title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: Noctis would have been the central character of a planned downloadable content (DLC) episode "Episode Noctis: The Final Strike", the finale of a planned tetralogy of DLC episodes that were titled "Dawn of the Future". The first installment, "Episode Ardyn", was published but the remaining episodes were canceled. Noctis plays a minor role in "Episode Ignis", in which the title character protects him from danger and can create an alternative ending in which Noctis remains as the living king after Ignis defeats Ardyn. In "Episode Prompto", Noctis expresses his guilt over being tricked by Ardyn into attacking Prompto, and plays a small role in "Episode Gladios".


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: The canceled DLC was used as the basis for the novel "", which begins with an alternative ending to "Episode Ardyn". In "The Dawn of the Future", Noctis enters the Crystal and learns the truth behind Ardyn's past and Lunafreya's role. Outside, Ardyn has defied his role in Bahamut's plans and Lunafreya is resurrected as part of a plan to purge Eos of life using Bahamut's "final summoning" Teraflare. Noctis rebels against Bahamut, allowing Ardyn to complete the ritual of Providence in his place. While Ardyn destroys Bahamut's spiritual self, Noctis destroys Bahamut's physical form and saves Lunafreya. With both the Starscourge and magic gone from the world, the population sets about rebuilding and Noctis marries Lunafreya.


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: Noctis appears as a guest character in "Itadaki Street: Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy 30th Anniversary", and as a playable character in the mobile spin-off "Final Fantasy Brave Exvius" and the crossover fighting game "Dissidia Final Fantasy NT". Noctis' appearance was delayed until the launch of "Final Fantasy XV". Noctis' original costume created by Nomura for the first trailers of "Versus XIII" is available as DLC. The Engine Blade also appears for to wield in "Nier Automata", while his design also appears in "Final Fantasy XIV".


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: Outside "Final Fantasy", Noctis appears as a DLC character in Bandai Namco's fighting game "Tekken 7" as a friend of Lars Alexandersson. Lars' voice actor, Junichi Suwabe, enjoyed the interactions between both Lars and Noctis. "Tekken" producer Katsuhiro Harada commented it was his idea to include Noctis within the game, resurrecting old concepts for a series crossover dating back to the original PlayStation era. Harada wanted to surprise fans by including an RPG character in a fighting game; he sought permission from Tabata to feature him in Namco's game. The developers wanted to emulate Noctis' techniques from "Final Fantasy XV" with their own hardware. He was created to be accessible to newcomers of the "Tekken" franchise. They received a model to follow from Square Enix. Besides Noctis' regular costume, he wears an original hooded outfit created by the Namco staff. More alternative outfits were created by Square Enix staff. Noctis was featured in a collaboration with "Puzzle & Dragons". Bkub Okawa, author of the comedy manga "Pop Team Epic", parodied Noctis and Ignis as super deformed designs.


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: Video-game publications have commented on Noctis' character. After "Final Fantasy XV" was revealed, the audience called him a "standard-issue brash anime kid in demeanor" and compared him with the rebellious "Final Fantasy VIII" main character Squall Leonhart and other "cold" characters. Some players found Noctis nice due to his interactions with his friends, as well as his expressive personality; Eurogamer comparing him with "Final Fantasy X" protagonist Tidus because both become more likable as gameplay continues. Several critics enjoyed Noctis' role in "Brotherhood" because of the way he develops his relationships with his friends. In an early review of the game's demo "Episode Duscae", GameSpot's Alexa Ray Corriae praised the interactions between Noctis and his companions, citing them as a good example of deep platonic love between men.


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: Following the release of "Final Fantasy XV", critical response to Noctis was more positive. Escapist Magazine regarded him as one of the franchise's most complex characters due to the way he completes his duties as king, although he comes across as a messianic figure, saving the world using his own life as payment. According to Becky Cunningham of Cheat Code Central, Noctis is "apathethic" in pre-release trailers but the reviewer found Noctis' characterization in the final version of "Final Fantasy XV" more enjoyable than that of the trailers. "Game Informer" writer Andrew Reiner referred to Noctis as a "great leader" and "an interesting, conflicted character, torn between his duties to the kingdom and wanting a different life". Despite criticising the lack of explanation about Noctis not wanting to take over his kingdom, EGMNOW's Mollie L. Patterson praised the character's growth from adolescence and his adult design. Dustin Bailey from Anime News Network praised the interactions between Noctis and his friends, saying "Noctis' brooding silence" makes some scenes feel realistic. Carter compared Noctis and his allies to the cast of "Final Fantasy VI", a highly acclaimed title of the franchise, but found Noctis overpowered. The Mary Sue commented on Noctis' design, finding early garments juvenile and unfit for a prince, especially one who must o bring peace to the world. During the final chapter Noctis wears clothes identical to those of King Regis, symbolically showing his growth into a more fitting hero.


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: The romance between Noctis and Lunafreya was often found to be underdeveloped compared with previous "Final Fantasy" couples, who share more time together. Salvatore Pane, writing for "Paste Magazine" regarded Noctis' failure to save Luna as one of the character's strongest reactions because he expresses grief in tears and silence, gviing him an air of realism while making more connections to the player. Both Pane and Kotaku, and Philip Kollar of the website Polygon praised the ending; Kotaku enjoyed the dark atmosphere the older protagonist brings when fighting Ardyn. VG247 compared the ending to the final conflict between Cloud Strife and Sephiroth in "Final Fantasy VII" due to the focus on their rivalry and how quickly the player has to sacrifice Noctis to destroy Ardyn's soul; and said the voice acting of Ray Chase provides more tragic and emotive focus. Kotaku said Ravus is a more-fitting enemy for Noctis than Ardyn due to the former's tragic story and relationship with Lunafreya. Noctis' role in "The Dawn of the Future" divided opinions due to its thematic relation to the original game, but the exploration of Noctis' romance with Lunafreya was praised and contrasted with the game. According to Jacob Hull from Push Square, "A King's Tale" further expands upon Noctis' personality and his relationship with Regis, who lacked development in the series' other media.


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: Noctis' inclusion as DLC in the fighting game "Tekken 7" earned multiple reactions. Rock, Paper, Shotgun found him fitting based on Noctis' and the rest of the cast's skills, and joked about his relationship with "Tekken" character Lars. Kotaku noted a crowd of fans cheered for him when he was first announced. Others found his inclusion unfitting. A writer from Kotaku agreed, addressing multiple complaints about the fans' wish for Kazuma Kiryu from "Yakuza" as a guest character instead. Den of Geek was curious about Noctis' fighting style in the game, which appeared to combine hand-to-hand combat with magic techniques, making his "modus operandi" one of "hit 'em with something sharp". Destructoid also enjoyed Noctis' inclusion in "Dissidia NT", saying it fits the cast of previous "Final Fantasy" heroes.


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: A Play Arts Kai figurine of Noctis was developed and a fragrance was created in the character's image. An internet meme that focused on Noctis and his friends in the Regalia looking at electronically edited images was developed; Square Enix producer Shinji Hashimoto found the meme comical and motivated fans to produce more to increase interest in "Final Fantasy XV". The Gamer listed Noctis as one of the most-overpowered characters in "Final Fantasy" due to the number of moves he learns during the game. In a 2020 NHK poll, Noctis was voted the 14th-best "Final Fantasy" character. In 2016, "Battleborn" artist Scott Kester did an homage to "Final Fantasy XV" in the form of an artwork of Noctis and Phoebe.


title: Noctis Lucis Caelum

text: In a 2017 "Famitsu" poll, Noctis was voted as the most-wanted character fans expect to appear in Square Enix's franchise "Kingdom Hearts". For the game "Kingdom Hearts III", a new character named Yozora was used as two cameos and a boss fight. Kotaku said Yozora shared several physical similarities with Noctis, most noticeably in the "Final Fantasy Versus XIII" trailers. When asked about similarities between Noctis and Yozora, Nomura stated while there are several similarities between the two characters, they are not connected.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Dorothy Elizabeth Gish (March 11, 1898June 4, 1968) was an American actress of the screen and stage, as well as a director and writer. Dorothy and her older sister Lillian Gish were major movie stars of the silent era. Dorothy also had great success on the stage, and was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. Dorothy Gish was noted as a fine comedian, and many of her films were comedies.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Dorothy Gish was born in Dayton, Ohio. She had an older sister, Lillian. The Gish sisters' mother, Mary Robinson McConnell Gish, supported the family after her husband James Leigh Gish, a traveling salesman, abandoned the family in New York. Mary Gish, who was "a former actress and department store clerk", moved with her daughters to East St. Louis, Illinois, where she opened a candy and catering business. In 1902, at the age of four, Dorothy made her stage debut portraying the character "Little Willie" in "East Lynne", an adaptation of the 1861 English novel by Ellen Wood.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: In 1910, Mary heard from her husband's brother, Grant Gish, who lived in Shawnee, Oklahoma and informed her that James was ill. He was in a hospital in nearby Norman, Oklahoma, so Mary sent 17-year-old Lillian to visit him. At first, Lillian wrote back to her 12-year-old sister Dorothy that she planned to stay in Oklahoma and continue her education, but after seeing her father she admitted she missed her mother and sister. So, after a few months away from them, in the spring of 1912, she traveled back. Soon afterward, their childhood friend, actress Mary Pickford, introduced the sisters to director D. W. Griffith, and they began performing as extras at the Biograph Studios in New York at salaries of 50 dollars a week. During his initial work with the sisters, Griffith found it difficult to distinguish one from the other, so he had Lillian wear a blue ribbon in her hair and Dorothy a red one. The girls, especially Lillian, impressed the director, so he included them in the entourage of cast and crew he took to California to produce films there.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Dorothy and her sister debuted in Griffith's 1912 production "An Unseen Enemy". She would ultimately perform in over 100 short films and features, many times with Lillian. Throughout her own career, however, Dorothy had to contend with ongoing comparisons to her elder or "big" sister by film critics, fellow actors, studio executives, and by other insiders in the motion picture industry. Such comparisons began even from the outset of the sisters' work for Biograph. Linda Arvidson, Griffith's first wife, recalls their initial work for the studio in her autobiography "When The Movies Were Young":


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Dorothy Gish's budding film career almost ended on a street in Los Angeles the day after Thanksgiving in 1914. On Friday, November 26, the 16-year-old actress was struck and nearly killed by a "racing automobile". Newspapers and film-industry publications at the time reported the event and described the severe injuries Gish sustained. The near-fatal accident occurred as Dorothy was walking with Lillian at the intersection of Vermont and Prospect avenues. According to news reports, after the car struck her, it dragged her along the street for 40 to 50 feet. Other movie personnel who were standing together on a nearby sidewalk, including D. W. Griffith, witnessed Dorothy being hit. The following day, the "Los Angeles Times" informed its readers about the accident:


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Subsequent news reports also describe the reaction of other pedestrians at the scene. "The Chicago Sunday Tribune" and trade papers reported that Dorothy's "horrified friends" rushed to her aid, with Griffith being among those who lifted the unconscious teenager into an ambulance and reportedly rode with her in the emergency vehicle. In addition to Gish's initial examination by the doctor identified by the "Los Angeles Times", the Chicago newspaper and "Motion Picture News" stated that she was rushed to the hospital, where surgeons mended her "very badly torn" left side with "many stitches" and treated the area where one of her toes had been "cut off", presumably a toe from her badly damaged right foot. At the time of the accident, Gish was completing a two-reel romantic comedy with actor W. E. Lawrence. The film, "How Hazel Got Even", had already been delayed once at Reliance-Majestic Studios due to director Donald Crisp's bout with pneumonia. Completion of the short was postponed yet again, for over a month, while Gish recuperated. Originally scheduled for release on December 27, 1914, "How Hazel Got Even" was not distributed to theaters until mid-February 1915.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: After recovering from the 1914 accident, Gish resumed her screen career the following year, performing in a series of two- and three-reel shorts as well as in longer, more complex films such as the five-reel productions "Old Heidelberg", directed by John Emerson, and "Jordan Is a Hard Road", once again under D. W. Griffith's direction. Increasingly, Dorothy's appeal to both producers and audiences continued to grow in 1915, leading W. E. Keefe in the June issue of "Motion Picture Magazine" to recognize her as "one of the most popular film stars on the Motion Picture screen". In an article about Gish in the cited issue, Keefe also recognizes that Dorothy, career-wise, was finally emerging from her sister's shadow:


title: Dorothy Gish

text: In 1916 and 1917, Dorothy continued to expand her acting credentials by starring in a variety of five-reelers for Fine Arts Film Company or "Griffith's studio", which was a subsidiary of Triangle Film Corporation. Her work in those years required filming on locations in New York and on the West Coast.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: In the 1918 release "Hearts of the World", a film about World War I and the devastation of France, Dorothy found her first cinematic foothold in comedy, striking a personal hit in a role that captured the essence of her sense of humor. As the "little disturber", a street singer, her performance was the highlight of the film, and her characterization on screen catapulted her into a career as a star of comedy films.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Griffith did not use Dorothy in any of his earliest epics, but while he spent months working on "The Birth of a Nation" and "Intolerance", Dorothy was featured in many feature-length films made under the banner of Triangle and Mutual releases. They were directed by young Griffith protégés such as Donald Crisp, James Kirkwood, and Christy Cabanne. Elmer Clifton directed a series of seven Paramount-Artcraft comedies with Dorothy that were so successful and popular that the tremendous revenue they raked in helped to pay the cost of Griffith’s expensive epics. These films were wildly popular with the public and the critics. She specialised in pantomime and light comedy, while her sister appeared in tragic roles. Dorothy became famous in this long series of Griffith-supervised films for the Triangle-Fine Arts and Paramount companies from 1918 through 1920, comedies that put her in the front ranks of film comedians. Almost all of these films are now considered to be lost films.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: "And So I Am a Comedienne", an article published in "Ladies Home Journal" in July 1925, gave Dorothy a chance to recall her public persona: “And so I am a comedienne, though I, too, once wanted to do heroic and tragic things. Today my objection to playing comedy is that it is so often misunderstood by the audiences, both in the theater and in the picture houses. It is so often thought to be a lesser art and something which comes to one naturally, a haphazard talent like the amateur clowning of some cut-up who is so often thought to be ‘the life of the party’. In the eyes of so many persons comedy is not only the absence of studied effect and acting, but it is not considered an art.”


title: Dorothy Gish

text: She made a film in England "Nell Gwynn" which led to three more films. Gish earned £41,000 for these movies.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: When the film industry converted to talking pictures, Dorothy made one in 1930, the British crime drama "Wolves". Earlier, in 1928 and 1929, her performances in the Broadway play "Young Love" and her work with director George Cukor renewed her interest in stagecraft and in the immediacy of performing live again. The light comedy had proven to be popular with critics and audiences in New York, in performances on the road in the United States, as well overseas in a London production. Those successes convinced her to take a respite from film-making.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Television in the 1950s offered many stage and film actors the opportunity to perform in plays broadcast live. Dorothy ventured into the new medium, appearing on NBC's "Lux Video Theatre" on the evening of November 24, 1955, in a production of "Miss Susie Slagle's". She and Lillian had previously performed that play together on screen, in Paramount Pictures' 1945 film adaptation.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: "The truth is, that she did not know what she really wanted to do," wrote her sister, Lillian, in her autobiography. "She had always had trouble making decisions and assuming responsibilities, in some ways she had never grown up. She was such a witty and enchanting child that we enjoyed indulging her. First Mother and I spoiled her and later Reba, her friend, and her husband Jim. Reba called Dorothy 'Baby' and so did Jim. With the best intentions in the world, we all helped to keep her a child."


title: Dorothy Gish

text: From 1930 until her death, she only performed in five more movies, including "Our Hearts Were Young and Gay" (1944), which was a hit for Paramount. Director Otto Preminger cast Dorothy in his 1946 film, "Centennial Summer", and Mae Marsh appears in the film in one of her many bit parts. In the 1951 release "The Whistle at Eaton Falls", a film noir drama film produced by Louis de Rochemont, Dorothy portrays the widow of a mill owner. On television during this period, she also made several appearances in anthology television series. Her final film role was in 1963 in another Otto Preminger production, "The Cardinal", in which she plays the mother of the title character.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Dorothy Gish married only once, to James Malachi Rennie (1890–1965), a Canadian-born actor who co-starred with her in two productions in 1920: "Remodeling Her Husband", directed by sister Lillian, and in the comedy "Flying Pat". In December 1920, the couple eloped to Greenwich, Connecticut, where they wed in a double ceremony in which Gish's friend, actress Constance Talmadge, also married Greek businessman John Pialoglou. Gish and Rennie remained together until their divorce in 1935. Dorothy never married again.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: Gish died aged 70 in 1968 from bronchial pneumonia at a clinic in Rapallo, Italy, where she had been a patient for two years to treat hardening arteries. Her sister Lillian, who was filming in Rome, was at her bedside. "The New York Times" reported the day after her death that the United States consulate in Genoa was making arrangements to cremate "Miss Gish's body" for return to the United States. The ashes were later entombed in Saint Bartholomew's Episcopal Church in New York City in the columbarium in the undercroft of the church. Lillian, who died in 1993, was interred beside her.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: In recognition of her contributions to the motion picture industry, in 1960 Dorothy Gish was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6385 Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles.


title: Dorothy Gish

text: The (since renamed) Gish Film Theatre and Gallery of Bowling Green State University's Department of Theatre and Film was named for Lillian and Dorothy Gish and was dedicated on that campus in 1976.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: "Fairytale" is a song written and performed by Belarusian-Norwegian violinist and singer Alexander Rybak. It is the first single from his debut album "Fairytales". The song was the winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2009, where he represented Norway.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: In February 2009, Norwegian media reported that "Fairytale" is about Rybak's ex-girlfriend Ingrid Berg Mehus whom he got to know through the Barratt Due Institute of Music in Oslo. Rybak has since confirmed this. At a press conference in May 2009 he revealed that the song's inspiration came from the Hulder, a beautiful female creature from Scandinavian folklore, who lures young men to her, and then may curse them for all time. The Russian-language version of the song is entitled "Skazka" ().


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: The song was elected through the Norwegian festival Melodi Grand Prix 2009 on 21 February, winning in the biggest landslide of the contest's history, and competed against eighteen other Eurovision entries in the second semi-final on 14 May 2009, where it qualified for the final. The final took place on 16 May and the song won with 387 points – a new ESC record. It was 's third Eurovision win.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: The backing dancers for the Eurovision performance, Sigbjørn Rua, Torkjell Lunde Børsheim and Hallgrim Hansegård, are from the Norwegian dance company Frikar, performing the folk dance halling.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: The backing singers, Jorunn Hauge and Karianne Kjærnes, wore long pink dresses designed by Norwegian designer Leila Hafzi.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: The first official music video for the song, which was used to present the song before the Eurovision final, was Alexander Rybak's performance at the Melodi Grand Prix 2009 in Norway. The most recent video was of Rybak playing the violin and singing with his backing dancers behind him, where the background occasionally changes from white to black.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: A video of Rybak's performance of the song at the Eurovision Song Contest final was chosen by YouTube as one of its 31 most memorable videos of 2009.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: In the Norwegian preselection, Melodi Grand Prix 2009, Rybak's "Fairytale" won with a combined televote and jury score of 747,888, in the biggest victory of the contest's history. The song received over 600,000 votes more than the runner-up, which made it the clearest win in the history of Melodi Grand Prix.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: At the Eurovision Song Contest 2009, Rybak won with the highest recorded score since the contest began, with 387 points (out of a maximum possible of 492), surpassing Lordi's record of 292. He held this record until when Jamala from Ukraine, the first self-written winner after Rybak, won with a record 534 points (but because of the new scoring system with separate sets of televotes and jury votes, the results are not comparable with each other). His average score of 9.4 points from every voting nation was the highest since the wide use of televoting began in 1998. Rybak received sixteen scores of 12 points, also a new record, surpassing the previous record of ten held by Katrina and the Waves () and Helena Paparizou (); this record was surpassed in , by Loreen, who received eighteen.


title: Fairytale (Alexander Rybak song)

text: The song also debuted on the Norwegian Singles Chart on the week of 11 February 2009 at number 3, before rising to number one on the following week, the week of the Melodi Grand Prix final. This was the first time that the Melodi Grand Prix winner reached number 1 before winning the contest. The song remained at number 1 for 8 consecutive weeks. The song has since entered the Swedish Sverigetopplistan, debuting at number 47, before rising to number 7 in its third week, the week of Eurovision - eventually reaching the top spot. After the song gaining the Top Spot on Eurovision, it entered the Top Ten of many Charts across Europe, and also the No. 1 position in many countries. The song debuted on the UK charts at #10 on Downloads Alone and then dropped to #38 the next week, it also reached Number 3 on the Download Chart. "Fairytale" is the ninth non-UK Eurovision entry to reach the top ten in the UK charts since the contest began in 1956, most recently Johnny Logan reached #2 representing in 1987. It was certified Gold in Finland and Norway. The single went multi-platinum in different formats in Russia. It first went platinum as realtone full track and sold 100,000 copies. Then it was certified 2× platinum as ring-back tone with another 400,000 copies sold.


title: Salsa20

text: Salsa20 and the closely related ChaCha are stream ciphers developed by Daniel J. Bernstein. Salsa20, the original cipher, was designed in 2005, then later submitted to the eSTREAM European Union cryptographic validation process by Bernstein. ChaCha is a modification of Salsa20 published in 2008. It uses a new round function that increases diffusion and increases performance on some architectures.


title: Salsa20

text: Both ciphers are built on a pseudorandom function based on add-rotate-XOR (ARX) operations — 32-bit addition, bitwise addition (XOR) and rotation operations. The core function maps a 256-bit key, a 64-bit nonce, and a 64-bit counter to a 512-bit block of the key stream (a Salsa version with a 128-bit key also exists). This gives Salsa20 and ChaCha the unusual advantage that the user can efficiently seek to any position in the key stream in constant time. Salsa20 offers speeds of around 4–14 cycles per byte in software on modern x86 processors, and reasonable hardware performance. It is not patented, and Bernstein has written several public domain implementations optimized for common architectures.


title: Salsa20

text: Internally, the cipher uses bitwise addition ⊕ (exclusive OR), 32-bit addition mod 2 ⊞, and constant-distance rotation operations «< on an internal state of sixteen 32-bit words. Using only add-rotate-xor operations avoids the possibility of timing attacks in software implementations. The internal state is made of sixteen 32-bit words arranged as a 4×4 matrix.


title: Salsa20

text: The initial state is made up of eight words of key, two words of stream position, two words of nonce (essentially additional stream position bits), and four fixed words:


title: Salsa20

text: The constant words spell "expand 32-byte k" in ASCII (i.e. the 4 words are "expa", "nd 3", "2-by", and "te k"). This is an example of a nothing-up-my-sleeve number. The core operation in Salsa20 is the quarter-round codice_1 that takes a four-word input and produces a four-word output:


title: Salsa20

text: Odd-numbered rounds apply codice_1 to each of the four columns in the 4×4 matrix, and even-numbered rounds apply it to each of the four rows. Two consecutive rounds (column-round and row-round) together are called a double-round:


title: Salsa20

text: In the last line, the mixed array is added, word by word, to the original array to obtain its 64-byte key stream block. This is important because the mixing rounds on their own are "invertible". In other words, applying the reverse operations would produce the original 4×4 matrix, including the key. Adding the mixed array to the original makes it impossible to recover the input. (This same technique is widely used in hash functions from MD4 through SHA-2.)


title: Salsa20

text: Salsa20 performs 20 rounds of mixing on its input. However, reduced round variants Salsa20/8 and Salsa20/12 using 8 and 12 rounds respectively have also been introduced. These variants were introduced to complement the original Salsa20, not to replace it, and perform even better in the eSTREAM benchmarks than Salsa20, though with a correspondingly lower security margin.


title: Salsa20

text: In 2008, Bernstein proposed a variant of Salsa20 with 192-bit nonces called XSalsa20. XSalsa20 is provably secure if Salsa20 is secure, but is more suitable for applications where longer nonces are desired. XSalsa20 feeds the key and the first 128 bits of the nonce into one block of Salsa20 (without the final addition, which may either be omitted, or subtracted after a standard Salsa20 block), and uses 256 bits of the output as the key for standard Salsa20 using the last 64 bits of the nonce and the stream position. Specifically, the 256 bits of output used are those corresponding to the non-secret portions of the input: indexes 0, 5, 10, 15, 6, 7, 8 and 9.


title: Salsa20

text: Salsa20 has been selected as a Phase 3 design for Profile 1 (software) by the eSTREAM project, receiving the highest weighted voting score of any Profile 1 algorithm at the end of Phase 2. Salsa20 had previously been selected as Phase 2 Focus design for Profile 1 (software) and as a Phase 2 design for Profile 2 (hardware) by the eSTREAM project, but was not advanced to Phase 3 for Profile 2 because eSTREAM felt that it was probably not a good candidate for extremely resource constrained hardware environments.


title: Salsa20

text: , there are no published attacks on Salsa20/12 or the full Salsa20/20; the best attack known breaks 8 of the 12 or 20 rounds.


title: Salsa20

text: In 2005, Paul Crowley reported an attack on Salsa20/5 with an estimated time complexity of 2, and won Bernstein's US$1000 prize for "most interesting Salsa20 cryptanalysis". This attack, and all subsequent attacks are based on truncated differential cryptanalysis. In 2006, Fischer, Meier, Berbain, Biasse, and Robshaw reported an attack on Salsa20/6 with estimated time complexity of 2, and a related-key attack on Salsa20/7 with estimated time complexity of 2.


title: Salsa20

text: In 2007, Tsunoo "et al." announced a cryptanalysis of Salsa20 which breaks 8 out of 20 rounds to recover the 256-bit secret key in 2 operations, using 2 keystream pairs. However, this attack does not seem to be competitive with the brute force attack.


title: Salsa20

text: In 2008, Aumasson, Fischer, Khazaei, Meier, and Rechberger reported a cryptanalytic attack against Salsa20/7 with a time complexity of 2, and they reported the first attack against Salsa20/8 with an estimated time complexity of 2. This attack makes use of the new concept of probabilistic neutral key bits for probabilistic detection of a truncated differential. The attack can be adapted to break Salsa20/7 with a 128-bit key.


title: Salsa20

text: In 2012, the attack by Aumasson et al. was improved by Shi et al. against Salsa20/7 (128-bit key) to a time complexity of 2 and Salsa20/8 (256-bit key) to 2.


title: Salsa20

text: In 2013, Mouha and Preneel published a proof that 15 rounds of Salsa20 was 128-bit secure against differential cryptanalysis. (Specifically, it has no differential characteristic with higher probability than 2, so differential cryptanalysis would be more difficult than 128-bit key exhaustion.)


title: Salsa20

text: In 2008, Bernstein published the closely related ChaCha family of ciphers, which aim to increase the diffusion per round while achieving the same or slightly better performance. The Aumasson et al. paper also attacks ChaCha, achieving one round fewer: for 256 bits ChaCha6 with complexity 2 and ChaCha7 with complexity 2. 128 bits ChaCha6 within 2, but claims that the attack fails to break 128 bits ChaCha7.


title: Salsa20

text: Like Salsa20, ChaCha's initial state includes a 128-bit constant, a 256-bit key, a 64-bit counter, and a 64-bit nonce (in the original version; as described later, a version of ChaCha from is slightly different), arranged as a 4×4 matrix of 32-bit words. But ChaCha re-arranges some of the words in the initial state:


title: Salsa20

text: The constant is the same as Salsa20 ("expand 32-byte k"). ChaCha replaces the Salsa20 quarter-round codice_1 with


title: Salsa20

text: Notice that this version updates each word twice, while Salsa20's quarter round updates each word only once. In addition, the ChaCha quarter-round diffuses changes more quickly. On average, after changing 1 input bit the Salsa20 quarter-round will change 8 output bits while ChaCha will change 12.5 output bits.


title: Salsa20

text: The ChaCha quarter round has the same number of adds, xors, and bit rotates as the Salsa20 quarter-round, but the fact that two of the rotates are multiples of 8 allows for a small optimization on some architectures including x86. Additionally, the input formatting has been rearranged to support an efficient SSE implementation optimization discovered for Salsa20. Rather than alternating rounds down columns and across rows, they are performed down columns and along diagonals. Like Salsa20, ChaCha arranges the sixteen 32-bit words in a 4×4 matrix. If we index the matrix elements from 0 to 15


title: Salsa20

text: ChaCha is the basis of the BLAKE hash function, a finalist in the NIST hash function competition, and its faster successors BLAKE2 and BLAKE3. It also defines a variant using sixteen 64-bit words (1024 bits of state), with correspondingly adjusted rotation constants.


title: Salsa20

text: Although not announced by Bernstein, the security proof of XSalsa20 extends straightforwardly to an analogous "XChaCha" cipher. Use the key and the first 128 bits of the nonce (in input words 12 through 15) to form a ChaCha input block, then perform the block operation (omitting the final addition). Output words 0–3 and 12–15 (those words corresponding to non-key words of the input) then form the key used for ordinary ChaCha (with the last 64 bits of nonce and 64 bits of block counter).


title: Salsa20

text: Google had selected ChaCha20 along with Bernstein's Poly1305 message authentication code in SPDY, which was intended as a replacement for TLS over TCP. In the process, they proposed a new authenticated encryption construction combining both algorithms, which is called ChaCha20-Poly1305. ChaCha20 and Poly1305 are now used in the QUIC-protocol, which replaces SPDY and is used by HTTP/3.


title: Salsa20

text: Shortly after Google's adoption for TLS, both the ChaCha20 and Poly1305 algorithms were also used for a new codice_4 cipher in OpenSSH. Subsequently, this made it possible for OpenSSH to avoid any dependency on OpenSSL, via a compile-time option.


title: Salsa20

text: ChaCha20 is also used for the codice_5 random number generator in FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD operating systems, instead of the broken RC4, and in DragonFly BSD for the CSPRNG subroutine of the kernel. Starting from version 4.8, the Linux kernel uses the ChaCha20 algorithm to generate data for the nonblocking /dev/urandom device.


title: Salsa20

text: An implementation reference for ChaCha20 has been published in . The IETF's implementation modified Bernstein's published algorithm by changing 64-bit nonce and 64-bit block counter to 96-bit nonce and 32-bit block counter, The name was not changed when the algorithm was modified, as it is cryptographically insignificant (both form what a cryptographer would recognize as a 128-bit nonce), but the interface change could be a source of confusion for developers. Because of the reduced block counter, the maximum message length that can be safely encrypted by the IETF's variant is 2 blocks of 64 bytes (256 GiB). For applications where this is not enough, such as file or disk encryption, proposes using the original algorithm with 64-bit nonce.


title: Salsa20

text: Use of ChaCha20 in IKE and IPsec have been proposed for standardization in . Proposed standardization of its use in TLS is published as .


title: Salsa20

text: ChaCha20 usually offers better performance than the more prevalent Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm on systems where the CPU does not feature AES acceleration (such as the AES instruction set for x86 processors). As a result, ChaCha20 is sometimes preferred over AES in certain use cases involving mobile devices, which mostly use ARM-based CPUs.


title: Quarter note

text: A quarter note (American) or crotchet ( ) (British) is a musical note played for one quarter of the duration of a whole note (or semibreve). Quarter notes are notated with a filled-in oval note head and a straight, flagless stem. The stem usually points upwards if it is below the middle line of the staff, and downwards if it is on or above the middle line. An upward stem is placed on the right side of the notehead, a downward stem is placed on the left (see image). The Unicode symbol is U+2669 (♩).


title: Quarter note

text: A quarter rest (or crotchet rest) denotes a silence of the same duration as a quarter note. It typically appears as the symbol , or occasionally, as the older symbol .


title: Quarter note

text: The note derives from the ('half minim') of mensural notation. The word "crotchet" comes from Old French , meaning 'little hook', diminutive of , 'hook', because of the hook used on the note in black notation.


title: Quarter note

text: The quarter note is played for half the length of a half note and twice that of an eighth note. It is one beat in a bar of .


title: Quarter note

text: The term "quarter note" is a calque (loan translation) of the German term . The names of this note (and rest) in many other languages are calqued from the same source; Romance languages usually use a term derived from the Latin meaning 'black':


title: Quarter note

text: The Catalan, French, Galician, and Spanish names for the note (all of them meaning 'black') derive from the fact that the was the longest note to be colored in mensural white notation, which is true as well of the modern form.


title: Quarter note

text: The Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Russian, Serbian and Slovak names mean "quarter" (for the note) and "quarter's pause" (for the rest).


title: Carboplatin

text: Carboplatin, sold under the trade name Paraplatin among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat a number of forms of cancer. This includes ovarian cancer, lung cancer, head and neck cancer, brain cancer, and neuroblastoma. It is used by injection into a vein.


title: Carboplatin

text: Side effects generally occur. Common side effects include low blood cell levels, nausea, and electrolyte problems. Other serious side effects include allergic reactions and increased future risk of another cancer. Use during pregnancy may result in harm to the baby. Carboplatin is in the platinum-based antineoplastic family of medications and works by interfering with duplication of DNA.


title: Carboplatin

text: Carboplatin was patented in 1972 and approved for medical use in 1989. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Carboplatin

text: Carboplatin is used to treat a number of forms of cancer. This includes ovarian cancer, lung cancer, head and neck cancer, brain cancer, and neuroblastoma. It may be used for some types of testicular cancer but cisplatin is generally more effective. It has also been used to treat triple-negative breast cancer.


title: Carboplatin

text: Relative to cisplatin, the greatest benefit of carboplatin is its reduced side effects, particularly the elimination of nephrotoxic effects. Nausea and vomiting are less severe and more easily controlled.


title: Carboplatin

text: The main drawback of carboplatin is its myelosuppressive effect. This causes the blood cell and platelet output of bone marrow in the body to decrease quite dramatically, sometimes as low as 10% of its usual production levels. The nadir of this myelosuppression usually occurs 21–28 days after the first treatment, after which the blood cell and platelet levels in the blood begin to stabilize, often coming close to its pre-carboplatin levels. This decrease in white blood cells (neutropenia) can cause complications, and is sometimes treated with drugs like filgrastim. The most notable complication of neutropenia is increased probability of infection by opportunistic organisms, which necessitates hospital readmission and treatment with antibiotics.


title: Carboplatin

text: In terms of its structure, carboplatin differs from cisplatin in that it has a bidentate dicarboxylate (the ligand is CycloButane DiCarboxylic Acid, CBDCA) in place of the two chloride ligands, which are the leaving groups in cisplatin. For this reason, "CBDCA" is sometimes used in the medical literature as an abbreviation referring to carboplatin. Carboplatin exhibits lower reactivity and slower DNA binding kinetics, although it forms the same reaction products "in vitro" at equivalent doses with cisplatin. Unlike cisplatin, carboplatin may be susceptible to alternative mechanisms. Some results show that cisplatin and carboplatin cause different morphological changes in MCF-7 cell lines while exerting their cytotoxic behaviour. The diminished reactivity limits protein-carboplatin complexes, which are excreted. The lower excretion rate of carboplatin means that more is retained in the body, and hence its effects are longer lasting (a retention half-life of 30 hours for carboplatin, compared to 1.5-3.6 hours in the case of cisplatin).


title: Carboplatin

text: The former is more accepted owing to the similarity of the leaving groups with its predecessor cisplatin, while the latter hypothesis envisages a biological activation mechanism to release the active Pt species.


title: Carboplatin

text: Calvert's formula is used to calculate the dose of carboplatin. It takes under consideration the creatinine clearance and the desired area under curve. After 24 hours, close to 70% of carboplatin is excreted in the urine unchanged. This means that the dose of carboplatin must be adjusted for any impairment in kidney function.


title: Carboplatin

text: Carboplatin was discovered at Michigan State University, and developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London. Bristol-Myers Squibb gained Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for carboplatin, under the brand name Paraplatin, in March 1989. Starting in October 2004, generic versions of the drug became available.


title: Carboplatin

text: Carboplatin has also been used for adjuvant therapy of stage 1 seminomatous testicular cancer. Research has indicated that it is not less effective than adjuvant radiotherapy for this treatment, while having fewer side effects. This has led to carboplatin based adjuvant therapy being generally preferred over adjuvant radiotherapy in clinical practice.


title: Carboplatin

text: Carboplatin combined with hexadecyl chain and polyethylene glycol appears to have increased liposolubility and PEGylation. This is useful in chemotherapy, specifically non-small cell lung cancer.


title: Hallasan

text: Hallasan is a shield volcano on Jeju Island in South Korea; it is the highest point of South Korea and the second-highest mountain in Korea overall, after Paektu Mountain. The area around the mountain is a designated national park, the Hallasan National Park (, ). Hallasan is commonly considered to be one of the three main mountains of South Korea, along with Jirisan and Seoraksan.


title: Hallasan

text: Hallasan is the highest mountain in South Korea and is worshipped by people as they believe that gods and spirits live on the mountain. Alternate English names for the mountain include Hanla Mountain or Mount Halla and older English sources refer to the peak as Mount Auckland. Hallasan is written in Hangul as if it were "Hanrasan" (); however, it is still pronounced as "Hallasan". In the past, Hallasan has been known by numerous other names in Korean including "Buak" (/), "Wonsan" (/), "Jinsan" (/), "Seonsan" (/), "Dumuak" (/), "Burasan" (/), "Yeongjusan" (/), and "Hyeolmangbong" (/). Every name of Hallasan has meanings and legends.


title: Hallasan

text: The name represents a mountain that is located at the back side of a town and protects the town's residents. Jeju people called Hallasan Jinan because Hallasan blocked winds that were blowing from the Pacific Ocean and also protected the residents.


title: Hallasan

text: Dumuak is another name for Hallasan. The name represents the bold head mountain. According to a legend, a hunter accidentally ripped God's belly button. God expressed his anger by ripping off the peak of Hallasan. The remaining part of the mountain became Baengnokdam () and the ripped part of the mountain became Sanbangsan ().


title: Hallasan

text: Wonsan became the name of Hallasan because the center of the mountain is the highest point and the mountain looks like a circular cone. On a very clear day, Hallasan is visible from the mainland.


title: Hallasan

text: Yeongjusan was believed to be a habitat for a plant species that made people immortal. According to a legend, immortal wizards of Korea used to live in Hallasan. They were immortal because of this special plant. Qinshi Huang wanted the plant to live forever and ordered his men to get the plant (200 AD).


title: Hallasan

text: Buak became the name of Hallasan, because of the peak of the mountain. The crater of the mountain looks like a big pond. According to a legend, a white deer used to drink the water here.


title: Hallasan

text: Hallasan is a massive shield volcano which forms the bulk of Jeju Island and is often taken as representing the island itself. There is a Korean traditional local saying that "Jeju Island is Hallasan, and Hallasan is Jeju." The mountain can indeed be seen from all places on the island, but its peak is often covered in clouds. The mountain has been designated Korea's Natural Monument no. 182.


title: Hallasan

text: The soil of Hallasan is mostly made out of volcanic ash, volcanic sand, and lapilli. The organic contents of the soil are higher than any other soil in South Korea, but drainage is also better than any other place in South Korea. The soil is not the best for farming. The volcanic island was constructed, starting in the Pliocene epoch, on the continental shelf, which is about 100 m (300 ft) below sea level in that area. Eruptions of basalt and trachyte lava built the island above sea level, and it now reaches a height of . A large volcanic crater over in diameter tops the volcano. About 360 parasitic cones, or "oreum" () in the Jeju dialect, are found on the volcano's flanks. Most of them are cinder cones and scoria cones, but there are also some lava domes and about 20 tuff rings near the coast and offshore, which were formed by underwater phreatic eruptions. The most recent eruptions are estimated to be about 5,000 years ago, which puts the volcano into the active classification, meaning it has erupted in the last 10,000 years. The designation as active is not agreed to by all, as more monitoring and study are needed to better understand the volcano.


title: Hallasan

text: There is a crater lake on Hallasan called Baengnokdam (/), meaning "white deer lake". It is formed by the collapse of the top of the ridge by the movement of magma underground. There is a legend attributing the name of the lake to otherworldly men who descend from heaven to play with white deer. Depending on the season, the circumference of the lake is up to 2 kilometers with a depth up to about 100 meters.


title: Hallasan

text: The configurative rocks of the eastern and western walls of Baengnokdam are different. The eastern wall is covered with basalt lava 2–5 m thick at its top. In the lower part, there is a high-concentration stream sediment layer of the Tamra layer. The western wall is made of the trachyte lava dome. The volcanic wall formed by the eruption of the lava should be composed of lava, analysis. However, the eastern wall is composed of the clastic sedimentary sediments, so it is not a crater by lava eruption but a pit crater. Namely, the trachyte magma, which formed the Baengnokdam trachyte, was elevated on the dome, and the trachyte magma formed lava dome at its top. The inclination and direction of the Tamra Formation of Baengnokdam cannot be measured directly at Baengnokdam, but it is N10W of slope and 30NE of slope measured near the valley below North Baengnokdam, 1,580 m above sea level.


title: Hallasan

text: In order to understand the tendency of temperature change in Jeju Island, the short-term forecasting model of Halla, the weather data of the Korean peninsula, and the wind vector of AWS is analyzed. When the south winds flow into the sea, sea winds form around Hallasan, and the sea breeze is formed on the downwind side of the sea. On the coast, winds and the sea breezes gather around the coasts to form a persistent eddy, and the highest temperature occurs in the region where the eddy occurs.


title: Hallasan

text: In order to understand the tendency of maximum temperature in Jeju Island, the area where the highest temperature occurred when the wind was weak was surveyed and analyzed. In the morning, when the reverse layer is formed and the wind is weak, the warm air of the lower layer is raised when the air movement between the upper and lower layers is blocked, and it is placed on the upper floor by the sea breeze, which affects the temperature rise in the mid-mountainous area.


title: Hallasan

text: The occurrence of the highest temperature coincides with the formation position of Eddy, and when the wind is weak, it is formed in the middle mountain region. When the wind is weak, the warmth is accumulated in the middle layer, so the maximum temperature in the mid-mountainous area is higher than the maximum temperature of the low-altitude coastal area about 1–3 °C, and 4 °C or higher on the downwind side.


title: Hallasan

text: When the wind is blowing at 4–9 m/s, the wind phenomenon occurs mainly, so the weak sea breeze coming from the sea is formed on the coastal area and the peak temperature is mainly observed during the daytime.


title: Hallasan

text: The change of the minimum temperature varies depending on the degree of cooling of Hallasan and the intensity of the wind speed. When the wind blows due to the predominance of sea breeze, the air cooled in Hallasan descends to the coastal area and induces the decrease in temperature. When the synoptic wind blows strongly, the cold air of Hallasan moves to the downwind side and the lowest temperature appears. The lowest temperature in the downwind area is 2–5 °C lower than in other areas, and the lowest temperature often appears at night.


title: Hallasan

text: When the weak northwestern synoptic winds are blown, the lowest temperature appears in the eastern part of Jeju Island. The chill of the top of Hallasan descends downhill along the mountain range and is collected in the eastern part of Jeju Island so the morning temperature drops a lot.


title: Hallasan

text: For the last five years, the deviation of temperature (maximum temperature - minimum temperature) increased in spring between March and May. The reason for the large deviation in spring is because the phenomenon occurs frequently by Hallasan.


title: Hallasan

text: Hallasan was isolated from the mainland for a long time and its species were able to become unique and different from mainland species. The elevation of the mountain causes various plant species to live there. The mountain became a habitat for plants that live in low elevation and plants that live in high elevation. 50 or more unique species live in Jeju Island, especially in high elevation area in Hallasan. Various animal species also live on the mountain. Because of the geography of the mountain, the same species evolved in different ways after thousands of years. Just like plant species, animal species originally living in cold and hot climates use the mountain as their habitat. There are a total of 160 bird species that use Hallasan as a habitat. Only 19 species are considered as a natural monument and protected by the government. Ravens are commonly seen in the hiking trail. A total of 3,315 insect species live on the mountain. 254 spider species also live there. A study found that spider habitat is concentrated more on the north side of the mountain. Ticks live on the mountain and caused much damage to Jeju residents long ago. The damage caused by ticks continues. Six tick species cause problems for domestic animals.


title: Hallasan

text: According to the world floral region, Hallasan belongs to the temperate subregion with Yangtze River basin and southwest Japan. From the coast to the top of the Hallasan, plants are distributed vertically from the subtropical plants to the alpine plants due to the environmental gradient. Of the 4,000 species of vascular plants native to Korea, about 400 species are estimated to be endangered or potentially rare. Especially, 23 species-specific wild plants designated by the Ministry of Environment (a total of 59 species) are distributed in Jeju Island and 6 of them can be found in the natural reserve area of Hallasan. Also, about 50 kinds of special plants are distributed in Jeju Island, especially in the highlands of Hallasan.


title: Hallasan

text: Because of the geographical character of the island, there are many subspecies due to isolation even though they are the same species. Also, Hallasan is a place where the polar animal and the tropical animal coexist due to the difference of the climate zone according to the elevation.


title: Hallasan

text: The mammals of Jeju Island are distributed among 5 orders and 114 families and 5 species. Thus, the distribution of mammals in Jeju Island is very poor in species and numbers because Jeju island is isolated from the Korean peninsula long ago. Their population has been reduced due to the decrease in food because of the use of rodenticides and pesticides in recent years and indiscreet fishing. Weasels, badgers, and gazelles are inhabited in Hallasan. The number of weasels and badgers are declining. Boar and Formosan deer are already extinct. Roe deer, the largest mammal in Hallasan, was once in danger of extinction. But now its population has increased due to protection policies and much effort by the islanders.


title: Hallasan

text: Most amphibians and reptiles on Jeju Island are indigenous animals but there are some invasive species from Japan and China. Mt. Halla is particularly well-suited for amphibians and reptiles as a hideout, with well-developed grasslands and marshlands, and is rich in food.


title: Hallasan

text: There are 364 kinds of birds in Jeju Island, 91 kinds of passing birds, 100 kinds of birds in winter, 42 kinds of resident birds and 43 kinds of vagrants. Among the birds in Jeju Island, except for the species that live in habitat for migratory birds and coastal regions, there are 160 species inhabiting mainly in Mt. Halla. There are 19 species designated as natural monuments.


title: Hallasan

text: The mountain is home to Gwaneumsa (/), the oldest Buddhist temple on the island. The temple was originally built during the Goryeo Dynasty (1046-1083) during King Munjong (문종). Like many other temples in Korea, Gwaneumsa was destroyed in 1702 and closed for 200 years. The temple was rebuilt in 1908. It propagate Buddhism again in Jeju Island. There is a memorial site outside the temple to commemorate the victims of the Jeju uprising that took place between 1948 and 1950. It is one of the most visited places on the island.


title: Hallasan

text: The Donnaeko trail was reopened to the public on December 4, 2009, after a fifteen-year hiatus. Only the Gwaneumsa and Seongpanak trails lead to the summit. The Donnaeko, Eorimok and Yeongsil courses only go as far as Witse Oreum (), as the rest of the trail leading to the peak has been closed off since 1994 in order to restore and protect the vegetation.


title: Hallasan

text: To go to Gwaneumsa Trail by car, you should use road number 1117 which connects Jeju Arra-dong Mountain and Tamra Education Center and Cheon-Wangsa. From Jeju city hall to Gwaneumsa Information Center, it takes about 25 minutes and from Seogwipo city hall, it takes about 50 minutes. If you want to use public transportation, ride Jeju city bus number 475. Since this bus doesn't enter the city, you have to get off and transfer at the entrance of Jeju University. In the past, it operated only on weekends and holidays, but it can be used on weekdays since the 2017 bus route reorganization. If you have to take a bus to Jeju city or Seogwipo city, the closest stop is Jeju medical center at 5.16 road. It takes about 40~50 minutes on foot. Even if you come down the mountain at a late time, this route's bus would come in handy, since this bus comes until 20:20.


title: Hallasan

text: To go to Eorimok Trail by car, you should use road number 1139 (or 1100), which connect Jeju City and Seogwipo City Jungmun-dong. From Jeju city hall, it takes about 35 minutes and from Jungmun-dong, it takes about 50 minutes. If you want to use public transportation, ride bus number 240. (Dispense interval about 1hr.)


title: Hallasan

text: To go to Seongpanak Trail by car, you should use road number 1131 (or 516) which connect Jeju city and Seogwipo city. From Jeju city hall to the Seongpanak Information Center, it takes about 30 minutes. From Seogwipo city hall, it takes about 40 minutes. If you want to use public transformation, ride buses on road 516, which are 181, 182, 281. Since these buses come in an interval of only 10~15 minutes, the route with the best accessibility is this route.


title: Hallasan

text: The Yeongsil Trail is connected to the Gwaneumsa Trail by road number 1100. This makes the transportation information really similar. Actually, the way of public transportation is same. But the time to come and go is quite different since these two trails are 30 minutes away by car. From Jeju city hall to the Yeongsil Information Center, it takes about 50 minutes. From Jungmun to Yeongsil Information Center, it takes about 30 minutes.


title: Hallasan

text: To go to Donnaeko Trail by car, you should use road number 1115 which connects Jeju city Araun mountain river, Tamra education center, and Chunwangsa temple. From Jeju city hall to Donnaeko Information Center, it takes about 60 minutes and from Seogwipo city hall, it takes about 25 minutes. If you want to use public transportation, ride Seogwipo city bus 610-1. You should be aware that this bus goes to the mourning gallery (, which is the entrance) only 6 times a day. It takes about 40~50 minutes on foot.


title: Joe Morello

text: Joseph Albert Morello (July 17, 1928 – March 12, 2011) was an American jazz drummer best known for serving as the drummer for pianist Dave Brubeck, as part of the Dave Brubeck Quartet, from 1957 to 1972, including during the quartet's "classic lineup" from 1958 to 1968, which also included alto saxophonist Paul Desmond and bassist Eugene Wright. Morello's facility for playing unusual time signatures and rhythms enabled that group to record a series of albums that explored unusual time signatures. The most notable of these was the first in the series, the 1959 album "Time Out", which contained the hit songs "Take Five" and "Blue Rondo à la Turk". In fact, "Take Five", the album's biggest hit (and the first jazz single to sell more than one million copies) was specifically written by Desmond as a way to showcase Morello's ability to play in time.


title: Joe Morello

text: Besides playing with Brubeck, Morello also served as an accompanist for other musicians, including Marian McPartland, Tal Farlow and Gary Burton, and recorded his own albums as well. He received numerous accolades during his life, including being named the best drummer by "Down Beat" magazine five years in a row.


title: Joe Morello

text: He was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, United States to Joseph Morello and Lillian LaPalme. His father was a French emigrant from Nice and his mother hailed from French Canada. Morello suffered from partial vision from birth, and devoted himself to indoor activities. At six years old, he began studying the violin. Three years later, he was a featured soloist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, playing Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto, and again three years later.


title: Joe Morello

text: At the age of 15, Morello met the violinist Jascha Heifetz and decided that he would never be able to equal Heifetz's "sound". Therefore, he switched to drumming, first studying with a show drummer named Joe Sefcik and then George Lawrence Stone, author of the noted drum textbook "Stick Control for the Snare Drummer". Stone was so impressed with Morello's ideas that he incorporated them into his next book, "Accents & Rebounds", which is dedicated to Morello. Later, Morello studied with Radio City Music Hall percussionist, Billy Gladstone.


title: Joe Morello

text: After moving to New York City, Morello worked with numerous notable jazz musicians including Johnny Smith, Tal Farlow, Stan Kenton, Phil Woods, Sal Salvador, Marian McPartland, Jay McShann, Art Pepper, and Howard McGhee. After a period of playing in McPartland's trio, Morello declined invitations to join both Benny Goodman and Tommy Dorsey's bands, favoring a temporary two-month tour with the Dave Brubeck Quartet in 1955. Morello remained with Brubeck for well over a decade, departing in 1967. Morello later became an in-demand clinician, teacher and bandleader, whose former students include Danny Gottlieb, TigerBill Meligari, Bruce Springsteen E Street Band drummer Max Weinberg, Rich Galichon, Phish drummer Jon Fishman, Gary Feldman, Patrick Wante, Tony Woo, Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons drummer Gerry Polci, Jerry Granelli, RIOT drummer Sandy Slavin, retired Army Blues drummer Steve Fidyk, Glenn Johnson, Pittsburgh drummer Bennett Carlise, "Level System" author and professional drummer Jeff W. Johnson, Jazz drummer John B. Riley, and Bon Jovi drummer Tico Torres.


title: Joe Morello

text: Morello appeared in many Brubeck performances and contributed to over 60 albums with Brubeck. On "Take Five", he plays an imaginative drum solo maintaining the 5/4 time signature throughout. Another example of soloing in odd time signatures can be heard on "Unsquare Dance", in which he solos using only sticks without drums in 7/4 time. At the end of the track, he can be heard laughing about the "trick" ending. He also features on "Blue Rondo à la Turk", "Strange Meadow Lark", "Pick-Up Sticks" and "Castilian Drums".


title: Joe Morello

text: During his career, Morello appeared on over 120 albums. He authored several drum books, including "Master Studies", published by Modern Drummer Publications, and also made instructional videos. Morello was the recipient of many awards, including "Playboy" magazine's best drummer award for seven years in a row, and "Down Beat" magazine's best drummer award five years in a row. He was elected to the "Modern Drummer" magazine Hall of Fame in 1988, the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in 1993, and was the recipient of Hudson Music's first TIP (Teacher Integration Program) Lifetime Achievement award in June, 2010.


title: Joe Morello

text: Morello died at his home in Irvington, New Jersey, on March 12, 2011, aged 82, and is interred at Saint Michael Cemetery.


title: Joe Morello

text: Upon his death, Morello's wife Jean gave control of Joe Morello's memorabilia and collections to Marvin Burock, one of Joe's students, who had toured extensively with Morello and who was tasked with transcribing Morello's "Modern Drummer" articles for ten years.


title: Coccinella septempunctata

text: Coccinella septempunctata, the seven-spot ladybird (or, in North America, seven-spotted ladybug or "C-7"), is the most common ladybird in Europe. Its elytra are of a red colour, but punctuated with three black spots each, with one further spot being spread over the junction of the two, making a total of seven spots, from which the species derives both its common and scientific names (from the Latin ' = "seven" and ' = "spot").


title: Coccinella septempunctata

text: "C. septempunctata" has a broad ecological range, generally living where there are aphids for it to eat. and including, amongst other biotopes, meadows, fields, Pontic–Caspian steppe, parkland, gardens, Western European broadleaf forests and mixed forests. Both the adults and the larvae are voracious predators of aphids, and because of this, "C. septempunctata" has been repeatedly introduced to North America as a biological control agent to reduce aphid numbers, and is now established in North America. It has been designated the official state insect of five different states (Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Ohio, and Tennessee).


title: Coccinella septempunctata

text: Although "C. septempunctata" is mainly aphidophagous it also feeds on Thysanoptera, Aleyrodidae, on the larvae of Psyllidae and Cicadellidae, and on eggs and larvae of some beetles and butterflies. There are one or two generations per year. Adults overwinter in ground litter in parks, gardens and forest edges and under tree bark and rocks.


title: Coccinella septempunctata

text: In the United Kingdom, there are fears that the seven-spot ladybird is being outcompeted for food by the harlequin ladybird. Conversely, in North America, this species has outcompeted many native species, including other "Coccinella". Massive swarms of "C. septempunctata" took place in the drought summer of 1976 in the UK. The species has undergone significant declines on the island of Malta, yet it is unclear whether this decline has occurred at the same rate elsewhere.


title: Coccinella septempunctata

text: An adult seven-spot ladybird may reach a body length of . Their distinctive spots and attractive colours apparently make them unappealing to predators. The species can secrete a fluid from joints in their legs which gives them a foul taste. A threatened ladybird may both play dead and secrete the unappetising substance to protect itself. The seven-spot ladybird synthesizes the toxic alkaloids, N-oxide coccinelline and its free base precoccinelline; depending on sex and diet, the spot size and coloration can provide some indication of how toxic the individual insect is to potential predators.


title: Coccinella septempunctata

text: It can be found in Europe, North Africa, Australia, Cyprus, European Russia, the Caucasus, Siberia, the Russian Far East, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, the Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Middle Asia, Western Asia, Middle East, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, North and South Korea, Pakistan, Nepal, North India, Japan, Sri Lanka and southeast Asia. It can also be found in North America (the species was introduced to the United States) and tropical Africa.


title: Coccinella septempunctata

text: The first record of successful establishment (after numerous failed attempts to introduce the species) in the United States was in 1973. It has since spread by natural dispersion to New York and Connecticut and to Oklahoma, Georgia and Delaware by recolonization.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: The Mourning of Muharram (also known as Azadari, Remembrance of Muharram or Muharram Observances) is a set of commemoration rituals observed primarily by Shia people. The commemoration falls in Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar. Many of the events associated with the ritual take place in congregation halls known as "Hussainia or Imambargah".


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: The event marks the anniversary of the Battle of Karbala (AD 680/AH 61), when Imam Hussain ibn Ali, a grandson of Prophet Muhammad, was martyred by the forces of Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, on the orders of Yazid I. Family members and companions accompanying him were either killed or subjected to humiliation. The commemoration of this event during the yearly mourning season, with the Day of Ashura as the focal date, serves to define Shia communal identity. Muharram observances are carried out in countries with a sizable Shia Muslim population.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Storytelling, weeping and chest beating, wearing black, partial fasting, street processions, and re-enactments of the Battle of Karbala form the crux of the observances. Self-flagellation has been practiced but is now considered "haram" (prohibited) by some namely Irani Usuli Shia authorities ("maraji").


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: The word "Muharram" () comes from Arabic which is the name of the first month of the year in the Islamic calendar. The words "Azadari" (Persian: عزاداری) or "Sogvari" (سوگواری) which mean mourning and lamentation; and Majalis-e Aza have been exclusively used in connection with the remembrance ceremonies for the martyrdom of Imam Hussain (A.S). Majalis-e Aza, also known as Aza-e Husayn, includes mourning congregations, lamentations, matam and all such actions which express the emotions of grief and above all, revulsion against what Yazid I stood for.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Expression of grief with thumping of the chest by Shia Muslims is known as , or in Arabic-Persian countries. In India and Pakistan it is called matam or matam-dari/sina aannee (chest beating).


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: In recent years there has been a rise in English eulogies with added chest beating across the western world expressing sorrow and grief, predominantly in London, UK. Whilst matam being recited in English is still relatively new, the works of renowned reciter Sayed Ali Radhawi and respected published poet Nouri Sardar have helped push mourning to an English audience.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Muharram rituals was often called by European observers "the Feast of Hasan and Hosayn," as the participants shout "Hasan! Hosayn!"


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: The term "majalis" has both a grammatical meaning and a meaning which relates to Aza-e-Husayn. In its technical sense, a majalis is a meeting, a session or a gathering.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: According to Shia sources, the mourning of Muharram was started by the family, especially women, of Muhammad (the Ahl-ul-Bayt) immediately after the death of his grandson and even before entering Damascus. Following the Battle of Karbala, Muhammad's granddaughter Zaynab bint Ali and sister of Imam Husayn, began mourning for the fallen and making speeches against Imam Husayn ibn Ali's opponents: Ibn Ziyad, Yazid I, Umar Ibne Saad, Shimr ibn Dhil-jawshan and Hurmala. News of Imam Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom was spread by Imam Zain-ul-Abideen, who succeeded Imam Husayn as the Shia Imam, via sermons and speeches throughout Iraq, Syria and Hejaz.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: According to the History of the Prophets and Kings, when Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin gave the sermon in presence of Yazid, he let them hold the mourning of Husain ibn Ali for three days in a formal manner.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: In the Umayyad Caliphate, the mourning of Husain ibn Ali's Killing was performed furtively in the homes of Shia Imam and their followers, but during the Abbasid Caliphate this mourning was observed in public mosques by the Abbasid rulers to draw people's attention.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: During the Fatimid Caliphate, Imam Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah (d. 365/975), the 14th Ismaili imam, instructed Syedna Al-Qadi al-Nu'man to proclaim in his Friday sermon the significance of ʿAashura and elucidate the manner in which it should be commemorated. Al-Maqrizi (d. 845/1442), a medieval Egyptian historian, notes that in the Fatimi empire the Day of ʿAashura was marked as a day of grief and markets were shut. During Imam Al-Mustansir Billah's (d. 427/1094) era, the 18th Ismaili Imam, audiences were encouraged to explicitly express sorrow and tears on the occasion of ʿAashura as written in the majalis authored by Syedna Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi (470/1078). The 20th Musta'li Isma'ili Imam, Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah (526/1132), presided over a congregation on the Day of ʿAashura seated on an un-cushioned chair made of palm branches. The Imam wore a veil that day, and the reporter, Ibn al-Ma'mun, writes that sorrow and grief were clearly visible in his countenance. Ibn al-Tuwayr records that on the Day of ʿAashura, the royal carpets in the palace would be replaced with straw mats.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: As Chelkowski said, in fourth century in Baghdad, contemporaneous with the reigns of Sulton Muizz ad-Dawla of the Shia Buyid dynasty, the first public mourning ritual happened, and the market was closed by order of him on day of Ashura. The mourning rituals evolved differently in different places, until the Safavid dynasty established a centralized Shia state in the 16th century: The annual mourning ceremonies and ritual cursing of Husayn's enemies acquired the status of a national institution. According to popular belief, Shia rituals spread to South Asia starting at the end of the 14th Century with the conquests of Tamerlane. Observance has since spread to countries such as India, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, Syria, Nigeria, Tanzania, Saudi Arabia, Bangladesh, Yemen, Bahrain, Azerbaijan and Lebanon.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Shia Muslims around the world every year commemorate the mourning custom of death of Husayn ibn Ali, his family and his follower in months of Muharram and Safar. The type of mourning of Muharram varies between branches of Shia and different ethnic groups.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: According to the Shia belief, taking part in the mourning ritual will be a help to salvation on the Day of Judgment, as Elias Canetti (winner of Nobel Prize) said "[it] became the very core of the Shiite faith ... of all the traditional religions of lament which could be adduced for closer consideration – that of the Islamic is the most illuminating... The lament itself, as an impassioned pack opening out, to a true crowd, manifests itself with unforgettable power at the Muharram Festival Shiites".


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: At first the mourning ceremonies and custom have been done in the open air at the main thoroughfare of city of village, a major intersection in the bazaar, the yard of the mosque, caravanserai and private homes. After a while, in order to protect mourners from weather, the Hussainiya and the Tekyeh were built.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: After almost 12 centuries, five types of major rituals were developed around the battle of Karbala. These rituals include the memorial services ("majalis al-ta'ziya"), the visitation of Husayn's tomb in Karbala particularly on the occasion of the tenth day of Ashura and the fortieth day after the battle (Ziyarat Ashura and ziyarat al-Arba'in), the public mourning processions (Al-mawakib Al-husayniyya or the representation of the battle of Karbala in the form of a play (the ), and the flagellation ().


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Imam Husayn Shrine is located at the mosque and burial site of Husayn ibn Ali, the third Shia Imam in the city of Karbala, Iraq. Many Shia go on a pilgrimage to the shrine in Karbala, one of the holiest places for Shias apart from Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. Up to one million pilgrims visit the city annually to observe the anniversary of Imam Husayn ibn Ali's death. Shia Muslims believe that pilgrimage to Husayn ibn Ali's shrine, like weeping, wipes out their sins to a great extent.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: The Arabic term "matam" refers in general to an act or gesture of mourning; in Shia Islam the term designates acts of lamentation for the martyrs of Karbala. Male and female participants congregate in public for ceremonial chest beating ("matam- سینہ زنی") as a display of their devotion to Imam Husayn and in remembrance of his suffering. In some Shi'a societies, such as those in Bahrain, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Iran, Syria, Bangladesh and Iraq, male participants may incorporate knives or razors swung upon chains into their matam. There are two basic forms of matam:


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Matam in South Asia is the most significant and sensitive Shia identity marker, although the act is also condemned by some Shi'a religious leaders.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: A form of ritual bloodletting, practiced as an act of mourning by some Shia Muslims (it is a forbidden act according to some Grand Ayatollahs), for the younger grandson of Muhammad, Husayn ibn Ali, who was killed along with his children, companions and near relatives at the Battle of Karbala by the Umayyad Caliph Yazid I. The practice was first introduced by the Qizilbash tribe who were instrumental in establishing the Safavid rule. Tatbir is a contested issue among Shia. Most clerics deem it to be self-harm and hence haram. However, a small minority of Shia do partake in this act, usually in the South Asian region.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: One form of mourning is the theatrical re-enactment of the Battle of Karbala. In Iran this is called "taziya" or "taziyeh". Theatrical groups that specialize in taziya are called "taziya groups". Taziyas were popular through the Qajar dynasty until the early twentieth century, but the re-enactments slowly declined until they were mostly abandoned in the large cities by the early 1940s. Nonetheless, taziyas continued to exist in Iran on a smaller scale especially in more rural and traditional areas. Reza Shah, the first of the Pahlavi dynasty, had outlawed taziyas. Despite attempts since 1979, Muharram processions and various forms of the are still more common.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: By increasing the number of shia Muslim in cities and states, Muharram rituals have changed to a more elaborate form. In the ninth century, lamentation and wailing became propounded as a mourning tradition. Noha is the poem and story that be inspired from Maqtal al-Husayn (various books which narrate the story of the battle of Karbala and the death of Husayn ibn Ali) . The poet or another one read the noha with plaintive rhythm. The main subject of noha is the pain from the killing of Husayn ibn Ali. Noha consists of poems in different languages such as Arabic, Urdu, Farsi, Saraeki, Sindhi and Punjabi.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: The reaction of the audience in the reenactment of the Battle of Karbala episode is significant for the strengthening of distinct Shia identity and the weeping over the killing of Husayn ibn Ali as and his follower is one of these reactions. There is close relation between the lamentation and weeping. According to the narration, Shia imams had emphasized to weep for them, so it had transmitted to future generation. According to Shia tradition, the weeping and the flow of tears provides condolences to Imam Husayn's mother and his family, as the living relatives (mostly women and children) were not allowed to weep or lament over their martyred family which involved Imam Husayn's, his family (including his two sons, a six-month-old baby martyred by an arrow/spear to his neck and another 18 year old who took a spear to his heart) and his companions. Lamenting and weeping for the (mazloom) wronged and offering condolences to his family, thus, will serve as one of the good deeds done by the mourners of Husayn () and will be helpful in saving them from being condemned to hell fire on the day of judgment.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Depending on the condition of society, the Muharram processions changes from one city to another. The common form is the starting of mourning processions from Hussainiya and the participants would parade through the streets of their town or village, finally they come back to Hussainiya for performing other mourning of Muharram's ritual. The procession was common ritual's mourning of dead persons in Arabic states before the appearance of Islam. The chest-beating, flagellation and face-slapping (latm) are usual acts doing during the mourning procession, but chest-beating and face-slapping (latm) have more precedence and the history of doing this acts had been reached to Buyid dynasty period.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Chest beating () refer to common rituals practiced in mourning ceremonies of Shia Imams. In the nineteenth century, the Iranian practiced chest-beating introduced by Indian Syed Dildar Ali Nasirabadi and the chest-beating was attributed to the concept of Zuljinah (the horse with two wings) processions. The chest beating is allowed just in calamities belong to the family of Muhammad.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: At the Isfahanis' mosque, mourners just gather into the middle of the courtyard bared their upper torsos هn the form of a procession and began randomly beating their chests to the melodic suggestions.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Acts of flagellation are a symbolic reenacting of the blood-shedding of Husayn ibn Ali. The previous record of this dramatic act reaches back to the seventeenth century practice in the Caucasus and in Azerbaijan, and was observed in the nineteenth century by the Shia Twelvers in central and southern cities of Iran and the Arab world.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: There were various types of flagellation including striking of chests with the palms, striking of backs with chains, and cutting foreheads with knives or swords. In 1993, Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei, leader of Iran issued a fatwa calling flagellation wrong, fake and false. He later argued that while the communist regime of USSR closed or changed many mosques and banned many other Islamic practices in Azerbaijan, they allowed flagellation. While the fatwa is not obligatory to followers of other Maraji, official stance of Iranian government is that of the leader, so that flagellation is not openly practiced in Iran anymore.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: Rawda is one of the Shia Iranian mourning rituals to commemorate the death of Husayn ibn Ali and his followers – especially it is the kind of public lamentation. Rawda means garden in Arabic language and this name is acquired from the title of Rawdat al-Shuhada, literary masterpiece book authored by Husayn Waiz Kashifi in Persian. The word of Rawda-khawani means "recitation from Rawdat alshuhada" and generally is named Rawda. At first this ritual became customary on first ten days of Muharram, but by passing of time it was performed during Muharam and Safar and other days of year. Today, Rawda is either the story of Rawdat of al-Shuhada or stories that Rawḍa-k̲h̲ w ān (person who does the recitation) creates by his skills and knowledge to release the original text of the book. This ritual can be held at every where such as houses, the yard of mosque, the square of city or village and also Hussainiya and the Tekyeh. The origin place of Rawda was Iran, but then at Bahrain this ritual is seen in its original form and at other place like India, the modified form of it is held.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: One of the most important and symbolic objects used at mourning rituals is the Alam. It is the ensign of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of Karbala and a sign of truth and bravery. During the battle of Karbala, the original standard-bearer of Husayn ibn Ali's "kafala" (caravan) was Abbas, Husayn's brother. Abbas lost his life in battle when he went to retrieve water from the Euphrates River for the caravan's young children who were thirsty for three days. It is narrated that when he started to ride back to the camp with the water, he was surprise-attacked. While in battle, the children of the camp were anxiously watching the "alam" (Arabic and Persian "ʿalam", pl. "aʿlām", 'standard' or 'banner') dip up and down from afar. Abbas lost both of his arms in battle yet he still continued to clench the water skin ("mushk") with his teeth, determined to bring the water back to the children. The leader of the opposition saw Abbas gaining ground and ordered for more army men to attack the flag bearer, stating, "If water is brought back to their tent, there is no stopping them." Archers then started bombarding Abbas with arrows which pierced the water skin, bringing him down from his horse with the "alam" falling to the ground. Alams are a reminder of Abbas' martyrdom, and act as a symbol of affection and salutation towards the followers of Husayn ibn Ali who lost their lives in Karbala. Alams all vary in size but usually consist of a wood pole base, with a metal finial and cross-bar that is fixated at the top of the pole. The pole is then dressed with cloth and a banner with the names of Muhammad's family members. Alams with Abbas' name usually include an ornament that resembles the water skin that he intended to fill for the children. The length of an Alam can be about 15 feet. An Alam consists of flexible steel plates placed at the upper part of it. Also, an Alam is decorated by plumes and fine embroidered silks and brocades.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: "Nakhl Gardani" (, ) is a religious ritual carried out on the day of Ashura for commemorating the death of Husayn ibn Ali's death. "Nakhl" is a wooden (lit. date-palm) structure used as a symbolic representation of the Imam's coffin, and "nakhl-gardani" is the act of carrying the "nakhl" in procession, resembling Imam's funeral.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: In South Asia, literary and musical genres produced by both Shias and Sunnis, that have been inspired by the Battle of Karbala are performed during the month, such as marsiya, noha and soaz. This is meant to increase the people's understanding of how the enemies fought The Battle of Karbala against Imam Husayn and his followers.


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: In Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica all ethnic and religious communities participate in the event, locally known as "Hosay" or "Hussay".


title: Mourning of Muharram

text: In Mauritius the event is also known as "Ghoon Festival" or "Yamsé". Since the 1800s a group of believers have celebrated the 10th day of Muharram and first month of the Islamic calendar in the locality called Plaine Verte within the capital city Port Louis Mauritius.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The GeForce 8 series is the eighth generation of Nvidia's GeForce line of graphics processing units. The third major GPU architecture developed by Nvidia, Tesla represents the company's first unified shader architecture.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: All GeForce 8 Series products are based on Tesla. As with many GPUs, the larger numbers these cards carry does not guarantee superior performance over previous generation cards with a lower number. For example, the GeForce 8300 and 8400 entry-level cards cannot be compared to the previous GeForce 7200 and 7300 cards due to their inferior performance. The same goes for the high-end GeForce 8800 GTX card, which cannot be compared to the previous GeForce 7800 GTX card due to differences in performance.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: Able to drive two flat-panel displays up to 2560×1600 resolution. Available on select GeForce 8800 and 8600 GPUs.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: Able to drive one flat-panel display up to 2560×1600 resolution. Available on select GeForce 8500 GPUs and GeForce 8400 GS cards based on the G98.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: Able to drive one flat-panel display up to 1920×1200 resolution. Available on select GeForce 8400 GPUs. GeForce 8400 GS cards based on the G86 only support single-link DVI.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The GeForce 8 series supports 10-bit per channel display output, up from 8-bit on previous Nvidia cards. This potentially allows higher fidelity color representation and separation on capable displays. The GeForce 8 series, like its recent predecessors, also supports Scalable Link Interface (SLI) for multiple installed cards to act as one via an SLI Bridge, so long as they are of similar architecture.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: NVIDIA's PureVideo HD video rendering technology is an improved version of the original PureVideo introduced with GeForce 6. It now includes GPU-based hardware acceleration for decoding HD movie formats, post-processing of HD video for enhanced images, and optional High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) support at the card level.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: In the summer of 2007 Nvidia released the entry-level GeForce 8300 GS and 8400 GS graphics cards, based on the G86 core. The GeForce 8300 was only available in the OEM market, and was also available in integrated motherboard GPU form as the GeForce 8300 mGPU. As with many entry-level graphics cards, these cards are often less powerful than mid-range and high-end cards. Because of the reduced performance of these cards, they are not intended to be used for intense 3D applications such as fast, high-resolution video games. However, they could still play most games in their lower settings and resolutions, making these cards popular among casual gamers and HTPC (Media Center) builders without a PCI Express or AGP slot on the motherboard. They were originally designed to replace the low-cost GeForce 7200 series and entry-level GeForce 7300 series, but could not do so due to their inferior gaming performance.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: At the end of 2007 NVIDIA released a new GeForce 8400 GS based on the G98 (D8M) chip. It is quite different from the G86 used for the "first" 8400 GS, as the G98 features VC-1 and MPEG2 video decoding completely in hardware, lower power consumption, lowered 3D-performance and a smaller fabrication process. The G98 also features dual-link DVI support and PCI Express 2.0. G86 and G98 cards were both sold as "8400 GS", the difference showing only in the technical specifications. Sometimes this card is called "GeForce 8400 GS Rev. 2".


title: GeForce 8 series

text: During mid-2010 Nvidia released another revision of the GeForce 8400 GS based on the GT218 chip. It has a larger amount of RAM, and is capable of DirectX 10.1, OpenGL 3.3 and Shader 4.1. This card is also known as "GeForce 8400 GS Rev. 3".


title: GeForce 8 series

text: On April 17, 2007, Nvidia released the GeForce 8500 GT for the entry-level market, and the GeForce 8600 GT and 8600 GTS for the mid-range market.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: Nvidia introduced 2nd-generation PureVideo with this series. As the first major update to PureVideo since the GeForce 6's launch, 2nd-gen PureVideo offered much improved hardware-decoding for H.264.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The 8800 series, codenamed G80, was launched on November 8, 2006, with the release of the GeForce 8800 GTX and GTS for the high-end market. A 320 MB GTS was released on February 12 and the Ultra was released on May 2, 2007. The cards are larger than their predecessors, with the 8800 GTX measuring 10.6 in (~26.9 cm) in length and the 8800 GTS measuring 9 in (~23 cm). Both cards have two dual-link DVI connectors and a HDTV/S-Video out connector. The 8800 GTX requires 2 PCIe power inputs to keep within the PCIe standard, while the GTS requires just one.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The 8800 GS is a trimmed-down 8800 GT with 96 stream processors and either 384 or 768 MB of RAM on a 192-bit bus. In May 2008, it was rebranded as the 9600 GSO in an attempt to spur sales.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: On April 28, 2008, Apple announced an updated iMac line featuring an 8800 GS. However, the GPU is actually a rebranded Nvidia GeForce 8800M GTS. It features up to 512 MB of 800 MHz GDDR3 video memory, 64 unified stream processors, a 500 MHz core speed, a 256-bit memory bus width, and a 1250 MHz shader clock.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The 8800 GTX is equipped with 768 MB GDDR3 RAM. The 8800 series replaced the GeForce 7950 Series as Nvidia's top-performing consumer GPU. GeForce 8800 GTX and GTS use identical GPU cores, but the GTS model disables parts of the GPU and reduces RAM size and bus width to lower production cost.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: At the time, the G80 was the largest commercial GPU ever constructed. It consists of 681 million transistors covering a 480 mm² die surface area built on a 90 nm process. (In fact the G80's total transistor count is ~686 million, but since the chip was made on a 90 nm process and due to process limitations and yield feasibility, Nvidia had to break the main design into two chips: Main shader core at 681 million transistors and NV I/O core of about ~5 million transistors making the entire G80 design standing at ~686 million transistors).


title: GeForce 8 series

text: A minor manufacturing defect related to a resistor of improper value caused a recall of the 8800 GTX models just two days before the product launch, though the launch itself was unaffected.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The GeForce 8800 GTX was by far the fastest GPU when first released, and 13 months after its initial debut it still remained one of the fastest. The GTX has 128 stream processors clocked at 1.35 GHz, a core clock of 575 MHz, and 768 MB of 384-bit GDDR3 memory at 1.8 GHz, giving it a memory bandwidth of 86.4 GB/s. The card performs faster than a single Radeon HD 2900 XT, and faster than 2 Radeon X1950 XTXs in Crossfire or 2 GeForce 7900 GTXs in SLI. The 8800 GTX also supports HDCP, but one major flaw is its older NVIDIA PureVideo processor that uses more CPU resources. Originally retailing for around US$600, prices came down to under US$400 before it was discontinued. The 8800 GTX was also very power hungry for its time, demanding up to 185 watts of power and requiring two 6-pin PCI-E power connectors to operate. The 8800 GTX also has 2 SLI connector ports, allowing it to support NVIDIA 3-way SLI for users who run demanding games at extreme resolutions such as 2560x1600.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The 8800 Ultra, retailing at a higher price, is identical to the GTX architecturally, but features higher clocked shaders, core and memory. Nvidia later told the media the 8800 Ultra was a new stepping, creating less heat therefore clocking higher. Originally retailing from $800 to $1000, most users thought the card to be a poor value, offering only 10% more performance than the GTX but costing hundreds of dollars more. Prices dropped to as low as $200 before being discontinued on January 23, 2008. The core clock of the Ultra runs at 612 MHz, the shaders at 1.5 GHz, and finally the memory at 2.16 GHz, giving the Ultra a theoretical memory bandwidth of 103.7 GB/s. It has 2 SLI connector ports, allowing it to support Nvidia 3-way SLI. An updated dual slot cooler was also implemented, allowing for quieter and cooler operation at higher clock speeds.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The 8800 GT, codenamed G92, was released on October 29, 2007. The card is the first to transition to 65 nm process, and supports PCI-Express 2.0. It has a single-slot cooler as opposed to the double slot cooler on the 8800 GTS and GTX, and uses less power than GTS and GTX due to its 65 nm process. While its core processing power is comparable to that of the GTX, the 256-bit memory interface and the 512 MB of GDDR3 memory often hinders its performance at very high resolutions and graphics settings. The 8800 GT, unlike other 8800 cards, is equipped with the PureVideo HD VP2 engine for GPU assisted decoding of the H.264 and VC-1 codecs. Performance benchmarks at stock speeds place it above the 8800 GTS (640 MB and 320 MB versions) and slightly below the 8800 GTX. A 256 MB version of the 8800 GT with lower stock memory speeds (1.4 GHz as opposed to 1.8 GHz) but the same core is also available. Performance benchmarks have shown that the 256 MB version of the 8800 GT has a considerable performance disadvantage when compared to its 512 MB counterpart, especially in newer games such as Crysis. Some manufacturers also make models with 1 GB of memory; and with large resolutions and big textures one can perceive a performance difference in the benchmarks. These models are more likely to take up to 2 slots of the computer.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: The release of this card presents an odd dynamic to the graphics processing industry. At an NVIDIA projected initial street price of around $300, this card outperforms the ATI flagship HD2900XT in most situations, and even NVIDIA's own 8800 GTS 640 MB (previously priced at an MSRP of $400). The card, only marginally slower in synthetic and gaming benchmarks than the 8800 GTX, also takes much of the value away from Nvidia's own high-end card.


title: GeForce 8 series

text: Shortly after the release, an incompatibility issue with older PCI Express 1.0a motherboards was unmasked. When using the PCI Express 2.0 compliant 8800 GT or 8800 GTS 512 in some motherboards with PCI Express 1.0a slots, the card would not produce any display image, but the computer would often boot (with the fan on the video card spinning at a constant 100%). The incompatibility has been confirmed on motherboards with VIA PT880Pro/Ultra, Intel 925 and Intel 5000P PCI-E 1.0a chipsets.