title: Vienna (Ultravox song)

text: In April 1992, a re-recorded version of "Vienna", by a new Ultravox line-up, was released as a single in Germany. This line-up consisted of original Ultravox member Billy Currie on keyboards, violin and percussion, and Tony Fenelle on vocals, guitar and percussion. The backing vocals on B-side "Systems of Love" were performed by Alison Limerick and Jackie Williams. The single did not chart. It was not included in the album "Revelation".


title: Vienna (Ultravox song)

text: In 1992, comedian Vic Reeves (Jim Moir) appeared on the album "Ruby Trax – The NME's Roaring Forty", singing a version of the song with different lyrics in the verses. The compilation was released by "NME", a magazine that had been publishing single charts since 1952, with all records covered having reached the number-one slot in their own charts during 40 years of publication. As "Vienna" by Ultravox reached number one on the "NME" charts on 21 February 1981 (staying at the top for one week) it was eligible for inclusion within the concept of the project, where it would not have been allowed if "NME" had been following the British Market Research Bureau/Gallup chart (now branded as the Official Chart).


title: Yogachara

text: Yogachara (, IAST: ""; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditative and yogic practices. It is also variously termed "Vijñānavāda" (the doctrine of consciousness), "Vijñaptivāda" (the doctrine of ideas or percepts) or "Vijñaptimātratā-vāda" (the doctrine of 'mere representation'), which is also the name given to its major epistemic theory. There are several interpretations of this main theory; while often regarded as a kind of Idealism, critical scholars argue that it is closer to a kind of phenomenology or representationalism, aimed at deconstructing the reification of our perceptions.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Dan Lusthaus, this tradition developed "an elaborate psychological therapeutic system that mapped out the problems in cognition along with the antidotes to correct them, and an earnest epistemological endeavor that led to some of the most sophisticated work on perception and logic ever engaged in by Buddhists or Indians." The 4th-century Gandharan brothers, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, are considered the classic philosophers and systematizers of this school, along with its other founder, Maitreya.


title: Yogachara

text: It was associated with Indian Mahayana Buddhism in about the fourth century, but also included non-Mahayana practitioners of the Sautrāntika school. Yogācāra continues to be influential in Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism. However, the uniformity of a single assumed "Yogācāra school" has been put into question.


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra philosophy is primarily meant to aid in the practice of yoga and meditation and thus it also sets forth a systematic analysis of the Mahayana path of mental training (see five paths "pañcamārga"). Yogācārins made use of ideas from previous traditions, such as Prajñāpāramitā and the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma, to develop a new schema for spiritual practice.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Thomas Kochumuttom, Yogācāra is "meant to be an explanation of experience, rather than a system of ontology". For this reason, Yogācārins developed an Abhidharma literature set within a Mahāyāna framework. In its analysis, Yogācāra works like the "Saṅdhinirmocana Sūtra" developed various core concepts such as "vijñapti-mātra", the "ālaya-vijñāna" (store consciousness), the turning of the basis ("āśraya-parāvṛtti)," the three natures ("trisvabhāva"), and emptiness. They form a complex system, and each can be taken as a point of departure for understanding Yogācāra.


title: Yogachara

text: One of the main features of Yogācāra philosophy is the concept of "vijñapti-mātra". It is often used interchangeably with the term "citta-mātra", but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only." Several modern researchers object to this translation, and the accompanying label of "absolute idealism" or "idealistic monism". A better translation for "vijñapti-mātra" is "representation-only", while an alternative translation for "citta" (mind, thought) "mātra" (only, exclusively) has not been proposed.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Lambert Schmithausen, the earliest surviving appearance of this term is in chapter 8 of the "Saṅdhinirmocana Sūtra," which has only survived in Tibetan and Chinese translations that differ in syntax and meaning. The passage is depicted as a response by the Buddha to a question which asks "whether the images or replicas ("*pratibimba") which are the object ("*gocara") of meditative concentration (*"samadhi"), are different/separate ("*bhinna") from the contemplating mind ("*citta") or not." The Buddha says they are not different, "Because these images are "vijñapti-mātra."" The text goes on to affirm that the same is true for objects of ordinary perception.


title: Yogachara

text: Regarding existing Sanskrit sources, the term appears in the first verse of Vasubandhu's "Vimśatikā", which is a "locus classicus" of the idea, it states:


title: Yogachara

text: "This [world] is "vijñaptimātra", since it manifests itself as an unreal object ("artha"), just like the case of those with cataracts seeing unreal hairs in the moon and the like."


title: Yogachara

text: According to Mark Siderits, what Vasubandhu means here is that we are only ever aware of mental images or impressions which manifest themselves as external objects, but "there is actually no such thing outside the mind."


title: Yogachara

text: The term also appears in Asaṅga's classic Yogācāra work, the "Mahāyānasaṃgraha" (no Sanskrit original, trans. from Tibetan)":"


title: Yogachara

text: These representations ("vijñapti") are mere representations ("vijñapti-mātra"), because there is no [corresponding] thing/object ("artha")...Just as in a dream there appear, even without a thing/object ("artha"), just in the mind alone, forms/images of all kinds of things/objects like visibles, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles, houses, forests, land, and mountains, and yet there are no [such] things/objects at all in that [place]. "MSg II.6"


title: Yogachara

text: The term is sometimes used as a synonym with "citta-mātra" (mere "citta"), which is also used as a name for the school that suggests Idealism. Schmithausen writes that the first appearance of this term is in the "Pratyupanna samadhi sutra", which states:


title: Yogachara

text: This (or: whatever belongs to this) triple world (*"traidhātuka") is nothing but mind (or thought: *"cittamatra"). Why? Because however I imagine things, that is how they appear.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Bruce Cameron Hall, the interpretation of this doctrine as a form of subjective or absolute idealism has been "the most common "outside" interpretation of "Vijñānavāda", not only by modern writers, but by its ancient opponents, both Hindu and Buddhist."


title: Yogachara

text: Scholars such as Saam Trivedi argue that Yogācāra is similar to Idealism (closer to a Kantian epistemic idealism), though they note that it is its own unique form and that it might be confusing to categorize it as such. Paul Williams, citing Griffiths, writes that it could be termed "dynamic idealism". Sean Butler argues for the idealistic nature of Yogācāra, noting that there are numerous similarities between Yogācāra and the systems of Kant and Berkeley. Jay Garfield also argues that Yogācāra is "akin to the idealisms defended by such Western philosophers as Berkeley, Kant and Schopenhauer."


title: Yogachara

text: Jonathan Gold writes that the Yogācāra thinker Vasubandhu can be said to be an idealist (similar to Kant), in the sense that for him, everything in experience as well as its causal support is mental, and thus he gives causal priority to the mental. At the same time however, this is only in the conventional realm, since "mind" is just another concept and true reality for Vasubandhu is ineffable, "an inconceivable 'thusness' ("tathatā")." Indeed, the "Vimśatikā" states that the very idea of "vijñapti-mātra" must "also" be understood to be itself a self-less construction and thus "vijñapti-mātra" is not the ultimate truth ("paramārtha-satya") in Yogācāra. Thus according to Gold, while Vasubandhu's "vijñapti-mātra" can be said to be a “conventionalist idealism”, it is to be seen as unique and different from Western forms, especially Hegelian Absolute Idealism.


title: Yogachara

text: Other scholars note that it is a mistake to conflate the two terms "vijñapti-mātra" and "citta-mātra". While the standard translations for both "vijñapti-mātra" and "citta-matra" are often "consciousness only" and "mind-only" (signifying an Idealistic doctrine), objections are raised to this conflation, as well as to Idealistic interpretation. Different alternative translations for "vijñapti-mātra" have been proposed, such as "representation-only, ideation-only, impressions-only" and "perception-only".


title: Yogachara

text: David Kalupahana argues that "citta-mātra" signifies a metaphysical reification of mind into an absolute, while "vijñapti-mātra" refers to a certain epistemological approach. According to Kalupahana, the term "vijñapti-mātra" replaced the "more metaphysical" term "citta-mātra" used in the "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra". The "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra" "appears to be one of the earliest attempts to provide a philosophical justification for the Absolutism that emerged in Mahayana in relation to the concept of Buddha". It uses the term "citta-mātra", which means properly "thought-only". By using this term it develops an "ontology", in contrast to the "epistemology" of the term vijñapti-mātra. The "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra" equates "citta" and the absolute. According to Kochumuttom, this is not the way Yogacara uses the term vijñapti: According to Kochumuttom, "the absolute state is defined simply as emptiness, namely the emptiness of subject-object distinction. Once thus defined as emptiness ("sunyata"), it receives a number of synonyms, none of which betray idealism."


title: Yogachara

text: According to Thomas Kochumuttom, Yogācāra is a "realistic pluralism". It does not deny the existence of individual beings; what it does deny is:


title: Yogachara

text: Alex Wayman notes that one's interpretation of Yogācāra will depend on how the qualifier "mātra" is to be understood in this context, and he objects to interpretations which claim that Yogācāra rejects the external world altogether, preferring translations such as "amounting to mind" or "mirroring mind" for "citta-mātra". For Wayman, what this doctrine means is that "the mind has only a report or representation of what the sense organ had sensed." The representationalist interpretation is also supported by Stefan Anacker and Thomas A. Kochumuttom, modern translators of Vasubandhu's works.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Dan Lusthaus, the "vijñapti-mātra" theory is closer in some ways to Western Phenomenological theories and Epistemological Idealism or Transcendental idealism, but it is not an ontological idealism because Yogācāra rejects the construction of metaphysical or ontological theories. Moreover, Western idealism lacks any counterpart to karma, samsara or awakening, which are central for Yogācāra. Regarding "vijñapti-mātra," Lusthaus translates it as "nothing but conscious construction" and states it is:


title: Yogachara

text: Lusthaus further explains that this reification of cognitions aids in constructing the notion of a solid self, which can appropriate external 'things'. Yogacara then offers the analysis and meditative means to negate this reification, thereby also negating the notion of a solid self:


title: Yogachara

text: Therefore, when Yogācāra discusses cognitive objects ("viṣaya"), they are analyzing cognition, and its constructions. While Yogācāra posits that cognitive objects are real, it denies ""arthas"" (objects of intentionality or "a telos toward which an act of consciousness intends") which are "outside the cognitive act in which it is that which is intended." So according to Lusthaus, "Yogacarins don't claim that nothing whatsoever exists outside the mind" and "Consciousness enjoys no transcendent status, nor does it serve as a metaphysical foundation. Consciousness is real by virtue of its facticity -- the fact that sentient beings experience cognitions -- and not because of an ontological primacy." In this way, instead of offering an ontological theory, Yogācāra focuses on understanding and eliminating the underlying tendencies ("anuśaya") that lead to clinging to ontological constructions, which are just cognitive projections ("pratibimba", "parikalpita").


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra philosophers were aware of the objections that could be brought against their doctrine. Vasubandhu's "Vimśatikā" mentions three and refutes them:


title: Yogachara

text: According to Mark Siderits, after disposing of these objections, Vasubandhu believes he has shown that "vijñapti-mātra" is just as good at explaining and predicting the relevant phenomena of experience as any theory of realism that posits external objects. Therefore, he then applies the Indian philosophical principle termed the "Principle of Lightness" (which is similar to Occam's Razor) to rule out realism since "vijñapti-mātra" is the simpler and "lighter" theory, "that is, the theory that posits the least number of unobservable entities."


title: Yogachara

text: Another objection that Vasubandhu answers is that of how one person can influence another's experiences, if everything arises from mental karmic seeds in one's mind stream. Vasubandhu argues that "impressions can also be caused in a mental stream by the occurrence of a distinct impression in another suitably linked mental stream." As Siderits notes, this account can explain how it is possible to influence or even totally disrupt (murder) another mind, even if there is no physical medium or object in existence, since a suitably strong enough intention in one mind stream can have effects on another mind stream. From the "vijñapti-mātra" position, it is easier to posit a mind to mind causation than to have to explain mind to body causation, which the realist must do. However, Siderits then goes on to question whether Vasubandhu's position is indeed "lighter" since he must make use of multiple interactions between different minds to take into account an intentionally created artifact, like a pot. Since we can be aware of a pot even when we are not "linked" to the potter's intentions (even after the potter is dead), a more complex series of mental interactions must be posited.


title: Yogachara

text: In disproving the possibility of external objects, Vasubandhu's "Vimśatikā" also attacks Indian theories of atomism and property particulars as incoherent on mereological grounds. Vasubandhu also explains why it is soteriologically important to get rid of the idea of really existing external objects. According to Siderits, this is because:When we wrongly imagine there to be external objects we are led to think in terms of the duality of 'grasped and grasper', of what is 'out there' and what is ' in here' - in short, of external world and self. Coming to see that there is no external world is a means, Vasubandhu thinks, of overcoming a very subtle way of believing in an 'I'... once we see why physical objects can't exist we will lose all temptation to think there is a true ' me' within. There are really just impressions, but we superimpose on these the false constructions of object and subject. Seeing this will free us from the false conception of an 'I'.Siderits notes how Kant had a similar notion, that is, without the idea of an objective mind independent world, one cannot derive the concept of a subjective "I". But Kant drew the opposite conclusion to Vasubandhu, since he held that we must believe in an enduring subject, and thus, also believe in external objects.


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra gives a detailed explanation of the workings of the mind and the way it constructs the reality we experience.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Lusthaus, "the most famous innovation of the Yogācāra school was the doctrine of eight consciousnesses." These "eight bodies of consciousnesses" ("aṣṭa vijñānakāyāḥ") are: the five sense-consciousnesses, "citta" (mentality), "manas" (self-consciousness), and the storehouse or substratum consciousness (Skt: "ālayavijñāna"). Traditional Buddhist descriptions of consciousness taught just the first six "vijñānas", each corresponding to a sense base ("ayatana") and having their own sense objects. Standard Buddhist doctrine held that these eighteen ""dhatus"" or components of experience, "exhaust the full extent of everything in the universe, or more accurately, the sensorium." These six consciousnesses are also not substantial entities, but a series of events, arising and vanishing, stretching back from beginningless ("anadi") time.


title: Yogachara

text: Buddhist Abhidharma expanded and developed this basic model and Yogācāra responded by rearranging these into their own schema which had three novel forms of consciousness. The sixth consciousness, "mano-vijñāna," was seen as the surveyor of the content of the five senses as well as of mental content like thoughts and ideas. The seventh consciousness developed from the early Buddhist concept of "manas," and was seen as the defiled mentation ("kliṣṭa-manas") which is obsessed with notions of "self". According to Paul Williams, this consciousness "takes the substratum consciousness as its object and mistakenly considers the substratum consciousness to be a true Self."


title: Yogachara

text: The eighth consciousness, "ālaya-vijñāna" (storehouse or repository consciousness), was defined as the storehouse of all karmic seeds, where they gradually matured until ripe, at which point they manifested as karmic consequences. Because of this, it is also called the "mind which has all the seeds" ("sarvabījakam cittam"), as well as the "basic consciousness" ("mūla-vijñāna") and the "appropriating consciousness" ("ādānavijñāna"). According to the "Saṅdhinirmocana Sūtra," this kind of consciousness "underlies" and "supports" the six types of manifest awareness, all of which occur simultaneously with the "ālaya." William S. Waldron sees this "simultaneity of all the modes of cognitive awareness" as the most significant departure of Yogācāra theory from traditional Buddhist models of "vijñāna," which were "thought to occur solely in conjunction with their respective sense bases and epistemic objects."


title: Yogachara

text: As noted by Schmithausen, the "ālaya-vijñāna," being a kind of vijñāna, has an object as well (as all vijñāna has intentionality). That object is the sentient being's surrounding world, that is to say, the "receptable" or "container" ("bhājana") world. This is stated in the 8th chapter of the "Saṅdhinirmocana Sūtra," which states that the "ādānavijñāna" is characterized by "an unconscious (or not fully conscious?) steady perception (or "representation") of the Receptacle ("*asaṃvidita-sthira-bhājana-vijñapti")."


title: Yogachara

text: The "ālaya-vijñāna" is also what experiences rebirth into future lives and what descents into the womb to appropriate the fetal material. Therefore, the "ālaya-vijñāna's" holding on to the body's sense faculties and "profuse imaginings" ("prapañca") are the two appropriations which make up the "kindling" or "fuel" (lit. "upādāna") that samsaric existence depends upon. Yogācāra thought thus holds that being unaware of the processes going on in the "ālaya-vijñāna" is an important element of ignorance ("avidya"). The "ālaya" is also individual, so that each person has their own "ālaya-vijñāna," which is an ever changing process and therefore not a permanent self. According to Williams, this consciousness "seen as a defiled form of consciousness (or perhaps sub- or unconsciousness), is personal, individual, continually changing and yet serving to give a degree of personal identity and to explain why it is that certain karmic results pertain to this particular individual. The seeds are momentary, but they give rise to a perfumed series which eventually culminates in the result including, from seeds of a particular type, the whole ‘inter-subjective’ phenomenal world." Also, Asanga and Vasubandhu write that the "ālaya-vijñāna" ‘ceases’ at awakening, becoming transformed into a pure consciousness.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Waldron, while there were various similar concepts in other Buddhist Abhidharma schools which sought to explain karmic continuity, the "ālaya-vijñāna" is the most comprehensive and systematic. Waldron notes that the "ālaya-vijñāna" concept was probably influenced by these theories, particularly the Sautrantika theory of seeds and Vasumitra's theory of a subtle form of mind "(suksma-citta)".


title: Yogachara

text: For Kalupahana, this classification of "ālayavijñāna" and "manas" as an eighth and seventh category of consciousness is based on a misunderstanding of Vasubandhu's "Triṃśikaikā-kārikā" by later adherents.


title: Yogachara

text: According to scholar Roger R. Jackson, a "'fundamental unconstructed awareness' ("mūla-nirvikalpa-jñāna")" is "described [...] frequently in Yogacara literature.", According to Kalupahana, instead of positing additional consciousnesses, the Triṃśikaikā-kārikā describes the "transformations" of this consciousness:


title: Yogachara

text: These transformations are threefold according to Kalupahana. The first is the "ālaya" and its seeds, which is the flow or stream of consciousness, without any of the usual projections on top of it. The second transformation is "manana", self-consciousness or "Self-view, self-confusion, self-esteem and self-love". It is "thinking" about the various perceptions occurring in the stream of consciousness". The "ālaya" is defiled by this self-interest. The third transformation is "visaya-vijñapti", the ""concept" of the object". In this transformation the "concept" of objects is created. By creating these concepts human beings become "susceptible to grasping after the object" as if it were a real object ("sad artha") even though it is just a conception ("vijñapti").


title: Yogachara

text: A similar perspective which emphasizes Yogācāra's continuity with early Buddhism is given by Walpola Rahula. According to Rahula, all the elements of this theory of consciousness with its three layers of "Vijñāna" are already found in the Pāli Canon:


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra works often define three basic modes or "natures" ("svabhāva") of experience. Jonathan Gold explains that "the three natures are all one reality viewed from three distinct angles. They are the appearance, the process, and the emptiness of that same apparent entity." According to Paul Williams, "all things which can be known can be subsumed under these Three Natures." Since this schema is Yogācāra's systematic explanation of the Buddhist doctrine of emptiness ("śūnyatā"), each of the three natures are also explained as having a lack of own-nature ("niḥsvabhāvatā")." Vasubandhu's "Trisvabhāva-nirdeśa" gives a brief definition of these three natures: "What appears is the dependent. How it appears is the fabricated. Because of being dependent on conditions. Because of being only fabrication. The eternal non-existence of the appearance as it is appears: That is known to be the perfected nature, because of being always the same. What appears there? The unreal fabrication. How does it appear? As a dual self. What is its nonexistence? That by which the nondual reality is there." In detail, three natures ("trisvabhāva") are:


title: Yogachara

text: The central meaning of emptiness in Yogācāra is a twofold "absence of duality." The first element of this is the unreality of any "conceptual duality" such as "physical" and "non-physical", "self" and "other". To define something conceptually is to divide the world into what it is and what it is not, but the world is a causal flux that does not accord with conceptual constructs. The second element of this is a "perceptual duality" between the sensorium and its objects, between what is "external" and "internal", between subject ("grāhaka," literally "grasper") and object ("grāhya," "grasped"). This is also an unreal superimposition, since there is really no such separation of inner and outer, but an interconnected causal stream of mentality which is falsely divided up.


title: Yogachara

text: An important difference between the Yogācāra conception of emptiness and the Madhyamaka conception is that in classical Yogācāra, emptiness "does exist" and so does consciousness, while Madhyamaka refuses to endorse such existential statements. The "Madhyāntavibhāga" for example, states "there exists the imagination of the unreal ("abhūta-parikalpa"), there is no duality, but there is emptiness, even in this there is that," which indicates that even though the dualistic imagination is unreal and empty, it does exist. Contra Madhyamaka, which was criticized by Vasubandhu and Asaṅga for being nihilistic (see "Vimśatikā" v. 10")", the Yogācāra position is that there is something that exists (the "paratantra-svabhāva" that is mere "vijñapti"), and that it is empty. The "Bodhisattvabhūmi" likewise argues that it is only logical to speak of emptiness if there is "something" (i.e. "dharmatā") that is empty. Thus Asaṅga speaks of emptiness as "the non-existence of the self, and the existence of the no-self."


title: Yogachara

text: The Yogācāra school also gave special significance to the "Lesser Discourse on Emptiness" of the "Āgamas". It is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of emptiness.


title: Yogachara

text: An explanation of the Buddhist doctrine of karma (action) is central to Yogācāra, and the school sought to explain important questions such as how moral actions can have effects on individuals long after that action was done, that is, how karmic causality works across temporal distances. Previous Abhidharma Buddhist schools like the Sautrantika had developed theories of karma based on the notion of "seeds" ("bījā") in the mind stream, which are unseen karmic habits (good and bad) which remain until they meet with the necessary conditions to manifest. Yogācāra adopts and expanded this theory. Yogācāra then posited the "storehouse consciousness" (Sanskrit: "ālayavijñāna"), also known as the basal, or eighth consciousness, as the container of the seeds. It simultaneously acts as a storage place for karmic latencies and as a fertile matrix of predispositions that bring karma to a state of fruition. In the Yogācāra system, all experience without exception is said to result from karma or mental intention ("cetana"), either arising from one's own subliminal seeds or from other minds.


title: Yogachara

text: For Yogācāra, the seemingly external or dualistic world is merely a "by-product" ("adhipati-phala") of karma. The term "vāsanā" ("perfuming") is also used when explaining karma, and Yogācārins were divided on the issue of whether vāsāna and bija were essentially the same, whether the seeds were the effect of the perfuming, or whether the perfuming simply affected the seeds. The type, quantity, quality and strength of the seeds determine where and how a sentient being will be reborn: one's race, sex, social status, proclivities, bodily appearance and so forth. The conditioning of the mind resulting from karma is called "saṃskāra".


title: Yogachara

text: Vasubandhu's "Treatise on Action" ("Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa"), treats the subject of karma in detail from the Yogācāra perspective.


title: Yogachara

text: As the name of the school suggests, meditation practice is central to the Yogācāra tradition. Practice manuals prescribe the practice of mindfulness of body, feelings, thoughts and dharmas in oneself and others, out of which a revolutionary and radically transformative understanding of the non-duality of self and other is said to arise. This process is referred to as "āśraya-parāvṛtti", "overturning the Cognitive Basis", or "revolution of the basis", which refers to "overturning the conceptual projections and imaginings which act as the base of our cognitive actions." This event is seen as the transformation of the basic mode of cognition into "jñāna" (knowledge, direct knowing), which is seen as a non-dual knowledge that is non-conceptual ("nirvikalpa"), i.e., "devoid of interpretive overlay". When this occurs, the eight consciousnesses come to an end and are replaced by direct knowings. According to Lusthaus:Overturning the Basis turns the five sense consciousnesses into immediate cognitions that accomplish what needs to be done ("kṛtyānuṣṭhāna-jñāna"). The sixth consciousness becomes immediate cognitive mastery ("pratyavekṣaṇa-jñāna"), in which the general and particular characteristics of things are discerned just as they are. This discernment is considered nonconceptual ("nirvikalpa-jñāna"). "Manas" becomes the immediate cognition of equality ("samatā-jñāna"), equalizing self and other. When the Warehouse Consciousness finally ceases it is replaced by the Great Mirror Cognition ("Mahādarśa-jñāna") that sees and reflects things just as they are, impartially, without exclusion, prejudice, anticipation, attachment, or distortion. The grasper-grasped relation has ceased. ..."purified" cognitions all engage the world in immediate and effective ways by removing the self-bias, prejudice, and obstructions that had prevented one previously from perceiving beyond one's own narcissistic consciousness. When consciousness ends, true knowledge begins. Since enlightened cognition is nonconceptual its objects cannot be described.


title: Yogachara

text: One of the more controversial teachings espoused by the Yogacara school was an extension of the teachings on seeds and store-conscious. Based on the "Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra" and the "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra", the Yogacara school posited that sentient beings had innate seeds that would make them capable of achieving a particular state of enlightenment and no other. Thus, beings were categorized in 5 ways:


title: Yogachara

text: The fifth class of beings, the Icchantika, were described in various Mahayana sutras as being incapable of achieving Enlightenment, unless in some cases through the aid of a Buddha or Bodhisattva. Nevertheless, the notion was highly criticized by adherents of the Lotus Sutra (e.g. the Tiantai school) and its teaching of universal Buddhahood. This tension appears in East Asian Buddhist history.


title: Yogachara

text: An important debate about the reality of mental appearances within Yogācāra led to its later subdivision into two systems of Alikākāravāda (Tib. "rnam rdzun pa", False Aspectarians) and Satyākāravāda ("rnam bden pa", True Aspectarians) or "Aspectarians" ("ākāra") and "Non-Aspectarians" ("anākāra"). The core issue is whether appearances or “aspects” ("rnam pa, ākāra") of objects in the mind are treated as true ("bden pa, satya") or false ("rdzun pa, alika"). While this division did not exist in the works of the early Yogācāra philosophers, tendencies similar to these views can be discerned in the works of Yogacara thinkers like Dharmapala (c. 530–561?) and Sthiramati (c. 510–570?). According to Yaroslav Komarovski the distinction is:Although Yogācāras in general do not accept the existence of an external material world, according to Satyākāravāda its appearances or “aspects” ("rnam pa, ākāra") reflected in consciousness have a real existence, because they are of one nature with the really existent consciousness, their creator. According to Alikākāravāda, neither external phenomena nor their appearances and/in the minds that reflect them really exist. What exists in reality is only primordial mind ("ye shes, jñāna"), described as self-cognition ("rang rig, svasamvedana/ svasamvitti") or individually self-cognizing primordial mind ("so so(r) rang gis rig pa’i ye shes").


title: Yogachara

text: The main source for the yogic and meditative practices of the Yogācāra school is the encyclopedic "Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra ("YBh", Treatise on the Foundation for Yoga Practitioners)." The YBh presents a structured exposition of the Mahāyāna Buddhist path of "yoga" (here referring to spiritual practice in general) from a Yogācāra perspective and relies in both Āgama/Nikāya texts and Mahāyāna sūtras while also being influenced by Vaibhāṣika Abhidharma. According to some scholars, this text can be traced to communities of "Yogācāras," which initially referred not to a philosophical school, but to groups of meditation specialists whose main focus was Buddhist yoga. Other Yogācāra texts which also discuss meditation and spiritual practice (and show some relationship with the YBh) include the "Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra," the "Madhyāntavibhāga", "Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra, Dharmadharmatāvibhāga" and Asanga's "Mahāyānasaṃgraha".


title: Yogachara

text: The main or basic section of the YBh is structured around seventeen "bhūmis" (explained in fourteen books), which are "foundations" or "groundings" of meditation, referring to "a field of knowledge that the Yogācāra acolyte ought to master in order to be successful in his or her yoga practice." Some of these are doctrinal topics such as the five "vijñānas" (book 1), the "ālayavijñāna", afflictive cognition "(kliṣṭaṃ manaḥ)," the 51 mental factors (book 2)"," and the defilements ("saṃkleśa," book 3). Other books discuss meditation practice proper (books 4, 9, 10, and 12).


title: Yogachara

text: The YBh discusses numerous classic Buddhist topics dealing with the spiritual practice of both Śrāvakayāna and Mahāyāna. Some of the main topics are the eight different forms of dhyāna (meditative absorptions), the three "samādhis", different types of liberation ("vimokṣa"), meditative attainments ("samāpatti") such as "nirodhasamāpatti", the five hindrances ("nivaraṇa"), the various types of foci ("ālambana") or 'images' ("nimitta") used in meditation, the various types of meditation used as antidotes ("pratipakṣa") against the afflictions (like contemplating death, unattractiveness, impermanence, and suffering), the practice of "śamatha" through "the nine aspects of resting the mind" ("navākārā cittasthitiḥ"), the practice of insight ("vipaśyanā"), mindfulness of breathing ("ānāpānasmṛti"), how to understand the four noble truths, the thirty-seven factors of Awakening ("saptatriṃśad bodhipakṣyā dharmāḥ"), the four immeasurables ("apramāṇa"), and how to practice the six perfections ("pāramitā").


title: Yogachara

text: The YBh's "Bodhisattvabhūmi" section discusses the Yogācāra school's specifically Mahāyāna forms of practice which are tailored to bodhisattvas. These figures are seen as spiritual virtuosos who are working on attaining full Buddhahood through a process that can take hundreds of aeons of spiritual development (and countless rebirths). Unlike other books in the YBh (such as the "Śrāvakabhūmi") which are more influenced by Śrāvakayāna texts, the "Bodhisattvabhūmi" is strongly influenced by Mahāyāna works, including the "Prajñāpāramitā" literature.


title: Yogachara

text: The aim of the bodhisattva's practice in the "Bodhisattvabhūmi" is the wisdom ("prajñā") which realizes of the inexpressible Ultimate Reality ("tathata") or the 'thing-in-itself ("vastumatra"), which is essenceless and beyond the duality ("advaya") of existence ("bhāva") and non-existence ("abhāva"). The "Bodhisattvabhūmi" outlines several practices of bodhisattvas, including the six perfections ("pāramitā"), the thirty-seven factors of Awakening, and the four immeasurables. Two key practices which are unique to bodhisattvas in this text are the four investigations ("paryeṣaṇā") and the four correct cognitions ("yathābhūtaparijñāna").


title: Yogachara

text: The four investigations and the corresponding four correct cognitions or knowledges which arise from them are:


title: Yogachara

text: The practice which leads to the realization of the true nature of things is based on the elimination of all conceptual proliferations ("prapañca") and ideations ("saṃjñā") that one superimposes on true reality"." This elimination of concepts and ideas is the basic framework applied by the bodhisattva to all meditative practices. The YBh states:The path of practice shall be correctly followed in order to eliminate that ideation. Through understanding, thoroughly exercised upon all objects of knowledge, [and] by keeping in mind only the ideation that the ideations of all phenomena [are nothing but] adventitious, you should thus repeatedly remove any ideation conducive to the proliferation directed at all phenomena and should consistently dwell on the thing-in-itself by a non-conceptualizing mental state which is focused on grasping only the object perceived without any characteristics. Thus you will obtain the concentration stemming from the lineage of those practicing the pure contemplation of the Tathagata's Supreme Cognition. Even when you practice the meditation on the impurity, you should not relinquish this mental orientation. Likewise when you practice the meditation on friendliness, dependent origination, analysis of elements, mindfulness of breathing, the first absorption and so on up to the station of neither ideation nor non-ideation as well as the bodhisattva's countless meditations, supernatural faculties, contemplations, and attainments, you should not relinquish precisely this mental orientation.


title: Yogachara

text: The three "samādhis" (meditative absorption and unity) are likewise adapted into this new framework. These three are the emptiness ("śūnyatā"), wishlessness ("apraṇihita"), and imagelessness ("ānimitta") "samādhis."


title: Yogachara

text: Another original contribution of the YBh regarding the bodhisattva's practice is the doctrine of the thirteen (or sometimes twelve) abodes or dwellings ("vihāra"). This framework of the bodhisattva's path to awakening is as follows:


title: Yogachara

text: The Yogācāra, along with the Madhyamaka, is one of the two principal philosophical schools of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism, while the Tathāgatagarbha-thought was also influential.


title: Yogachara

text: One of the earliest texts of this tradition is the "Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra" which might be as early as the first or second century CE. It includes new theories such as the basis-consciousness ("ālaya-vijñāna"), and the doctrine of representation-only ("vijñapti-mātra") and the "three natures" ("trisvabhāva"). However, these theories were not completely new, as they have predecessors in older theories held by previous Buddhist schools, such as the Sautrāntika theory of seeds ("bīja") and the Sthavira nikāya's Abhidharma theory of the bhavanga. Richard King has also noted the similarity of the Sautantrika representationalism and the Yogacara:


title: Yogachara

text: The "Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra", as the doctrinal trailblazer of the Yogācāra, inaugurated the paradigm of the Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma, with its own tenets in the "third turning". Yogācāra texts are generally considered part of the third turning along with the relevant sutra. (Some traditions categorize this teaching as within the "fourth turning" of the wheel of Dharma.) Moreover, Yogācāra discourse surveys and synthesizes all three turnings and considers itself as the final definitive explanation of Buddhism. The early layers of the "Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra" also contains very early Yogācāra material, perhaps earlier than the "Saṃdhinirmocana". This work is strongly influenced by Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Dan Lusthaus, the orientation of the Yogācāra school is largely consistent with the thinking of the Pāli nikāyas. It frequently treats later developments in a way that realigns them with earlier versions of Buddhist doctrines. One of the agendas of the Yogācāra school was to reorient the complexity of later refinements in Buddhist philosophy to accord with early Buddhist doctrine.


title: Yogachara

text: However, according to Y. Karunadasa, the exact opposite is true, and the Pali Nikaya's are firmly realist texts that confirm the existence of matter, and the external world:


title: Yogachara

text: If we base ourselves on the Pali Nikayas, then we should be compelled to conclude that Buddhism is realistic. There is no explicit denial anywhere of the external world. Nor is there any positive evidence to show that the world is mind-made or simply a projection of subjective thoughts. That Buddhism recognizes the extra-mental existence of matter and the external world is clearly suggested by the texts. Throughout the discourses it is the language of realism that one encounters. The whole Buddhist practical doctrine and discipline, which has the attainment of Nibbana as its final goal, is based on the recognition of the material world and the conscious living beings living therein.


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra philosophy's systematic exposition owes much to Asaṅga (4th c. CE) and Vasubandhu (4th-5th c. CE).


title: Yogachara

text: Little is known of these figures, but traditional hagiographies state that Asaṅga received Yogācāra teachings from the bodhisattva and future Buddha, Maitreya. Accounts of this are given in the writings of Paramārtha (6th century) and Xuanzang, who reports that important texts like the "Mahāyāna-sūtra-alaṃkāra" and the "Madhyanta-vibhaga" are divinely revealed from Maitreya. Asaṅga went on to write many of the key Yogācāra treatises such as the "Mahāyānasaṃgraha" and the "Abhidharma-samuccaya" as well as other works, although there are discrepancies between the Chinese and Tibetan traditions concerning which works are attributed to him and which to Maitreya.


title: Yogachara

text: Asaṅga also went on to convert his brother Vasubandhu into the Mahāyāna Yogācāra fold. Vasubandhu had been a top scholar of Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika Abhidharma thought, and the "Abhidharmakośakārikā" is his main work which discusses the doctrines of these traditions. Vasubandhu also went on to write important Yogācāra works after his conversion, explaining and defending key Yogācāra doctrines.


title: Yogachara

text: The Yogācāra school held a prominent position in Indian Buddhism for centuries after the time of the two brothers. According to Dan Lusthaus, after Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, two distinct "wings" of the school developed:


title: Yogachara

text: However, the doctrines of the Abhidharmic wing came under increased attack by other Buddhists, especially the notion of "ālaya-vijñāna", which was seen as close to the Hindu ideas of "ātman" and "prakṛti." Because of this, the logical tradition shifted over time to using the term "citta-santāna" instead of "ālaya-vijñāna," since it was easier to defend a "stream" "(santāna)" of thoughts as a doctrine that did not contradict not-self. By the end of the eighth century, the Abhidharma wing had mostly become eclipsed by the logical tradition as well as by a new hybrid school that "combined basic Yogācāra doctrines with "Tathāgatagarbha" thought." According to Lusthaus:the "tathāgatagarbha" hybrid school was no stranger to the charge of smuggling notions of selfhood into its doctrines, since, for example, it explicitly defined "tathāgatagarbha" as "permanent, pleasurable, "self", and pure ("nitya, sukha, ātman, śuddha")." Many "tathāgatagarbha" texts, in fact, argue for the acceptance of selfhood ("ātman") as a sign of higher accomplishment. The hybrid school attempted to conflate "tathāgatagarbha" with the "ālaya-vijñāna". Key works of the hybrid school include the "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra", "Ratnagotravibhāga" ("Uttaratantra"), and in China the "Awakening of Faith." This syncretic form of Yogācāra-Tathāgatagarbha became extremely influential in both East Asia and Tibet. During the sixth and seventh centuries, various forms of Yogācāra dominated the Chinese Buddhist landscape such as orthodox forms and hybrid Tathāgatagarbha forms. There were feuds between these two approaches. The translator Bodhiruci (6th century CE) for example, took an orthodox approach while the Ratnamati was attracted to Tathāgatagarbha thought and sought to translate texts like the Dasabhumika sutra in conformity with his understanding. Their disagreement on this issue led to the end of their collaboration as co-translators. The translator Paramārtha is another example of a hybrid thinker. He promoted a new theory that said there was a ninth form of consciousness, the "amala-vijñāna" (a pure "vijñāna"), which is revealed once the "ālaya-vijñāna" is eliminated. He also associated his theory with Tathāgatagarbha ideas.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Lusthaus, Xuanzang's travels to India and his composition of the "Cheng Weishi Lun" was an attempt to return to a more "orthodox" and "authentic" Indian Yogācāra and thus put to rest the debates and confusions in the Chinese Yogācāra of his time. The "Cheng Weishi Lun" returns to the use of the theory of seeds instead of the "tathāgatagarbha" to explain the phenomena that "tathāgatagarbha" is supposed to explain (that is, the potentiality for Buddhahood). However, Lusthaus writes that in the eighth century, this 'schism' was finally settled "in favor of a hybrid version, which became definitive for all subsequent forms of East Asian Buddhism." Later Chinese thinkers like Fa-Tsang would thus criticize Xuanzang for failing to teach the "tathāgatagarbha" in his system.


title: Yogachara

text: Karl Brunnhölzl notes that this syncretic tendency also existed in India, but that:it seems that Yogācāra masters generally adopted the notion of "tathāgatagarbha" in accordance with the Uttaratantra only later, when Buddhist tantra with its very similar notions of ground tantra and all beings’ primordially being buddhas was flourishing. Examples of such Yogācāras include Jñānaśrīmitra, Ratnākaraśānti, and the authors of several commentaries on the "prajñaparamita" from a Yogācāra perspective.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Tibetan sources, this school was in protracted dialectic with the Madhyamaka tradition. However, there is disagreement among contemporary Western and traditional Buddhist scholars about the degree to which they were opposed, if at all. The main difference deals with issues of existence and the nature of emptiness. While Madhyamaka works state that asserting the existence or non-existence of anything was inappropriate (including emptiness), Yogācāra treatises often assert that the dependent nature ("paratantra-svabhāva") really exists and that emptiness is an "actual absence" that also exists. For example, the "Madhyāntavibhāga" clearly asserts that "the imagination of the nonexistent ["abhūta-parikalpa"] exists. In it duality does not exist. Emptiness, however, exists in it." Classical Yogācāra thinkers like Asaṅga and Vasubandhu critiqued Madhyamikas who "adhere to non-existence" ("nāstikas, vaināśkas") because they saw them as straying into nihilism ("ucchedavāda"). They held that there was really something which could be said to "exist", that is, "vijñapti," and that was what is described as being "empty" their system.


title: Yogachara

text: The position that Yogācāra and Madhyamaka were in dialectic was expounded by Xuanzang in the 7th century. After a suite of debates with exponents of the Madhyamaka school in India, Xuanzang composed in Sanskrit the no longer extant three-thousand verse treatise "The Non-difference of Madhyamaka and Yogācāra".


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra and Madhyamaka philosophers demonstrated two opposing tendencies throughout the history of Buddhist philosophy in India, one which worked to separate and distance the two systems and one tendency which worked towards harmonizing them. The harmonizing tendency can be seen in the work of philosophers like Jñānagarbha (8th century), his student Śāntarakṣita (8th century) and also in the work of the Yogācāra thinker Ratnakaraksanti (c. 1000). These thinkers also saw the Yogācāra "Alikākāravāda" ("false aspectarian", those Yogācāras who believe that mental appearances are false or don't ultimately exist) view as the highest. Śāntarakṣita (8th century), whose view was later called "Yogācāra-Svatantrika-Madhyamaka" by the Tibetan tradition, saw the Mādhyamika position as ultimately true and at the same time saw the Yogācāra view as a useful way to relate to conventionalities and progress students more skillfully toward the ultimate. This synthesized view between the two positions, and also incorporated the views of valid cognition ("pramana") from Dignāga and Dharmakīrti.


title: Yogachara

text: Later Tibetan Buddhist thinkers like Shakya Chokden would also work to show the compatibility of the Alikākāravāda sub-school with Madhyamaka, arguing that it is in fact a form of Madhyamaka. Likewise, the Seventh Karmapa Chödrak Gyamtso has a similar view which holds that the "profound important points and intents" of the two systems are one. Ju Mipham is also another Tibetan philosopher whose project is aimed as showing the harmony between Yogacara and Madhyamaka, arguing that there is only a very subtle difference between them, being a subtle clinging by Yogacaras to the existence of an "inexpressible, naturally luminous cognition" ("rig pa rang bzhin gyis ’od gsal ba").


title: Yogachara

text: Translations of Indian Yogācāra texts were first introduced to China in the early 5th century CE. Among these was Guṇabhadra's translation of the "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra" in four fascicles, which would also become important in the early history of Chan Buddhism. During the sixth century, the Indian monk and translator Paramārtha (真諦 ; 499–569) widely propagated Yogācāra teachings in China, among monks and laypersons. His translations include the "Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra", the "Madhyāntavibhāga-kārikā", the "Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā", and the "Mahāyānasaṃgraha".


title: Yogachara

text: Xuanzang (fl. c. 602 – 664) is often seen as the most important founder of East Asian Yogācāra. At the age of 33, Xuanzang made a dangerous journey to India in order to study Buddhism and procure texts for later translation. Dan Lusthaus writes that Xuanzang had come to the conclusion that issues of dispute in Chinese Buddhism could be resolved with the availability of important texts like the "Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra".


title: Yogachara

text: Xuanzang spent over ten years in India traveling and studying under various Buddhist masters. Lusthaus writes that during this time, Xuanzang discovered that the manner in which Buddhists understood and interpreted texts was much richer and more varied than the Chinese materials had previously indicated, and drew meaning from a broad cultural context. Xuanzang's teachers included Śīlabhadra, the abbot of Nālandā, who was then 106 years old and who tutored him for 10 years. Upon his return from India, Xuanzang brought with him 657 Buddhist texts, including important Yogācāra works such as the "Yogācārabhūmi". He was given government support and many assistants for the purpose of translating these texts into Chinese.


title: Yogachara

text: As an important contribution to East Asian Yogācāra, Xuanzang composed the "Cheng Weishi Lun", or "Discourse on the Establishment of Consciousness Only." This work is framed around Vasubandhu's "Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā", or "Thirty Verses on Consciousness Only." In his commentary, Xuanzang upheld Dharmapāla's commentary on this work as being the correct one, and provided his own explanations of these as well as other views. This work was composed at the behest of Xuanzang's disciple Kuījī (632–682), and became a central work of East Asian Yogācāra. Xuanzang also promoted devotional meditative practices toward Maitreya. Xuanzang's disciple Kuiji wrote a number of important commentaries on Yogācāra texts and further developed the influence of this doctrine in China. He was recognized by later adherents as the first true patriarch of the school.


title: Yogachara

text: The tradition was also brought to Korea (where it is known as "Beopsang") and Japan (where it is known as "Hossō"). Principal exponents of Yogācāra in Korea include Daehyeon (大賢), Sinhaeng (神行 ; 704–779), Woncheuk (圓測 ; 631–696) and Wonhyo (元曉 ; 원효 ; 617 - 686), while in Japan they include Chitsū (智通) and Chidatsu (智達) of the Kusha-shū school, Dosho (道昭), Jokei (貞慶), (善珠), Tokuitsu (徳一).


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra was first transmitted to Tibet by Śāntarakṣita, Kamalaśīla and Atiśa and Yogācāra thought is an integral part of the history of Tibetan Buddhism. Yogācāra is studied in all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, though it receives different emphasis in each.


title: Yogachara

text: Like the Chinese tradition, the Tibetan Nyingma school and its Dzogchen teachings promote a hybrid form of Yogācāra-Tathāgatagarbha. The Jonang school meanwhile developed its own systematic view which they termed "shentong" ("other-voidness" ), which included elements from Yogācāra, Madhyamaka and Tathāgatagarbha. They considered this view to be definitive, in contrast to the "rangtong" ("self-voidness" or prasaṅgika, ), comprising both Svatantrika and Prasaṅgika Madhyamaka.


title: Yogachara

text: Although Je Tsongkhapa (whose reforms to Atiśa's Kadam tradition are generally considered the beginnings of the Gelug school) argued in favour of Yogācāra views (specifically regarding the existence and functioning of eight consciousnesses) early in his career, the prevailing Gelug view eventually came to hold Yogācāra views as a matter of interpretable meaning, therefore distinct from Madhyamaka which was held to be of definitive meaning.


title: Yogachara

text: Current discussions between Tibetan scholars regarding the differences between shentong and rangtong views may therefore appear similar to historical debates between Yogācāra and Madhyamaka, but the specific distinctions have, in fact, evolved much further. Although later Tibetan views may be said to have evolved from the earlier Indian positions, the distinctions between the views have become increasingly subtle and complex, especially as Tibetan Yogācāra has evolved to incorporate Madhyamaka and Tathāgatagarbha philosophies. Jamgon Ju Mipham Gyatso, the 19th-century Rimé movement commentator, wrote in his commentary on Śāntarakṣita's synthesis, that the ultimate view in both schools is the same, and that each path leads to the same ultimate state of abiding.


title: Yogachara

text: The "Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra" ("Sūtra of the Explanation of the Profound Secrets"; 2nd century CE), was the seminal Yogācāra sutra and continued to be a primary referent for the tradition.


title: Yogachara

text: Another text, the "Mahāyānābhidharmasūtra" is often quoted in Yogācāra works and is assumed to also be an early Yogācāra sutra"."


title: Yogachara

text: The "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra" also later assumed considerable importance in East Asia, and portions of this text were considered by Étienne Lamotte as being contemporaneous with the "Saṃdhinirmocana". This text equates the Yogācāra theory of "ālayavijñāna" with the "Tathāgatagarbha" and thus seems to be part of the tradition which sought to merge Yogācāra with "Tathāgatagarbha" thought.


title: Yogachara

text: Some of the earliest Yogācāra material can be found in the "Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra," such as the doctrines of "ālayavijñāna and āśrayaparāvṛtti." This text, a massive encyclopedic work on yogic praxis, is traditionally attributed to Asaṅga (4th century) or Maitreya, but most scholars (such as Schmithausen and Aramaki) believe it contains the work of many authors, and its components reflect various stages of historical development. Most of its material is non-Mahayana and according to Lusthaus, it draws extensively from on the Āgamas. Nevertheless, Asaṅga may still have influenced its development.


title: Yogachara

text: Authorship of several major Yogācāra treatises or śāstras are ascribed to Asaṅga, a major doctrinal systematizer of the school. Among them are his magnum opus, the "Mahāyānasaṃgraha" and also a compendium of Yogācāra Abhidharma, the "Abhidharma-samuccaya".


title: Yogachara

text: Asaṅga's brother Vasubandhu is also considered to be an important Yogācāra figure. He wrote various important śāstras"," including the "Trisvabhāva-nirdeśa" (Treatise on the Three Natures), "Viṃśaṭikā-kārikā" (Treatise in Twenty Stanzas), "Triṃśikā-kārikā" (Treatise in Thirty Stanzas), "Vyākhyāyukti" ("Proper Mode of Exposition"), "Karmasiddhiprakarana" ("A Treatise on Karma"), and the "Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa" (Explanation of the Five Aggregates). According to Jay Garfield, the "Trisvabhāva-nirdeśa" is "arguably one of the most philosophically detailed and comprehensive" work on the three natures by Vasubandhu.


title: Yogachara

text: Vasubandhu also wrote a large systematic work on Abhidharma, the "Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya," which remains influential in Tibet and East Asia. According to Robert Kritzer, though this work is traditionally seen as being based on Sarvastivada and Sautrantika Abhidharma, it also contains Yogācāra influences drawn from the "Yogācārabhūmi."


title: Yogachara

text: According to Williams, there is a fairly early Yogācāra work surviving in Sanskrit called the "Alokamala" (‘Garland of Light’) of Kambala (c. 450–525), which "gives of a form of Yogācāra just prior to the vigorous critical Madhyamika response to it represented by the works of Bhavaviveka." Williams also notes that this work "tries to harmonize where possible the Madhyamika position with that of Yogācāra."


title: Yogachara

text: Important commentaries on various Yogācāra texts were written by Sthiramati (6th century) and Dharmapala of Nalanda (6th century), who represent different subschools of the tradition. The Indian Buddhist logician Dignāga (c. 480– 540 CE) wrote an important Yogācāra work, the "Alambanapariksa" and its "vrtti" (commentary). The work of Dharmakirti also shows Yogācāra influence.


title: Yogachara

text: The Chinese figure of Xuanzang (602-664) wrote a commentary ("Ch' eng wei shih lun", Skt. reconstruction: "Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi*") on the "Trimsikā" of Vasubandhu, for which he used numerous Indian commentaries, favoring the work of Dharmapala. In the East Asian Yogācāra tradition, this is the central work on Yogācāra philosophy.


title: Yogachara

text: Besides the works of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu outlined above, the Yogācāra tradition as it is understood in Tibetan Buddhism is also based on a series of texts called the "Five Dharmas of Maitreya". These are the "Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra, Dharmadharmatāvibhāga, Madhyāntavibhāgakārikā, Abhisamayalankara" and the "Ratnagotravibhaga." These texts are traditionally said to have been related to Asaṅga by the Bodhisattva Maitreya from Tusita Heaven. According to D.S. Ruegg, the "five works of Maitreya" are mentioned in Sanskrit sources from only the 11th century onwards. As noted by S.K. Hookham and Paul Williams, their attribution to a single author has been questioned by modern scholars, especially the "Abhisamayalankara" and the "Ratnagotravibhaga" (which focuses on "tathāgatagarbha"). There are also various commentaries on these texts from Indian and Tibetan authors that are important in the Tibetan scholastic tradition.


title: Yogachara

text: According to Karl Brunnholzl, the Chinese tradition also speaks of five Maitreya texts (first mentioned in Dunlun's "Yujia lunji"), "but considers them as consisting of the "Yogācārabhūmi, *Yogavibhāga" [now lost]", Mahāyānasūtrālamkārakā, Madhyāntavibhāga" and the "Vajracchedikākāvyākhyā.""


title: Yogachara

text: According to Lusthaus, Étienne Lamotte, a famous student of Louis de La Vallée-Poussin, "...profoundly advanced Yogācāra studies, and his efforts remain unrivaled among Western scholars."


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra has also been identified in the western philosophical tradition as idealism, or more specifically subjective idealism. This equation was standard until recently, when it began to be challenged by scholars such as Kochumuttom, Anacker, Kalupahana, Dunne, Lusthaus, Powers, and Wayman. Buddhist scholar Jay Garfield continues to uphold the equation of Yogācāra and idealism, however. To the same effect, Nobuyoshi Yamabe states that "Dignāga also clearly inherited the idealistic system of Yogācāra." Like many contemporary scholars, Yamabe is aware that the texts considered to be Yogācāra treatises reflect various stages in addressing the issue of mind and matter.


title: Yogachara

text: Yogācāra has also been aligned with phenomenalism. In modern western philosophical discourse, Edmund Husserl and Maurice Merleau-Ponty have approached what western scholarship generally concedes to be a standard Yogācāra position.


title: Yogachara

text: There are two important aspects of the Yogācāra schemata that are of special interest to modern-day practitioners. One is that virtually all schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism came to rely on these Yogācāra explanations as they created their own doctrinal systems, including the Zen schools. For example, the early Zen tradition in China was sometimes referred to simply as the " school" (Ch. 楞伽宗, "Léngqié Zōng"), due to their strong association with the '. This sūtra draws heavily upon Yogācāra theories of the eight consciousnesses, especially the '. Accounts recording the history of this early period are preserved in "Records of the Masters" (Ch. 楞伽師資記, "Léngqié Shīzī Jì").


title: Yogachara

text: That the scriptural tradition of Yogācāra is not yet well known among the community of western practitioners is perhaps attributable to the fact that most of the initial transmission of Buddhism to the west has been directly concerned with meditation and basic doctrines. However, within Tibetan Buddhism more and more western students are becoming acquainted with this school. Very little research in English has been carried out on the Chinese Yogācāra traditions.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: The 2021–22 European windstorm season was the seventh instance of seasonal European windstorm naming in Europe. This was the third season in which the Netherlands participated, alongside the meteorological agencies of Ireland and the United Kingdom (Western Group). The season's storm names were released on 1 September 2021. Storms that occurred up until 31 August 2022 were included in this season. The Portuguese, Spanish, French and Belgian meteorological agencies collaborated again, for the fifth time, joined by the Luxembourg meteorological agency (South-western Group). This was the first season when Greece, Israel and Cyprus (Eastern Mediterranean group), and Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Malta (Central Mediterranean Group) named storms which affected their areas.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: In 2015, the Met Office and Met Éireann announced a pilot project to name storm warnings as part of the "Name our Storms" project for wind storms and asked the public for suggestions. The meteorological offices produced a full list of names for 2015–2016 through to 2017–2018, common to both the United Kingdom and Ireland, with the Netherlands taking part from 2019 onwards. Names in the United Kingdom will be based on the National Severe Weather Warning Service, when a storm is assessed to have the potential for an Amber ('be prepared') or Red ('take action (danger to life)') warning.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: There are multiple regional naming lists: one created by the national meteorological agencies of the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Netherlands, another created by the equivalent agencies from France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium and Luxembourg. This season saw the addition of two groups in southern and south eastern Europe, grouped along the Mediterranean. As in previous years, former Atlantic hurricanes retained their names as assigned by the National Hurricane Center of the United States.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: From the autumn of 2021, the names issued by other meteorological services were included on the charts of the Berlin Wetterkarte and Free University of Berlin using the prefix "int." under the EUMETNET umbrella.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: The following names were chosen for the 2021–2022 season in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the Netherlands.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: This was the fifth year in which the meteorological agencies of France, Spain and Portugal named storms that affected their areas. The naming scheme partially overlapped that used by the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Netherlands, as storms named by the other group of agencies were used reciprocally.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: This was the first year in which the meteorological agencies of Greece, Israel and Cyprus named storms that affected their areas. The naming scheme partially overlapped that used by the France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium and Luxembourg, as storms named by the other group of agencies were used reciprocally.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: This was the first year in which the meteorological agencies of Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Malta named storms or former cyclones that affected their areas. Storms or cyclones named by the other group of agencies were used reciprocally.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: The naming strategy for the Northern group (Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden) is slightly different than the other groups, as names are not announced beforehand to prevent the names being used before a storm formally qualifies. Storms or former cyclones named by the other group of agencies were used reciprocally, unless the names used in other groups were not pronounceable in the local language. However, if a Northern group storm was used to overwrite another storm like Eunice, it was not added to the overall total of storms within the 2021–22 European windstorm season, as they were the same storms with different names. This was the case for storm Eunice, which was named Nora in Denmark (and so the latter name is not listed below).


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: All storms named by meteorological organisation in Europe from their respected forecasting areas. As well as Atlantic hurricanes and storms that transitioned into a European windstorm and retained its name as assigned by the National Hurricane Center in Miami, Florida:


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: A depression formed on 4 October in the western Mediterranean and was named "Christian" by the Free University of Berlin. It was named Storm "Athina" by Hellenic National Meteorological Service on 6 October and intensified when it arrived in southern Italy on 8 October. The system then passed into the Ionian Sea before dissipating on the 9th.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: In central Italy, "Athina" caused record rainfall in Liguria with 496 mm in Savona in just 6 hours, breaking the record of 472 mm in November 2011. The main roads of the island of Corfu turned into rivers, the basements were flooded, power outages occurred, small landslides occurred and firefighter interventions were required with the storm front rains preceding the system.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Ballos was named by Hellenic National Meteorological Service on 13 October, heavy rain and floods in Athens on October 15 and some of the islands have been reported. Heavy rain was predicted for 15 October in Eastern Macedonia and Thrace and a red alert with heavy rain and severe thunderstorms in North Aegean islands (meteoalarm).


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: A storm, named "Hendrik" by the Free University of Berlin on 16 October, developed over the northern Atlantic Ocean. Another developing low south of Ireland was called "Aurore" by Meteo France on 20 October. Passing over the south of England the following night, Aurore generated very strong south-westerly winds and heavy rains from Brittany to the Grand Est in France, then central Europe as it merged with Hendrik over western Europe. An orange alert for wind was issued by meteorological services in western Europe, and even red for parts of southern and eastern Germany. The system reached northern Russia on 22 October and dissipated in northern Siberia the next day.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Aurore/Hendrik brought widespread gusts of from northern France to eastern Germany and beyond, reaching speeds of in Fécamp in Normandy. Fallen trees disrupted train service in several countries. Two tornadoes touched down in the Netherlands, in Brittany (France), three possible tornadoes were reported in Plozévet, Riec-sur-Belon and Kernascléden. and in Germany, another tornado touched down near Kiel.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Four people were killed in Poland. One death was reported in Germany. and another in the United Kingdom. Around 250,000 clients lost electricity in France and 275,000 in the Czech Republic.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Cyclone Apollo was a Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone that affected many countries on the Mediterranean coast, especially Italy and Libya. The storm killed at least 5 people and left 2 others missing due to flooding from the cyclone, in the countries of Tunisia, Algeria, Malta, and Italy, where the worst of the effects have been felt, especially on the island of Sicily.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Around 22 October 2021, an area of organized thunderstorms formed near the Balearic Islands, with the disturbance becoming more organized and developing an area of low pressure around 24 October. On the next day, the low started to develop a low-level circulation center, and moved into the Tyrrhenian Sea. On 28 October, the system organized even further and intensified, which prompted forecast offices in Europe to name the low. Italy's Servizio Meteorologico named the storm "Apollo" (which was then adopted by the Free University of Berlin). On 29 October 2021, a ship in the Mediterranean Sea passed through Apollo and measured a peak wind speed of and a pressure of , indicating that Apollo is still strengthening. After Apollo made its closest approach to Sicily during the overnight hours of October 29, Apollo appeared to have begun to weaken as its convection waned and its low-level circulation became exposed on visible satellite imagery on 30 October 2021, on 31 October 2021, Apollo made landfall near Bayda and stayed inland until emerging over the Mediterranean a few hours later.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Heavy rain from the cyclone and its precursor caused heavy rainfall and flooding in Tunisia, Algeria, Southern Italy, and Malta, killing 5 people and leaving 2 other people missing. The flooding was especially severe in the provinces of Catania and Siracusa, in Eastern Sicily.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: On November 5, the Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET) started tracking a low near the Balearic Islands and named it "Blas". An orange alert was issued for these islands, for coastal phenomena and rain. The north of Catalonia was declared an Orange Zone, as strong winds blew inland from the Spanish Navarre and Aragon. Météo-France has also issued a yellow alert for Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales for wind, as well as Corsica for rain.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: As the system stalled between Sardinia and the Balearic Islands on November 8, AEMET predicted a strengthening for the next two days and maintained its alerts. At 00:00 UTC on 11 November, the system was again very close to the Balearic Islands. After striking the islands again, the storm then slowly weakened while drifting back towards the southeast. On 14 November, the cyclone turned northward, moving over Sardinia and Corsica, before curving back southwest on 15 November and moving over Sardinia again, while strengthening in the process. On 16 November, Blas turned eastward once again, passing just south of Sardinia and moving towards Italy, before dissipating over the Tyrrhenian Sea on 18 November.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: On November 6, gusts of were recorded at Es Mercadal and at the lighthouse of Capdepera in the Balearic Islands where waves of hit the coast. Menorca was cut off from the world after the closure of the ports of Mahón and Ciutadella. On November 9 and 10, "Blas" again brought high winds and heavy rain to the Balearic Islands, causing at least 36 incidents, mostly flooding, landslides and blackouts. A crew member had to be rescued after his sailboat's mast broke, leaving the boat adrift west of Soller.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: On November 6, a waterspout was reported in Melilla, a Spanish enclave on the coast of Morocco. In France, gusts of were noted on November7 at Cap Béar, as well as in Leucate and in Lézignan-Corbières.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: The storm caused severe weather on the Algerian coast with exceptional rainfall. On November 9, a building collapsed in Algiers following torrential rains on the city, causing the deaths of three people. On November 11, the heavy rain continuing on Algiers caused another landslide on houses in the Raïs Hamidou neighborhood, causing the deaths of three other persons.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Arwen was named by the Met Office on 25 November 2021. Red warnings for wind were issued for north-eastern parts of the UK, as well as extensive amber and yellow warnings for much of Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and most of England. Dangerous waves were also forecasted causing disruption to ferry services. At 17:00 UTC on 26 November, Network Rail closed the rail lines north of Berwick-upon-Tweed and LNER stopped running trains north of Newcastle. More than 120 lorries were stuck in heavy snow on the M62 in Greater Manchester, with the motorway shut by police while ploughs and gritters led the rescue effort. The storm closed the entire Tyne and Wear Metro network which said in statement "this is the worst winter storm to hit metro in 41 years of operations".


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Dozens of crashes were reported by police agencies across the UK, many roads were closed due to fallen trees, snow or ice, and more than 130,000 homes were without power on a cold night in the north.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: A man in the Northern Irish town of Antrim died when a falling tree hit his car. Another man was hit and killed by a falling tree in Cumbria and a third man died after his pick-up truck was struck by a falling tree in Aberdeenshire.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: The live broadcasts and filming of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" on 26, 27 and 28 November at Gwrych Castle in Wales were affected as a result of the storm.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Barra was named by the Met Éireann and the Met Office on 5 December 2021. Met Éireann confirmed the storm was named after the BBC Northern Ireland weatherman Barra Best. The storm brought strong winds and rain across much of Ireland and the UK on 6 and 7 December, with the rain turning to snow across northern England and Scotland. Winds were recorded up to of the coast of southern Ireland.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Carmel was named by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service on 16 December 2021. In Israel, a person died due to a car crash, and three more died of hypothermia, bringing the death toll to four while a man suffered serious injuries from a falling tree. Flood warnings were put in place in Israel and snow fell in the mountains.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Diomedes was named by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service on 10 January 2022. The storm dropped snowfall and heavy rainfall to Greece, causing some rivers to overflow.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Elpis was named on 21 January 2022. The Hellenic National Meteorological Service reported that a land spout occurred on Andros due to the storm. Elpis is expected to impact Israel on January 26. The storm also killed 3 people, with 18 injured after thousands were trapped in a snowstorm in Turkey.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: On 28 January, Storm Malik was named by the Danish Meteorological Institute (a part of the Northern Europe storm naming group), after the Greenlandic name that also means "wave". In Finland and Germany, which are not part of the storm naming groups, it was named Valtteri by the Finnish Meteorological Institute, while the Free University of Berlin named the same system as Nadia.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Three fatalities were reported due to Storm Malik in the United Kingdom: a 60-year-old woman in Aberdeen, Scotland and a 9-year-old boy in Staffordshire, England. Both were hit by falling trees. A 32-year-old man died in a traffic accident related to the storm in Scotland. In Denmark, a 78-year-old woman died from injuries sustained when a door she opened was caught by the wind and she fell. In Germany, a person in Beelitz was killed when hit by a poster that had come loose and in Poland a person was killed when a tree fell on a moving car in Wejherowo County. In the Czech Republic, a worker died after being buried by a wall. More than 680,000 people were left without power in Poland and in the United Kingdom around 130,000 lost power.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: In Sweden around 40,000 households lost power, mostly in the south. Two teenagers were also injured in the southern Swedish region of Scania when their car was hit by a falling tree. In the city of Malmö, many facade panels from the Turning Torso building fell. In the Västra Hamnen (The West Harbour) area a crane from a construction site got overturned and landed close to a bus stop full of people however nobody was injured. A second crane got overturned in the city of Malmö and landed on parked cars. Another crane got overturned in the city of Södertälje south of Stockholm and landed on a hospital but only caused slight damage to windows in the ICU section. Many trees fell throughout southern Sweden. Many trees also fell in Norrtälje, a town north of Stockholm which was hit by another similar storm back in January 2019 called Alfrida.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: The storm caused damage to the Lithuanian coast as well, with local authorities calling it the "worst storm since Cyclone Anatol in 1999". The storm reached winds of with gusts of . The storm did not cause any fatalities, but considerably damaged infrastructure and protective dunes along the Curonian Spit.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Corrie was named on 29 January 2022 by the Met Office. Storm Corrie prompted Amber wind warnings to be issued for the northeast of Scotland. A peak gust of was recorded on the east coast of Scotland. A wider yellow warning was issued for most of the east coast of England down to the north coast of Norfolk.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: In the Netherlands, the combination of Storm Corrie and a high tide forecast in the North Sea led to the decision to close the Oosterscheldekering.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Dudley was named on 14 February 2022 by the Met Office. An amber warning was issued towards parts of Scotland and Northern England on Wednesday, 16 February. The same system has been named by the Free University of Berlin as "Ylenia". On February 17, a tornado confirmed by the European Severe Storms Laboratory touched down in Poland causing damage to buildings. A man in Western Poland near Gorzów Wielkopolski died when a tree fell on his car. Another two men were killed when a crane fell on them in Kraków and two other people were seriously injured in the same accident. caused by a tornado. At least 11 tornadoes were spawned by Dudley in Poland. Three people died in Germany, two in Lithuania and one in the United Kingdom.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Eunice was named on 14 February 2022 by the Met Office. An amber weather warning was issued on 16 February for Southern England, The Midlands and parts of Northern England. The same day, the Free University of Berlin named the extratropical cyclone as "Zeynep". A red weather warning was subsequently issued on 17 February for parts of south-west England and south Wales, meaning a danger to life from flying debris. A second, rare red warning was issued for the south-east of the United Kingdom including London, Kent, Essex, and Suffolk. On the Isle of Wight, wind gusts of up to 122 mph were recorded, making it the strongest wind gust ever recorded in England.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: At least 17 fatalities have been recorded due to Storm Eunice. A person was killed in County Wexford, Ireland by a falling tree, while a woman died in London, England after a tree fell on her car; several other people were injured by flying debris and falling trees in the UK. Elsewhere in the UK, a man died in Merseyside after debris hit his windscreen and another man died in Alton, Hampshire after his pick-up truck collided with a tree. In mainland Europe, 13 deaths occurred: four in the Netherlands, two in Belgium, four in Poland, and three in Germany.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Franklin ( by the FUB in Germany) was named on 20 February 2022 by the Met Office. It was expected to bring strong winds to Northern Ireland in the early hours of 21 February, with wind speeds reaching 100–125 km/h (60-80 mph) and likely causing power cuts, damage to buildings, flying debris and danger to life. The Met Office announced that, since 2015 when storm-naming began in the United Kingdom, it was the first time that three named storms had been declared in a seven-day period.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Met Éireann issued several Status Orange wind warnings for western and northern counties, with strong winds, rain, sleet and localised flooding expected.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: On 21 February, "Le Monde" reported on the death of a couple near the English Channel in Manche (Bricqueville-sur-Mer).


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Bianca was named on 25 February by the Italian meteorological service, and later affected Greece from 26 to 28 February.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Filippos was named on 8 March by the Greek meteorological service. The storm was characterised by a cold wave and snowfall in Greece. On March 13 the lowest temperature recorded was -16,8°C at Mavrolithari, Phocis.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Celia was named on 13 March because of its impacts across Portugal, Spain and Morocco, including heavy rain and accumulation of Saharan dust in parts of Spain. The same system was named "Elke" by Germany's FUB.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: The Saharan dust was deposited as far north as south-eastern England due to storm being centred over north Africa and the anti-cyclonic winds carrying the sand north.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Ciril was named on 30 March. Also named "Katharina" by the FUB, it is expected to affect southern Europe and the Adriatic coast.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Diego was named on 6 April by Météo-France. It did not impact Portugal directly but is expected to bring heavy rain and strong winds to parts of the Iberian Peninsula and France, with the latter expecting gusts of 120 kph from the storm. The same system was named "Ortrud" by the FUB.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Evelyn was named on 7 April by Portugal's weather bureau, the Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera. Storm Evelyn was expected to impact mainland Portugal on April 10 bringing gusty conditions as well as heavy rainfall on April 10 and 11. The storm, which was named "Pamela" by FUB, was also expected to affect Ireland and UK.


title: 2021–22 European windstorm season

text: Storm Genesis was named on 9 June 2022 by Greek meteorological service. According to an Emergency Report of Dangerous Weather Phenomena released on Thursday by the national meteorological service, the low pressure front now over Italy is moving southeast and will affect western, central, and northern Greece from Thursday into Saturday with strong rain and storms accompanied by hail, lightning, and strong winds.


title: Bantam Books

text: Bantam Books is an American publishing house owned entirely by parent company Random House, a subsidiary of Penguin Random House; it is an imprint of the Random House Publishing Group. It was formed in 1945 by Walter B. Pitkin, Jr., Sidney B. Kramer, and Ian and Betty Ballantine, with funding from Grosset & Dunlap and Curtis Publishing Company. It has since been purchased several times by companies including National General, Carl Lindner's American Financial and, most recently, Bertelsmann; it became part of Random House in 1998, when Bertelsmann purchased it to form Bantam Doubleday Dell. It began as a mass market publisher, mostly of reprints of hardcover books, with some original paperbacks as well. It expanded into both trade paperback and hardcover books, including original works, often reprinted in house as mass-market editions.


title: Bantam Books

text: The company was failing when Oscar Dystel, who had previously worked at Esquire and as editor on Coronet magazine was hired in 1954 to manage it. By the end of the next year the company was profitable. Dystel retired as chairman in 1980. By that time Bantam was the largest publisher of paperbacks, had over 15% of the market, and exceeded 100 million in sales.


title: Bantam Books

text: In 1964, Grosset & Dunlap acquired full ownership of Bantam from Curtis. In 1968, Grosset & Dunlap was acquired by conglomerate National General, run by Gene Klein. National General was acquired by American Financial Group in 1973. American Financial sold Bantam to the Italian firm IFI in 1974. Bertelsmann acquired half of Bantam in 1977 and assumed full ownership in 1980. In 1986, Bertelsmann acquired Doubleday & Company and created the holding Bantam Doubleday Dell. In 1998, Bertelsmann acquired Random House from Advance Publications; Random House became the name of the holding company. After the merger, Bantam was merged with Dell Publishing. Bantam Dell became part of the Random House publishing group in 2008. Ballantine Books was merged with Bantam Dell in 2010. In 2013, Random House merged with Penguin to form Penguin Random House.


title: Bantam Books

text: Bantam has published the entire original run of the "Choose Your Own Adventure" series of children's books, as well as the first original novels based upon the "Star Trek" franchise, publishing about a dozen such books between 1970 and 1982, when the license was taken over by Pocket Books. Bantam also published a dozen volumes of short story adaptations of scripts from "." Bantam was the former American paperback publisher of "The Guinness Book of Records". Another series was "Bantam War Book" from the 1970s to the 90s, with the majority of books from World War II, but also from Vietnam, Korea and other conflicts.


title: Bantam Books

text: Other series include Bantam Classics, the Bantam Spectra science fiction imprint, the juvenile Skylark imprint, and editions of Shakespeare.


title: Bantam Books

text: The series was started in 1958. It reprints mostly public domain, unabridged classic books, intended to increase backlist sales and reintroduce the works to new audiences. More than a hundred books have been released in the series.


title: Bantam Books

text: Like competing editions, some Bantam Classics are printed with an introduction from a literary critic, and in the case of "Moby Dick", with a selection of critical essays on the novel appended as well.


title: The Obsolete Man

text: "The Obsolete Man" is episode 65 of the American television anthology series "The Twilight Zone", starring Burgess Meredith as Romney Wordsworth. It originally aired on June 2, 1961, on CBS. The story was later adapted for "The Twilight Zone Radio Dramas" starring Jason Alexander as Wordsworth.


title: The Obsolete Man

text: In a future totalitarian state, Romney Wordsworth is put on trial for being obsolete. His professed occupation as a librarian is punishable by death as the state has eliminated books. He believes in God, also proof of obsolescence, as the atheist state claims to have proven God does not exist. Following a bitter exchange, the Chancellor finds Wordsworth guilty and sentences him to death, allowing him to choose his method of execution. Wordsworth requests that he be granted a personal assassin, who will be the only one who knows the method of his death, and that his execution be televised nationwide. The Chancellor grants both requests.


title: The Obsolete Man

text: Wordsworth summons the Chancellor to his now-monitored room, who agrees to this unusual request out of curiosity. The librarian reveals that the execution method he chose is a bomb set to go off in the room at midnight. The Chancellor expresses approval until Wordsworth further explains that the door is locked, and the Chancellor will die with him. He also points out that, as the events are being broadcast live, the State would risk losing its status in the people's eyes by rescuing the Chancellor. Wordsworth proceeds to read from his illegal, long-hidden copy of the Bible, expressing his trust in God.


title: The Obsolete Man

text: At the last minute, the Chancellor breaks down and begs to be let go "in the name of God." Wordsworth agrees to do so on those terms and unlocks the door for him. The Chancellor flees from the room while Wordsworth stays as the bomb explodes. Due to his cowardly display in Wordsworth's room and invoking God, the Chancellor is replaced by his own subaltern and declared obsolete. He protests against this and tries to escape but is overwhelmed by the tribunal's attendants, who then beat him to death.


title: The Obsolete Man

text: While he had made a gag appearance toward the end of an earlier episode ("A World of His Own"), Serling still delivered the closing narration of that episode off-camera, as he would for all other "Twilight Zone" episodes save this one and season 3's "The Fugitive". Serling's original narration was longer, but the middle section was cut for broadcast. As scripted, the original narration reads as follows (with the cut section "in italics"):


title: The Obsolete Man

text: Serling's opening narration is sampled in the song "Thieves! (Screamed the Ghost)" by American hip-hop duo Run the Jewels on their 2016 album, "Run the Jewels 3".


title: Lifeguard

text: A lifeguard is a rescuer who supervises the safety and rescue of swimmers, surfers, and other water sports participants such as in a swimming pool, water park, beach, spa, river and lake. Lifeguards are trained in swimming and CPR/AED first aid, certified in water rescue using a variety of aids and equipment depending on requirements of their particular venue. In some areas, lifeguards are part of the emergency services system to incidents and in some communities, lifeguards may function as the primary EMS provider.


title: Lifeguard

text: A lifeguard is responsible for the safety of people in an area of water, and usually a defined area immediately surrounding or adjacent to it, such as a beach next to an ocean or lake. The priority is to ensure no harm comes to users of the area for which they are responsible. Lifeguards often take on this responsibility upon employment, although they can also be volunteers.


title: Lifeguard

text: The conditions resulting in drowning are summarized by the 'drowning chain' in which each link can lead directly to an incident, or contribute to a succession of links. It consists of lack of education about water safety or local conditions, a lack of safety advice (for example, about rip currents at a beach) a lack of protection (like no flotation device for a weak swimmer), lack of safety supervision, or an inability to cope with conditions (strong surf with a weak swimmer).


title: Lifeguard

text: The lifeguard is able to provide all these elements to help prevent drownings (or other incidents) in their area of responsibility, and for this reason this should be the primary focus of a lifeguard's activities, as it is better to stop an incident from occurring rather than reacting once it has occurred. This means that the effectiveness of a lifeguard unit can be measured not by the number or rapidity of rescues, or the skill with which they are executed, but by the absence or reduction of drownings, accidents, and other medical emergencies. Prevention is an effective skill that is vitally important to a lifeguard because it can aid in maintaining the safety of the aquatic patrons.


title: Lifeguard

text: A lifeguard's key duties (usually as part of a team, but in some places, lifeguards may be required to work on their own) are to:


title: Lifeguard

text: Lifeguards may have other secondary duties such as cleaning, filing paperwork, checking a swimming pool's chlorine and pH levels, or acting as a general information point. It is important that lifeguards never allow their secondary responsibilities to interfere with their primary responsibilities.


title: Lifeguard

text: Lifeguards may also be required to attend occasional in-service meetings to strengthen their lifeguarding skills.


title: Lifeguard

text: Every lifeguard has to undergo a certification course in order to be able to work as a lifeguard. Certain certification companies, such as the Red Cross or Ellis and Associates, are in charge of the certification process. Certification usually lasts for 1-2 years, but can last up to 5. Classes last 25-30 hours and will generally be held over a few days, with the hours per day varying depending on the number of days needed. At the end of the certification class, lifeguards are required to take a final exam, and will only receive a certificate if they pass the final exam. Lifeguards are then required to do additional training throughout the duration of their certification at the discretion of the facility they work for.


title: Lifeguard

text: Most skills taught in various lifeguard certification classes are similar or the same, but some skills may vary minorly based on the certification company. Additionally, different in-water skills will be taught depending on the facility certifying the lifeguard, i.e., shallow/deep water pools, water parks, beaches, etc.


title: Lifeguard

text: Most lifeguard certification companies require potential lifeguards to demonstrate strong swimming skills prior to the certification process. These prerequisites will usually include a mid-distance swim, a timed water tread, and diving for a weighted brick at the bottom of the pool.


title: Lifeguard

text: Many aquatic facilities will have their lifeguards undergo additional training for the duration of their certification. The nature and frequency of these additional training depends on the aquatic facility and the certification company the aquatic facility follows. For example, a beach facility may practice beachfront saves and search-and-rescue scenarios, where an indoor pool facility whose lifeguards are responsible for the whole building may practice scenarios that simulate emergencies in different parts of the building. These in-service trainings are meant to serve as practice in order to maintain and develop skills taught during the certification process. Examples of these trainings include First Aid/CPR/AED skill review and Aquatic Emergency Action Plan Drills.


title: Lifeguard

text: Additionally, some certification companies outside of the facility may audit or examine lifeguards during their rotations. These visits are meant to serve as both a test of preparedness and also as a learning experience and a chance to improve on weaker skills. Visits are generally unannounced and may include videoing of on-duty lifeguards, skills evaluations involving a scenario meant to model real life, and vigilance awareness testing.


title: Lifeguard

text: These entries are used in different scenarios depending on if the victim is passive, or conscious, whether they are in deep or shallow water, and if they have a potential head, neck or spinal injury.


title: Lifeguard

text: While performing patron surveillance (usually from an elevated stand or a water-level standing or sitting position) lifeguards watch for and recognize struggling or drowning swimmers, and swimmers with sudden medical conditions such as a stroke, heart attack, asthma, diabetes, or seizures. Lifeguards look for swimmers in various categories and conditions:


title: Lifeguard

text: Lifeguards can be found patrolling many different types of water, and each type has its own unique features, duties and challenges. Locations where lifeguards can be found include:


title: Lifeguard

text: Lifeguards have a primary duty to supervise their responsibility area. To achieve this the lifeguard needs an optimum position to observe the public. This is often best achieved from an elevated position, which can be a chair, platform or the roof of a vehicle. This allows them maximum visibility over their supervised area and may facilitate communication between them and their team.


title: Lifeguard

text: Some lifeguard teams use portable platforms or chairs which can be moved to the most appropriate position. This can take account of changes such as a specific activity taking place, prevailing wind direction or simply enable lifeguards to move closer to the water if the tide goes out on a beach.


title: Lifeguard

text: The chair or tower can also act as storage for the lifeguard, holding important rescue and communication equipment nearby. It can also act as a recognizable point for the public to find lifeguard assistance. For this reason, it is often marked with a flag or flags to enable location by the public. These flags may also give information to the bathers about current swimming conditions.


title: Lifeguard

text: Other options, depending on the location, can include patrolling the edge of the water on foot, which allows closer interaction with the public, and the opportunity to provide face to face reassurance and advice, or supervising from within or on the water, which is most applicable in open water (such as the sea or even a large water park) where lifeguards can use boats or other personal watercraft to be in the water, which extends their range and may allow quicker response to emergencies.