title: Amiga CD32

text: Commodore demonstrated the CD32 at the World of Commodore Amiga show in September 1993, promising to sell the console in some cities by Christmas with wider distribution in January 1994 for . "Computer Gaming World" reported in November 1993 that "a significant amount of software will be available immediately" for the console, based on the Amiga 1200. The magazine in January 1994 stated that ""in spite" of Commodore's earlier efforts to disguise the fact—the Amiga is a great gaming platform", but wondered if the company could successfully market the console in the US; "The CDTV fiasco certainly isn't reassuring. Will there be enough U.S. developers to make the investment worthwhile?"


title: Amiga CD32

text: The CD32 was released in Canada and Australia and was planned for release in the United States. Commodore stated that the console would launch in the United States in either late February or early March 1994, at the price of $399 with two pack-in games, "Pinball Fantasies" and "Sleepwalker", as well as six separately sold launch games. However, a deadline was reached for Commodore to pay in patent royalty to () for their use of their XOR patent. A federal judge ordered an injunction against Commodore preventing them from importing anything into the United States. Commodore had built up CD32 inventory in their Philippine manufacturing facility for the United States launch, but, being unable to sell the consoles, they remained in the Philippines until the debts owed to the owners of the facility were settled. Commodore declared bankruptcy shortly afterwards, and the CD32 was never officially sold in the United States. However, imported models did come over the border from Canada, and many stores in the United States (primarily mail-order stores) imported units for domestic sale. During the long bankruptcy proceedings, also provided some hardware components and software for the American market, including production of the MPEG Video Module, which was not officially released by Commodore International.


title: Amiga CD32

text: The CD32 was marketed on its box as "The World's First 32-bit CD Games Console". Although it was the first such machine released in Europe and North America, it was beaten to market by seven months by the FM Towns Marty, a console released exclusively in Japan. However, the CD32's 68EC020 processor has a 32-bit data bus both internally and externally, while the 386SX in the FM Towns Marty has a 16-bit data bus externally. However, because the CD32 shipped with 2MB of RAM shared between the chipset and the CPU, this meant the CPU was bottlenecked when accessing memory, similar to an A1200 operating without 32-bit "fast" (CPU dedicated) RAM.


title: Amiga CD32

text: Ultimately, Commodore was not able to meet demand for new units because of component supply problems. Sales of the CD32 in Europe were not enough to save Commodore, and the bankruptcy of Commodore International in April 1994 caused the CD32 to be discontinued only eight months after its debut. During the brief Amiga CD32 presence in the market, approximately of it were sold in Europe alone.


title: Amiga CD32

text: ProModule, Paravision SX-1, DCE SX-32 (which optionally includes 68030 CPU) and Terrible Fire's TF328 and TF330 (which add 2.5" IDE, keyboard connector and 8Mb/64mb of Fastmem).


title: Amiga CD32

text: Those devices extend the capabilities of the Amiga CD32, allowing it to utilize hardware such as an external 3.5" floppy disk drive, hard disk and IBM PC keyboard (a CD32-branded keyboard was officially released however, which used the AUX port on the left of the machine). An Amiga CD32 can be turned into a "de facto" Amiga 1200 via the addition of third-party packages. The SX-1 appears to have been designed around Commodore's mechanical specs and not the actual production units – it did not fit very well and requires an internal "modification" to equip it properly. Consequently, the SX-1 can be jarred loose if the console is not handled gently. The upgraded SX-32 expansion pack (which included a 68030 processor) solves these problems.


title: Amiga CD32

text: Not wishing to repeat its earlier mistake of offering a way to turn a CD32 into an enhanced A1200 as it did with the A500-based CDTV, Commodore itself made no hardware available for that purpose. One of its last hardware designs, however, was an external CD-ROM drive for the A1200 that featured the CD32's Akiko chip, thus turning any A1200 into a CD32-compatible system. The only currently known surviving prototype of the CD1200 drive resides at the Retro Computer Museum in Leicester.


title: Amiga CD32

text: In addition to its own special controllers, the Amiga CD32 is also compatible with most 9-pin D-sub controllers from the '80s and '90s, including the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis controllers, Atari 2600 joysticks, Sega Master System controllers, and all Amiga/C64 joysticks, as well as Amiga mice and paddles.


title: Amiga CD32

text: CDs created for the CD32 conform to ISO 9660 level2 mode1, although the Rock Ridge and Joliet extensions are not compatible.


title: Amiga CD32

text: If the system is turned on without a CD, a splash screen with scrolling colours will appear and a tune will play. After this tune ends, the user can press the blue button on the game pad to enter a language selection menu. The user can also press the red button to access a menu where they can view the contents of the internal Flash ROM. Unlike most game consoles, this menu does not allow the user to delete items. Instead, the system will automatically overwrite the oldest entries when the memory runs out. The menu does, however, allow the user to "lock" files to prevent overwriting.


title: Amiga CD32

text: The CD32 launch bundle included two games: "Diggers", a new game from Millennium Interactive, and "Oscar", from Flair Software. A later pack includes the one-on-one fighting game "Dangerous Streets", a move by Commodore that was met with derision by the press. Many reviewers had given "Dangerous Streets" terrible scores (Amiga Power rating it just 3%) and were surprised that with a slew of powerful rival consoles about to hit the market, Commodore would choose to show off the abilities of its machine with a poor game.


title: Amiga CD32

text: The CD32 is capable of running most of the titles developed for the Amiga CDTV multimedia device, but differences in CPU speed and Kickstart version prevent some of the earlier CDTV titles from running. Most of the games released for the CD32 are simply ports of games that were already available for Amiga computers. One benefit of this is that, when appropriate, many games retain the ability to use an Amiga mouse (in port 2) or Amiga keyboard (plugged into the AUX port).


title: Amiga CD32

text: Like all later Amiga computers, the CD32 has a hidden boot menu that can be accessed by plugging an Amiga mouse into port 2 and holding both buttons down while turning the system on. Most of the options in this menu are not useful on a CD32, but from this menu the user can choose to boot in either NTSC or PAL mode. This is important, as there are some games that will not work if the system is in the wrong mode, and most games don't advertise what video mode they were developed for. Despite the naming, the menu really only allows a choice of or video output; a PAL system booted in NTSC mode will still output a video signal using PAL colour encoding, which will usually result in a black-and-white picture when connected to an NTSC television.


title: Amiga CD32

text: In 1993, 109 CD32 units were installed to run the interactive exhibits at the London Transport Museum, Covent Garden. They provided information, animations, pictures, sound and text available in several languages, as well as a London Underground simulator. The systems were produced by the Odiham, Hampshire-based company Index Information, utilising their CD32x interface units.


title: Amiga CD32

text: In 1995, an Italian company named CD Express used the CD32 as a basis for an arcade machine called "CUBO CD32". Inside these machines, stock CD32s were hooked up to an external circuit board which essentially acted as a converter to route all the input and output into a standard JAMMA connector for use in an arcade cabinet. The software was provided on CD-ROM. Nine games are known to exist, all of which are original games created by CD Express.


title: Amiga CD32

text: In the mid to late 1990s, some vehicle registries in Canada utilised CD32 systems for interactive multimedia testing for drivers license applications.


title: Amiga CD32

text: In the late 1990s to early 2000s, slot machine manufacturer StarGames utilized a stripped down CD32 motherboard in many of their slot machines. Machines confirmed to be operating on CD32 hardware are Hawaiian Delight, Leprechaun Luck, and Mister Magic.


title: Amiga CD32

text: From 1994 to 1997, Sylvan Learning Systems used CD32 systems in their Wall Street Institute learning centres. Main features include software with voice tone recognition and interactive activities very focused on listening. Those consoles have a floppy disk drive unit attached, with a clock unit, for saving students' progress and sharing them with teachers. Data was stored in a central database and the system offered an advanced multimedia environment with statistics. It was replaced with PC systems after some years of intensive use and a very strong stock of spare consoles and pieces.


title: Amiga CD32

text: In 1995, Taurus Ventures Inc in Burnaby, BC developed the VanCity Direct TV system based on the CD32 for the VanCity Credit Union. It features a custom modem, also designed by TVi.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Elizabeth F. Loftus (born 1944) is an American psychologist who is best known in relation to the misinformation effect, false memory and criticism of recovered memory therapies.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Loftus's research includes the effects of phrasing on the perceptions of automobile accidents, the "lost in the mall" technique and the manipulation of food preferences through the use of false memories. In the Jane Doe case that began in 1997, Loftus and Melvin J. Guyer revealed serious concerns about the background and validity of the initial research. She has also served on the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and was a keynote speaker at the British Psychological Society's 2011 annual conference.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: As well as her scientific work, Loftus has provided expert testimony or consultation for lawyers in over 300 court cases, including for the legal teams of Ghislaine Maxwell, Harvey Weinstein and Robert Durst. She has also written many books, including "The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories & Allegations of Sexual Abuse" and "Witness for the Defense".


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Born Elizabeth Fishman on October 16, 1944, Loftus grew up in a Jewish family in Bel Air, California. Her father (Sidney Fishman) was a doctor and her mother (Rebecca Fishman) a librarian. When Loftus was 14 years old, her mother drowned.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: She received a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics and psychology from the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1966, followed by a master's and PhD in mathematical psychology from Stanford University in 1967 and 1970 respectively. Her thesis was entitled "An Analysis of the Structural Variables That Determine Problem-Solving Difficulty on a Computer-Based Teletype".


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: From 1970 to 1973, Loftus was employed as a cognitive psychologist at the New School for Social Research in New York City, after becoming dissatisfied with university work such as calibrating math and word problems for fifth-grade students. At the time, she had also been investigating semantic memory with Professor Jonathan Freedman at Stanford University.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Loftus was employed at the University of Washington from 1973 to 2001, initially as an assistant professor. She shifted from laboratory work to using "real world" situations of criminal court cases.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Around this time, the Department of Transport was offering funding for research into car accidents. Loftus's first experiment in this area involved showing 45 students videos of car crashes and then asking the students to estimate the speed of the car. Her findings were that the mean estimates of the speeds were 32 mph when the question was phrased as the speed that the cars "collided", 34 mph when the question was phrased as "hit each other" instead, and 41 mph when the question was phrased as "smashed each other". Loftus concluded that "these results are consistent with the view that the questions asked subsequent to an event can cause a reconstruction in one's memory of that event".


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In 1974, Loftus published two articles with her observations about the conflicting eyewitness accounts in a particular murder trial and about the reliability of witness testimony in general. This resulted in several lawyers contacting her about current cases, beginning her career of paid work providing advice to lawyers. Early attempts for Loftus to act as an expert witness for these lawyers were deemed inadmissible by judges, however in June 1975 Loftus presented the first expert witness testimony in Washington State on the topic of eyewitness identification.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In 1990, George Franklin was on trial for murdering a young girl 20 years prior. The prosecution's evidence included eyewitness testimony from Franklin's daughter that she had witnessed the murder, based on a recovered memory which was unearthed during a therapy session a year before the trial. The defense attorney had a theory that the daughter had never seen the crime and that the testimony was based on a false memory. Loftus was employed by the attorney to provide expert testimony in support of this theory. Loftus referred to an experiment where she showed people video of a crime and then an incorrect television news report about the crime. Afterwards, the viewers had mixed up some events from the original video with those in the news report. Loftus argued that the same must have happened to Franklin's daughter, causing a "memory" of an event that she hadn't witnessed.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: However, the prosecutor forced Loftus to admit that she had never studied memories like those of Franklin's daughter. Loftus's studies found that people could misidentify random perpetrators, not that they could mistakenly accuse their own fathers. It was also not proven that memories could be wholly invented, rather than altered. The prosecution was successful and Franklin was convicted.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In 1991 there were several high-profile examples of people having recovered memories of being molested by their parents, which gained Loftus's attention. Loftus read several books teaching women and therapists how to recover memories of sexual abuse, and urging therapists to ask their clients about childhood incest. Also in 1991, Loftus was deemed an honorary fellow of the British Psychological Society.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Around this time, Loftus's undergraduate student Jim Coan developed the "lost in the mall" technique. This technique involved Coan giving his younger brother three stories of actual events from his childhood, plus a false story about the brother being lost in a mall. The younger brother believed all stories to be true and provided further details of the false story.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: A similar experiment by Loftus found that 25% of subjects believed that they could remember the event which had never taken place, however this study was criticized by Lynn Crook and Martha Dean based on the ethics of the subject recruitment method used and Kenneth Pope has argued she inappropriately generalized the findings to draw conclusions about false memories and therapeutic techniques. A later study by Loftus (involving 332 undergraduate students who received course credit for participating) found that approximately one third of students accepted as true a false story about having their ear licked by a drug-addled Pluto character during a childhood visit to Disneyland.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Following the publication of these studies, armed guards accompanied Loftus at lectures. Also, Loftus had previously received death threats after the publication of her 1994 book "The Myth of Repressed Memory". The same year, Loftus received an In Praise of Reason award from the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In the 1997 "New Hampshire vs Joel Hungerford" case, the judge set strict conditions on the admissibility of recovered memory testimony.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In 1997, psychiatrists David Corwin and Erna Olafson published a case study of a recovered memory of apparently genuine childhood sexual abuse, which became known as the Jane Doe case. Loftus and Melvin Guyer interviewed Jane's stepmother who revealed that she was involved in building a case against Jane's mother in a battle for custody of Jane. Jane contacted the University of Washington and accused Loftus of breaching her privacy. The university put Loftus under investigation, including confiscating her files. The investigation lasted for 21 months, during which she was not allowed to share her findings. The university cleared Loftus of breaking research protocols, and Loftus and Guyer published their findings in 2002.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Loftus's invitation to give the keynote address at the New Zealand Psychological Society's conference in August 2000 provoked the society's director of scientific affairs, John Read, to resign from his position and for conference attendees to distribute materials critical of Loftus' work. Loftus stated that she "didn't wear her best jacket" to give her address for "fear of flying tomatoes". Prior to the conference, Loftus was the subject of several internet posts by conspiracy theorist Diana Napolis which alleged that Loftus was conspiring to help child molesters.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: By 2001, Loftus had become disappointed with the University of Washington's unwillingness to stand by her during the controversy involving the Jane Doe case, so she left the university. The same year, Loftus received a William James Fellow Award from the Association for Psychological Science.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: From 2001 to 2003, Loftus worked for the University of California, Irvine, (UCI) as a distinguished professor in the department of Criminology, Law and Society and the department of Psychological Science. She was also a fellow in the UCI Department of Cognitive Sciences and the Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. Her work included an experiment on 131 undergraduate students in relation to preferences for cookies and strawberry ice cream. The students were given false information that they had become sick from these foods when they were under 10 years old, and were asked before and afterwards to rate the likelihood of this event having occurred.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In 2002, Loftus was ranked 58th in the "Review of General Psychology"s list of the 100 most influential psychological researchers of the 20th century. The following year, Loftus received the American Psychological Association's award for Distinguished Scientific Applications of Psychology and presented the associated speech at 2003 APA's convention. Also in 2003, Loftus was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In 2003, the "Taus v. Loftus" case in the Supreme Court of California saw Loftus, Melvin J. Guyer and "Skeptical Inquirer" magazine being sued by Nicole Taus regarding the article they published about her case. The lawsuit included 21 claims of defamation, invasion of privacy, infliction of emotional distress and fraud. Initially, all but one of the claims was dismissed. The remaining claim was regarding Loftus misrepresenting herself as Corwin's colleague and supervisor while interviewing Taus's foster mother. In August 2007, the remaining claim was withdrawn by Taus, after reaching an agreement that Loftus's insurance company would pay a settlement of $7,500 to Nicole Taus. The following year, Loftus published her studies on the case.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In 2004, she attempted to implant a false memory in Alan Alda on "Scientific American Frontiers". Alda did not accept the false memory of becoming sick as a child from eating a hard-boiled egg. Loftus stated that Alda's questionnaire result changing from 1 to 2 (out of 8) from "definitely don't happen" to "happened" supported the false memory theory. The variance in Alda's pre- and post-experiment responses was not stated. Loftus attended and was a speaker at the symposium in November 2006. In 2005, she received the Grawemeyer Award for psychology from the University of Louisville, the 2010 Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: From 2011 to , Loftus was on the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Loftus was a keynote speaker at the British Psychological Society's annual conference in 2011, held in Glasgow on May 4–6.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: In June 2013, Loftus presented at the TEDGlobal Conference in Edinburgh, Scotland. She was also the keynote speaker at the 2013 Psychonomic Society annual meeting, held in Toronto, Canada, on November 14–16. In 2016, Loftus received the John Maddox Prize, In 2015, Loftus received an honorary doctorate in psychology from Goldsmiths, University of London. In 2018, she won the Western Psychological Association's Lifetime Achievement Award and the University College Dublin's Ulysses Medal.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Loftus has also been involved with the cases for Ted Bundy, O.J. Simpson, Rodney King, Oliver North, Martha Stewart, Lewis Libby, Michael Jackson, the Menendez brothers and the Oklahoma City bombers.


title: Elizabeth Loftus

text: Loftus has written or co-authored many journal articles and books, including the 1994 book titled "The Myth of Repressed Memory".


title: Hedonism Resorts

text: Hedonism II is an adults-only vacation resort in Jamaica, owned and operated by Marshmallow Ltd, headed by Harry Lange. The resort has areas reserved for naturism and it is known for its sexually liberal culture. , only Hedonism II is in operation. There was never a Hedonism I, and Hedonism III closed in 2010.


title: Hedonism Resorts

text: Hedonism II opened in 1976 as "Negril Beach Village" and was given its current name in 1981; it was built by the Government of Jamaica at a cost of $10 million. It occupies at the northern end of Negril beach and has 280 rooms in two-story buildings. A 50% interest in the hotel was bought by the SuperClubs in 1989, a resort company owned by John Issa & his family, for $12.25 million. On February 26, 2013, the resort was sold to Marshmallow Ltd headed by Harry Lange with a minority stock held by the Issa family and Kevin Levee, a 28-year employee of SuperClubs and its current general manager. Harry W. Lange's company is now named PB&J Resorts II (Jamaica) Limited.


title: Hedonism Resorts

text: Hedonism III opened in 1999 in Runaway Bay and was built on and contained 225 rooms in 3-story buildings; in August 2010 the company closed Hedonism III temporarily, to allow for remodeling work. It reopened on October 14, 2010, as SuperFun Beach Resort and Spa catering to a wider market through additional tour operators. However, SuperFun Beach Resort entered receivership in March 2011 and closed in June 2011. While it was an adult-only resort, SuperFun did not allow topless or nude sunbathing. The property was leased to SuperClubs by the Development Bank of Jamaica, while the hotel's first-ranked secured lenders were Caribbean Development Bank, PanCaribbean, and Development Bank of Jamaica.


title: Hedonism Resorts

text: Public nudity is illegal in Jamaica, but the laws are not enforced and may not apply inside the private resort. A nude wedding of eight couples in 2001 at Hedonism III caused protests by the government tourist office and radio talk show hosts, who called the event "improper and offensive." In February 2003, 29 couples were involved in another round of nude weddings at the Hedonism III; Hedonism resorts host nudist and swingers conventions: it has been alleged that open sex is common, including in the hot tubs at night. SuperClubs owner John Issa said he was not aware of this.


title: Hedonism Resorts

text: Issa also said he was not running a "whorehouse" and that, to his knowledge, "whores are not working" in his Hedonism hotels. Issa sued two employees of Unique Vacations in Miami, Florida, over e-mails sent in 2007 and 2008 which he said contained "defamatory statements" about activities at Hedonism Resorts and sought damages of an unspecified amount for what he said were false and malicious statements.


title: Hedonism Resorts

text: Issa said he feels satisfied with Hedonism's image of "decadence and debauchery" and is satisfied with the idea, expressed on his website, that "When it's good it's oh so good and when it's bad it's even better and yes, everything you ever heard is true". Issa allegedly promoted bisexual activities at Hedonism III.


title: Hedonism Resorts

text: In September 2009, Hedonism Resorts lost a WIPO trial against Relevansanalys related to the registration of the Internet domain name 'hedonismhotels.com'.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Charlotte Stuart, styled Duchess of Albany (29 October 1753 – 17 November 1789) was the illegitimate daughter of the Jacobite pretender Prince Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charlie" or the "Young Pretender") and his only child to survive infancy.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Her mother was Clementina Walkinshaw, who was mistress to the Prince from 1752 until 1760. After years of abuse, Clementina left him, taking Charlotte with her. Charlotte spent most of her life in French convents, estranged from a father who refused to make any provision for her. Unable to marry, she herself became a mistress with illegitimate children, taking Ferdinand de Rohan, Archbishop of Bordeaux, as her lover.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: She was finally reconciled with her father in 1784, when he legitimised her and created her Duchess of Albany in the Jacobite Peerage. She left her children with her mother, and became her father's carer and companion in the last years of his life, before dying less than two years after him. Her three children were raised in anonymity; however, as Prince Charles Stuart's only grandchildren, they have been the subject of Jacobite interest since their lineage was uncovered in the 20th century.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Charlotte Stuart was born on 29 October 1753 at Liège to Charles and his mistress Clementina Walkinshaw. Charles and Clementina had met during the Jacobite rising of 1745, when he came to Scotland from France in an attempt to regain by force the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland, which had been lost by his grandfather, James II and VII in 1689. Clementina was the youngest of the ten daughters of John Walkinshaw of Barrowhill. The Walkinshaws owned the lands of Barrowfield and Camlachie, and her father had become a wealthy Glasgow merchant (founding the textile village of Calton). However, he was also an Episcopalian Protestant and a Jacobite who had fought for the Prince's father in the rising of 1715, been captured at the Battle of Sheriffmuir, before escaping from Stirling Castle and fleeing to continental Europe. In 1717, he had been pardoned by the British Government and returned to Glasgow, where his youngest daughter was born probably at Camlachie. However, Clementina was largely educated on the Continent, and later converted to Roman Catholicism. In 1746, she was living at the home of her uncle Sir Hugh Paterson at Bannockburn, near Stirling. The Prince came to Sir Hugh's home in early January 1746 where he first met Clementina and he returned later that month to be nursed by her from what appears to have been a cold. Given that she was living under her uncle's protection, it is not thought the two were lovers at this time.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: After the defeat of the Prince's rebellion at Culloden in April 1746, Charles fled Scotland for France. In the following years, he had a scandalous affair with his 22-year-old first cousin Louise de Montbazon (who was married to his close friend, and whom he deserted when she became pregnant) and then with the Princess of Talmont, who was in her 40s. In 1752, he heard that Clementina was at Dunkirk and in some financial difficulties, so he sent 50 louis d'ors to help her and then dispatched Sir Henry Goring to entreat her to come to Ghent and live with him as his mistress. Goring, who described Clementina as a "bad woman", complained of being used as "no better than a pimp", and shortly after left Charles's employ. However, by November 1752, Clementina was living with Charles and was to remain as his mistress for the following eight years. The couple moved to Liège where Charlotte, their only child, was born on 29 October 1753 and baptised into the Roman Catholic faith at the church of Notre Dame-des-Fonts in Liège.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: The relationship between the prince and Charlotte's mother was disastrous. Charles was already a disillusioned, angry alcoholic when they began living together, and he became violent towards and insanely possessive of Clementina, treating her as a "submissive whipping post". Often away from home on "jaunts", he seldom referred to his daughter, and when he did, it was as "ye cheild". During a temporary move to Paris, the Prince's lieutenants record ugly public arguments between the two and that his drunkenness and temper were damaging his reputation. By 1760, they were in Basel, and Clementina had had enough of Charles's intoxication and their nomadic lifestyle. She contacted his staunchly Roman Catholic father, James Stuart, and expressed a desire to secure a Catholic education for Charlotte, and to retire to a convent. James agreed to pay her an annuity of 10,000 livres and, in July 1760, there is evidence to suggest he aided her escape from the watchful Charles, with the seven-year-old Charlotte, to the convent of the Nuns of the Visitation in Paris. She left a letter for Charles expressing her devotion to him but complaining she had to flee in fear of her life. A furious Charles circulated descriptions of them both, but it was to no avail.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: For the next twelve years, Clementina and Charlotte continued to live in various French convents, supported by the 10,000 livre pension granted by James Stuart. Charles never forgave Clementina for depriving him of "ye cheild", and stubbornly refused to pay anything for their support. On 1 January 1766 James died, but Charles, now considering himself "de jure" Charles III of Scotland, England and Ireland, still refused to make any provision for the two, forcing Clementina, now styling herself Countess Alberstroff, to appeal to his brother Cardinal Henry Stuart for assistance. Henry gave them an allowance of 5,000 livres, but in return extracted a statement from Clementina that she had never been married to Charles – a statement she later tried to retract.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: In 1772, the Prince, then aged fifty-one, married the nineteen-year-old Princess Louise of Stolberg-Gedern, who was only a year older than Charlotte. Charlotte, now in penury, had consistently been writing to her father for some time, and she now desperately entreated him to legitimise her, provide support and bring her to Rome before an heir could be born. In April 1772, Charlotte wrote a touching, yet pleading, letter to "mon Auguste Papa" which was sent via Principal Gordon of the Scots College in Rome. Charles relented and offered to bring Charlotte to Rome—he was now resident in the Palazzo Muti, the residence of the Stuarts-in-exile—but only on condition she would leave her mother behind in France. This she loyally refused to do, and Charles, in fury, broke off all discussions.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Towards the end of 1772, Clementina and Charlotte unexpectedly arrived in Rome to press their desperate cause in person. However, the Prince reacted angrily, refusing even to see them, forcing their helpless return to France, from where Charlotte's pleading letters continued. Three years later, Charlotte, now in her twenty-second year was in poor health. She was apparently suffering from a liver ailment shared by the Stuarts and decided her only option was to marry as soon as possible. Charles, however, refused to give permission either for her to marry or to take the veil, and she was left awaiting his royal pleasure.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Lacking legitimacy or permission, Charlotte was unable to marry. Therefore she sought a protector and provider. Probably unbeknown to Charles, she became the mistress of Ferdinand Maximilien Mériadec de Rohan, Archbishop of Bordeaux and Cambrai. Ferdinand de Rohan – related by blood to the house of Stuart as well as Bourbon and Lorraine – was also unable to marry legitimately, having entered the Church as a younger son of a noble house. By him, she had three children: two daughters, Marie Victoire and Charlotte, and finally a son, Charles Edward. Her children were kept secret and remained largely unknown until the 20th century. When Charlotte eventually left France for Florence, she entrusted her children, and she was only just recovering from her son's birth, to the care of her mother, and it appears that few, and certainly not her father, knew of their existence.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Only after his childless marriage to Louise was over, and Charles had fallen seriously ill, did he take an interest in Charlotte. She was now thirty and she had not seen her father since she was seven. On 23 March 1783, he altered his will to make her his heir and, a week later, signed an act of legitimisation. This act, recognising her as his natural daughter and entitling her to succeed to his private estate, was sent to Louis XVI of France. Henry Stuart, however, contested the legitimisation as being irregular and confusing to the succession. Louis XVI eventually did confirm the act and register it with the Parlement of Paris, but not until 6 September 1787.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: In July 1784, having granted his wife Louise a legal separation, Charles wrote to his daughter calling her "ma chére fille". In his letter, he summoned Charlotte to Florence, where he was now resident. She arrived in Florence on 5 October 1784. In November, he installed her in the Palazzo Guadagni as Duchess of Albany, styling her "Her Royal Highness". Nevertheless, being illegitimate at birth, Charlotte still had no right of succession to the Stuart claim to the British throne. However, by this stage, the claims were of little value. European rulers had long since ceased to take Charles seriously. Even Pope Pius VI was refusing to recognise his royal title, and the famous Casanova had wittily called him the "pretender-in-vain". He was reduced to styling himself the Count d'Albany.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: That a Stuart restoration was now less than unlikely did not prevent the Prince presenting Charlotte as the next generation of the cause. On 30 November 1784, Charles held a 'State' banquet for Charlotte and invested her with the Order of the Thistle. He had medals struck for her, bearing the figure of Hope, the map of England, and the Stuart arms with legends such as ""Spes Tamen Est Una"" ("there is one hope"). He also had her idealised in art; the Scottish artist Gavin Hamilton was commissioned to draw her in chalk in the neo-classical style, whilst Hugh Douglas Hamilton painted a flattering portrait in a tiara.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: When Charlotte arrived to live with her father in 1784, he was an ailing alcoholic. She found his physical state disgusting, and he was suffering from mental degeneration and using a litter for travel. He did, however, introduce Charlotte into society, allowing her to wear his mother's famous Sobieska jewellery. She continually, and unsuccessfully, sought gifts of jewels or money from her close-fisted father; but this was probably largely out of a concern for the welfare of her mother and children. Within a month of arriving at Florence, she did manage to persuade her father to provide at last for Clementina. By this time, Charlotte was also in poor health, suffering from an ailment that would result in her death from "obstruction of the liver" just two years after her father. Indeed, shortly after she arrived in Florence, a protruding growth forced her to have clothes altered. The biographer Douglas reports that around this time, a visitor described her as:


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: a tall, robust woman of a very dark complexion and a coarse-grained skin, with more of a masculine boldness than feminine modesty or elegancy, but easy and unassuming in her manners, amply possessed of... volubility of tongue and... spirit of coquetry.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Charlotte sorely missed her mother (whom she vainly hoped Charles would allow to come to Rome) and her children, writing to her mother as many as 100 times in a single year; she also feared that Rohan would take another lover; all this is revealed in her dispirited letters home, as she awaited Charles's death. She was successful in helping to organise her father's social life, as well as in persuading him to reduce his drinking in his final years. When staying for a short visit in Pisa with her father, she made a separate visit to her uncle Henry Stuart who was at Perugia. There she was successful in arranging a reconciliation between Henry and Charles.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: In December 1785, she enlisted the help of Henry Stuart to get Charles back to the Palazzo Muti in Rome. On arrival in Rome with her father, the Pope welcomed Charlotte as the "Duchess of Albany". In Rome, Charlotte remained her father's carer and companion, and did her best to make his life bearable until he died of a stroke two years later on 30 January 1788. Her sacrifice for him was considerable—she was torn between an evident affection for her father in Rome and her mother and three children left behind in Paris. On her father's death, the French court awarded her a pension of 20,000 livres. Charlotte inherited much of her father's property, including his Florentine residence, furniture and ornaments, although many of the Sobieski family jewels passed to Henry Stuart. She subsequently sold the Florentine palace and much of the possessions.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Charlotte would spend much of her final months in the company of Henry Stuart. She also became godmother to Countess Mary Norton, a member of her court. Charlotte also wrote to her mother about her worsening health, noting that she had a swelling and pain when breathing. She made several trips to improve her health at spa towns, including at Nocera in Umbria and at Bologna where she sought medical treatment. Charlotte was to survive her father by only twenty-two months and never saw her children again. On 9 October 1789, while staying in Bologna at the Palazzo Vizzani Sanguinetti, the home of her friend the Marchesa Giulia Lambertini-Bovio, a relative of Pope Benedict XIV, she died there at age 36 of liver cancer. In her will, written just three days before her death, Charlotte left her mother a sum of 50,000 livres and an annuity of a further 15,000. Her physical possessions, jewels and other personal property passed to Henry. However, it was two years before Henry Stuart, her executor, and now considered by Jacobites to be King Henry IX, would release the money. Indeed, he only agreed to do this when Clementina signed a "quittance" renouncing, on behalf of herself and her descendants, any further claim on the estate. Charlotte was buried in the Church of San Biagio, near where she died, as she had requested in her will. When the church was pulled down by the French in 1797, Charlotte's remains were believed to have been moved to the Oratorio della Santissima Trinità in 1801, however this was not verified. When it closed in 1961, her monument, and possibly her remains, were also moved to the nearby Chiesa della Santissima Trinità but again it is not known for certain where her remains lie.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: For many years, Charlotte's three children remained unknown to history, and it was believed that the direct line of James II and Mary of Modena ended with the death of Henry in 1807. However, in the 1950s, research by the historians Alasdair and Hetty Tayler revealed the existence of two daughters and a son. Historian George Sherburn then discovered the letters from Charlotte to her mother, from which he wrote his biography of Charles Edward.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: It appears that Clementina lived on in Fribourg, Switzerland, until her death in 1802 and that it was she who reared Charlotte's children in deliberate anonymity. Their identities were concealed by a variety of aliases and ruses, not even being mentioned in Charlotte's detailed will. The will makes reference only to Clementina and to Charlotte's desire that Clementina might be able to provide for "her necessitous relations". The reason these children remained secret can be explained by the fact that the relationship between Archbishop Ferdinand de Rohan and Charlotte, who had been forbidden to marry, was highly illicit and would have been scandalous. Marie Victoire Adelaide (born 1779) and Charlotte Maximilienne Amélie (born 1780) were thought to have been placed in the care of Thomas Coutts, the London banker, and a distant relative of the Walkinshaws. They remained in anonymity and were believed to have been simply absorbed into English society.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Charlotte's son Charles Edward (born in Paris in 1784) followed a different path. Calling himself "Count Roehenstart" (Rohan+Stuart), he was educated by his father's family in Germany, became an officer in the Russian army, and a general in the Austrian service. He travelled widely—visiting India, America, and the West Indies—before coming to England and Scotland. He told such tall tales of his origins and adventures that few believed his claims to royal descent. Indeed, it was not until the 20th century that historian George Sherburn established that he was indeed who he had claimed to be.He died in Scotland in 1854 as the result of a coach accident near Stirling Castle and was buried at Dunkeld Cathedral, where his grave can still be seen. He married twice but had no issue.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Occasionally, it has been suggested that Prince Charles married Clementina Walkinshaw, and thus that Charlotte was legitimate and could legally claim to be her father's successor. However, there are no records to substantiate this claim, and the affidavit signed by Clementina on 9 March 1767 explicitly disavows the idea. Further, Charles's initial disavowal of Charlotte speaks against her legitimacy.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: It was generally believed that Charlotte's daughters also died without issue but Peter Pininski believed that Charlotte's daughter, Victoire Adelaide, did have issue. Pininski's 2002 book suggested that Jules-Hercule, Prince de Guéméné and Duke of Montbazon, elder brother of Ferdinand de Rohan (and aide-de-camp to Henry Stuart in 1745) recognised Charlotte's offspring as his own – thus giving her status in that tight family, and claimed that in 1793, at the outbreak of the French revolution, Victoire Adelaide de Rohan went to relatives in Poland and there met and married Paul Anthony Louis Bertrand de Nikorowicz, a Polish nobleman and son of a banker. They had a son, Antime, who was the father of Charles and a daughter, Julia-Thérèse, who married Count Leonard Pininski and became Peter Pininski's great-great-grandmother. Pininski's evidence for his thesis has been described as "often indirect, if not elliptical"; the Rohans were a large family, and it is easy to confuse its many members. A former chairman of the Royal Stuart Society, however, stated that Pininski's evidence seemed "genuine", and peerage editor Hugh Massingberd described it as "painstakingly researched ... proof to surely the most sceptical pedant's satisfaction".


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Pininski's hypothesis has, however, since been challenged by genealogist Marie-Louise Backhurst in two articles in 2013 and 2021. Backhurst provides evidence that Charlotte's second daughter, who was always called Victoire Adelaide, was married firstly at St Roch, Paris, in November 1804 to a military doctor in the service of Napoleon, Pierre Joseph Marie de St Ursin. The marriage record has Victoire Adelaide Roehenstart, daughter of Maximilien and his wife Clementine Ruthven, the same parental record as her brother Charles. By St Ursin she was the mother of Theodore Marie de St Ursin, who was born in Paris on 29 June 1809 and who was still resident in Paris in 1832 and perhaps later, he having entered the seminary of St Sulpice at Issy in 1828 and been ordained a deacon there that year. In 1823 his mother married again, to naval officer , brother of the late Prince of Bouillon, but her place and date of death have not yet been found. Backhurst concludes that Madame Nikorowicz was actually Marie Victoire de Thorigny, and more likely to have been the illegitimate daughter of Jules, Prince de Rohan, brother of Ferdinand and thus a first cousin to Victoire Adelaide and without the Stuart descent. Pininski had argued that Backhurst's interpretation had been based on a destroyed document that was "reconstituted" seventy years later and that no document confirmed the birth of Marie Victoire's son.


title: Charlotte Stuart, Duchess of Albany

text: Charlotte Stuart's story did not take long to enter into the Jacobite folklore. The Scots poet, Robert Burns (1759–96), a near contemporary, wrote a number of works celebrating the tragic romanticism of the Jacobite cause. Amongst them was "The Bonnie Lass of Albanie", a lament to Charlotte Stuart probably written at the time of her death. Indeed, evidence from an unpublished collection of letters from Burns to Robert Ainslie reveals the Poet's fascination with Charlotte, in that he considered naming one of his own illegitimate children Charlotte after her. Burns wrote:


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Jane Got a Gun is a 2015 American Western film directed by Gavin O'Connor and written by Brian Duffield, Joel Edgerton, and Anthony Tambakis. The film stars Natalie Portman, Joel Edgerton, Noah Emmerich, Rodrigo Santoro, Boyd Holbrook, and Ewan McGregor.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: After a long period of production issues since 2012, involving director and casting changes, principal photography began on March 21, 2013. The film was released on January 29, 2016.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Jane and her husband Bill "Ham" Hammond live in an isolated house with their five-year-old daughter Katie. One day Ham returns home with several serious bullet wounds. As Jane is attending to his injuries, Ham tells her that the Bishop Boys, a group of criminals that Ham used to ride with, are coming for him.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Ham's injuries have rendered him helpless, so Jane takes her daughter to safety with a woman she trusts. She then rides to the home of a neighbor and former lover, Dan Frost, and asks him to help her protect her family from the Bishop Boys. Dan, a surly man living in a squalid house, bitterly refuses.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Jane rides into town to buy guns and ammunition and find help. As she is leaving the shop, she is waylaid and dragged into an alley by one of the Bishop gang who threatens her at gunpoint. Jane claims that she hasn't seen Hammond in years, but the man recognizes the gun she is carrying as Ham's and demands that she take him back to her house. However, Dan Frost suddenly appears and tells the thug to leave Jane alone. Jane draws her gun and kills the outlaw.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Leaving the body in the alley, Jane and Dan ride back to her house. Ham is still alive but very weak. Dan has changed his mind about helping Jane, so they start preparing for the expected attack from the Bishop gang.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Bishop sets out with his gang to find Ham. One of his men chances upon Jane's house and recognizes Jane, but Dan kills and buries him before he can raise an alarm. Dan digs a shallow trench in Jane's front yard, and they fill it with jars containing kerosene, nails and pieces of glass.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Flashbacks show that Jane and Dan were once engaged, but he enlisted in the army to fight in the American Civil War. Captured by the enemy, he was held for years in a prison camp, but when he finally returned home, Jane had left. He travelled from state to state trying to find her, showing her photograph in every town. Eventually, he heard that she had moved west on a wagon train led by John Bishop. Dan talked to Bishop, who told him that during the journey Ham and Jane ran off together. He said he would gladly help Dan to track them down, as he had his own scores to settle with Ham, but Dan refused, saying he preferred to ride alone. Dan eventually found Jane, but by then she was married to Ham and they had had a child. Heartbroken, Dan realized that he had lost her forever.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Later Jane tells Dan her side of the story. After Dan left to enlist, she discovered she was pregnant. When Dan did not return or write, she assumed he was dead, and life in Jane's war-torn town had become so wretched that she decided to take her daughter Mary and move West on the Bishop wagon train. Too late, she and the other women on the wagon train realized that Bishop intended to start a brothel, forcing the helpless women into prostitution.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Ham, having taken a fancy to Jane during the wagon train journey, told Bishop that he wanted to marry her. But Bishop told Ham that Jane was his "property". Later, Ham found that Jane and her daughter had gone missing; searching for Mary, he saw a child's boot in the river and assumed the child has drowned. He went to the brothel where Jane had been forced to work, killed some of Bishop's men, rescued her, and told her that Mary was dead.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Back in the present, the Bishop gang finally arrive at Jane's house under cover of darkness and riddle the house with bullets. Dan and Jane fire into the booby-trapped ditch, igniting the kerosene "bombs". Most of the gang are killed, but some – including Bishop himself – escape. Jane and Dan manage to move the dying Ham into a shallow storage space beneath the floor, to protect him from the gunfire, but the strain is too much for him and he dies. Dan and Jane continue to fight it out with the remaining gang members, although both are wounded. Finally, Bishop (the only gang member left alive) manages to corner Dan and is about to kill him, when Jane sneaks up behind Bishop and draws her gun on him. Trying to persuade her not to kill him, Bishop tells Jane that Mary is not dead, as she had thought. Jane shoots him several times, wounding him badly, until in his agony he reveals that Mary is at the brothel. Jane then kills Bishop.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Jane and Dan go to the brothel and find their daughter, Mary, who is working as a servant. Jane takes the bodies of Bishop and his gang to the sheriff and collects a huge reward. Then she, Dan, Mary and Katie ride off together to start a new life as a family.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: The original script was written by Brian Duffield. Duffield's script appeared on the 2011 edition of the Black List, an annual survey of the most popular unproduced screenplays by development executives.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: In May 2012, it was announced that Natalie Portman would star in the film as the title character Jane Hammond and that Lynne Ramsay would direct. In August 2012, Michael Fassbender was reported as being in talks to play the role of Dan Frost, Jane's ex-lover. In December 2012, Joel Edgerton was cast as John Bishop, the villain of the film. On February 4, 2013, Rodrigo Santoro was announced to have joined the cast, playing a character named Fitchum. On March 11, 2013, it was revealed that Fassbender left the film due to scheduling conflicts with "". Ramsay then recast Edgerton in the vacated role of Dan Frost and cast Jude Law in the role of John Bishop. On March 19, 2013, it was announced that Ramsay had left the production. On March 20, Gavin O'Connor was announced as her replacement. The same day, it was also announced that Law had left the film, for the reason that he had signed on to work with Ramsay.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Cinematographer Darius Khondji also left the production, and was replaced by Mandy Walker. Edgerton and Anthony Tambakis, co-screenwriter of O'Connor's previous film "Warrior", were then hired to rewrite Duffield's script. On April 5, 2013, it was announced that Bradley Cooper would replace Law in the role of John Bishop. On April 10, 2013, it was announced that Noah Emmerich had been cast in the final lead role of Bill Hammond, Jane's husband. On May 1, 2013, it was announced that Cooper was withdrawing from the film. Cooper revealed that he was leaving because of scheduling conflicts with "American Hustle". On May 6, 2013, Ewan McGregor was announced to take over the role of John Bishop from Cooper. On June 3, 2013, Boyd Holbrook was announced to be playing the younger brother of John Bishop.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: In January 2015, the first images from the film were released online. On October 5, 2015, the first international poster was released. On October 21, 2015 the first international trailer was released. On December 7, 2015, the second and final international trailer was released.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Originally the film was set to be distributed in the U.S. by Relativity Media, and The Weinstein Company. The film was originally announced that it would be released on August 29, 2014, which the studio cancelled on April 10, 2014. On April 24, 2014, the studio set a release date for February 20, 2015 for the film, which was later moved back to September 4. In July 2015, Relativity Media lost their distribution rights to the film, amid their filing for bankruptcy. The Weinstein Company then acquired the film, with plans of releasing the film in Europe first prior to the U.S. release. The film was released in the United States on January 29, 2016.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: "Jane Got a Gun" was a box office bomb. It grossed $1.5 million in the United States and Canada and $2.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $3.8 million, plus $1.8 million with home video sales, against a production budget of $25 million. The film was released in North America on January 29, 2016, with a projected opening weekend gross around $1 million from 1,210 theaters. However, the film only grossed $865,572 with a per theater average of $691. It is the worst wide release opening for The Weinstein Company.


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 43%, based on 80 reviews, with an average rating of 5.22/10. The site's consensus reads, ""Jane Got a Gun" flounders between campy Western and hard-hitting revisionist take on the genre, leaving Natalie Portman's committed performance stranded in the dust." On Metacritic the film has a score of 49 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Joe Leydon of "Variety" gave the film a positive review, writing: "A solidly-made and conventionally-satisfying Western, is one of those movies. For those who have perused the countless accounts of last-minute cast changes, musical directors’ chairs and repeatedly-delayed release dates, it may be difficult to objectively judge what actually appears on screen here without being distracted by thoughts of what could have been, or should have been." Michael Rechtshaffen of the Los Angeles Times wrote: "Jane Got A Gun may not have reinvented the wagon wheel, but it rolls out as a sturdy, well-crafted genre piece despite its rocky road to the screen."


title: Jane Got a Gun

text: Jordan Mintzer of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "Filming on location in New Mexico, O’Connor and his team make strong use of the stark and sometimes-breathtaking exteriors, even if the drama is often confined to the Hammond homestead. Other tech contributions are solid, though this is a film whose production history may ultimately prove more memorable than what’s been produced: In "Jane Got a Gun", the real bullets were the ones fired behind the camera." Mintzer also said: "A handful of plot twists are not enough to compensate for an overtly heavy, often dreary affair that rides straight into the final standoff with little elegance and a wagon train of pathos." Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly wrote: "Since the film’s last-minute rewrites, casting switcheroos, and musical chairs behind the camera are irrelevant to the actual quality of the movie, I’ll avoid rehashing them here, save to say that the disarray shows on screen."


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Carlos Juan Delgado Hernández (born June 25, 1972) is a Puerto Rican former professional baseball player and coach. He played in Major League Baseball primarily as a first baseman, from 1993 to 2009, most prominently as a member of the Toronto Blue Jays, where he was a member of the 1993 World Series-winning team, won the 2000 American League (AL) Hank Aaron Award, and was the 2003 AL RBI leader. He was also a two-time AL All-Star player and a three-time Silver Slugger Award winner during his tenure with the Blue Jays.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado holds the Major League Baseball record for career home runs by a Puerto Rican player with 473. He is one of only six players in Major League history to hit 30 home runs in ten consecutive seasons, becoming the fourth player to do so. During his twelve years with the Toronto Blue Jays, Delgado set many team records, including home runs (336), RBI (1,058), walks (827), slugging percentage (.556), on-base plus slugging (.949), runs (889), total bases (2,786), doubles (343), runs created (1,077), extra base hits (690), times on base (2,362), hit by pitch (122), intentional walks (128) and at bats per home run (14.9).


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado also played for the Florida Marlins and New York Mets. In 2006, he was named the recipient of the prestigious Roberto Clemente Award. On February 4, 2015, Delgado was elected to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado was born in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico to Carlos "Cao" Delgado and Carmen Digna Hérnandez. He grew up in the El Prado section of Aguadilla. There, he attended elementary school alongside his three siblings. Both his father, "Don Cao", and his grandfather, Asdrúbal "Pingolo" Delgado, were well-known figures in the town. Delgado has said that this made him feel "protected", but that it also demanded that he had to behave properly.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado attended Agustín Stahl Middle School and José de Diego High School, from which he graduated in 1989. Delgado has expressed his strong feelings of pride in being an "Aguadillano", noting everything he holds dear is found in the municipality, and his off-season house is located there. He is friends with many people who live there, many of whom he played little league baseball with.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: At the age of 16, several major league organizations including the Cincinnati Reds, Montreal Expos, New York Mets, Texas Rangers and Toronto Blue Jays saw his potential and attempted to sign him. He signed with the Blue Jays in 1988, after being discovered by team scout Epy Guerrero. In 1992, Delgado played for the Dunedin Blue Jays of the Florida State League and produced 30 home runs and 100 RBI, leading the league in both categories, along with a .324 batting average.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: That season, he was named "USA Today"s Minor League Player of the Year. Before the 1993 season, he was named the number 4 prospect in the minor leagues by "Baseball America" and was promoted to the Double-A Knoxville Smokies. That year, he hit .303 with 25 home runs, 102 RBI, and 102 walks, winning the Southern League MVP Award.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: As a September call-up, he made his major league debut on October 1, 1993, drawing a walk in his first career plate appearance. Though he didn't play in the 1993 postseason, in which the Blue Jays won the World Series, he was awarded a World Series ring. Originally a catcher, Delgado played in left field for the Blue Jays in 1994 and 1995, before switching to first base, where he became one of the most productive sluggers in the major leagues. Starting in 1997, he hit at least 30 home runs in ten consecutive seasons. A two-time All-Star, in 2000 and 2003, Delgado holds several Blue Jays single-season and career records. He won the Hank Aaron and "The Sporting News" Player of the Year Awards in 2000, and the Silver Slugger Award in 1999, 2000, and 2003.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: In 1999, Delgado hit a career-high 44 home runs, along with 134 RBI, and a .272 batting average. The next year, he batted a career-high .344, along with 41 home runs, 57 doubles, and 137 RBI. He finished fourth in the 2000 American League MVP voting.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: On September 25, 2003, in a game against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Delgado became the 15th major league player to hit four home runs in one game. He hit a three-run home run in the first inning off Jorge Sosa, then again off Sosa while leading off the fourth off, then off Joe Kennedy while leading off in the sixth and then off Lance Carter leading off the eighth inning. Delgado is the only player to hit four home runs with only 4 at-bats in a game. In the 2003 season, Delgado hit 42 home runs and led the Majors with 145 RBI, while batting .302; he finished second to Alex Rodriguez for the AL MVP Award. He was named AL Player of the Week on September 30, 2003 and again on September 7, 2004.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Following the 2004 season, Delgado became a free agent, and was pursued by the Baltimore Orioles, Florida Marlins, New York Mets, Seattle Mariners and Texas Rangers. The Blue Jays were not interested in re-signing him, due to payroll constraints.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: On January 25, 2005 Delgado chose to sign with the Marlins, signing a four-year contract worth a reported $52 million. He made a successful transition to the National League, with a .301 batting average, .399 on-base percentage, 33 home runs, and 115 RBI in 2005. At the same time, he shared the major league lead in errors for a first baseman, with 14.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Following the 2005 season, the Marlins performed one of their periodic salary-cutting maneuvers. In the "market correction", they unloaded some of their higher-paid players. On November 23, 2005, the Marlins sent Delgado and $7 million to the New York Mets for Mike Jacobs, Yusmeiro Petit and Grant Psomas.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado responded well as the feared cleanup hitter for the Mets, hitting 38 home runs and driving in 114 runs throughout 2006. With Delgado hitting between fellow Puerto Rican Carlos Beltrán and star third baseman David Wright, the Mets had the best record in the National League in 2006 but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in the National League Championship Series, 4–3. At season's end, with 407, Delgado was tied with Duke Snider for 41st place for career home runs. Through 2006, Delgado was the all-time leader for interleague play RBIs with 131, and second all-time in home runs with 43.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Carlos Delgado had early struggles in the 2007 season, with his batting average falling below .200 in April, but his numbers improved as the season progressed. On May 9, 2007, he hit a home run into McCovey Cove during a game against the San Francisco Giants, becoming the first visiting player to have hit three splash home runs at AT&T Park. Delgado ended the season tied with Cal Ripken Jr. for 37th place on the all-time career home run list with 431.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: During spring training 2008, Delgado was diagnosed with a hip impingement, however, the Mets decided to keep him on the active roster. As in the previous year, Delgado began the season in an offensive slump with a .204 batting average in April, and hitting just three home runs, but once again his stats improved as the season continued. In May, his batting average increased to .235 with five home runs. On June 15, 2008, Delgado broke Juan González's record for most runs batted in by a Puerto Rican player. On June 27, Delgado set a new Mets record with 9 RBIs (hitting a two-run double, grand slam, and three-run home run) in an interleague game versus the New York Yankees, breaking Dave Kingman's club record of 8. In the final game before the All-Star break, Delgado hit his 17th home run of the season. Between June and July his batting average improved, rising to .260 with 19 home runs. Between July 23–31, Delgado hit four home runs.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: On August 21, 2008 against the Atlanta Braves, Delgado went 5 for 5 with 3 singles, 3 RBIs, a double, and a walk-off single scoring David Wright in the ninth off the glove of left fielder Omar Infante. It was the first time he had gone 5 for 5 in 10 years. The Mets swept the three-game set. On August 25, 2008 against the Houston Astros, Delgado hit two 3-run homers to lead the Mets to a 9–1 victory in the finale of the series. On September 7 he became the third Mets player in history to have at least 65 RBIs in a 65-game stretch in a season. On September 9, he tied Dave Kingman's record of most multi-home run games during a season as a Met with 7. Delgado notched his 2,000th career hit on September 21, 2008 against the Atlanta Braves. On October 31 the Mets exercised Delgado's $12 million option. Delgado was ninth in the voting for the 2008 National League MVP Award, behind Albert Pujols, Ryan Howard, Ryan Braun, Manny Ramirez, Lance Berkman, CC Sabathia, David Wright and Brad Lidge.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado was the first Major League player to hit a home run into the Pepsi Porch at Citi Field on April 8, 2009. He played his last major league game against the Pittsburgh Pirates on May 10, 2009. Eight days later on May 18, the Mets announced that Delgado had a bone spur and a torn labrum in his hip, and he would have to undergo surgery. The Mets reported the next day that the surgery was successful and Delgado would be out for approximately ten weeks, which would delay his quest for 500 home runs. However, he did not play again in 2009.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado filed for free agency on November 5. Delgado made his return to the Puerto Rico Baseball League (PRBL) for the 2009 season, registering a batting average of .364 and one home run in his first three games.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: In February 2010, Delgado underwent another hip operation, this time to reconstruct the labrum on his right hip; he also underwent a micro-fracture procedure on his hip socket. Although Delgado had reportedly received interest from Major League clubs (including the Mets and Florida Marlins), he felt pain in his hip and decided to undergo the second surgery to be better prepared for the coming season. According to his agent, David Sloane, Delgado "felt, despite the time it would take, it was a better option for him to be the Carlos Delgado of old instead of an old Carlos Delgado."


title: Carlos Delgado

text: On August 7, 2010, the Boston Red Sox signed Delgado to a minor league contract. He played 5 games with the triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox between August 9 and 15, collecting 3 singles in 13 at-bats (.231, 0 HR, 2 RBI). This was the entire extent of Delgado's 2010 season after Delgado suffered a setback with his surgically repaired hip.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: On April 13, 2011, Delgado officially announced, while in San Juan, Puerto Rico, his retirement from professional baseball after 17 years in Major League Baseball.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: On December 7, 2012, the Toronto Blue Jays announced that Delgado would become the 10th person inducted to the club's Level of Excellence. The induction occurred on July 21, 2013 at Rogers Centre in Toronto. Delgado also threw the ceremonial first pitch for that day's game, with the Toronto Blue Jays playing against the Tampa Bay Rays.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: In 2,035 games over 17 seasons, Delgado posted a .280 batting average (2,038-for-7,283) with 1241 runs, 483 doubles, 18 triples, 473 home runs, 1,512 runs batted in (RBI), 1,109 bases on balls, .383 on-base percentage and .546 slugging percentage. He finished his career with a .992 fielding percentage primarily as a first baseman. In ten postseason games, he hit .351 (13-for-37) with eight runs, three doubles, four home runs, 11 RBIs and six walks.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado appeared in the first edition of the World Baseball Classic in 2006. After his retirement, he served as hitting coach for the Puerto Rico national baseball team that represented the island at the 2013 World Baseball Classic. He reprised his role as hitting coach for Team Puerto Rico in the 2017 World Baseball Classic.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: After retiring, Delgado has continued to work in matters closely related to baseball. In February 2013, he was announced as the new member of the Board for the Development of the Puerto Rican Full-Time Athlete. This agency is directed by the Department of Sports and Recreation of Puerto Rico.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Also, in March 2013, he served as hitting coach for the Puerto Rico national baseball team that represented the island at the 2013 World Baseball Classic. The team finished second in the rankings. He reprised his role as hitting coach for Team Puerto Rico in the 2017 World Baseball Classic.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: In his only appearance on the Baseball Hall of Fame ballot in 2015, Delgado received just 3.8% of the vote, below the 5% minimum required to remain on future ballots. That same year, he was elected to the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado lives in his hometown of Aguadilla, Puerto Rico. He is married to Betzaida García, who is also from Aguadilla. They have a son, Carlos Antonio, and in 2010 adopted a baby daughter, Mariana Isabel.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Like his hero (Roberto Clemente), Delgado is a well-known peace activist, and has been open about his political beliefs. As part of the Navy-Vieques protests, Delgado was actively opposed to the use of the island of Vieques, Puerto Rico as a bombing target practice facility by the United States Department of Defense, until bombing was halted in 2003. He is also against the occupation of Iraq. In the 2004 season, Delgado protested the war by silently staying in the dugout during the playing of "God Bless America" during the seventh inning stretch. Delgado does not make a public show of his beliefs, and even his teammates were not aware of his views until a story was published in July 2004 in the "Toronto Star". Delgado was quoted as saying "It's a very terrible thing that happened on September 11. It's (also) a terrible thing that happened in Afghanistan and Iraq, ... I just feel so sad for the families that lost relatives and loved ones in the war. But I think it's the stupidest war ever." The story was the subject of a media frenzy, mostly in New York, where on July 21, 2004, as was anticipated, Delgado was booed by Yankee fans for his passive protest during a game at Yankee Stadium. Delgado had explained that the playing of "God Bless America" had come to be equated with a war in which he didn't believe. In a "New York Times" interview, Delgado said this is what he believed in, and "It takes a man to stand up for what he believes." After being traded to the Mets, in a conciliatory measure, Delgado opted to stand during the singing of "God Bless America."


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Among other charity work, Delgado is well known for his generous visits to hospitals in his hometown where, on Three Kings Day, he brings toys to hospitalized children. In 2006, he joined Puerto Rico's Senate President in co-sponsoring a massive Three Kings gift-giving effort in the town of Loíza. Delgado started his own non-profit organization, "Extra Bases" to assist island youth. In 2007, Delgado donated video conference equipment to allow his hometown's Buen Samaritano Hospital to establish a regular link with a hospital in Boston in order to allow for remote diagnoses through telemedicine.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: Delgado has also contributed to improving Puerto Rico's public education system. In 2007, he participated in "Sapientis Week", an initiative sponsored by the non-profit Sapientis which brings distinguished public figures into classrooms in order to raise the public's awareness of the education crisis in Puerto Rico. Delgado taught a class on Athletic Mental Training and Health at the Ramon Power y Giralt School in the Luis Llorens Torres public housing complex.


title: Carlos Delgado

text: For his efforts, Delgado was awarded the Roberto Clemente Award in 2006. The award goes to the player in baseball who best exemplifies humanitarianism and sportsmanship, and was named after Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente in 1973. Prior to the 2008 season of the Puerto Rico Baseball League, Delgado was involved in an initiative to provide economic help to the Indios de Mayagüez team.


title: Ahmad Suradji

text: Ahmad Suradji (10 January 1949 – 10 July 2008), also known as Nasib Klewang and Datuk Maringgi, was an Indonesian serial killer who admitted to murdering 42 girls and women between 1986 and 1997. Suradji's victims, ranging in age between 11 and 30, were strangled after being buried in the ground up to their waists as part of a ritual. He buried his victims in a sugarcane plantation near his home with their heads facing his house, which he believed would give him extra power.


title: Ahmad Suradji

text: Ahmad Suradji lived in Medan, the capital and largest city of Indonesia's North Sumatra province. He worked as a cattle-breeder and as a "dukun", a class of shaman reputed to possess supernatural powers. Suradji's clientele were often women seeking his guidance on how to find good fortune or maintain their beauty. According to Suradji, his deceased father visited him in a dream in 1986 and commanded him to murder 70 women as part of a black magic ritual.


title: Ahmad Suradji

text: On 24 April 1997, 21-year-old Sri Kemala Dewi asked a 15-year-old rickshaw puller named Andreas to take her to "Datuk". She informed him to keep it a secret and never requested to be picked up. Three days later, Dewi's naked and decomposing body was found in a sugarcane field by a man and was later dug up by a group of people who then called the police. Andreas reported to the police and Dewi's family that he had dropped her off at Suradji's house three days earlier, and so police visited Suradji to question him about it. Although he at first denied having anything to do with Dewi's death, police found her handbag, dress and bracelet in his home. He was later arrested on April 30, 1997. During interrogation, Suradji eventually confessed to Dewi's murder but also revealed that he had killed up to 42 girls in the same fashion and an excavation had to be carried out in the sugarcane field where Dewi's body had been found. Throughout the process, 42 bodies were exhumed with some being decomposed to the point where they were unidentifiable.


title: Ahmad Suradji

text: He told police that he had a dream in 1986 in which his father's ghost directed him to drink the saliva of 70 dead young women so that he could become a mystic healer. Suradji thought that it would take him too long to encounter 70 women who had died of natural causes, so he decided to speed up the process through killing. As a sorcerer, or dukun, a steady stream of women already visited him for various services such as spiritual advice, items that could improve their beauty or wealth, or for Suradji to cast a spell on their spouses to keep them from having an affair. He would then take them into the nearby sugarcane field and bury them up to their waist, claiming it was part of the ritual. He would then proceed to strangle his victims until they were dead and then drink their saliva. After, he'd strip the clothes from their bodies to accelerate decomposition and bury them completely with their heads pointing toward his house. Suradji stated the following to the police:


title: Ahmad Suradji

text: The trial began on 11 December 1997, with a 363-page charge against him; Suradji maintained his innocence. His three wives—all sisters—were also arrested for assisting in the murders and helping to hide the bodies. One of his wives, Tumini, was tried as his accomplice. They claimed they confessed under torture by the police. He was found guilty on 27 April 1998 by a three-judge panel in Lubuk Pakam. He was sentenced to death by firing squad. There were cheers from a large crowd in the courtroom as the verdict was read out. More than 100 people had packed into the small courtroom while as many followed the proceedings outside on a television screen. Suradji's wife, Tumini, was also sentenced to death for assisting with the murders, but her sentence was later reduced to life in prison.


title: Ahmad Suradji

text: His three wives, who were sisters, were also arrested for assisting in the murders and helping him hide the


title: Ahmad Suradji

text: bodies. One of his wives, Tumini, was tried as his accomplice and was sentenced to death before it was reduced to life imprisonment. He was sentenced to death by firing squad and executed on 10 July 2008.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The English Poor Laws were a system of poor relief in England and Wales that developed out of the codification of late-medieval and Tudor-era laws in 1587–1598. The system continued until the modern welfare state emerged after the Second World War.


title: English Poor Laws

text: English Poor Law legislation can be traced back as far as 1536, when legislation was passed to deal with the impotent poor, although there were much earlier Plantagenet laws dealing with the problems caused by vagrants and beggars. The history of the Poor Law in England and Wales is usually divided between two statutes: the Old Poor Law passed during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and the New Poor Law, passed in 1834, which significantly modified the system of poor relief. The New Poor Law altered the system from one which was administered haphazardly at a local parish level to a highly centralised system which encouraged the large-scale development of workhouses by poor law unions.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The Poor Law system fell into decline at the beginning of the 20th century owing to factors such as the introduction of the Liberal welfare reforms and the availability of other sources of assistance from friendly societies and trade unions, as well as piecemeal reforms which bypassed the Poor Law system. The Poor Law system was not formally abolished until the National Assistance Act 1948, with parts of the law remaining on the books until 1967.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The earliest medieval Poor Law was the Ordinance of Labourers which was issued by King Edward III of England on 18 June 1349, and revised in 1350. The ordinance was issued in response to the 1348–1350 outbreak of the Black Death in England, when an estimated 30–40% of the population had died. The decline in population left surviving workers in great demand in the agricultural economy of Britain. Landowners had to face the choice of raising wages to compete for workers or letting their lands go unused. Wages for labourers rose, and this forced up prices across the economy as goods became more expensive to produce. An attempt to rein in prices, the ordinance (and subsequent acts, such the Statute of Labourers of 1351) required that everyone who could work did; that wages were kept at pre-plague levels and that food was not overpriced. Workers saw these shortage conditions as an opportunity to flee employers and become freemen, so Edward III passed additional laws to punish escaped workers. In addition, the Statute of Cambridge was passed in 1388 and placed restrictions on the movement of labourers and beggars.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The origins of the English Poor Law system can be traced back to late medieval statutes dealing with beggars and vagrancy, but it was only during the Tudor period that the Poor Law system was codified. Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries during the Tudor Reformation, monasteries had been the primary source of poor relief, but their dissolution resulted in poor relief moving from a largely voluntary basis to a compulsory tax that was collected at a parish level. Early legislation was concerned with vagrants and making the able-bodied work, especially while labour was in short supply following the Black Death.


title: English Poor Laws

text: Tudor attempts to tackle the problem originated during the reign of Henry VII. In 1495, Parliament passed the Vagabonds and Beggars Act ordering that "vagabonds, idle and suspected persons shall be set in the stocks for three days and three nights and have none other sustenance but bread and water and then shall be put out of Town. Every beggar suitable to work shall resort to the Hundred where he last dwelled, is best known, or was born and there remain upon the pain aforesaid." Although this returned the burden of caring for the jobless to the communities producing more children than they could employ, it offered no immediate remedy to the problem of poverty; it was merely swept from sight, or moved from town to town. Moreover, no distinction was made between vagrants and the jobless; both were simply categorised as "sturdy beggars", to be punished and moved on.


title: English Poor Laws

text: In 1530, during the reign of Henry VIII, a proclamation was issued, describing idleness as the "mother and root of all vices" and ordering that whipping should replace the stocks as the punishment for vagabonds. This change was confirmed in the 1531 Vagabonds Act the following year, with one important change: it directed the justices of the peace to assign to the impotent poor an area within which they were to beg. Generally, the licences to beg for the impotent poor were limited to the disabled, sick, and elderly. An impotent person begging out of his area was to be imprisoned for two days and nights in the stocks, on bread and water, and then sworn to return to the place in which he was authorised to beg. An able-bodied beggar was to be whipped, and sworn to return to the place where he was born, or last dwelt for the space of three years, and there put himself to labour. Still no provision was made, though, for the healthy man simply unable to find work. All able-bodied unemployed were put into the same category. Those unable to find work had a stark choice: starve or break the law. In 1535, a bill was drawn up calling for the creation of a system of public works to deal with the problem of unemployment, to be funded by a tax on income and capital. A law passed a year later allowed vagabonds to be whipped.


title: English Poor Laws

text: In London, there was a great massing of the poor, and the Reformation threatened to eliminate some of the infrastructure used to provide for the poor. As a result, King Henry VIII consented to re-endow St. Bartholomew's Hospital in 1544 and St. Thomas' Hospital in 1552 on the condition that the citizens of London pay for their maintenance. However, the city was unable to raise enough revenue from voluntary contributions, so it instituted the first definite compulsory Poor Rate in 1547, which replaced Sunday collections in church with a mandatory collection for the poor. In 1555, London became increasingly concerned with the number of poor who could work, but yet could not find work, so it established the first House of Correction (predecessor to the workhouse) in the King's Palace at Bridewell where poor could receive shelter and work at cap-making, feather-bed making, and wire drawing.


title: English Poor Laws

text: For the able-bodied poor, life became even tougher during the reign of Edward VI. In 1547, the Vagabonds Act was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law, namely two years servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offence, and death for the second. Justices of the Peace were reluctant to apply the full penalty. In 1552, Edward VI passed a Poor Act which designated a position of "Collector of Alms" in each parish and created a register of licensed poor. Under the assumption that parish collections would now relieve all poor, begging was completely prohibited.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The government of Elizabeth I, Edward VI's successor after Mary I, was also inclined to severity. An Act passed in 1572 called for offenders to be burned through the ear for a first offence and that persistent beggars should be hanged. However, the Act also made the first clear distinction between the "professional beggar" and those unemployed through no fault of their own. Early in her reign, Elizabeth I also passed laws directly aimed at providing relief for the poor. For example, in 1563, her Act for the Relief of the Poor required all parish residents with ability to contribute to poor collections. Those who "of his or their forward willful mind shall obstinately refuse to give weekly to the relief of the poor according to his or their abilities" could be bound over to justices of the peace and fined £10. Additionally, the 1572 Vagabonds Act further enabled Justices of the Peace to survey and register the impotent poor, determine how much money was required for their relief, and then assess parish residents weekly for the appropriate amount. Her 1575 Poor Act required towns to create "a competent stock of wool, hemp, flax, iron and other stuff" for the poor to work on and houses of correction for those who refused to work where recalcitrant or careless workers could be forced to work and punished accordingly.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and some provision for the "deserving poor" was eventually made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601. The more immediate origins of the Elizabethan Poor Law system were deteriorating economic circumstances in sixteenth-century England. Historian George Boyer has stated that England suffered rapid inflation at this time caused by population growth, the debasement of coinage and the inflow of American silver. Poor harvests in the period between 1595 and 1598 caused the numbers in poverty to increase, while charitable giving had decreased after the dissolution of the monasteries and religious guilds.


title: English Poor Laws

text: In the early 1580s, with the development of English colonization schemes, initially in Ireland and later in North America, a new method to alleviate the condition of the poor would be suggested and utilized considerably over time. Merchant and colonization proponent George Peckham noted the then-current domestic conditions; "there are at this day great numbers which live in such penurie & want, as they could be content to hazard their lives, and to ser[v]e one yeere for meat, drinke and apparell only, without wages, in hope thereby to amend their estates." With this, he may have been the first to suggest what became the institution of indentured service. At the same time Richard Hakluyt, in his preface to "Divers Voyages", likens English planters to "Bees...led out by their Captaines to swarme abroad"; he recommends "deducting" the poor out of the realm. Hakluyt also broadens the scope and additionally recommends to empty the prisons and send them off to the New World. By 1619 Virginia's system of indentured service would be fully developed, and subsequent colonies would adopt the method with modifications suitable to their different conditions and times. English penal transportation would be implemented soon afterwards, and evolve into a subsidized government endeavor with the Transportation Act 1717.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 formalized earlier practices of poor relief contained in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 yet is often cited as the beginning of the Old Poor Law system. It created a system administered at parish level, paid for by levying local rates on rate payers. Relief for those too ill or old to work, the so-called 'impotent poor', was in the form of a payment or items of food ('the parish loaf') or clothing also known as outdoor relief. Some aged people might be accommodated in parish alms houses, though these were usually private charitable institutions. Meanwhile, able-bodied beggars who had refused work were often placed in Houses of Correction or even subjected to beatings to mend their attitudes. Provision for the many able-bodied poor in the workhouse was relatively unusual, and most workhouses developed later. The 1601 Law said that parents and children were responsible for each other, elderly parents would live with their children.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The Old Poor Law was a parish-based system; there were around 15,000 such parishes based upon the area around a parish church. The system allowed for despotic behaviour from the overseers of the poor, but as overseers of the poor would know their paupers they were considered able to differentiate between the deserving and undeserving poor making the system both more humane and initially more efficient. The Elizabethan Poor Law operated at a time when the population was small enough for everyone to know everyone else, therefore people's circumstances would be known and the idle poor would be unable to claim on the parishes' poor rate. The system provided social stability yet by 1750 needed to be adapted to cope with population increases, greater mobility and regional price variations.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The 1601 Act sought to deal with 'settled' poor who had found themselves temporarily out of work—it was assumed they would accept indoor relief or outdoor relief. Neither method of relief was at this time in history seen as harsh. The act was supposed to deal with beggars who were considered a threat to civil order. The Act was passed at a time when poverty was considered necessary as fear of poverty made people work. In 1607 a House of Correction was set up in each county. However, this system was separate from the 1601 system which distinguished between the settled poor and 'vagrants'. There was much variation in the application of the law and there was a tendency for the destitute to migrate towards the more generous parishes, usually situated in the towns. This led to the Settlement Act 1662 also known as the Poor Relief Act 1662, this allowed relief only to established residents of a parish; mainly through birth, marriage and apprenticeship. Unfortunately, the laws reduced the mobility of labour and discouraged paupers from leaving their parish to find work. They also encouraged industry to create short contracts (e.g. 364 days) so that an employee could not become eligible for poor relief.


title: English Poor Laws

text: A pauper applicant had to prove a settlement. If they could not they were removed to the parish that was nearest to their place of birth, or where they might prove some connection; some paupers were moved hundreds of miles. Although the parishes they passed through en route had no responsibility for them, they were supposed to supply food and drink and shelter for at least one night. In 1697 an act was passed requiring those who begged to wear a "badge" of red or blue cloth on the right shoulder with an embroidered letter "P" and the initial of their parish. However, this practice soon fell into disuse.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The workhouse movement began at the end of the 17th century with the establishment of the Bristol Corporation of the Poor, founded by Act of Parliament in 1696. The corporation established a workhouse which combined housing and care of the poor with a house of correction for petty offenders. Following the example of Bristol, some twelve further towns and cities established similar corporations in the next two decades. As these corporations required a private Act, they were not suitable for smaller towns and individual parishes.


title: English Poor Laws

text: Starting with the parish of Olney, Buckinghamshire in 1714 several dozen small towns and individual parishes established their own institutions without any specific legal authorization. These were concentrated in the South Midlands and in the county of Essex. From the late 1710s the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge began to promote the idea of parochial workhouses. The Society published several pamphlets on the subject, and supported Sir Edward Knatchbull in his successful efforts to steer the Workhouse Test Act through parliament in 1723. The act gave legislative authority for the establishment of parochial workhouses, by both single parishes and as joint ventures between two or more parishes. More importantly, the Act helped to publicise the idea of establishing workhouses to a national audience. By 1776 some 1,912 parish and corporation workhouses had been established in England and Wales, housing almost 100,000 paupers. Perhaps one million people were receiving some kind of parish poor relief by the end of the century. Although many parishes and pamphlet writers expected to earn money from the labour of the poor in workhouses, the vast majority of people obliged to take up residence in workhouses were ill, elderly, or children whose labour proved largely unprofitable. The demands, needs and expectations of the poor also ensured that workhouses came to take on the character of general social policy institutions, combining the functions of creche, and night shelter, geriatric ward and orphanage. In 1782, Thomas Gilbert finally succeeded in passing an Act that established poor houses solely for the aged and infirm and introduced a system of outdoor relief for the able-bodied. This was the basis for the development of the Speenhamland system, which made financial provision for low-paid workers. Settlement Laws were altered by the Removal Act 1795 which prevented non-settled persons from being moved on unless they had applied for relief. An investigation of the history and current state of the Poor Laws was made by Michael Nolan in his 1805 "Treatise of the Laws for the Relief and Settlement of the Poor". The work would go on to three subsequent editions in Nolan's lifetime (Nolan was elected an MP for Barnstaple in 1820), and stoked the discussion both within and outside of Parliament.


title: English Poor Laws

text: During the Napoleonic Wars it became difficult to import cheap grain into Britain which resulted in the price of bread increasing.


title: English Poor Laws

text: As wages did not also increase, many agricultural labourers were plunged into poverty. Following peace in 1814, the Tory government of Lord Liverpool passed the Corn Laws to keep the price of grain artificially high. 1815 saw great social unrest as the end of the French Wars saw industrial and agricultural depression and high unemployment. Social attitudes to poverty began to change after 1815 and overhauls of the system were considered. The Poor Law system was criticized as distorting the free market and in 1816 a Parliamentary Select Committee looked into altering the system which resulted in the Sturges-Bourne Acts being passed. 1817 also saw the passing of the Poor Employment Act, ""to authorise the issue of Exchequer Bills and the Advance of Money out of the Consolidated Fund, to a limited Amount, for the carrying on of Public Works and Fisheries in the United Kingdom and Employment of the Poor in Great Britain"". By 1820, before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act workhouses were already being built to reduce the spiraling cost of poor relief. Boyer suggests several possible reasons for the gradual increase in relief given to able-bodied males, including the enclosure movement and a decline in industries such as wool spinning and lace making. Boyer also contends that farmers were able to take advantage of the poor law system to shift some of their labour costs onto the tax payer.


title: English Poor Laws

text: The 1832 Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws was set up following the widespread destruction and machine breaking of the Swing Riots. The report was prepared by a commission of nine, including Nassau William Senior, and served by Edwin Chadwick as Secretary. The Royal Commission's primary concerns were with illegitimacy (or "bastardy"), reflecting the influence of Malthusians, and the fear that the practices of the Old Poor Law were undermining the position of the independent labourer. Two practices were of particular concern: the "roundsman" system, where overseers hired out paupers as cheap labour, and the Speenhamland system, which subsidised low wages without relief. The report concluded that the existing Poor Laws undermined the prosperity of the country by interfering with the natural laws of supply and demand, that the existing means of poor relief allowed employers to force down wages, and, that poverty itself was inevitable.