title: History of cryptography

text: David Kahn notes in "The Codebreakers" that modern cryptology originated among the Arabs, the first people to systematically document cryptanalytic methods. Al-Khalil (717–786) wrote the "Book of Cryptographic Messages", which contains the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels.


title: History of cryptography

text: The invention of the frequency analysis technique for breaking monoalphabetic substitution ciphers, by Al-Kindi, an Arab mathematician, sometime around AD 800, proved to be the single most significant cryptanalytic advance until World War II. Al-Kindi wrote a book on cryptography entitled "Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma" ("Manuscript for the Deciphering Cryptographic Messages"), in which he described the first cryptanalytic techniques, including some for polyalphabetic ciphers, cipher classification, Arabic phonetics and syntax, and most importantly, gave the first descriptions on frequency analysis. He also covered methods of encipherments, cryptanalysis of certain encipherments, and statistical analysis of letters and letter combinations in Arabic. An important contribution of Ibn Adlan (1187–1268) was on sample size for use of frequency analysis.


title: History of cryptography

text: In early medieval England between the years 800–1100, substitution ciphers were frequently used by scribes as a playful and clever way to encipher notes, solutions to riddles, and colophons. The ciphers tend to be fairly straightforward, but sometimes they deviate from an ordinary pattern, adding to their complexity, and possibly also to their sophistication. This period saw vital and significant cryptographic experimentation in the West.


title: History of cryptography

text: Ahmad al-Qalqashandi (AD 1355–1418) wrote the "Subh al-a 'sha", a 14-volume encyclopedia which included a section on cryptology. This information was attributed to Ibn al-Durayhim who lived from AD 1312 to 1361, but whose writings on cryptography have been lost. The list of ciphers in this work included both substitution and transposition, and for the first time, a cipher with multiple substitutions for each plaintext letter (later called homophonic substitution). Also traced to Ibn al-Durayhim is an exposition on and a worked example of cryptanalysis, including the use of tables of letter frequencies and sets of letters which cannot occur together in one word.


title: History of cryptography

text: The earliest example of the homophonic substitution cipher is the one used by Duke of Mantua in the early 1400s. Homophonic cipher replaces each letter with multiple symbols depending on the letter frequency. The cipher is ahead of the time because it combines monoalphabetic and polyalphabetic features.


title: History of cryptography

text: Essentially all ciphers remained vulnerable to the cryptanalytic technique of frequency analysis until the development of the polyalphabetic cipher, and many remained so thereafter. The polyalphabetic cipher was most clearly explained by Leon Battista Alberti around AD 1467, for which he was called the "father of Western cryptology". Johannes Trithemius, in his work Poligraphia, invented the tabula recta, a critical component of the Vigenère cipher. Trithemius also wrote the Steganographia. The French cryptographer Blaise de Vigenère devised a practical polyalphabetic system which bears his name, the Vigenère cipher.


title: History of cryptography

text: In Europe, cryptography became (secretly) more important as a consequence of political competition and religious revolution. For instance, in Europe during and after the Renaissance, citizens of the various Italian states—the Papal States and the Roman Catholic Church included—were responsible for rapid proliferation of cryptographic techniques, few of which reflect understanding (or even knowledge) of Alberti's polyalphabetic advance. "Advanced ciphers", even after Alberti, were not as advanced as their inventors/developers/users claimed (and probably even they themselves believed). They were frequently broken. This over-optimism may be inherent in cryptography, for it was then – and remains today – difficult in principle to know how vulnerable one's own system is. In the absence of knowledge, guesses and hopes are predictably common.


title: History of cryptography

text: Cryptography, cryptanalysis, and secret-agent/courier betrayal featured in the Babington plot during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I which led to the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. Robert Hooke suggested in the chapter "Of Dr. Dee's Book of Spirits", that John Dee made use of Trithemian steganography, to conceal his communication with Queen Elizabeth I.


title: History of cryptography

text: The chief cryptographer of King Louis XIV of France was Antoine Rossignol; he and his family created what is known as the Great Cipher because it remained unsolved from its initial use until 1890, when French military cryptanalyst, Étienne Bazeries solved it. An encrypted message from the time of the Man in the Iron Mask (decrypted just prior to 1900 by Étienne Bazeries) has shed some, regrettably non-definitive, light on the identity of that real, if legendary and unfortunate, prisoner.


title: History of cryptography

text: Outside of Europe, after the Mongols brought about the end of the Islamic Golden Age, cryptography remained comparatively undeveloped. Cryptography in Japan seems not to have been used until about 1510, and advanced techniques were not known until after the opening of the country to the West beginning in the 1860s.


title: History of cryptography

text: Although cryptography has a long and complex history, it wasn't until the 19th century that it developed anything more than ad hoc approaches to either encryption or cryptanalysis (the science of finding weaknesses in crypto systems). Examples of the latter include Charles Babbage's Crimean War era work on mathematical cryptanalysis of polyalphabetic ciphers, redeveloped and published somewhat later by the Prussian Friedrich Kasiski. Understanding of cryptography at this time typically consisted of hard-won rules of thumb; see, for example, Auguste Kerckhoffs' cryptographic writings in the latter 19th century. Edgar Allan Poe used systematic methods to solve ciphers in the 1840s. In particular he placed a notice of his abilities in the Philadelphia paper "Alexander's Weekly (Express) Messenger", inviting submissions of ciphers, most of which he proceeded to solve. His success created a public stir for some months. He later wrote an essay on methods of cryptography which proved useful as an introduction for novice British cryptanalysts attempting to break German codes and ciphers during World War I, and a famous story, "The Gold-Bug", in which cryptanalysis was a prominent element.


title: History of cryptography

text: Cryptography, and its misuse, were involved in the execution of Mata Hari and in Dreyfus' conviction and imprisonment, both in the early 20th century. Cryptographers were also involved in exposing the machinations which had led to the Dreyfus affair; Mata Hari, in contrast, was shot.


title: History of cryptography

text: In World War I the Admiralty's Room 40 broke German naval codes and played an important role in several naval engagements during the war, notably in detecting major German sorties into the North Sea that led to the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland as the British fleet was sent out to intercept them. However, its most important contribution was probably in decrypting the Zimmermann Telegram, a cable from the German Foreign Office sent via Washington to its ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt in Mexico which played a major part in bringing the United States into the war.


title: History of cryptography

text: In 1917, Gilbert Vernam proposed a teleprinter cipher in which a previously prepared key, kept on paper tape, is combined character by character with the plaintext message to produce the cyphertext. This led to the development of electromechanical devices as cipher machines, and to the only unbreakable cipher, the one time pad.


title: History of cryptography

text: During the 1920s, Polish naval-officers assisted the Japanese military with code and cipher development.


title: History of cryptography

text: Mathematical methods proliferated in the period prior to World War II (notably in William F. Friedman's application of statistical techniques to cryptanalysis and cipher development and in Marian Rejewski's initial break into the German Army's version of the Enigma system in 1932).


title: History of cryptography

text: By World War II, mechanical and electromechanical cipher machines were in wide use, although—where such machines were impractical—code books and manual systems continued in use. Great advances were made in both cipher design and cryptanalysis, all in secrecy. Information about this period has begun to be declassified as the official British 50-year secrecy period has come to an end, as US archives have slowly opened, and as assorted memoirs and articles have appeared.


title: History of cryptography

text: The Germans made heavy use, in several variants, of an electromechanical rotor machine known as Enigma. Mathematician Marian Rejewski, at Poland's Cipher Bureau, in December 1932 deduced the detailed structure of the German Army Enigma, using mathematics and limited documentation supplied by Captain Gustave Bertrand of French military intelligence acquired from a German clerk. This was the greatest breakthrough in cryptanalysis in a thousand years and more, according to historian David Kahn. Rejewski and his mathematical Cipher Bureau colleagues, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, continued reading Enigma and keeping pace with the evolution of the German Army machine's components and encipherment procedures for some time. As the Poles' resources became strained by the changes being introduced by the Germans, and as war loomed, the Cipher Bureau, on the Polish General Staff's instructions, on 25 July 1939, at Warsaw, initiated French and British intelligence representatives into the secrets of Enigma decryption.


title: History of cryptography

text: Soon after the invasion of Poland by Germany on 1 September 1939, key Cipher Bureau personnel were evacuated southeastward; on 17 September, as the Soviet Union attacked Poland from the East, they crossed into Romania. From there they reached Paris, France; at PC Bruno, near Paris, they continued working toward breaking Enigma, collaborating with British cryptologists at Bletchley Park as the British got up to speed on their work breaking Enigma. In due course, the British cryptographerswhose ranks included many chess masters and mathematics dons such as Gordon Welchman, Max Newman, and Alan Turing (the conceptual founder of modern computing) made substantial breakthroughs in the scale and technology of Enigma decryption.


title: History of cryptography

text: German code breaking in World War II also had some success, most importantly by breaking the Naval Cipher No. 3. This enabled them to track and sink Atlantic convoys. It was only Ultra intelligence that finally persuaded the admiralty to change their codes in June 1943. This is surprising given the success of the British Room 40 code breakers in the previous world war.


title: History of cryptography

text: At the end of the War, on 19 April 1945, Britain's highest level civilian and military officials were told that they could never reveal that the German Enigma cipher had been broken because it would give the defeated enemy the chance to say they "were not well and fairly beaten".


title: History of cryptography

text: The German military also deployed several teleprinter stream ciphers. Bletchley Park called them the Fish ciphers; Max Newman and colleagues designed and deployed the Heath Robinson, and then the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, the Colossus, to help with their cryptanalysis. The German Foreign Office began to use the one-time pad in 1919; some of this traffic was read in World War II partly as the result of recovery of some key material in South America that was discarded without sufficient care by a German courier.


title: History of cryptography

text: The "Schlüsselgerät 41" was developed late in the war as a more secure replacement for Enigma, but only saw limited use.


title: History of cryptography

text: A US Army group, the SIS, managed to break the highest security Japanese diplomatic cipher system (an electromechanical stepping switch machine called Purple by the Americans) in 1940, before the attack on Pearl Harbour. The locally developed Purple machine replaced the earlier "Red" machine used by the Japanese Foreign Ministry, and a related machine, the M-1, used by Naval attachés which was broken by the U.S. Navy's Agnes Driscoll. All the Japanese machine ciphers were broken, to one degree or another, by the Allies.


title: History of cryptography

text: The Japanese Navy and Army largely used code book systems, later with a separate numerical additive. US Navy cryptographers (with cooperation from British and Dutch cryptographers after 1940) broke into several Japanese Navy crypto systems. The break into one of them, JN-25, famously led to the US victory in the Battle of Midway; and to the publication of that fact in the Chicago Tribune shortly after the battle, though the Japanese seem not to have noticed for they kept using the JN-25 system.


title: History of cryptography

text: The Americans referred to the intelligence resulting from cryptanalysis, perhaps especially that from the Purple machine, as 'Magic'. The British eventually settled on 'Ultra' for intelligence resulting from cryptanalysis, particularly that from message traffic protected by the various Enigmas. An earlier British term for Ultra had been 'Boniface' in an attempt to suggest, if betrayed, that it might have an individual agent as a source.


title: History of cryptography

text: Allied cipher machines used in World War II included the British TypeX and the American SIGABA; both were electromechanical rotor designs similar in spirit to the Enigma, albeit with major improvements. Neither is known to have been broken by anyone during the War. The Poles used the Lacida machine, but its security was found to be less than intended (by Polish Army cryptographers in the UK), and its use was discontinued. US troops in the field used the M-209 and the still less secure M-94 family machines. British SOE agents initially used 'poem ciphers' (memorized poems were the encryption/decryption keys), but later in the War, they began to switch to one-time pads.


title: History of cryptography

text: The VIC cipher (used at least until 1957 in connection with Rudolf Abel's NY spy ring) was a very complex hand cipher, and is claimed to be the most complicated known to have been used by the Soviets, according to David Kahn in "Kahn on Codes". For the decrypting of Soviet ciphers (particularly when "one-time pads" were reused), see Venona project.


title: History of cryptography

text: The UK and US employed large numbers of women in their code-breaking operation, with close to 7,000 reporting to Bletchley Park


title: History of cryptography

text: and 11,000 to the separate US Army and Navy operations, around Washington, DC. By tradition in Japan and Nazi doctrine in Germany, women were excluded from war work, at least until late in the war. Even after encryption systems were broken, large amounts of work were needed to respond to changes made, recover daily key settings for multiple networks, and intercept, process, translate, prioritize and analyze the huge volume of enemy messages generated in a global conflict. A few women, including Elizabeth Friedman and Agnes Meyer Driscoll, had been major contributors to US code-breaking in the 1930s and the Navy and Army began actively recruiting top graduates of women's colleges shortly before the attack on Pearl Harbor. Liza Mundy argues that this disparity in utilizing the talents of women between the Allies and Axis made a strategic difference in the war.


title: History of cryptography

text: Encryption in modern times is achieved by using algorithms that have a key to encrypt and decrypt information. These keys convert the messages and data into "digital gibberish" through encryption and then return them to the original form through decryption. In general, the longer the key is, the more difficult it is to crack the code. This holds true because deciphering an encrypted message by brute force would require the attacker to try every possible key. To put this in context, each binary unit of information, or bit, has a value of 0 or 1. An 8-bit key would then have 256 or 2^8 possible keys. A 56-bit key would have 2^56, or 72 quadrillion, possible keys to try and decipher the message. With modern technology, cyphers using keys with these lengths are becoming easier to decipher. DES, an early US Government approved cypher, has an effective key length of 56 bits, and test messages using that cypher have been broken by brute force key search. However, as technology advances, so does the quality of encryption. Since World War II, one of the most notable advances in the study of cryptography is the introduction of the asymmetric key cyphers (sometimes termed public-key cyphers). These are algorithms which use two mathematically related keys for encryption of the same message. Some of these algorithms permit publication of one of the keys, due to it being extremely difficult to determine one key simply from knowledge of the other.


title: History of cryptography

text: Beginning around 1990, the use of the Internet for commercial purposes and the introduction of commercial transactions over the Internet called for a widespread standard for encryption. Before the introduction of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), information sent over the Internet, such as financial data, was encrypted if at all, most commonly using the Data Encryption Standard (DES). This had been approved by NBS (a US Government agency) for its security, after public call for, and a competition among, candidates for such a cypher algorithm. DES was approved for a short period, but saw extended use due to complex wrangles over the use by the public of high quality encryption. DES was finally replaced by the AES after another public competition organized by the NBS successor agency, NIST. Around the late 1990s to early 2000s, the use of public-key algorithms became a more common approach for encryption, and soon a hybrid of the two schemes became the most accepted way for e-commerce operations to proceed. Additionally, the creation of a new protocol known as the Secure Socket Layer, or SSL, led the way for online transactions to take place. Transactions ranging from purchasing goods to online bill pay and banking used SSL. Furthermore, as wireless Internet connections became more common among households, the need for encryption grew, as a level of security was needed in these everyday situations.


title: History of cryptography

text: Claude E. Shannon is considered by many to be the father of mathematical cryptography. Shannon worked for several years at Bell Labs, and during his time there, he produced an article entitled "A mathematical theory of cryptography". This article was written in 1945 and eventually was published in the Bell System Technical Journal in 1949. It is commonly accepted that this paper was the starting point for development of modern cryptography. Shannon was inspired during the war to address "[t]he problems of cryptography [because] secrecy systems furnish an interesting application of communication theory". Shannon identified the two main goals of cryptography: secrecy and authenticity. His focus was on exploring secrecy and thirty-five years later, G.J. Simmons would address the issue of authenticity. Shannon wrote a further article entitled "A mathematical theory of communication" which highlights one of the most significant aspects of his work: cryptography's transition from art to science.


title: History of cryptography

text: In his works, Shannon described the two basic types of systems for secrecy. The first are those designed with the intent to protect against hackers and attackers who have infinite resources with which to decode a message (theoretical secrecy, now unconditional security), and the second are those designed to protect against hackers and attacks with finite resources with which to decode a message (practical secrecy, now computational security). Most of Shannon's work focused around theoretical secrecy; here, Shannon introduced a definition for the "unbreakability" of a cipher. If a cipher was determined "unbreakable", it was considered to have "perfect secrecy". In proving "perfect secrecy", Shannon determined that this could only be obtained with a secret key whose length given in binary digits was greater than or equal to the number of bits contained in the information being encrypted. Furthermore, Shannon developed the "unicity distance", defined as the "amount of plaintext that… determines the secret key."


title: History of cryptography

text: Shannon's work influenced further cryptography research in the 1970s, as the public-key cryptography developers, M. E. Hellman and W. Diffie cited Shannon's research as a major influence. His work also impacted modern designs of secret-key ciphers. At the end of Shannon's work with cryptography, progress slowed until Hellman and Diffie introduced their paper involving "public-key cryptography".


title: History of cryptography

text: The mid-1970s saw two major public (i.e., non-secret) advances. First was the publication of the draft Data Encryption Standard in the U.S. "Federal Register" on 17 March 1975. The proposed DES cipher was submitted by a research group at IBM, at the invitation of the National Bureau of Standards (now NIST), in an effort to develop secure electronic communication facilities for businesses such as banks and other large financial organizations. After advice and modification by the NSA, acting behind the scenes, it was adopted and published as a Federal Information Processing Standard Publication in 1977 (currently at FIPS 46-3). DES was the first publicly accessible cipher to be 'blessed' by a national agency such as the NSA. The release of its specification by NBS stimulated an explosion of public and academic interest in cryptography.


title: History of cryptography

text: The aging DES was officially replaced by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) in 2001 when NIST announced FIPS 197. After an open competition, NIST selected Rijndael, submitted by two Belgian cryptographers, to be the AES. DES, and more secure variants of it (such as Triple DES), are still used today, having been incorporated into many national and organizational standards. However, its 56-bit key-size has been shown to be insufficient to guard against brute force attacks (one such attack, undertaken by the cyber civil-rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation in 1997, succeeded in 56 hours.) As a result, use of straight DES encryption is now without doubt insecure for use in new cryptosystem designs, and messages protected by older cryptosystems using DES, and indeed all messages sent since 1976 using DES, are also at risk. Regardless of DES' inherent quality, the DES key size (56-bits) was thought to be too small by some even in 1976, perhaps most publicly by Whitfield Diffie. There was suspicion that government organizations even then had sufficient computing power to break DES messages; clearly others have achieved this capability.


title: History of cryptography

text: The second development, in 1976, was perhaps even more important, for it fundamentally changed the way cryptosystems might work. This was the publication of the paper New Directions in Cryptography by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman. It introduced a radically new method of distributing cryptographic keys, which went far toward solving one of the fundamental problems of cryptography, key distribution, and has become known as Diffie–Hellman key exchange. The article also stimulated the almost immediate public development of a new class of enciphering algorithms, the asymmetric key algorithms.


title: History of cryptography

text: Prior to that time, all useful modern encryption algorithms had been symmetric key algorithms, in which the same cryptographic key is used with the underlying algorithm by both the sender and the recipient, who must both keep it secret. All of the electromechanical machines used in World War II were of this logical class, as were the Caesar and Atbash ciphers and essentially all cipher systems throughout history. The 'key' for a code is, of course, the codebook, which must likewise be distributed and kept secret, and so shares most of the same problems in practice.


title: History of cryptography

text: Of necessity, the key in every such system had to be exchanged between the communicating parties in some secure way prior to any use of the system (the term usually used is 'via a secure channel') such as a trustworthy courier with a briefcase handcuffed to a wrist, or face-to-face contact, or a loyal carrier pigeon. This requirement is never trivial and very rapidly becomes unmanageable as the number of participants increases, or when secure channels aren't available for key exchange, or when, as is sensible cryptographic practice, keys are frequently changed. In particular, if messages are meant to be secure from other users, a separate key is required for each possible pair of users. A system of this kind is known as a secret key, or symmetric key cryptosystem. D-H key exchange (and succeeding improvements and variants) made operation of these systems much easier, and more secure, than had ever been possible before in all of history.


title: History of cryptography

text: In contrast, asymmetric key encryption uses a pair of mathematically related keys, each of which decrypts the encryption performed using the other. Some, but not all, of these algorithms have the additional property that one of the paired keys cannot be deduced from the other by any known method other than trial and error. An algorithm of this kind is known as a public key or asymmetric key system. Using such an algorithm, only one key pair is needed per user. By designating one key of the pair as private (always secret), and the other as public (often widely available), no secure channel is needed for key exchange. So long as the private key stays secret, the public key can be widely known for a very long time without compromising security, making it safe to reuse the same key pair indefinitely.


title: History of cryptography

text: For two users of an asymmetric key algorithm to communicate securely over an insecure channel, each user will need to know their own public and private keys as well as the other user's public key. Take this basic scenario: Alice and Bob each have a pair of keys they've been using for years with many other users. At the start of their message, they exchange public keys, unencrypted over an insecure line. Alice then encrypts a message using her private key, and then re-encrypts that result using Bob's public key. The double-encrypted message is then sent as digital data over a wire from Alice to Bob. Bob receives the bit stream and decrypts it using his own private key, and then decrypts that bit stream using Alice's public key. If the final result is recognizable as a message, Bob can be confident that the message actually came from someone who knows Alice's private key (presumably actually her if she's been careful with her private key), and that anyone eavesdropping on the channel will need Bob's private key in order to understand the message.


title: History of cryptography

text: Asymmetric algorithms rely for their effectiveness on a class of problems in mathematics called one-way functions, which require relatively little computational power to execute, but vast amounts of power to reverse, if reversal is possible at all. A classic example of a one-way function is multiplication of very large prime numbers. It's fairly quick to multiply two large primes, but very difficult to find the factors of the product of two large primes. Because of the mathematics of one-way functions, most possible keys are bad choices as cryptographic keys; only a small fraction of the possible keys of a given length are suitable, and so asymmetric algorithms require very long keys to reach the same level of security provided by relatively shorter symmetric keys. The need to both generate the key pairs, and perform the encryption/decryption operations make asymmetric algorithms computationally expensive, compared to most symmetric algorithms. Since symmetric algorithms can often use any sequence of (random, or at least unpredictable) bits as a key, a disposable "session key" can be quickly generated for short-term use. Consequently, it is common practice to use a long asymmetric key to exchange a disposable, much shorter (but just as strong) symmetric key. The slower asymmetric algorithm securely sends a symmetric session key, and the faster symmetric algorithm takes over for the remainder of the message.


title: History of cryptography

text: Asymmetric key cryptography, Diffie–Hellman key exchange, and the best known of the public key / private key algorithms (i.e., what is usually called the RSA algorithm), all seem to have been independently developed at a UK intelligence agency before the public announcement by Diffie and Hellman in 1976. GCHQ has released documents claiming they had developed public key cryptography before the publication of Diffie and Hellman's paper. Various classified papers were written at GCHQ during the 1960s and 1970s which eventually led to schemes essentially identical to RSA encryption and to Diffie–Hellman key exchange in 1973 and 1974. Some of these have now been published, and the inventors (James H. Ellis, Clifford Cocks, and Malcolm Williamson) have made public (some of) their work.


title: History of cryptography

text: Hashing is a common technique used in cryptography to encode information quickly using typical algorithms. Generally, an algorithm is applied to a string of text, and the resulting string becomes the "hash value". This creates a "digital fingerprint" of the message, as the specific hash value is used to identify a specific message. The output from the algorithm is also referred to as a "message digest" or a "check sum". Hashing is good for determining if information has been changed in transmission. If the hash value is different upon reception than upon sending, there is evidence the message has been altered. Once the algorithm has been applied to the data to be hashed, the hash function produces a fixed-length output. Essentially, anything passed through the hash function should resolve to the same length output as anything else passed through the same hash function. It is important to note that hashing is not the same as encrypting. Hashing is a one-way operation that is used to transform data into the compressed message digest. Additionally, the integrity of the message can be measured with hashing. Conversely, encryption is a two-way operation that is used to transform plaintext into cipher-text and then vice versa. In encryption, the confidentiality of a message is guaranteed.


title: History of cryptography

text: Hash functions can be used to verify digital signatures, so that when signing documents via the Internet, the signature is applied to one particular individual. Much like a hand-written signature, these signatures are verified by assigning their exact hash code to a person. Furthermore, hashing is applied to passwords for computer systems. Hashing for passwords began with the UNIX operating system. A user on the system would first create a password. That password would be hashed, using an algorithm or key, and then stored in a password file. This is still prominent today, as web applications that require passwords will often hash user's passwords and store them in a database.


title: History of cryptography

text: The public developments of the 1970s broke the near monopoly on high quality cryptography held by government organizations (see S Levy's "Crypto" for a journalistic account of some of the policy controversy of the time in the US). For the first time ever, those outside government organizations had access to cryptography not readily breakable by anyone (including governments). Considerable controversy, and conflict, both public and private, began more or less immediately, sometimes called the crypto wars. They have not yet subsided. In many countries, for example, export of cryptography is subject to restrictions. Until 1996 export from the U.S. of cryptography using keys longer than 40 bits (too small to be very secure against a knowledgeable attacker) was sharply limited. As recently as 2004, former FBI Director Louis Freeh, testifying before the 9/11 Commission, called for new laws against public use of encryption.


title: History of cryptography

text: One of the most significant people favoring strong encryption for public use was Phil Zimmermann. He wrote and then in 1991 released PGP (Pretty Good Privacy), a very high quality crypto system. He distributed a freeware version of PGP when he felt threatened by legislation then under consideration by the US Government that would require backdoors to be included in all cryptographic products developed within the US. His system was released worldwide shortly after he released it in the US, and that began a long criminal investigation of him by the US Government Justice Department for the alleged violation of export restrictions. The Justice Department eventually dropped its case against Zimmermann, and the freeware distribution of PGP has continued around the world. PGP even eventually became an open Internet standard (RFC 2440 or OpenPGP).


title: History of cryptography

text: While modern ciphers like AES and the higher quality asymmetric ciphers are widely considered unbreakable, poor designs and implementations are still sometimes adopted and there have been important cryptanalytic breaks of deployed crypto systems in recent years. Notable examples of broken crypto designs include the first Wi-Fi encryption scheme WEP, the Content Scrambling System used for encrypting and controlling DVD use, the A5/1 and A5/2 ciphers used in GSM cell phones, and the CRYPTO1 cipher used in the widely deployed MIFARE Classic smart cards from NXP Semiconductors, a spun off division of Philips Electronics. All of these are symmetric ciphers. Thus far, not one of the mathematical ideas underlying public key cryptography has been proven to be 'unbreakable', and so some future mathematical analysis advance might render systems relying on them insecure. While few informed observers foresee such a breakthrough, the key size recommended for security as best practice keeps increasing as increased computing power required for breaking codes becomes cheaper and more available. Quantum computers, if ever constructed with enough capacity, could break existing public key algorithms and efforts are underway to develop and standardize post-quantum cryptography.


title: History of cryptography

text: Even without breaking encryption in the traditional sense, side-channel attacks can be mounted that exploit information gained from the way a computer system is implemented, such as cache memory usage, timing information, power consumption, electromagnetic leaks or even sounds emitted. Newer cryptographic algorithms are being developed that make such attacks more difficult.


title: Dilip Buwa

text: Dilip Buwa (born Dilip Kohok; 1966 — 16 November 1991) was a notorious Indian gangster who used to work for the D-Company, an international crime syndicate of the Mumbai underworld led by Dawood Ibrahim. He was one of the men who were killed in 1991 by an encounter during the Lokhandwala Complex shootout. Buwa was killed by then Additional Police Commissioner of Mumbai, A. A. Khan.


title: Dilip Buwa

text: The director of the movie, Apoorva Lakhia, stated in an interview that Buwa once shot two girls at a bus stand in Bhandup, just because they were laughing at him.


title: Dilip Buwa

text: famous gangster in central Bombay. He was paid off by Chhota Rajan, a former associate of Ibrahim. While visiting Chembur, Buwa turned and shot Naik dead. He then switched sides to the D-gang. Conversely, Maya Dolas was a member of a gang led by Arun Gawli. In an agreement between Amar Naik and Arun Gawli, they agreed to settle their disputes, but in return Amar wanted Dolas dead. When Dolas found out, he escaped and joined with Buwa and the D-company.


title: Sainikudu

text: Sainikudu () is a 2006 Indian Telugu-language political action drama film written and directed by Gunasekhar and music composed by Harris Jayaraj. It stars Mahesh Babu and Trisha. Irrfan Khan, in his only South Indian film, plays the antagonist, and Prakash Raj, Kota Srinivasa Rao, Telangana Shakuntala, and Ajay play supporting roles. Balasubramaniem handled the camera work while Sreekar Prasad handled the editing. "Sainikudu" was released on 30 November 2006 and the music was released on 21 October 2006. It was partially reshot in Tamil as " Kumaran " with a comedy track involving Vadivelu, Venniradai Moorthy and Singamuthu. Made on a budget of 25 crore, the film was a major flop at the box office.


title: Sainikudu

text: The story starts with floods at Ranga Saipet in Warangal District. Houses, trains, and people inundate in floodwater. A young man named Siddharth (Mahesh Babu) and his friends save the people up to their maximum effort. Eight of his friends assist him in the rescue.


title: Sainikudu

text: On the other hand, the Chief Minister (Kota Srinivasa Rao) recommends the candidature of Parakala Pappu Yadav (Irrfan Khan) for Assembly Elections. Pappu Yadav is a goon who wishes to earn big through politics and power. To get the attention of people, he announces a sum of Rs. 5 crore for flood victims.


title: Sainikudu

text: The food that needs to reach the victims of the flood is taken elsewhere to be sold, an illegal way of earning money and backing up the flood relief fund into the pockets of the politicians. Siddharth learns of this through one of his friends and saves the stock in time. He then takes it to the flood victims for distribution. This annoys Pappu Yadav, for which Mondi Nani (Prakash Raj), his right-hand, threatens Siddharth. A strife develops between Mondi Nani and Siddharth, and the latter declares that his friend Ajay Kumar (Ajay) will be contesting the next Assembly Election opposite Pappu Yadav. Siddharth and his team get accolades from the people for this decision and start campaigning.


title: Sainikudu

text: To cut the good name of the group in the people and to win sympathy, Pappu Yadav conspires for a bomb blast allegation on Siddharth and his team. Mondi Nani works for him and the mission is accomplished. Pappu Yadav declares Siddharth and his team as terrorists. He wins the election, becomes the Home Minister, and his marriage is settled with Varalakshmi (Trisha). Siddharth, with the help of many college students, kidnaps Varalakshmi from the marriage hall, demanding that Pappu Yadav state his crimes before a court of law. Varalakshmi is handcuffed and gagged with tape.


title: Sainikudu

text: The rest of the film shows Pappu Yadav chasing Siddharth to get Varalakshmi back while Siddharth and Varalakshmi fall in love while she is held captive and how Siddharth puts an end to the game of crooked politicians.


title: Sainikudu

text: "Sainikudu" has six songs composed by Harris Jayaraj. The music was released simultaneously in 10 venues from five countries – India, USA, Australia, Singapore and Dubai on the morning of 21 October 2006. The producer of the film, Ashwini Dutt, arranged the use of a satellite transmission to relay the live audio release across the globe. The music proved to be extremely successful upon release. The song "Go Go Go Adhigo" is based on "Smooth Criminal" by Michael Jackson, from his 1987 Album "Bad". The song "Orugalluke Pilla" is based on "Chaiyya Chaiyya" by A. R. Rahman, from the 1998 Movie "Dil Se"


title: High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "High Hopes" is a song by English rock band Pink Floyd, composed by guitarist David Gilmour with lyrics by Gilmour and Polly Samson. It is the closing track on their fourteenth studio album, "The Division Bell" (1994); it was released as the second single from the album on 17 October 1994. An accompanying music video was made for the song and was directed by Storm Thorgerson.


title: High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Douglas Adams, a friend of Gilmour, chose the title for "The Division Bell" from one verse in this song. Live versions are featured on Pink Floyd's "Pulse", as well as Gilmour's "In Concert", "Remember That Night", "Live in Gdańsk" and "Live at Pompeii" releases. On "", a somewhat shortened version of the song segues into Syd Barrett's "Bike". The segue is accomplished by cutting from the church bell at the end of "High Hopes" to a new bicycle bell sound effect before "Bike" begins. A 7-inch vinyl version of the single was released on a transparent record.


title: High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)

text: A demo recording of the song appeared on the 2018 box set "The Later Years" and was released as one of the preview tracks. Unlike the album version, this features the final solo played on a regular electric guitar instead of a lapsteel.


title: High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The song is mostly in the key of C minor, and features the sound of a church bell chiming a 'C' throughout, except for a short section in the middle where the song briefly modulates into E minor for a guitar solo. The bell was taken from a sound effects record.


title: High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The lyrics refer to the band's early days in Cambridge, specifically before they started making music. It also references ex-bandmate Syd Barrett. Its lyrics speak of the things one may have gained and lost in life, written from Gilmour's autobiographic perspective. Gilmour has said that the song is more about his early days, and leaving his hometown behind, than about the seeds of division supposedly planted in Pink Floyd's early days.


title: High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The final couplet from the song ("The endless river/Forever and ever") recalls a line from the band's second single, "See Emily Play", from 1967, ("Float on a river/Forever and ever"); it inspired the name of their final studio album, "The Endless River", released in 2014. Shortly after the song ends and the chimes fade out is a hidden track comprising a brief phone call between the band's manager Steve O'Rourke and Gilmour's son Charlie. This concludes "The Division Bell".


title: High Hopes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The music video, directed by Storm Thorgerson, features a man looking over the Fens at Ely Cathedral, the same building which can be seen between the metal heads on the cover of the album. Also, the video has many references to Cambridge, where Syd Barrett, Roger Waters and David Gilmour grew up, college scarves, bicycles and punts on the river being obvious ones. In particular many scenes are set in St John's College, Cambridge, including the Bridge of Sighs. Also shown is an oversized bust of Syd Barrett. It would later be used in live performances during Pink Floyd's 1994 Division Bell Tour and seen on the PULSE video.


The 2021 Formula Regional European Championship by Alpine was a multi-event, Formula 3 open-wheel single seater motor racing championship held across Europe. The championship featured a mix of professional and amateur drivers, competing in Formula 3 cars that conform to the FIA Formula 3 regulations for the championship. This was the third season of the championship and the first after a merger with Formula Renault Eurocup which resulted to the change of the engine supplier to Alpine.


title: 2021 Formula Regional European Championship

text: The season commenced on 17 April at Imola Circuit and concluded on 31 October at Autodromo Nazionale di Monza, after ten rounds.


text: Swiss driver Grégoire Saucy, driving for ART Grand Prix, took the drivers' title in Round 9 at Mugello.


text: Thirteen teams had been pre-selected to the 2021 championship. Teams had a maximum of three cars, but were allowed to run a fourth car if they enter with a female driver. G4 Racing took over Bhaitech's entry and M2 Competition withdrew as only twelve teams are allowed to compete in the series.


text: The initial calendar was revealed on 7 December 2020. The series adopted the Formula Renault Eurocup weekend format with qualifying session 1 and race 1 on Saturday and qualifying session 2 and race 2 on Sunday. After rescheduling the season opener at Spa to support the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, the second Imola round was subsequently dropped and plans to reinclude Spa were announced. A planned round at the Nürburgring was cancelled because of the flood disaster in the region, with a replacement at Circuit Ricardo Tormo added later.


text: For teams entering more than two cars only the two best-finishing cars were eligible to score points in the teams' championship.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Integral humanism was a set of concepts drafted by Deendayal Upadhyaya as a political program and adopted in 1965 as the official doctrine of the Jan Sangh and later BJP. Upadhyaya borrowed the Gandhian principles such as sarvodaya (progress of all), swadeshi (domestic), and Gram Swaraj (village self rule) and these principles were appropriated selectively to give more importance to cultural-national values. These values were based on an individual's undisputed subservience to nation as a corporate entity.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: The creation and adoption of these concepts helped to suit the major discourses in the Indian political arena of 1960s and 1970s. This highlighted efforts to portray the Jan Sangh and Hindu nationalist movement as a high profile right fringe of the Indian political mainstream. A major change here in compared to Golwalkar's works was the use of the word "Bhartiya" which Richard Fox had translated as "Hindian", combination of Hindu Indian. Due to the official secularism in politics, it had become impossible to invoke explicit reference to "Hindu" and the usage of the word Bhartiya allowed to circumvent this political reality.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Upadhyaya considered that it was of utmost importance for India to develop an indigenous economic model with the human being at center stage. This approach made this concept different from Socialism and Capitalism. Integral Humanism was adopted as Jan Sangh's political doctrine and its new openness to other opposition forces made it possible for the Hindu nationalist movement to have an alliance in the early 1970s with the prominent Gandhian Sarvodaya movement going on under the leadership of J. P. Narayan. This was considered as the first major public breakthrough for the Hindu nationalist movement.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: According to Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya, the primary concern in India should be to develop an indigenous development model that has human beings as its core focus.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: It is opposed to both western capitalist individualism and Marxist socialism, though welcoming to western science. It seeks a middle ground between capitalism and socialism, evaluating both systems on their respective merits, while being critical of their excesses and alienness.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Humankind, according to Upadhyaya, had four hierarchically organized attributes of body, mind, intellect and soul which corresponded to the four universal objectives of dharma (moral duties), artha (wealth), kama (desire or satisfaction), and moksha (total liberation or 'salvation'). While none could be ignored, dharma is the 'basic', and moksha the 'ultimate' objective of humankind and society. He claimed that the problem with both capitalist and socialist ideologies is that they only consider the needs of body and mind, and were hence based on the materialist objectives of desire and wealth.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Upadhyaya rejected social systems in which individualism 'reigned supreme'. He also rejected communism in which individualism was 'crushed' as part of a 'large heartless machine'. Society, according to Upadhyaya, rather than arising from a social contract between individuals, was fully born at its inception itself as a natural living organism with a definitive 'national soul' or 'ethos' and its needs of the social organism paralleled those of the individual.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Upadhyaya was of the opinion that Integral Humanism followed the tradition of advaita developed by Adi Sankara. Non-dualism represented the unifying principle of every object in the universe, and of which humankind was a part. This, claimed Upadhyaya, was the essence and contribution of Indian culture.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Integral humanism is almost an exact paraphrase of Mahatma Gandhi's vision of a future India. Both seek a distinctive path for India, both reject the materialism of socialism and capitalism alike, both reject the individualism of modern society in favor of a holistic, varna-dharma based community, both insist upon an infusion of religious and moral values in politics, and both seek a culturally authentic mode of modernization that preserves Hindu values.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Integral humanism contains visions organized around two themes: morality in politics and swadeshi, and small-scale industrialization in economies, all Gandhian in their general thematic but distinctly Hindu nationalist. These notions revolve around the basic themes of harmony, primacy of cultural-national values, and discipline.


title: Integral humanism (India)

text: Upadhyaya rejects Nehruvian economic policies and industrialization on the grounds that they were borrowed uncritically from the West, in disregard of the cultural and spiritual heritage of the country. There is a need, according to Upadhyaya, to strike a balance between the Indian and Western thinking in view of the dynamic nature of the society and the cultural heritage of the country. The Nehruvian model of economic development, emphasizing the increase of material wealth through rapid industrialization, promoted consumerism in Indian society. Not only has this ideology of development created social disparities and regional imbalances in economic growth, but it has failed to alleviate poverty in the country. The philosophy of integral humanism, like Gandhism, opposes unbridled consumerism, since such an ideology is alien to Indian culture. This traditional culture stresses putting restraints on one's desires and advocates spiritual contentment rather than ruthless pursuit of material wealth.


title: Li Yitong (actress)

text: Li Yitong started dancing when she was almost ten by taking amateur-level classes. Under the recommendation of a teacher, she later applied and was admitted to the Shenzhen Art School at the age of 12. She received her bachelor degree from the Beijing Dance Academy, China's leading dance institution, where she majored in folk dance. Prior to becoming an actress, Li wanted to start a business of tea house into which she could merge elements of dance performance. But after once helping out her friends in film school for a microcinema, she was fascinated and decided to pursue a career in acting.


title: Li Yitong (actress)

text: In 2016, Li made her acting debut with a leading role in the period fantasy web series "Demon Girl" by Yu Zheng.


title: Li Yitong (actress)

text: In 2017, she played Huang Rong in the television adaptation of Jin Yong's wuxia novel "Legend of the Condor Heroes" and rose to fame in China.


title: Li Yitong (actress)

text: In 2018, Li starred in the wuxia romance web series "Bloody Romance", playing an assassin named Wan Mei. She also recorded one of the drama's theme songs. The series was a modest success and received positive reviews. The same year, she made her big-screen debut in the comedy film "Keep Calm and Be a Superstar".


title: Li Yitong (actress)

text: In 2019, Li starred in the period romance drama "Blossom in Heart" alongside Deng Lun, historical political drama "Royal Nirvana" alongside Luo Jin, and wuxia drama "Sword Dynasty" alongside Li Xian.


title: Li Yitong (actress)

text: In 2020, Li starred in fantasy romance film "Love You Forever", and modern romance drama "Don't Think Twice, Love's All Right" alongside Chen Jianbin.


title: Walter Smith

text: Walter Ferguson Smith (24 February 1948 – 26 October 2021) was a Scottish association football player, manager and director, primarily associated with his two spells as manager of Glasgow club Rangers.


title: Walter Smith

text: A defender, Smith's playing career consisted of two spells with Dundee United, split by a short time at Dumbarton. A pelvic injury caused his retirement from playing and Smith moved into coaching at Dundee United, working for manager Jim McLean. Smith also took charge of the Scotland under-18 and under-21 teams, and assisted Scotland manager Alex Ferguson at the 1986 FIFA World Cup in Mexico, after it had been announced that he would be moving to Rangers as assistant to Graeme Souness.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith became the manager of Rangers in 1991, succeeding Souness. He won 13 major trophies in seven years, including seven league titles in succession. After leaving Rangers at the end of the 1997–98 season, he was appointed manager of English Premier League club Everton. He was in charge at Goodison Park for four seasons before he was sacked in 2002.


title: Walter Smith

text: After a brief stint as assistant manager to Alex Ferguson at Manchester United, Smith was appointed Scotland manager in December 2004. He presided over a revival in their fortunes, taking the national team 70 places up the FIFA World Rankings. After a good start to UEFA Euro 2008 qualification, he resigned as Scotland manager in January 2007 to return to Rangers. He won eight trophies during his second spell as Rangers manager and guided the team to the 2008 UEFA Cup Final, before retiring from management in 2011. Smith is the second-most successful manager in the history of Rangers, behind Bill Struth.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith was born in Lanark, but grew up in the Carmyle district in the East End of Glasgow, and was a boyhood fan of Rangers. He was employed by the South of Scotland Electricity Board before launching his football career in the 1960s with Junior League team Ashfield.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith was one of three Ashfield players signed by Dundee United manager Jerry Kerr in 1966, joining the club in November shortly after teammates Jim Cameron and Gerry Hernon. A versatile player, Smith appeared for the reserve team in a number of positions, initially as a right-half. He made his first team debut in a Scottish Football League match against Kilmarnock on 20 March 1967. He continued to play regularly for the reserves, making only a handful of first team matches over the next four years until establishing himself in the latter part of the 1970–71 season.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith remained a regular first team player for United until 1974, often in central defence. His future coaching mentor Jim McLean became manager in December 1971, and the following month his future managerial assistant Archie Knox became a teammate. In September 1973, Smith scored the only goal of the game as United defeated Dundee in the Dundee derby; he celebrated by kissing his boot, a gesture which he was later embarrassed by. He played in the 1974 Scottish Cup Final against Celtic, Dundee United's first appearance in a major final, but finished with a runners-up medal following a 3–0 defeat.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith played less regularly the following season, and in September 1975 was sold to Dumbarton. He had played in 108 league games, scoring 2 goals, between 1966 and 1975.


title: Walter Smith

text: He was brought to Dumbarton for a fee of £8,000 by the management team of Alex Wright and former Rangers player Davie Wilson, who was a familiar face having been one of Smith's heroes as a teenage supporter, worked alongside his father at a local steelworks in the village of Westburn, Cambuslang, and latterly been a senior teammate at Dundee United. During his spell with Dumbarton they made a rare appearance at the semi-final stage of the Scottish Cup in 1976, losing to Hearts after a replay, with Smith scoring an early own goal.


title: Walter Smith

text: He played in 44 league games for Dumbarton before McLean paid a fee of £4,000 to bring him back to Dundee United in February 1977. Shortly afterwards, however, a serious pelvic injury effectively curtailed Smith's playing career at the age of 29.


title: Walter Smith

text: Thereafter he played mainly in the reserve team, helping to develop younger players. His final first team appearance was in September 1980, by which time he was embarking on a coaching career. He appeared in 26 league matches during his second spell and, in total, made 183 senior appearances for Dundee United, scoring three goals. Additionally, he set a club record by making approximately 360 reserve team appearances.


title: Walter Smith

text: He developed his coaching skills as assistant manager to Jim McLean, at a time when Dundee United were Scottish champions and European Cup semi-finalists. While working with McLean, a notoriously hard-bitten manager, Smith developed a reputation for being a strict disciplinarian. According to Kevin Gallacher, who was an apprentice of the club at the time in the early 1980s, Smith could become ferociously angry and was known to deal out punches to enforce discipline. He joined Dundee United's board of directors in 1986.


title: Walter Smith

text: In 1978, he was appointed coach of the Scotland Under-18 team, and helped them to win the European Youth Championship in 1982. He became coach of the Under 21 team, and was Alex Ferguson's assistant manager during the 1986 Mexico World Cup. Latterly Ferguson commented on Smith by saying: "There are few people in the game with his experience, knowledge and technical ability."


title: Walter Smith

text: In April 1986, Graeme Souness was appointed player-manager of Rangers and Smith accepted his offer to become assistant. He helped Souness guide Rangers to Premier Division and League Cup glory in 1986–87, another League Cup in 1987–88, the Premier Division and League Cup again in 1988–89, a second successive league title in 1989–90 and another League Cup in 1990–91.


title: Walter Smith

text: With Souness continuing to play regularly until 1988, Smith was the principal figure in the dugout for many matches. In addition, Smith took sole charge of the team in the 1987 Scottish League Cup Final as Souness was suspended. Souness was subject to an extensive touchline ban from February 1989, although he frequently circumvented this by naming himself as a substitute.


title: Walter Smith

text: When Souness left for Liverpool in April 1991, Smith was appointed interim manager. This was made permanent in May 1991, after the club clinched its fourth title in five seasons. Six more league titles in succession followed under Smith's tenure, including a domestic treble in 1992–93. He also won the Scottish Cup and the League Cup three times each. Smith took Rangers to the brink of the final of the Champions League in season 1992–93, going ten games without defeat in that campaign and 44 matches unbeaten in all competitions.


title: Walter Smith

text: This success was achieved at a cost, as Smith spent over £50m on transfer fees in his six years in charge – more than any other club in Great Britain over the same period. Rangers equalled Celtic's record of nine successive championships in 1996–97. In an effort to secure a record-breaking tenth success in 1997–98, Rangers spent £13m on eight new players. In European competition, Rangers were beaten 4–1 by IFK Gothenburg in the 1997–98 UEFA Champions League preliminary round and 4–2 by Strasbourg in the first round of the 1997–98 UEFA Cup. There was growing pressure on Smith because of poor European results, and it was announced in October 1997 that he would leave Rangers at the end of the season. Rangers lost the league title to Celtic on the final day and then lost the 1998 Scottish Cup Final to Hearts.


title: Walter Smith

text: After success in his native Scotland, Smith's retirement lasted a month as he took the manager's job at Premier League club Everton in June 1998. Initially Smith had been linked with the manager's job at Sheffield Wednesday, but false promises made to him by the Everton chairman of massive transfer funds and unlimited ambition lured Smith to Goodison Park. Smith spent money on players only to discover that it was money the club did not have. When Duncan Ferguson was sold behind Smith's back, he was tempted to quit. The remainder of his time at Everton revolved around selling the club's better players such as John Collins, Olivier Dacourt, Don Hutchison, Marco Materazzi, Nick Barmby, Francis Jeffers and Michael Ball to balance the books.


title: Walter Smith

text: Under Smith, Everton finished in the bottom half of the table for three consecutive seasons. The Everton board finally ran out of patience with Smith and he was sacked in March 2002 after an "abject" 3–0 FA Cup Sixth Round defeat to Middlesbrough, with Everton in some danger of relegation from the Premier League. He was replaced by David Moyes, who managed Everton to a safe finish in fifteenth place.


title: Walter Smith

text: In March 2004, Smith returned to football when he had a short spell as assistant manager to Alex Ferguson at Manchester United at the end of the 2003–04 season. During this time Manchester United won the 2004 FA Cup Final, beating Millwall at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith was appointed manager of the Scottish national team on 2 December 2004, succeeding Berti Vogts. Despite a revival of fortunes under Smith, including a home draw with Italy and an away win against Norway, hopes of reaching the 2006 World Cup were ended by a 1–0 home defeat against Belarus.


title: Walter Smith

text: Scotland's world ranking improved by seventy places during his tenure. Scotland recorded a famous victory against World Cup runners-up France in a UEFA Euro 2008 qualification match at Hampden and temporarily led their group by three points. A 2–0 defeat against Ukraine on 11 October 2006 was the first of the campaign.


title: Walter Smith

text: On 5 January 2007, press outlets reported that Rangers had spoken to Smith with a view to hiring him to manage Rangers again, with Ally McCoist as assistant manager. The Scottish FA initially rebuffed Rangers' approach for Smith, but his return as Rangers manager was announced on 10 January 2007. He succeeded Paul Le Guen, who had left the club by mutual consent after Rangers had been knocked out of the 2006–07 Scottish League Cup by First Division side St Johnstone and fallen 17 points behind Celtic in the 2006–07 Scottish Premier League; caretaker manager Ian Durrant (who had previously played under him) was retained on the coaching staff.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith's first match in his second spell at Ibrox was a 5–0 win against Dundee United on 13 January, with two goals from Kris Boyd and one each from Barry Ferguson, Chris Burke and Charlie Adam. Smith's first final since his return was secured with a 2–0 win over Hearts in the 2007–08 Scottish League Cup. Rangers played Dundee United in the 2008 Scottish League Cup Final; the game was drawn 1–1 after normal time, and 2–2 after extra time. The winners were decided by penalty kicks. Rangers won 3–2, with Kris Boyd scoring the winning penalty (as well as the goals for Rangers in normal time and extra time).


title: Walter Smith

text: In the 2007–08 UEFA Cup, Walter Smith booked Rangers' first European final for 36 years, after an exit in the UEFA Champions League group stage on the final day after good results against VFB Stuttgart, Olympique Lyonnais and FC Barcelona. In the quarter-final, after a 0–0 home draw with Sporting, Rangers went on to win the away leg 2–0. In the semi-final they drew 0–0 in both legs against Fiorentina and after extra time, they won 4–2 on penalties, taking Rangers to the UEFA Cup Final in Manchester, which they lost 0–2 to Zenit St. Petersburg. Rangers also narrowly missed out on the league title, partly attributable to an end-of-season fixture backlog due to their cup runs; they added the 2007–08 Scottish Cup with a win over Queen of the South in what was their 68th match of the campaign; afterwards Smith revealed that assistant McCoist had been controlling the team in the Scottish Cup run.


title: Walter Smith

text: In the 2008–09 UEFA Champions League second qualifying round, Rangers drew 0–0 with Lithuanian side FBK Kaunas at Ibrox on 30 July 2008 and lost the return leg 2–1. The loss against Kaunas meant Rangers made an early exit from European competition. Rangers went on to claim the SPL title – Rangers' 52nd Championship – on 24 May 2009. Smith followed this up with the Scottish Cup a week later to end the season with a League and Cup double.


title: Walter Smith

text: In December 2009, it was revealed that Smith was to continue as Rangers manager without a contract when it expired the following month. In March 2010, he guided Rangers to win the League Cup after they had been reduced to nine men in the final. On 25 April 2010, Rangers clinched their 53rd league title with a 1–0 win away to Hibernian.


title: Walter Smith

text: On 25 May 2010, Smith signed a new one-year deal to continue as Rangers manager throughout the 2010–11 campaign. He stated that it would be his last as Rangers manager, with McCoist to take control thereafter. In this final season as manager, Smith led Rangers to another domestic double, winning the League Cup and their 54th league championship. The league title was secured on the final day of the season, with a 5–1 win against Kilmarnock at Rugby Park.


title: Walter Smith

text: Rangers entered administration in February 2012. An attempt to take the club out of administration by means of a creditors voluntary arrangement was rejected by HM Revenue & Customs, the largest creditor, putting the club into liquidation in June 2012. The administrator, Duff & Phelps, sold the assets of Rangers to a consortium led by Charles Green. Smith said that he was leading a consortium offering a deal to buy the assets from Green, but this offer was withdrawn days later. On 11 November 2012, Smith returned to Ibrox taking on a role with the new Rangers company as a non-executive director. Smith was appointed non-executive chairman in May 2013, but he resigned from the board in August.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith was linked with a return to management as Scotland manager in February 2018, but he withdrew his name from consideration after discussions with the Scottish FA.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith was a close friend of former Celtic player and manager Tommy Burns. He was a pallbearer at Burns's funeral in 2008.


title: Walter Smith

text: Politically, Smith described himself as a socialist and said he was brought up with "socialist principles".


title: Walter Smith

text: During the 2014 Scottish independence referendum Smith was a supporter of the Better Together campaign against Scottish independence.


title: Walter Smith

text: Smith died from cancer on the morning of 26 October 2021, aged 73. A private family funeral was held on 3 November, followed by a public memorial service at Glasgow Cathedral on 19 November.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: Date and time notation in Canada combines conventions from the United Kingdom, conventions from the United States, and conventions from France, often creating confusion. The Government of Canada specifies the ISO 8601 format for all-numeric dates (--; for example, ). It recommends writing the time using the 24-hour clock () for maximum clarity in both Canadian English and Canadian French, but also allows the 12-hour clock () in English.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: When writing the full date, English speakers vacillate between the forms inherited from the United Kingdom (day first, 7 January) and United States (month first, January 7), depending on the region and context. French speakers consistently write the date with the day first (). The government endorses all these forms when using words, but recommends only the ISO format for all-numeric dates to avoid error.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The date can be written either with the day or the month first in Canadian English, optionally with the day of the week. For example, the seventh day of January 2016 can be written as:


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The month-day-year sequence is the most common method of writing the full date in English, but formal letters, academic papers, and reports often prefer the day-month-year sequence. Even in the United States, where the month-day-year sequence is even more prevalent, the "Chicago Manual of Style" recommends the day-month-year format for material that requires many full dates, since it does not require commas and has wider international recognition. Writing the date in this form is also useful for bilingual comprehension, as it matches the French sequence of writing the date. Documents with an international audience, including the Canadian passport, use the day-month-year format.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The date is sometimes written out in words, especially in formal documents such as contracts and invitations, following spoken forms:


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: French usage consistently places the day first when writing the full date. The standard all-numeric date format is common between English and French:


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The article is required in prose except when including the day of the week in a date. When writing a date for administrative purposes (such as to date a document), one can write the date with or without the article.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The Government of Canada recommends that all-numeric dates in both English and French use the -- format codified in ISO 8601. The Standards Council of Canada also specifies this as the country's date format.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The -- format is the only method of writing a numeric date in Canada that allows unambiguous interpretation, and the only officially recommended format. The presence of the // (most of the world) and // (American) formats often results in misinterpretation. Using these systems, the date 7 January 2016 could be written as either 07/01/16 or 01/07/16, which readers can also interpret as 1 July 2016 (or 1 July 1916); conversely, 2016-01-07 cannot be interpreted as another date.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: In spite of its official status and broad usage, there is no binding legislation requiring the use of the -- format, and other date formats continue to appear in many contexts. For example, Payments Canada prefers ISO 8601, but allows cheques to be printed using any date format. Even some government forms, such as commercial cargo manifests, offer a blank line with no guidance. To remedy this, Daryl Kramp tabled a private member's bill directing courts on the interpretation of numeric dates by amending the Canada Evidence Act in 2011, which would effectively outlaw all numeric date formats other than --. Todd Doherty revived this bill in 2015, but it did not progress beyond first reading before the end of the 42nd Canadian Parliament.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: Federal regulations for shelf life dates on perishable goods mandate a year/month/day format, but allow the month to be written in full, in both official languages, or with a set of standardized two-letter bilingual codes, such as 2016  07 or 16  07. The year is required only if the date is beyond the current year, and can be written with two or four digits. These codes are occasionally found in other contexts, alongside other abbreviations specific to English or French.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: Canada was an early adopter of the 24-hour clock, which Sandford Fleming promoted as key to accurate communication alongside time zones and a standard prime meridian. The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) began to use it in 1886, prior to its official adoption by European countries. The 24-hour notation is shorter, removes the potential for confusing the first and second halves of the day especially visible at midnight (00:00 or 24:00, 12:00a.m.) and noon (12:00, 12:00p.m.), and is language-neutral. English speakers use both the 24- and 12-hour clocks, while French speakers use the 24-hour clock universally.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The Government of Canada recommends using the 24-hour clock to avoid ambiguity, and many industries require it. Fifteen minutes after eight o'clock at night can be written:


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The 24-hour clock is widely used in contexts such as transportation, medicine, environmental services, and data transmission, "preferable for greater precision and maximum comprehension the world over". Its use is mandatory in parts of the government as an element of the Federal Identity Program, especially in contexts such as signage where speakers of both English and French read the same text.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: The government describes the 24-hour system as "desirable" but does not enforce its use, meaning that the 12-hour clock remains common for oral and informal usage in English-speaking contexts. This situation is similar to the use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom.


title: Date and time notation in Canada

text: Communications in Canadian French write the time using 24-hour notation for all purposes. The hours and minutes can be written with different separators depending on the context:


title: Alexander Borodai

text: Alexander Yurevich Borodai (; ; born July 25, 1972) is a Russian member of the State Duma of the 8th convocation for the party United Russia. Borodai was Prime Minister of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic in 2014 after the Donetsk People's Republic declared its independence from Ukraine on 12 May 2014, Borodai was appointed as Prime Minister by the republic's Supreme Council on May 16, 2014. Borodai, a Russian citizen, had earlier worked as a political adviser to Sergey Aksyonov, the prime minister of the Republic of Crimea. On 7 August 2014, Borodai announced his resignation. He was succeeded by Alexander Zakharchenko; under Zakharchenko, Borodai became Deputy Prime Minister.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: In his interview to "Novaya Gazeta" Borodai acknowledged that he has known Igor Girkin since after the war in Transnistria.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: Alexander Borodai lives in Moscow. He is a son of Yury Borodai, a scholar in philosophy. Both his father and Borodai himself were "friendly" with Lev Gumilyov, a Eurasianist philosopher.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: Borodai has a degree in philosophy from Moscow State University. In 1994 he worked for the RIA Novosti as a military correspondent during the First Chechen War. Since 1996 he worked for the openly anti-semitic " newspaper, which has called for pogroms against Jews. Since 1998 he worked as a "political technologist" specialising in elections. Since 2001 he has headed the consulting business "Sotsiomaster" specializing in crisis management. Borodai and the future military commander of the Donetsk People's Republic Igor Strelkov were close associates of the far-right nationalist Russian businessmen Konstantin Malofeev.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: According to Russian media, he was appointed as a deputy director of Russian FSB State Security in 2002 at the age of 35, when he held the rank of major general – Borodai dismissed this as a hoax. He currently has a consultancy in Moscow and worked at a major investment fund.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: In the 1990s he edited a Russian newspaper " (Завтра -"Tomorrow"), run by journalist Alexander Prokhanov.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: In December 2011, Borodai and Prokhanov co-founded the "patriotic" Web TV channel Den-TV (“Day”). Den-TV's programming has regularly included Konstantin Dushenov, who has previously been imprisoned for anti-semitic incitement.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: Borodai refers to himself as "professional consultant" with expertise in ethnic conflict. “I have resolved all kinds of complicated conflict situations,” he told journalists.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: In 2002, according to the Moscow Times newspaper, he also dismissed reports that he had been appointed a deputy director of Russia’s Federal Security Service (FSB) as a hoax arranged for his 30th birthday.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: Borodai worked as an advisor to appointed Crimea governor Sergei Aksyonov. Borodai claims he worked as a “political strategist” during the annexation of Crimea by Russia, and states that the political forces that facilitated the takeover are the same as those active in the Donetsk Republic: "Naturally the people who set up these popular movements and were the initiators are the same people, they are connected to each other... So when I finished the work in Crimea I automatically... came here to work in southeast Ukraine.”


title: Alexander Borodai

text: Following the 2014 Donetsk status referendum; on 16 May 2014 Borodai was appointed Prime Minister of the Donetsk People's Republic.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: In a press conference in Donetsk on 7 August 2014, Borodai announced his resignation as Prime Minister. In this press conference he stated “I came here as a crisis manager, a start-upper, if you want. I’ve managed to achieve a lot in the past several months, the DPR has been established as a state”. As Prime Minister he was replaced by Alexander Zakharchenko. Borodai (also) stated he would become Zakharchenko's Deputy Prime Minister. He further stated in the 7 August 2014 press conference that he believed a "native Muscovite" like him should not lead the Donetsk People's Republic. In 2017 Boroday claimed (talking to "Reuters") that Zakharchenko succeeded him in a Russian government effort "to try to show the West that the uprising was a grassroots phenomenon".


title: Alexander Borodai

text: In the 2021 Russian legislative election Borodai was elected to the State Duma for the party United Russia.


title: Alexander Borodai

text: On 7 November, a car driven by Borodai was nearly struck by a French HPD-2A2 in the Kherson region. The security vehicle in front of his was reportedly hit by the land mine, blowing out windows and tires. Video showed a camouflaged HPD-2A2 which his own vehicle missed by "millimetres".


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Baptism for the dead, vicarious baptism or proxy baptism today commonly refers to the religious practice of baptizing a person on behalf of one who is dead—a living person receiving the rite on behalf of a deceased person.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Baptism for the dead is best known as a doctrine of the Latter Day Saint movement, which has practiced it since 1840. It is currently practiced by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), where it is performed only in dedicated temples, as well as in several other current factions of the movement. Those who practice this rite view baptism as an essential requirement to enter the Kingdom of God, and therefore practice baptism for the dead to offer it by proxy to those who died without the opportunity to receive it. The LDS Church teaches that those who have died may choose to accept or reject the baptisms done on their behalf.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Baptism for the dead is mentioned in () as proof of a physical resurrection, though the exact meaning of the phrase is an open question among scholars. The plainest reading of the Greek text suggests vicarious baptisms performed by the living on behalf of the deceased, but some scholars dispute whether Paul approved of the practice or whether the verse truly refers to an actual physical practice among early Christians. Early heresiologists Epiphanius of Salamis ("Panarion" 28) and Chrysostom ("Homilies" 40) attributed the practice respectively to the Cerinthians and to the Marcionites, whom they identified as heretical "Gnostic" groups, while Ambrosiaster and Tertullian affirmed that the practice was legitimate and found among the New Testament Christians (though Tertullian later recanted his original beliefs in his later life as he became associated with Montanism). The practice was forbidden by the Councils of Carthage in the last decade of the fourth century AD, and is therefore not practiced in modern mainstream Christianity, whether Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, or any traditional Protestant churches.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: In the practice of the LDS Church, a living person, acting as proxy, is baptized by immersion on behalf of a deceased person of the same sex. Baptism for the dead is an ordinance of the church, performed only in temples, and is based on the belief that baptism is required for entry into the Kingdom of God.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Some members of the early Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church; now known as the Community of Christ) also believed in baptism for the dead, but it was never officially sanctioned by that organization and was considered highly controversial.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: At a 1970 church world conference, a revelation and two letters written by Joseph Smith appertaining to baptism for the dead were removed as sections and placed in the appendix of the RLDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants; at a 1990 world conference, the three documents were removed entirely from the RLDS Church's scriptural canon.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: In the Restoration Branches movement, which broke from the RLDS Church in the 1980s, the question of baptism for the dead is at best unsettled. Many adherents reject the validity of the ordinance completely. Others regard it a legitimate rite, the permission for which has been withdrawn by God ever since the Latter Day Saints failed to complete the Nauvoo Temple within the specified time frame.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Other Latter Day Saint denominations that accept baptism for the dead include the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite), The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite), and the Righteous Branch (Christ's Church). The Strangite Church performed baptisms for the dead during the 1840s in Voree, Wisconsin, and later during the 1850s on Beaver Island, Michigan. In each case, the practice was authorized by on the basis of what James J. Strang reported as a revelation. The question of whether the Strangite Church still practices proxy baptism is an open one, but belief is considered orthodox.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: As part of their sacraments, the New Apostolic Church and the Old Apostolic Church also practice baptism for the dead, as well as Communion and Sealing to the Departed. In this practice a proxy or substitute is baptised in the place of an unknown number of deceased persons. According to NAC and OAC doctrine the deceased do not enter the body of the substitute.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Mormon scholar John A. Tvedtnes says: "Baptism for the dead was performed by the dominant church until forbidden by the sixth canon of the Council of Carthage (397). Some of the smaller sects, however, continued the practice." He does not give the text of that canon, which, if it is included in what has been called the Code of Canons of the African Church as canon 18, reads: "It also seemed good that the Eucharist should not be given to the bodies of the dead. For it is written: 'Take, Eat', but the bodies of the dead can neither 'take' nor 'eat'. Nor let the ignorance of the presbyters baptize those who are dead."


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Epiphanius of Salamis (between 310–320 – 403) reported that he had heard it said that, among followers of Cerinthus, if one of them died before baptism, another was baptized in that person's name:


title: Baptism for the dead

text: John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) mockingly attributes to the Marcionites of the late 4th century a similar practice: if one of their followers who was being prepared for baptism died before receiving baptism, the dead person's corpse was addressed with the question whether he wished to be baptized, whereupon another answered affirmatively and was baptized for the dead person.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: To the superstitious practice of baptizing dead bodies (baptism "of" the dead) John A. Tvedtnes applies the term "baptism "for" the dead":


title: Baptism for the dead

text: In the context of insisting that "in Christ shall all be made alive .. Christ the firstfruits; afterward they that are Christ's", Paul wrote in : "Else what shall they do which are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all? why are they then baptized for the dead?" Different views have been expressed on the meaning of the phrase "baptized for the dead", and on whether Paul gave his approval to the practice.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: The Greek verb in Paul's phrase "baptized for the dead" is "baptizein", which in Jewish Greek has a wider reference than "baptism", applying primarily to the masculine noun "baptismos" "ritual washing" The verb occurs four times in the Septuagint in the context of ritual washing, "baptismos": Judith cleansing herself from menstrual impurity, Naaman washing seven times to be cleansed from leprosy, etc. In the New Testament only, the verb "baptizein" can also relate to the neuter noun "baptisma" "baptism", a neologism unknown in the Septuagint and other pre-Christian Jewish texts. This broadness in the meaning of "baptizein" is reflected in English Bibles rendering "wash", where Jewish ritual washing is meant, for example in Mark 7:4, which states that the Pharisees "except they wash (Greek "baptize"), they do not eat", and "baptize" where "baptisma", the new Christian rite, is intended. The older ritual washing use of "baptizein" is relevant in the context of funerals since any Jew coming into contact with the dead body must undertake ritual washing. During the Second Temple and early Rabbinical period the regulations on "ritual washing" (Greek masculine noun "baptismos") expanded and multiplied. This is documented in the Halakhah Tractate Yadayim and Dead Sea Scrolls Peter Leithart (2007) suggests that Paul's comment "why do they.." is an analogy between baptism (i.e. neuter concept noun "baptisma") with Jewish ritual washing (i.e. masculine concrete noun "baptismos") for contact with the dead following the Mosaic regulations in Numbers 19. The phrase "ritually washed for the dead" does not occur in intertestamental literature, but a possibly related idea of prayer for the dead occurs in 2 Maccabees. Since the New Testament idea of "baptism" (Greek "baptisma"), the rite of baptism, is not mentioned in the verse, it is open to interpretation whether the verb "baptizein" refers to "ritual washing" (Greek "baptismos") or "the rite of baptism" (Greek "baptisma") or is an analogy between both.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Tertullian's (155-220 AD) earliest writings affirm the assumption that the Corinthians practiced vicarious baptisms on behalf of the deceased and seem to affirm the legitimacy of the practice. In one of his first written works, "On the Resurrection of the Flesh," he writes "Now it is certain that they adopted this (practice) with such a presumption that made them suppose that the vicarious baptism (in question) would be beneficial to the flesh of another in anticipation of the resurrection." Tertullian much later, however, (around the time that he begins to display Montanist influences), reinterprets the Corinthians passage and argues, instead, against baptisms performed for the dead. In his book, "Against Marcion", he says that the practice ("whatever it may have been") to which Paul alluded in witnessed to belief in bodily resurrection, something that Marcion denied, and that, "baptized for the dead" must mean "baptized for the body," which is destined to die and rise again.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Ambrosiaster, the author of a commentary on Paul's epistles, written between 366 and 384 AD, also affirmed the practice among the earliest Christians, noting "that some people were at that time [New Testament period] being baptized for the dead because they were afraid that someone who was not baptized would either not rise at all or else rise merely in order to be condemned."


title: Baptism for the dead

text: John Chrysostom (347-407 AD), opposed to a literal reading of 1 Corinthians 15:29, explained Paul's mention of people being "baptized for the dead" as a reference to the profession of faith they made in their own future resurrection before being baptized.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Some interpret "baptized for the dead" as a metaphor for martyrdom, as in and baptism is a metaphor for suffering or martyrdom; accordingly they would translate it as "being baptized with a view to death". In this interpretation, the phrase is closely linked with what Paul says immediately afterwards of the suffering that he himself faces and is enabled to endure precisely because of his faith in his resurrection. This interpretation is similar to that of John Chrysostom.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Others interpret the phrase as referring to simple baptism of an individual. Martin Luther regarded it as a practice of being baptized "above" (the first of the meanings of the preposition ὑπέρ, generally translated in this passage as "for") the tombs of the dead. John Calvin saw it as a reference to being baptized when close to death.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: The simplest reading of the text sees the phrase as referring to vicarious baptism on behalf of dead people performed in the belief that the dead were thereby benefitted in some way. This belief is put forward as the reason why, when Paul compares the Corinthians' experience to that of the Israelites in crossing the Red Sea and being fed on manna, he insists that the Israelites were not thereby prevented from sinning.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: The HarperCollins Study Bible acknowledges the plain reading of the text that Paul was literally speaking about baptisms being performed on behalf of the deceased, and writes, "why the Corinthians practiced baptism on behalf of the dead is unknown; see also 2 Macc 12.44-45." The 2 Maccabees passage speaks about the similar practice of performing sacrifices for the dead among Intertestamental Jews. The evangelical Tyndale Bible Dictionary, instead, concludes that Paul probably did not approve the practice of baptism for the dead. He refers to its practitioners as "they", not as "you" (the Corinthian Christians to whom he wrote). The note in the Catholic New American Bible is more cautious: "Baptized for the dead: this practice is not further explained here, nor is it necessarily mentioned with approval, but Paul cites it as something in their experience that attests in one more way to belief in the resurrection." In this, it stays close to what Tertullian wrote in the year 207 or 208, when he said that Paul's only aim in alluding to the practice of baptism for the dead, "whatever it may have been", was "that he might all the more firmly insist upon the resurrection of the body, in proportion as they who were vainly baptized for the dead resorted to the practice from their belief of such a resurrection."


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Elaine Pagels (1992) seeks to explain 1 Corinthians as having reference to the Valentinian sect later numbered among the "Gnostic" heresies. However Pagels view of Paul's epistles is not supported by other scholars.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Joel R. White argues from the context of the passage that 1 Cor 15:29 is referring to the apostles, especially Apollos and Paul himself.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Members of the LDS Church believe that baptism is a prerequisite for entry into the kingdom of God as stated by Jesus in : "Except that a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God" (KJV).


title: Baptism for the dead

text: The LDS Church teaches that performing baptisms for the dead allows this saving ordinance to be offered on behalf of those who have died without accepting or knowing Jesus Christ or his teachings during their mortal lives. It is taught that this is the method by which all who have lived upon the earth will have the opportunity to receive baptism and to thereby enter the Kingdom of God.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Among other Biblical references, Latter-day Saints cite Peter's statements that Jesus preached to the spirits of the dead (KJV 1 Peter 3:19; 4:6) as evidence that God in his justice provides an opportunity for the deceased to hear and accept the gospel, if they don't receive that chance in mortality. As Peter affirmed in Acts 2:37–38, the next step after acceptance of the gospel is baptism for the remission of sins, which "doth also now save us" (KJV 1 Peter 3:21).


title: Baptism for the dead

text: The LDS Church teaches that those in the afterlife who have been baptized by proxy are free to accept or reject the ordinance done on their behalf. Baptism on behalf of a deceased individual is not binding if that individual chooses to reject it in the afterlife.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Any member of the LDS Church, male or female, beginning in the year they turn 12 years old and holds a current temple recommend may act as a proxy in this ordinance. Men must also hold the Aaronic priesthood prior to entering the temple. Men act as proxy for deceased men, and women as proxy for deceased women. The concept of a spiritual proxy is compared by some in the LDS Church to the belief that Jesus acted as proxy for every human when he atoned for the sins of the world.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Historically, only adult male holders of the Melchizedek priesthood who had undergone the endowment ordinance were permitted to baptize others as proxies for the dead. In 2018, this policy was changed to allow boys who hold the Aaronic priesthood office of priest, generally between 15 and 18-years old, to officiate in baptisms for the dead.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: According to the LDS Church, the practice of baptism for the dead is based on a revelation received by the prophet Joseph Smith. Smith first taught the doctrine at the funeral sermon of a deceased member of the church, Seymour Brunson. In a letter written on October 19, 1840, to the church's Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (who were on a mission in the United Kingdom at the time), Smith refers to the passage in (KJV):


title: Baptism for the dead

text: LDS Church scripture expands further upon this doctrine and states that such baptisms are to be performed in temples. Vicarious baptism is performed in connection with other vicarious ordinances in temples of the LDS Church, such as the endowment and celestial marriage.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: Initially, women could be baptized for dead men, and vice versa; this, however, was changed in order to ensure that the person being baptized for a dead man could also be ordained on their behalf to the priesthood.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: The LDS Church teaches that deceased persons who have not accepted, or had the opportunity to accept, the gospel of Christ in this life will have such opportunity in the afterlife. The belief is that as all must follow Jesus Christ, they must also receive all the ordinances that a living person is expected to receive, including baptism. For this reason, members of the LDS Church are encouraged to research their genealogy. This research is then used as the basis for church performing temple ordinances for as many deceased persons as possible. As a part of these efforts, Latter-day Saints have performed temple ordinances on behalf of a number of high-profile people, including the Founding Fathers of the United States, U.S. Presidents, Pope John Paul II, John Wesley, Christopher Columbus, Adolf Hitler, Joan of Arc, Genghis Khan, Joseph Stalin, and Gautama Buddha.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: While members of the LDS Church consider vicarious ordinances for the deceased an act of compassionate service, some non-members have taken offense. Sensitive to the issue of proxy baptizing for non-Mormons not related to church members, the church in recent years has published a general policy of performing temple ordinances only for relatives. For example, the church is in the process of removing sensitive names (such as Jewish Holocaust victims) from its International Genealogical Index (IGI). D. Todd Christofferson of the church's Presidency of the Seventy stated that removing the names is an "ongoing, labor intensive process requiring name-by-name research ... When the Church is made aware of documented concerns, action is taken ... Plans are underway to refine this process." The LDS Church keeps records of the temple ordinances performed for deceased persons; however, FamilySearch, a web application for accessing the church's genealogical databases, shows information on temple ordinances only to registered LDS Church members and not to non-members.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: In 2008, a directive from the Vatican Congregation for the Clergy directed Catholic dioceses to prevent the LDS Church from "microfilming and digitizing information" contained in Catholic sacramental registers so that those whose names were contained therein would not be subjected to vicarious Mormon baptism. Earlier, the Vatican had declared that Mormon baptisms were invalid.


title: Baptism for the dead

text: The LDS Church performs vicarious baptisms for individuals regardless of their race, sex, creed, religion, or morality. Some members of the LDS Church have been baptized for both victims and perpetrators of The Holocaust, including Anne Frank and Adolf Hitler, contrary to modern church policy. Some Jewish Holocaust survivors and some Jewish organizations have objected to this practice.