title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: In the United States, paying the DUI ticket, court costs, and attorney fees is just the start of a person's financial obligations after a DUI conviction. Additional costs of a DUI conviction will often involve the installation and maintenance fees of a vehicle Ignition Interlock Device, which serves the same function as a Breathalyzer to enable the vehicle to start. A person convicted of a driving under the influence charge, can also expect to pay higher insurance rates and premiums. In addition, DUI records prevent entry into Canada without proper documentation.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: Drunk driving is a public health concern in the United States, and reducing its frequency may require an integrated community-based approach utilizing sanctions and treatments. Several intervention programs have been developed, such as the Paradigm Developmental Model of Treatment (PDMT), a program encouraging a paradigm shift in the offender's view of oneself and the world.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: The National Institute for Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism suggests environmental interventions to help eliminate drinking and driving all together.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: Federal Aviation Regulation 91.17 () prohibits pilots from flying aircraft with an alcohol level of 0.04% or more, or within eight hours of consuming alcohol ("eight hours, bottle to throttle"), or while under the impairing influence of any drug. The same prohibition applies to any other crew members on duty aboard the aircraft (flight attendants, etc.). Some airlines impose additional restrictions, and many pilots also impose stricter standards upon themselves. Commercial pilots found to be in violation of regulations are typically fired or resign voluntarily, and they may lose their pilot certificates and be subject to criminal prosecution under Federal or State laws, effectively ending their careers.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: Similar laws apply to other activities involving transportation; Michigan prohibits intoxicated use of motorized farm implements, or boating, the latter whether a pilot or passenger, with much the same threshold of intoxication. In the case of boating, the laws extend to include kayaks, canoes, sailboats—any flotation device that needs to be steered in water. Different states have different laws and classifications on the level of transgression attached to a citation for boating under the influence. For example, Virginia has very similar penalties for a BUI as it does for a DUI. Those convicted of boating while intoxicated face penalties including, fines of up to $2,500, jail time of up to one year, loss of one's operator's license for up to three years and mandatory enrollment and completion of a Virginia Alcohol Safety Action Program.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: Alcohol use was the number one contributing factor in U.S. recreational boating deaths between 2003 and 2012, accounting for 15 percent of the fatalities in 2003, and 17 percent in 2012. A Canadian study published in 2011 examined 18 years of data on recreational boating, and concluded that a "true figure" of alcohol-related deaths in that country "may lie between 46% and 56%".


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: In countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia drunk driving and deaths caused by drunk driving are considerably lower than in the United States. Drunk driving deaths in the UK (population 61 million, 31 million cars) were 380 in 2010 (21% of all fatal crashes). In California (population 36 million, 32 million cars) there were 950 deaths from traffic crashes involving drivers with a Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) of 0.08 or greater) in 2009 (31% of all fatal collisions). Alcohol consumption per capita in the UK and Australia is higher than in the United States and the legal age for drinking lower.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: Research in the United Kingdom has shown that the danger group for drunk driving is young men in their early 20s rather than teenagers. It is not uncommon for police forces in Australia to randomly stop motorists, typically at a checkpoint, and submit them to a random breath test. This test involves speaking or blowing into a hand held breathalyzer to give a reading, if this is over the legal limit, the driver will be arrested, and required to perform a test on another breathalyzer, which can be used for a conviction. Refusing a roadside or evidential test is an offense, and is subject to the same penalty as high range drunk driving. This detection method is not employed in the UK, and it is not an offence in England, Wales or Australia for a fully licensed driver to drive with a BAC of less than 0.08% (Australia and Scotland have limits of 0.05%), however in Australia this detection, even if under the legal limit, may still result in a penalty if there is an open container of alcohol in the vehicle. In Australia it is an offence for any learner or probationary driver to drive with a BAC above 0.00%. In addition, anyone instructing or supervising a learner driver must have a BAC of under 0.05%.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: Unlike the United States, these countries do not see restricting access to alcohol as having any useful role to play in reducing drunk driving. Their experience is that random breath tests, severe penalties, including potential imprisonment for a first offense (in UK), combined with blanket public service broadcasting are a more effective strategy.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: Also, Australian and British law do not recognize the crime of DUI manslaughter, and sentences for causing death by drunk driving are much lower than the United States. In the UK, a judge makes a sentencing decision based on the amount of alcohol present. This can lead to imprisonment for a first offence.


title: Drunk driving in the United States

text: In Germany, a legal limit of 0.05% lowers to 0.03% if a driver is found to be at fault in a traffic crash. 0.00% is the standard for those who are under 21 years of age.


title: Tim Rooney

text: Timothy Hayes Yule (January 4, 1947 – September 23, 2006), better known as Tim Rooney, was an American actor. Rooney was the second son of actor and comedian Mickey Rooney. Later in his life, Rooney suffered from a rare muscle disease known as dermatomyositis.


title: Tim Rooney

text: Tim Rooney was born on January 4, 1947 in Birmingham, Alabama. His mother was a former Miss Alabama and singer, Betty Jane Rase, who performed as B. J. Baker.


title: Tim Rooney

text: Rooney's notable appearances included the films "Village of the Giants" and "Riot on Sunset Strip", and also the TV series "The Donald O'Connor Show", "Maverick", "Dr. Kildare", "Gidget", "Bewitched", "Dragnet" and the cartoon show "Mister T", in voiceovers.


title: Tim Rooney

text: In 1964-1965, Tim co-starred with his father in "Mickey", an ABC situation comedy about a family that operates a hotel in Newport Beach, California. He played Timmy Grady. Mickey Rooney appeared as Mickey Grady. Emmaline Henry starred as mother and wife, Nora Grady.


title: Tim Rooney

text: Tim Rooney died on September 23, 2006 at the age of 59, from pneumonia, complicated from the dermatomyositis.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet, (14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a Scottish geologist who demonstrated the power of known natural causes in explaining the earth's history. He is best known as the author of "Principles of Geology" (1830–33), which presented to a wide public audience the idea that the earth was shaped by the same natural processes still in operation today, operating at similar intensities. The philosopher William Whewell termed this gradualistic view "uniformitarianism" and contrasted it with catastrophism, which had been championed by Georges Cuvier and was better accepted in Europe. The combination of evidence and eloquence in "Principles" convinced a wide range of readers of the significance of "deep time" for understanding the earth and environment.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell's scientific contributions included a pioneering explanation of climate change, in which shifting boundaries between oceans and continents could be used to explain long-term variations in temperature and rainfall. Lyell also gave influential explanations of earthquakes and developed the theory of gradual "backed up-building" of volcanoes. In stratigraphy his division of the Tertiary period into the Pliocene, Miocene, and Eocene was highly influential. He incorrectly conjectured that icebergs may be the impetus behind the transport of glacial erratics, and that silty loess deposits might have settled out of flood waters. His creation of a separate period for human history, entitled the 'Recent', is widely cited as providing the foundations for the modern discussion of the Anthropocene.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Building on the innovative work of James Hutton and his follower John Playfair, Lyell favoured an indefinitely long age for the earth, despite evidence suggesting an old but finite age. He was a close friend of Charles Darwin, and contributed significantly to Darwin's thinking on the processes involved in evolution. As Darwin wrote in "On the Origin of Species", "He who can read Sir Charles Lyell's grand work on the Principles of Geology, which the future historian will recognise as having produced a revolution in natural science, yet does not admit how incomprehensibly vast have been the past periods of time, may at once close this volume." Lyell helped to arrange the simultaneous publication in 1858 of papers by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace on natural selection, despite his personal religious qualms about the theory. He later published evidence from geology of the time man had existed on the earth.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell was born into a wealthy family, on 14 November 1797, at the family's estate house, Kinnordy House, near Kirriemuir in Forfarshire. He was the eldest of ten children. Lyell's father, also named Charles Lyell, was noted as a translator and scholar of Dante. An accomplished botanist, it was he who first exposed his son to the study of nature. Lyell's grandfather, also Charles Lyell, had made the family fortune supplying the Royal Navy at Montrose, enabling him to buy Kinnordy House.


title: Charles Lyell

text: The family seat is located in Strathmore, near the Highland Boundary Fault. Round the house, in the strath, is good farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west, on the other side of the fault, are the Grampian Mountains in the Highlands. His family's second country home was in a completely different geological and ecological area: he spent much of his childhood at Bartley Lodge in the New Forest, in Hampshire in southern England.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1816, and attended William Buckland's geological lectures. He graduated with a BA Hons. second class degree in classics, in December 1819, and gained his M.A. 1821. After graduation he took up law as a profession, entering Lincoln's Inn in 1820. He completed a circuit through rural England, where he could observe geological phenomena. In 1821 he attended Robert Jameson's lectures in Edinburgh, and visited Gideon Mantell at Lewes, in Sussex. In 1823 he was elected joint secretary of the Geological Society. As his eyesight began to deteriorate, he turned to geology as a full-time profession. His first paper, "On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire", was presented in 1826. By 1827, he had abandoned law and embarked on a geological career that would result in fame and the general acceptance of uniformitarianism, a working out of the ideas proposed by James Hutton a few decades earlier.


title: Charles Lyell

text: In 1832, Lyell married Mary Horner in Bonn, daughter of Leonard Horner (1785–1864), also associated with the Geological Society of London. The new couple spent their honeymoon in Switzerland and Italy on a geological tour of the area.


title: Charles Lyell

text: During the 1840s, Lyell travelled to the United States and Canada, and wrote two popular travel-and-geology books: "Travels in North America" (1845) and "A Second Visit to the United States" (1849). In 1866, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. After the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, Lyell was one of the first to donate books to help found the Chicago Public Library.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell's wife died in 1873, and two years later (in 1875) Lyell himself died as he was revising the twelfth edition of "Principles". He is buried in Westminster Abbey where there is a bust to him by William Theed in the north aisle.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell was knighted (Kt) in 1848, and later, in 1864, made a baronet (Bt), which is an hereditary honour. He was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1858 and the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society in 1866. Mount Lyell, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park, is named after him; the crater Lyell on the Moon and a crater on Mars were named in his honour; Mount Lyell in western Tasmania, Australia, located in a profitable mining area, bears Lyell's name; and the Lyell Range in north-west Western Australia is named after him as well. In Southwest Nelson in the South Island of New Zealand, the Lyell Range, Lyell River and the gold mining town of Lyell (now only a camping site) were all named after Lyell. Lyall Bay in Wellington, New Zealand was possibly named after Lyell. The jawless fish "Cephalaspis lyelli", from the Old Red Sandstone of southern Scotland, was named by Louis Agassiz in honour of Lyell.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell had private means, and earned further income as an author. He came from a prosperous family, worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s, and held the post of Professor of Geology at King's College London in the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books provided both income and fame. Each of his three major books was a work continually in progress. All three went through multiple editions during his lifetime, although many of his friends (such as Darwin) thought the first edition of the "Principles" was the best written. Lyell used each edition to incorporate additional material, rearrange existing material, and revisit old conclusions in light of new evidence.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Throughout his life, Lyell kept a remarkable series of nearly three hundred manuscript notebooks and diaries. These were essential to the development of his ideas, and provide a unique record of his travels, conversations, correspondence, reading and field observations.


title: Charles Lyell

text: "Principles of Geology", Lyell's first book, was also his most famous, most influential, and most important. First published in three volumes in 1830–33, it established Lyell's credentials as an important geological theorist and propounded the doctrine of uniformitarianism. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels.


title: Charles Lyell

text: The central argument in "Principles" was that "the present is the key to the past" – a concept of the Scottish Enlightenment which David Hume had stated as "all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past", and James Hutton had described when he wrote in 1788 that "from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter." Geological remains from the distant past can, and should, be explained by reference to geological processes now in operation and thus directly observable. Lyell's interpretation of geological change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a powerful influence on the young Charles Darwin. Lyell asked Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS "Beagle", to search for erratic boulders on the survey voyage of the "Beagle", and just before it set out FitzRoy gave Darwin Volume 1 of the first edition of Lyell's "Principles". When the "Beagle" made its first stop ashore at St Jago in the Cape Verde islands, Darwin found rock formations which seen "through Lyell's eyes" gave him a revolutionary insight into the geological history of the island, an insight he applied throughout his travels.


title: Charles Lyell

text: While in South America Darwin received Volume 2 which considered the ideas of Lamarck in some detail. Lyell rejected Lamarck's idea of organic evolution, proposing instead "Centres of Creation" to explain diversity and territory of species. However, as discussed below, many of his letters show he was fairly open to the idea of evolution. In geology Darwin was very much Lyell's disciple, and brought back observations and his own original theorising, including ideas about the formation of atolls, which supported Lyell's uniformitarianism. On the return of the "Beagle" (October 1836) Lyell invited Darwin to dinner and from then on they were close friends. Although Darwin discussed evolutionary ideas with him from 1842, Lyell continued to reject evolution in each of the first nine editions of the "Principles". He encouraged Darwin to publish, and following the 1859 publication of "On the Origin of Species", Lyell finally offered a tepid endorsement of evolution in the tenth edition of "Principles".


title: Charles Lyell

text: "Elements of Geology" began as the fourth volume of the third edition of "Principles": Lyell intended the book to act as a suitable field guide for students of geology. The systematic, factual description of geological formations of different ages contained in "Principles" grew so unwieldy, however, that Lyell split it off as the "Elements" in 1838. The book went through six editions, eventually growing to two volumes and ceasing to be the inexpensive, portable handbook that Lyell had originally envisioned. Late in his career, therefore, Lyell produced a condensed version titled "Student's Elements of Geology" that fulfilled the original purpose.


title: Charles Lyell

text: "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man" brought together Lyell's views on three key themes from the geology of the Quaternary Period of earth history: glaciers, evolution, and the age of the human race. First published in 1863, it went through three editions that year, with a fourth and final edition appearing in 1873. The book was widely regarded as a disappointment because of Lyell's equivocal treatment of evolution. Lyell, a highly religious man with a strong belief in the special status of human reason, had great difficulty reconciling his beliefs with natural selection.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell's geological interests ranged from volcanoes and geological dynamics through stratigraphy, palaeontology, and glaciology to topics that would now be classified as prehistoric archaeology and paleoanthropology. He is best known, however, for his role in elaborating the doctrine of uniformitarianism. He played a critical role in advancing the study of loess.


title: Charles Lyell

text: From 1830 to 1833 his multi-volume "Principles of Geology" was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation", and this explains Lyell's impact on science. He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text. He was, along with the earlier John Playfair, the major advocate of James Hutton's idea of uniformitarianism, that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. This was in contrast to catastrophism, an idea of abrupt geological changes, which had been adapted in England to explain landscape features—such as rivers much smaller than their associated valleys—that seemed impossible to explain other than through violent action. Criticizing the reliance of his contemporaries on what he argued were "ad hoc" explanations, Lyell wrote,


title: Charles Lyell

text: Never was there a doctrine more calculated to foster indolence, and to blunt the keen edge of curiosity, than this assumption of the discordance between the former and the existing causes of change... The student was taught to despond from the first. Geology, it was affirmed, could never arise to the rank of an exact science... [With catastrophism] we see the ancient spirit of speculation revived, and a desire manifestly shown to cut, rather than patiently untie, the Gordian Knot.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell saw himself as "the spiritual saviour of geology, freeing the science from the old dispensation of Moses." The two terms, "uniformitarianism" and "catastrophism", were both coined by William Whewell; in 1866 R. Grove suggested the simpler term "continuity" for Lyell's view, but the old terms persisted. In various revised editions (12 in all, through 1872), "Principles of Geology" was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century, and did much to put geology on a modern footing.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell noted the "economic advantages" that geological surveys could provide, citing their felicity in mineral-rich countries and provinces. Modern surveys, like the British Geological Survey (founded in 1835), and the US Geological Survey (founded in 1879), map and exhibit the natural resources within their countries. Over time, these surveys have been used extensively by modern extractive industries, such as nuclear, coal and oil.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Before the work of Lyell, phenomena such as earthquakes were understood by the destruction that they brought. One of the contributions that Lyell made in "Principles" was to explain the cause of earthquakes. Lyell, in contrast focused on recent earthquakes (150 yrs), evidenced by surface irregularities such as faults, fissures, stratigraphic displacements and depressions.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell's work on volcanoes focused largely on Vesuvius and Etna, both of which he had earlier studied. His conclusions supported gradual building of volcanoes, so-called "backed up-building", as opposed to the upheaval argument supported by other geologists.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell was a key figure in establishing the classification of more recent geological deposits, long known as the Tertiary period. From May 1828, until February 1829, he travelled with Roderick Impey Murchison (1792–1871) to the south of France (Auvergne volcanic district) and to Italy. In these areas he concluded that the recent strata (rock layers) could be categorised according to the number and proportion of marine shells encased within. Based on this the third volume of his "Principles of Geology", published in 1833, proposed dividing the Tertiary period into four parts, which he named the Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Recent. In 1839, Lyell termed the Pleistocene epoch, distinguishing a more recent fossil layer from the Pliocene. The Recent epoch renamed the Holocene by French paleontologist Paul Gervais in 1867 included all deposits from the era subject to human observation. In recent years Lyell's subdivisions have been widely discussed in relation to debates about the Anthropocene.


title: Charles Lyell

text: In "Principles of Geology" (first edition, vol. 3, ch. 2, 1833) Lyell proposed that icebergs could be the means of transport for erratics. During periods of global warming, ice breaks off the poles and floats across submerged continents, carrying debris with it, he conjectured. When the iceberg melts, it rains down sediments upon the land. Because this theory could account for the presence of diluvium, the word "drift" became the preferred term for the loose, unsorted material, today called "till". Furthermore, Lyell believed that the accumulation of fine angular particles covering much of the world (today called loess) was a deposit settled from mountain flood water. Today some of Lyell's mechanisms for geological processes have been disproven, though many have stood the test of time. His observational methods and general analytical framework remain in use today as foundational principles in geology.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell initially accepted the conventional view of other men of science, that the fossil record indicated a directional geohistory in which species went extinct. Around 1826, when he was on circuit, he read Lamarck's "Zoological Philosophy" and on 2 March 1827 wrote to Mantell, expressing admiration, but cautioning that he read it "rather as I hear an advocate on the wrong side, to know what can be made of the case in good hands".:


title: Charles Lyell

text: He struggled with the implications for human dignity, and later in 1827 wrote private notes on Lamarck's ideas. Lyell reconciled transmutation of species with natural theology by suggesting that it would be as much a "remarkable manifestation of creative Power" as creating each species separately. He countered Lamarck's views by rejecting continued cooling of the earth in favour of "a fluctuating cycle", a long-term steady-state geohistory as proposed by James Hutton. The fragmentary fossil record already showed "a high class of fishes, close to reptiles" in the Carboniferous period which he called "the first Zoological era", and quadrupeds could also have existed then. In November 1827, after William Broderip found a Middle Jurassic fossil of the early mammal "Didelphis", Lyell told his father that "There was everything but man even as far back as the Oolite." Lyell inaccurately portrayed Lamarckism as a response to the fossil record, and said it was falsified by a lack of progress. He said in the second volume of "Principles" that the occurrence of this one fossil of the higher mammalia "in these ancient strata, is as fatal to the theory of successive development, as if several hundreds had been discovered."


title: Charles Lyell

text: In the first edition of "Principles", the first volume briefly set out Lyell's concept of a steady state with no real progression of fossils. The sole exception was the advent of humanity, with no great physical distinction from animals, but with absolutely unique intellectual and moral qualities. The second volume dismissed Lamarck's claims of animal forms arising from habits, continuous spontaneous generation of new life, and man having evolved from lower forms. Lyell explicitly rejected Lamarck's concept of transmutation of species, drawing on Cuvier's arguments, and concluded that species had been created with stable attributes. He discussed the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and proposed that every species of plant or animal was descended from a pair or individual, originated in response to differing external conditions. Species would regularly go extinct, in a "struggle for existence" between hybrids, or a "war one with another" due to population pressure. He was vague about how replacement species formed, portraying this as an infrequent occurrence which could rarely be observed.


title: Charles Lyell

text: The leading man of science Sir John Herschel wrote from Cape Town on 20 February 1836, thanking Lyell for sending a copy of "Principles" and praising the book as opening a way for bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" – by analogy with other intermediate causes, "the origination of fresh species, could it ever come under our cognizance, would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process". Lyell replied: "In regard to the origination of new species, I am very glad to find that you think it probable that it may be carried on through the intervention of intermediate causes. I left this rather to be inferred, not thinking it worth while to offend a certain class of persons by embodying in words what would only be a speculation."


title: Charles Lyell

text: As a result of his letters and, no doubt, personal conversations, Huxley and Haeckel were convinced that, at the time he wrote "Principles", he believed new species had arisen by natural methods. Sedgwick wrote worried letters to him about this.


title: Charles Lyell

text: By the time Darwin returned from the "Beagle" survey expedition in 1836, he had begun to doubt Lyell's ideas about the permanence of species. He continued to be a close personal friend, and Lyell was one of the first scientists to support "On the Origin of Species", though he did not subscribe to all its contents. Lyell was also a friend of Darwin's closest colleagues, Hooker and Huxley, but unlike them he struggled to square his religious beliefs with evolution. This inner struggle has been much commented on. He had particular difficulty in believing in natural selection as the main motive force in evolution.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell and Hooker were instrumental in arranging the peaceful co-publication of the theory of natural selection by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858: each had arrived at the theory independently. Lyell's views on gradual change and the power of a long time scale were important because Darwin thought that populations of an organism changed very slowly.


title: Charles Lyell

text: Although Lyell rejected evolution at the time of writing the "Principles", after the Darwin–Wallace papers and the "Origin" Lyell wrote in one of his notebooks on 3 May 1860:


title: Charles Lyell

text: Lyell's acceptance of natural selection, Darwin's proposed mechanism for evolution, was equivocal, and came in the tenth edition of "Principles". "The Antiquity of Man" (published in early February 1863, just before Huxley's "Man's place in nature") drew these comments from Darwin to Huxley: "I am fearfully disappointed at Lyell's excessive caution" and "The book is a mere 'digest'".


title: Charles Lyell

text: Quite strong remarks: no doubt Darwin resented Lyell's repeated suggestion that he owed a lot to Lamarck, whom he (Darwin) had always specifically rejected. Darwin's daughter Henrietta (Etty) wrote to her father: "Is it fair that Lyell always calls your theory a modification of Lamarck's?"


title: Charles Lyell

text: In other respects "Antiquity" was a success. It sold well, and it "shattered the tacit agreement that mankind should be the sole preserve of theologians and historians". But when Lyell wrote that it remained a profound mystery how the huge gulf between man and beast could be bridged, Darwin wrote "Oh!" in the margin of his copy.


title: Alok Industries

text: Alok Industries Ltd, is an Indian Textile manufacturing company based in Mumbai, India. with integration in both the streams, in cotton as well as polyester value chain. ISO 9001:2000 certified company. The company has created global sized capacities and expanded its markets across the global territories. Its main business involves weaving, knitting, processing, home textiles, ready made garments and polyester yarns. It exports 26% of its products to over 90 countries in the US, Europe, South America, Asia and Africa.


title: Alok Industries

text: It was established in 1986. In 1989, the company set up its first polyester texturising plant. The company became public in 1993 and was listed on Bombay Stock Exchange and National Stock Exchange of India with an IPO of Rs. 4.5 Cr. The company Grabal Alok Impex Limited was amalgamated with Alok Industries on 1 April 1996.


title: Alok Industries

text: Alok Industries has shutdown all its direct retail stores. However, they have started selling their products in Amazon India.


title: Alok Industries

text: As per the latest Annual Report (2022), total sales of the Company increased by 91.44% to Rs. 7,150.91 crore from Rs. 3,735.31 crore in the previous year. Domestic sales increased by 96.22% to Rs. 5,451.37 crore from Rs. 2,778.11 crore in the previous year. Export sales increased by 77.55% to Rs. 1,699.54 crore from Rs. 957.20 crore in previous year. Operating EBITDA (before exceptional items) was positive at Rs. 611.61 crore as compared to negative EBITDA (before exceptional items) of Rs. 432.63 crore in the previous year. Operating Profit Before Tax (PBT) (before exceptional items) was negative at Rs. 184.18 crore as compared to negative PBT (before exceptional items) of Rs. 1,190.78 crore in the previous year.


title: Alok Industries

text: Alok’s export business has increased to Rs. 1699.54 crore in the current year as against Rs. 957.20 crore in the previous period representing growth of 77.55%.


title: Alok Industries

text: The paid-up Share Capital of the Company as on 31st March, 2022 was 496.52 crore shares of Rs. 1/- each.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The avoirdupois system (; abbreviated avdp.) is a measurement system of weights that uses pounds and ounces as units. It was first commonly used in the 13th century AD and was updated in 1959.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: In 1959, by international agreement, the definitions of the pound and ounce became standardized in countries which use the pound as a unit of mass. The "International Avoirdupois Pound" was then created. It is the everyday system of weights used in the United States. It is still used, in varying degrees, in everyday life in the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and some other former British colonies, despite their official adoption of the metric system.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The avoirdupois weight system's general attributes were originally developed for the international wool trade in the Late Middle Ages, when trade was in recovery. It was historically based on a physical standardized pound or "prototype weight" that could be divided into 16 ounces. There were a number of competing measures of mass, and the fact that the avoirdupois pound had three even numbers as divisors (half and half and half again) may have been a cause of much of its popularity, so that the system won out over systems with 12 or 10 or 15 subdivisions. The use of this unofficial system gradually stabilized and evolved, with only slight changes in the reference standard or in the prototype's actual mass.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: Over time, the desire not to use too many different systems of measurement allowed the establishment of "value relationships", with other commodities metered and sold by weight measurements such as bulk goods (grains, ores, flax) and smelted metals; so the avoirdupois system gradually became an accepted standard through much of Europe.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: In England, Henry VII authorized its use as a standard, and Queen Elizabeth I acted three times to enforce a common standard, thus establishing what became the Imperial system of weights and measures. Late in the 19th century various governments acted to redefine their base standards on a scientific basis and establish ratios between local avoirdupois measurements and international SI metric system standards. The legal actions of these various governments were independently conceived, and so did not always pick the same ratios to metric units for each avoirdupois unit. The result of this was, after these standardisations, measurements of the same name often had marginally different recognised values in different regions (although the pound generally remained very similar). In the modern day, this is evident in the small difference between United States customary and British Imperial pounds.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: An alternative system of mass, the troy system, is generally used for precious materials. The modern definition of the avoirdupois pound (1 lb) is exactly kilograms.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: is from Anglo-Norman French (later "avoir du pois"), literally "goods of weight" (Old French , as verb meaning "to have" and as noun meaning "property, goods", comes from the Latin , "to have, to hold, to possess something"; = "from"/"of", cf. Latin; = "weight", from Latin ). This term originally referred to a class of merchandise: , "goods of weight", things that were sold in bulk and were weighed on large steelyards or balances.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: Only later did the term become identified with a particular "system of units" used to weigh such merchandise. Inconsistent orthography throughout history has left many variants of the term, such as and . (The Norman became the Parisian . In the 17th century "de" was replaced with "du".)


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The "avoirdupois" word is made of three French words ("avoir du pois"). When the word "avoir" might both be a verb and a noun, it was used as a noun — meaning a good — in the 16th century to differentiate a good sold by items ("avoir de prix") from a good sold by its weight ("avoir de pois/poids").


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The current orthography of the last word is "poids" in the current standard French orthography, but the word "avoirdupois" remained as is in the anglosphere.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The rise in use of the measurement system corresponds to the regrowth of trade during the High Middle Ages after the early crusades, when Europe experienced a growth in towns, turned from the chaos of warlordism to long-distance trade, and began annual fairs, tournaments and commerce, by land and sea. There are two major hypotheses regarding the origins of the avoirdupois system. The older hypothesis is that it originated in France. A newer hypothesis is that it is based on the weight system of Florence.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The avoirdupois weight system is thought to have come into use in England around 1300. It was originally used for weighing wool. In the early 14th century several other specialized weight systems were used, including the weight system of the Hanseatic League with a 16-ounce pound of grains and an 8-ounce mark. However, the main weight system, used for coinage and for everyday use, was based on the 12-ounce tower pound of grains. From the 14th century until the late 16th century, the system's basis and the prototype for today's international pound, the avoirdupois pound, was also known as the wool pound or the avoirdupois wool pound.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The earliest known version of the avoirdupois weight system had the following units: a pound of grains, a stone of 14 pounds, a woolsack of 26 stone, an ounce of pound, and finally, the ounce was divided into 16 "parts".


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The earliest known occurrence of the word "avoirdupois" (or some variant thereof) in England is from a document entitled "Tractatus de Ponderibus et Mensuris" ("Treatise on Weights and Measures"). This document is listed in early statute books under the heading "31 Edward I" dated 2 February 1303. More recent statute books list it among statutes of uncertain date. Scholars nowadays believe that it was probably written between 1266 and 1303. Initially a royal memorandum, it eventually took on the force of law and was recognized as a statute by King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: It was repealed by the Weights and Measures Act 1824. In the "Tractatus", the word "avoirdupois" refers not to a weight system, but to a class of goods, specifically heavy goods sold by weight, as opposed to goods sold by volume, count, or some other method. Since it is written in Anglo-Norman French, this document is not the first occurrence of the word in the English language.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: Three major developments occurred during the reign of Edward III (r. 1327–1377). First, a statute known as 14 Edward III. st. 1. Cap. 12 (1340) "Bushels and Weights shall be made and sent into every County."


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The second major development is the statute 25 Edward III. st. 5. Cap. 9. (1350) "The Auncel Weight shall be put out, and Weighing shall be by equal Balance."


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The third development is a set of 14th-century bronze weights at the Westgate Museum in Winchester, England. The weights are in denominations of 7 pounds (corresponding to a unit known as the clip or wool-clip), 14 pounds (stone), 56 pounds (4 stone) and 91 pounds ( sack or woolsack). The 91-pound weight is thought to have been commissioned by Edward III in conjunction with the statute of 1350, while the other weights are thought to have been commissioned in conjunction with the statutes of 1340. The 56-pound weight was used as a reference standard as late as 1588.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: In 1588 Queen Elizabeth increased the weight of the avoirdupois pound to grains and added the troy grain to the avoirdupois weight system. Prior to 1588, the "part" () was the smallest unit in the avoirdupois weight system. In the 18th century, the "part" was renamed "drachm".


title: Avoirdupois system

text: In the United Kingdom, 14 avoirdupois pounds equal one stone. The quarter, hundredweight, and ton equal respectively, 28 lb, 112 lb, and 2,240 lb in order for masses to be easily converted between them and stone. The following are the units in the British or imperial version of the avoirdupois system:


title: Avoirdupois system

text: "Note:" The plural form of the unit "stone" is either "stone" or "stones", but "stone" is most frequently used.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: The 13 British colonies in North America used the avoirdupois system, but continued to use the British system as it was, without the evolution that was occurring in Britain in the use of the stone unit. In 1824 there was landmark new weights and measures legislation in the United Kingdom that the United States did not adopt.


title: Avoirdupois system

text: In the United States, quarters, hundredweights, and tons remain defined as 25, 100, and respectively. The quarter is now virtually unused, as is the hundredweight outside of agriculture and commodities. If disambiguation is required, then they are referred to as the smaller "short" units in the United States, as opposed to the larger British "long" units. Grains are used worldwide for measuring gunpowder and smokeless powder charges. Historically, the dram ( grains; not to be mixed up with the apothecaries' dram of 60 grains) has also been used worldwide for measuring gunpowder charges, particularly for shotguns and large black-powder rifles.


title: Guy Georges

text: Guy Georges (born Guy Rampillon; 15 October 1962) is a French serial killer and serial rapist, dubbed le tueur de l'Est Parisien (the East Paris killer) or The Beast of the Bastille. He was convicted on April 5, 2001 of murdering seven women between 1991 and 1997. He was sentenced to life in prison with the possibility of parole after 22 years.


title: Guy Georges

text: Guy Georges was born Guy Rampillon on October 10 or 15, 1962 to a French mother and a Black American father (George Cartwright, U.S. military cook stationed at a NATO base). His mother, Helène Rampillon, had an older son named Stéphane, fathered by a white U.S. serviceman. Stéphane was raised by Helène's parents, who refused to raise Guy because he was Helène's second child and because of the stigmatization of mixed-race children in their hometown of Angers. After six years moving between foster homes and his mother's care, Guy became a ward of the state and was placed with the Morin family. The Morins had previously cared for another black child who was taken back by the authorities; Guy was a "replacement child." The Morins had seven biological children and 13 foster children. In 1968, Guy's surname was changed to Georges (a patronymic). Helène Rampillon moved to California with her older son, where she wanted to marry another American serviceman.


title: Guy Georges

text: As a child, Georges began stealing from the family food store and began hunting with a knife in the forest near his home. He took on the nickname "Jo" after the character "Injun Joe" in "The Adventures of Tom Sawyers". At age 14, he attempted to strangle his younger foster sister, Roselyne, who was mentally handicapped. His older foster sister, Christiane, testified that when he was 16 years old, Georges attempted to strangle her with an iron bar. Georges was then sent to a state orphanage. He was subsequently in and out of jail and prison for other crimes and attacks on women until his arrest for the East Paris murders.


title: Guy Georges

text: From 1991 to 1997, Guy Georges assaulted, tortured, raped and killed seven women in the neighborhood of the Bastille, the Bourbon-era Parisian prison. Georges was arrested on 26 March 1998 and admitted his guilt to police. Described by psychiatrists as a "narcissistic psychopath", he was sentenced in April 2001 to life imprisonment, without the possibility of parole for 22 years.


title: Guy Georges

text: Matching DNA samples linked the murders of Agnes Nijkamp, Hélène Frinklng, and Estelle Magd as well as the attempted rape and murder of Elisabeth Ortega. Ortega gave a description of her attacker to police which produced a composite sketch. She stated her attacker was "North African"; neither this description nor the sketch were found to resemble Georges. Anne Gautier, mother of Hélène Frinking, conducted her own "co-investigation," pressing the police to follow potential leads. Frustrated with the lack of progress in the investigation, particularly after the murders of Magali Sirotti and Estelle Magd, Gautier went to the media to inform the public that there was an unidentified serial killer in Paris. According to Gautier, "the Police Judiciaire didn't even question Hélène's neighbours until 23 months after she was killed" and "The Elisabeth Ortega identity portrait was drawn up 28 months after she was attacked, but accurate descriptions from other survivors and witnesses [in at least four other cases] were ignored."


title: Guy Georges

text: Due to the lack of a centralized DNA database in France at the time, police had nothing to which to compare the DNA samples collected from the crime scenes. Georges was identified as the perpetrator in March 1998 after a judge ordered a manual search for a match in the DNA records of private clinics, which was a violation of typical regulations. Martine Monteil, director of the Serious Crimes Unit ("brigade criminelle"), stated in a 2021 documentary: "Yes, we circumvented the law, and we didn't care. We took full responsibility. The ends justifies the means." After Georges was identified, police realized Georges had been questioned about another series of murders of women in parking structures, including Catherine Rocher and Elsa Benandy.


title: Guy Georges

text: Georges was arrested for the Paris murders and rapes on March 26, 1998 outside the Blanche metro station in the 9th arrondissement by officers on an unrelated stakeout. Georges was injured during the arrest and later claimed police beat him during his interrogation, which Monteil denied. Before his arrest, Georges' name had been leaked to the press.


title: Guy Georges

text: Georges confessed to the murders to the police after his arrest. During the trial three years later, he initially denied having killed anyone, but then admitted to the seven murders. He stated: "I will inflict pain on myself. I will never leave prison; you can live in peace. Whatever happens, I won't do it again. Even if you don't accept it, I ask for forgiveness."


title: Execution-style murder

text: An execution-style murder, also known as execution-style killing, a "gang style", or "kill shot" is an act of criminal murder where the perpetrator kills at close range a conscious victim who is under the complete physical control of the assailant and who has been left with no course of resistance or escape.


title: Execution-style murder

text: Its name comes from such murders being similar to the usual meaning of execution, which is the taking of life by due process of law. Execution-style killing is most often a live bullet to the brain or heart, and victims are sometimes killed while kneeling.


title: Execution-style murder

text: The terminology may derive from the process of binding the victim and killing them at close range while conscious. Some thrill killings have variously been described as execution-style murders.


title: Execution-style murder

text: An example of an execution-style murder was the 1929 St. Valentine's Day massacre in Chicago, where a number of assailants posed as police officers. Color of authority, however, is not a defining component of the event, as the crimes of Stanley Williams and Dennis Rader also fall into this category.


title: Execution-style murder

text: The weapon involved is often a handgun. Long guns, blunt instruments, bombs, and bladed weapons have also been used in killings labeled as execution-style, such as the 1993 murder of Bobby Kent in Hollywood, Florida, where Derek Kaufman delivered the fatal blow with an iron club.


title: Wallis Currie-Wood

text: Wallis Currie-Wood (born December 12, 1991) is an American actress. She played Stephanie "Stevie" McCord in the CBS drama "Madam Secretary".


title: Wallis Currie-Wood

text: Before attending Juilliard School, Currie-Wood had experience acting in Austin, Texas, where she also studied violin at University of Texas String project and at Austin Chamber Music Academy. While at Juilliard, she was a stage performer in productions such as "Twelfth Night", "The Cherry Orchard", and "Buried Child". Following Juilliard, Currie-Wood had a role in the Anne Hathaway–Robert De Niro comedy "The Intern", which was released in 2015. She played Stephanie "Stevie" McCord, the eldest daughter of Secretary of State Elizabeth McCord and Dr. Henry McCord, on "Madam Secretary". The six-season CBS series aired from 2014-2019.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal ( ) is the capital and largest city of the state of Rio Grande do Norte, located in northeastern Brazil. According to IBGE's 2021 estimate, the city had a total population of 896,708, making it the 19th largest city in the country. Natal is a major tourist destination and an exporting hub of crustaceans, carnauba wax and fruits, mostly melon, sugar apple, cashew and papaya. It is the country's closest city to Africa and Europe, with its Greater Natal International Airport connecting Natal with many Brazilian cities and also operating some international flights. The city was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Brazilian coast has long been home to indigenous peoples, generally members of the Tupi language family. While written records do not exist, archeological evidence suggests that pre-European inhabitants moved from the Amazon to the coasts approximately 2,900 years ago.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Near the Rio Grande de Norte, the Potiguara people were the most numerous "indios" encountered by the Portuguese. It is believed that in 1500, prior to contact with the Europeans, there were over 1 million people living in coastal Brazilian among all of the local groups. This nearly equaled the population of Portugal at the time.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The northeastern tip of South America, to the north of Natal and the closest point to Europe from Latin America, was first visited by European navigators in 1501, as part of the 1501–1502 Portuguese expedition led by Amerigo Vespucci. Vespucci renamed the area after the saint of the day, Cape São Roque; the prior indigenous name is unknown. For decades thereafter, no permanent European settlement was established in the area.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: In 1597, after some years during which French pirates, led by Jacques Riffault, established regular commercial activities with the native population, the ninth Portuguese Governor-General of Brazil, Francisco de Sousa, ordered the expulsion of the buccaneers. The successful expedition against 50 Frenchmen and their Amerindian allies was led by the Captain-Major of the Captaincy of Pernambuco, Manuel de Mascarenhas Homem, with the assistance of Jerônimo de Albuquerque Maranhão.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Albuquerque Maranhão began on January 6, 1598, the construction of the Fort of the Holy Kings or of the Magi-Kings (""Forte dos Santos Reis"" or ""Forte dos Reis Magos""), named after the Three Wise Men, honored in the Christian feast of the Epiphany, celebrated on that day.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal (which translates to "Nativity" or "Christmas" in Portuguese) was founded on December 25, 1599, giving the village outside the fort the modern name of the city. The fort, city, and surrounding areas were occupied by Dutch forces from 1633 to 1654. They rechristened the fort "Fort Ceulen" after one of their commanders.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The sandy soil of Natal prevented the city from becoming a producer of sugarcane during the colonial times. For centuries, the economy of the state was based on the raising of cattle in the dry interior lands. Cattle were sent alive to the larger centers, to be used as traction, or were turned into jerked beef, for food; the most typical food of Natal, "carne de sol" (sun meat), has origins in that jerked beef.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: In the last century, Natal benefited from the growth of the salt industries (the north of Rio Grande do Norte is the largest producer in Brazil) and petroleum (the largest inland Brazilian reserves are in the State). Natal grew quickly, but in a somewhat planned way (compared to other major Brazilian cities). Tourists (first Brazilians, more recently foreigners) discovered the city, which became one of the major tourist destinations in Brazil.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Because of its strategic position (Natal is one of the cities in Brazil nearest to Western Europe and Africa, especially Dakar, Senegal), an American air base was built in a suburb of Natal named Parnamirim during World War II, as part of the so-called Operation Rainbow. This base provided support for allied troops fighting in north Africa. Thousands of American soldiers were sent to Natal. Their presence left traces in the culture of the city. The city also held the Potenji Conference, which took place right after the Casablanca Conference and defined the active participation of Brazil in the war, being the only Latin American country to send troops overseas to fight in Europe.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal is located at , in the far east of South America. The city has a total area of . Natal lies on the Atlantic Ocean, at the mouth of the Potengi River.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal has a typical tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification: "As"), with warm to hot temperatures and high relative humidity all throughout the year. However, these conditions are relieved by a near absence of extreme temperatures and pleasant trade winds blowing from the ocean. February is the warmest month, with mean maximum of and minimum of , while July is the coolest with mean maximum of and minimum of . Rainfall is heavy at around per year, but there is a dry season between about September and January that is more distinct than further south on the Atlantic coast. The greatest amount of rain falls between March and July.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Known as the "City of the Sun" and also as "The City of the Dunes", Natal is located in the northeastern tip of Brazil. Lying about six degrees south of the equator the sun shines on for more than 3,000 hours every year. The average temperature in Natal is about . During the summer season it normally reaches above with the water at a soothing .


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: According to the IBGE of July 2013, there were 862,044 people residing in the city, and 1,485,405 people residing in the Greater Natal (metropolitan area). This is the second smallest capital the country in territorial extension, therefore, the population density is high, . It is the 21st-largest city in the country and the sixth largest in the northeastern region. The racial makeup of the city was 48% Pardo (Multiracial), 48% White, 3.20% Black, 0.80% Asian or Amerindian.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: With its dozens of sandy, white beaches, such as Ponta Negra and its famous Morro do Careca, Tabatinga - the cliff of dolphins, Pirangi do Norte, Redinha, Pipa and Genipabu with its famous fixed sand dunes and imported dromedaries, tourism is the most important industry of Natal, attracting Brazilians, Europeans (many from Spain, England, Scandinavia, Germany, Portugal, Italy and France), and U.S. citizens alike. There has been an increase of 211% in foreign tourism in Natal between 2002 and 2007 (for the same time period the increase of foreign tourism in Brazil was 62,8%); This is a due to the accessibility of Natal and the appeal Brazil has for an increasing number of tourists, clearly showing that Natal is the area leading the Brazilian tourism boom. Natal is the number one area receiving international investments in Brazil. Natal will benefit enormously from the massive future investments on the coastline.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: It is also a relevant administrative center for the oil industry (Rio Grande do Norte being the second largest oil-producing state in Brazil). Thus, its Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN) is a national scientific research pole on Oil Sciences (ranging from Geophysical to Law studies), supported mostly by Petrobras financing.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The fishing industry is strong (shark cartilage being a major export to Japan) as is the cultivation of tropical fruit, especially mangos, guavas, and cashews (the fruit and the nuts).


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: In fact, the largest cashew tree in the world is located near the coast in the neighborhood of Pirangi, south of the city center. This tree has a circumference of 500 metres and occupies an area of 7,300 m², making it 70 times the size of average cashew trees.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Portuguese language is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. But English and Spanish are part of the official high school curriculum.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Natal Dunes State Park is considered the second largest urban park in Brazil. It includes 1,172 hectares of land, and allows observation of several vegetal and animal species, which are typical of the Atlantic Forest. The tour is along a trail, accompanied by trained guides. The park also has a jogging track, and stays open for visitors from Tuesday to Sunday.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Museums in Natal include: Museu de Arte Sacra, Museu de Cultura Popular, Espaço Cultural Palácio Potengi, Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Rio Grande do Norte, Pinacoteca do Rio Grande do Norte, Museum Camara Cascudo, Memorial Camara Cascudo.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Natal Aquarium was founded and is run by a family of biologists and retired environmentalists. Besides the exhibit, the aquarium also serves as a surgery center for sea animals. The Aquarium is located between the Oceânica Avenue and the beach. The Aquarium exhibits about 60 marine species. There are about 30 small aquariums, where the species are put individually or in small groups of two or three species. Most species were collected at the Brazilian and Rio Grande do Norte coast. Species include several kinds of fish (including piranhas), sea horses, shrimps, lobsters, stingrays, octopus, etc. In a refrigerated aquarium, there is a couple of penguins.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Cashew of Pirangi is the biggest cashew tree in the world. In 1994, it entered the Guinness book as the tree which covers the largest area, 8,400 square meters; it is larger than a typical football pitch. Due to a genetic mutation, the branches of this tree grow outwards rather than upwards; thus when a branch touches the ground, roots are not created, rather a new ramification starts to grow. There is even a gazebo located in the cashew, a popular attraction among tourists.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Forte dos Reis Magos or Fortaleza dos Reis Magos is a medieval fortress that was the first milestone of the city – founded on 25 December 1599 – on the right side of the bar of the river Potenji (today near the Ponte Newton Navarro). It received its name based on the date of commencement of its construction, 6 January 1598, at Epiphany Catholic calendar.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Natal City Park Dom Nivaldo Monte, or simply the City Park is an urban park. Inaugurated on July 21, 2008 with architectural project of Oscar Niemeyer. It has a unique, monumental tower, and has a museum and restaurant. As of January 2011, the entire park is closed due to lack of funding from the city.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Festa Junina was introduced to Northeastern Brazil by the Portuguese for whom St John's day (also celebrated as Midsummer Day in several European countries), on the 24th of June, is one of the oldest and most popular celebrations of the year. Differently from what happens on the European Midsummer Day, the festivities in Brazil do not take place during the summer solstice but during the tropical winter solstice. The festivities traditionally begin after the 12th of June, on the eve of St Anthony's day, and last until the 29th, which is Saint Peter's day. During these fifteen days, there are bonfires, fireworks, and folk dancing in the streets. Typical foods and beverages are served. As during Carnival, these festivities involve wearing costumes (in this case, peasant costumes), dancing, heavy drinking, and visual spectacles (fireworks display and folk dancing). Similar to what happens on Midsummer and St John's Day in Europe, bonfires are a central part of these festivities in Brazil. Festa Junina in other cities of the state, especially in the city of Mossoró which gathers thousands of people during the month of June.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Newton Navarro bridge is one of the highest bridges in Brazil and has over a gorgeous sunset seen from Potengi River. It makes the connection with the beaches of the north coast of the state. In addition to unburden the city traffic, the bridge became a tourist attraction because of its large size.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Natal Historic Center it comprises an area of approximately , which are included 150 buildings of various styles, including colonial architecture, neoclassical, art-deco and modernist. This area comprises the districts of Ribeira and Cidade Alta, which are the oldest neighborhoods of the city, which have characteristics of the first centuries of the history of Brazil, highlighting important aspects of Portuguese colonization.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Barreira do Inferno Launch Center is the first base to launch rockets from Brazil. With the construction of another center in Brazil, today, it only launches rockets, small and medium businesses and is open to visitation of tourists to know the rockets, but must make an appointment to visit the center.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Parrachos de Maracajaú of coral reefs are the seven kilometers () of beach in Maracajaú, forming natural pools. Occupy an area of , excellent for snorkeling in the coral diving underwater that, at low tide, touch the surface. It is one of the places in Brazil where the sea is the most crystalline and suitable for diving. The beach of Maracajaú is from Natal. In Maracajaú also a water park, the Ma-Noa Park.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Genipabu (or Jenipabu) is a beach, a complex of dunes, a lagoon and an area of environmental protection (APA) located in Natal capital city, one of the most famous post-cards of the Brazilian state Rio Grande do Norte. It is a huge dunes and a lagoon of fresh water, with strong attraction for tourism. The region has a good infrastructure of hotels, inns, restaurants, beach tents, tours of "buggies", rafts and dromedaries. It is played in the dunes around the lake called "esquibunda" stakeholders sit down the dunes on top of planks of wood, to dive in the waters of the lagoon. The tours of "buggies" are offered in the local "with emotion" or "no emotion", according to the degree of risk, it is recommended, however, are chosen accredited professionals responsible for security not only of tourists, but the middle - environment.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Ponta Negra is a famous beach and a neighborhood located in the Brazilian city of Natal in the state of Rio Grande do Norte. In the extreme south of the beach, is located in Morro do Careca (Bald Hill), a large dune. The extreme north of the beach, is located at Via Costeira (Coastal Way), a road in the middle of coastal dunes that connect the various beaches of the city. The beach is completely urbanized and there are several points shops, restaurants, bars and night clubs. The sand itself is lined with "tents", or huts, that serve food and drinks to beachgoers day and night. A common sight on the beach are "jangadas", simple, multicolored, local fishing boats typical of northeastern Brazil. The Via Costeira (Coastal Way) is a great avenue built next to the dunes and beaches of the city, including making the connection of several beaches in the state.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Pipa Beach is located from Natal and completely away from urban centers. A beach Paradise that attracts thousands of tourists every year.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Carnival in Natal, known as "Carnatal", is one of the largest off-season carnivals in Brazil. Carnatal takes place sometime in November or December, in the streets around the Arena das Dunas Stadium (traffic around the stadium changes radically during Carnatal days). The transit department isolates about of streets, creating a ring, along which the party takes place. During the days of party, a huge truck (called "trio elétrico"), with a band on the top and sound boxes all around, drives slowly along the streets. The crowd follows the trio elétrico singing, dancing, jumping to the sound of the music.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal is also home to the "Mada", a national festival of pop rock national, and the "Verão de Todos", a summer festival.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Located virtually at sea level (169 feet), with favorable weather and geographic conditions, Greater Natal International Airport in São Gonçalo do Amarante is from Natal.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal Air Force Base - ALA10, one of their most important bases of the Brazilian Air Force, is located in the nearby city of Parnamirim.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Federal Highway BR-101 is the most important access to Natal, coming from the South of Brazil, through the boundary with the municipality of Parnamirim. For those who come from the State of Ceará, the principle access is by the Federal Highway BR-304, through the boundary with the municipality of Macaíba, where you pick up BR-226 taking people to Natal. Leaving Natal, an important access to the southern Potiguar coast is the "Sun Route" (Rota do Sol) as RN-063 is known by, and which takes you to the beaches of Pirangi, Búzios, Tabatinga, up to the municipality of Nísia Floresta. The North Shore is accessible from the Newton Navarro bridge, following the Praia do Forte to Genipabu, and the Igapó Bridge, following the district of Igapó by BR-101 to Touros, and by BR-406 to Macau.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal is connected to all the 167 municipalities of Rio Grande do Norte and dozens of locations and Potiguar districts, through the Passenger Bus Terminal of Natal (Terminal Rodoviário de Passageiros de Natal), located in the Eastern Zone of the city. All the accesses to the countryside of the state are through the Metropolitan region of Natal, composed of the municipalities of Ceará-Mirim, Emaús, Extremoz, Macaíba, Monte Alegre, Nísia Floresta, Parnamirim e São Gonçalo do Amarante. Buses with direct destinations to various Brazilian capitals also leave from the Passenger Bus Terminal of Natal. The cities with regular weekly schedules are: Belo Horizonte, Fortaleza, Goiânia, João Pessoa, Palmas, Recife, Salvador, São Luiz e Teresina.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Buses are the cheapest way to move around Natal. Passes or magnetic cards can be purchased beforehand, but it is easiest to pay the conductor. There are large buses, micro buses and vans, driving along the same streets, charging the same fares.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: All the main touristic spots within Natal are well served by buses. People may expect to travel standing up on the big buses (not so with micros and vans). Typical waiting time is 15 min during the peak hours, up to one hour.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Sistema de Trens Urbanos de Natal is a two-line commuter rail system that operates over 56 km of track, and served 3.7 million passengers in 2018.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: There are plenty of taxis in the city. Taxis are white cars and have a red plate. Fares are the same, regardless of how new and comfortable the car is.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Fares are regulated by the government. The normal prices are: US$2 to start metering, US$1 per km and US$5 per waiting hour. The only exception to these prices are the so-called "special" taxis at the airport. From 10:00 pm to 6:00 am at weekdays, and all hours at weekends (and, depending on a decree by the mayor, all times during the month of December), there is a 20% increase in the above prices, this is indicated by a number 2 showing in the fare meter. There are several tele-taxis companies in Natal.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The dune buggy is the vehicle used most to drive along the beaches. Some companies offer tours in Land Rovers and other 4WD vehicles, these cars offer much more comfort, but buggy drivers claim that the buggy is more flexible. Riding a buggy, people feel the sun and the wind. Buggies are safe, accidents with buggies are much less frequent than accidents with other cars (most dune buggy drivers are certified by the Tourist Authority).


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: The Port of Natal is specialized in cold storage cargo such as fruit, fish and shrimp, among others. It has its own customs facilities and is connected to Europe by direct navigation lines, mainly to the ports of Vigo, Rotterdam and Sheerness.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal was one of the host cities of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, for which Brazil was the host nation. The Dunas Arena was built in place of the old Machadão stadium. It is building a new airport, Greater Natal International Airport, to be the largest airport in Latin America. It is also investing in a public transport system using the system of light rail called , and other projects of infrastructure.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: David Beckham had announced plans for a football academy in Natal, called the Beckham World of Sport, to coincide with the 2014 FIFA World Cup.


title: Natal, Rio Grande do Norte

text: Natal will be the first Brazilian city to host a World Maxibasketball Championship. The 11th World Maxibasketball Championship will occur in July 2011, winning among the cities which also wanted to host the event: Punta del Este in Uruguay; Vancouver in Canada and Eugene in the United States. The facilities of the modern Nélio Dias gymnasium should be used to house the event that will bring to the capital of Rio Grande do Norte about 3,500 athletes from around the world.


title: David J. Peterson

text: David Joshua Peterson (born January 20, 1981) is an American conlanger who has constructed languages for television series such as "Game of Thrones" and "The 100" and movies such as "" and "Dune."


title: David J. Peterson

text: Peterson was born to a father of German descent and a mother of Mexican descent. Studying at University of California, Berkeley (1999–2003), Peterson received BA degrees in English and in linguistics. He received an MA in linguistics from University of California, San Diego (2003–2006). He had his first contact with constructed languages while still at Berkeley, after attending an Esperanto class in 2000. In 2007, he co-founded the Language Creation Society with nine other language creators and served as its president (2011–2014).


title: David J. Peterson

text: In 2009, the television network HBO needed a fictional language for the "Game of Thrones" television series and turned to the Language Creation Society for help. This resulted in a contest, which Peterson won.


title: David J. Peterson

text: He produced a number of videos on YouTube, in a series called "The Art of Language Invention," and published a book of the same title in 2015. Peterson also worked as an executive producer on the 2017 documentary film, "".


title: David J. Peterson

text: In 2019, Peterson created a free High Valyrian course on the Duolingo website/app and expanded the course in conjunction with the "House of the Dragon" series premiere in August 2022.


title: Ryo Fukui

text: Fukui began his life in music by learning the accordion at age 18. At the age of 22, he began to teach himself piano and soon moved to Tokyo. Fukui met occasionally with saxophonist Hidehiko Matsumoto who offered valuable encouragement and guidance to the aspiring pianist. Nonetheless, Fukui was often disheartened, feeling as though he was not making significant improvement in his playing.


title: Ryo Fukui

text: Six years after moving to Tokyo, in 1976, Fukui released his first album, "Scenery", and his second album, "Mellow Dream", the year after. He continued improving his skills over the following years in live performance, often appearing in a trio including Satoshi Denpo, Yoshinori Fukui (Ryo's brother), and himself. The trio would often play at the Shinjuku Pit Inn, Kichijōji "Sometime" jazz club and the "Jazz Inn Lovely" in Nagoya. Fukui also began to perform overseas in France and America as well as beginning to teach jazz piano to students internationally.


title: Ryo Fukui

text: In 1992 during his visit to America, Fukui met Barry Harris, an American jazz pianist from Detroit. The two went on to become close friends with Harris becoming a mentor figure to Fukui and helped him develop his technique in bebop. In 1994, a third album, "My Favourite Tune", was recorded and released featuring Fukui on solo piano playing several original works as well as renditions of songs such as "My Conception" by Sonny Clark and "After Hours" by Avery Parrish. This album was followed by "In New York" four years later, in trio with the drummer Leroy Williams and the bassist Lisle Arthur Atkinson. In 1995 Fukui went on to open the Slowboat jazz club which attracted many local jazz players as well as international. He would also go on to offer lessons and workshops to pass on his knowledge of music to others. Fukui's final album, "A Letter From Slowboat" was released in 2015—recorded live during his time at the Slowboat jazz club.


title: Ryo Fukui

text: Fukui died on March 15, 2016, of lymphoma. After his death, his widow Yasuko Fukui took over the Slowboat jazz club, running its day-to-day operations. Fukui's longtime friend Barry Harris has since been seen playing his song "Fukai Aijo" (深い愛情) and dedicating his performance to Fukui.


title: Ryo Fukui

text: Japanese jazz experienced a resurgence in popularity in the late 2010s, with Fukui and especially his album "Scenery" being at the forefront of renewed interest. Fukui's music has made its way into popular internet culture, as much of his work has been uploaded onto popular streaming platforms such as YouTube and Apple Music. This resurgence in Fukui's work has cultivated a large audience of collectors seeking the vinyl releases of his work.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Ultrapure water (UPW), high-purity water or highly purified water (HPW) is water that has been purified to uncommonly stringent specifications. Ultrapure water is a term commonly used in manufacturing to emphasize the fact that the water is treated to the highest levels of purity for all contaminant types, including: organic and inorganic compounds; dissolved and particulate matter; volatile and non-volatile; reactive, and inert; hydrophilic and hydrophobic; and dissolved gases.


title: Ultrapure water

text: UPW and the commonly used term deionized (DI) water are not the same. In addition to the fact that UPW has organic particles and dissolved gases removed, a typical UPW system has three stages: a pretreatment stage to produce purified water, a primary stage to further purify the water, and a polishing stage, the most expensive part of the treatment process.


title: Ultrapure water

text: A number of organizations and groups develop and publish standards associated with the production of UPW. For microelectronics and power, they include Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI) (microelectronics and photovoltaic), American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM International) (semiconductor, power), Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) (power), American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) (power), and International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam (IAPWS) (power). Pharmaceutical plants follow water quality standards as developed by pharmacopeias, of which three examples are the United States Pharmacopeia, European Pharmacopeia, and Japanese Pharmacopeia.


title: Ultrapure water

text: The most widely used requirements for UPW quality are documented by ASTM D5127 "Standard Guide for Ultra-Pure Water Used in the Electronics and Semiconductor Industries" and SEMI F63 "Guide for ultrapure water used in semiconductor processing".


title: Ultrapure water

text: Bacteria, particles, organic, and inorganic sources of contamination vary depending on a number of factors, including the feed water to make UPW, as well as the selection of the piping materials used to convey it. Bacteria are typically reported in colony-forming units (CFU) per volume of UPW. Particles use number per volume of UPW. Total organic carbon (TOC), metallic contaminants, and anionic contaminants are measured in dimensionless terms of parts per notation, such as ppm, ppb, ppt, and ppq.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Bacteria have been referred to as one of the most obstinate in this list to control. Techniques that help to minimize bacterial colony growth within UPW streams include occasional chemical or steam sanitization (which is common in the pharmaceutical industry), ultrafiltration (found in some pharmaceutical, but mostly semiconductor industries), ozonation, and optimization of piping system designs that promote the use of Reynolds Number criteria for minimum flow, along with minimization of dead legs. In modern and advanced UPW systems, positive (higher than zero) bacteria counts are typically observed on newly constructed facilities. This issue is effectively addressed by sanitization using ozone or hydrogen peroxide. With proper design of the polishing and distribution system, no positive bacteria counts are typically detected throughout the life cycle of the UPW system.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Particles in UPW are the bane of the semiconductor industry, causing defects in sensitive photolithographic processes that define nanometer-sized features. In other industries, their effects can range from a nuisance to life-threatening defects. Particles can be controlled by filtration and ultrafiltration. Sources can include bacterial fragments, the sloughing of the component walls within the conduit's wetted stream, and the cleanliness of the jointing processes used to build the piping system.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Total organic carbon in ultra pure water can contribute to bacterial proliferation by providing nutrients, can substitute as a carbide for another chemical species in a sensitive thermal process, react in unwanted ways with biochemical reactions in bioprocessing, and, in severe cases, leave unwanted residues on production parts. TOC can come from the feed water used to produce UPW, from the components used to convey the UPW (additives in the manufacturing piping products or extrusion aides and mold release agents), from subsequent manufacturing and cleaning operations of piping systems, or from dirty pipes, fittings, and valves.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Metallic and anionic contamination in UPW systems can shut down enzymatic processes in bioprocessing, corrode equipment in the electrical power generation industry, and result in either short or long-term failure of electronic components in semiconductor chips and photovoltaic cells. Its sources are similar to those of TOC's. Depending on the level of purity needed, detection of these contaminants can range from simple conductivity (electrolytic) readings to sophisticated instrumentation such as ion chromatography (IC), atomic absorption spectroscopy (AA) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).


title: Ultrapure water

text: The term "ultrapure water" became popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s to describe the particular quality of water used by these industries.


title: Ultrapure water

text: While each industry uses what it calls "ultrapure water", the quality standards vary, meaning that the UPW used by a pharmaceutical plant is different from that used in a semiconductor fab or a power station. The standards are based on the application. For instance, semiconductor plants use UPW as a cleaning agent, so it is important that the water not contain dissolved contaminants that can precipitate or particles that may lodge on circuits and cause microchip failures. The power industry uses UPW to make steam to drive steam turbines; pharmaceutical facilities use UPW as a cleaning agent, as well as an ingredient in products, so they seek water free of endotoxins, microbials, and viruses.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Today, ion exchange (IX) and electrodeionization (EDI) are the primary deionization technologies associated with UPW production, in most cases following reverse osmosis (RO). Depending on the required water quality, UPW treatment plants often also feature degasification, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet irradiation, and measurement instruments (e.g., total organic carbon [TOC], resistivity/conductivity, particles, pH, and specialty measurements for specific ions).


title: Ultrapure water

text: Early on, softened water produced by technologies like zeolite softening or cold lime softening was a precursor to modern UPW treatment. From there, the term "deionized" water was the next advancement as synthetic IX resins were invented in 1935 and then became commercialized in the 1940s. The earliest "deionized" water systems relied on IX treatment to produce "high-purity" as determined by resistivity or conductivity measurements. After commercial RO membranes emerged in the 1960s, RO use with IX treatment eventually became common. EDI was commercialized in the 1980s and this technology has now become commonly associated with UPW treatment.


title: Ultrapure water

text: UPW is used extensively in the semiconductor industry where the highest grade of purity is required. The amount of electronic-grade or molecular-grade water used by the semiconductor industry is comparable to the water consumption of a small city; a single factory can utilize ultrapure water (UPW) at a rate of 2 MGD, or ~5500 m/day. The UPW is usually produced on-site.


title: Ultrapure water

text: The use of UPW varies; it may be used to rinse the wafer after application of chemicals, to dilute the chemicals themselves, in optics systems for immersion photolithography, or as make-up to cooling fluid in some critical applications. UPW is even sometimes used as a humidification source for the cleanroom environment.


title: Ultrapure water

text: The primary, and most critical, application of UPW is in wafer cleaning in and after wet etching step during the FEOL stage. Impurities which can cause product contamination or impact process efficiency (e.g. etch rate) must be removed from the water during cleaning and etching stage. In chemical-mechanical polishing processes, water is used in addition to reagents and abrasive particles. As of 2002 1-2 parts of contaminating molecules per one million of water ones was considered to be an "ultrapure water" (e.g. semiconductor grade).


title: Ultrapure water

text: It is used in other types of electronics manufacturing in a similar fashion, such as flat panel displays, discrete components (such as LEDs), hard disk drive platters (HDD) and solid-state drive NAND flash (SSD), image sensors and image processors/ wafer-level optics (WLO), and crystalline silicon photovoltaics; the cleanliness requirements in the semiconductor industry, however, are currently the most stringent.


title: Ultrapure water

text: A typical use of ultrapure water in pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries is summarized in the table below:


title: Ultrapure water

text: In order to be used for pharmaceutical and biotechnology applications for production of licensed human and veterinary health care products it must comply with the specification of the following pharmacopeias monographs:


title: Ultrapure water

text: Ultrapure water is often used as a critical utility for cleaning applications (as required). It is also used to generate clean steam for sterilization.


title: Ultrapure water

text: The following table summarizes the specifications of two major pharmacopoeias for 'water for injection':


title: Ultrapure water

text: Ultrapure water validation must utilize a risk-based lifecycle approach. This approach consists of three stages – design and development, qualification, and continued verification. One should utilize current regulatory guidance to comply with regulatory expectations. Typical guidance documents to consult at the time of writing are: FDA Guide to Inspections of High Purity Water Systems, High Purity Water Systems (7/93), the EMEA CPMP/CVMP Note for Guidance on Quality of Water for Pharmaceutical Use (London, 2002), and USP Monograph <1231> Water For Pharmaceutical Purposes.


title: Ultrapure water

text: However, other jurisdictions' documents may exist, and it is a responsibility of practitioners validating water systems to consult those. Currently, the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as the Pharmaceutical Inspection Co-operation Scheme (PIC/S) developed technical documents which outline validation requirements and strategies for water systems.


title: Ultrapure water

text: In pure water systems, electrolytic conductivity or resistivity measurement is the most common indicator of ionic contamination. The same basic measurement is read out in either conductivity units of microsiemens per centimeter (μS/cm), typical of the pharmaceutical and power industries or in resistivity units of megohm-centimeters (MΩ⋅cm) used in the microelectronics industries. These units are reciprocals of each other. Absolutely pure water has a conductivity of 0.05501 μS/cm and a resistivity of 18.18 MΩ⋅cm at 25 °C, the most common reference temperature to which these measurements are compensated. An example of the sensitivity to contamination of these measurements is that 0.1 ppb of sodium chloride raises the conductivity of pure water to 0.05523 μS/cm and lowers the resistivity to 18.11 MΩ⋅cm.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Ultrapure water is easily contaminated by traces of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere passing through tiny leaks or diffusing through thin wall polymer tubing when sample lines are used for measurement. Carbon dioxide forms conductive carbonic acid in water. For this reason, conductivity probes are most often permanently inserted directly into the main ultrapure water system piping to provide real-time continuous monitoring of contamination. These probes contain both conductivity and temperature sensors to enable accurate compensation for the very large temperature influence on the conductivity of pure waters. Conductivity probes have an operating life of many years in pure water systems. They require no maintenance except for periodic verification of measurement accuracy, typically annually.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Sodium is usually the first ion to break through a depleted cation exchanger. Sodium measurement can quickly detect this condition and is widely used as the indicator for cation exchange regeneration. The conductivity of cation exchange effluent is always quite high due to the presence of anions and hydrogen ion and therefore conductivity measurement is not useful for this purpose. Sodium is also measured in power plant water and steam samples because it is a common corrosive contaminant and can be detected at very low concentrations in the presence of higher amounts of ammonia and/or amine treatment which have a relatively high background conductivity.


title: Ultrapure water

text: On-line sodium measurement in ultrapure water most commonly uses a glass membrane sodium ion-selective electrode and a reference electrode in an analyzer measuring a small continuously flowing side-stream sample. The voltage measured between the electrodes is proportional to the logarithm of the sodium ion activity or concentration, according to the Nernst equation. Because of the logarithmic response, low concentrations in sub-parts per billion ranges can be measured routinely. To prevent interference from hydrogen ion, the sample pH is raised by the continuous addition of a pure amine before measurement. Calibration at low concentrations is often done with automated analyzers to save time and to eliminate variables of manual calibration.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Advanced microelectronics manufacturing processes require low single digit to 10 ppb dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in the ultrapure rinse water to prevent oxidation of wafer films and layers. DO in power plant water and steam must be controlled to ppb levels to minimize corrosion. Copper alloy components in power plants require single digit ppb DO concentrations whereas iron alloys can benefit from the passivation effects of higher concentrations in the 30 to 150 ppb range.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Dissolved oxygen is measured by two basic technologies: electrochemical cell or optical fluorescence. Traditional electrochemical measurement uses a sensor with a gas-permeable membrane. Behind the membrane, electrodes immersed in an electrolyte develop an electric current directly proportional to the oxygen partial pressure of the sample. The signal is temperature compensated for the oxygen solubility in water, the electrochemical cell output and the diffusion rate of oxygen through the membrane.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Optical fluorescent DO sensors use a light source, a fluorophore and an optical detector. The fluorophore is immersed in the sample. Light is directed at the fluorophore which absorbs energy and then re-emits light at a longer wavelength. The duration and intensity of the re-emitted light is related to the dissolved oxygen partial pressure by the Stern–Volmer relationship. The signal is temperature compensated for the solubility of oxygen in water and the fluorophore characteristics to obtain the DO concentration value.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Silica is a contaminant that is detrimental to microelectronics processing and must be maintained at sub-ppb levels. In steam power generation silica can form deposits on heat-exchange surfaces where it reduces thermal efficiency. In high temperature boilers, silica will volatilize and carry over with steam where it can form deposits on turbine blades which lower aerodynamic efficiency. Silica deposits are very difficult to remove. Silica is the first readily measurable species to be released by a spent anion exchange resin and is therefore used as the trigger for anion resin regeneration. Silica is non-conductive and therefore not detectable by conductivity.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Silica is measured on side stream samples with colorimetric analyzers. The measurement adds reagents including a molybdate compound and a reducing agent to produce a blue silico-molybdate complex color which is detected optically and is related to concentration according to the Beer–Lambert law. Most silica analyzers operate on an automated semi-continuous basis, isolating a small volume of sample, adding reagents sequentially and allowing enough time for reactions to occur while minimizing consumption of reagents. The display and output signals are updated with each batch measurement result, typically at 10 to 20-minute intervals.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Particles in UPW have always presented a major problem for semiconductor manufacture, as any particle landing on a silicon wafer can bridge the gap between the electrical pathways in the semiconductor circuitry. When a pathway is short-circuited the semiconductor device will not work properly; such a failure is called a yield loss, one of the most closely watched parameters in the semiconductor industry. The technique of choice to detect these single particles has been to shine a light beam (a laser) through a small volume of UPW and detect the light scattered by any particles (instruments based on this technique are called laser particle counters or LPCs). As semiconductor manufacturers pack more and more transistors into the same physical space, the circuitry line-width has become narrow and narrower. As a result, LPC manufacturers have had to use more and more powerful lasers and very sophisticated scattered light detectors to keep pace. As line-width approaches 10 nm (a human hair is approximately 100,000 nm in diameter) LPC technology is becoming limited by secondary optical effects, and new particle measurement techniques will be required. Recently, one such novel analysis method named NDLS has successfully been brought into use at Electrum Laboratory (Royal Institute of Technology) in Stockholm, Sweden. NDLS is based on Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) instrumentation.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Another type of contamination in UPW is dissolved inorganic material, primarily silica. Silica is one of the most abundant mineral on the planet and is found in all water supplies. Any dissolved inorganic material has the potential to remain on the wafer as the UPW dries. Once again this can lead to a significant loss in yield. To detect trace amounts of dissolved inorganic material a measurement of non-volatile residue is commonly used. This technique involves using a nebulizer to create droplets of UPW suspended in a stream of air. These droplets are dried at a high temperature to produce an aerosol of non-volatile residue particles. A measurement device called a condensation particle counter then counts the residue particles to give a reading in parts per trillion (ppt) by weight.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Total organic carbon is most commonly measured by oxidizing the organics in the water to CO, measuring the increase in the CO concentration after the oxidation or delta CO, and converting the measured delta CO amount into "mass of carbon" per volume concentration units. The initial CO in the water sample is defined as Inorganic Carbon or IC. The CO produced from the oxidized organics and any initial CO (IC) both together are defined as Total Carbon or TC. The TOC value is then equal to the difference between TC and IC.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Oxidation of organics to CO is most commonly achieved in liquid solutions by the creation of the highly oxidizing chemical species, the hydroxyl radical (OH•). Organic oxidation in a combustion environment involves the creation of other energized molecular oxygen species. For the typical TOC levels in UPW systems most methods utilize hydroxyl radicals in the liquid phase.


title: Ultrapure water

text: There are multiple methods to create sufficient concentrations of hydroxyl radicals needed to completely oxidize the organics in water to CO, each method being appropriate for different water purity levels. For typical raw waters feeding into the front end of an UPW purification system the raw water can contain TOC levels between 0.7 mg/L to 15 mg/L and require a robust oxidation method that can ensure there is enough oxygen available to completely convert all the carbon atoms in the organic molecules into CO. Robust oxidation methods that supply sufficient oxygen include the following methods; Ultraviolet light (UV) & persulfate, heated persulfate, combustion, and super critical oxidation. Typical equations showing persulfate generation of hydroxyl radicals follows.


title: Ultrapure water

text: When the organic concentration is less than 1 mg/L as TOC and the water is saturated with oxygen UV light is sufficient to oxidize the organics to CO, this is a simpler oxidation method. The wavelength of the UV light for the lower TOC waters must be less than 200 nm and is typically 184 nm generated by a low pressure Hg vapor lamp. The 184 nm UV light is energetic enough to break the water molecule into OH and H radicals. The hydrogen radicals quickly react to create H. The equations follow:


title: Ultrapure water

text: When testing the quality of UPW, consideration is given to where that quality is required and where it is to be measured. The point of distribution or delivery (POD) is the point in the system immediately after the last treatment step and before the distribution loop. It is the standard location for the majority of analytical tests. The point of connection (POC) is another commonly used point for measuring quality of UPW. It is located at the outlet of the submain or lateral take off valve used for UPW supply to the tool.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Grab sample UPW analyses are either complementary to the on-line testing or alternative, depending on the availability of the instruments and the level of the UPW quality specifications. Grab sample analysis is typically performed for the following parameters: metals, anions, ammonium, silica (both dissolved and total), particles by SEM (scanning electron microscope), TOC (total organic compounds) and specific organic compounds.


title: Ultrapure water

text: Metal analyses are typically performed by ICP-MS (Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry). The detection level depends on the specific type of the instrument used and the method of the sample preparation and handling. Current state-of-the-art methods allow reaching sub-ppt (parts per trillion) level (< 1 ppt) typically tested by ICPMS.