text: On January 13, 2022, the Supreme Court ruled in "National Federation of Independent Business v. Occupational Safety and Health Administration" that OSHA did not have the authority to enforce the mandate to private companies while ruling in favor of the mandate for healthcare workers in "Biden v. Missouri". In the OSHA case, the court issued a "per curiam" decision that stated that OSHA's mandate exceeded their congressional authority that only covered workplace hazards and not broad public ones, and that it should be left to Congress and the states to determine the response to pandemics like COVID-19. A dissenting minority opinion from Justices Stephen Breyer, Sonia Sotomayor, and Elena Kagan states that OSHA is the best agency to determine how to protect workers and that courts should not impede OSHA's actions on occupational safety related to COVID-19. In the healthcare workers' mandate, the "per curiam" opinion found that this fell within the congressional authority given to the HHS in the use of Medicare and Medicaid funds as to further protect the patients they deal with, and vacated the stay on this mandate ordered by the Eighth Circuit. Both Justices Clarence Thomas and Samuel Alito wrote dissenting opinions, each joined by Justices Neil Gorsuch and Amy Coney Barrett. Both opinions stated that the mandate was too broad to likely apply to the limited congressional authority that HHS was given. On January 25, 2022, the White House officially withdrew the mandate after its defeat in the Supreme Court to focus on other options that may stand a better chance of surviving appeals.


title: COVID-19 vaccination mandates in the United States

text: Vaccination incentives were used in California and New York as part of their easing of restrictions in mid-2021; New York allowed seating sections of outdoor venues to operate at full capacity if they were exclusive to vaccinated attendees, and California allowed venues to operate at a higher capacity than normally allowed under its "Blueprint for a Safer Economy" framework if all patrons present proof of vaccination or a recent negative test.


text: With the increased spread of Delta variant in the United States and to overcome vaccine hesitancy, several major U.S. cities announced in August 2021 that individuals 12 and older would be required to present proof of vaccination in order to enter certain non-essential indoor businesses, such as gyms, dine-in restaurants, bars, and entertainment venues;


text: As with mask mandates support and opposition towards mandates and proof of vaccination by businesses has largely fallen along party lines with Democrats mostly supporting such measures and Republicans mostly against, however people who claim a variety of political ideologies consider mandates to be harmful and an unacceptable infringement of personal freedom and choice despite having a personal belief in the safety and necessity of the vaccines. Concern for human rights also has an influence on people across the ideological spectrum. Compulsory vaccination is an interference with the human right of bodily integrity, which is a part of the right to private life enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as well as in the European Convention on Human Rights. However, not every interference with this right is automatically illegal. Media has also contributed to the politicizing of mandates Restrictions have not only sparked severe protests by groups of citizens, but also resulted in the strengthening of populist movements and their political representatives, who are generally skeptical of policies that help to stem the spread of the COVID-19 virus a phenomenon labeled as 'medical populism'


text: As of August 12, 2021 20 states all controlled by Republicans have passed legislation or issued executive orders prohibiting state agencies from issuing vaccine passports or otherwise requiring proof of vaccination as a condition of service. Alabama, Florida, Iowa, Montana, and Texas also prohibit private businesses from requiring proof of vaccination as a condition of service, with the Florida order threatening fines of $5,000 per-instance, the Montana order terming it as a prohibition of "discrimination" on the basis of vaccination status (with exceptions for long-term care facilities and public schools), and the Texas order enforceable by state licensing agencies (such as the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission, which has threatened to revoke the liquor licenses of establishments that request proof of vaccination in violation of state law). Texas is also the only state where event requirements for even a negative COVID-19 test is prohibited. The Iowa ban prohibits businesses requiring proof of vaccination from receiving state grants and contracts. There have also been bills enacted or introduced to prohibit employers from enforcing vaccine mandates, and prohibiting vaccine mandates that apply to students.


text: Some politicians such as Marjorie Taylor Greene have claimed that under the Privacy Rule of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), individuals may not be asked to provide their vaccination status. The Privacy Rule only applies to specific "protected health information" being stored by a "covered entity" (such as a health plan, health insurer, health care clearinghouse, or medical service provider), and does not generally prohibit private businesses or employers from requesting information on vaccination status directly from individuals.


text: Several states have executive orders or passed laws completely prohibiting or limiting COVID-19 vaccine mandates for employers to include various exemptions including proof of antibodies, weekly testing or personal protective equipment use and allow employees who lose jobs for refusing a COVID-19 vaccine to collect unemployment benefits until they can find a job that does not mandate vaccination. Arkansas, Florida, Iowa, Kansas, and Tennessee have all passed laws that allow workers who are fired for refusing COVID-19 vaccine mandates to collect unemployment benefits. A sixth state, Nebraska, issued a Department of Labor Guidance Document that provides the same protection – an individual "who began work for an employer prior to an employer instituting a COVID-19 vaccine requirement" and is discharged for refusing the mandate would not be disqualified from receiving unemployment and at least 15 other states are in the process of passing legislation.


text: The following 22 states have laws prohibiting proof of COVID-19 vaccination for service by state and local government entities: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah and Wyoming.


text: The following 17 states have laws prohibiting schools from mandating COVID-19 vaccines for students: Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Montana, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Kansas, Texas, Arkansas, Indiana, Ohio, Tennessee, Alabama, South Carolina, Georgia, New Hampshire and Florida.


text: On January 26, 2022, the Attorney General of Virginia issued a legal opinion that said "State universities cannot require the Covid-19 vaccine for students to attend in-person or enroll, unless the commonwealth's legislature includes it among required immunizations for colleges." "The legal guidance, which is not equivalent to law, has no direct consequences if it isn't followed," the Attorney General's office said. "But if an individual decided to sue a university for not following the attorney general's guidance, they could use the Attorney General's opinion in court." In his guidance, Miyares writes that "Virginia's higher education public institutions fall under the control of the General Assembly, which has enacted statutes governing student health and outlined certain immunizations that students need to enroll. Absent specific authority conferred by the General Assembly, public institutions of higher education in Virginia may not require vaccination against COVID-19 as a general condition of students' enrollment or in-person attendance." Within a week Virginia's largest public universities ended their COVID-19 vaccination requirement for students to attend in person or to enroll. Virginia Tech, George Mason University, the University of Virginia and Virginia Commonwealth University announced updates in their policies for the ongoing spring semester. Other Virginia public universities including James Madison University, the College of William & Mary and Old Dominion University, also announced they are ending their COVID-19 vaccination requirements for students.


text: On February 4, 2022, 16 states filed a new lawsuit challenging the federal CMS mandate, the lawsuit was filed in U.S. District Court for the Western District of Louisiana. This lawsuit follows a Texas post Supreme Court ruling lawsuit filed in Texas that was dismissed.


text: On May 29, 2021, a lawsuit was filed by 117 employees of Houston Methodist Hospital, who were fired refusing to comply with the hospital's vaccine mandate. The lawsuit was dismissed by district judge Lynn Hughes roughly a couple weeks later. An appeal was filed following the ruling.


text: In July 2021, Norwegian Cruise Line sued the Surgeon General of Florida over the state's prohibition of vaccine mandates by private businesses. In August district judge Kathleen M. Williams issued a preliminary injunction in favor of Norwegian, stating that the government failed to "provide a valid evidentiary, factual, or legal predicate" and that "documentary proof of vaccination will expedite passengers' entry into virtually every single country and port where Plaintiffs intend to sail."


text: A vaccine mandate being enforced by Indiana University requiring those who are not vaccinated for COVID-19 to submit to weekly testing if they attend in-person classes was challenged by a group of eight students who argued in "Klaassen v. Indiana University" that risks of the vaccines outweighed the benefits and that it was a violation of the 14th Amendment. District judge Damon R. Leichty rejected a motion for a preliminary injunction, ruling that the university had a right to "a reasonable and due process of vaccination in the legitimate interest of public health for its students, faculty and staff", that the students had alternatives such as agreeing to testing or applying for an exemption, remote learning, or going to a different university if they did not want to be vaccinated and that "the situation here is a far cry from past blunders in medical ethics like the Tuskegee Study." The 7th Circuit Court of Appeals, in an opinion by judge Frank Easterbrook, upheld the ruling, citing case law dating back to smallpox in 1905.


text: On August 12, 2021, Supreme Court Justice Amy Coney Barrett, who receives emergency appeals from the Seventh Circuit, denied a request for emergency relief in the Indiana University matter; she acted with no comment, and did not refer the case to the full Supreme Court. Media outlets believed that Barrett's decision to uphold the mandate may have implications in future legal challenges.


text: In September 2021, the anti-vaccine group America's Frontline Doctors (AFLDS) filed a lawsuit attempting to overturn New York City's proof of vaccination mandate. The suit alleged that the mandate was inherently discriminating against African Americans, citing a perceived hesitation towards vaccines among this population stemming from the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.


text: In December 2021, a federal appeals court upheld a district court's injunction blocking Biden's vaccine mandate for healthcare workers; the ruling applies only to ten Republican-led states, namely Alaska, Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming. On January 13, 2022, the Supreme Court overturned the injunction.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Daspletosaurus ( ; meaning "frightful lizard") is a genus of tyrannosaurid dinosaur that lived in Laramidia between about 79.5 and 74 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous Period. The genus "Daspletosaurus" contains three species. Fossils of the earlier type species, D. torosus, have been found in Alberta, and fossils of a later second species, D. wilsoni," and third species, D. horneri", have been found only in Montana. A possible fourth species, also from Alberta, awaits formal identification. The taxon "Thanatotheristes" has been suggested to represent a species of "Daspletosaurus", "D. degrootorum", but this has not been widely supported. "Daspletosaurus" is closely related to the much larger and more recent tyrannosaurid "Tyrannosaurus rex". Like most tyrannosaurids, "Daspletosaurus" was a multi-tonne bipedal predator equipped with dozens of large, sharp teeth. "Daspletosaurus" had the small forelimbs typical of tyrannosaurids, although they were proportionately longer than in other genera.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: As an apex predator, "Daspletosaurus" was at the top of the food chain, probably preying on large dinosaurs like the ceratopsid "Centrosaurus" and the hadrosaur "Hypacrosaurus". In some areas, "Daspletosaurus" coexisted with another tyrannosaurid, "Gorgosaurus", though there is some evidence of niche differentiation between the two. While "Daspletosaurus" fossils are not as common as other tyrannosaurid fossils, the available specimens allow some analysis of the biology of these animals, including social behavior, diet, and life history.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: The type specimen of "Daspletosaurus torosus" (CMN 8506) is a partial skeleton including the skull, the shoulder, a forelimb, the pelvis, a femur, and all of the vertebrae from the neck, torso, and hip, as well as the first eleven tail vertebrae. It was discovered in 1921 near Steveville, Alberta, by Charles Mortram Sternberg, who thought it was a new species of "Gorgosaurus". It was not until 1970 that the specimen was fully described by Dale Russell, who made it the type of a new genus, "Daspletosaurus", from the Greek δασπλής (', stem and connective vowel resulting in '-) ("frightful") and () ("lizard"). The type species is "Daspletosaurus torosus", the specific name "torosus" being Latin for 'muscular' or 'brawny'. Aside from the type, there is only one other well-known specimen, RTMP 2001.36.1, a relatively complete skeleton discovered in 2001. Both specimens were recovered from the Oldman Formation in the Judith River Group of Alberta. The Oldman Formation was deposited during the middle Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, from about 79.5 to 77 Ma (million years ago).


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Dale Russell also suggested that a specimen of an immature "Albertosaurus" (CMN 11315) from the younger Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta actually belonged to a third specimen of "Daspletosaurus" as "D." cf. "torosus", extending the temporal range of the genus by approximately 3.5 million years into the Maastrichtian. He based this referral on features of its limb and pelvic girdle, as well as the curvature of the hand claws, which he interpreted as traits matching "Daspletosaurus". This reassignment was not universally accepted, and thorough re-examination of the specimen favoured its initial referral to "Albertosaurus sarcophagus", despite lacking many of the diagnostic skeletal traits used to identify mature tyrannosaurids. An additional maxilla and various teeth from an "Edmontosaurus"-dominated bonebed in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation was also mistakenly referred to "Daspletosaurus", but all the tyrannosaurid material has all since been confirmed to belong to "Albertosaurus".


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Over the years, various additional species have been assigned to the genus "Daspletosaurus" Though some have been designated as "Daspletosaurus" spp, this does not imply that they all represent the same species.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Along with the holotype, Russell designated a specimen collected by Barnum Brown in 1913 as the paratype of "D. torosus". This specimen (AMNH 5438) consists of parts of the hindleg, the pelvis, and some of its associated vertebrae. It was discovered in the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta. The Dinosaur Park Formation was formerly known as the Upper Oldman Formation and dates back to the middle Campanian, between 76.5 and 74.8 million years ago. "Daspletosaurus" fossils are known specifically from the middle to upper section of the formation, between 75.6 and 75.0 million years ago. In 1914, Brown collected a nearly complete skeleton and skull; forty years later his American Museum of Natural History sold this specimen to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. It was mounted for display in Chicago and labeled as "Albertosaurus libratus" for many years, but after several skull features were later found to be modeled in plaster, including most of the teeth, the specimen (FMNH PR308) was reassigned to "Daspletosaurus torosus" by Thomas Carr in 1999. A total of eight specimens have been collected from the Dinosaur Park Formation over the years since, most of them within the boundaries of Dinosaur Provincial Park. Phil Currie believes that the Dinosaur Park specimens represent a new species of "Daspletosaurus", distinguished by certain features of the skull. Pictures of this new species have been published, but it still awaits a name and full description in print.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: A new tyrannosaurid specimen (OMNH 10131), including skull fragments, ribs, and parts of the hindlimb, was reported from New Mexico in 1990 and assigned to the now-defunct genus "Aublysodon". Many later authors have reassigned this specimen, along with a few others from New Mexico, to yet another unnamed species of "Daspletosaurus". However, research published in 2010 showed that this species, from the Hunter Wash Member of the Kirtland Formation, is actually a more primitive tyrannosauroid, and was classified in the genus "Bistahieversor".


title: Daspletosaurus

text: In 1992, Jack Horner and colleagues published an extremely preliminary report of a tyrannosaurid from the upper parts of the Campanian Two Medicine Formation in Montana, which was interpreted as a transitional species between "Daspletosaurus" and the later "Tyrannosaurus". Currie (2003) stated that the tyrannosaurid from the Two Medicine Formation mentioned by Horner "et al." (1992) may be an unnamed third species of "Daspletosaurus". Another partial skeleton was reported from the Upper Two Medicine in 2001, preserving the remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its abdominal cavity. This specimen was assigned to "Daspletosaurus" but not to any particular species. The remains of at least three more "Daspletosaurus" have also been described in a Two Medicine bonebed by Currie "et al." (2005); the authors stated that this fossil material likely represents then-unnamed species mentioned by Horner "et al." (1992), but cautioned that further study and description of "Daspletosaurus" would be necessary before the species can be determined with certainty. In 2017, the Two Medicine Formation taxon was named as the new species "D. horneri".


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Isolated tyrannosaurid teeth in the upper portions of the Judith River Formation are likely from "Gorgosaurus" as well as some species of "Daspletosaurus", probably "D. torosus". However, in the lower portion Judith River Formation, around 78 million years ago, there is some evidence for a new undescribed tyrannosaurid taxon. A specimen in the collections of Triebold Paleontology excavated between 2002 and 2004, known as "Sir William", shows some characteristics of "Daspletosaurus" suggesting a new earlier species to the genus. However the specimen shows many characteristics typical of early tyrannosaurines such as "Teratophoneus" and even some of the later "Tyrannosaurus", which may suggest an entirely new genus.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: In 2017, John Wilson discovered the bones of a tyrannosaurid, including a partial disarticulated skull, cervical, sacral, and caudal vertebrae, and a rib, chevron, and first metatarsal, from the "Jack’s B2" site of the Judith River Formation. Elías A. Warshaw and Denver W. Fowler described these remains (BDM 107) in 2022 as belonging to a new species of "Daspletosaurus", "D. wilsoni". It represents a transitional species between "D. torosus" and "D. horneri", as it existed between them in time. These three species likely evolved directly through anagenesis.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: While very large by the standard of modern predators, "Daspletosaurus" was not the largest tyrannosaurid. Adults could reach a length of 8–9 meters (26–30 ft) from snout to tail, and a body mass of .


title: Daspletosaurus

text: "Daspletosaurus" had a massive skull that could reach more than in length. The bones were heavily constructed and some, including the nasal bones on top of the snout, were fused for strength. Large fenestrae (openings) in the skull reduced its weight. An adult "Daspletosaurus" was armed with about six dozen teeth that were very long but oval in cross section rather than blade-like. Unlike its other teeth, those in the premaxilla at the end of the upper jaw had a D-shaped cross section, an example of heterodonty always seen in tyrannosaurids. Unique skull features included the rough outer surface of the maxilla (upper jaw bone) and the pronounced crests around the eyes on the lacrimal, postorbital, and jugal bones. The orbit (eye socket) was a tall oval, somewhere in between the circular shape seen in "Gorgosaurus" and the 'keyhole' shape of "Tyrannosaurus". Split carinae (edges) have been found on "Daspletosaurus" teeth.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: "Daspletosaurus" shared the same body form as other tyrannosaurids, with a short, S-shaped neck supporting the massive skull. It walked on its two thick hindlimbs, which ended in four-toed feet, although the first digit (the hallux) did not contact the ground. In contrast, the forelimbs were extremely small and bore only two digits, although "Daspletosaurus" had the longest forelimbs in proportion to body size of any tyrannosaurid. A long, heavy tail served as a counterweight to the head and torso, with the center of gravity over the hips.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: "Daspletosaurus" belongs in the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae within the family Tyrannosauridae, along with "Tarbosaurus", "Tyrannosaurus", and Alioramini. Animals in this subfamily are more closely related to "Tyrannosaurus" than to "Albertosaurus" and are known – with the exception of "Alioramus" – for their robust build with proportionally larger skulls and longer femora than in the other subfamily, the Albertosaurinae. It further belongs to the tribe Daspletosaurini, consisting of it and the taxon "Thanatotheristes".


title: Daspletosaurus

text: "Daspletosaurus" is usually considered to be closely related to "Tyrannosaurus rex", or even a direct ancestor through anagenesis. Gregory Paul reassigned "D. torosus" to the genus "Tyrannosaurus", creating the new combination "Tyrannosaurus torosus", but this has not been generally accepted. Many researchers believe "Tarbosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus" to be sister taxa or even to be the same genus, with "Daspletosaurus" a more basal relative. On the other hand, Phil Currie and colleagues find "Daspletosaurus" to be more closely related to "Tarbosaurus" and other Asian tyrannosaurids like "Alioramus" than to the North American "Tyrannosaurus". The systematics (evolutionary relationships) of "Daspletosaurus" have become clearer as new species have been described.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Below is a cladogram of Tyrannosaurinae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Warshaw & Fowler (2022). Here, it is proposed that the three "Daspletosaurus" species evolved through anagenesis in the Tyrannosaurinae in a line leading to "Zhuchengtyrannus", "Tarbosaurus", and "Tyrannosaurus". Due to their more fragmentary nature, "Thanatotheristes" and "Nanuqsaurus" were excluded from this analysis.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: There are indications of "D. horneri" possessing integumentary sensory organs, possibly used in touch, modulation of precise jaw movements, temperature reading, and prey detection. The large flat scales may have further protected the snout during prey capture and intra-specific combat.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: A young specimen of the Dinosaur Park "Daspletosaurus" species (TMP 94.143.1) shows bite marks on the face that were inflicted by another tyrannosaur. The bite marks are healed over, indicating that the animal survived the bite. A full-grown Dinosaur Park "Daspletosaurus" (TMP 85.62.1) also exhibits tyrannosaur bite marks, showing that attacks to the face were not limited to younger animals. While it is possible that the bites were attributable to other species, intraspecific aggression, including facial biting, is very common among predators. Facial bites are seen in other tyrannosaurs like "Gorgosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus", as well as in other theropod genera like "Sinraptor" and "Saurornitholestes". Darren Tanke and Phil Currie hypothesize that the bites are due to intraspecific competition for territory or resources, or for dominance within a social group.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Evidence that "Daspletosaurus" lived in social groups comes from a bonebed found in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana. The bonebed includes the remains of three "Daspletosaurus", including a large adult, a small juvenile, and another individual of intermediate size. At least five hadrosaurs are preserved at the same location. Geologic evidence indicates that the remains were not brought together by river currents but that all of the animals were buried simultaneously at the same location. The hadrosaur remains are scattered and bear numerous marks from tyrannosaur teeth, indicating that the "Daspletosaurus" were feeding on the hadrosaurs at the time of death. The cause of death is unknown. Currie speculates that the daspletosaurs formed a pack, although this cannot be stated with certainty. Other scientists are skeptical of the evidence for social groups in "Daspletosaurus" and other large theropods;


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Brian Roach and Daniel Brinkman have suggested that "Daspletosaurus" social interaction would have more closely resembled the modern Komodo dragon, where non-cooperative individuals mob carcasses, frequently attacking and even cannibalizing each other in the process.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Fossils of other tyrannosaurids like "Teratophoneus" and "Albertosaurus" among other genera suggest that gregarious behavior may have been widespread in tyrannosaurs and thus may vindicate the hypothesis of "Daspletosaurus" being a social animal, as bonebeds of these genera containing multiple specimens in a wide range of ages have been excavated and described from these different genera.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Paleontologist Gregory Erickson and colleagues have studied the growth and life history of tyrannosaurids. Analysis of bone histology can determine the age of a specimen when it died. Growth rates can be examined when the ages of various individuals are plotted against their size on a graph. Erickson has shown that after a long time as juveniles, tyrannosaurs underwent tremendous growth spurts for about four years midway through their lives. After the rapid growth phase ended with sexual maturity, growth slowed down considerably in adult animals. Erickson only examined "Daspletosaurus" from the Dinosaur Park Formation, but these specimens show the same pattern. Compared to albertosaurines, "Daspletosaurus" showed a faster growth rate during the rapid growth period due to its higher adult weight. The maximum growth rate in "Daspletosaurus" was 180 kilograms (400 lb) per year, based on a mass estimate of in adults. Other authors have suggested higher adult weights for "Daspletosaurus"; this would change the magnitude of the growth rate but not the overall pattern.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: By tabulating the number of specimens of each age group, Erickson and his colleagues were able to draw conclusions about life history in a population of "Albertosaurus". Their analysis showed that, while juveniles were rare in the fossil record, subadults in the rapid growth phase and adults were far more common. While this could be due to preservation or collection biases, Erickson hypothesized that the difference was due to low mortality among juveniles over a certain size, which is also seen in some modern large mammals like elephants. This low mortality may have resulted from a lack of predation, since tyrannosaurs surpassed all contemporaneous predators in size by the age of two. Paleontologists have not found enough "Daspletosaurus" remains for a similar analysis, but Erickson notes that the same general trend seems to apply.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: A 2009 study found evidence of "Trichomonas gallinae"-like infection in the jaws of various specimens of "Daspletosaurus".


title: Daspletosaurus

text: All known "Daspletosaurus" fossils have been found in formations dating to the middle to late Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period, between 77 and 74 million years ago. Since the middle of the Cretaceous, North America had been divided in half by the Western Interior Seaway, with much of Montana and Alberta below the surface. However, the uplift of the Rocky Mountains in the Laramide Orogeny to the west, which began during the time of "Daspletosaurus", forced the seaway to retreat eastwards and southwards. Rivers flowed down from the mountains and drained into the seaway, carrying sediment along with them that formed the Two Medicine Formation, the Judith River Group, and other sedimentary formations in the region. About 73 million years ago, the seaway began to advance westwards and northwards again, and the entire region was covered by the Bearpaw Sea, represented throughout the western United States and Canada by the massive Bearpaw Shale.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: "Daspletosaurus" lived in a vast floodplain along the western shore of the interior seaway. Large rivers watered the land, occasionally flooding and blanketing the region with new sediment. When water was plentiful, the region could support a great deal of plant and animal life, but periodic droughts also struck the region, resulting in mass mortality as preserved in the many bonebed deposits found in Two Medicine and Judith River sediments, including the "Daspletosaurus" bonebed. Similar conditions exist today in East Africa. Volcanic eruptions from the west periodically blanketed the region with ash, also resulting in large-scale mortality, while simultaneously enriching the soil for future plant growth. It is these ash beds that allow precise radiometric dating as well. Fluctuating sea levels also resulted in a variety of other environments at different times and places within the Judith River Group, including offshore and nearshore marine habitats, coastal wetlands, deltas, and lagoons, in addition to the inland floodplains. The Two Medicine Formation was deposited at higher elevations farther inland than the other two formations.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: The excellent vertebrate fossil record of Two Medicine and Judith River rocks resulted from a combination of abundant animal life, periodic natural disasters, and the deposition of large amounts of sediment. Many types of freshwater and estuarine fish are represented, including sharks, rays, sturgeons, gars, and others. The Judith River Group preserves the remains of many aquatic amphibians and reptiles, including frogs, salamanders, turtles, "Champsosaurus" and crocodilians. Terrestrial lizards, including whiptails, skinks, monitors, and alligator lizards have also been discovered. Azhdarchid pterosaurs, and birds like "Apatornis" and "Avisaurus" flew overhead, while several varieties of mammals coexisted with "Daspletosaurus" and other types of dinosaurs in the various formations that make up the Judith River wedge.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: In the Oldman Formation (the geological equivalent of the Judith River formation), "Daspletosaurus torosus" could have preyed upon the hadrosaur species "Brachylophosaurus canadensis", the ceratopsians "Coronosaurus brinkmani" and "Albertaceratops nesmoi", pachycephalosaurs, ornithomimids, therizinosaurs, and possibly ankylosaurs. Other predators included troodontids, oviraptorosaurs, the dromaeosaurid "Saurornitholestes", and possibly an albertosaurine tyrannosaur (genus currently unknown). The younger Dinosaur Park and Two Medicine Formations had faunas similar to the Oldman, with the Dinosaur Park in particular preserving an unrivaled array of dinosaurs. The albertosaurine "Gorgosaurus" lived alongside unnamed species of "Daspletosaurus" in the Dinosaur Park and Upper Two Medicine environments. Young tyrannosaurs may have filled the niches in between adult tyrannosaurs and smaller theropods, which were separated by two orders of magnitude in mass. A "Saurornitholestes" dentary has been discovered in the Dinosaur Park Formation that bore tooth marks left by the bite of a young tyrannosaur, possibly "Daspletosaurus".


title: Daspletosaurus

text: In the late Campanian of North America, "Daspletosaurus" was a contemporary of the albertosaurine tyrannosaurid "Gorgosaurus". This is one of the few examples of two tyrannosaur genera coexisting. In modern predator guilds, similar-sized predators are separated into different ecological niches by anatomical, behavioral or geographical differences that limit competition. Several studies have attempted to explain niche differentiation in "Daspletosaurus" and "Gorgosaurus".


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Dale Russell hypothesized that the more lightly built and more common "Gorgosaurus" may have preyed on the abundant hadrosaurs of the time, while the more robust and less common "Daspletosaurus" may have specialized on the less prevalent but better-defended ceratopsids, which may have been more difficult to hunt. However, a specimen of "Daspletosaurus" (OTM 200) from the Two Medicine Formation preserves the digested remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its gut region. The higher and broader muzzles of tyrannosaurines like "Daspletosaurus" are mechanically stronger than the lower snouts of albertosaurines like "Gorgosaurus", although tooth strengths are similar between the two groups. This may indicate a difference in feeding mechanics or diet.


title: Daspletosaurus

text: Other authors have suggested that competition was limited by geographical separation. Unlike some other groups of dinosaurs, there appears to be no correlation with distance from the sea. Neither "Daspletosaurus" nor "Gorgosaurus" was more common at higher or lower elevations than the other. However, while there is some overlap, "Gorgosaurus" appears to be more common at northern latitudes, with species of "Daspletosaurus" more abundant to the south. The same pattern is seen in other groups of dinosaurs. Chasmosaurine ceratopsians and hadrosaurine hadrosaurs (a group now generally referred to as "saurolophines") are also more common in the Two Medicine Formation and in southwestern North America during the Campanian. Thomas Holtz has suggested that this pattern indicates shared ecological preferences between tyrannosaurines, chasmosaurines and hadrosaurines. Holtz notes that, at the end of the later Maastrichtian stage, tyrannosaurines like "Tyrannosaurus rex", hadrosaurines and chasmosaurines like "Triceratops" were widespread throughout western North America, while albertosaurines and centrosaurines became extinct, and lambeosaurines were very rare.


title: Labor camp

text: A labor camp (or labour camp, see spelling differences) or work camp is a detention facility where inmates are forced to engage in penal labor as a form of punishment. Labor camps have many common aspects with slavery and with prisons (especially prison farms). Conditions at labor camps vary widely depending on the operators. Convention no. 105 of the United Nations International Labour Organization (ILO), adopted internationally on 27 June 1957, abolished camps of forced labor.


title: Labor camp

text: In the 20th century, a new category of labor camps developed for the imprisonment of millions of people who were not criminals "per se", but political opponents (real or imagined) and various so-called undesirables under communist and fascist regimes. Some of those camps were dubbed "reeducation facilities" for political coercion, but most others served as backbones of industry and agriculture for the benefit of the state, especially in times of war.


title: Labor camp

text: Early-modern states could exploit condemned dissidents and those of suspect political or religious ideology by combining prison and useful work in manning their galleys.


title: Time in Malaysia

text: Malaysian Standard Time (MST; , WPM) or Malaysian Time (MYT) is the standard time used in Malaysia. It is 8 hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The local mean time in Kuala Lumpur was originally GMT+06:46:46. Peninsular Malaysia used this local mean time until 1 January 1901, when they changed to Singapore mean time GMT+06:55:25. Between the end of the Second World War and the formation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963, it was known as British Malayan Standard Time, which was GMT+07:30. At 2330 hrs local time of 31 December 1981, people in Peninsular Malaysia adjusted their clocks and watches ahead by 30 minutes to become 00:00 hours local time of 1 January 1982, to match the time in use in East Malaysia, which is UTC+08:00. SGT (Singapore) followed on and uses the same until now.


title: Time in Malaysia

text: Prime Minister of Malaysia Mahathir Mohamad declared that people in Peninsular Malaysia would adjust their clocks ahead by 30 minutes to match the time in use in East Malaysia (UTC+08:00) on 31 December 1981.


title: Time in Malaysia

text: On 1 January 1990, the Malaysian Cabinet appointed the National Metrology Laboratory (Sirim) as the official timekeeper of Malaysia. It propagates coordinated universal time plus 8 hours. This timescale is derived from five atomic clocks maintained by Sirim and is always within 0.9 seconds of the legal time.


title: Fascist architecture

text: Fascist architecture encompasses various stylistic trends in architecture developed by architects of fascist states, primarily in the early 20th century. Fascist architectural styles gained popularity in the late 1920s with the rise of modernism along with the ultranationalism associated with fascist governments in western Europe. Fascist styles often resemble that of ancient Rome, but can extend to modern aesthetics as well. Fascist-era buildings are frequently constructed with particular concern given to symmetry and simplicity.


title: Fascist architecture

text: Both Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler utilised new styles of architecture (variations of Rationalism, and Stripped Classicism respectively) as one of many attempts to unify the citizens of their states, mark a new era of nationalist culture, and exhibit the absolute rule of the state.


title: Fascist architecture

text: The fascist styles of architecture reflect the values of Fascism as a political ideology that developed in the early 20th century after World War I. The philosophy is defined by a strong nationalist people governed by a totalitarian government. The vision of a strong, unified, and economically stable nation seemed appealing to western Europe after the physical and economic destruction after World War I, which contributed to the rise of fascism and corporatism.


title: Fascist architecture

text: Fascist architecture in the form of Rationalism became popular under Benito Mussolini's rule of Italy from 1922 to 1943. Within this period he transformed the Italian executive role from that of a prime minister to a dictatorship. A few years after his taking of office he was referred to as Il Duce (the leader). When Mussolini took office, he took on the role of bringing about fascism and idealism to replace democracy in Italy. He utilized all forms of media along with architectural identity. The new modernist style of architecture was one way to help build his vision of a unified fascist Italy. When Mussolini called for a fascist style of architecture, architects used the style to imitate that of imperial Rome and to bring historical pride and a sense of nationalism to the Italian people. Fascist architecture was one of many ways for Mussolini to invigorate a cultural rebirth in Italy and to mark a new era of Italian culture under fascism.


title: Fascist architecture

text: Similarly, once Hitler came to power in 1933 and transformed the German Chancellery to a dictatorship, he used fascist architecture in the form of Stripped Classicism as one of many tools to help unify and nationalize Germany under his rule. Hitler had plans to rebuild Berlin after the axis powers won World War II under the name Germania, or Welthauptstadt Germania. Hitler had his favorite architect, Albert Speer, design this new metropolis using fascist architecture design.


title: Fascist architecture

text: Fascist-styles of architecture are a branch of modernist architecture which became popular in the early 20th century. The Italian Fascist style was also greatly influenced by the rationalist movement in Italy in the 1920s. Rationalist architecture, with the help of Italian government support, celebrated the new fascist age of culture and government in Italy.


title: Fascist architecture

text: In Nazi Germany, the extremely large and spacious Fascist architecture was one way envisioned by Hitler to unify Germany for what he described as "mass experiences", in which thousands of citizens could gather and take part in the patriotism of community events, and listen to speeches made by Hitler and other Nazi party leaders.


title: Fascist architecture

text: The fascist styles of architecture took design cues from Ancient Rome in that buildings of the styles were generally very large and symmetric with sharp non-rounded edges. The buildings purposefully conveyed a sense of awe and intimidation through their size, and were made of limestone and other durable stones in order to last the entirety of the fascist era and create impressive ruins. The buildings were also very plain, with little or no decoration, and lacked much complexity in design. These generalities of fascist architecture contributed to the simple aesthetics the edifices display. All these aspects helped the fascist dictatorships exhibit absolute and total rule of the population. Hitler and Mussolini used fascist architecture as another source of propaganda to display to the world the strength, pride and power their regimes had.


title: Mackenzie Lintz

text: Mackenzie Lintz (born November 22, 1996) is an American film and television actress. She is known for playing Norrie Calvert-Hill on the CBS television drama "Under the Dome".


title: Mackenzie Lintz

text: She comes from a family of actors, including her mother, Kelly Lintz, and her three younger siblings, Madison Lintz, Macsen Lintz, and Matt Lintz. She attended Covenant Christian Academy in Cumming, Georgia. Mackenzie, a lifelong Auburn fan, enrolled in 2014 as a freshman at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama.


title: Mackenzie Lintz

text: Lintz first auditioned for the role of Mattie Ross in the remake of "True Grit" by the Coen brothers. She was cast in an episode of Lifetime's "Drop Dead Diva" as well. In late 2011, she was cast in a minor role on "The Hunger Games" playing a tribute girl from District 8.


title: Mackenzie Lintz

text: In May 2013, she auditioned for the role of Norrie Calvert-Hill in another book-to feature remake, "Under the Dome", and was subsequently cast, portraying the role through all three seasons of the series.


title: Mackenzie Lintz

text: In February 2014, she was nominated for the Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series award at the 40th Saturn Awards.


title: Goodyear welt

text: A Goodyear welt is a strip of leather, rubber, or plastic that runs along the perimeter of a shoe outsole. The machinery used for the process was invented in 1869 by Charles Goodyear Jr., the son of Charles Goodyear. It has been noted by historians that Goodyear was a frequent visitor to the shoe factory of William J. Dudley, founder of Johnston & Murphy, where early work on sole stitching equipment was performed.


title: Goodyear welt

text: "Goodyear welt construction" involves stitching a welt to the upper and a strip of preformed canvas like a "rib" that runs all around and bottom (known as "gemming") cemented to the insole of a shoe as an attach-point for the outsole or midsole (depending on the Goodyear welt variant). The space enclosed by the welt is then filled with cork or some other filler material such as foam (usually either porous or perforated, for breathability and cushioning), and the outsole is both cemented and stitched to the welt. Shoes with other types of construction may also have welts.


title: Goodyear welt

text: The Goodyear welt process is a machine-based alternative to the traditional hand-welted method (c. 1500) for the manufacture of men's shoes, allowing them to be resoled repeatedly.


title: Goodyear welt

text: The upper part of the shoe is shaped over the last and fastened on by sewing a leather, linen or synthetic strip (also known as the "welt") to the inner and upper sole. As well as using a welt, stitching holds the material firmly together.


title: Goodyear welt

text: The welt forms a cavity which is then filled with a cork material. The final part of the shoe is the sole, which is attached to the welt by some combination of stitching and a high strength adhesive like contact cement or hide glue. The result is highly valued for being relatively waterproof by minimizing water penetration into the insole and the relative ease of resoling as long as the upper remains viable. Welted shoes are more expensive to manufacture than those mass-produced by automated machinery with molded soles.


title: Hong Seok-cheon

text: Hong Seok-cheon (born February 3, 1971) is a South Korean actor, television personality, restaurateur and member of the dissolved Democratic Labor Party. He caused considerable controversy in his home country when he came out as gay in 2000, and remains the most prominent openly gay celebrity in Korea.


title: Hong Seok-cheon

text: Hong Seok-cheon was born in Cheongyang County in South Chungcheong Province. He began his entertainment career as a male model, and made his screen debut in 1994 as a reporter for "Live TV Information Center". In 1995, he won the bronze prize at the KBS Comedian Festival (for college students). Due to his versatility and comic timing, Hong went on to a prolific career on South Korean television, appearing in children's programs and variety shows, as well as sitcoms and dramas.


title: Hong Seok-cheon

text: In 2000, Hong was asked a question regarding his sexuality on a variety show, and he chose to answer honestly that he was gay. Though the show's producers initially edited out the exchange, a journalist got wind of the story and pressed Hong to confirm his admission. After Hong revealed his homosexuality, he was fired from his network television programs and advertisements amidst public uproar, and no longer landed any major acting roles. He faced massive stigma after becoming the country's first openly gay celebrity, and later said he experienced shunning, verbal abuse and discrimination that he rarely stepped out of his social circle. He then wrote his memoir "My Heart Still Throbs for Forgotten Love", in which he recounted his failed romance with a Dutch man named Tony.


title: Hong Seok-cheon

text: Forced out of the entertainment business, Hong wanted to leave the country to study in New York, but he said he decided stay in Korea to prove to his detractors that he could be a success. He started his first restaurant "Our Place" in 2002, two years after he came out. He now owns and runs nine high-end restaurants in Itaewon, home to a large expat community in Seoul. Hong's restaurants are all characterized by the prefix "My," namely: My Hong, My Chi chi*s, My Thai, My Thai China, My X, My Chelsea, My Noodle, and My Suji.


title: Hong Seok-cheon

text: In 2004, he joined the Democratic Labor Party and was selected by "Time" magazine as the year's Asian Hero. Hong also continued appearing regularly on talk shows, notably "Yeo Yoo Man Man", on which he guested with his parents and discussed his life since coming out. Acting-wise, Hong starred in the thriller "Puzzle" (2006) and the stage play "A Midsummer Night's Dream" (2009). He also founded the internet shopping mall Ne2Nom in 2007, and became a professor at Korea National University of Arts (teaching Broadcast Content Production in 2010 and Fashion Arts in 2011).


title: Hong Seok-cheon

text: After his sister's divorce, Hong adopted her two children and changed their last names to his. In 2008, he hosted his own talk show "Coming Out", which featured gay issues. Despite Korean society's continuing conservatism, Hong overcame initial public disapproval and gradually gained more mainstream acceptance, especially among the younger generation, in part because of his activism in fighting for LGBT rights. From bit parts and cameos, he now emcees shows on cable television and has a sizeable following on social media.


title: Hong Seok-cheon

text: In 2015, Hong announced that he plans to run for district head of the Yongsan District Office in the 2018 local elections. Having lived in Yongsan District for ten years, he said he aims to promote cultural spaces for young artists and small businesses, while providing welfare for sexual minorities. If elected, he will become the first openly gay person to become a publicly elected official in Korea. In 2016, he participated in the program "Law Of The Jungle".


title: Carl Bosch

text: Carl Bosch (; 27 August 1874 – 26 April 1940) was a German chemist and engineer and Nobel Laureate in Chemistry. He was a pioneer in the field of high-pressure industrial chemistry and founder of IG Farben, at one point the world's largest chemical company.


title: Carl Bosch

text: Carl Bosch was born in Cologne to a successful gas and plumbing supplier. His father was Carl Friedrich Alexander Bosch (1843–1904) and his uncle was Robert Bosch, who pioneered the development of the spark plug and founded the multinational company Bosch. Carl, trying to decide between a career in metallurgy or chemistry, studied at the "Königlich Technische Hochschule Charlottenburg" (now the Technical University of Berlin) and the University of Leipzig from 1892 to 1898.


title: Carl Bosch

text: Carl Bosch attended the University of Leipzig, and this is where he studied under Johannes Wislicenus, and he obtained his doctorate in 1898 for research in organic chemistry. After he left in 1899 he took an entry-level job at BASF, then Germany's largest chemical and dye firm. From 1909 until 1913 he transformed Fritz Haber's tabletop demonstration of a method to fix nitrogen using high-pressure chemistry through the Haber–Bosch process to produce synthetic nitrate, a process that has countless industrial applications for making a near-infinite variety of industrial compounds, consumer goods, and commercial products. His primary contribution was to expand the scale of the process, enabling the industrial production of vast quantities of synthetic nitrate. To do this, he had to construct a plant and equipment that would function effectively under high gas pressures and high temperatures.


title: Carl Bosch

text: Bosch was also responsible for finding a more practical catalyst than the osmium and uranium being used by Haber. As osmium was a very limited resource, and uranium very expensive.


title: Carl Bosch

text: There were many more obstacles as well, such as designing large compressors and safe high-pressure furnaces. A means was needed to provide pure hydrogen gas in quantity as the feedstock. Also, cheap and safe means had to be developed to clean and process the product ammonia. The first full-scale Haber–Bosch plant was erected in Oppau, Germany, now part of Ludwigshafen. With the process complete he was able to synthesize large amounts of ammonia, which was available for the industrial and agricultural fields. In fact, this production has increased the agricultural yields throughout the world. This work won him the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1931.


title: Carl Bosch

text: After World War I Bosch extended high-pressure techniques to the production of synthetic fuel via the Bergius process and methanol. In 1925 Bosch helped found IG Farben, and was the first head of the company. From 1935, Bosch was chairman of the board of directors.


title: Carl Bosch

text: He received the Siemens-Ring in 1924 for his contributions to applied research and his support of basic research. In 1931 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry together with Friedrich Bergius for the introduction of high pressure chemistry. Today the Haber–Bosch process produces 100 million tons of nitrogen fertilizer every year. After the Nazi seizure of power, Bosch was one of the industrialists selected for membership in Hans Frank's Academy for German Law in October 1933, where he served on the General Economic Council ("Generalrat der Wirtschaft"). In December 1933, Bosch received a contract to expand the production of synthetic oil, a development which was essential to Adolf Hitler's future war plans.


title: Carl Bosch

text: Bosch married Else Schilbach in 1902. Carl and Else had a son and a daughter together. A critic of many Nazi policies, including anti-Semitism, Bosch was gradually relieved of his high positions, and fell into depression and alcoholism. He died in Heidelberg.


title: Carl Bosch

text: The Haber–Bosch Process today consumes more than one percent of humanity's energy production and is responsible for feeding roughly one-third of its population. On average, one-half of the nitrogen in a human body comes from synthetically fixed sources, the product of a Haber–Bosch plant. Bosch was an ardent collector of insects, minerals, and gems. His collected meteorites and other mineral samples were loaned to Yale University, and eventually purchased by the Smithsonian. He was an amateur astronomer with a well-equipped private observatory. The asteroid 7414 Bosch was named in his honour.


title: Carl Bosch

text: Carl Bosch along with Fritz Haber were voted the world's most influential chemical engineers of all time by members of the Institution of Chemical Engineers.


title: Carl Bosch

text: The Haber–Bosch process, quite possibly the best-known chemical process in the world, which captures nitrogen from the air and converts it to ammonia, has its hand in the process of the Green Revolution that has been feeding the increasing population of the world.


title: Carl Bosch

text: Bosch also won numerous awards including an honorary doctorate from Hochschule Karlsruhe (1918), the Liebig Memorial Medal of the Association of German Chemists along with the Bunsen Medal of the German Bunsen Society, the Siemens Ring, and the Golden Grashof Memorial medal of the VDI. In 1931 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the contribution to the invention of chemical high pressure methods. He also received the Exner medal from the Austrian Trade Association and the Carl Lueg Memorial Medal. Bosch also enjoyed his membership of various German and foreign scientific academics, and his chairmanship of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society of which he became the President in 1937.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Jonathan Philip Chadwick Sumption, Lord Sumption, (born 9 December 1948), is a British author, medieval historian and former senior judge who sat on the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom between 2012 and 2018. Sumption was sworn in as a Justice of the Supreme Court on 11 January 2012, succeeding Lawrence Collins, Baron Collins of Mapesbury. Exceptionally, he was appointed to the Supreme Court directly from the practising Bar, without having been a full-time judge. He retired from the Supreme Court on 9 December 2018 upon reaching the mandatory retirement age of 70.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption is well known for his role as a barrister in many legal cases. They include appearances in the Hutton Inquiry on HM Government's behalf, in the Three Rivers case, his representation of former Cabinet Minister Stephen Byers and the Department for Transport in the Railtrack private shareholders' action against the British Government in 2005, for defending HM Government in an appeal hearing brought by Binyam Mohamed, and for successfully defending Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich in a private lawsuit brought by Boris Berezovsky.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: A former academic, Sumption was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2003 New Year Honours and is also known for writing a substantial narrative history of the Hundred Years' War, so far in four volumes. Sumption has been elected a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society (FRHistS) and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (FSA).


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Sumption criticised lockdowns and associated British government policies.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Jonathan Sumption was born on 9 December 1948. He is the eldest of the four children of Anthony Sumption, a decorated naval officer and barrister, and Hilda Hedigan; their marriage was dissolved in 1979. He was educated at Eton College, where at 15 he was at the bottom of his class. He read Medieval History at Magdalen College, Oxford, from 1967 to 1970, graduating with a first. He was elected a fellow of Magdalen College, teaching and writing books on medieval history from 1971 to 1975 before leaving to pursue a career in law. Called to the Bar at the Inner Temple in 1975, he then pursued a successful legal practice in commercial law.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: In the 1970s, Sumption served as an adviser to the Conservative MP and Cabinet Minister Keith Joseph. In 1974 Joseph and Margaret Thatcher together founded the Centre for Policy Studies to act as a think tank for the Conservative Party, and Sumption became one of its earliest employees, working as a speechwriter for Joseph. Sumption and Joseph co-wrote a 1979 book, "Equality", seeking to show that "no convincing arguments for an equal society have ever been advanced" and that "no such society has ever been successfully created".


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption joined Brick Court Chambers in 1975, where he remained for the entirety of his commercial legal career as a barrister. He was appointed Queen's Counsel (QC) in 1986 at the relatively young age of 38, and elected a Bencher of the Inner Temple in 1991. He has served as a Deputy High Court Judge in the Chancery Division, and a Judge of the Court of Appeal of Jersey and the Guernsey Court of Appeal. In 2005, Sumption became joint head of Brick Court Chambers. He was a member of the Judicial Appointments Commission until his appointment to the Supreme Court.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: On 30 November 2007, when a practising barrister, Sumption successfully represented himself before Mr Justice Collins in a judicial review application in the Administrative Court concerning proposed development near his home at Greenwich.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: "The Guardian" once described him as being a member of the "million-a-year club", the elite group of barristers earning over a million pounds a year. In a letter to "The Guardian" in 2001, he compared his "puny £1.6 million a year" to the vastly larger amounts that comparable individuals in business, sports and entertainment are paid.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: For a four-week trial (and all the preparatory work) in the UK in 2005 he charged £800,000 to represent HM Government in the largest class action in the UK, brought by 49,500 private shareholders of the collapsed national railway infrastructure company Railtrack. The Government had money and reputation at stake, the case examining some of the actions of HM Government, especially of former Transport Secretary Stephen Byers. Byers became the only former Cabinet Minister to be cross-examined in the High Court in relation to his actions in modern times: the British Government won the case.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption earned £7.8 million for his defence of Roman Abramovich in the 2012 case "Berezovsky v Abramovich". This is believed to be the highest fee ever earned in British legal history.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: On 4 May 2011 Sumption's appointment as a Justice of the Supreme Court was announced. Upon his subsequent swearing-in on 11 January 2012, he assumed the title of Lord Sumption pursuant to a Royal Warrant (by which all members of the Supreme Court, even if they do not hold a peerage title, are accorded the style of "Lord" "for life"). Sumption was sworn of the Privy Council on 14 December 2011 in advance of his joining the Court, whose Justices also serve as members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. He retired from the Supreme Court on 9 December 2018.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption is the first lawyer appointed to the Supreme Court without previously serving as a full-time judge since its inception in 2009. There were only five such appointments as Law Lords to the Court's predecessor, the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. Two were Scots lawyers: Lord Macmillan in 1930 and Lord Reid in 1948; the others were: Lord Macnaghten (1887), Lord Carson (1921) and Lord Radcliffe (1949).


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: After his retirement, Sumption sat on the Supplementary Panel of the Supreme Court from 13 December 2018 to 30 January 2021. He voluntarily retired in 2021 because he considered it inappropriate to serve on the panel in view of his public criticisms of the government.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: On 13 December 2019 Sumption was appointed as a Non-Permanent Judge of the Court of Final Appeal in Hong Kong by Hong Kong Chief Executive Carrie Lam. After making his pledge of allegiance to the Hong Kong SAR of the People's Republic of China as part of the judicial oath, Lord Sumption officially commenced his office as a Hong Kong judge on 18 December 2019. He had previously appeared as counsel in the Court of Final Appeal in a number of cases.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption's narrative history of the Hundred Years' War between England and France (of which four volumes have so far been published, between 1990 and 2015) has been widely praised as "earning a place alongside Steven Runciman's "A History of the Crusades"" according to Frederic Raphael, and as a work that "deploys an enormous variety of documentary material ... and interprets it with imaginative and intelligent sympathy" and is "elegantly written" (Rosamond McKitterick, "Evening Standard"); for Allan Massie it is "An enterprise on a truly Victorian scale ... What is most impressive about this work, apart from the author's mastery of his material and his deployment of it, is his political intelligence".


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Five volumes are planned. Volume I (covering the years from the funeral of Charles IV of France in 1329 to the Surrender of Calais in 1347) was first published in 1990. Volume II (covering the years from 1347 to 1369) was published in 1999. Volume III (covering the years from 1369 to 1399) appeared in 2009. Volume IV (covering the years from 1399 to 1422) appeared in 2015, the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Agincourt.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption has been praised for a clipped and polished prose style, which he credits to his unwillingness to employ cliché. He admires Gibbon but points out "if anybody wrote like him today they’d be dismissed as a pompous fart".


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption has been described as "conservative neo-liberal and libertarian." In 1974, he worked with Conservative MP Keith Joseph at the Centre for Policy Studies, a Conservative Party think-tank. However, he was a Labour supporter at the time and later voted for Tony Blair.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: He has said that an attempt to rapidly achieve gender equality in the Supreme Court through quotas or positive discrimination could end up discouraging the best applicants, as they would no longer believe that the process would select on merit, and "have appalling consequences for justice". He has criticised the judicial appointments process in the United States, where politicians quiz judicial appointees on their views, as "discreditable" and described former Attorney General for England and Wales Geoffrey Cox's proposal for a similar system as, "one of the most ill-thought-out ideas ever to emerge from a resentful government frustrated by its inability to do whatever it likes".


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: He has criticised the historical curriculum in English schools as "appallingly narrow", warning that by forcing English schoolchildren to study 1918–1945 in isolation they "are being taught about Germany and Europe during its most aberrant period". He believes that history should not be apologised for once perpetrators of injustices are no longer alive, describing apologies for events such as the Irish Famine and the Armenian Genocide as "morally worthless", although saying that, "we have a duty to understand why things happened as they did" and there are "lessons to be learned". In the wake of the Black Lives Matter protests following the murder of George Floyd in May 2020 in Minneapolis, the United States, Sumption criticised the removal of monuments, arguing that people of the past did not share the values of the present and calling it "an irrational and absurd thing to do".


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: He voted to remain in the European Union in the 2016 referendum, describing the decision to leave as, "a serious mistake that will do lasting damage to our economy" and that, "Britain will be dominated by the European Union whether we belong to it or not". Nevertheless, he believed there were strong arguments for Brexit on the grounds of national sovereignty and identity. He said that leavers, "were not mad. They are not irrational, not naive and have not been deceived". He wrote that, "All of these patronising explanations of their decision seems to me to be mere attempts to evade unpalatable truths."


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption has written in detail about his concerns regarding the relationship between the judiciary and politics in several lectures and books, most notably his books "" (2019) and "Law in a Time of Crisis" (2021). He argues that since the 1960s, but particularly in recent years, the courts have undermined the political processes and institutions of parliament by judging issues that should be decided by elected politicians and ministers. He specifically critiques the expansion of judicial review, saying that, "It has tended to intrude into areas that belong to parliament and ministers answerable to parliament", and has criticised the interpretative powers conferred by the Human Rights Act 1998. He argues that political figures are more democratically accountable to the public for decisions they make, unlike judges who are unelected and difficult to remove from office. He has criticised the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), which interprets and adjudicates on the European Convention on Human Rights. He has compared the values of the ECHR and those of the post-war dictatorships of eastern Europe, stating that "they both employ the concept of democracy as a generalised term of approval for a set of political values". He describes the text of the Convention as "wholly admirable" but argues that the Strasburg court has interpreted and developed the rights very broadly to go beyond their original meaning and to the extent that the rights cover issues which are properly the remit of elected legislatures. He has criticised the "living instrument" doctrine, particularly regarding Article 8 of the Convention, which he describes as, "the most striking example of this kind of mission creep." He has said that if there was no significant change in the approach of the Strasburg court then he would support withdrawing from the Convention.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption has been highly critical of the British government's lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic on civil libertarian grounds, seeing them as a slippery slope, while also criticising the legal basis for their enactment and the enforceability of COVID-19 control measures. He has also questioned whether the virus is serious enough to justify restrictive measures, while also arguing that the effects of lockdowns may be worse than the effects of the actual virus, attracting controversy and debate in British media outlets.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: On 17 January 2021, Sumption appeared on "The Big Questions" to discuss the question of whether the lockdown was "punishing too many for the greater good", and said (with reference to the medical concept of quality-adjusted life years) that "I don’t accept that all lives are of equal value. My children’s and my grandchildren’s life is worth much more than mine because they’ve got a lot more of it ahead". When a cancer patient taking part in the debate said that he was saying that her life was "not valuable", Sumption interrupted her, saying: "I didn’t say your life was not valuable, I said it was less valuable." Health experts have criticised his views, stating that the concept of "quality adjusted life years" is primarily useful for debates on the allocation of scarce healthcare resources, and may not be useful for discussion of a nationwide lockdown.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: In July 2021, Full Fact concluded in a fact-checking article that Sumption had "made several mistakes with Covid-19 data when talking about the disease" on BBC Radio 4's "Today" programme. This included incorrect statements that many recorded COVID-19 deaths were people who had the virus but had died of unrelated causes, that people who had died of COVID-19 "would probably have died within a year after" (on average, British COVID-19 victims lost around a decade of life), and that only "hundreds" of people without pre-existing medical conditions in the UK had died of COVID-19 (the true figure is 15,883 in England alone).


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Professor of Health and Law John Coggon critiqued Sumption's philosophical and legal arguments against COVID-19 restrictions in the "Journal of Medical Ethics"; he also contrasted Sumption's libertarian arguments against such restrictions with arguments he himself had made against the right to die when giving his judgment in "R (Nicklinson) v Ministry of Justice", when he argued that the moral principle of sanctity of life should be protected in law.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption met Teresa Whelan at his sixth birthday party and they later married shortly after he graduated from Oxford. They have two daughters, one son, and five grandchildren. He lives in Greenwich and has a second home, a chateau in the village of Berbiguières in the south of France.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Sumption speaks French and Italian fluently, and reads Spanish, Dutch, Portuguese, Catalan and Latin. He "rarely learned them using guides, instead I preferred to muddle on through a text with a dictionary by my side".


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: An opera lover, he serves as a director of the English National Opera and as a governor of the Royal Academy of Music.


title: Jonathan Sumption, Lord Sumption

text: Two books are dedicated to Sumption's contribution to private and public law respectively. The following cases are an excerpt of his contribution to the law:


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The economy of Zimbabwe mainly relies on the tertiary sector of the economy, also known as the service sector of the economy, which makes up to 60% of total GDP as of 2017. Zimbabwe has the second biggest Informal economy in the world as a percentage of its economy, with a score of 60.6%. Agriculture and mining largely contribute to exports. After continuous negative growth between 1999 and 2008, the economy of Zimbabwe grew at a meteoric annual rate of 34% from 2008 to 2013, rendering it the fastest-growing economy in the world. Its economy then stagnated again through 2020, before seeing another extremely sharp increase (45%) in the most recent year.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The country has reserves of metallurgical-grade Chromite. Other commercial mineral deposits include Coal, asbestos, copper, nickel, gold, platinum and Iron ore.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In 2000, Zimbabwe planned a land redistribution act to collect white-owned, commercial farms attained through colonization and return the land to the black majority. The new occupants, mainly consisting of indigenous citizens and several prominent members of the ruling ZANU-PF administration, were inexperienced or uninterested in farming, thereby failing to retain the labour-intensive, highly efficient management of previous landowners. Short term gains were achieved by selling the land or equipment. The contemporary lack of agricultural expertise triggered severe export losses and negatively affected market confidence. The country has experienced a massive drop in food production and idle land is now being utilised by rural communities practicing subsistence farming. Production of staple foodstuffs, such as maize, has recovered accordingly – unlike typical export crops including tobacco and coffee. Zimbabwe has also sustained the 30th occurrence of recorded hyperinflation in world history.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Government spending is 29.7% of GDP. State enterprises are strongly subsidized. Taxes and tariffs are high, and state regulation is costly to companies. Starting or closing a business is slow and costly. Due to the regulations of the labor market, hiring and terminating workers is a lengthy process. By 2008, unemployment had risen to 94%.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: A 2014 report by the Africa Progress Panel found that, of all the African countries examined when determining how many years it would take to double per capita GDP, Zimbabwe fared the worst, and that at its current rate of development it would take 190 years for the country to double its per capita GDP. Uncertainty around the indigenisation programme (compulsory acquisition), the perceived lack of a free press, the possibility of abandoning the US dollar as official currency, and political uncertainty following the end of the government of national unity with the MDC as well as power struggles within ZANU-PF have increased concerns that the country's economic situation could further deteriorate.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In September 2016 the finance minister identified "low levels of production and the attendant trade gap, insignificant foreign direct investment and lack of access to international finance due to huge arrears" as significant causes for the poor performance of the economy.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Zimbabwe came 140 out of 190 ease of doing business report released by the World Bank Group. They were ranked high for ability to get credit (ranked 85) and protecting minority investors (ranked 95).


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Zimbabwe has adequate internal transportation and electrical power networks; however, maintenance has been neglected over several years. Poorly paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, and rail lines managed by the National Railways of Zimbabwe tie it into an extensive central African railroad network with all its neighbours.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority is responsible for providing the country with electrical energy. Zimbabwe has two larger facilities for the generation of electrical power, the Kariba Dam (owned together with Zambia) and since 1983 by large Hwange Thermal Power Station adjacent to the Hwange coal field. However, total generation capacity does not meet the demand, leading to rolling blackouts. The Hwange station is not capable of using its full capacity due to old age and maintenance neglect. In 2006, crumbling infrastructure and lack of spare parts for generators and coal mining lead to Zimbabwe importing 40% of its power, including 100 megawatts from the Democratic Republic of Congo, 200 megawatts from Mozambique, up to 450 from South Africa, and 300 megawatts from Zambia. In May 2010 the country's generation power was an estimated 940MW against a peak demand of 2500MW. Use of local small scale generators is widespread.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: New telephone lines used to be difficult to obtain. With TelOne, however, Zimbabwe has only one fixed line service provider. Cellular phone networks are an alternative. Principal mobile phone operators are Telecel, Net*One, and Econet.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Agriculture in Zimbabwe can be divided into two parts: commercial farming of crops such as cotton, tobacco, coffee, peanuts and various fruits, and subsistence farming with staple crops, such as maize or wheat.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Commercial farming was almost exclusively in the hands of the white minority until the controversial land redistribution program began in 2000. Land in Zimbabwe was forcibly seized from white farmers and redistributed to black settlers, justified by Mugabe on the grounds that it was meant to rectify inequalities left over from colonialism. The new owners did not have land titles, and as such did not have the collateral necessary to access bank loans. The small-scale farmers also did not have experience with commercial-scale agriculture.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: After land redistribution, much of Zimbabwe's land went fallow, and agricultural production decreased steeply. The University of Zimbabwe estimated in 2008 that between 2000 and 2007 agricultural production decreased by 51%. Production of tobacco, Zimbabwe's main export crop, decreased by 79% from 2000 to 2008.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Tobacco production recovered after 2008 thanks to the contract system of agriculture and growing Chinese demand. International tobacco companies, such as British American Tobacco and China Tobacco, supplied farmers with agricultural inputs, equipment, and loans, and supervised them in growing tobacco. By 2018, tobacco production had recovered to 258 million kg, the second largest crop on record. Instead of large white-owned farms selling mostly to European and American companies, Zimbabwe's tobacco sector now consists of small black-owned farms exporting over half of the crop to China. Tobacco farming accounted for 11% of Zimbabwe's GDP in 2017, and 3 million of its 16 million people depended on tobacco for their livelihood.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Land reform has found considerable support in Africa and a few supporters among African-American activists, but Jesse Jackson commented during a visit to South Africa in June 2006, "Land redistribution has long been a noble goal to achieve but it has to be done in a way that minimises trauma. The process has to attract investors rather than scare them away. What is required in Zimbabwe is democratic rule, democracy is lacking in the country and that is the major cause of this economic meltdown."


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: As other southern African countries, Zimbabwean soil is rich in raw materials, namely platinum, coal, iron ore, and gold. Recently, diamonds have also been found in considerable deposits. Copper, chromite and nickel deposits also exist, though in lesser amounts. The Marange diamond fields, discovered in 2006 are thought to be among the richest in the world.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In March 2011, the government of Zimbabwe implemented laws which required local ownership of mining companies; following this news, there were falls in the share prices of companies with mines in Zimbabwe.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Various NGOs reported that the diamond sector in Zimbabwe is rife with corruption; a November 2012 report by NGO Reap What You Sow revealed a huge lack of transparency of diamond revenues and asserted that Zimbabwe's elite are benefiting from the country's diamonds. This followed former South African President Thabo Mbeki’s warning days earlier that Zimbabwe needed to stop its "predatory elite" from colluding with mining companies for their own benefit.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Also in that month, the Associated Press reported that at least $2 billion worth of diamonds had been stolen from Zimbabwe's eastern diamond fields and had enriched Mugabe's ruling circle and various connected gem dealers and criminals.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: As of October 2014, Metallon Corporation was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner. The group is controlled by its Chairman Mzi Khumalo.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In 2019, the country was the world's 3rd largest producer of platinum and the 6th largest world producer of lithium. In the production of gold, in 2017 the country produced 23.9 tons.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The state of education in Zimbabwe affects the development of the economy while the state of the economy can affect access and quality of teachers and education. Zimbabwe has one of Africa's highest literacy rates at over 90%. The crisis since 2000 has, however, diminished these achievements because of a lack of resources and the exodus of teachers and specialists (e.g. doctors, scientists, engineers) to other countries. Also, the start of the new curriculum in primary and secondary sections has affected the state of the once strong education sector.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Zimbabwe's "Second Science and Technology Policy" (2012) cites sectorial policies with a focus on biotechnology, information and communication technologies (ICTs), space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, technologies yet to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent environmental challenges. The policy makes provisions for establishing a National Nanotechnology Programme.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Zimbabwe has a "National Biotechnology Policy" which dates from 2005. Despite poor infrastructure and a lack of both human and financial resources, biotechnology research is better established in Zimbabwe than in most sub-Saharan countries, even if it tends to use primarily traditional techniques.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The "Second Science and Technology Policy" asserts the government commitment to allocating at least 1% of GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of university education on developing skills in science and technology and ensuring that school pupils devote at least 30% of their time to studying science subjects.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In 1997, Zimbabwe's economic decline began to visibly take place. It began with the crash of the stock market on November 14, 1997. Civil society groups began to agitate for their rights as these had been eroded under ESAP. In 1997 alone, 232 strikes were recorded, the largest number in any year since independence (Kanyenze 2004). During the first half of 1997, the war veterans organized themselves and demonstrations that were initially ignored by the government. As the intensity of the strikes grew, the government was forced to pay the war veterans a once-off gratuity of ZWD $50,000 by December 31, 1997, and a monthly pension of US$2,000 beginning January 1998 (Kanyenze 2004). To raise money for this unbudgeted expense, the government tried to introduce a ‘war veterans’ levy,’ but they faced much opposition from the labor force and had to effectively borrow money to meet these obligations. Following the massive depreciation of the Zimbabwean dollar in 1997, the cost of agricultural inputs soared, undermining the viability of the producers who in turn demanded that the producer price of maize (corn) be raised. Millers then hiked prices by 24 percent in January 1998 by 24 percent and the consequent increase in the price of maize meal triggered nation-wide riots during the last month. The government intervened by introducing price controls on all basic commodities (Kanyenze 2004). Many interventionist moves were undertaken to try to reverse some of the negative effects of the Structural Adjustment Programs and to try to strengthen the private sector that was suffering from decreasing output and increasing competition from cheap imported products. Some of the most detrimental policies that followed include:


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: At the time of independence, annual inflation was 5.4 percent and month-to-month inflation was 0.5 percent. Currency of Z$2, Z$5, Z$10 and Z$20 denominations were released. Roughly 95 percent of transactions used the Zimbabwean dollar.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Following the Lancaster House Agreement in December 1979, the transition to majority rule in early 1980, and the lifting of sanctions, Zimbabwe enjoyed a brisk economic recovery. Real growth for 1980–1981 exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand for the country's mineral exports and the onset of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in 1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in agricultural production. However, it slumped in 1986 to a zero growth rate and registered negative of about minus 3% in 1987, primarily because of drought and the foreign exchange crisis faced by the country. Zimbabwe's GDP grew on average by about 4.5% between 1980 and 1990.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In 1992, a World Bank study indicated that more than 500 health centres had been built since 1980. The percentage of children vaccinated increased from 25% in 1980 to 67% in 1988, and life expectancy increased from 55 to 59 years. Enrolment increased by 232 percent one year after primary education was made free, and secondary school enrolment increased by 33 percent in two years. These social policies lead to an increase in the debt ratio. Several laws were passed in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce wage gaps. However, the gaps remained considerable. In 1988, the law gave women, at least in theory, the same rights as men. Previously, they could only take a few personal initiatives without the consent of their father or husband.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The government started crumbling when a bonus to independence war veterans was announced in 1997 (which was equal to 3 percent of GDP) followed by unexpected spending due to Zimbabwe's involvement in the Second Congo War in 1998. In 1999, the country also witnessed a drought which further weakened the economy, ultimately leading to the country's bankruptcy in the next decade. In the same year, 1999, Zimbabwe experienced its first defaults on its IMF, World Bank, and African Development Bank debts in addition to debts taken out with Western lenders.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In recent years, there has been considerable economic hardship in Zimbabwe. Many western countries argue that the Government of Zimbabwe's land reform program, recurrent interference with, and intimidation of the judiciary, as well as maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates has led to a sharp drop in investor confidence.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Between 2000 and December 2007, the national economy contracted by as much as 40%; inflation vaulted to over 66,000%, and there were persistent shortages of hard currency, fuel, medicine, and food. GDP per capita dropped by 40%, agricultural output dropped by 51% and industrial production dropped by 47%.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The Mugabe Government attribute Zimbabwe's economic difficulties to sanctions imposed by the Western powers. It has been argued that the sanctions imposed by Britain, the US, and the EU have been designed to cripple the economy and the conditions of the Zimbabwean people in an attempt to overthrow President Mugabe's government. These countries on their side argue that the sanctions are targeted against Mugabe and his inner circle and some of the companies they own. Critics point to the so-called "Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001", signed by Bush, as an effort to undermine Zimbabwe's economy. Soon after the bill was signed, IMF cut off its resources to Zimbabwe. Financial institutions began withdrawing support for Zimbabwe. Terms of the sanctions made it such that all economic assistance would be structured in support of "democratisation, respect for human rights and the rule of law." The EU terminated its support for all projects in Zimbabwe. Because of the sanctions and US and EU foreign policy, none of Zimbabwe's debts have been cancelled as in other countries.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Other observers also point out how the asset freezes by the EU on people or companies associated with Zimbabwe's Government have had significant economic and social costs to Zimbabwe.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: As of February 2004, Zimbabwe's foreign debt repayments ceased, resulting in compulsory suspension from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). This, and the United Nations World Food Programme stopping its food aid due to insufficient donations from the world community, has forced the government into borrowing from local sources.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Zimbabwe began experiencing severe foreign exchange shortages, exacerbated by the difference between the official rate and the black market rate in 2000. In 2004 a system of auctioning scarce foreign currency for importers was introduced, which temporarily led to a slight reduction in the foreign currency crisis, but by mid-2005 foreign currency shortages were once again severe. The currency was devalued by the central bank twice, first to 9,000 to the US$, and then to 17,500 to the US$ on 20 July 2005, but at that date it was reported that that was only half the rate available on the black market.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In July 2005 Zimbabwe was reported to be appealing to the South African government for US$1 billion of emergency loans, but despite regular rumours that the idea was being discussed no substantial financial support has been publicly reported.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: The official Zimbabwean dollar exchange rate had been frozen at Z$101,196 per U.S. dollar since early 2006, but as of 27 July 2006 the parallel (black market) rate has reached Z$550,000 per U.S. dollar. By comparison, 10 years earlier, the rate of exchange was only Z$9.13 per USD.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In August 2006 the RBZ revalued the Zimbabwean Dollar by 1000 ZWD to 1 (revalued) dollar. At the same time Zimbabwe devalued the Zim Dollar by 60% against the USD. New official exchange rate revalued ZWD 250 per USD. The parallel market rate was about revalued ZWD 1,200 to 1,500 per USD (28 September 2006).


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In November 2006, it was announced that sometime around 1 December there would be a further devaluation and that the official exchange rate would change to revalued ZWD 750 per USD. This never materialized. However, the parallel market immediately reacted to this news with the parallel rate falling to ZWD 2,000 per USD (18 November 2006) and by year end it had fallen to ZWD 3,000 per USD.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: On 1 April 2007, the parallel market was asking ZWD 30,000 for US$1. By year end, it was down to about ZWD 2,000,000. On 18 January 2008, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe began to issue higher denomination ZWD bearer cheques (a banknote with an expiry date), including $10 million bearer cheques – each of which was worth less than US$1.35 (70p Sterling; 0.90 Euro) on the parallel market at the time of first issue. On 4 April 2008 the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe introduced new $25 million and $50 million bearer cheques. At the time of first issue they were worth US$0.70 and US$1.40 on the parallel market respectively.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: On 1 May 2008, the RBZ announced that the dollar would be allowed to float in value subject to some conditions.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: On 6 May 2008, the RBZ issued new $100 million and $250 million bearer cheques. At the date of first issue the $250 million bearer cheque was worth approximately US$1.30 on the parallel market. On 15 May 2008, a new $500 million bearer cheque was issued by the RBZ. At the time of the first issue it was worth US$1.93. In a widely unreported parallel move, on 15 May 2008, the RBZ issued three "special agro-cheques" with face values $5 billion (at time of first issue – $19.30), $25 billion ($96.50) and $50 billion ($193). It is further reported that the new agro-cheques can be used to buy any goods and services like the bearer cheques.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: On 30 July 2008, the Governor of the RBZ, Gideon Gono announced that the Zimbabwe dollar would be redenominated by removing 10 zeroes, with effect from 1 August 2008. ZWD10billion became 1 dollar after the redenomination.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: More banknotes were issued since Gono vowed to continue printing money: $10,000 and $20,000 (29 September); $50,000 (13 October); $100,000, $500,000 and $1 million (3 November); $10 million(2 December); $50 million and $100 million (4 December); $200 million (9 December); $500 million (11 December); $10 billion (19 December); $1 trillion (17 January 2009)


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: On February 2, 2009, a final denomination was implemented, cutting 12 zeroes, before the Zimbabwe dollar was officially abandoned on April 12, 2009. Pending economic recovery, Zimbabwe relied on foreign currency rather than introducing a new currency.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In February 2009, the newly installed national unity government (which included the opposition to Mugabe) allowed foreign currency transactions throughout the economy as a measure to stimulate the economy and end inflation. The Zimbabwean dollar quickly lost all credibility, and by April 2009, the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended entirely, to be replaced by the US dollar in government transactions. In 2014 there were eight legal currencies – US dollar, South African rand, Botswana pula, British pound sterling, Australian dollar, Chinese yuan, Indian rupee and Japanese yen.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: Dollarization reversed inflation, permitting the banking system to stabilize and the economy to resume slow growth after 2009. Dollarization also had other consequences, including:


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In January, 2013 Finance Minister Tendai Biti announced that Zimbabwe's national public account held just $217. The election budget for the July 2013 presidential election was $104 million and government budget for 2013 was $3.09 billion at a projected economic growth of 5 per cent. The Economist described the 2013 election as "rigged" and how, after regaining full control of the government, the Mugabe government doubled the civil service and embarked on "...misrule and dazzling corruption."


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In August 2014, Zimbabwe began selling treasury bills and bonds to pay public sector salaries that have been delayed as GDP growth weakens while the economy experiences deflation. US$2 million was sold in July through private placements of Six-month Treasury bills at an interest rate of 9.5%. According to IMF data, GDP growth was forecast to be 3.1% by the end of 2014, a major decline from an average rate of 10% between 2009 and 2012, while government data showed that consumer prices declined for five consecutive months by the end of June. The Reserve Bank continued to issue large values of treasury bills to support the government's over-budget spending. This added to the money supply and in effect devalued all bank balances, despite them being US Dollar denominated.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In November 2016 a pseudo-currency was issued in the form of Bond Notes despite widespread protests against them. In February 2019, John Mangudya, through a monetary policy presentation formally introduced a new currency, the RTGS dollar which consists of electronic balances in banks and mobile wallets, bond notes and bond coins. This completed the conversion of all US Dollar denominated bank balances to a devalued Zimbabwean currency at a rate of 1:1.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In June 2019 the use of foreign currencies in local transactions was prohibited as part of the prospective plan for a new national currency and thus ended the dollarization period. There was still low volume trade in US Dollars, particularly in the informal sector and using in-shop bureau de change. In March 2020, blaming the challenges of dealing with COVID-19, the government allowed formal transactions in US Dollars once more.


title: Economy of Zimbabwe

text: In response to the negative long-term economic situation the three parliamentary parties agreed on a Government of National Unity. Despite serious internal differences this government made some important decisions that improved the general economic situation, first of all the suspension of the national currency, the Zimbabwean Dollar, in April 2009. That stopped hyperinflation and made normal forms of business possible again, by using foreign currency such as the US American Dollar, the South African Rand, the EUs Euro or the Botswana Pula. The former finance minister Tendai Biti (MDC-T) tried to hold a disciplined budget. In 2009 Zimbabwe recorded a period of economic growth for the first time in a decade.