title: Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne

text: Guinness remarried in 1936 to Elisabeth Nelson (1912–1999), daughter of Thomas Arthur Nelson of the Nelson publishing family, with whom he had nine children:


title: Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne

text: During World War II, Guinness served for three years in the Middle East with the Spears Mission to the Free French, being a fluent French speaker, with the rank of Major. Then, in November 1944, Guinness succeeded to the barony when his father, posted abroad as Resident Minister in the Middle East by his friend Winston Churchill, was assassinated in Cairo.


title: Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne

text: After the war, Lord Moyne served on the board of the Guinness corporation as vice-chairman from 1947 to 1979, as well as the Guinness Trust and the Iveagh Trust, sitting as a crossbencher in the House of Lords. He served for 35 years as a trustee of the National Gallery of Ireland and donated several works to the gallery. He wrote a number of critically applauded novels, memoirs, books of poetry, and plays. With Frank Pakenham he sought the return of the "Lane Bequest" to Dublin, resulting in the 1959 compromise agreement. He was invested as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. He served as pro-chancellor of Trinity College Dublin from 1965-1977, and was made an honorary fellow in 1977.


title: Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne

text: Lord Moyne died in 1992 at Biddesden, his Wiltshire home (near Andover, Hampshire), and was succeeded by his eldest son Jonathan.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Mai Bhago also known as Mata Bhag Kaur, was a Sikh woman who led Sikh soldiers against the Mughals in 1705. She was an exceptionally skilled warrior on the battlefield and is revered as a warrior saint in Sikhism. She was known for rallying the 40 Sikhs ("Chali Mukte") who abandoned Guru Gobind Singh at the siege of Anandpur Sahib and bringing them back to fight.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Mai Bhago was born in her family's ancestral village of Chabal Kalan, in the family of Dhillon jatt at Jhabal Kalan, in the present-day Tarn Taran district of the Punjab . Mai Bhago was a staunch Sikh by birth and had her upbringing in a devout Sikh family. Mai Bhago's father, Malo Shah, was enrolled in Guru Hargobind's army and like her father Mai Bhago learned "Shaster vidya" (training in arms). Mai Bhago was the granddaughter of Bhai Pero Shah who was younger brother of the famous Bhai Langah the chief of 84 villages who had converted to Sikhism during the time of Guru Arjan Dev (1563–1606), the fifth Sikh Guru. She had two brothers Dilbagh Singh and Bhag Singh. When she was young her parents took her to Anandpur Sahib to do "darshan" (glimpse) of Guru Gobind Singh. She married Bhai Nidhan Singh of Patti.


title: Mai Bhago

text: In attempt to capture the Guru the large Mughal army led by Wazir Khan (of Sirhind) under the orders of Emperor Aurangzeb proceeded to Anandpur Sahib alongside the Mughal Armies of Lahore and Kashmir.


title: Mai Bhago

text: On around 1704 the Mughal hill chiefs had surrounded Anandpur Sahib and were demanding it be evacuated stopping provisions for food and the siege lasting a few months. They announced that any Sikh who would say that "he/she is not anymore a Sikh of Guru Gobind" would be left untouched while others would be "done to death". A group of 40 Sikhs ("Chali Mukte"), led by Mahan Singh Rataul, told Guru Gobind Singh that they were not his Sikhs anymore. The Guru told them that they would have to write a document that said "We are not your Sikhs anymore" and sign it. All forty Sikhs (except one: 'Bedava') wrote their names on this document, and left Guru Gobind Singh.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Mai Bhago was distressed to hear that some of the Sikhs of her neighbourhood, who had gone to Anandpur to fight for Guru Gobind Singh, had deserted him under adverse conditions. She criticised them openly; hearing her taunts, these Sikhs were ashamed of their betrayal. Mai Bhago rallied the deserters, and persuaded them to meet with the Guru and apologize to him. She set off with them (and some other Sikhs) to seek out the Guru, who were traveling across the Malva.


title: Mai Bhago

text: A messenger arrived with an oath signed by Aurangzeb on a copy of the Quran, assuring the Guru that if he came out of the fort, permanent peace would be negotiated on honourable terms. The oath of the Emperor was further supported by an oath signed by all the Generals of the Mughal army and the Hill Chiefs. Guru Gobind Singh did not trust these assurances, but to show the real face of the Mughals, the Guru nevertheless decided to leave the fort.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Meanwhile, Guru Gobind Singh evacuated the fort of Anandpur. His children had already been separated in the retreat by the betraying Mughal army and the Hill Chiefs. The two youngest ones, Sahibzada Zorawar Singh and Sahibzada Fateh Singh, had gone along with their grandmother Mata Gujari Kaur (mother of Guru Gobind Singh Ji) while the elder two, Sahibzada Ajit Singh and Sahibzada Jhujhar Singh, had gone with their father. At the battle of Chamkaur, the Guru's elder sons were killed and attained martyrdom. The Guru left Chamkaur on the order of the Panj Pyare. Guru Gobind Singh's forces travelled day and night through the jungles of the Malva region with the imperial Mughal forces of Aurangzeb in constant pursuit.


title: Mai Bhago

text: The Guru had reached the village of Khidrana, when Mai Bhago and the men reached khidrana. She led stopped near the "dhab", or pool, of Khidrana, the only source of water in the area which was overtaken by the Mughal imperial army pursuing the Guru.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Mai Bhago and her men attacked the pursuing Mughals and eventually had them retreat, while the Guru's forces showered arrows onto the Mughals from nearby high ground. When Guru Gobind Singh visited the battlefield, he found all dead except Mai Bhago and the previous leader of the deserters, Mahan Singh. Mahan Singh, who had been seriously wounded, died as the Guru took him into his lap. All forty of the Sikhs who came to redeem themselves died as well as Mai Bhago's brothers and husband and attained martyrdom in this pitched battle. Some sources say Mai Bhago's children were martyred there too.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Guru Gobind Singh blessed those forty dead as the "Chali Mukte", Forty Liberated Ones. He took into his care Mai Bhago, who had suffered serious injury in the battle.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Mai Bhago stayed with Guru Gobind Singh at Talwandi Sabo. She may have adopted the garb of a Nihang. When the Guru went to Hazur Sahib she became one of ten other bodyguards of the Guru arming herself with a large lance (weighing about 102 pounds) and musket and did so in male attire.


title: Mai Bhago

text: After the death of Guru Gobind Singh Ji at Nanded in 1708, Mai Bhag Kaur retired further south. She settled down at Janwada, 11 km from Bidar in Karnataka, setting up her "Dera" where she immersed in meditation and taught "Gurmat" (The Guru's way) living a long life. Her hut in Janwada has now been converted into a place of worship and learning, Gurdwara Tap Asthan Mai Bhago. At Nanded, too, a hall within the compound of Takht Sachkhand Sri Hazur Sahib marking the site of her former residence is known as Bunga Mai Bhago.


title: Mai Bhago

text: Mohan Singh, "Jathedar" of Hazur Sahib, in 1788 built a "Bunga" (war tower) in the memory of Mai Bhag Kaur.


title: Bowman's capsule

text: Bowman's capsule (or the Bowman capsule, capsula glomeruli, or glomerular capsule) is a cup-like sac at the beginning of the tubular component of a nephron in the mammalian kidney that performs the first step in the filtration of blood to form urine. A glomerulus is enclosed in the sac. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are collected in the Bowman's capsule.


title: Bowman's capsule

text: The process of filtration of the blood in the Bowman's capsule is ultrafiltration (or glomerular filtration), and the normal rate of filtration is 125 ml/min, equivalent to 80 times the daily blood volume. It is a major site for blood filtration (including Glomerulus)


title: Bowman's capsule

text: Any proteins under roughly 30 kilodaltons can pass freely through the membrane, although there is some extra hindrance for negatively charged molecules due to the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytes.


title: Bowman's capsule

text: Any small molecules such as water, glucose, salt (NaCl), amino acids, and urea pass freely into Bowman's space, but cells, platelets and large proteins do not.


title: Bowman's capsule

text: As a result, the filtrate leaving the Bowman's capsule is very similar to blood plasma (filtrate or glomerular filtrate is composed of blood plasma minus plasma protein i.e. it contains all the components of blood plasma except the proteins) in composition as it passes into the proximal convoluted tubule.


title: Bowman's capsule

text: A number of diseases can result in various problems within the glomerulus. Examples include acute proliferative (endocapillary) glomerulonephritis, mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis, mesangiocapillary (membranoproliferative) glomerulonephritis, acute crescentic glomerulonephritis, focal segmental glomerulonephritis, and diabetic glomerulosclerosis.


title: Bowman's capsule

text: Bowman's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman (1816–1892), a British surgeon and anatomist. However, thorough microscopical anatomy of kidney including the nephronic capsule was first described by Ukrainian surgeon and anatomist from the Russian Empire, Prof. (1748–1795), in his 1782 doctoral thesis "De structura renum" ("About Kidney Structure", in Latin); thus, much prior to Bowman.


title: Bowman's capsule

text: Together with the glomerulus it is known as a renal corpuscle, or a Malpighian corpuscle, named after Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694), an Italian physician and biologist. This name is not used widely anymore, probably to avoid confusion with Malpighian bodies of the spleen.


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: Easy Money is a 1983 American comedy film starring Rodney Dangerfield, Joe Pesci, Geraldine Fitzgerald, Candice Azzara, and Jennifer Jason Leigh. It was directed by James Signorelli and written by Dangerfield, Michael Endler, P. J. O'Rourke and Dennis Blair. The original music score was composed by Laurence Rosenthal. Billy Joel performed the theme song "Easy Money" from his album "An Innocent Man".


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: Montgomery "Monty" Capuletti is a hard-living, heavy-drinking, pot-smoking, gambling family man who makes his living as a baby photographer in New Dorp, Staten Island. He loves his wife Rose but has a very tense relationship with his wealthy, snobbish mother-in-law, Mrs. Monahan, who runs a successful department store chain and hates the way Monty acts and lives. There is an added ethnic rivalry between Monty and his wife's family, as he is Italian and they are Irish.


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: The irresponsible Monty cannot even pick up a wedding cake for his engaged daughter Allison without fouling up. He and his best friend Nicholas 'Nicky' Cerone are smoking marijuana while driving, and an accident destroys the cake. Allison's wedding to Julio goes off without a hitch, at least until the wedding night.


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: After Mrs. Monahan dies unexpectedly, his family is in for an inheritance. Attorney Scrappleton reveals that Mrs. Monahan left a stipulation in her will that if Monty is able to curb his vices for a year by going on a diet and giving up drugs and gambling, he will receive $10 million. If not, the family gets nothing. Monty's gambling and drinking buddies are also interested in whether or not Monty can really give up everything and bet whether or not he will make it.


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: Monty and Nicky go to the mother-in-law's department store and find awkward fashions, catering to a clientele which clearly do not include the likes of Nicky and Monty. Nicky argues that it may not be worth it to Monty if this is the kind of atmosphere he will be exposed to, but Monty points out he must tough it out to provide for his wife and daughters, not just him. Meanwhile, Mrs. Monahan's scheming nephew Clive Barlow does his best to undermine Monty's resolve so the money and department store can instead be left to him.


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: Monty ultimately reforms. When the entire year is up, he and the family celebrate aboard a boat. To his chagrin though, Mrs. Monahan turns up. She had faked her own death simply to persuade her slovenly son-in-law to straighten up. Ultimately though, she gives the money to Monty on the basis he upheld her stipulation. Now rich, Monty and his family live in a mansion. Still in control, Mrs Monahan denies Monty dessert and coffee then commands a beer she found in the refrigerator be thrown out. Monty gleefully agrees to each action then says he's heading out for a walk. Mrs. Monahan gloats about her actions and that she finally has Monty under control to her daughter's chagrin. However, Monty has actually proceeded to a hideaway under the house to join Nicky and his friends for pizza, poker, and beer.


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: "Easy Money" opened theatrically on August 19, 1983 and earned $5,844,974 in its opening weekend, ranking number one at the domestic box office, toppling the prior three-week #1 run of "National Lampoon's Vacation". By the end of its run, the film grossed $29,309,766.


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 64% approval rating based on 11 reviews. Writing in the "Chicago Tribune", critic Gene Siskel gave the film three stars out of four. He wrote that "the big discovery in the comedy 'Easy Money' is that Rodney Dangerfield, unlike most stand-up comics, does not need dialogue to be funny. He is funny just standing still--or his version of standing still, which includes nervous twitching, profuse sweating, pained expressions and rolling of the eyes." Siskel also called "Easy Money" "a film that's easy to like" and also praised Pesci's performance, calling him "the unsung hero of 'Easy Money,' an actor whose very appearance gives this little film a lot of class."


title: Easy Money (1983 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a mixed rating, 2.5 stars out of 4. While Dangerfield had many funny scenes, Ebert felt the film was poorly-edited and suffered by blunting the "cynical and hard-edged" elements of Dangerfield's stage persona in an attempt to make him more likable.


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai () is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an. It is the highest point in Shandong province, China. The tallest peak is the "Jade Emperor Peak" (), which is commonly reported as being tall.


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai is known as the eastern mountain of the Sacred Mountains of China. It is associated with sunrise, birth, and renewal, and is often regarded the foremost of the five. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and served as one of the most important ceremonial centers of China during large portions of this period. Because of its sacred importance and dramatic landscape, it was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It meets 7 of the 10 evaluation standards of World Heritage, and is listed as a World Heritage site that meets the most standards, along with the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area in Australia.


title: Mount Tai

text: An earthquake or thunderstorm occurred in Mount Tai in 1831 BC or 1652 BC, also known as Mount Tai earthquake. This event was first recorded in the "Bamboo Annals", and at present, it is recognized by most scholars as the first recorded earthquake in Chinese history.


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai is located in western Shandong, just north of the city of Tai'an and to the south of the provincial capital Jinan. It extends from above sea level and covers an area of at its base. The Jade Emperor Peak, which rises } above sea level, is located at 36° 16′N and 117° 6′E.


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai was formed in the middle of the Cenozoic about 30 million years ago. The stratum of Mount Tai is ancient, mainly composed of several ancient rocks such as mixed rock, mixed granite and various gneiss.


title: Mount Tai

text: The Luxi region (including Mount Tai) used to be a huge subsiding belt or sea canal. The orogeny made the rock layers on the subsidence zone folded and uplifted into ancient land, forming a huge mountain system, which has experienced 2 billion years of weathering and denudation, and the terrain has gradually become flat. About 600 million years ago, Mount Tai sank into the sea again. After more than 100 million years, the entire area rose to land again, and the ancient Mount Tai uplifted into a relatively low barren hill. In the late Mesozoic period about 100 million years ago, due to the extrusion and subduction of the Pacific plate to the Eurasian Plate,the Taishan stratum experienced extensive folds and fractures under the influence of the Yanshanian. During the crustal movement above, Mount Tai was rapidly uplifted. In the mid-Cenozoic period about 30 million years ago, the outline of Mount Tai was basically formed today.


title: Mount Tai

text: Due to its height, Mount Tai also has a vertical climate change. The lower part of the mountain is a warm temperate zone and the top of the mountain is a medium temperate zone. The mountain is cloudy and foggy, with an average annual precipitation of 1132mm, while the surrounding area receives only 750mm. Taishan scattering coverage rate reaches 80%. On the foothills, deciduous forests, broad-leaved coniferous mixed forests, Coniferous forest, alpine shrubs and grass can be seen in sequence. The vertical boundaries of the forest belts are distinct and the vegetation landscapes are different. There are 989 species of seed plants in 144 families, including 433 species of woody plants in 72 families, 556 species of herbaceous plants in 72 families, and 462 species of medicinal plants in 111 families.


title: Mount Tai

text: Traces of human presence at Mount Tai date back to the Paleolithic period. Evidence of human settlement of the area can be proven from the neolithic period onwards. During this time, two cultures had emerged near the mountain, the Dawenkou culture to the south and the Longshan culture to the north.


title: Mount Tai

text: During the Xia Dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) the mountain was known as Mount Dai () and lay within the borders of Qingzhou, one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China.


title: Mount Tai

text: Religious worship of Mount Tai has a tradition dating back 3,000 years, from the time of the Shang (c. 1600–1046 BC) to the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Over time, this worship evolved into the Feng and Shan sacrifices. The sacrifices were an official imperial rite and Mount Tai became one of the principal places where the emperor would carry out the sacrifices to pay homage to heaven (on the summit) and earth (at the foot of the mountain) in the Feng () and Shan () sacrifices respectively. The two sacrifices are often referred to together as the Fengshan sacrifices (). Carving of an inscription as part of the sacrifices marked the attainment of the "great peace".


title: Mount Tai

text: By the time of the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC) sacrifices at Mount Tai had become highly ritualized ceremonies in which a local feudal lord would travel there to make sacrifices of food and jade ritual items. These would then be arranged in a ritually correct pattern before being buried on the mountain. In the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC) the vassal states of Qi and Lu bordered Mount Tai to the north and south respectively, from where their feudal lords both made independent sacrifices on Mount Tai. According to Zhou ritual belief, the spirit of Mount Tai would only accept sacrifices offered by a feudal lord, leading Confucius (in his "Analects" 3.6) to criticize the ministers who offered state sacrifices here after usurping power. In the ensuing Warring States period (475–221 BC), to protect itself against invasion, the State of Qi erected a -long wall, the ruins of which are still present today. The name "Tai'an" of the neighboring city is attributed to the saying "If Mount Tai is stable, so is the entire country" (both characters of "Tai'an", "泰" and "安", have the independent meaning of "peace").


title: Mount Tai

text: In 219 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China, held a ceremony on the summit and proclaimed the unity of his empire in a well-known inscription. During the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), the Feng and Shan sacrifices were considered the highest of all sacrifices.


title: Mount Tai

text: The emperors of the past dynasties went to Mount Tai to worship the heavens and tell the earth. Confucian Buddhism, preaching, and experience, and cultural figures climbed the mountain, leaving behind a dazzling array of stone inscriptions, cliffs, and couplet stone carvings. The cliff carvings on Mount Tai are also the most famous mountains. There are more than 1,800 stone inscriptions in Mount Tai, including more than 800 steles and 1,000 cliff stone inscriptions, distributed in 157 Daimiao, 215 at Dailu, 576 at Shantou East Road, 258 at Daiding, more than 80 at Daixi, and Daiyin 44 locations, more than 400 locations in Lingyan Temple, more than 100 locations in Shentong Temple. It mainly includes 5 types of sacrificial ceremonies of the emperors of the past dynasties, the creation and restoration of temples, the tomb inscriptions of the stone scriptures, the poems of chants, the scenery and the couplets, most of which are natural stone inscriptions.


title: Mount Tai

text: Japan, India, the Persian court in exile, Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, the Turks, Khotan, the Khmer, and the Umayyad Caliphate all had representatives attending the Feng and Shan sacrifices held by Emperor Gaozong of Tang in 666 at Mount Tai.


title: Mount Tai

text: In 2003, Mount Tai attracted around six million visitors. A renovation project was completed in late October 2005, which aimed at restoring cultural relics and renovating damaged buildings of cultural significance. Widely known for its special ceremonies and sacrifices, Mount Tai has seen visits by many poets and literary scholars who have traveled there to gain inspiration. There are grandiose temples, many stone inscriptions and stone tablets with the mountain playing an important role in the development of both Buddhism and Taoism.


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai is a tilted fault-block mountain with height increasing from the north to the south. It is the oldest example of a paleo-metamorphic formation from the Cambrian Period in eastern China. Known as the "Taishan Complex", this formation contains magnetized, metamorphic, and sedimentary rock as well as intrusions of other origins during the Archean Era. The uplift of the region started in the Proterozoic Era; by the end of the Proterozoic, it had become part of the continent.


title: Mount Tai

text: Besides the Jade Emperor Peak, other distinctive rock formations are the "Heaven Candle Peak", the "Fan Cliff", and the "Rear Rock Basin".


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai lies in the zone of oriental deciduous forest; about 80% of its area is covered with vegetation. The flora is known to comprise almost 1,000 species. Some of the trees in the area are very old and have cultural significance, such as the "Han Dynasty Cypresses", which were planted by the Emperor Wu Di, the "Tang Chinese Scholartree" (about 1,300 years old), the "Welcoming-Guest Pine" (500 years old) and the "Fifth-Rank Pine", which was named originally by the Emperor Qin Shi Huang, but was replanted about 250 years ago.


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai rises abruptly from the vast plain of central Shandong, and is naturally endowed with many scenic sites. Geologically, it is a tilted fault-block mountain, higher to the south than north, and is the oldest and most important example of the paleo-metamorphic system representative of the Cambrian Period in eastern China. Referred to as the Taishan Complex, it comprises magnetized, metamorphic, sedimentary rock and an intrusive mass of various origins that were formed in the Archean Era 1700-2000 million years ago. Subsequently, in the Proterozoic Era, the Taishan region began to rise, becoming part of the continent by the end of the era. Uplift continued until the middle of the Cenozoic Era. The gneiss which emerged in the Taishan region is the foundation for all of North China. Cambrian strata, fully emerged in the north, are rich in fossils. Six streams flow from the summit, their water renowned for its extremely low mineral content, slight acidity (pH = 6.3) and relatively high oxygen content (6.4 milligrams per liter (mg/L)).


title: Mount Tai

text: The area falls within the warm temperate climatic zone. Meteorological data is not available. The regular climate is molly to -2 degrees Celsius.


title: Mount Tai

text: Vegetation covers 79.9% of the area, which is densely wooded, but information about its composition is lacking. The flora is diverse and known to comprise 989 species, of which 433 species are woody and the rest herbaceous. Medicinal plants total 462 species and include multiflower knotweed, Taishan ginseng, Chinese gromwell and sealwort, which are renowned throughout the country. Some trees are very old and famous, notably the "Han Dynasty Cypresses" (planted 2,100 years ago by Emperor Wu Di of the Han Dynasty), 'Welcoming Guest Pine' (500 years old) and 'Fifth Rank Pine' (named by Emperor Qin Shi Huang of the Qin Dynasty).


title: Mount Tai

text: There are over 200 species of animals in addition to 122 species of birds, but precise details are lacking. Large-scaled fish "Varicorhinus macrolepis" is found in running water at 300–800 m.


title: Mount Tai

text: Mount Tai is of key importance in Chinese religion, being the eastern one of the five Sacred Mountains of China. According to historical records, Mount Tai became a sacred place visited by emperors to offer sacrifices and meditate in the Zhou Dynasty before 1000 BC. A total of 72 emperors were recorded as visiting it. Writers also came to acquire inspiration, to compose poems, write essays, paint and take pictures. Hence, a great many cultural relics were left on the mountain.


title: Mount Tai

text: The Great Deity of Mount Tai () is the supreme god of Mount Tai. According to one mythological tradition, he is a descendant of Pangu. According to other theologies, he is the eastern one of the Five Manifestations of the Highest Deity ("Wufang Shangdi").


title: Mount Tai

text: Bixia Yuanjun (), literally the "Goddess of the Blue Dawn", also known as the "Heavenly Immortal Lady of Jade" () or the "Lady of Mount Tai" (). According to some mythological accounts, she is the daughter or the consort of the Great Deity of Mount Tai. Statues of Bixia Yuanjun often depict her holding a tablet with the Big Dipper as a symbol of her authority.


title: Mount Tai

text: Yanguang Niangniang () is venerated as goddess of eyesight and often portrayed as an attendant to Bixia Yuanjun.


title: Mount Tai

text: Songzi Niangniang () is seen as a goddess of fertility, like Yanguang Nainai, she is often portrayed as an attendant to Bixia Yuanjun.


title: Mount Tai

text: Shi Gandang () is a spirit sent down from Mount Tai by Bixia Yuanjun to protect ordinary people from evil spirits. As part of cultural tradition, there will also often be Taishan Shi Gandang stones set up near buildings and other places, in order to protect those place from evil spirits. These are not to be confused with spirit tablets.


title: Mount Tai

text: The Temple of the God of Mount Tai, known as the "Dai Temple" (), is the largest and most complete ancient building complex in the area. It is located at the foot of Mount Tai in the city of Tai'an and covers an area of 96,000 square meters. The temple was first built during the Qin Dynasty. Since the time of the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), its design has been a replica of the imperial palace, which makes it one out of three extant structures in China with the features of an imperial palace (the other two are the Forbidden City and the Confucius Temple in Qufu). The temple has five major halls and many small buildings. The centerpiece is the "Palace of Heavenly Blessings" (Tian Kuang), built in 1008, during the reign of the last Northern Song Emperor Huizong. The hall houses the mural painting "The God of Mount Tai Making a Journey", dated to the year 1009. The mural extends around the eastern, western and northern walls of the hall and is high and long. The theme of the painting is an inspection tour by the god. Next to the Palace of Heavenly Blessings stand the Yaocan Pavilion and the entrance archway as well as the Bronze Pavilion in the northeast corner. The Dai Temple is surrounded by 2,100‑year‑old cypresses that date back to the Han Dynasty. The oldest surviving stair may be the 6,000 granite steps to the top of the mountain.


title: Mount Tai

text: The site contains a number of well-preserved steles from the Huizong reign, some of which are mounted on "bixi" tortoises. There is a much later, Qianlong era "bixi"-mounted stele as well.


title: Mount Tai

text: The "Shrine of the Blue Dawn" (), near the top of the mountain is another grand building complex, a special combination of metal components, wood, and bricks and stone structures. It is dedicated to the goddess Bixia (Blue Dawn). From the Taishan Temple to the Blue Dawn Temple there are numerous stone tablets and inscriptions and ancient buildings on the way. Visitors derive much pleasure from climbing Mount Taishan. From the red gate at the foot of the mountain to the South Heaven Gate at the top are some 6,660 stone steps, which wind their way up the mountain slopes, each step offering a different view.


title: Mount Tai

text: The "Shibapan" () means 18 levels stairs, which is the most advantageous part of stairs in Mount Tai. A total of 1,827 stone steps, is one of the main signs Mount Tai. People always say: "Mount Tai of the majestic, all in Shibapan, Mount Tai of the sublime, all in the climb in!" Shibapan has three parts, the "Slow Eighteens"(), the "Hard Eighteens"(), and the "No slow no hard Eighteens" (). The "Slow Eighteens" means this period is easier to climb, and the "Hard Eighteens" means it is harder to climb, which is interesting.


title: Mount Tai

text: A flight of 7,200 total steps (including inner temple steps), with 6,293 Official Mountain Walkway Steps, lead up the East Peak of Mount Tai, along its course, there are 11 gates, 14 archways, 14 kiosks, and four pavilions.


title: Mount Tai

text: In total, there are 22 temples, 97 ruins, 819 stone tablets, and 1,018 cliff-side and stone inscriptions located on Mount Tai. These include a Temple of the Jade King (), a Temple of the Blue Deity (), a Temple of Confucius (), a Temple of Doumu () and the Puzhao Buddhist Temple ().


title: Mount Tai

text: Among the tablets and inscriptions on the top of Mount Tai, the inscription that declares Mount Tai the "Most Revered of the Five Sacred Mountains" () on the "Sun Viewing Peak" () is particularly renown. It was written by a member of the Aisin Gioro clan () in 1907 and is featured on the reverse side of the five yuan bill of the 5th series renminbi banknotes and page 26 of PRC biometric passport. Another inscription marks the "Lu-Viewing Platform" () from which Confucius took in the view over his home state of Lu and then pronounced "The world is small".


title: Mount Tai

text: The Wordless Stela () stands in front of the Jade Emperor Temple. Legend has it that the emperor who commissioned the stela was dissatisfied with the planned inscription and decided to leave it blank instead.


title: Mount Tai

text: Visitors can reach the peak of Mount Tai via a bus which terminates at the "Midway Gate to Heaven", from there a cable car connects to the summit. Covering the same distance on foot takes from two and a half to six hours. The supplies for the many vendors along the road to the summit are carried up by porters either from the Midway Gate to Heaven or all the way up from the foot of the mountain.


title: Mount Tai

text: To climb up the mountain, one can take one of two routes. The more popular east route starts from Taishan Arch. On the way up the 7,200 stone steps, the climber first passes the Ten Thousand Immortals Tower (Wanxianlou), Arhat Cliff (Luohanya), and Palace to Goddess Dou Mu (Doumugong). The climbing from the "First Gate to Heaven" (yi1 tian1 men2), the main entrance bordering on Tai'an town, up the entire mountain can take two and a half hours for the sprinting hiker to six hours for the leisure pace. Reaching the "Midway Gate to Heaven" from "First Gate to Heaven" is one hour at a sprint up to two and a half hours leisurely. To the northeast of the Palace to Goddess Dou Mu is Sutra Rock Valley in which the Buddhist Diamond Sutra was cut in characters measuring fifty centimeters across believed to be inscribed in the Northern Wei Dynasty. The west route, taken by fewer tourists, is more scenic, but has less cultural heritage.


title: Adesua Etomi

text: Tolulope Adesua Etomi-Wellington (born 22 February 1988), professionally known as Adesua Etomi is a Nigerian actress. In 2014, she starred in her first feature film "Knocking On Heaven's Door". She won the Best Actress in a Drama award at the 2016 Africa Magic Viewers Choice Awards for her role in the 2015 romantic drama film "Falling".


title: Adesua Etomi

text: Tolulope Adesua Etomi was born in Owerri, Imo State, several major sources claims her birthdate is 22 February 1988. However, in an interview published in January 2016, Etomi told "Pulse Nigeria" she was 29 years old. Furthermore, "Answers Africa" published an article in March 2016 stating that she was 30 years old. Her father is a soldier of Esan descent and her mother is an engineer of Yoruba descent. She is the youngest of three siblings. Etomi attended Corona School in Victoria Island, Lagos, where she joined the drama club at the age of seven. Thereafter, she attended Queen's College, Lagos before moving to the United Kingdom at the age of 13. Etomi later obtained a diploma in "physical theatre, musical theatre and performing arts" from City College Coventry in 2004. After completing these courses in 2006 with triple distinctions, she studied drama and performance at the University of Wolverhampton, graduating with first-class honours.


title: Adesua Etomi

text: Etomi's film credits include "The Arbitration", "The Wedding Party", and "Falling". Her performance in "Falling" earned her the 2016 Africa Magic Viewers Choice Award for Best Actress in a Drama. Other notable films she has appeared in include "A Soldier's Story" (2015), "Out of Luck" (20,15), and "Couple of Days" (2016). Etomi played Shiela in the fourth and fifth seasons of "Shuga", a television soap opera about HIV/AIDS prevention. Etomi began starring as Amaka Obiora, an undercover police officer, in Yemisi Wada's crime series "LasGidi Cops", which debuted in June 2016 on television. She was also featured on Vogue's list of 14 global superstars. In February 2022, she released her first single titled ‘So Natural’.


title: Adesua Etomi

text: Etomi got engaged to Banky W in February 2017. The couple held their traditional marriage on 19 November, court wedding on 20 November and white wedding on 25 November 2017; the latter ceremony was held in Cape Town, South Africa. In early January 2021, Adesua and Banky W had a son named Hazaiah Wellington.


title: Adesua Etomi

text: On 5 April 2021, Adesua and Banky W shared the story of their marriage and their struggles with conception and child hearing titled 'Final Say Faith'. This story was shared in the Waterbrook church.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: New Ireland (Tok Pisin: "Niu Ailan") or Latangai, is a large island in Papua New Guinea, approximately in area with 120,000 people. It is named after the island of Ireland. It is the largest island of New Ireland Province, lying northeast of the island of New Britain. Both islands are part of the Bismarck Archipelago, named after Otto von Bismarck, and they are separated by Saint George's Channel.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: The administrative centre of the island and of New Ireland province is the town of Kavieng located at the northern end of the island. While the island was part of German New Guinea, it was named Neumecklenburg ("New Mecklenburg").


title: New Ireland (island)

text: The island is part of the Bismarck Archipelago and is often described as having the shape of a musket. New Ireland is surrounded by the Bismarck Sea in the southwest and by the Pacific Ocean in the northeast.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: For much of its in length, the island's width varies between less than to , yet the central mountainous spine is very steep and rugged. The highest peak is Mount Taron in the Hans Meyer Range (). Other mountain ranges are Tirpitz, Schleinitz, Verron and Rossel. The island lies between two and five degrees south of the equator. The original land cover was primarily dense rainforest.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: The first inhabitants of the Bismarck Archipelago arrived around 33,000 years ago after sailing from what is now Papua New Guinea. Later arrivals included the Lapita people approximately 3,000 years ago. Three distinct cultural practices are characteristic of the native people of New Ireland: Kabai, Malagan and Tubuan.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: In 1616 the Dutch sailors Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten were the first Europeans to set foot on the island. Louis Antoine de Bougainville anchored here on 6 July 1768, eleven months after Philip Carteret.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: Whaling ships often called at the island in the 19th century, for water, wood and provisions. The first recorded whaler to visit was the "Resource" in 1799. Islanders sometimes served as crewmen on these vessels. The last known whaling visitor was the "Belvedere" in 1884.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: In the 1870s and 1880s, the Marquis de Rays, a French nobleman, attempted to establish a French colony on the island called New France. He sent four ill-fated expeditions to the island, the most famous of which caused the death of 123 settlers.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: From 1885 to 1914 New Ireland was a part of German New Guinea and bore the name "Neumecklenburg". Germans managed several highly profitable copra plantations and built a road to transport the goods. This road is currently in service and is named the Boluminski Highway after the German administrator of German New Guinea, Franz Boluminski. After World War I, Neumecklenburg was renamed New Ireland and was controlled by Australia under a League of Nations mandate. In January 1942, during World War II, the island was captured by Japanese forces and was under their control.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: The island is part of two ecoregions. The New Britain-New Ireland lowland rain forests extend from sea level to 1000 meters elevation. The New Britain-New Ireland montane rain forests cover the mountains of New Ireland above 1000 meters elevation.


title: New Ireland (island)

text: Widespread deforestation and degradation of lowland rainforest is an issue on New Ireland and the other eastern islands of Papua New Guinea (New Britain, Bougainville Island) as well as on Papua New Guinea mainland. Nearly 60% of their forests are accessible to logging, and by 2002, 63% of the accessible forests had been deforested or degraded.


title: Cuterebra

text: The genus name "Cuterebra" is a blend of the Latin words "cutis" : skin and "terebra" : borer with apparent shortening of expected "Cutiterebra" to "Cuterebra".


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: Svitlana Serhiivna Loboda (; born 18 October 1982), also known by the stage name LOBODA, is a Ukrainian singer and composer. Loboda represented Ukraine in the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 and finished in 12th place with 76 points.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: As a young girl, Loboda studied the piano, conducting, variety and jazz vocal, and grew to have the experience of being a composer, a leading role actress in a musical, a TV host, a designer, a photographer, a singer in Ukraine's, Russia's and CIS most popular girl band and finally as a solo artist. From an early age Loboda showed a tendency for music and acting, making home musicals for her parents and relatives on family holidays. Therefore, it was not a difficult decision for her mother which special courses to enrol her daughter on to study. In a specialized music school, Loboda studied the piano and at the same time mastered the art of singing and conducting.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: Having finished music school, Loboda continued with her music studies and entered the department of variety and jazz singing at the Kyiv Variety And Circus Academy. It was at this time that she became a member of the band "Cappuccino". In 2003 auditioned for the first ever Ukrainian professional musical "The Equator", where she received the leading role of "Mirana". On 28 December 2003, she started a new band – "Catch". Svetlana was the creator of the repertoire and stage costumes for the band. That was her first professional experience as a composer and designer.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: In 2004, Loboda auditioned for the casting for "VIA Gra" band, well known in Eastern Europe also having successful gigs in Japan. (VIA Gra was known as "Nu Virgos" outside Ukraine.) She beat nearly 500 rivals and became a new soloist of VIA Gra. Svetlana's first appearance as a member of the band was in a performance in the contest show "Star Factory" (the Ukrainian version of "Star Academy").


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: At the end of November 2004, Loboda together with Oleksandr Shyrkov and their company "S&A;music group Ltd" started her solo career and shot a music video "Cherno-Belaya Zima" (Black-and-white Winter) and within a year, in November 2005, she released her début album "Ty Ne Zabudesh" (You Won't Forget).


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: In 2005, Loboda's clips have got airplay in Russia. It began with the city of Vladivostok, thanks to the fact that the company "S&A music group Ltd" signed an agreement with Koval Evgeniy, the representative of television channel "TVC in Vladivostok". Further in 2008 clips have been shown of channel "RU.TV".


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: Loboda's fourth single and video "Cherny Angel" (Black Angel) with Nadezhda Granovskaja (Nadezhda Meyher), Svetlana's close friend and – incidentally – ex-member of "VIA Gra". In 2006, she worked as the presenter of the TV program "ShowMania" on the air of all-Ukrainian TV channel "Novyi Kanal" and in 2007 became the host of "Miss CIS" on "TET" TV channel. At the same time, the singer started a tourist agency of her own named "Happy Vacations". In October 2007, Loboda launched an exhibition of her own photo art-works dedicated to her trip to India.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: In Spring 2008, she released the album "Ne Macho" ("Not macho"). April 2008 saw the launch of her own fashion line wearing the name "F*ck the macho". The seemingly scandalous idea became a popular trend and a stylish concept, expressing social protest against false glamorous trends and stereotypes. Later on, in Autumn 2008, she tried her hand as the script writer for the music video "Za chto" ("For what"). In December 2008 the video appeared on the Russian music channel MUZ TV. At the end of 2008 Loboda together with DJ Lutique produced a new club track "By your side".


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: In Spring 2009 "Be My Valentine" was presented on Ukraine's national pre-selection by Loboda in co-operation with "S&A;Music Group Ltd." and her partner Oleksandr Shyrkov.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: On 8 March 2009, she received the highest points from both the viewers and professional jury and won the Ukrainian national final for the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow, Russia.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: On 18 March 2009, Svetlana Loboda presented the clip Be My Valentine (Anti-crisis girl!) in Vladivostok. Viewers of the television channel "PERSON (TVC)" were the first to see a new masterpiece of the scandalous Ukrainian singer in the program "SMS the Chat".


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: Loboda competed in the second semi-final there and reached the final. Prior to the event, Loboda had spoken confidently of her chances of success.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: Loboda stated that she wished to use her participation in the contest as a platform to speak out against domestic violence. She started the social initiative "No Family Crimes" and appeared in photographs with wounds and scars to highlight the issue of violence against women.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: The cog system, or as Loboda refers to it "The Hell Machine" she danced on has been taken back to Ukraine. Svetlana has said that she did not want it to go to waste and it is apparently in her father's garage. "The pets play on it" she stated.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: Loboda had expressed her interest in representing Ukraine at the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 which took place in Norway.


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: Loboda released her solo single "Жить легко" (Live easy) in January 2010, "Сердце бьётся" (Heart Is Beating...) with Max Barskih in spring, and "Revolution" in October. She described "Revolution" as "a powerful song, with a powerful message. It was very emotional to make."


title: Svetlana Loboda

text: At the VIVA award ceremony, Loboda presented the single "Спасибо", dedicated to her daughter. The video for this song was shot in two stages: the first part of the shooting took place when the singer was 9 months pregnant, and the second took place after the birth. In the summer of 2011, the premiere of the song “In the World” took place on the stage of the Crimea Music Fest. Later Loboda presented the clip. The song lasted for several months on the first line of the country's top charts.


title: Aunt

text: An aunt is a woman who is a sibling of a parent or married to a sibling of a parent. Aunts who are related by birth are second-degree relatives. Known alternate terms include auntie or aunty. Children in other cultures and families may refer to the cousins of their parents as aunt or uncle due to the age and generation gap. The word comes from via Old French "ante" and is a family relationship within an extended or immediate family.


title: Aunt

text: The male counterpart of an aunt is an uncle, and the reciprocal relationship is that of a nephew or niece.


title: Aunt

text: Aunts by birth (sister of a parent) are related to their nieces and nephews by 25%. As half-aunts are related through half-sisters, they are related by 12.5% to their nieces and nephews. Non-consanguineous aunts (female spouse of a relative) are not genetically related to their nieces and nephews.


title: Aunt

text: In some cultures, such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia, respected senior members of the community, often also referred to as Elders, are addressed as "uncle" (for men) and "aunt" for women, as a mark of seniority and respect, whether related or not, such as Aunty Kathy Mills.


title: Aunt

text: In several cultures, no single inclusive term describing both a person's kinship to their parental female sibling or parental female in-law exists. Instead, there are specific terms describing a person's kinship to their mother's female sibling, and a person's kinship to their father's female sibling, per the following table:


title: Aunt

text: Aunts in popular culture have not always been portrayed as positive roles. Childless aunts are often subjected to othering in popular culture and presented as exotic or as having a second-best role, with motherhood preferred.


title: PriceSmart

text: PriceSmart, Inc. (NASDAQ: PSMT) is an operator of membership warehouse clubs in Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. PriceSmart was founded by Sol and Robert Price, founders of The Price Club; Robert Price is chairman of the board.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho () is the most populous and only city in Sandoval County, part of the expansive Albuquerque metropolitan area, in the U.S. state of New Mexico. A small portion of the city extends into northern Bernalillo County.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: It is the third-largest city in New Mexico, and one of the most rapidly growing. As of the 2010 census, Rio Rancho had a population of 87,521. The name "Rio Rancho" derives from "Los Ranchos", the Spanish colonial ranches established along the Rio Grande in the Albuquerque Basin, and throughout historic Nuevo México. There were large ranches also in neighboring Corrales. Since the late 20th century, it has developed as a suburb of Albuquerque.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: The great majority of the territory of Rio Rancho was originally part of the Town of Alameda Grant, which was founded by Spanish colonial settlers in 1710. It was acquired by the United States in 1848, after it defeated Mexico in the Mexican-American War. (Mexico had been independent of Spain since 1821.) The ranches were used for cattle and sheep.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: By the early 20th century, much of the land grant had been divided and sold to land investment companies. Its proximity to the city of Albuquerque made it a prime area for suburban development in the post-World War II period. In 1961 Amrep Corporation purchased and created a housing development called "Rio Rancho Estates". The first families moved into this development in the early 1960s.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Amrep contracted with Ezio Valentini, one of the original developers of Cape Coral, Florida, to design and implement a marketing plan to encourage land sales. He organized dinner-parties for prospective customers in northern states through offices in 14 states. Migrants were attracted to this area, and the population grew ten-fold between 1970 and 1980. The City of Rio Rancho was incorporated in 1981. The opening of a large Intel Corporation plant in 1981 generated numerous jobs and had positive economic effects for the city.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Since the 1990s, Rio Rancho has taken steps to become more independent from neighboring Albuquerque. It established a separate public unified school district and library system. It is seeking to attract more businesses to the area, so that residents might live and work here.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In the early 21st century, the city worked to create a center: the Downtown City Centre development included a new city hall, a new University of New Mexico West and Central New Mexico Community College campus, and the Santa Ana Star Center. The sports and live event arena opened in October 2006. City Hall opened in September 2007.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Of 18,995 households, 40.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.4% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.7% were not families; 20.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.14.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In the city, the population was distributed as 29.2% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.9 males.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: The median income for city was $47,169, and for a family was $52,233. Males had a median income of $39,162 versus $27,385 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,322. About 3.7% of families and 5.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.1% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho is located at 35°17'10" North, 106°40'14" West (35.286185, -106.670660). It lies in the Albuquerque Basin to the west of the Rio Grande, which is a boundary on the northeast corner of the city. An escarpment lies to the west of the city limit.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho is bordered by Albuquerque to the south, the Santa Ana Pueblo to the north, with the town of Bernalillo and village of Corrales to the east.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.31%, is covered by water.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho is in an arid climate due to its location in the rain shadow of the Sandia Mountains to the east and the Continental Divide to the west. Rio Rancho receives 8.90 inches of precipitation annually on average. The western portion of the city receives slightly more rain and snowfall due to its higher elevation than that of the more densely developed eastern portion of Rio Rancho.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: The Intel Corporation is by far the largest employer in Rio Rancho. The services, retail, and government sectors are also major components of the local economy.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho is the site of Intel's Intel Fab 11X, one of the largest semiconductor fabrication plants in the world. The fully automated, $2 billion facility opened in 2002 and was the first Intel plant to manufacture 300 mm silicon wafers, which can hold almost twice as many chips as the standard 200 mm wafers. Fab 7, Intel's original Rio Rancho plant, closed in 2002, but is being converted into a test facility.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In 2005, Rio Rancho became the first U.S. city to offer citywide voice-over-WiFi (VoWiFi) service. Many residents complained that the service did not live up to their expectations.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Several call centers are located in Rio Rancho. Walmart opened in early summer of 2006 in Rio Rancho, and was a catalyst for related commercial retailers to locate nearby.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: An Albuquerque-based incubator and co-working space "FatPipe" opened a satellite office in Rio Rancho. It is intended to spur business innovation and startups within the city.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In 2010 the City Council passed an automatic annual increase in water rate, equivalent to 25% over a five-year period.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In the aftermath of the collapse of the 2008 housing bubble, foreclosure activity increased in the city. The economies of Sandoval, Bernalillo, and Valencia counties suffered markedly in the late 2000s recession.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: As of the late 2010s, housing had entirely recovered. A number of new housing developments were restarted. Real estate sales were robust in 2020 in many areas of Rio Rancho, driven by low interest rates and relatively low housing prices ($250,000 - $350,000 for most new construction).


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Mayor Gregory Hull ran at-large for mayor in 2014. He was re-elected for a second term in March 2018 and a third term in March 2022. City council members are elected from six single-member districts. The judge for the Municipal Court is also elected.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho is the site of the Sandoval County Municipal Courthouse. It serves as a hub for judicial affairs in the county.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Central New Mexico Community College also has one of its eight campuses in Rio Rancho's downtown area, within walking distance of the UNM campus.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho Public Schools serve students in most of Rio Rancho. Rio Rancho has two major public high schools:


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Portions of Rio Rancho in Sandoval County extend into the Jemez Valley Public Schools school district. Sections of Rio Rancho in most of Bernalillo County are zoned to Albuquerque Public Schools. A portion of the Rio Rancho Public School District extends into Bernalillo County.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In addition, Rio Rancho has two public charter schools called The ASK Academy and Cyber Academy, serving grades 6-12. They both focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho is home to the Albuquerque metro area's only oldies-format radio station, KDSK (AM). It moved into this market in March 2015 and licensed its newest FM signal, 92.9 FM, to Rio Rancho in April 2016. The station is named "Rio Rancho Radio". The station features Rio Rancho area events and airs a weekly talk/discussion show on Sunday mornings with the Mayor of Rio Rancho (now Greg Hull). The station signal, broadcast on three frequencies (92.7 FM, 93.7 FM, and 1240 AM), serves the entire Albuquerque metro area, and six counties in central and western New Mexico. Residents also have access to television and radio broadcasts from Albuquerque.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: The weekly "Rio Rancho Observer" is the local newspaper. Residents may also subscribe to the daily newspaper "Albuquerque Journal", which has a localized weekly version called "Rio West".


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho is served by a government-access television channel available only through the city's only cable television provider Cable ONE. This channel shows all of the government meetings multiple times.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Albuquerque's transit department, ABQ RIDE, operates a bus route (251 Albuquerque-Rio Rancho Rail Runner Connection) connecting Rio Rancho with the New Mexico Rail Runner Express station at Journal Center.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In late January 2011, ABQ RIDE extended two additional routes (96 Crosstown Commuter and 155 Coors Blvd), and introduced an additional route (551 Jefferson/Paseo Del Norte Express) into Rio Rancho. The northern terminus of these routes is at Southern Blvd and Unser Blvd.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: The Rio Metro Regional Transportation District operates Rio Transit, a door-to-door paratransit service for senior citizens 55 years of age and older, and disabled adults 18 years of age and older, for residents of Rio Rancho. The service is operated from the Meadowlark Senior Center, and provides service Monday-Friday from 7:30 am to 3:00 pm. Riders must register with the service prior to using it and reserve time slots well in advance.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Metro RTD also operates a commuter bus route serving the Enchanted Hills neighborhood in Rio Rancho. This service connects residents of Enchanted Hills to the US 550 New Mexico Rail Runner station and provides service during the morning and evening commutes. Rio Metro Bus connections are available at the US 550 Rail Runner station for Zia Pueblo, San Ysidro, Canon, and Jemez Springs. A Rio Metro commuter bus route provides service to and from the Cuba NM area, with a Park and Ride designated at Home Depot, which is located near the corner of NM 528, NM 550. Rio Metro's website and schedules may be viewed at: www.riometro.org


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Rio Rancho was home to the New Mexico Scorpions minor-league ice hockey team, which relocated from Albuquerque in 2006, until the team ceased operations in 2009. The Scorpions played at Santa Ana Star Center.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: In the spring of 2008, the Star Center became the home of the New Mexico Wildcats indoor football team. They lasted two seasons, folding at the conclusion of 2009.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Starting in fall of 2010, the Star Center was home to the New Mexico Thunderbirds of the NBA Development League and the New Mexico Mustangs of the North American Hockey League (NAHL). The Mustangs' NAHL membership was transferred to Richfield, Minnesota, in 2012. The New Mexico Thunderbirds announced in July 2011 that the team was sold to the Cleveland Cavaliers and will be moved to Canton, Ohio, for the upcoming season.


title: Rio Rancho, New Mexico

text: Since February 2012, Rio Rancho has been the location of the New Mexico Stars, a professional indoor football team. They play home games at the Santa Ana Star Center, with whom they signed a five-year contract.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Trypanosoma cruzi is a species of parasitic euglenoids. Among the protozoa, the trypanosomes characteristically bore tissue in another organism and feed on blood (primarily) and also lymph. This behaviour causes disease or the likelihood of disease that varies with the organism: Chagas disease in humans, dourine and surra in horses, and a brucellosis-like disease in cattle. Parasites need a host body and the haematophagous insect triatomine (descriptions "assassin bug", "cone-nose bug", and "kissing bug") is the major vector in accord with a mechanism of infection. The triatomine likes the nests of vertebrate animals for shelter, where it bites and sucks blood for food. Individual triatomines infected with protozoa from other contact with animals transmit trypanosomes when the triatomine deposits its faeces on the host's skin surface and then bites. Penetration of the infected faeces is further facilitated by the scratching of the bite area by the human or animal host.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: The "Trypanosoma cruzi" life cycle starts in an animal reservoir, usually mammals, wild or domestic, including humans. A triatomine bug serves as the vector. While taking a blood meal, it ingests "T. cruzi". In the triatomine bug ("Triatoma infestans") the parasite goes into the epimastigote stage, making it possible to reproduce. After reproducing through binary fission, the epimastigotes move onto the rectal cell wall, where they become infectious. Infectious "T. cruzi" are called metacyclic trypomastigotes. When the triatomine bug subsequently takes a blood meal from a host, it defecates - its waste containing "T. cruzi" propagation stages. This is the parasite's only transmission route. As a result Trumper and Gorla 1991 find transmission success centers around the triatomine's defecation behaviors. The trypomastigotes are in the feces and are capable of swimming into the host's cells using flagella, a characteristic swimming tail dominant in the Euglenoid class of protists.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: The trypomastigotes enter the host through the bite wound or by crossing mucous membranes. The host cells contain macromolecules such as laminin, thrombospondin, heparin sulphate, and fibronectin that cover their surface. These macromolecules are essential for adhesion between parasite and host and for the process of host invasion by the parasite. The trypomastigotes must cross a network of proteins that line the exterior of the host cells in order to make contact and invade the host cells. The molecules and proteins on the cytoskeleton of the cell also bind to the surface of the parasite and initiate host invasion.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Trypanosomiasis in humans progresses with the development of the trypanosome into a trypomastigote in the blood and into an amastigote in tissues. As the infection progresses, the number of infected cells increases, as well as the number of amastigotes per infected cell (APC). If the average of APC is one or close to one, the infection has just begun. A higher APC means that amastigotes have started to replicate.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: The acute form of trypanosomiasis is usually unnoticed, although it may manifest itself as a localized swelling at the site of entry. In this form appears elevated parasitism, myocarditis, and changes in the myocardial gene expression. The chronic form may develop 30 to 40 years after infection and affect internal organs (e.g., the heart, the oesophagus, the colon, and the peripheral nervous system). Affected people may die from heart failure and severe heart lesions.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Acute cases are treated with nifurtimox and benznidazole, but no effective therapy for chronic cases is currently known.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Researchers of Chagas’ disease have demonstrated several processes that occur with all cardiomyopathies. The first event is an inflammatory response. Following inflammation, cellular damage occurs. Finally, in the body's attempt to recover from the cellular damage, fibrosis begins in the cardiac tissue.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Another cardiomyopathy found in nearly all cases of chronic Chagas’ disease is thromboembolic syndrome. Thromboembolism describes thrombosis, the formation of a clot, and its main complication is embolism, the carrying of a clot to a distal section of a vessel and causing blockage there. This occurrence contributes to the death of a patient by four means: arrhythmias, stasis secondary to cardiac dilation, mural endocarditis, and cardiac fibrosis. These thrombi also affect other organs such as the brain, spleen and kidney.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Subcellular findings in murine studies with induced "T. cruzi" infection revealed that the chronic state is associated with the persistent elevation of phosphorylated (activated) extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK), AP-1, and NF-κB. Also, the mitotic regulator for G1 progression, cyclin D1 was found to be activated. Although there was no increase in any isoform of ERK, there was an increased concentration of phosphorylated ERK in mice infected with "T. cruzi". It was found that within seven days the concentration of AP-1 was significantly higher in "T. cruzi"–infected mice when compared to the control. Elevated levels of NF-κB have also been found in myocardial tissue, with the highest concentrations being found in the vasculature. It was indicated through Western blot that cyclin D1 was upregulated from day 1 to day 60 post-infection. It was also indicated through immunohistochemical analysis that the areas that produced the most cyclin D1 were the vasculature and interstitial regions of the heart.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Conduction abnormalities are also associated with "T. cruzi". At the base of these conduction abnormalities is a depopulation of parasympathetic neuronal endings on the heart. Without proper parasympathetic innervations, one could expect to find not only chronotropic but also inotropic abnormalities. It is true that all inflammatory and non-inflammatory heart disease may display forms of parasympathetic denervation; this denervation presents in a descriptive fashion in Chagas’ disease. It has also been indicated that the loss of parasympathetic innervations can lead to sudden death due to a severe cardiac failure that occurs during the acute stage of infection.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Another conduction abnormality presented with chronic Chagas’ disease is a change in ventricular repolarization, which is represented on an electrocardiogram as the T-wave. This change in repolarization inhibits the heart from relaxing and properly entering diastole. Changes in the ventricular repolarization in Chagas’ disease are likely due to myocardial ischemia. This ischemia can also lead to fibrillation. This sign is usually observed in chronic Chagas’ disease and is considered a minor electromyocardiopathy.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Villous plaque is characterized by exophytic epicardial thickening, meaning that the growth occurs at the border of the epicardium and not the center of mass. Unlike milk spots and chagasic rosary, inflammatory cells and vasculature are present in villous plaque. Since villous plaque contains inflammatory cells it is reasonable to suspect that these lesions are more recently formed than milk spots or chagasic rosary.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: When mammalian cells are present, trypomastigotes move in a sub diffusive fashion in short periods of time, but under control conditions their motion is diffusive.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Parasites increase their mean speed; they explore smaller areas at short time scales and show a preference to be located nearby cells’ periphery. The extent of these changes depends on the cell type. Therefore, "T. cruzi" trypomastigotes can sense mammalian cells and modify their motility patterns to prepare themselves for infection.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Epimastigotes, which are the culture forms of "T. cruzi", swim in the direction of their flagellum, due to tip-to-base symmetrical flagellar beats, that are interrupted by base-to-tip highly asymmetric beats. Switching between both beating modes facilitates parasite reorientation, allowing many movements and trajectories. Epimastigote motility is characterized by alternation of quasi-rectilinear and restricted and complex paths.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: The invasion efficiency is positively correlated with the average parasite mean speed, and negatively correlated with the mean square displacement (MSD). Therefore, the motility modifications undergone by the parasites in the presence of mammalian cells may be functionally related to the cell invasion process.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Moreover, different parasite strains infect different tissues with a variable invasion efficiency, due to the high genetic and phenotypic variability found among "T. cruzi" strains. "T. cruzi" trypomastigotes are capable of sensing mammalian cells to a different degree, depending on the cell type, and can modify their motility patterns to increase their invasion efficiency.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: "T. cruzi" does not produce prostaglandins itself. Instead Pinge-Filho et al 1999 finds that the parasite induces mice to overproduce 2-series prostaglandins themselves. These PGs are immunosuppressive and so aid in immune evasion.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Imipramines are trypanocidal. Doyle & Weinbach 1989 find imipramine and various of its derivatives 3-Chlorimipramine, 2-Nitroimipramine, and 2-Nitrodesmethylimipramine are trypanocidal "in vitro". They find 2-Nitrodesmethylimipramine is the most effective among them.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: "T. cruzi" transmission has been documented in the Southwestern U.S., and warming trends may allow vector species to move north. U.S. domestic and wild animals are reservoirs for "T. cruzi". Triatomine species in the southern U.S. have taken human blood meals, but because triatomines do not favor typical U.S. housing, risk to the U.S. population is very low.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Chagas' disease's geographical occurrence happens worldwide but high-risk individuals include those who don't have access to proper housing. Its reservoir is in wild animals but its vector is a kissing bug. This is a contagious disease and can be transmitted through a number of ways: congenital transmission, blood transfusion, organ transplantation, consumption of uncooked food that has been contaminated with feces from infected bugs, and accidental laboratory exposure.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: The incubation period is five to fourteen days after a host comes in contact with feces. Chagas disease undergoes two phases, which are the acute and the chronic phase. The acute phase can last from two weeks to two months but can go unnoticed because symptoms are minor and short-lived. Symptoms of the acute phase include swelling, fever, fatigue, and diarrhea. The chronic phase causes digestive problems, constipation, heart failure, and pain in the abdomen.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Diagnostic methods include microscopic examination, serology, or the isolation of the parasite by inoculating blood into a guinea pig, mouse, or rat.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: No vaccines are available. The most used method for epidemiological management and disease prevention resides within vector control, mainly by the use of insecticides and taking preventative measures such as applying bug repellent on the skin, wearing protective clothing, and staying in higher quality hotels when traveling. Investing in quality housing would be ideal to decrease risk of contracting this disease.


title: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: Genetic exchange has been identified among field populations of "T. cruzi". This process appears to involve genetic recombination as well as a meiotic mechanism. Despite the capability for sexual reproduction, natural populations of "T. cruzi" exhibit clonal population structures. It appears that frequent sexual reproduction events occur primarily between close relatives resulting in an apparent clonal population structure.


title: Lillian Lehman

text: The daughter of a Lutheran minister, Lehman was born in Oak Hill, Alabama, but moved with her family to Buffalo, New York, when she was five years old. She was named actress of the year while she attended Kent State University.


title: Lillian Lehman

text: Lehman played Lena Hart in NBC's soap opera "Sunset Beach", nurse Carol Williams on "Emergency!", Letty Gilmore on "Fay", Ruth Tenafly on "Tenafly", and Dr. Joyce Meadows on ABC's "General Hospital". She has also been cast in various guest roles on TV,


title: Lillian Lehman

text: Lehman is a professor emerita of theatre and graduate of California State University, Northridge with a B.A. in theatre.


title: Lillian Lehman

text: She has also acted in films, such as "Defending Your Life" and "Evan Almighty". TV credits include "Magnum P.I.", "General Hospital", "ER", "Cold Case", "Seinfeld", "Married... with Children", a recurring role as Judge Mary Harcourt on "L.A. Law", a recurring role as Judge Tiano on "The Closer" and numerous other judge roles in "The Division", "Sparks", "JAG", "The Wayans Bros.", "Gabriel's Fire", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents" and others.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Optical tweezers (originally called single-beam gradient force trap) are scientific instruments that use a highly focused laser beam to hold and move microscopic and sub-microscopic objects like atoms, nanoparticles and droplets, in a manner similar to tweezers. If the object is held in air or vacuum without additional support, it can be called optical levitation.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The laser light provides an attractive or repulsive force (typically on the order of piconewtons), depending on the relative refractive index between particle and surrounding medium. Levitation is possible if the force of the light counters the force of gravity. The trapped particles are usually micron-sized, or even smaller. Dielectric and absorbing particles can be trapped, too.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Optical tweezers are used in biology and medicine (for example to grab and hold a single bacterium, a cell like a sperm cell or a blood cell, or a molecule like DNA), nanoengineering and nanochemistry (to study and build materials from single molecules), quantum optics and quantum optomechanics (to study the interaction of single particles with light). The development of optical tweezing by Arthur Ashkin was lauded with the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physics.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The detection of optical scattering and the gradient forces on micron sized particles was first reported in 1970 by Arthur Ashkin, a scientist working at Bell Labs. Years later, Ashkin and colleagues reported the first observation of what is now commonly referred to as an optical tweezer: a tightly focused beam of light capable of holding microscopic particles stable in three dimensions. In 2018, Ashkin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this development.


title: Optical tweezers

text: One of the authors of this seminal 1986 paper, Steven Chu, would go on to use optical tweezing in his work on cooling and trapping neutral atoms. This research earned Chu the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics along with Claude Cohen-Tannoudji and William D. Phillips. In an interview, Steven Chu described how Ashkin had first envisioned optical tweezing as a method for trapping atoms. Ashkin was able to trap larger particles (10 to 10,000 nanometers in diameter) but it fell to Chu to extend these techniques to the trapping of neutral atoms (0.1 nanometers in diameter) utilizing resonant laser light and a magnetic gradient trap (cf. Magneto-optical trap).


title: Optical tweezers

text: In the late 1980s, Arthur Ashkin and Joseph M. Dziedzic demonstrated the first application of the technology to the biological sciences, using it to trap an individual tobacco mosaic virus and "Escherichia coli" bacterium. Throughout the 1990s and afterwards, researchers like Carlos Bustamante, James Spudich, and Steven Block pioneered the use of optical trap force spectroscopy to characterize molecular-scale biological motors. These molecular motors are ubiquitous in biology, and are responsible for locomotion and mechanical action within the cell. Optical traps allowed these biophysicists to observe the forces and dynamics of nanoscale motors at the single-molecule level; optical trap force-spectroscopy has since led to greater understanding of the stochastic nature of these force-generating molecules.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Optical tweezers have proven useful in other areas of biology as well. They are used in synthetic biology to construct tissue-like networks of artificial cells, and to fuse synthetic membranes together to initiate biochemical reactions. They are also widely employed in genetic studies and research on chromosome structure and dynamics. In 2003 the techniques of optical tweezers were applied in the field of cell sorting; by creating a large optical intensity pattern over the sample area, cells can be sorted by their intrinsic optical characteristics. Optical tweezers have also been used to probe the cytoskeleton, measure the visco-elastic properties of biopolymers, and study cell motility. A bio-molecular assay in which clusters of ligand coated nano-particles are both optically trapped and optically detected after target molecule induced clustering was proposed in 2011 and experimentally demonstrated in 2013.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Some other achievements have also been trapping a single atom in 2001, trapping of strongly interacting entangled pairs in 2010, great precision in 2-dimensional arrays of atoms in 2016 as well as 3-dimensional assemblings in 2018 and using the technique in quantum simulators to obtain programmable arrays of 196 and 256 atoms in 2021


title: Optical tweezers

text: The Kapitsa–Dirac effect effectively demonstrated during 2001 uses standing waves of light to affect a beam of particles.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Researchers have also worked to convert optical tweezers from large, complex instruments to smaller, simpler ones, for use by those with smaller research budgets. The main challenge is to correlate the force measurements and fluorescent/imaging data in combination with the fluidics to capture the objects and or manipulate the conditions.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Optical tweezers are capable of manipulating nanometer and micron-sized dielectric particles by exerting extremely small forces via a highly focused laser beam. The beam is typically focused by sending it through a microscope objective. The narrowest point of the focused beam, known as the beam waist, contains a very strong electric field gradient. Dielectric particles are attracted along the gradient to the region of strongest electric field, which is the center of the beam. The laser light also tends to apply a force on particles in the beam along the direction of beam propagation. This is due to conservation of momentum: photons that are absorbed or scattered by the tiny dielectric particle impart momentum to the dielectric particle. This is known as the scattering force and results in the particle being displaced slightly downstream from the exact position of the beam waist, as seen in the figure.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Optical traps are very sensitive instruments and are capable of the manipulation and detection of sub-nanometer displacements for sub-micron dielectric particles. For this reason, they are often used to manipulate and study single molecules by interacting with a bead that has been attached to that molecule. DNA and the proteins and enzymes that interact with it are commonly studied in this way.


title: Optical tweezers

text: For quantitative scientific measurements, most optical traps are operated in such a way that the dielectric particle rarely moves far from the trap center. The reason for this is that the force applied to the particle is linear with respect to its displacement from the center of the trap as long as the displacement is small. In this way, an optical trap can be compared to a simple spring, which follows Hooke's law.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Proper explanation of optical trapping behavior depends upon the size of the trapped particle relative to the wavelength of light used to trap it. In cases where the dimensions of the particle are much greater than the wavelength, a simple ray optics treatment is sufficient. If the wavelength of light far exceeds the particle dimensions, the particles can be treated as electric dipoles in an electric field. For optical trapping of dielectric objects of dimensions within an order of magnitude of the trapping beam wavelength, the only accurate models involve the treatment of either time dependent or time harmonic Maxwell equations using appropriate boundary conditions.


title: Optical tweezers

text: In cases where the diameter of a trapped particle is significantly greater than the wavelength of light, the trapping phenomenon can be explained using ray optics. As shown in the figure, individual rays of light emitted from the laser will be refracted as it enters and exits the dielectric bead. As a result, the ray will exit in a direction different from which it originated. Since light has a momentum associated with it, this change in direction indicates that its momentum has changed. Due to Newton's third law, there should be an equal and opposite momentum change on the particle.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Most optical traps operate with a Gaussian beam (TEM mode) profile intensity. In this case, if the particle is displaced from the center of the beam, as in the right part of the figure, the particle has a net force returning it to the center of the trap because more intense beams impart a larger momentum change towards the center of the trap than less intense beams, which impart a smaller momentum change away from the trap center. The net momentum change, or force, returns the particle to the trap center.


title: Optical tweezers

text: If the particle is located at the center of the beam, then individual rays of light are refracting through the particle symmetrically, resulting in no net lateral force. The net force in this case is along the axial direction of the trap, which cancels out the scattering force of the laser light. The cancellation of this axial gradient force with the scattering force is what causes the bead to be stably trapped slightly downstream of the beam waist.


title: Optical tweezers

text: In cases where the diameter of a trapped particle is significantly smaller than the wavelength of light, the conditions for Rayleigh scattering are satisfied and the particle can be treated as a point dipole in an inhomogeneous electromagnetic field. The force applied on a single charge in an electromagnetic field is known as the Lorentz force,


title: Optical tweezers

text: The force on the dipole can be calculated by substituting two terms for the electric field in the equation above, one for each charge. The polarization of a dipole is formula_2 where formula_3 is the distance between the two charges. For a point dipole, the distance is infinitesimal, formula_4 Taking into account that the two charges have opposite signs, the force takes the form


title: Optical tweezers

text: Notice that the formula_6 cancel out. Multiplying through by the charge, formula_7, converts position, formula_8, into polarization, formula_9,


title: Optical tweezers

text: where in the second equality, it has been assumed that the dielectric particle is linear (i.e. formula_11).


title: Optical tweezers

text: In the final steps, two equalities will be used: (1) A Vector Analysis Equality, (2) Faraday's law of induction.


title: Optical tweezers

text: First, the vector equality will be inserted for the first term in the force equation above. Maxwell's equation will be substituted in for the second term in the vector equality. Then the two terms which contain time derivatives can be combined into a single term.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The second term in the last equality is the time derivative of a quantity that is related through a multiplicative constant to the Poynting vector, which describes the power per unit area passing through a surface. Since the power of the laser is constant when sampling over frequencies much longer than the frequency of the laser's light ~10 Hz, the derivative of this term averages to zero and the force can be written as


title: Optical tweezers

text: where in the second part we have included the induced dipole moment (in MKS units) of a spherical dielectric particle: formula_16, where formula_17 is the particle radius, formula_18 is the index of refraction of the particle and formula_19 is the relative refractive index between the particle and the medium.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The square of the magnitude of the electric field is equal to the intensity of the beam as a function of position. Therefore, the result indicates that the force on the dielectric particle, when treated as a point dipole, is proportional to the gradient along the intensity of the beam. In other words, the gradient force described here tends to attract the particle to the region of highest intensity. In reality, the scattering force of the light works against the gradient force in the axial direction of the trap, resulting in an equilibrium position that is displaced slightly downstream of the intensity maximum. Under the Rayleigh approximation, we can also write the scattering force as


title: Optical tweezers

text: Since the scattering is isotropic, the net momentum is transferred in the forward direction. On the quantum level, we picture the gradient force as forward Rayleigh scattering in which identical photons are created and annihilated concurrently, while in the scattering (radiation) force the incident photons travel in the same direction and ‘scatter’ isotropically. By conservation of momentum, the particle must accumulate the photons' original momenta, causing a forward force in the latter.


title: Optical tweezers

text: A useful way to study the interaction of an atom in a Gaussian beam is to look at the harmonic potential approximation of the intensity profile the atom experiences. In the case of the two-level atom, the potential experienced is related to its AC Stark Shift,


title: Optical tweezers

text: where formula_22 is the natural line width of the excited state, formula_23 is the electric dipole coupling, formula_24 is the frequency of the transition, and formula_25 is the detuning or difference between the laser frequency and the transition frequency.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The intensity of a gaussian beam profile is characterized by the wavelength formula_26, minimum waist formula_27, and power of the beam formula_28. The following formulas define the beam profile:


title: Optical tweezers

text: To approximate this Gaussian potential in both the radial and axial directions of the beam, the intensity profile must be expanded to second order in formula_33 and formula_34 for formula_35 and formula_36 respectively and equated to the harmonic potential formula_37. These expansions are evaluated assuming fixed power.


title: Optical tweezers

text: This means that when solving for the harmonic frequencies (or trap frequencies when considering optical traps for atoms), the frequencies are given as:


title: Optical tweezers

text: so that the relative trap frequencies for the radial and axial directions as a function of only beam waist scale as:


title: Optical tweezers

text: In order to levitate the particle in air, the downward force of gravity must be countered by the forces stemming from photon momentum transfer. Typically photon radiation pressure of a focused laser beam of enough intensity counters the downward force of gravity while also preventing lateral (side to side) and vertical instabilities to allow for a stable "optical trap" capable of holding small particles in suspension.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Micrometer sized (from several to 50 micrometers in diameter) transparent dielectric spheres such as fused silica spheres, oil or water droplets, are used in this type of experiment. The laser radiation can be fixed in wavelength such as that of an argon ion laser or that of a tunable dye laser. Laser power required is of the order of 1 Watt focused to a spot size of several tens of micrometers. Phenomena related to morphology-dependent resonances in a spherical optical cavity have been studied by several research groups.


title: Optical tweezers

text: For a shiny object, such as a metallic micro-sphere, stable optical levitation has not been achieved. Optical levitation of a macroscopic object is also theoretically possible, and can be enhanced with nano-structuring.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Materials that have been successfully levitated include Black liquor, aluminum oxide, tungsten, and nickel.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The most basic optical tweezer setup will likely include the following components: a laser (usually ), a beam expander, some optics used to steer the beam location in the sample plane, a microscope objective and condenser to create the trap in the sample plane, a position detector (e.g. quadrant photodiode) to measure beam displacements and a microscope illumination source coupled to a CCD camera.


title: Optical tweezers

text: An (1064 nm wavelength) is a common choice of laser for working with biological specimens. This is because such specimens (being mostly water) have a low absorption coefficient at this wavelength. A low absorption is advisable so as to minimise damage to the biological material, sometimes referred to as opticution. Perhaps the most important consideration in optical tweezer design is the choice of the objective. A stable trap requires that the gradient force, which is dependent upon the numerical aperture (NA) of the objective, be greater than the scattering force. Suitable objectives typically have an NA between 1.2 and 1.4.


title: Optical tweezers

text: While alternatives are available, perhaps the simplest method for position detection involves imaging the trapping laser exiting the sample chamber onto a quadrant photodiode. Lateral deflections of the beam are measured similarly to how it is done using atomic force microscopy (AFM).


title: Optical tweezers

text: Expanding the beam emitted from the laser to fill the aperture of the objective will result in a tighter, diffraction-limited spot. While lateral translation of the trap relative to the sample can be accomplished by translation of the microscope slide, most tweezer setups have additional optics designed to translate the beam to give an extra degree of translational freedom. This can be done by translating the first of the two lenses labelled as "Beam Steering" in the figure. For example, translation of that lens in the lateral plane will result in a laterally deflected beam from what is drawn in the figure. If the distance between the beam steering lenses and the objective is chosen properly, this will correspond to a similar deflection before entering the objective and a resulting "lateral translation" in the sample plane. The position of the beam waist, that is the focus of the optical trap, can be adjusted by an axial displacement of the initial lens. Such an axial displacement causes the beam to diverge or converge slightly, the end result of which is an axially displaced position of the beam waist in the sample chamber.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Visualization of the sample plane is usually accomplished through illumination via a separate light source coupled into the optical path in the opposite direction using dichroic mirrors. This light is incident on a CCD camera and can be viewed on an external monitor or used for tracking the trapped particle position via video tracking.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The majority of optical tweezers make use of conventional TEM Gaussian beams. However a number of other beam types have been used to trap particles, including high order laser beams i.e. Hermite-Gaussian beams (TEM), Laguerre-Gaussian (LG) beams (TEM) and Bessel beams.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Optical tweezers based on Laguerre-Gaussian beams have the unique capability of trapping particles that are optically reflective and absorptive. Laguerre-Gaussian beams also possess a well-defined orbital angular momentum that can rotate particles. This is accomplished without external mechanical or electrical steering of the beam.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Both zero and higher order Bessel Beams also possess a unique tweezing ability. They can trap and rotate multiple particles that are millimeters apart and even around obstacles.


title: Optical tweezers

text: Micromachines can be driven by these unique optical beams due to their intrinsic rotating mechanism due to the spin and orbital angular momentum of light.


title: Optical tweezers

text: A typical setup uses one laser to create one or two traps. Commonly, two traps are generated by splitting the laser beam into two orthogonally polarized beams. Optical tweezing operations with more than two traps can be realized either by time-sharing a single laser beam among several optical tweezers, or by diffractively splitting the beam into multiple traps. With acousto-optic deflectors or galvanometer-driven mirrors, a single laser beam can be shared among hundreds of optical tweezers in the focal plane, or else spread into an extended one-dimensional trap. Specially designed diffractive optical elements can divide a single input beam into hundreds of continuously illuminated traps in arbitrary three-dimensional configurations. The trap-forming hologram also can specify the mode structure of each trap individually, thereby creating arrays of optical vortices, optical tweezers, and holographic line traps, for example. When implemented with a spatial light modulator, such holographic optical traps also can move objects in three dimensions. Advanced forms of holographic optical traps with arbitrary spatial profiles, where smoothness of the intensity and the phase are controlled, find applications in many areas of science, from micromanipulation to ultracold atoms.


title: Optical tweezers

text: The standard fiber optical trap relies on the same principle as the optical trapping, but with the Gaussian laser beam delivered through an optical fiber. If one end of the optical fiber is molded into a lens-like facet, the nearly gaussian beam carried by a single mode standard fiber will be focused at some distance from the fiber tip. The effective Numerical Aperture of such assembly is usually not enough to allow for a full 3D optical trap but only for a 2D trap (optical trapping and manipulation of objects will be possible only when, e.g., they are in contact with a surface ).


title: Optical tweezers

text: A true 3D optical trapping based on a single fiber, with a trapping point which is not in nearly contact with the fiber tip, has been realized based on a not-standard annular-core fiber arrangement and a total-internal-reflection geometry.


title: Optical tweezers

text: On the other hand, if the ends of the fiber are not moulded, the laser exiting the fiber will be diverging and thus a stable optical trap can only be realised by balancing the gradient and the scattering force from two opposing ends of the fiber. The gradient force will trap the particles in the transverse direction, while the axial optical force comes from the scattering force of the two counter propagating beams emerging from the two fibers. The equilibrium z-position of such a trapped bead is where the two scattering forces equal each other. This work was pioneered by A. Constable "et al.", "Opt. Lett." 18,1867 (1993), and followed by J.Guck "et al.", "Phys. Rev. Lett." 84, 5451 (2000), who made use of this technique to stretch microparticles. By manipulating the input power into the two ends of the fiber, there will be an increase of an "optical stretching" that can be used to measure viscoelastic properties of cells, with sensitivity sufficient to distinguish between different individual cytoskeletal phenotypes. i.e. human erythrocytes and mouse fibroblasts. A recent test has seen great success in differentiating cancerous cells from non-cancerous ones from the two opposed, non-focused laser beams.


title: Optical tweezers

text: While earlier version of fiber-based laser traps exclusively used single mode beams, M. Kreysing and colleagues recently showed that the careful excitation of further optical modes in a short piece of optical fiber allows the realization of non-trivial trapping geometries. By this the researchers were able to orient various human cell types (individual cells and clusters) on a microscope. The main advantage of the so-called "optical cell rotator" technology over standard optical tweezers is the decoupling of trapping from imaging optics. This, its modular design, and the high compatibility of divergent laser traps with biological material indicates the great potential of this new generation of laser traps in medical research and life science. Recently, the optical cell rotator technology was implemented on the basis of adaptive optics, allowing to dynamically reconfigure the optical trap during operation and adapt it to the sample.


title: Optical tweezers

text: One of the more common cell-sorting systems makes use of flow cytometry through fluorescence imaging. In this method, a suspension of biologic cells is sorted into two or more containers, based upon specific fluorescent characteristics of each cell during an assisted flow. By using an electrical charge that the cell is "trapped" in, the cells are then sorted based on the fluorescence intensity measurements. The sorting process is undertaken by an electrostatic deflection system that diverts cells into containers based upon their charge.