2B was entombed under a large pyramid and a stepped facade covered the giant masks. Later another facade was built over this 8th century stepped frontage but it may never have been finished. In the Late Classic a nine-room palace was built on top of the pyramid, supporting a roof comb that had painted stucco bas-relief decoration. The rooms were arranged in three groups of three, each room positioned behind the next. The entire Late Classic palace measured . The front two rows of rooms (Rooms 1 through to 6) were used for food preparation, metates and hearths were found in each of them. Room 7, the southwest room, was a sweatbath.


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 3 (or Structure III, also known as the Lundell Palace) is southeast of Structure 4, on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is a building with multiple rooms.


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 4 (or Structure IV) is a group of three temples on the east side of the Central Plaza. It is divided into three sections, labelled Structures 4a, 4b and 4c. The central Structure 4b is built upon a substructure dating to the Preclassic period. Together with Structure 6 on the opposite side of the plaza, these buildings form an E-Group that may have been used to determine the solstices and the equinoxes.


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 5 (or Structure V) is a large building located on the plaza to the north of Structure 2. It was surrounded by 10 stelae, many dated to the 7th century AD although the building itself was first erected in the Preclassic period.


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 6 (or Structure VI) is on the west side of the Central Plaza and, together with Structures 4a, 4b and 4c, forms an E-Group astronomical complex. In 1989 observations verified that on March 21, the vernal equinox, the sun rose behind Structure 4b as seen from Structure 6.


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 7 (or Structure VII) is a temple pyramid on the north side of the Central Plaza. It faces south and stands high. Five plain stelae were erected on the south side of the pyramid. It underwent several construction phases from in the Late to Terminal Classic. The pyramid was topped by a three-room temple that possessed a tall stucco-covered roof comb. A patolli game board was carved into the floor of the outermost room of the temple.


title: Calakmul

text: Structure 8 (or Structure VIII) is a small building located on the north side of the Central Plaza, to the east of Structure 7. It is associated with Stela 1 and its altar.


title: Calakmul

text: Calakmul is one of the most structure-rich sites within the Maya region. The site contains 117 stelae, the largest total in the region. Most are in paired sets representing rulers and their wives. However, because these carved stelae were produced in soft limestone, most of these stelae have been eroded beyond interpretation. Also many elaborate murals were discovered at Calakmul. These murals do not represent activities of the elite class. Rather, they depict elaborate market scenes of people preparing or consuming products such as atole, tamales, or tobacco as an ointment. Also items being sold were textiles and needles. These murals also have glyphs within them describing the actions occurring. The most prominent figure in these murals is identified as Lady Nine Stone; she appears in many scenes. This brings a world of the Maya marketplace to vibrant life for archaeologists. Another highly beneficial resource to Maya archaeological understanding at Calakmul is the ceramic remains. The composition of the ceramic materials identifies the region or more specifically the polity that produced them. Ceramics with the snake emblem glyph found at several sites also give more evidence to identify ties or control over that site by Calakmul.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 9 is a thin slate monument dated to 662. Its text describes the birth of king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' and gives him his full royal title.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 28 and Stela 29 were erected in 623 and are the earliest monuments to survive from Late Classic Calakmul. They depict a royal couple but the texts are too poorly preserved to reveal their names.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 33 was erected by Yuknoom Che'en II in 657 and records an event in the reign of Uneh Chan, who may have been his father. The event was celebrated in 593.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 43 dates to AD 514. It was set in a vaulted chamber near the base of Structure 2. The text is damaged but carries an early spelling of the "k'uhul chatan winik" non-royal noble title used in Calakmul and the Mirador Basin.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 50 is one of the last monuments erected during the final decline of the city. It bears a crude, clumsily executed portrait.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 51 is the best preserved monument at Calakmul. It depicts Yuknoom Took' K'awiil and dates to AD 731.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 57 is a tall stela erected in 771 by B'olon K'awiil. It is paired with Stela 58 and stands to the east of Structure 13.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 58 is the second of a pair erected by B'olon K'awiil in 771, the other being Stela 57. It was erected to the east of Structure 13.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 61 is a late monument bearing the name Aj Took'. It is a stunted stela with a badly eroded portrait and a shortened date form that is equivalent to a date either in 899 or 909, probably the latter.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 62 was unfinished. It was carved to mark the K'atun-ending ceremony of 751 and bears the damaged name of Ruler Z.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 76 and Stela 78 are a pair of monuments dated to AD 633. They are badly eroded but should date to the reign of king Yuknoom Head.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 84 is one of the last monuments erected at Calakmul and bears an inscription that is an illiterate imitation of writing. It probably dates to the early 10th century AD.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 88 may have been paired with Stela 62. The monument has the image of a queen but her name is unknown. B'olon K'awiil also appears to be mentioned on the stela. It dates to around 751 and stands on the stairway of Structure 13. Stela 91 is another very late monument probably dating to the early 10th century. Like Stela 84, it bears an inscription that is a meaningless imitation of hieroglyphic writing.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 114 dates to AD 435, in the Early Classic. It was moved in antiquity to be reset into the base of Structure 2. The stela has a long hieroglyphic text that has resisted translation but probably commemorates a royal enthronement in 411.


title: Calakmul

text: Stela 115 and Stela 116 date to the reign of Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'. They were broken and buried in Structure 2 and may be associated with the royal burial in Tomb 4.


title: Calakmul

text: Tomb 4 was set into the floor of Structure 2B in the 8th century AD and is the richest burial known from Calakmul. The tomb contained a male skeleton wrapped in textiles and jaguar pelts that were partially preserved with resin. The tomb contained rich offerings that included jade ear ornaments handed down from the Early Classic, a jade mosaic mask, shell and bone beads, spiny oyster shells, eccentric obsidian blades, fine ceramics and the remains of wooden objects. One of the ceramics was a plate with a hieroglyphic text that specifically named king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' as its owner. The remains and the offering were placed in an arched wooden bier carved with elaborate decoration and hieroglyphs that was painted in a variety of colours. The bier has almost completely decayed but left an impression in the mud packed around it. Due to the plate and the possible association of Stelae 115 and 116 with the burial the tomb is believed to be that of the late 7th-century king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C., commonly referred to as Ascoli, is an Italian football club based in Ascoli Piceno, Marche. The club was formed in 1898 and currently plays in Serie B.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Founded in 1898 as "Candido Augusto Vecchi", the team changed its name to Ascoli Vigor in 1905, U.S. Ascolana in 1921, and A.S. Ascoli in 1945. In 1955, the team was acquired and saved from bankruptcy by publishing magnate, Cino Del Duca, who merged it with his own team forming "Del Duca Ascoli". The stadium still bears his and his brother's name. In 1959 the team finally returned in Serie C for the first time since before the beginning of World War II. In 1971, under the chairmanship of Costantino Rozzi, who had acquired the team three years earlier, the team changed its name to the current one, finally being known as Ascoli Calcio 1898. From that same year, the team, led by Carlo Mazzone as coach, gained two consecutive promotions, being promoted in Serie B, and then Serie A, for the first time. The team stayed in Serie A for two seasons before being once again relegated to Serie B.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Ascoli returned to Serie A in 1978 and enjoyed a seven-year tenure in the top league, during which time they managed to finish a surprising 4th in 1980 and 6th in 1982. Some of the most notable players under the management of Mazzone and Giovan Battista Fabbri included Adelio Moro, Alessandro Scanziani, Gianfranco Bellotto, Walter Novellino and Andrea Mandorlini, as well as Walter De Vecchi and Giuseppe Greco. After relegation in 1985, the club immediately bounced back and stayed for four more years. Another return to Serie A followed in 1991 but this lasted only one season. After just missing out on promotion for two years running, the club went into decline and were relegated to Serie C1 in 1995. They would remain there for seven seasons, returning to B as Serie C1/B champions in 2002.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: In August 2005, after the sentence of relegation from Serie A for both Genoa and Torino respectively due to fraud and financial troubles, Ascoli, who obtained a place in the Serie B promotion playoffs the previous season under coach Marco Giampaolo, were arbitrarily admitted to Serie A as replacements, finishing a highly credible 12th. After the end of the season, Giampaolo, who gained a reputation as one of the finest young Italian coaches, resigned, being replaced by Attilio Tesser for the 2006/2007 season. Tesser, unable to obtain good results in his time with Ascoli, was fired after a 1–0 loss at home to Empoli F.C. in the 11th matchday, and replaced by veteran coach Nedo Sonetti.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Ascoli were the first team to be officially relegated to Serie B for the 2007–08 season after a 1–0 loss to Torino F.C. on 7 May 2007. They ended the season in nineteenth place, one point above last-placed Messina.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Even though from a small city of 50,000 people, Ascoli have been able to punch above their weight. Ascoli have competed 16 seasons in Serie A since 1974, with an incredible 4th and 6th spot finish respectively in the seasons of 1979–80 and 1981–82.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: To complement Ascoli's success in Serie A, the club has also achieved 2 Cadetti (Serie B Championships) in 1977–78, and 1985–86. The 1977–78 season yielded a record championship with achieving 61 points (2 points for a victory). Ascoli have competed in Serie B 13 times, with a total of 5 promotion seasons.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Ascoli have made way to Serie B with only two winning seasons in Serie C and C1B. These were in 1971–72, and 2001–02.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Another one of Ascoli's successes is the fact that, for a city of 50,000, their record home attendance has reached 36,500, equivalent to more than 70% of the city's population. In Serie A this was seen against Juventus and the famous season in 1982–83 where Ascoli saved themselves from relegation in the last game of the Serie A season against Cagliari, who were subsequently relegated. However, with stadium restrictions introduced since then, the maximum attendance allowed in the Stadio Cino e Lillo Del Duca is now 21,000–24,000. Nonetheless, when filled, it is still an amazing achievement for such a small city.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Other success were in the Mitropa Cup in 1986–87, the Capodanno Challenge, and the Red Leaf Cup. Ascoli were also finalists in the Anglo-Italia Cup, during Ascoli's last season in Serie B 1994–95, before Ascoli long await in Serie C1 before an emotional return to Serie B for the 2002–03 season.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Under the reign of the great president of Ascoli Calcio – Costantino Rozzi, Ascoli competed 14 of their amazing 16 seasons in Serie A, again another amazing achievement from a club who were once playing in the regional divisions of Marche. Not only this, but Rozzi was able to implement players who were born and raised through the ranks of Ascoli. In the mid to late 1980s saw Giuseppe Iachini, Domenico Agostini, Giuseppe Carillo, and Lorenzo Scarafoni, help Ascoli ensure a return to Serie A and survival the following season. Once Iachini left Agostini, Carillo and Scarafoni, were first team starters as well as Marino Fioravanti and Antonio Aloisi on the bench. Aloisi went on to compete in many season for Ascoli.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Another success is Carlo Mazzone, once at the heart of Del Duca Ascoli's defence playing 9 seasons, led Ascoli for another 10 or so seasons as manager. Mazzone guided Ascoli from Serie C to Serie A, including Ascoli's 6th-placed finish in 1981–82.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: During the 2013–14 Lega Pro Prima Divisione season, the Court of Ascoli Piceno declared the bankruptcy of the club. The court also estimated the residual value of the club assets were €862,000. A new company, Ascoli Picchio F.C. 1898 successfully bid the assets. FIGC also accepted the admission of the new company to the new season without relegation.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: In mid-2015 Ascoli, originally runners-up to Teramo in 2014–15 Lega Pro, were declared champions of group B and promoted after Teramo's relegation for involvement in the 2015 Italian football scandal.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: On 14 June 2018, club president Francesco Bellini, after first having declared the sale of the club, and having received several offers from prospective owners, accepted the offer of a Roman entrepreneur of Bricofer Group, Massimo Pulcinelli. On 18 July 2018, the club was officially re-branded as Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C. S.p.A. ahead of the upcoming 2018-19 season.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: In the summer of 2021, the North Sixth Group of entrepreneur Matt Rizzetta, based in New York, already present in Italian football with a stake in Campobasso Calcio, acquired a 31% stake in Ascoli Calcio with an option to increase to 51%. The acquisition combined North Sixth Group with Massimo Pulcinelli and Bricofer, the largest homeware retailer in Italy, to build an ambitious project for Ascoli around the world. Following the acquisition, North Sixth Group negotiated an exclusive content rights agreement with Italian Football TV, the largest online content platform for Italian football fans in North America. The agreement provides Ascoli Calcio the only exclusive content partnership of any Italian professional football club.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: The biggest derby in Marche is between Ascoli and Sambenedettese (Samb, Samba), although the derby with Ancona is better known. The last time the "derby" was played between Ascoli and Sambenedettese in a league season was in 1986. San Benedetto del Tronto is a city in the province of Ascoli Piceno, and only 20 minutes from the city of Ascoli Piceno; the derby is fuelled by intense local pride and rivalry on both sides, and remains passionate despite the length of time since it was last played.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: The Ancona derby was the second largest; Ancona and Ascoli have been the two most successful clubs of Marche. This rivalry stems partly from the fact that Ancona is the capital of Marche, but Ascoli (Asculum) was the capital of ancient Picenun. The battles between the Ascolani and Anconetani have been intense, and there is very much a fight to be "La Regina Delle Marche" (the queen of Marche).


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Fermana is the final significant derby for Ascoli; both teams are located near each other in the Province of Ascoli Piceno, alongside San Benedetto del Tronto. Despite the fact that Fermana have historically been weaker than Ascoli, this still is a derby for the Ascolani and Fermani, with both supporters not wanting to lose this game.


title: Ascoli Calcio 1898 F.C.

text: Ascoli play their home matches at the 12,461 capacity, "Stadio Cino e Lillo Del Duca", located on the outskirts of Ascoli Piceno.


title: Eustress

text: Eustress means beneficial stress—either psychological, physical (e.g., exercise), or biochemical/radiological (hormesis).


title: Eustress

text: The term was coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye, consisting of the Greek prefix "eu-" meaning "good", and "stress", literally meaning "good stress".


title: Eustress

text: It is the positive cognitive response to stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or other positive feelings. Selye created the term as a subgroup of stress to differentiate the wide variety of stressors and manifestations of stress.


title: Eustress

text: Eustress is not defined by the stress or type, but rather how one perceives that stressors (e.g., a negative threat versus a positive challenge). Eustress refers to a positive response one has to a stressor, which can depend on one's current feelings of control, desirability, location, and timing of the stressor. Potential indicators of eustress may include responding to a stressor with a sense of meaning, hope, or vigor. Eustress has also been positively correlated with life satisfaction and well-being.


title: Eustress

text: Eustress occurs when the gap between what one has and what one wants is slightly pushed, but not overwhelmed. The goal is not too far out of reach but is still slightly more than one can handle. This fosters challenge and motivation since the goal is in sight. The function of challenge is to motivate a person toward improvement and a goal. Challenge is an opportunity-related emotion that allows people to achieve unmet goals. Eustress is indicated by hope and active engagement. Eustress has a significantly positive correlation with life satisfaction and hope. It is typically assumed that experiencing chronic stress, either in the form of distress or eustress, is negative. However, eustress can instead fuel physiological thriving by positively influencing the underlying biological processes implicated in physical recovery and immunity.


title: Eustress

text: Occupational eustress may be measured on subjective levels such as of quality of life or work life, job pressure, psychological coping resources, complaints, overall stress level, and mental health. Other subjective methodological practices have included interviews with focus groups asking about stressors and stress level. In one study participants were asked to remember a past stressful event and then answer questionnaires on coping skills, job well-being, and appraisal of the situation (viewing the stressful event as a challenge or a threat). Common subjective methodologies were incorporated in a holistic stress model created in 2007 to acknowledge the importance of eustress, particularly in the workplace. This model uses hope, positive affect, meaningfulness, and manageability as a measure of eustress, and negative psychological states, negative affect, anxiety, and anger as a measure of distress. Objective measures have also been used and include blood pressure rate, muscle tension, and absenteeism rates. Further physiological research has looked for neuroendocrine changes as a result of eustress and distress. Research has shown that catecholamines change rapidly to pleasurable stimuli. Studies have demonstrated that eustress and distress produce different responses in the neuroendocrine system, particularly dependent on the amount of personal control one feels over a stressor.


title: Eustress

text: <nowiki> </nowiki>Distress is the most commonly referred to type of stress, having negative implications, whereas eustress is usually related to desirable events in a person's life. Selye first differentiated the two in an article he wrote in 1975. In this article Selye argued that persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation should be known as distress, and may lead to anxiety, withdrawal, and depressive behavior. In contrast, if stress enhances one's functioning it may be considered eustress. Both can be equally taxing on the body, and are cumulative in nature, depending on a person's way of adapting to the stressor that caused it. The body itself cannot physically discern between distress or eustress. Differentiation between the two is dependent on one's perception of the stress, but it is believed that the same stressor may cause both eustress and distress. One context that this may occur in is societal trauma (e.g. the black death, World War II) which may cause great distress, but also eustress in the form of hardiness, coping, and fostering a sense of community. The Yerkes–Dodson model demonstrates the optimum balance of stress with a bell curve (shown in the image in the top right). This model is supported by research demonstrating emotional-coping and behavioral-coping strategies are related to changes in perceived stress level on the Yerkes–Dodson Curve. However, the Yerkes-Dodson Curve has become increasingly questioned. A review of the psychological literature pertaining work performance, found that less than 5% of papers supported the inverted U-shaped curve whereas nearly 50% found a “negative linear” relationship (any level of stress inhibits performance).


title: Eustress

text: Much of the research on eustress has focused on its presence in the workplace. In the workplace, stress can often be interpreted as a challenge, which generally denotes positive eustress, or as a hindrance, which refers to distress that interferes with one's ability to accomplish a job or task.


title: Eustress

text: Research has focused on increasing eustress in the workplace, in an effort to promote positive reactions to an inevitably stressful environment. Companies are interested in learning more about eustress and its positive effects to increase productivity. Eustress creates a better environment for employees, which makes them perform better and cost less. Occupational stress costs the United States somewhere in between 200 and 300 billion dollars per year. If this were eustress instead of distress, these companies might potentially retain a portion of these losses and the U.S. economy could improve as well. Stress has also been linked to the six leading causes of death: "disease, accidents, cancer, liver disease, lung ailments, suicide." If workers get sick and/or die, there is obviously a cost to the company in sick time and training new employees. It is better to have productive, happy employees. Eustress is necessary for achievement. Eustress is related to well-being and positive attitudes and thus increases work performance.


title: Eustress

text: Other scholars within the positive organizational behavior movement tend to deemphasize the instrumental advantages of eustress to organizations; such scholars theorize that managing for eustress is more appropriately viewed as a means for improving worker well-being than a performance/motivation/profit-seeking manipulation. This line of exploration emphasizes minimizing distress and optimizing eustress. These scholars explicitly note that the utility of eustress has limits, and that typically positive stressors experienced in too high of amplitude or too long duration can result in individual distress.


title: Eustress

text: Techniques such as Stress Management Interventions (SMI) have been employed to increase occupational eustress. SMI's often incorporate exercise, meditation, and relaxation techniques to decrease distress and increase positive perceptions of stress in the workplace. Rather than decrease stress in the workplace, SMI techniques attempt to increase eustress with positive reactions to stressful stimuli. Working within the Challenge-Hindrance Framework, positive primary interventions focus on relating stressors to the accomplishment of goals and personal development.


title: Eustress

text: Eustress is primarily based on perceptions. It is how you perceive your given situation and how you perceive your given task. It is not what is actually happening, but a person's perception of what is happening. Eustress is thus related to self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is one's judgment of how they can carry out a required task, action or role. Some contributing factors are a person's beliefs about the effectiveness about their options for courses of action and their ability to perform those actions. If a person has low self-efficacy, they will see the demand as more distressful than eustressful because the perceived level of what the person has is lower. When a person has high self-efficacy, they can set goals higher and be motivated to achieve them. The goal then is to increase self-efficacy and skill in order to enable people to increase eustress.


title: Eustress

text: When an individual appraises a situation as stressful, they add the label for distress or eustress to the issue at hand. If a situation induces eustress, the person may feel motivated and can experience flow. Positive psychologist, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, created this concept which is described as the moments when one is completely absorbed into an enjoyable activity with no awareness of surroundings. Flow is an extremely productive state in which an individual experiences their prime performance. The core elements are absorption, enjoyment and intrinsic motivation.


title: Eustress

text: Flow is the "ultimate eustress experience – the epitome of eustress". Hargrove, Nelson and Cooper described eustress as being focused on a challenge, fully present and exhilarated, which almost exactly mirrors the definition of flow. Flow is considered a peak experience or "the single most joyous, happiest, most blissful moment of your life." Hargrove, Becker, and Hargrove build upon this work by modeling positive interventions that may lead to thriving and savoring.


title: Eustress

text: There are several factors that may increase or decrease one's chances of experiencing eustress and, through eustress, experiencing flow.


title: Eastern Military District

text: It is one of the five military districts of the Russian Armed Forces, with its jurisdiction within the Far Eastern Federal District of the country. The Eastern Military District was created as part of the 2008 military reforms, and founded by Presidential Decree №1144 signed on September 20, 2010, to replace the Far East Military District with the addition of the Transbaikal section of the Siberian Military District. The district began operation on October 21, 2010, under the command of Admiral Konstantin Sidenko.


title: Eastern Military District

text: The Eastern Military District is the second largest military district in Russia by geographic size at . The district contains 12 federal subjects of Russia: Amur Oblast, Buryatia, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Kamchatka Krai, Khabarovsk Krai, Magadan Oblast, Primorsky Krai, Sakha Republic, Sakhalin Oblast, Zabaykalsky Krai.


title: Eastern Military District

text: The district commander may direct all the formations of the Armed Forces within the district's territory, with the exception of the Strategic Rocket Forces and Russian Aerospace Forces. In addition, operational subordination of the formations of the National Guard Troops, the Border Service of the FSB, as well as units of the Ministry of Emergency Situations and other ministries and departments performing tasks in the district.


title: Eastern Military District

text: The Eastern Military District is headquartered in Khabarovsk, and its current district commander is Colonel General Rustam Muradov, who has held the position since October 7 2022.


title: Eastern Military District

text: 31 July 1918 is considered to be the date of foundation of the predecessor Far Eastern Military District. On this day, regular units of the Red Army defeated the White Army of the White Guards and interventionists in the area of the Kaul Heights, Shmakovka and Spassk. This date is widely celebrated by the military personnel of the Eastern Military District.


title: Eastern Military District

text: On 22 February 2018, at the National Defense Management Center awarded the Eastern Military District a banner as symbols of honor, valor and military glory.


title: Eastern Military District

text: By the end of January 2022, the headquarters of the Eastern Military District reportedly deployed to Belarus against the backdrop of a new flare-up of the crisis over Ukraine. Combat units drawn from the district's 5th Combined Arms Army, 29th Combined Arms Army, 35th Combined Arms Army, 36th Combined Arms Army, 68th Army Corps and the Pacific Fleet's 155th Naval Infantry Brigade were also reported to have deployed to Belarus.


title: Eastern Military District

text: This listing of formation and units is not complete. A Command, control, and communications (C3) brigade is synonymous with a headquarters brigade.


title: Systems programming

text: Systems programming, or system programming, is the activity of programming computer system software. The primary distinguishing characteristic of systems programming when compared to application programming is that application programming aims to produce software which provides services to the user directly (e.g. word processor), whereas systems programming aims to produce software and software platforms which provide services to other software, are performance constrained, or both (e.g. operating systems, computational science applications, game engines, industrial automation, and software as a service applications).


title: Systems programming

text: Systems programming requires a great degree of hardware awareness. Its goal is to achieve efficient use of available resources, either because the software itself is performance critical or because even small efficiency improvements directly transform into significant savings of time or money.


title: Systems programming

text: Systems programming is sufficiently different from application programming that programmers tend to specialize in one or the other.


title: Systems programming

text: In systems programming, often limited programming facilities are available. The use of automatic garbage collection is not common and debugging is sometimes hard to do. The runtime library, if available at all, is usually far less powerful, and does less error checking. Because of those limitations, monitoring and logging are often used; operating systems may have extremely elaborate logging subsystems.


title: Systems programming

text: Implementing certain parts in operating systems and networking requires systems programming, for example implementing paging (virtual memory) or a device driver for an operating system.


title: Systems programming

text: Originally systems programmers invariably wrote in assembly language. Experiments with hardware support in high level languages in the late 1960s led to such languages as PL/S, BLISS, BCPL, and extended ALGOL for Burroughs large systems. Forth also has applications as a systems language.


title: Systems programming

text: More recently a subset of C++ called Embedded C++ has seen some use, for instance it is used in the I/O Kit drivers of macOS.


title: Systems programming

text: For historical reasons, some organizations use the term "systems programmer" to describe a job function which would be more accurately termed systems administrator. This is particularly true in organizations whose computer resources have historically been dominated by mainframes, although the term is even used to describe job functions which do not involve mainframes. This usage arose because administration of IBM mainframes often involved the writing of custom assembler code (IBM's Basic Assembly Language (BAL)), which integrated with the operating system such as OS/MVS, DOS/VSE or VM/CMS. Indeed, some IBM software products had substantial code contributions from customer programming staff. This type of programming is progressively less common, but the term "systems programmer" is still the de facto job title for staff directly administering IBM mainframes.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Beaver Island is an island in Lake Michigan in the U.S. state of Michigan. At , it is the largest island in Lake Michigan and the third largest island in Michigan after Isle Royale and Drummond Island. The island is located approximately from the city of Charlevoix. Beaver Island had a total population of 657 at the 2010 census.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: In 1856, it was home to a unique American religious colony, a theocratic monarchy ruled by the self-appointed "King Strang", who was the leader of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, colloquially known as Strangites to distinguish them from the much larger the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Irish American immigrants later settled in the island, and it has remained a popular vacation and tourist destination. Portions of the island and surrounding archipelago are protected as part of the Beaver Islands State Wildlife Research Area.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Although Beaver Island is known today mostly for its beaches, forests, recreational harbor and seclusion, previously it was the site of a unique Latter Day Saint kingdom.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: The island's association with Mormonism began with the death of Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. Most Latter Day Saints considered Brigham Young to be his successor, but many others followed James J. Strang. Strang founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), claiming it was the sole legitimate continuation of the church that Joseph Smith founded. His church continues to exist, though not on Beaver Island, and numbers a maximum of 300 adherents. His group initially settled in Voree, Wisconsin Territory, in 1844, and established a community there that persists today as an unincorporated community within the Town of Burlington, Wisconsin.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Seeking refuge from persecution, Strang moved his followers from Voree to Beaver Island in 1848. At the time, the island was inhabited by mostly Irish Catholic immigrants. In particular they came from an Irish-speaking island (off the coast of County Donegal) called Arranmore. The Strangites flourished under his rule and became a political power in the region. They founded the town of St. James, which was named in honor of Strang. They constructed a road denominated "King's Highway" into the interior of the island that remains one of its primary thoroughfares. The Strangites cleared land; constructed cabins, farms and other improvements; and attempted to establish themselves permanently on the island.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Strang was elected to the Michigan House of Representatives in 1853 and again in 1855. He founded the first newspaper in Northern Michigan, the "Northern Islander". During his tenure in the Legislature, he made the island the center of the new County of Manitou, which included the Beaver Islands, Fox Islands and North Manitou and South Manitou Islands, and had its seat at St. James in Beaver Island. The state of Michigan abolished Manitou County in 1895 (see below).


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Once established on Beaver Island, Strang declared himself a polygamist, contrary to his previous opposition of it. He had five wives, one male lover and fathered a total of fourteen children.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: In 1850, Strang proclaimed himself king, not of the island, but of his church, which then included most of the inhabitants of the island. He was crowned on July 8 of that year inside a large log "tabernacle" that his adherents erected, in an elaborate coronation ceremony. On him was bestowed a crown that a witness described as "a shiny metal ring with a cluster of glass stars in the front", a royal red robe, shield, breastplate, and wooden scepter. The Strangite tabernacle and Strang's house are no longer extant, and also the Strangite regalia, yet a printing shop that his disciples erected persists as the only Strangite construction remaining in the island. Presently the printing shop houses a museum of insular history.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Strang and his adherents often conflicted with their neighbors on the island and adjacent locales. While claiming dominion of only his church, Strang tended to exert authority over non-Strangites on the island also, and was regularly accused of forcibly seizing their property and physically assaulting them. Open hostility between the two groups was frequently violent, and the majority of the Irish immigrants fled to the neighboring island of Mackinac. Ruffians beat Strangites at the post office, and Strang once fired a cannon at some unruly drunken fishermen who had threatened to expel his church from the island. Strangites held an increasing monopoly of local government that blurred the distinction between church and state.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: While Strang held many progressive ideas such as the conservation of woodlands, many judged his autocratic rule intolerable. One edict, for example, prescribed the clothing of Strangite women (see bloomers). Two women refused obedience and Strang had their husbands flogged, an act that was rendered more tolerable after one of them was discovered in the act of adultery. While recovering from their floggings, the husbands conspired against Strang. On June 16, 1856, the US naval gunboat entered the harbor of St. James and Strang was invited aboard. As Strang walked along the dock the two conspirators shot him from behind and then ran in the gunboat, which departed and disembarked the men in Mackinac Island. Neither man was arrested or convicted of the murder.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: After Strang died of his wounds on July 9, 1856, mobs from Mackinac Island and St. Helena Island arrived and expelled the Strangites, who then numbered approximately 2,600, from Beaver Island and reclaimed the island. Upon expulsion of the Strangites, local government in Manitou County, which included Beaver Island, almost ceased. Court sessions and elections were rarely held, county offices were often vacant, and the region acquired a lawless reputation. Michiganian Governor John J. Bagley affirmed this reputation in 1877 when he advocated for abolition of the county. A bill was introduced to this effect yet failed to be enacted. A second attempt in 1895 was successful, and the Beaver Islands were incorporated into Charlevoix County while Fox and Manitou Islands were incorporated into Leelanau County.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Irish Catholic fishermen from Gull Island, Mackinac Island and various port cities of mainland Michigan, and also emigrants from County Donegal, Ireland, rapidly replaced the Strangites in Beaver Island. Their community, which more Irish immigration increased, developed a unique identity that the isolation of the Island from the mainland fostered. Catholic sermons and even quotidian conversations were in Ulster Irish for many years. By the middle of the 1880s the Island became the largest supplier of freshwater fish consumed in the US, yet overfishing and technological change ended this dominance by 1900.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: In addition to King Strang, the Island became the residence of two other locally famous persons. Father Peter Gallagher, a priest from 1865 to 1898, was a colorful and charismatic leader who dominated insular society. He once engaged one of his parishioners in a fistfight in the insular chapel. Feodor Protar, who arrived in 1893, was a member of the religious movement founded by Leo Tolstoy. He served as a local doctor and friend-to-all while living as a recluse in a cabin in the interior of the Island. Protar died in 1925 and left many admirers.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: Logging, which was always an important part of the insular economy, greatly increased with the formation of the Beaver Island Logging Company in 1901. Docks, housing, railroads and a mill impacted the local scenery, while fishing continued as the primary economic activity. A great decrease of the fish population in the 1940s caused the exodus of most of the residents, until tourism in the 1970s renewed interest in the Island. Presently the Island is a popular recreational destination for residents throughout the Great Lakes Basin.


title: Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)

text: In 1938, John W. Green (1871–1963), a resident of Beaver Island, was recorded by the young folklorist Alan Lomax singing traditional songs, which can be heard on the Library of Congress website.