title: Marco's Pizza

text: In 2016, Marco's Pizza was ranked at #10 on the "Pizza Today" list of the Top 100 Pizza Companies in the United States. The company was also named one of "Marketing Quarterly’"s Top 25 Pizza Chains and named by "Franchising World" as number eight on the magazine's list of “Fast and Serious Growth Franchises”. The business operates locations in 33 states and Puerto Rico. Store locations offer online ordering and payment.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: Born in Sulmona, Italy, Pasquale "Pat" Giammarco is the founder of Marco's Pizza. Giammarco moved to the United States from the Abruzzo region of Italy when he was nine years old and grew up in Dearborn, Michigan, where he worked in his family's pizzeria. He and his father made the sauce recipe that is used in Marco's Pizza locations.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: In 2002, restaurant industry expert Jack Butorac was asked to analyze three restaurant concepts as potential growth opportunities, including Marco's Pizza. He traveled through Ohio and stopped at five Marco's Pizza stores in different cities along his route. He found different exteriors and inconsistent branding, but pizza that was the same at each location. "It was delicious," he told the "New York Times" in a 2014 interview. A veteran of large franchise operations, he saw the possibilities in this regional brand. "What [Giammarco] didn’t have was how to brand it and differentiate it from other brands out there," Butorac told "Pizza Marketplace" in an interview.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: Butorac began working as a consultant with Giammarco and soon began negotiations to purchase the franchising rights to Marco's Pizza. He assumed leadership of the company in January 2004 with a vision to take Marco's Pizza national.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: In 2005, nationwide expansion began. Marco's experienced rapid expansion under Butorac's leadership. Since he has owned the company, it has more than doubled in size and expanded to over 35 states, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and India. Butorac was presented with the prestigious Golden Chain award, a lifetime-achievement award in the restaurant business, by "Restaurant News" in July 2017.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: Marco's Pizza and its president, Bryon Stephens, were featured on the January 29, 2016, episode of the CBS television program "Undercover Boss". The episode won its time slot in the TV ratings with 7.3 million viewers.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: The Marco's Pizza menu is available for delivery or take-out, while some locations offer dine-in and catering options. The menu includes pizza, subs, wings, salads, CheezyBread, CinnaSquares, pizza bowls, and co-branded Ghirardelli brownies.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: Some of Marco's specialty pizzas include White Cheezy, for which the pizza company won a gourmet competition in California.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: Among the unusual and specialty pizzas found at various times on the Marco's Pizza menu are Chicken Florentine, Pepperoni Magnifico, Chicken Fresco, Spicy Fresco, and Double Pepperoni Spicy Fresco pizzas. The signature ingredient of the Fresco pizzas is Marco's special giardiniera, an authentic Italian pepper relish.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: Marco's Pizza is currently listed at #8 in "Pizza Today"'s Top 100 Pizza Chains for 2017 and was named by "Franchise Times" as number eight on the magazine's list of Fast and Serious growth franchises. In 2012, Marco's Pizza partnered with privately held movie rental chain Family Video to open Marco's locations in as many as 350 Family Video stores.


title: Marco's Pizza

text: In 2014, Marco's Pizza was named the #3 best pizza chain by "Consumer Reports" magazine on its list of Best and Worst Fast Food Restaurants in America based on survey results. It was the first time Marco's Pizza had ever appeared on this list.


title: Cristina Rodlo

text: Cristina Rodlo (born May 21, 1990) is a Mexican actress who appeared as Isabel Urrutia Zavaleta in 93 episodes of "Vuelve Temprano" (2016 – 2017) and 23 episodes of "El Vato" (2017). She has starred in feature films as Fabiana in "Perdida" and as Suzu in the 2019 remake of "Miss Bala", and played a lead role as Ambar in the horror movie "No One Gets Out Alive" in 2021.


title: Cristina Rodlo

text: Cristina Rodlo was born on May 21, 1990, was brought up in the city of Torreón in Coahuila, northern Mexico. She took part in a theatre production at the age of 11 and decided from that moment that she wanted to be an actress. After attending auditions in Monterrey for a position at the American Musical and Dramatic Academy (AMDA) in New York City, Roldo was offered a scholarship, only to be told by her parents it was unaffordable. She sought sponsorship from local companies unsuccessfully, but eventually found a local politician who agreed to finance the cost of her training, so at age 18, she left Mexico to learn acting at AMDA in New York City.


title: Cristina Rodlo

text: After graduating from AMDA, Rodlo returned to Mexico, as she was advised that "she did not look Mexican enough" to land stereotypical Latino roles in the United states at the time. Rodlo forged a successful career in Mexico, appearing in 23 episodes of "El Vato" and 92 episodes of "Vuelve Temprano" between 2016-2017, eventually achieving a nomination of "" at the 2016 Diosas de Plata awards, for her performance as Jackie Ramírez in the 2015 movie "Ladrones (Bandits)"


title: Cristina Rodlo

text: in 2019, Rodlo broke into American television with roles as the High Priestess spirit of Death, Yaritza, in Amazon Prime's "Too Old to Die Young ", and as Luz Ojeda in the AMC historica drama "The Terror". The same year, Rodlo played Suzu in the 2019 remake of "Miss Bala", with co-star Gina Rodriguez.


title: Cristina Rodlo

text: In 2020, Rodlo joined the inaugural cast of "68 Whiskey" to play army medic Rosa Alvarez, in an American military comedy-drama television series (purportedly similar to M*A*S*H) produced by Ron Howard. In 2021, Rodlo played the lead role in the Santiago Menghini directed Netflix horror film "No One Gets Out Alive", alongside Marc Menchaca. The film was shot in Bucharest, Romania, during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Cristina Rodlo

text: In 2022, Rodlo joined the cast in a main role as Talia Perez for season 2 of "Halo" alongside fellow newcomer Joseph Morgan.


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: Daniel Ivandjiiski (, born 8 November 1978) is a Bulgarian-born, U.S.-based former investment banker and capital-markets trader, and currently financial blogger, who founded the website "Zero Hedge" in January 2009, and remains its publisher and main editor.


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: Born in Sofia, Bulgaria, Ivandjiiski graduated from the American College of Sofia in 1997. He then moved to the United States, where he studied molecular biology at the University of Pennsylvania, to pursue a career in medicine, until 2001.


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: In July 2001, he joined New York investment bank, Jefferies & Co. He passed his securities exams in November 2001 (Series 7 and Series 63). In October 2004, he joined Los Angeles-based investment bank Imperial Capital LLC, before moving back to New York in May 2005 to join investment bank Miller Buckfire LLC.


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: While at Miller Buckfire, Ivandjiiski was charged by FINRA of gaining US$780 from an insider trade on 14–15 March 2006. On 3 September 2008, FINRA reached their decision, published on 11 September 2008, that Daniel K. Ivandjiiski was to be barred from "acting as a broker or otherwise associating with a broker-dealer firm," and from being a FINRA member. Ivandjiiski had not turned 30 at that time, and did not appeal the FINRA decision.


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: In September 2007, before the FINRA ruling, Ivandjiiski moved to the Connecticut-based hedge fund Wexford Capital LLC, run by former Goldman Sachs traders. After the FINRA ruling, Ivandjiiski left Wexford Capital, and within a few weeks posted his first blog on the Zero Hedge site at 4pm on 9 January 2009.


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: Ivandjiiski decided that he, and all other Zero Hedge contributors, would blog under the collective pseudonym "Tyler Durden" (a character from the book "Fight Club"). Zero Hedge was immediately popular, growing its traffic of "monthly user sessions" to over 1 million in its first year (by 2018 it would be over 40 million "monthly user sessions", and ranked as the 507th largest website in the U.S.). In March 2011, "Time" magazine ranked Zero Hedge as 9th in its "25 Best Financial Blogs".


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: "The New Republic" and "New York" magazine have identified Daniel Ivandjiiski as the founder of Zero Hedge. The "New York" article made assertions regarding Ivandjiiski's background, particularly his Bulgarian citizenship, his FINRA charge and lifetime ban from securities trading, and his father, Krassimir Ivandjiiski's, own controversial news and political website, "Strogo Sekretno" (; English "Top Secret"), and Krassimir's position in the pre-1990 Bulgarian-Soviet administration".


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: On 29 April 2016, an ex-employee of Zero Hedge, Colin Lokey, who had joined a year earlier in 2015 from Seeking Alpha, gave an interview to Bloomberg, revealing Ivandjiiski, and San Francisco-based credit trader Tim Backshall, as the main force behind Zero Hedge. The article confirmed various details about Daniel Ivandjiiski, including that he lives in a mansion in Mahwah, New Jersey, Lokey saying: "These two guys, who live a lifestyle you only dream of, are pretending to speak for you."


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: Ivandjiiski's father is the publicist and political news editor Krassimir Ivandjiiski. A 2020 article on Ivandjiski in "The New Republic" described him as a "wonderkind" who could speak several languages and was a virtuoso pianist.


title: Daniel Ivandjiiski

text: Apart from a brief period in which Ivandjiiski worked for Los Angeles-based investment bank, Imperial Capital LLC, he has spent most of his time since living in the New York metropolitan area. He was married to Blair A. Kress, and Bloomberg reported in 2016 that they lived in Mahwah, New Jersey; divorce was filed by Kress in 2018 citing "irreconcilable differences".


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The Halászbástya () or Fisherman's Bastion is one of the best known monuments in Budapest, located near the Buda Castle, in the 1st district of Budapest. It is one of the most important tourist attractions due to the unique panorama of Budapest from the Neo-Romanesque lookout terraces. The Fishermen's Bastion's main façade, parallel to the Danube, is approximately 140 meters long, of which the southern aisle is about 40 meters long, the north is 65 meters long, and the ornate central parapet is 35 meters long. Its seven high-pitched stone towers symbolize the seven chieftains of the Hungarians who founded Hungary in 895.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The original walls were built in the 1700s, forming part of the walls of a castle. Several historians say that in the Middle Ages this part of the castle walls was protected by the guild of fishermen (halász), who lived under the walls in the so-called Fishtown or Watertown. The current structure was built between 1895 and 1902, in Neo-Romanesque style, on the base of a stretch of the Buda Castle walls, by architect Frigyes Schulek, who was also responsible for the restoration of the Matthias Church.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: Since 1987 it has been one of Budapest's World Heritage Sites as part of the Várkerület District (Buda Castle District).


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The building was formerly known as the 'Fishermen's Bastion', presumably from the section of the Buda City Wall entrusted to the guild of fishermen, but more likely to the Danube side settlement, Fishtown (Halászváros) also called Watertown. The fishermen found their merchandise already in the Middle Ages near the Matthias Church it was brought to the fish market, but the guild of fishermen not only cared about selling fish, but in wars, its members defiantly defended the city walls.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The Castle Hill served as a lodging and fortification for the surrounding settlements at the time of the kings of Árpád dynasty. The development of the settlement on the Castle Hill for King Béla IV of Hungary became more prominent as a result of urban development, but as the administrative center of the country, it became dominant in the era of King Matthias Matthias Corvinus. Its defenses and bastions were fortified in the Middle Ages and during the Turkish occupation, but were repeatedly damaged. The Buda Castle Quarter itself has undergone a major transformation over time. From Matthias' bright, was prosperous the Buda Castle but following the Mohács Disaster during the Turkish rule destroyed, abolished and transformed many things and in the Castle as well. The Austrian forces retook the city from the Turks ruling from Vienna.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: It is based on the basement walls of today's Fisherman's Bastion, from the tower of the former Híradás ("Telegraph") to the Jezsuita lépcső ("Jesuit stairs"), following the folded layout of the former bastion. This folded castle wall protection system breaks the bastion line so that each section can protect each other with a side fire. This section was built after the defeat of the Rákóczi's War of Independence by Austrian Command, according to what was then a modern military principle. The northern lobby tower of today's Fisherman's Bastion, was erected on the site of the circular tower.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The Fishermen's Bastion gradually deteriorated despite the renovation of some of its defenses and the rebuilding of Austrians, which was recognized by the Austrian military leadership as a military fortress. The Fishermen's Bastion was spared neither by nature nor by the wars. Rain from the mountain loosened, washing away some of the foundations of the castle wall and the Bastion on the hillside. At the same time, in memory of recent wars, many of them had traces of good or bad restoration of the rocks of ball-dart gaps. At the same time, the area rises far above the city and was of decisive importance for the cityscape. However, the Austrian military leadership refused to spend more money on settling the area than would be required for a more prominent fortification, so they only performed the fortification. The fortress character of the Buda Castle was abolished in 1874 when the Ministry of War declared that the Castle as a fortress did not meet the requirements considered modern at that time. From now on, these repairs were also canceled. While handling the matter in the capital, he had already dealt with the reassuring settlement of the area. Already in 1871 the Pest Committee on Beauty has launched a call for the development of regulatory plans for the newly merged capital. All three winners of the competition dealt with the issue of the settlement of the Castle Hill, and within this the Fishermen's Bastion was given special emphasis.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The Fisherman's Bastion is due to its architectural and urban planning tasks related to the restoration of Matthias Church. In his summary of the architect Frigyes Schulek, which has done so much to protect and renew the Medieval temples, he has already recognized that the church was once lacking in money and with its peculiar and slightly depressed proportions from a military point of view (it was not possible for its tall, towering tower to be a reference), the lower soil level achieved by the excavation and the environment should be maintained. After the completion of the renewal of the Matthias Church, the question of restoring the environment and making it worthy of the temple became urgent. According to the original ideas, this area should have been organized for the millennary anniversary of the Hungarian state, when the first Hungarian king was crowned,<ref name="fishermansbastion.com/history"></ref> and although it was drafted in Schulek's time and submitted to the Public Works Council of the Capital, in 1894 it was consultated, the construction was eventually limited to 1899 and started in several installments. In 1901 and 1902, the southern and northern stairs were completed, but the entire Fishermen 's Bastion was completed after the construction was completed, 1905. In 9 October was handed over to the capital.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The implementation of the Fisherman's Bastion and its original appropriation differed, mainly because of a change in the basic concept of the millennium celebration. The first budget appropriation for the construction of the Fisherman's Bastion was of 800,000 forints at that time, of which 100,000 for the stairs, 200,000; for the corridors, 200,000; for the planned St Stephen's Hall. and 300,000 forints for the Seven chieftains halls. The latter idea was highlighted in the plan and elsewhere, on the Pest side of the City Park, at the end of what was then Sugár Road, in today's Heroes Square was realized according to the ideas of Millenium Monument not of Schulek, but of Albert Schickedanz and sculptor György Zala. In the meantime, the cost of another statue of St Stephen and the Millennium Monument has been deducted. In the end, total construction cost was of 1,165,000 forints; of which the stairs and associated landscaping costs, 200,000 forints; were covered by the Metropolitan Public Works Council, and the rest were shared between the capital (685 and 1,000 forints) (280,000).


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The Fisherman's Bastion was severely damaged during the sieges of World War II, but since it was one of the important landmarks of Budapest, it occupied a prominent place in the restoration priorities after the war. The restoration work was led by László Bors, a state-appointed architect. The restoration was made more difficult by the fact that firefighters had to thoroughly inspect the area from almost a centimeter to an inch before the damage assessment and restoration plans could be completed. The first spectacular part of the process took over the years, the restoration of the Fisherman's Bastion after the World War, was completed in 1953. The Buda Castle was separated from its other parts by a high wood block, which was not inspected, especially on today's Hilton Hotel. There was a constant patrol station to avoid accidents in the Rákosi era, but even after 1957 there were several places that had a real danger but also a political dimension, especially with regard to the control of incoming foreigners.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The hotel building behind the Fisherman's Bastion with its modern windows has been the subject of much controversy. Many saw the Schulek, a purely unified Matthias Church and Fisherman's Bastion, overturned, finding no reason to build a much larger unit of the hotel. Others saw the principles of the modern and the old coming together in what was then a new one in our country, in a close but new unity between the two buildings.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: In 30 May 1995 the Castle District introduced an entry fee for the Fishermen's Bastion. In November 2003, the building complex was handed over to the public. Together, it became part of the World Heritage.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The Fisherman's Bastion, the masterwork of the architect Schulek, is made by three building units and several smaller units, according to Schulek's plans.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: Schulek originally intended to built three-stage staircases reaching the Danube. Until the Fisherman's Bastion was built, in the place was a long stretch of narrow and dark Jesuit stairs, which reached the southern wall of the bastion. It was possible to access the Jesuit stairs from the Fishtown, which was unsuitable for major, larger traffic. Schulek altered the gateway, widening the stairs to 8 meters in some places, and its lower gate was accentuated with a stylish gable, incorporating an original lionic relief from a Romanesque church excavated during the rampart work. Simple stairs made of granite stone are placed on a brick foundation, and only the so-called "stairs" used on the railings were used. It was decorated with truncated, pierced forms with Romanian style features. On the right and left of the staircase, a statues of warriors representing different weaponry of the 10th century Árpád age were placed guarding the gate (at the top of the stairs, under the arch). Four of the seven leading statues on the main stairs were carved by Franz Graf Mikhail (Ferenc Mikula 1861-1926), a sculptor born in Debrecen and educated in Vienna. Also he made the pedestal, the lions and the reliefs of the statue of St. Stephen.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The north and south bastions, as well as the corridors form the bastion courtyard, are connected below by a staircase connecting the bastions on both sides, above, and on the level of the courtyards by a parapet. One of Schulek's greatest merits is that he transformed this area of the Castle Hill, which was essentially and originally for military purposes, into a peaceful promenade and a lookout object, forming a significant architectural unit of the Castle Hill, with the Matthias Church behind it. Originally, the temple was closed to the battlements for military purposes and could not be built too high, for similar reasons. Schulek, alive to the government decree that unlocked the military objectives, opened the Fishermen's Bastion towards the Danube and Pest by encircling the church trunk and, with the two bastion towers, secured sufficient space for the building complex. He formed covered corridors along the edges of the former battlements, with an arch on an open row of columns, above which he opened an accessible courtyard with ornate buildings (bastions) with conical roofs. Currently, this area serves as a lookout. In the north, a multi-storey, overlapping tower rises, the main tower, below which are the statues of Elder and Álmos leaders, a lion holding a tassel shield, and a mythological creature with an open mouth, a dragon carved in the same style as the two founding leaders. In the narrow area in front of the Matthias Church sanctuary, there is an ornate parapet that connects the two corridors of the Fisherman's Bastion, allowing a view from below. The arcade-like barrier wall is decorated with a balcony in the axis of the middle staircase.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The third large unit of the monument complex is the southern bastion court and its associated founder, it is initially made by the Stephen I of Hungary, the first king of Hungary.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: Schulek's original idea was to have a covered dome around the statue of St. Stephen, but for budgetary reasons a free-standing statue was placed in the middle of the southern courtyard enclosed by corridors on three sides. He asked the sculptor Alajos Stróbl, to make the statue of "Szent István"; he started the project in 1896 and completed it in 1906. After the statue was placed, its solemn was unveiled on 21 May 1906. On the morning of the inauguration, dr. Antal Nemes, the papal prelate and parish priest of Buda-Pest, then, after the mass, everyone withdrew around the statue and the veil fell under Alajos Stróbl's admonition.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The high priest toured the statue and consecrated it. The shroud was then returned. Three-quarters of government members once appeared: Sándor Wekerle, Count Albert Apponyi, Ignác Darányi, Count János Zichy and Lajos Jekelfalussy. Finally, at one o'clock, the king himself arrived at the bell-ringing and the official ceremony began.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: For the statue of Stróbl, Schulek designed the Neo-Romanesque foundation, and around it was an oval-shaped, pierced stone and parapet railing, placed in the geometric center of the southern bastion court. The foundation structure is decorated with reliefs originally used for murals designed for the walls of the hall, which commemorate a prominent moment of King Stephen's reign: the coronation scene, the introduction of the legislative act, the depiction of Vienna and the Austria-Hungary dualism, while on the back and east we see a series of scenes symbolizing the temple construction, where Stróbl depicted the aging Schulek master as the bearded, kneeling, model of King Stephen in the form of a master builder.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: Above the relief is a richly decorated ledge, with gold medallions on its sides, "agnus dei", evangelist badges and double-cross reliefs. The ledge of the upper member of the foundation is supported by six solid, ornate columns of beams on which the bronze statue of the king is placed.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: Originally intended to replace the northern tower group, the Seven Leadership Sculpture Group, which was lifted out of the plan on the fly, was implemented with modifications and major changes to today's Heroes' Square.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: The John Hunyadi statue erected at the turn of the John Hunyadi road is also an integral part of the Fishermen's Bastion. Tóth István was commissioned to make the statue in 1899, which was ceremoniously inaugurated in 1903. The Neo-Gothic limestone foundation was also built according to Schulek's plans, forming a harmonizing unit with the rest of the Fisherman's Bastion. The foundation is closed by leaf-shaped ledges, the façade features the coat of arms of Hunyadi, and the other sides have a marble decoration. The Hero in armor, with a raven-helmet on his head, resting on a pall, heavily on his pallet, with the flags and other military badges of the defeated Turks at his feet, symbolizing his victory.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: Near the statue of John Hunyadi there is a bronze copy of the statue of St. George the Dragon from 1313 that can be found in the Prague Castle, that original statue was made by medieval Hungarian masters (the Kolozsvari Brothers).


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: At the initiative of László Bendefy, a statue of the Friar Julian and Gerhardus belonging to the Monument of the Fishermen's Bastion was erected, to which Bendefy based in the writings of Friar Julian offered their book "Biography and Criticism of the First Asiatic Hungarian Scholar" published in 1936. Károly Antal made decades after the handover of the Fishermen's Bastion, in 1937, originally next to the Northwest Tower of the Fishermen's Bastion. A statue depicts friends of Julianus and Gerhardus who, on the orders of Andrew II of Hungary, they set out to search for the remaining of the Hungarians in the Ancient Homeland.


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: A typical example of the style of the Római School and one of the outstanding works of the genre is the two-meter high bronze memorial. It was originally located next to the Northwest Tower of the Fisherman's Bastion, but in 1976, when the Hilton Hotel was being built, it was located in the horseshoe-shaped garden of the apse of the former Dominican church. Its pedestal is a limestone of Haraszti with the following inscription:


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: Its seven towers represent the seven Magyar tribes that settled in the Carpathian Basin in 895. From the towers and the terrace there is a panoramic view over the Danube, the Margaret Island, the Gellért Hill and Pest (sometimes even further East).


title: Fisherman's Bastion

text: A bronze statue of Stephen I of Hungary mounted on a horse, erected in 1906, can be seen between the Bastion and the Matthias Church. The pedestal was made by Alajos Stróbl, based on the plans of Frigyes Schulek, in Neo-Romanesque style, with episodes illustrating the King's life.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: The Art of War is a 2000 action spy film directed by Christian Duguay and starring Wesley Snipes, Michael Biehn, Anne Archer and Donald Sutherland. It is the first installment in "The Art of War" film series. The film's title refers to the ancient Chinese text of the same name by war strategist Sun Tzu. The film was followed by two direct-to-video sequels, "" and "". The latter did not feature Snipes.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: Neil Shaw is an operative for the United Nations's covert SAD, using espionage and quasi-ethical tactics to secure peace and cooperation. In Hong Kong, Shaw infiltrates a Chinese New Year party held by Chinese business mogul David Chan and covertly hacks an office laptop of a North Korean Defense Minister, and blackmails him with the misappropriation of U.N. aid money, in exchange for continuing negotiations with South Korea. Shortly after being discovered, Shaw fights his way out of the party and suffers a gunshot wound to his shoulder during extraction.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: Six months later, a shipping container full of dead Vietnamese refugees from Hong Kong turns up on the New York docks on the week as China's trade agreement with the U.S. Shaw's boss, Eleanor Hooks, suspects Chinese ambassador Wu's connection with the Chinese Triad, and assigns Shaw to plant a bug on Wu during a banquet held by Chan. During the trade agreement banquet, Wu is gunned down, Chan is shot in the arm, and Shaw pursues a masked gunman. During the pursuit, Shaw's teammate Robert Bly corners the gunman but perishes, and Shaw is arrested by the NYPD. In the middle of a prison transfer, FBI agent Frank Capella's van is disabled by a roadside bomb, and an unconscious Shaw is captured by Triad members to be framed for the murder and disposed of. Shaw regains consciousness and frees himself from captivity, only to find his last remaining team member, Jenna Novak, murdered by a Chinese hitman. Shaw kills the hitman, recovers the audio file, and secures weapons and equipment from Novak's hidden armory. Shaw seeks out Julia Fang's help after reading a news article stating Shaw's innocence. Shaw manages to save Fang from an ambush by a Chinese hitwoman at a hospital.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: With Fang's aid, Shaw finds a Triad-owned bakery serving as a front for a Gentleman's club, setting up an unlikely alliance with Capella, as well as retrieving video footage of Chan's role in derailing the trade agreement. Fang delivers the evidence to Hooks while Shaw confronts Chan at the same hotel serving as the banquet. Chan is shot dead by a masked gunman while being interrogated by Shaw. The pursuit ends when Shaw finds a scanner that is tuned to a tracking device embedded in Shaw's gunshot wound before being ambushed by Bly. Bly reveals himself as the assassin at the banquet, and also engineered the tracking device implant from an earlier basketball game injury. Hooks reviews the evidence and reveals that she and Chan were the masterminds behind the conspiracy. A disgusted Fang tries to leave but attempts to hide from Bly only to be locked in a bathroom.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: Shaw eventually figures out Hooks's role behind the conspiracy and approaches Capella with his findings. Shaw surgically removes his tracking device and uses Capella's business card to give the Triads a business proposition. Shaw breaks into the U.N. building and enters into a shootout and hand-to-hand fight with Bly, where the latter dies after falling on a shard from a broken glass pane. The following day, Shaw calls Hooks in her limousine and lectures her on a lesson in karma, revealing that Shaw's business proposition to the Triads was to assassinate Hooks for her betrayal. Shaw later has his death faked before reuniting with Fang in France but is monitored by an unknown spy.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: Jet Li was originally cast for the part eventually played by Wesley Snipes. TV reporter Erin Selby appears as a reporter.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: The film opened at #2 behind "Bring It On", earning $10,410,993 in its opening weekend in the United States. "The Art of War" went on to gross $40.4 million worldwide, failing to bring back its $60 million budget.


title: The Art of War (film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 16% of 80 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 3.9/10. The site's consensus says: "Excessively noisy and overly reliant on genre clichés, "The Art of War" wastes its star's charisma on a ridiculous, convoluted plot and poorly edited action sequences." Metacritic rated it a generally unfavorable 30/100 based on 23 reviews. Emanuel Levy of "Variety" wrote, "Despite some effectively rousing set pieces, particularly in the long corridors of the U.N. building, "The Art of War" is ultimately much less than the sum of its parts." Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" called it "ludicrous, impenetrable and headache-inducing".


title: The Art of War (film)

text: Wesley Snipes reprised his role as Neil Shaw in a straight-to-DVD sequel released in August 2008. Athena Karkanis and Lochlyn Munro also star in the movie. In the sequel, Agent Neil Shaw is called out of retirement as a Hollywood film consultant by the murder of his long-time martial arts mentor, "Broodmother".


title: The Art of War (film)

text: The third and final in the series stars Anthony "Treach" Criss, Sung-Hi Lee, Warren Derosa and David Basila, but neither Snipes nor any of his co-stars from the first two films.


title: Irreplaceable You

text: Irreplaceable You is a 2018 American romantic comedy-drama film written by Bess Wohl and directed by Stephanie Laing. The film stars Gugu Mbatha-Raw and Michiel Huisman. It was released by Netflix on February 16, 2018.


title: Irreplaceable You

text: Abbie and Sam have been best friends since childhood and are engaged to be married. Their lives come crashing down when Abbie is given a terminal cancer diagnosis.


title: Irreplaceable You

text: Faced with the prospect of an uncertain timeline, Abbie begins a search for a new love to take care of Sam. Along the way, Abbie makes unlikely friendships with three patients whose one thing in common is that they focus on living while they are dying.


title: Irreplaceable You

text: Abbie dies at the end without having lived up to her potential, yet manages to come to terms with her situation and with those she is leaving behind.


title: Irreplaceable You

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 34 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The Hyundai Nexo () is a hydrogen fuel cell powered crossover SUV that was revealed at the 2018 Consumer Electronics Show on January 8, 2018. Replacing the Hyundai Tucson FCEV, the Nexo is the flagship for Hyundai's "eco car" portfolio.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The Hyundai Nexo Blue has an EPA rated range of 380 miles (611 km). The Nexo Limited has a driving range of 570 km versus 470 km for the Tucson FCEV. The vehicle features three fuel tanks with a total capacity of 156 liters and 6.3 kg, versus 140 liters and 5.6 kg for the previous model.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: Unlike the Tucson FCEV that used a heavily modified version of the Tucson's underpinnings, the Nexo uses a purpose-built platform from an FCEV standpoint. The benefits come in the form of a lighter construction, a more powerful drivetrain, and a higher driving range. The Nexo has a 163 PS, 400 Nm electric motor, versus 135 PS and 300 Nm for the Tucson FCEV.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The Nexo was released in South Korea in March 2018. The Nexo fuel cell components came with a 10-year or 160,000km warranty. In October 2020, South Korean sales exceeded 10,000 vehicles with 727 sold in 2018, 4,194 sold in 2019 and 5,097 sold up to October 2020.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The first Nexo sold in the United States in December 2018. The Nexo had earlier been unveiled to the media in October 2018 to be available only in California by the end of 2018. The Nexo was released in the United Kingdom in March 2019. The Nexo was released in Australia in March 2021 on special order for lease.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The Nexo also gets Hyundai's new assistance systems like the blind spot view monitor, lane following assist, and highway driving assist. Using surround view monitors, the blind spot view monitor provides the driver with a clear view of both the sides and the back of the car to facilitate a safer lane-change maneuver. Hyundai claims that it is the first carmaker to incorporate such technology.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The lane follow assist, as the name suggests, helps the car maintain its lane autonomously by detecting lane markings or road edges and automatically giving mild steering inputs to be in the center of the lane.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The highway assistant monitors the driving environment using sensors and can automatically adjust the speed of the vehicle to maintain a safe drive. Hyundai has also incorporated a remote parking assistant in the Nexo, which can autonomously park and retrieve the vehicle.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The Nexo is fitted with an advanced air purification system that removes 100% of the damaging PM2.5 fine particulate matter from polluted air using a three-step filtration process.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: The fuel is hydrogen gas stored in pressurized tanks. It reacts with atmospheric oxygen to yield electrical energy and water.


title: Hyundai Nexo

text: In a 2018 trial, researchers at CSIRO in Australia successfully refuelled a Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology.


title: Yeh Saali Aashiqui

text: Yeh Saali Aashiqui () is an Indian Hindi-language romantic thriller film. The film is directed by Cherag Ruparel and produced by Jayantilal Gada & Amrish Puri Films.


title: Yeh Saali Aashiqui

text: The film was initially scheduled to be released on 22 November 2019. but later postponed by one week to 29 November 2019.


title: Yeh Saali Aashiqui

text: Three years ago, Sahil Mehra and Mittee Deora meet in hotel management college in Shimla and fall in love. Due to Sahil's broken trust, they break up. He finds Mittee cheating in exams and complains it. Mittee's friend told her that Sahil complained it. Mittee asks Sahil for a last chance after she fakes fainting in her room. Sahil develops a cold shoulder and forgives her. Mittee hurts herself and then makes a scenario as if Sahil tried to rape her and tells this to her professor. Sahil is proved mentally ill and is sent to a mental hospital. when he was actually mentally fit.


title: Yeh Saali Aashiqui

text: In the present, Sahil has shown improvement and wants to get out but cannot. His identical twin brother, Surya Mehra, comes in to get some signatures from him. Sahil knocks down Surya and gets out. he starts searching for Mittee for Revenge. Mittee is now in a relation with Anuj Mathur. Then Sahil attacks her multiple times to scare her with the help of Mittee's friend Kavita. Anuj listens to her they go to the mental asylum to find Surya in it but they mistake Surya for Sahil. Anuj gets angry because of repeated sahil words from Mittee and warns her to take his name again. Sahil gets to know that Mittee and Anuj are getting engaged and will soon marry each other. He make a video and projects it on the engagement day. That video showcased how many more she cheated and their stories in their voices. Everyone gets to know about her real character and Anuj calls off the Engagement. Mittee's father gets an attack and her mother tells Mittee to go away from their life.


title: Yeh Saali Aashiqui

text: Sahil calls Mittee to the hospital where her parents were. they both have a huge tiff and Mittee runs around trying to shoot sahil but misses every time. She finally shoots Sahil in her parents room on the last bullet. Sahil was still breathing and Mittee took a huge cylinder and hit Sahil multiple times to kill him on the spot. Mittee's parent watch her kill Sahil. Police arrested Mittee and Sahil was pronounced dead. Mittee was given life sentence.


title: Yeh Saali Aashiqui

text: Surya comes to meet Mittee to thank her for killing Sahil. On the way back she heard the sound of whistle which she knew that only Sahil could play. She realised that the one who died was actually Surya. Sahil got Surya out of mental asylum and told him to wait in Mittee's Parent's room. the one who came to meet Mittee was actually Sahil who hid after getting Mittee to chase him till her parents room and Mittee killed Surya thinking it was Sahil.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Meridian is a city located in Ada County in the U.S. state of Idaho. As of the 2020 census, the population of Meridian was 117,635, making it the second largest city in Idaho after Boise. Meridian is considered the state's fastest-growing city and among the fastest-growing cities in the United States.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The town was established in 1891 on the Onweiler farm north of the present site and was called Hunter. Two years later an I.O.O.F. lodge was organized and called itself Meridian because it was located on the Boise Meridian and the town was renamed. The Settlers' Irrigation Ditch, 1892, changed the arid region into a productive farming community which was incorporated in 1902.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Meridian was incorporated in 1903. The information in the following sections (Irrigation, Village, Rail Transportation, and Creamery) is found on the displays in the Meridian City Hall Plaza.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Early settlers arriving in the area came with no knowledge of gravity flow irrigation. Their previous homes were in areas where rain provided the needed moisture to raise crops. Irrigation soon became a necessity, since having a water source was a requirement for receiving the patent for the land from the U.S. Land Office. Irrigation districts, such as the Nampa-Meridian and Settlers irrigation districts, continue to serve the immediate Meridian area.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The original Meridian town site was filed in 1893 on homestead grant land belonging to Eliza Ann Zenger. Her husband, Christian, filed the plat with county officials and called it Meridian. The early settlers, many of whom were relatives, left their homes in Missouri to go west, either by wagon, train, or immigrant railroad car, bringing their lodge and church preferences with them. They established local institutions soon after arriving and filed for homestead lands.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Around the start of the 20th century, settlers established fruit orchards and built fruit packing businesses and prune dryers along the railroad tracks. Local orchards produced many varieties of apples and Italian prunes. Production continued through the mid-1940s when it was no longer profitable and the businesses closed. In 1941, Meridian's status changed from a village to a city.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Following the raising of $4,000 to lay the Interurban rail line from Onweiler (Meridian and Ustick Roads), the tracks were completed into the village center. Turning east on Broadway and ending at East Second, the last car would spend the night in Meridian before returning to Boise early the next morning with passengers and freight. The interurban Station and Generator building (west one-third of the old library at Meridian and Idaho Streets) was built in 1912, and the line continued on to Nampa via Meridian. The tracks down Broadway were not used after 1912. The Interurban Company entered into receivership and closed in 1928 after 20 years of providing continuous transportation to neighboring towns. It was Meridian's main connection to the area outside the local community.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The Union Pacific Railroad spur opened in 1900 and is currently operated by the Boise Valley Railroad. Many industrial customers continue to ship forest, agricultural, and chemical products along this corridor.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The lowest days of the Great Depression brightened for area dairymen when the Ada County Dairymen's cooperative creamery began operation in 1929. It provided milk checks to those who were members of the cooperative, enabling them to pay their taxes and provide food for their families. Other community members hauled milk to the creamery and were employed by the creamery, whose product was Challenge Butter.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The creamery ran 7 days a week for 40 years. Additions and improvements were made while the plant was in full operation. Later years saw the Wyeth Laboratories affiliate with the creamery to manufacture SMA baby formula.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: After the creamery ceased local operations in 1970, the dairymen shipped their milk to the Caldwell creamery for processing.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The majority of Meridian lies on a flat plain, roughly in the north central part of Treasure Valley. There is a low bench along the south east edge of the city. The city is crossed by several irrigation canals that generally run from the south east to the north west. The Boise River runs north of the city. The Snake River runs far south of the city. Squaw Butte is visible to the north at 5,873 feet (1,790 m). Shafer Butte is visible to the north east at 7,572 feet (2,308 m). The Owyhee Mountains are visible to the far south.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Meridian's climate is characterized as semi-arid with four distinct seasons. Meridian experiences hot and dry summers where temperatures can often exceed 100 °F (38 °C), as well as cold winters with occasional light snowfall. Rainfall is usually infrequent and light, usually averaging less than an inch (25.4 mm) per month. December is the wettest month with an average of of precipitation, and August is the driest month with . Spring and fall are generally temperate.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 75,092 people, 25,302 households, and 19,916 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 26,674 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 92.0% White, 0.8% African American, 0.5% Native American, 1.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.9% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.8% of the population.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: There were 25,302 households, of which 47.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.9% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 21.3% were non-families. 16.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.96 and the average family size was 3.33.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The median age in the city was 32.5 years. 33.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30.5% were from 25 to 44; 20.7% were from 45 to 64; and 8.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 34,919 people, 11,829 households, and 9,515 families living in the city. The population density was 2,962.1/sq mi. There were 12,293 housing units at an average density of 1,042.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 96.3% White, 0.7% African American, 1% Native American, 2% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 1.9% from other races, and 2.12% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.7% of the population.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: There were 11,829 households, out of which 49% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.4% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.6% were non-families. 14.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.26.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 33.7% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 37.1% from 25 to 44, 15.8% from 45 to 64, and 6.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The median income for a household in the city was $53,276, and the median income for a family was $57,077. Males had a median income of $40,360 versus $27,174 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,150. About 4.6% of families and 5.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.0% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those age 65 or over.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Blue Cross of Idaho and Scentsy are based in Meridian. The Idaho State Police is headquartered in Meridian and the state police academy is housed on its campus. All police officers statewide are required to attend basic training at the facility.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Meridian has a mayor that serves four-year terms and received an annual salary of $90,956 in 2018. Meridian has a city council of six members. Every two years, three city council seats are up for re-election. Members of the council serve four-year terms and received annual compensation of $10,000 as of 2018.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Art is on display in the Initial Point Gallery on the third floor of the Meridian City Hall. The gallery is open to the public with free admission.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The book series "Michael Vey" by Richard Paul Evans is partially set in Meridian, with significant events occurring within the area in the first book of the series: "".


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The city's Parks and Rec department manages 17 public parks throughout Meridian including Meridian Settlers Regional Park which hosts free outdoor movies during the summer months.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Meridian shares boundaries with the largest and 3rd largest cities in Idaho, Boise to the east and Nampa to the west. Therefore, residents of Meridian often take advantage of the recreation and sports opportunities in those cities.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Eagle Island State Park is about north of Meridian and includes a man-made lake with a beach, equestrian and hiking trails, fishing, and a water slide. The Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area is south of Meridian.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The West Ada School District serves the city and is the largest in the state. Meridian is part of the Boise metropolitan area.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: The majority of the city lies north of I-84. Streets are named with a north, south, east or west prefix identifying the orientation of the street and where the street is in relation to the intersection of Franklin Road and Meridian Road. Roads with a north prefix are north of Franklin Road (which runs east and west). Roads with a west prefix are west of Meridian Road (which runs north and south). Many residents identify which section of the city they live in by the closest intersection of major roads that are generally laid out in square miles. From west to east, the major roads are Black Cat, Ten Mile, Linder, Meridian, Locust Grove, and Eagle. From north to south, the major roads are Chinden (Highway 20/26), McMillan, Ustick, Cherry (west of Meridian) or Fairview (east of Meridian), Franklin, Overland, Victory, and Amity.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: I-84 is between Franklin and Overland. Pine is another major road that runs east/west and lies between Cherry and Franklin.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: A railroad line runs east/west and lies between Pine and Franklin. Most of the city's industrial areas are concentrated along this railroad line with some other industrial areas near the east side of the city south west of the intersection of Fairview and Eagle. The line was formerly owned by Union Pacific, but Boise Valley Railroad now owns the line, running trains on weekdays from Boise to Nampa.


title: Meridian, Idaho

text: Old-town Meridian centers around the intersection of Main Street and Pine Street. In the older section of the city, there are numbered streets up to 15th Street to the west and up to 5th Street to the east.


title: Stapes

text: The stapes or stirrup is a bone in the middle ear of humans and other animals which is involved in the conduction of sound vibrations to the inner ear. This bone is connected to the oval window by its annular ligament, which allows the footplate to transmit sound energy through the oval window into the inner ear. The "stapes" is the smallest and lightest bone in the human body, and is so-called because of its resemblance to a stirrup ().


title: Stapes

text: The "stapes" is the third bone of the three ossicles in the middle ear and the smallest in the human body. It measures roughly , greater along the head-base span. It rests on the oval window, to which it is connected by an annular ligament and articulates with the "incus", or anvil through the incudostapedial joint. They are connected by anterior and posterior limbs ().


title: Stapes

text: The "stapes" develops from the second pharyngeal arch during the sixth to eighth week of embryological life. The central cavity of the "stapes", the "obturator foramen", is due to the presence embryologically of the stapedial artery, which usually regresses in humans during normal development.


title: Stapes

text: The "stapes" is one of three ossicles in mammals. In non-mammalian four-legged animals, the bone homologous to the "stapes" is usually called the columella; however, in reptiles, either term may be used. In fish, the homologous bone is called the hyomandibular, and is part of the gill arch supporting either the spiracle or the jaw, depending on the species. The equivalent term in amphibians is the "".


title: Stapes

text: The "stapes" appears to be relatively constant in size in different ethnic groups. In 0.01–0.02% of people, the stapedial artery does not regress, and persists in the central foramen. In this case, a pulsatile sound may be heard in the affected ear, or there may be no symptoms at all. Rarely, the "stapes" may be completely absent.


title: Stapes

text: Situated between the incus and the inner ear, the "stapes" transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the oval window, a membrane-covered opening to the inner ear. The "stapes" is also stabilized by the stapedius muscle, which is innervated by the facial nerve.


title: Stapes

text: Otosclerosis is a congenital or spontaneous-onset disease characterized by abnormal bone remodeling in the inner ear. Often this causes the "stapes" to adhere to the oval window, which impedes its ability to conduct sound, and is a cause of conductive hearing loss. Clinical otosclerosis is found in about 1% of people, although it is more common in forms that do not cause noticeable hearing loss. Otosclerosis is more likely in young age groups, and females. Two common treatments are stapedectomy, the surgical removal of the "stapes" and replacement with an artificial prosthesis, and stapedotomy, the creation of a small hole in the base of the "stapes" followed by the insertion of an artificial prosthesis into that hole. Surgery may be complicated by a persistent stapedial artery, fibrosis-related damage to the base of the bone, or obliterative otosclerosis, resulting in obliteration of the base.


title: Stapes

text: The "stapes" is commonly described as having been discovered by the professor Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia in 1546 at the University of Naples, although this remains the nature of some controversy, as Ingrassia's description was published posthumously in his 1603 anatomical commentary "". Spanish anatomist Pedro Jimeno is first to have been credited with a published description, in (1549). The bone is so-named because of its resemblance to a stirrup (), an example of a late Latin word, probably created in mediaeval times from "to stand" (), as stirrups did not exist in the early Latin-speaking world.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Spawn is the eggs and sperm released or deposited into water by aquatic animals. As a verb, "to spawn" refers to the process of releasing the eggs and sperm, and the act of both sexes is called spawning. Most aquatic animals, except for aquatic mammals and reptiles, reproduce through the process of spawning.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Spawn consists of the reproductive cells (gametes) of many aquatic animals, some of which will become fertilized and produce offspring. The process of spawning typically involves females releasing ova (unfertilized eggs) into the water, often in large quantities, while males simultaneously or sequentially release spermatozoa (milt) to fertilize the eggs.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Most fish reproduce by spawning, as do most other aquatic animals, including crustaceans such as crabs and shrimps, molluscs such as oysters and squid, echinoderms such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers, amphibians such as frogs and newts, aquatic insects such as mayflies and mosquitoes and corals, which are actually small aquatic animals—not plants. Fungi, such as mushrooms, are also said to "spawn" a white, fibrous matter that forms the matrix from which they grow.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: There are many variations in the way spawning occurs, depending on sexual differences in anatomy, how the sexes relate to each other, where and how the spawn is released and whether or how the spawn is subsequently guarded.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Marine animals, and particularly bony fish, commonly reproduce by "broadcast spawning". This is an external method of reproduction where the female releases many unfertilised eggs into the water. At the same time, a male or many males release a lot of sperm into the water which fertilises some of these eggs. The eggs contain a drop of nutrient oil to sustain the embryo as it develops inside the egg case. The oil also provides buoyancy, so the eggs float and drift with the current. The strategy for survival of broadcast spawning is to disperse the fertilised eggs, preferably away from the coast into the relative safety of the open ocean. There the larvae develop as they consume their fat stores, and eventually hatch from the egg capsule into miniature versions of their parents.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: To survive, they must then become miniature predators themselves, feeding on plankton. Fish eventually encounter others of their own kind (conspecifics), where they form aggregations and learn to school.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Internally, the sexes of most marine animals can be determined by looking at the gonads. For example, male testes of spawning fish are smooth and white and account for up to 12% of the mass of the fish, while female ovaries are granular and orange or yellow, accounting for up to 70% of the fish's mass. Male lampreys, hagfish and salmon discharge their sperm into the body cavity where it is expelled through pores in the abdomen. Male sharks and rays can pass sperm along a duct into a seminal vesicle, where they store it for a while before it is expelled, while teleosts usually employ separate sperm ducts.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Externally, many marine animals, even when spawning, show little sexual dimorphism (difference in body shape or size) or little difference in colouration. Where species are dimorphic, such as sharks or guppies, the males often have penis-like intromittent organs in the form of a modified fin.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: A species is semelparous if its individuals spawn only once in their lifetime, and iteroparous if its individuals spawn more than once. The term semelparity comes from the Latin "semel", once, and "pario", to beget, while iteroparity comes from "itero", to repeat, and "pario", to beget.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Semelparity is sometimes called "big bang" reproduction, since the single reproductive event of semelparous organisms is usually large and fatal to the spawners. The classic example of a semelparous animal is the Pacific salmon, which lives for many years in the ocean before swimming to the freshwater stream of its birth, spawning, and then dying. Other spawning animals which are semelparous include mayflies, squid, octopus, smelt, capelin and some amphibians. Semelparity is often associated with r-strategists. However, most fish and other spawning animals are iteroparous.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: When the internal ovaries or egg masses of fish and certain marine animals are ripe for spawning they are called roe. Roe from certain species, such as shrimp, scallop, crab and sea urchins, are sought as human delicacies in many parts of the world. "Caviar" is a name for the processed, salted roe of non-fertilized sturgeon. The term "soft roe" or "white roe" denotes fish milt. Lobster roe is called "coral" because it turns bright red when cooked. Roe (reproductive organs) are usually eaten either raw or briefly cooked.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: "The reproductive behaviour of fishes is remarkably diversified: they may be oviparous (lay eggs), ovoviparous (retain the eggs in the body until they hatch), or viviparous (have a direct tissue connection with the developing embryos and give birth to live young). All cartilaginous fishes—the elasmobranches (e.g., sharks, rays, and skates)—employ internal fertilization and usually lay large, heavy-shelled eggs or give birth to live young. The most characteristic features of the more primitive bony fishes is the assemblage of polyandrous (many males) breeding aggregations in open water and the absence of parental care..."


title: Spawn (biology)

text: There are two main reproduction methods in fish. The first method is by laying eggs and the second by "live-bearing" (producing their young alive).


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Monogamy occurs when one male mates with one female exclusively. This is also called "pair spawning". Most fish are not monogamous, and when they are, they often alternate with non-monogamous behaviours. Monogamy can occur when feeding and breeding grounds are small, when it is difficult for fish to find partners, or when both sexes look after the young. Many tropical cichlids, which rear their young together in locations where they must fiercely defend against competitors and predators are monogamous. "In some pipefishes and seahorses, development of eggs takes a long time before the female can place them in the brood pouch of a male, where they are fertilized. While the male is pregnant, the female starts a new batch of eggs, which are ready at about the same time that the male gives birth to the young from the previous mating. This close timing of development promotes monogamy, especially if the likelihood of encountering another potential mate is low."


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Polygyny occurs when one male gets exclusive mating rights with multiple females. In polygyny a large conspicuous male usually defends females from other males or defends a breeding site. The females choose large males that are successfully defending prime breeding sites which the females find attractive. For example, sculpin males defend "caves" underneath rocks which are suitable for the incubation of embryos.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Another way males get to mate with several females is through the use of leks. Leks are places where many fish come together, and the males display to each other. Based on these displays, each female then selects the male they want to be their mate. For example, among the cichlid "Cyrtocara eucinostomus" in Lake Malawi, up to 50,000 large and colourful males display together on a lek four kilometres long. The females, which are mouth brooders, choose which male they want to fertilize their eggs.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Polyandry occurs when one female gets exclusive mating rights with multiple males. This happens among fish like clownfish that change their sex. It can also happen when males do the brooding but cannot handle all the eggs the female produce, such as with some pipefish.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: The males in some deep sea anglerfishes are much smaller than the females. When they find a female they bite into her skin, releasing an enzyme that digests the skin of their mouth and her body and fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. The male then slowly atrophies, losing first his digestive organs, then his brain, heart, and eyes, ending as nothing more than a pair of gonads, which release sperm in response to hormones in the female's bloodstream indicating egg release. This ensures that, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available. A single anglerfish female can "mate" with many males in this manner.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Polygynandry occurs when multiple males mate indiscriminately with multiple females. This mutual promiscuity is the approach most commonly used by spawning animals, and is perhaps the "original fish mating system." Common examples are forage fish, such as herrings, which form huge mating shoals in shallow water. The water becomes milky with sperm and the bottom is draped with millions of fertilized eggs.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Alternate male strategies which allow small males to engage in cuckoldry can develop in species where spawning is dominated by large and aggressive males. Cuckoldry is a variant of polyandry, and can occur with "sneak spawners" (sometimes called "streak spawners"). A sneak spawner is a male that rushes in to join the spawning rush of a spawning pair. A spawning rush occurs when a fish makes a burst of speed, usually on a near vertical incline, releasing gametes at the apex, followed by a rapid return to the lake or sea floor or fish aggregation. Sneaking males do not take part in courtship. In salmon and trout, for example, "jack males" are common. These are small silvery males that migrate upstream along with the standard, large, hook-nosed males and that spawn by sneaking into a redd (spawning nest) to release sperm simultaneously with a mated pair. This behaviour is an evolutionarily stable strategy for reproduction, because it is favoured by natural selection just like the "standard" strategy of large males.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Cuckoldry occurs in many fish species, including dragonets, parrotfishes and wrasses on tropical reefs and the bluegill sunfish in fresh water. Sneaker males that become too large to hide effectively become "satellite males". With bluegill sunfish, satellite males mimic the behaviour and colouration of the females. They hover over a nest containing a pair of courting sunfish, and gradually descend to reach the pair just as they spawn. Males may need to be 6 or 7 years old to function capably as parental males, but may be able to function as sneaker or satellite males when they are as young as 2 or 3 years old. The smaller satellite and sneaker males may get mauled by the more powerful parental males, but they spawn when they are younger and they do not put energy into parental care.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Hermaphroditism occurs when a given individual in a species possesses both male and female reproductive organs, or can alternate between possessing first one, and then the other. Hermaphroditism is common in invertebrates but rare in vertebrates. It can be contrasted with gonochorism, where each individual in a species is either male or female, and remains that way throughout their lives. Most fish are gonochorists, but hermaphroditism is known to occur in 14 families of teleost fishes.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Usually hermaphrodites are "sequential", meaning they can switch sex, usually from female to male (protogyny). This can happen if a dominant male is removed from a group of females. The largest female in the harem can switch sex over a few days and replace the dominant male. This is found amongst coral reef fishes such as groupers, parrotfishes and wrasses. It is less common for a male to switch to a female (protandry). As an example, most wrasses are protogynous hermaphrodites within a haremic mating system. Hermaphroditism allows for complex mating systems. Wrasses exhibit three different mating systems: polygynous, lek-like, and promiscuous mating systems. Group spawning and pair spawning occur within mating systems. The type of spawning that occurs depends on male body size. Labroids typically exhibit broadcast spawning, releasing high amounts of planktonic eggs, which are broadcast by tidal currents; adult wrasses have no interaction with offspring. Wrasse of a particular subgroup of the family Labridae, Labrini, do not exhibit broadcast spawning.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Less commonly hermaphrodites can be "synchronous", meaning they simultaneously possess both ovaries and testicles and can function as either sex at any one time. Black hamlets "take turns releasing sperm and eggs during spawning. Because such egg trading is advantageous to both individuals, hamlets are typically monogamous for short periods of time–an unusual situation in fishes." The sex of many fishes is not fixed, but can change with physical and social changes to the environment where the fish lives.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Particularly among fishes, hermaphroditism can pay off in situations where one sex is more likely to survive and reproduce, perhaps because it is larger. Anemone fishes are sequential hermaphrodites which are born as males, and become females only when they are mature. Anemone fishes live together monogamously in an anemone, protected by the anemone stings. The males do not have to compete with other males, and female anemone fish are typically larger. When a female dies a juvenile (male) anemone fish moves in, and "the resident male then turns into a female and reproductive advantages of the large female–small male combination continue". In other fishes sex changes are reversible. For example, if some gobies are grouped by sex (male or female), some will switch sex.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Unisexuality occurs when a species is all-male or all-female. Unisexuality occurs in some fish species, and can take complex forms. "Squalius alburnoides", a minnow found in several river basins in Portugal and Spain, appears to be an all-male species. The existence of this species illustrates the potential complexity of mating systems in fish. The species originated as a hybrid between two species, and is diploid, but not hermaphroditic. It can have triploid and tetraploid forms, including all-female forms that reproduce mainly through hybridogenesis.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: It is rare to find true parthenogenesis in fishes, where females produce female offspring with no input from males. All-female species include the Texas silverside, "Menidia clarkhubbsi" as well as a complex of Mexican mollies. Parthenogenesis has been recently observed in hammerhead sharks and blacktip sharks. It is also known to occur in crayfish and amphibians.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: This section is patterned after a classification of the spawning behaviours of fish by Balon (1975, 1984) into reproductive guilds. This classification is based on how the eggs are fertilized (internal or external spawners), where the eggs are deposited (pelagic or benthic spawners), and whether and how the parents look after the eggs after spawning (bearers, guarders and nonguarders).


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Open substrate spawners scatter their eggs in the environment. They usually spawn in shoals without complex courtship rituals, and males outnumber females.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Broadcast spawners: release their gametes (sperm and eggs) into open water for external fertilisation. There is no subsequent parental care. About 75% of coral species are broadcasters, the majority of which are hermatypic, or reef-building corals.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Brood hiders hide their eggs but do not give parental care after they have hidden them. Brood hiders are mostly benthic spawners that bury the fertilized eggs. For example, among salmon and trout the female digs a nest with her tail in gravel. These nests are called redds. The female then lays her eggs while the male fertilizes them, while both fish defend the redd if necessary from other members of the same species. Then the female buries the nest, and the nest site is abandoned. In North America, some minnows build nests out of piles of stones rather than dig holes. The minnow males have tubercles on their head and body which they use to help them defend the nest site.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Bitterlings have a remarkable reproduction strategy where parents transfer responsibility for the care of their young to mussels. The female extends her ovipositor into the mantle cavity of the mussel and deposits her eggs between the gill filaments. The male then ejects his sperm into the mussel's inhalant water current and fertilization takes place within the gills of the host. The same female may use a number of mussels, and she deposits only one or two yellow, oval eggs into each. Early developmental stages are protected from predation within the body of the mussel. After 3 to 4 weeks larvae swim away from the host to continue life on their own.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Guarders protect their eggs and offspring after spawning by practicing "parental care" (also called "brood care"). Parental care is an "investment by parents in offspring that increases the offspring's chances of surviving (and hence reproducing). In fish, parental care can take a variety of forms including guarding, nest building, fanning, splashing, removal of dead eggs, retrieval of straying fry, external egg carrying, egg burying, moving eggs or young, ectodermal feeding, oral brooding, internal gestation, brood-pouch egg carrying, etc."


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Territorial behaviour is generally necessary for guarders, and the embryos are almost always guarded by males (apart from cichlids). There is a need to be territorial because looking after embryos usually includes defending the site where they are being looked after. It also often means there is competition for the best egg-laying sites. Elaborate courtship behaviour is usual among guarders.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Guarding males keep the embryos safe from predators, keep oxygen levels high by fanning water currents, and keep the area free from dead embryos and debris. They protect the embryos until they hatch, and often look after the larval stages as well. The time spent guarding can range from a few days to several months.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Some guarders build nests ("nest spawners") and some do not ("substrate spawners"), though the difference between the two groups can be small. Substrate spawners clean off a suitable area of surface suitable for egg laying, and look after the area, but they do not actively build a nest.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Bearers are fish that carry their embryos (and sometimes their young) around with them, either externally or internally.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Mouth brooders - carry eggs or larvae in their mouth. Mouth brooders can be ovophiles or larvophiles. Ovophile or egg-loving mouth-brooders lay their eggs in a pit, which are sucked up into the mouth of the female. The small number of large eggs hatch in the mother's mouth, and the fry remain there for a period of time. Fertilization often occurs with the help of egg-spots, which are colorful spots on the anal fin of the male. When the female sees these spots, she tries to pick up the egg-spots, but instead gets sperm that fertilizes the eggs in her mouth. Many cichlids and some labyrinth fish are ovophile mouthbrooders. Larvophile or larvae-loving mouth-brooders lay their eggs on a substrate and guard them until the eggs hatch. After hatching, the female picks up the fry and keeps them in her mouth. When the fry can fend for themselves, they are released. Some eartheaters are larvophile mouthbrooders.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: The beginning of the evolutionary process of livebearing starts with "facultative" (optional) internal bearing. The process occurs in several species of oviparous (egg-laying) killifishes which spawn in the normal way on the substrate, but in the process accidentally fertilize eggs which the female retains and does not spawn. These eggs are spawned later, usually without allowing much time for embryonic development.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: The next step in the evolution of livebearing is "obligate" (by necessity) internal bearing, where the female retains all the embryos. "The only source of nutrition for these embryos, however, is the egg yolk, as in externally spawned eggs. This situation, also referred to as ovoviviparity, is characteristic of marine rock fishes and the Lake Baikal sculpins. This strategy allows these fish to have fecundities approaching those of pelagic fish with external fertilization, but it also enables them to protect the young during their most vulnerable stage of development. By contrast, sharks and rays using this strategy produce a relatively small number of embryos and retain them for a few weeks to 16 months or longer. The shorter times spans are characteristic of species that eventually deposit their embryos in the environment, surrounded by a horny capsule; whereas the longer periods are characteristic of sharks that retain the embryos until they are ready to emerge as actively swimming young."


title: Spawn (biology)

text: However, some fish do not fit these categories. The livebearing largespring gambusia ("Gambusia geiseri") was thought to be ovoviviparous until it was shown in 2001 that the embryos received nutrients from the mother.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Spawning grounds are the areas of water where aquatic animals spawn, or produce their eggs. After spawning, the spawn may or may not drift to new grounds which become their nursery grounds. Many species undertake migrations each year, and sometimes great migrations, to reach their spawning grounds. For example, lakes and river watersheds can be major spawning grounds for anadromous fish such as salmon. These days, it is often necessary to construct fish ladders and other bypass systems so salmon can navigate their way past hydroelectric dams or other obstructions such as weirs on their way to spawning grounds. Coastal fish often use mangroves and estuaries as spawning grounds, while reef fish can find adjacent seagrass meadows that make good spawning grounds. Short-finned eels can travel anything up to three or four thousand kilometres to their spawning ground in deep water somewhere in the Coral Sea.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Forage fish often make great migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds. Schools of a particular stock usually travel in a triangle between these grounds. For example, one stock of herrings have their spawning ground in southern Norway, their feeding ground in Iceland, and their nursery ground in northern Norway. Wide triangular journeys such as these may be important because forage fish, when feeding, cannot distinguish their own offspring.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Capelin are a forage fish of the smelt family found in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In summer, they graze on dense swarms of plankton at the edge of the ice shelf. Larger capelin also eat krill and other crustaceans. The capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn and migrate in spring and summer to feed in plankton rich areas between Iceland, Greenland, and Jan Mayen. The migration is affected by ocean currents. Around Iceland maturing capelin make large northward feeding migrations in spring and summer. The return migration takes place in September to November. The spawning migration starts north of Iceland in December or January.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: The diagram on the right shows the main spawning grounds and larval drift routes. Capelin on the way to feeding grounds is coloured green, capelin on the way back is blue, and the breeding grounds are red. In a paper published in 2009, researchers from Iceland recount their application of an interacting particle model to the capelin stock around Iceland, successfully predicting the spawning migration route for 2008.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline. Chinook salmon make the longest freshwater migration of any salmon, over up the Yukon River to spawning grounds upstream of Whitehorse, Yukon. Some green sea turtles swim more than to reach their spawning grounds.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Goldfish, like all cyprinids, are egg-layers. They usually start breeding after a significant temperature change, often in spring. Males chase females, prompting them to release their eggs by bumping and nudging them. As the female goldfish spawns her eggs, the male goldfish stays close behind fertilizing them. Their eggs are adhesive and attach to aquatic vegetation. The eggs hatch within 48 to 72 hours. Within a week or so, the fry begins to assume its final shape, although a year may pass before they develop a mature goldfish colour; until then they are a metallic brown like their wild ancestors. In their first weeks of life, the fry grow quickly—an adaptation born of the high risk of getting devoured by the adult goldfish.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: A member of the Cyprinidae, carp spawn in times between April and August, largely dependent upon the climate and conditions they live in. Oxygen levels of the water, availability of food, size of each fish, age, number of times the fish has spawned before and water temperature are all factors known to effect when and how many eggs each carp will spawn at any one time.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Prior to spawning, male Siamese fighting fish build bubble nests of varying sizes at the surface of the water. When a male becomes interested in a female, he will flare his gills, twist his body, and spread his fins. The female darkens in colour and curves her body back and forth. The act of spawning takes place in a "nuptial embrace" where the male wraps his body around the female, each embrace resulting in the release of 10-40 eggs until the female is out of eggs. The male, from his side, releases milt into the water and fertilization takes place externally. During and after spawning, the male uses his mouth to retrieve sinking eggs and deposit them in the bubble nest (during mating the female sometimes assists her partner, but more often she will simply devour all the eggs that she manages to catch). Once the female has released all of her eggs, she is chased away from the male's territory, as it is likely that she'll eat the eggs due to hunger. The eggs then remain in the male's care. He keeps them in the bubble nest, making sure none fall to the bottom and repairing the nest as needed. Incubation lasts for 24–36 hours, and the newly hatched larvae remain in the nest for the next 2–3 days, until their yolk sacs are fully absorbed. Afterwards the fry leave the nest and the free-swimming stage begins.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Copepods are tiny crustaceans which usually reproduce either by "broadcast spawning" or by "sac spawning". Broadcasting copepods scatter their eggs into the water, but sac spawners lay their eggs into an ovigerous sac. Sac spawners spawn few but relatively large eggs that develop slowly. By contrast, broadcast spawners spawn numerous small eggs that develop rapidly. However, the shorter hatch times that result from broadcasting are not short enough to compensate for the higher mortality compared to sac spawners. To produce a given number of hatched eggs, broadcasters must spawn more eggs than sac spawners.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: After mating, the fertilized eggs of the California spiny lobster are carried on the female's pleopods until they hatch, with between 120,000 and 680,000 carried by a single female. The eggs begin coral red, but darken as they develop to a deep maroon. When she is carrying the eggs, the female is said to be "berried". The eggs are ready to hatch after 10 weeks, and spawning takes place from May to August. The larvae that hatch (called "phyllosoma" larvae) do not resemble the adults. Instead, they are flat, transparent animals around long, but as thin as a sheet of paper. The larvae feed on plankton, and grow through ten molts into ten further larval stages, the last of which is around long. The full series of larval molts takes around 7 months, and when the last stage molts, it metamorphoses into the "puerulus" state, which is a juvenile form of the adult, though still transparent. The puerulus larvae settle to the sea floor when the water is near its maximum temperature, which in Baja California is in the fall.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Egg-bearing female lobsters migrate inshore from deeper waters to hatch their eggs, though they do not have specific spawning grounds. These lobster migrations can occur in close single-file formation "lobster trains".


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Oysters are "broadcast spawners", that is, eggs and sperm are released into open water where fertilisation occurs. They are protandric; during their first year they spawn as males by releasing sperm into the water. As they grow over the next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing eggs. Bay oysters usually spawn by the end of June. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster can produce up to 100 million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in the water and develop rapidly into planktonic larvae. which eventually find suitable sites, such as another oyster's shell, on which to settle. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than long.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: The Pacific oyster usually has separate sexes. Their sex can be determined by examining the gonads, and it can change from year to year, normally during the winter months. In certain environmental conditions, one sex is favoured over the other. Protandry is favoured in areas of high food abundance and protogyny occurs in areas of low food abundance. In habitats with a high food supply, the sex ratio in the adult population tends to favour females, and areas with low food abundances tend to have a larger proportion of male adults. Spawning in the Pacific oyster occurs at . This species is very fecund, with females releasing about 50–200 million eggs in regular intervals (at a rate of 5–10 times a minute) in a single spawning. Once released from the gonads, the eggs move through the suprabranchial chambers (gills), are then pushed through the gill ostia into the mantle chamber, and are finally released in the water, forming a small cloud. In males, the sperm is released at the opposite end of the oyster, along with the normal exhalent stream of water. A rise in water temperature is thought to be the main cue in the initiation of spawning, as the onset of higher water temperatures in the summer results in earlier spawning in the Pacific oyster.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: The larvae of the Pacific oyster are planktotrophic, and are about 70 µm at the prodissoconch 1 stage. The larvae move through the water column via the use of a larval foot to find suitable settlement locations. They can spend several weeks at this phase, which is dependent on water temperature, salinity and food supply. Over these weeks, larvae can disperse great distances by water currents before they metamorphose and settle as small spat. Similar to other oyster species, once the Pacific oyster larvae find a suitable habitat, they attach to it permanently using cement secreted from a gland in their foot. After settlement, the larvae metamorphose into juvenile spat. The growth rate is very rapid in optimum environmental conditions, and market size can be achieved in 18 to 30 months.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Cephalopods, such as squid and octopuses, have prominent heads and a set of arms (tentacles) modified from the primitive foot of molluscs. All cephalopods are sexually dimorphic. However, they lack external sexual characteristics, so they use colour communication. A courting male approaches a likely looking mate flashing his brightest colours, often in rippling displays. If the other cephalopod is female and receptive, her skin will change colour to become pale, and mating will occur. If the other cephalopod remains brightly coloured, it is taken as a warning.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: All cephalopods reproduce by spawning eggs. Most cephalopods use semi-internal fertilization where the male places his gametes inside the female's mantle cavity to fertilize the ova in the female's single ovary. The "penis" in most male cephalopods is a long and muscular end of the gonoduct used to transfer spermatophores to a modified sperm-carrying arm called a hectocotylus. That in turn is used to transfer the spermatophores to the female. In species where the hectocotylus is missing, the "penis" is long and able to extend beyond the mantle cavity and transfers the spermatophores directly to the female. In many cephalopods, mating occurs head-to-head and the male may simply transfer sperm to the female. Others may detach the sperm-carrying arm and leave it attached to the female. Deep water squid have the greatest known penis length relative to body size of all mobile animals, second in the entire animal kingdom only to certain sessile barnacles. Penis elongation in the greater hooked squid may result in a penis that is as long as the mantle, head and arms combined.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Some species brood their fertilized eggs: female paper nautilus construct shelters for the young, while Gonatiid squid carry a larva-laden membrane from the hooks on their arms. Other cephalopods deposit their young under rocks and aerate them with their tentacles hatching. Mostly the eggs are left to their own devices; many squid lay sausage-like bunches of eggs in crevices or occasionally on the sea floor. Cuttlefish lay eggs separately in cases and attach them to coral or algal fronds. Like Pacific salmon, cephalopods are mostly semelparous, spawning many small eggs in one batch and then dying. Cephalopods usually live fast and die young. Most of the energy extracted from their food is used for growing, and they mature rapidly to their adult size. Some gain as much as 12% of their body mass each day. Most live for one to two years, reproducing and then dying shortly thereafter.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Echinoderms are marine animals, widespread in all oceans, but not found in fresh water. Just below their skin is an endoskeleton composed of calcareous plates or ossicles.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Sea urchins are spiky echinoderms with spherical bodies which usually contain five gonads. They move slowly, feed mostly on seaweed, and are important for the diet of sea otters. Sea urchins are dioecious, having separate male and female sexes, although there is generally no easy way to distinguish the two. The gonads are lined with muscles underneath the peritoneum, and these allow the animal to squeeze its gametes through the duct and into the surrounding sea water, where fertilization takes place. Their roe (male and female gonads) is soft and melting, with a colour ranging from orange to pale yellow, and is sought after as a human delicacy in many parts of the world.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Sea cucumbers are leathery echinoderms with elongated bodies which contain a single, branched gonad. They are found on the sea floor worldwide, and occur in great numbers on the deep sea floor where they often make up the majority of the animal biomass. They feed on plankton and decaying organic debris found at the sea bottom, catching food that flows by with their open tentacles or sifting through bottom sediments. Like sea urchins, most sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing sperm and ova into the ocean water. Depending on conditions, one organism can produce thousands of gametes.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Sea cucumbers are typically dioecious, with separate male and female individuals. The reproductive system consists of a single gonad, consisting of a cluster of tubules emptying into a single duct that opens on the upper surface of the animal, close to the tentacles. Many species fertilise their eggs internally. The fertilised egg develops in a pouch on the adult's body and eventually hatches as a juvenile sea cucumber. A few species brood their young inside the body cavity, giving birth through a small rupture in the body wall close to the anus. The remaining species develop their eggs into a free-swimming larva, usually after about three days of development. This larva swims by means of a long band of cilia wrapped around its body. As the larva grows it transforms into a barrel-shaped body with three to five separate rings of cilia. The tentacles are usually the first adult features to appear, before the regular tube feet.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Amphibians are found in and around fresh water lakes and ponds, but not in marine environments. Examples are frogs and toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians (which resemble snakes). They are cold-blooded animals that metamorphose from a juvenile water-breathing form, usually to an adult air-breathing form, though mudpuppies retain juvenile gills in adulthood.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Female frogs and toads usually spawn gelatinous egg masses containing thousands of eggs in water. Different species lay eggs in distinctive and identifiable ways. For example, the American toad lays long strings of eggs. The eggs are highly vulnerable to predation, so frogs have evolved many techniques to ensure the survival of the next generation. In colder areas the embryo is black to absorb more heat from the sun, which speeds up development. Most commonly, this involves synchronous reproduction. Many individuals will breed at the same time, overwhelming the actions of predators; the majority of the offspring will still die due to predation, but there is a greater chance some will survive. Another way in which some species avoid predators and the pathogens eggs are exposed to in ponds is to lay eggs on leaves above the pond, with a gelatinous coating designed to retain moisture. In these species the tadpoles drop into the water upon hatching. The eggs of some species laid out of water can detect vibrations of nearby predatory wasps or snakes, and will hatch early to avoid being eaten.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: While the length of the egg stage depends on the species and environmental conditions, aquatic eggs generally hatch within one week. Unlike salamanders and newts, frogs and toads never become sexually mature while still in their larval stage. The hatched eggs continue life as tadpoles, which typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails. As a general rule, free living larvae are fully aquatic. They lack eyelids and have a cartilaginous skeleton, a lateral line system, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later) and tails with dorsal and ventral folds of skin for swimming. They quickly develop a gill pouch that covers the gills and the front legs; the lungs are also developed at an early stage as an accessory breathing organ. Some species which go through the metamorphosis inside the egg and hatch to small frogs never develop gills; instead there are specialised areas of skin that take care of respiration. Tadpoles also lack true teeth, but the jaws in most species usually have two elongate, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts in the upper jaw while the lower jaw has three rows of keradonts, surrounded by a horny beak, but the number of rows can be lower (sometimes zero), or much higher. Tadpoles feed on algae, including diatoms filtered from the water through the gills. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles, and fish. Cannibalism has been observed among tadpoles. Early developers who gain legs may be eaten by the others, so the late bloomers survive longer.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Sea turtles are amphibious reptiles, but they are not amphibians. Reptiles belong to the class Reptilia while amphibians belong to the class Amphibia. These are two distinct taxonomic groups. Reptiles have scales and leathery skins, while the skins of amphibians are smooth and porous. Unlike frogs, sea turtle eggs have tough, leathery shells which allow them to survive on land without drying out.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: Some sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding and spawning grounds. Green turtles have feeding grounds along the Brazilian coast. Each year, thousands of these turtles migrate about to their spawning ground, Ascension Island in the Atlantic, an island only across. Each year the returning turtles dig between 6,000 and 15,000 nests, often returning to the same beach from where they hatched. Females usually mate every two to four years. Males on the other hand visit the breeding areas every year, attempting to mate. Green sea turtles' mating is similar to other marine turtles. Female turtles control the process. A few populations practice polyandry, although this does not seem to benefit hatchlings. After mating in the water, the female moves above the beach's high tide line where she digs a hole with her hind flippers and deposits her eggs. Litter size depends on the age of the female and species, but green turtle clutches range between 100 and 200. She then covers the nest with sand and returns to the sea.


title: Spawn (biology)

text: At around 45 to 75 days, the eggs hatch during the night and the hatchlings instinctively head directly into the water. This is the most dangerous time in a turtle's life. As they walk, predators such as gulls and crabs grab them. A significant percentage never make it to the ocean. Little is known of the initial life history of newly hatched sea turtles. Juveniles spend three to five years in the open ocean before they settle as still-immature juveniles into their permanent shallow-water lifestyle. It is speculated that they take twenty to fifty years to reach sexual maturity. Individuals live up to eighty years in the wild. They are among the larger sea turtles, many more than a meter long and weighing up to .