title: Resolute Support Mission

text: Resolute Support Mission (RSM) or Operation Resolute Support was a NATO-led multinational mission in Afghanistan. It began on 1 January 2015 as the successor to the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which was completed on 28 December 2014.<ref name="NATO 30/01"></ref> Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 2189 of 2014, RSM was a noncombat mission aimed at advising and training Afghan security forces to provide long-term security to the country, under the aegis of the Security and Defence Cooperation Agreement BSA between the United States and Afghanistan, which was originally supposed to run from 1 January 2015 and "shall remain in force until the end of 2024 and beyond" unless terminated with two years' advance notice.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: In October 2019, RSM had its largest size of troops, which was 17,178. Moreover, the RSM had 42 contributing nations in 2015, making it its peak. The US accounted for the largest contingent, while Italy, Germany, and Turkey served leading roles. Intended to play a temporary and transitionary role, the mission gradually withdrew its forces, which numbered around 10,000 at the start of 2021. On 14 April 2021 via a North Atlantic Council Ministerial Statement, NATO announced a drawdown of RSM troops by 1 May, and the mission was terminated early September 2021. The last RSM troop was a U.S. troop, which withdrawn on August 30, 2021.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The operation plan for the Resolute Support Mission (RSM) was approved by foreign ministers of the NATO members in late June 2014 and the corresponding status of forces agreement was signed by President of Afghanistan Ashraf Ghani and NATO Senior Civilian Representative in Afghanistan Maurits Jochems in Kabul on 30 September 2014. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 2189 in support of the new international mission in Afghanistan.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The objective of the mission was to provide training, advice and assistance for Afghan security forces and institutions in their conflict with extremist groups such as the Taliban, the Haqqani network, and ISIS-K.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The Resolute Support Mission consisted of approximately 17,000 personnel from NATO and partner nations in Afghanistan. The leader of the operation was at all times identical with the commander of United States Forces - Afghanistan.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: Forces were distributed between the central hub at Kabul and Bagram Airfield and four supporting spokes. The spokes were formed by Train Advise Assist Commands (TAACs), which directly supported four of the six Afghan National Army Corps. Train Advise Assist Command - Capital replaced the former Regional Command Capital. TAAC East assisted the 201st Corps from FOB Gamberi in Laghman, TAAC South assists the 205th Corps from Kandahar International Airport, TAAC West assisted the 207th Corps in Herat and TAAC North covered the 209th Corps from Mazar-i-Sharif.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The 203rd Corps located in the south-eastern part of the country saw advisers from time to time from TAAC East (one source described this as "fly to advise"). The 215th Corps in the south-west is supported by TAAC South.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: U.S. President Barack Obama, in an update given from the White House on 6 July 2016, stated that, following General John W. Nicholson's, Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman General Joseph Dunford's, and U.S. Defense Department Secretary Ashton Carter's mutual recommendations, the U.S. would have about 8,400 troops remaining in Afghanistan through the end of his administration in December 2016.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The residual force of 9,800 troops was withdrawn on 31 December 2016, leaving 8,400 troops stationed at four garrisons (Kabul, Kandahar, Bagram, and Jalalabad).


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction (SIGAR) was appointed by the US Congress to oversee the $117.26 billion that Congress had provided to implement reconstruction programs in Afghanistan. The SIGAR's "April 30, 2018 Quarterly Report to Congress" says, "[As of January 31, 2018,] 14.5% of the country’s total districts [were] under insurgent control or influence [& an additional 29.2% were] contested[.]"


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: Intended to play a temporary and transitionary role, the mission gradually withdrew its forces, which numbered around 10,000 at the start of 2021. On 14 April 2021 via a North Atlantic Council Ministerial Statement, NATO announced a drawdown of RSM troops by 1 May, and the mission was terminated early September 2021.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The US Forces Afghanistan Forward was the name given by US Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin, and it continued to have a military presence in the country until all US forces were withdrawn by August 30, 2021.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: In November 2021 NATO published a factsheet on its ‘Afghanistan Lessons Learned Process’. Seven meetings of a committee of NATO civil servants were held and the result was termed a "comprehensive review". John Manza, the committee's chair and the contemporary Assistant Secretary General for Operations, presented a summary that was reviewed and discussed by the NAC Permanent Representatives and the NAC Foreign Ministers. NATO HQ felt it "should consider mechanisms to improve the timeliness and relevance of reporting from the field and for more interactive discussions in the Council."


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: SIGAR reported to Congress with the title "Collapse of the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces: An Assessment of the Factors That Led to Its Demise" in May 2022.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: General David Petraeus, who had commanded for a time around 2010 the precursor ISAF mission to Afghanistan, described the end of the mission as "heart-breaking, tragic and disastrous" as he said "Afghanistan's gone back to the dark ages" in an interview on the release of the UK Parliament's Foreign Affairs Committee report on the matter. The report said the fact that the then-Foreign Secretary Dominic Raab, his Permanent Secretary Philip Barton and Prime Minister Boris Johnson were all on summertime leave when the Taliban took Afghanistan's capital, Kabul, "marks a fundamental lack of seriousness, grip or leadership at a time of [British] national emergency", especially in light of the vacuum left by the flight of President Ashraf Ghani, his cabinet and vaporous government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: As of 2019, among the forces contributing to the mission are 8,475 Americans training and helping Afghan forces, approximately 5,500 Americans engaged in counter-terrorism missions, 8,673 allied soldiers and 27,000 military contractors.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: A new type of U.S. unit, the Security Force Assistance Brigades, began deploying to Afghanistan in February 2018 to support the mission.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The United Kingdom announced in July 2018 that it was going to send 440 more British personnel to Afghanistan. Around half of the additional personnel were deployed in August 2018 and the other half followed by February 2019. This increased the total number of British personnel in the country from 650 to 1,090 by early 2019.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The countries that had personnel in Afghanistan as of February 2021 (with complete statistics last published prior to withdrawal) are as follows. The mission was terminated on 12 July 2021, and several countries had personnel in place, before all were withdrawn before 31 August 2021.


title: Resolute Support Mission

text: The USFOR-A Commander reports to the Commander, United States Central Command (CENTCOM), who reports directly to the Secretary of Defense. This reporting relationship is prescribed in 10 USC Section 164(d)(1). The Resolute Support Mission Commander (COMRS) does not have a direct reporting relationship with the Secretary of Defense. Rather, he reports through the Commander, U.S. CENTCOM. COMRS reports to the NATO chain of command through the Commander of Joint Forces Command – Brunssum, who reports to the NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR).


title: Todd Graves (entrepreneur)

text: Todd Graves (born 1972) is an American entrepreneur and founder of Raising Cane's Chicken Fingers, a fast food restaurant company that specializes in fried chicken finger meals. Graves, along with Craig Silvey, founded the first restaurant in Baton Rouge, Louisiana in 1996.


title: Todd Graves (entrepreneur)

text: Graves was born in New Orleans and raised in Baton Rouge. Graves graduated from Episcopal High School in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.


title: Todd Graves (entrepreneur)

text: Graves and long time friend Craig Silvey used Silvey's business plan course at LSU to create their business plan.


title: Todd Graves (entrepreneur)

text: Graves opened Raising Cane's near the North Gates of Louisiana State University on Highland Road in 1996. The company expanded to more than 600 restaurants in the U.S. and the Middle East.


title: Todd Graves (entrepreneur)

text: The restaurants are named after Raising Cane I, Graves’ dog at the time of the founding of the first restaurant. They are headquartered in Baton Rouge.


title: Todd Graves (entrepreneur)

text: Graves and his wife, Gwen, have two children and reside in Baton Rouge, Louisiana with their yellow Labrador, Raising Cane III.


title: Todd Graves (entrepreneur)

text: An avid collector, Graves has loaned a 66-million-year-old triceratops skull to the Louisiana Arts and Science Museum. He has also loaned the hearse that carried Martin Luther King, Jr. to exhibits across the country.


title: Craig Wasson

text: Craig Wasson (born March 15, 1954) is an American actor. He made his film debut in "Rollercoaster" (1977). He is best known for his roles as Jake Scully in Brian DePalma's "Body Double" (1984), and Neil Gordon in Chuck Russell's "" (1987). For his role as Danilo Prozor in Arthur Penn's "Four Friends" (1981), he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award.


title: Craig Wasson

text: Wasson's first feature film was the 1977 suspense thriller "Rollercoaster". In 1978, he appeared in two films about the Vietnam war: first as a private in "The Boys in Company C" and then as a corporal in "Go Tell the Spartans". He also wrote and sang the haunting folk song "Here I Am (In Vietnam)", which served as the theme song for "The Boys in Company C".


title: Craig Wasson

text: Craig starred in the short-lived 1980 TV series "Skag". In 1981, he played Don Wanderley, a junior English professor in the film "Ghost Story", in which his character has a torrid sexual relationship with a mysterious woman he later realizes is a ghost seeking vengeance. In 1982, he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year - Actor for his performance in "Four Friends". He later starred as Jake Scully in the 1984 Brian De Palma suspense movie "Body Double". His other big role was as Dr. Neil Gordon in the hit 1987 horror film "". He starred alongside Heather Langenkamp, Robert Englund, Patricia Arquette, and Laurence Fishburne. In 1989, Wasson starred as James Madison in "A More Perfect Union: America Becomes a Nation". His most recent movie roles are in "Akeelah and the Bee" and "Sasquatch Mountain", both released in 2006.


title: Craig Wasson

text: Wasson was featured as Doug Ebert in the soap opera "One Life to Live" in 1991. He has made guest appearances in a number of series, including "The Bob Newhart Show", "Phyllis", "Skag", "For Jenny with Love", "Murder, She Wrote", "M*A*S*H (TV series)", "Hart to Hart", "Walker, Texas Ranger", "Profiler", "The Practice", "Seven Days", "The Secrets of Isis", and "". He played the barber in the music video for "Cut Your Hair" by Pavement.


title: Craig Wasson

text: Wasson is also a prolific narrator for audio books, having narrated Stephen King's 2011 novel "11/22/63", and other books by Stephen King, as well as books by James Ellroy and John Grisham.


title: Crans-Montana

text: Crans-Montana is a municipality in the district of Sierre in the canton of Valais, Switzerland. On 1 January 2017 the former municipalities of Chermignon, Mollens, Montana and Randogne merged to form the new municipality of Crans-Montana.


title: Crans-Montana

text: Crans-Montana is also a ski resort that was created through the fusion of the two centers of Crans and Montana and belonged to six municipalities (Chermignon, Icogne, Lens, Mollens, Montana and Randogne), four of which merged to form the municipality of Crans-Montana.


title: Crans-Montana

text: Chermignon is first mentioned in 1228 as "Chermenon" and "Chirminon". It became an independent municipality in 1905 when it separated from Lens.


title: Crans-Montana

text: Mollens is first mentioned about 1250 as "Molaen". In 1286 it was mentioned as "Moleing". The municipality was formerly known by its German name "Molei", however, that name is no longer used.


title: Crans-Montana

text: Montana is first mentioned in 1243 as "Montana". In 1905 it separated from Lens to form an independent municipality.


title: Crans-Montana

text: The resort is located in the heart of the Swiss Alps in the French-speaking part of the canton of Valais. It is located on a plateau above Sierre at an elevation of about above sea level, allowing good view over the Valais Alps and Weisshorn in particular. The resort is a fusion of the two centers of Crans and Montana and belongs to 6 municipalities (Chermignon, Icogne, Lens, Mollens, Montana and Randogne).


title: Crans-Montana

text: The skiing area of Crans-Montana is composed of of pistes, and includes the Plaine Morte Glacier. It is topped by the Pointe de la Plaine Morte at .


title: Crans-Montana

text: Crans-Montana is famous in alpine ski racing for the 1987 World Championships and is often on the World Cup schedule, usually for women's speed events.


title: Crans-Montana

text: The area hosts the winter mountain pop rock festival, the , and a professional golf tournament, the European Tour's Omega European Masters, which takes place each September. The area has also been frequently used for bicycle racing, hosting stage finishes of the Tour de Suisse seven times and of the Tour de Romandie eight times as of 2013. In addition Crans-Montana also hosted the finish of the 20th stage of the 1984 Tour de France, won by Laurent Fignon, who also took the overall race win that year.


title: Crans-Montana

text: The international renowned Les Roches International School of Hotel Management is located in Crans-Montana.


title: Crans-Montana

text: The Roches des Fées and the Hotel Bella Lui are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance.


title: Crans-Montana

text: Crans Montana has a warm summer humid continental climate, (Dfb) according to the Köppen climate classification. Between 1981 and 2010 Montana had on average 101 days of rain or snow per year and received on average of precipitation. Crans Montana has a fairly evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year, as is common in this type of climate. As with other locations in the canton of Valais, annual precipitation rates are quite low due to its location in the rain shadow of some of the tallest mountains in the Alps.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: "The Pink Panther Theme" is an instrumental composition by Henry Mancini written as the theme for the 1963 film "The Pink Panther" and subsequently nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score at the 37th Academy Awards but lost to the Sherman Brothers for "Mary Poppins". The eponymous cartoon character created for the film's opening credits by David DePatie and Friz Freleng was animated in time to the tune. The tenor saxophone solo was played by Plas Johnson.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: The tune was included on the film's soundtrack album (originally issued as RCA Victor LPM/LSP-2795) and available as a single (in the United States) in 1964; the single reached the Top 10 on the U.S. "Billboard" adult contemporary chart and won three Grammy Awards.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: Various recordings of the composition appeared in the opening credits of all "The Pink Panther" films except "A Shot in the Dark" and "Inspector Clouseau". It has also been used in theatrical shorts, television cartoons, commercials and other works in which the animated Pink Panther appears.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: "The Pink Panther Theme", composed in the key of E minor, is unusual for Mancini's extensive use of chromaticism.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: In his autobiography "Did They Mention the Music?", Mancini talked about how he composed the theme music:


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: From 1976 to 1991, the theme also served as the think music for "Safe Crackers", a pricing game featured on the American game show "The Price Is Right".


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: In the 1978 film "Revenge of the Pink Panther", the theme, and much of the soundtrack from this entry in the series, draw heavily from the disco sound of the late 1970s. The theme itself was reworked to include a more dancy bassline, electric piano, and guitar solo. A similar treatment was given to 1983's "Curse of the Pink Panther", where it had more synthesized instruments.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: The theme was used in John McLaughlin and Al Di Meola's live version of Chick Corea's "Short Tales of the Black Forest", from the 1981 album "Friday Night in San Francisco".


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: In the 1993 film "Son of the Pink Panther", the theme was rearranged and performed by Bobby McFerrin in the opening titles. This version was unique in being the only one to be performed a cappella. The credits featured the theme in the traditional style, similar to its appearance in "Return of the Pink Panther", with an electric keyboard bassline.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: The first episode of the "Idol Defense Force Hummingbird" anime series makes use of a cover version of the theme in a scene where two reporters sneak into the bedroom of protagonists Satsuki and Yayoi Toreishi for a "close-up" scoop.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: Actresses Drew Barrymore, Lucy Liu and Cameron Diaz and dance troupe and music group The Pussycat Dolls danced to the theme in the film "".


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: Christophe Beck rearranged the music for the 2006 reboot, as well as its sequel, "The Pink Panther 2" - Paul Oakenfold remixed the theme song for the 2006 film.


title: The Pink Panther Theme

text: The rearranged guitar version of Henry Mancini's Pink Panther theme were used from the short-lived Pink Panther and Pals series in 2010, composed by David Ricard.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Concepción (; originally: "Concepción de la Madre Santísima de la Luz", "Conception of the Blessed Mother of Light") is a city and commune in central Chile, and the geographical and demographic core of the Greater Concepción metropolitan area, one of the three major conurbations in the country. It has a significant impact on domestic trade being part of the most heavily industrialized region in the country. It is the seat of the Concepción Province and capital of the Bío Bío Region. It sits about 500 km south of the nation's capital, Santiago.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The city was first settled in the Bay of Concepción, in the zone that would later become the commune of Penco, now part of the Concepción conurbation. The city's demonym, , comes from the place of its original foundation. The city center and historic district is located in the Valle de la Mocha (La Mocha Valley), where it relocated after serious damages left by an earthquake in 1751.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The origin of Concepción dates back to 1550, when it was founded by Pedro de Valdivia as part of the Spanish Empire, under the name of "Concepción de María Purísima del Nuevo Extremo", and was the capital of the Kingdom of Chile between 1565 and 1573, retaining the unofficial position of military capital for the rest of the colonial period. The city was an important site in the struggle for Chile's independence, with the Chilean declaration of Independence being held at Concepción's "Plaza de la Independencia". Until the election of Manuel Montt in 1851 as president executive power in independent Chile was dominated by Concepción elites.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The city is a known college town in Chile, as it is home to numerous educational institutions, including the University of Concepción, the University of the Bío Bío, and the Catholic University of the Most Holy Conception. The commune also contains various historical bridges, murals, parks and lakes, as well as important cultural venues such as the "Teatro Biobío", the "Casa del Arte", the local Natural History Museum, and the "Teatro Universidad de Concepción".


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Concepción was founded by Don Pedro de Valdivia in 1550 north of the Bío Bío River, at the site which is today known as Penco. At that time it was given the name "Concepción de María Purísima del Nuevo Extremo" (Mary Immaculate Conception of the New End). The new settlement of Concepción was just a few kilometers north of "La Frontera" (The Frontier), the boundary between Spanish territory and the land of the Mapuche, an American Indian ethnic group that remained independent until the 1870s. The settlement was formally recognized by the Spanish authorities as a town two years later by a royal decree. It was given a coat-of-arms that is still in use today.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: At the time of the Spanish arrival to the Concepción area chronicler Jerónimo de Vivar noted local Mapuches wore gold and silver bracelets and "sort of crowns". This is interpreted either as Incan gifts, war spoils from defeated Incas, or adoption of Incan metallurgy.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Although Concepción was a significant military settlement for the Captaincy General of Chile, it was overrun and destroyed by Mapuche armies in 1554, and once again after being refounded in 1555. Concepción was restored during the governorship of García Hurtado de Mendoza when he landed there and built a fort on the Alto de Pinto in 1557. The town was refounded once more on January 6, 1558, by captain Jerónimo de Villegas. It became the headquarters of the military forces engaged against the Mapuche in La Araucanía over the next two centuries, growing to a population of 10,000 despite a siege in 1564 and other attacks by the Mapuche. Concepción was the home of the Real Audiencia from 1565 to 1575.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Earthquakes and tsunamis, which razed the town in 1570, 1657, 1687, 1730 and 1751, led the authorities to move the town to its current site in the Valle de la Mocha, alongside the Bío Bío River; the old site lay empty until March 29, 1842, when the present town of Penco was founded.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The new site for the town of Concepción became the main town of the Intendancy of Concepción, whose jurisdiction extended from the Maule River to La Frontera. The first Intendant of Concepción was the Irishman Ambrose O'Higgins, Marquis of Osorno, who later became Royal Governor of Chile and Viceroy of Peru.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: When the First National Government Board met in Santiago on September 18, 1810, citizens of Concepción joined up. Concepción was used as the point of entry by the Spanish Army in the attempt by the Viceroyalty of Peru to re-conquer Chile. Concepción politicians and soldiers became a significant political force in the newly independent country.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: On January 1, 1818, Ambrose O'Higgins's son, Bernardo O'Higgins, proclaimed and took the oath of the Chilean War of Independence in the main square of Concepción, which since then has been known as "Plaza de la Independencia". Until the moment of independence, the city had been the scene of various engagements in its old and new settlement.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: By 1875, a key British community and German colony existed within the province. By 1895, there was an even larger Spanish presence.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The Universidad de Concepción, founded in 1919, became the first secular private university in Chile. The neighboring harbor of Talcahuano is the site of the largest naval base in Chile.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: On February 27, 2010, an 8.8 magnitude earthquake struck the city of Concepción, killing more than 521 people and injuring thousands nationwide. Following the earthquake, geologists relying on global positioning satellite (GPS) data concluded that the city had been displaced roughly to the west as a result of the event. The tsunami that followed missed the city.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: After the 2010 Chile earthquake, a prison riot began in Concepción's El Manzano prison following a failed escape attempt by the inmates. Different parts of the prison were set on fire and the riot was controlled only after the guards shot into the air and received help from military units. As of March 5, 2010, a Peruvian field hospital has been deployed to the city.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Like most of Chilean territory, the Concepción region is seismically active, with much of Concepción destroyed by a violent earthquake in 1939. An earthquake in 1953 damaged 15% of the town's buildings. Another major earthquake in 1960 had a nearby epicenter.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: On February 27, 2010, an earthquake of 8.8 magnitude struck at 35.846°S, 72.719°W, NNE of the city. The United States Geological Survey said the earthquake struck at 0334 GMT on Saturday at a depth of . The effects were felt as far away as São Paulo, Brazil—.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Concepción is known as "the university city" thanks to the numerous universities within the urban agglomeration, since one of the most important universities of the country were founded here, such as the Universidad de Concepción, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción and Universidad del Biobío. This city also has numerous headquarters for many other universities. In addition, this metropolis has a large educational offer, focused on institutes, centers of technical formation and the universities aforementioned.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The University Pencopolitana whose name was Pontificia Universidad Pencopolitana de La Concepción (Pontifical Pencopolitana University of The Conception) was an old university founded though a decree of the Bishop of Concepción, delivered to the administration of the Society of Jesus which functioned between the years 1724 and 1767. On May 24, 1751, an earthquake followed by a tsunami, ravaged the city causing serious damage, including the destruction of the library of the university and all of its funds. As a product of the fury of the waters, a rich collection of texts of the governance of southern Chile were lost, which resulted in a disaster for the culture and collective memory of the city. Due to the natural disasters, it was decided to relocate the city to the called Valle de la Mocha, location where it is currently situated. Slowly the seminary was revived in the new location, in a period of decline in academic activity in Chilean monastic universities after the creation of the Universidad de San Felipe, yet some degrees continued to be granted before the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The aforementioned University is considered to be the natural and legitimate predecessor of the Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción (UCSC), erected by the Archbishop of Concepción in 1991, from the Talcahuano Regional Headquarters of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The image of the Pontifical University of Concepción Pencopolitana, is still valid, for His Majesty King Juan Carlos I of Spain in his 1990 speech on the occasion of his inauguration as Doctor Honoris Causa in the University of Chile, in Santiago de Chile, said: "The work of the Pontifical University Pencopolitana should not be ignored, even before the creation of the University of San Felipe" (Juan Carlos's account fails to acknowledge the existence of San Felipe's predecessor, the Dominican Universidad de Santo Tomás de Aquino, from the sixteenth century in Santiago).


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Meanwhile, the University of Chile allowed schools in the city to teach courses in law which allowed men to obtain a law degree. Among its students was Henry Urrutia Manzano, who decades later became president of the Supreme Court of Chile.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The Universidad de Concepción was created in 1919 by a group of citizens including Enrique Molina Garmendia, its first rector.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Eventually the university began to receive state support, becoming part of the traditional universities, becoming one of three most important universities in the country, and the most importance at the regional level.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The city has a French international school, the "Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle" and a German school, the Colegio Alemán de Concepción and a British school, Saint John's School, the former located in the city downtown and the latter examples in San Pedro de la Paz.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The defunct Concepción College was a parochial girls' day school and boarding school, established in 1878 by the Methodist Episcopal Church.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The city is served by Carriel Sur International Airport in Talcahuano. The metro area's public transportation comprises a number of bus lines which run through several avenues and streets of the communes belonging to the agglomeration, as well as the commuter rail system known as Biotrén.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The climate of Concepción is classified as Köppen "Csb", with a dry summer in February. The cool waters of the Pacific Ocean help to maintain mild temperatures throughout the year. Temperatures rarely exceed or fall below . In the six-month period between May and October, the city receives approximately 83% of its total annual precipitation, which totals . The wettest month since records began in 1912 was June 2000 with , whilst all months from November to April have been rainless on occasions. The maritime cooling brings much cooler temperatures than nearby inland areas on the same parallel in Argentina, where average summer highs match Concepción's all-time records. Summer temperatures for the 36 degrees latitude are rarely as cool as they are in Concepción, and on the Atlantic coast of Argentina, similar or hotter summer temperatures are found much further from the equator. However, this moderation is evident for the entire Chilean Pacific so is not unique for Concepción. Similar cool-summer mediterranean climate tendencies are found on the West Coast of North America on similar parallels, even though Concepción tends to have slightly wetter winters than San Francisco for example.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Conversely, record winter nighttime temperatures in Concepcion are significantly more moderate than temperatures recorded on the Argentine Atlantic coast at the same latitude, where temperatures below have occurred.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: As might be expected for such a large urban area heavily dependent on wood-burning for heat and diesel for transport, the air in Concepción is the third-most polluted in Chile, after Santiago and Temuco.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: According to data collected on 2002 in the Census of the National Institute of Statistics, the township has an area of and a population of 216,061 inhabitants, of whom 103,860 are men and 112,201 are women.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: As a commune, Concepcion is home to 14.35% of the total population of the region. 1.88% (4,058 persons) is for rural population and 98.12% (212,003) to urban population. Moreover, 5.5% of the country's population lives in the Greater Concepción metro area.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Between 1970 and 1982 there is a large increase in the population. One reason is the inclusion of San Pedro, segregated from the municipality of Coronel.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The Concepción commune population sharply declined in 1996 as its territory was divided, creating Chiguayante and San Pedro de la Paz. The number of people living in these communes has grown quickly since they have become bedroom communities of "Concepción", i.e. residential cities that do not have a center with many shops, as is the case of Concepcion.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: There is a significant percentage of foreign residents in the city, the most numerous are the Spanish, Italian and US expatriate communities. There are also smaller segments of German, French, British, Dutch, Greek, Portuguese, Croatian, Scandinavian, Arab and Australian descendants in a city settled by waves of immigration.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: To an outsider, there may be confusion between the demonyms of the inhabitants of Concepción and the nearby city of Penco. Due to the previous location of Concepción being where Penco currently stands, inhabitants of Concepción are called "penquistas" while inhabitants of Penco are known as "pencones". Additionally, the unofficial term "pencopolitano" has been coined to refer to locals of any commune belonging to the metropolis or, in a wider definition, to the Concepción province, although the term penquista can technically be used in this case as well.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: In 2014, the "Rock en Conce" festival began to take shape. It would be held outdoors, in the city's "Parque Bicentenario" (Bicentennial Park), and access to it would be free. The aim of the festival would be to restore the musical spotlight that the city embodied and that earned it the reputation of being the "cradle of Chilean rock" and, at the same time, to establish itself as a major tourist attraction for the city. Its first edition took place on Saturday, March 7, 2015, and since then it has been held with great success every year at the end of each summer, bringing together emerging local bands with major and renowned artists from the national and international scene.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Concepción has been described as the "Chilean capital of rock", since numerous bands of this genre have started their careers in the city, such as Los Tres, Los Bunkers, Emociones Clandestinas, Santos Dumont, De Saloon, Machuca and Julius Popper, among others. Numerous bands have played their first major concerts in the city, such as Los Prisioneros.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: The city's music venues are a main feature of the tourist route, "La Ruta de la Música", a project driven by the National Service of Tourism (SERNATUR), where besides the rock scene, the local jazz and folk scenes are also shown.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Concepción was one of the host cities of the official 1959 Basketball World Cup, where Chile won the bronze medal.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Historically characterized by a strong manufacturing industry, Concepción has also been a major center for distribution and services and the financial basis of the regional economy.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Trade in the city is concentrated in the "Plaza Independencia" (Independence Square), the pedestrian street "Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga" (built in 1981), and along the major avenues. One such avenue is the "Diego Barros Arana" street which has developed into the commercial center of the city and the region was until 1907 even known as ""calle Comercio"" ("Commerce Street"). New commercial centers are being developed around the old central station and the new civic district as a part of the Chilean bicentennial (September 18, 2010). A considerable percentage of local trade is taking place in settlements around the city, in communes such as Hualpén, Talcahuano and San Pedro de la Paz, where there are bustling shopping centers, such as Mall Plaza del Trébol, and where there is a constant commercial development.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Other commercial spots, related to food, are the Vega Monumental and Mercado Central de Concepción (Central Market of Concepción) places offering various services and agricultural and livestock products.


title: Concepción, Chile

text: As a commune, Concepción is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2016–2020 mayor is Alvaro Ortiz Vera (Christian Democratic Party), who was first elected in 2012. The communal council has 10 seats, which are currently occupied (2016–2020) by three for Christian Democratic Party, two for National Renewal, two for Independent Democrat Union, one for Communist Party, one for Socialist Party, and one for Radical Party. The following members are:


title: Concepción, Chile

text: Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Concepción is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Gaston Saavedra (PS), José Miguel Ortiz (PDC), Jaime Toha (PS), Felix Gonzalez (PEV), Enrique Van Rysselberghe (UDI), Sergio Bobadilla (UDI), Francesca Muñoz (RN) and Leonidas Romero (RN), as part of the 21st electoral district (Concepción Province without Lota). The commune is represented in the Senate by Alejandro Navarro Brain (MAS) and Jacqueline Van Rysselberghe (UDI) as part of the 12th senatorial constituency (Biobío-Costa).


title: Concepción, Chile

text: A 23 year old Chilean forestry student named Jorge Matute disappeared mysteriously in a discotheque that was located close to Concepción on 20 November 1999. In February 2004 in a road in Santa Juana Matute's remains were found and identified.


title: CorningWare

text: Corning Ware, also written CorningWare, was originally a brand name for a unique glass-ceramic (Pyroceram) cookware resistant to thermal shock. It was first introduced in 1958 by Corning Glass Works (later Corning Inc.) in the United States. The brand was later spun off with the sale of the Corning Consumer Products Company subsidiary (now known as Corelle Brands of Rosemont, Illinois). Glass-ceramic based Corning Ware can be taken from the refrigerator or freezer and used directly on the stovetop, in an oven or microwave, under a broiler, for table/serving use, and when ready for cleaning put directly into a dishwasher. CorningWare is sold worldwide, and it is popular in North America, Asia, and Australia.


title: CorningWare

text: In 1953 S. Donald Stookey of the Corning Research and Development Division discovered Pyroceram, a white glass-ceramic material capable of withstanding a thermal shock of up to 450 K (840 °F), by accident. He was working with photosensitive glass and placed a piece into a furnace planning on heating it to 600 degrees Fahrenheit. When he checked on his sample, the furnace was at 900 degrees and the glass had turned milky white. He reached into the furnace with tongs to discard the sample, and it slipped and hit the floor without shattering.


title: CorningWare

text: Pyroceram was originally used in the ballistic missile program as a heat-resistant material for nose cones.


title: CorningWare

text: Originally manufactured primarily in the USA, production of Pyroceram-based Corning Ware ceased in the States with the closure of the Martinsburg, West Virginia plant. While production continued in France, the product was temporarily unavailable in the USA and the brand was relaunched as a line of stoneware-based bakeware in 2001.


title: CorningWare

text: Corelle Brands' (then known as "World Kitchen") 2001 annual report indicated that the stovetop and dinnerware product lines were halted at the end of the century "as part of a program designed to reduce costs through the elimination of under-utilized capacity, unprofitable product lines, and increased utilization of the remaining facilities."


title: CorningWare

text: In December 2008, the Pyroceram-based line of CorningWare was reintroduced in the USA as CorningWare StoveTop. It continues to be manufactured by Keraglass/Eurokera (a partnership between Corning and Saint-Gobain specializing in vitroceramics for cooktop panels and equipment for laboratories) in Bagneaux-sur-Loing, France. This is one of the only factories in the world still manufacturing Pyroceram-based cookware. One of the benefits of modern Pyroceram production is Keraglass/Eurokera's ability to manufacture cookware without the use of arsenic.


title: CorningWare

text: As of early 2022, sales of Pyroceram-based CorningWare were again discontinued in the USA but it continues to be sold in other regions of the world.


title: CorningWare

text: Corning Ware's range/oven-to-table cookware first featured the 'Blue Cornflower' pattern designed by Joseph Baum, an artist at the Charles Brunelle Advertising Agency in Hartford, Connecticut. It became the trademark of Corning consumer products for three decades. Beyond the Blue Cornflower pattern, dozens of additional styles have been offered over the years such as 'Floral Bouquet', 'Spice O' Life', 'French White', and "Shadow Iris".


title: CorningWare

text: Currently, Pyroceram-based Corning Ware is popular in the Asia–Pacific region. Additional patterns have been created specifically for this market, including Bliss, Blue Elegance, Cool Pansies, Country Rose, Dainty Flora, Dandy Blossoms, Elegant City, European Herbs, Herb Country, Lilyville, Lush, Petite Trio, Plum, Salad Seasons and Warm Pansies among others.


title: CorningWare

text: The lids of CorningWare are typically made of Pyrex. Though some early lids were made of Pyroceram, most subsequent covers have been made of borosilicate or tempered soda-lime glass. Unlike the cookware, these lids have a lower tolerance for thermal shock and cannot be used under direct heat.


title: CorningWare

text: More than 750 million pieces of Corning Ware's range/oven-to-table service have been manufactured since its inception. A partial product list includes: browning skillets, cake pans, casserole dishes, coffee pots ("percolator","drip"), dinner service ("Centura by Corning"), Dutch ovens, frying pans, Grab-It bowls, loaf pans, percolators, pie plates, ramekins, restaurant ware ("Pyroceram"), roasters, saucepans, skillets, soufflé dishes, and teapots.


title: CorningWare

text: Corelle Brands sells similar looking products under the CorningWare brand name that are made of glazed stoneware, rather than Pyroceram. The packaging for this type of CorningWare bakeware specifically that they are not for stovetop use.


title: CorningWare

text: Visions, a brand of transparent stove top cookware originally created by Corning France and still being produced today, is made of a transparent version of Pyroceram. It features thermal traits very similar to Corning Ware plus improved resistance to staining and the detrimental effects of acids and detergents.


title: CorningWare

text: Corelle, a brand name for break-resistant glass dishware also originally created by Corning Glass Works, has offered matching designs to many Corning Ware patterns. Care must be made to distinguish between Corning Ware cookware and tableware marketed under the Corelle and Pyrex brand names, as the thermal properties of the products are quite different.


title: CorningWare

text: Arc International, France, sells cookware that is equivalent to Corning Ware under various brand names including Arcoflam, Luminarc, and Arcoroc. Their Octime line of glass-ceramic products was rebadged for Princess House and sold as Nouveau cookware in the USA and other select regions.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Jason James Carter (born August 7, 1975) is an American lawyer and politician from the state of Georgia. Carter is a former state senator and was the Democratic nominee for governor of Georgia in the 2014 election. Carter's grandfather is former


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Carter was born at Emory University Hospital on August 7, 1975. A ninth-generation Georgian, he is a grandson of former President Jimmy Carter and the son of Jack Carter and Judy Langford, daughter of former Georgia State Senator James Beverly Langford. After graduating from Evanston Township High School, where he won the Illinois State Policy Debate championship in 1993, Carter attended Duke University, where he obtained a Bachelor of Arts with a double major in philosophy and political science.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: After graduating from Duke University, Carter served in the Peace Corps stationed in South Africa. In doing so he followed the example of his great grand mother, Lillian Carter (President Jimmy Carter's mother), who became a Peace Corps volunteer at age 68 and spent nearly two years in India working as a nurse with patients with leprosy. Jason Carter lived in Lochiel, South Africa, where he worked on education issues in rural areas. He learned to speak Zulu and Siswati. He wrote a book, titled "Power Lines", about his experiences there.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Carter later attended the University of Georgia School of Law, graduating "summa cum laude" with a Juris Doctor in 2004. He clerked for Frank M. Hull on the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit after graduating from law school.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: He is currently a partner at the law firm of Bondurant, Mixson & Elmore in Atlanta. He has represented the National Football League Players Association and won the Stuart Eizenstat Young Lawyer Award, given by the Anti-Defamation League, for his pro bono work defending voting rights.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: In a May 11, 2010 special election, Carter was elected to represent Georgia's 42nd district in the State Senate. He won with 65.6% of the vote. The seat had been vacated by David I. Adelman, who became the United States Ambassador to Singapore. Carter is the first member of his family to win elected office since his grandfather, Jimmy Carter, was elected President of the United States.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: In the Senate, Carter authored legislation to require the state budget to be presented in two parts: first, a separate education budget, and then a budget to fund the rest of state government.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Carter also sponsored ethics reform legislation, including proposals to limit gifts from lobbyists to legislators, to create and fully fund an independent ethics commission, and to create a non-partisan redistricting commission.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: In 2014, Carter voted for House Bill (H.B.) 60, the Safe Carry Protection Act which opponents nicknamed the "guns everywhere" bill. The Safe Carry Protection Act which took effect on July 1, 2014, permits licensed gun owners to carry guns into many public and private places. The law is supported by the Georgia Baptist Convention which includes 3,600 Baptist churches in Georgia in favor of increased church autonomy, but is not supported by Catholic or Episcopalian church leaders.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: In 2013, Carter commissioned a poll of a potential race against Nathan Deal in the 2014 gubernatorial election. He subsequently announced that he would run for the Democratic nomination.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: During his campaign, Carter advocated increased investment in education and technical training to help grow Georgia's film and television industry. "Georgia has seen enormous growth in film and television production, but that success is threatened unless we build the skilled workforce to fill these jobs." Carter said, and added "After years of cuts to HOPE and to our schools, industries across the state simply cannot find the skilled workers they need to fill their jobs."


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Polls suggested a surprisingly close race given Georgia's recent electoral history. Real Clear Politics upgraded the race from "Leans GOP" to "Toss Up." Carter also out-raised the incumbent Deal in the second quarter.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Carter said that people in Georgia have the right to have the Sons of Confederate Veterans-backed license plate, which features an image of the Confederate flag and that he would not try to stop them if elected.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: During his campaign, Carter reaffirmed his support for the legalization of same-sex marriage, stating, "Marriage equality is something I believe in and have [believed in] for a very, very, very long time since before I got into politics."


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: The candidate in a WSB-TV debate which aired live on C-SPAN criticized the performance of Deal in handling the state economy by stating that 380,000 Georgians were looking for jobs and state government support for public education had dropped.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Carter lost his 2014 bid for the office of governor to incumbent Nathan Deal by 7.9%, receiving 44.9% of the vote.


title: Jason Carter (politician)

text: Jason's wife, Kate, is a high school teacher, and former journalist with the "Athens Banner-Herald", where she won several awards. They have two sons, Henry (b. 2006) and Thomas (b. 2008).


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc massif (; ) is a mountain range in the Alps, located mostly in France and Italy, but also straddling Switzerland at its northeastern end. It contains eleven major independent summits, each over in height. It is named after Mont Blanc (), the highest point in western Europe and the European Union. Because of its considerable overall altitude, a large proportion of the massif is covered by glaciers, which include the Mer de Glace and the Miage Glacierthe longest glaciers in France and Italy, respectively.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The massif forms a watershed between the vast catchments of the rivers Rhône and Po, and a tripoint between France, Italy and Switzerland; it also marks the border between two climate regions by separating the northern and western Alps from the southern Alps. The mountains of the massif consist mostly of granite and gneiss rocks and at high altitudes the vegetation is an arctic-alpine flora.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The valleys that delimit the massif were used as communication routes by the Romans until they left around the 5th century AD. The region remained of some military importance through to the mid-20th century. A peasant farming economy operated within these valleys for many centuries until the glaciers and mountains were "discovered" by the outside world in the 18th century. Word of these impressive sights began to spread, and Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786, marking the start of the sport of mountaineering. The region is now a major tourist destination, drawing in over sixmillion visitors per year. It provides a wide range of opportunities for outdoor recreation and activities such as sight-seeing, hiking, rock climbing, mountaineering and skiing. Around one hundred people a year die across its mountains and, occasionally, bodies have been lost and entombed in its glaciers for decades.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Access into the mountains is facilitated by cable cars, mountain railways and mountain huts which offer overnight refuge to climbers and skiers. The long-distance Tour du Mont Blanc hiking trail circumnavigates the whole massif in an 11-day trek of . The Mont Blanc Tunnel connects the French town of Chamonix on the northern side with the Italian town of Courmayeur in the south. The high mountains have provided many opportunities for scientific research, including neutrino measurements within the tunnel and impact of climate change on its highest slopes. Recent rises in average temperatures have led to significant glacial retreat across the massif and an awareness of the need for better environmental protection, including a call for World Heritage Site status.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc massif is long and lies in a southwest to northeasterly direction across the borders of France (Haute-Savoie and Savoie), Italy (Aosta Valley) and Switzerland (western Valais). At its widest point the massif is across. The northwestern side of the massif lies mostly within France, and is bounded by the valley of the Arve, containing the towns of Argentière, Chamonix and Les Houches. To the west it is bounded by the Val Montjoie, containing Les Contamines-Montjoie and the river Le Bon Nant which flows northwards to a confluence with the Arve near Saint-Gervais-les-Bains, and onwards to the Rhône.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The southern side of the massif lies mostly within Italy and is bounded by the Val Veny and Val Ferret whose watercourses meet just above Courmayeur. From Courmayeur these waters flow southwards as the Dora Baltea towards Aosta, eventually joining the Po. However, the extreme western end of the southern side of the massif does lie within France and is bounded by the Vallée des Glaciers (which connects to the Val Veny over the watershed of the col de la Seigne), and its waters flow southwards towards the Isère and onwards to the Rhône.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The northernmost section of the massif falls within Switzerland, and is bounded to the east by a separate valley, confusingly also called Val Ferret, and which separates it from the Pennine Alps. Its watercourse, la Dranse de Ferret, flows northwards to join the Rhône at Martigny. The west side of the northern end of the massif is drained by the Trient, also joining the Rhône near Martigny.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The borders of all three countries converge at a tripoint near the summit of Mont Dolent at an altitude of . From here the French – Italian border runs southwestwards along a ridge of high summits on the southern side of the massif, many of which are over in height, including the Grandes Jorasses, Rochefort Ridge, Dent du Géant, Mont Maudit, Mont Blanc and its western satellite, the Aiguille de Bionnassay. From here the border turns southwards over the Dômes de Miage and Aiguille de Tré la Tête before dropping down to the Col de la Seigne. North of Mont Dolent the border between France and Switzerland meanders roughly north-northwestwards along a ridge-line of slightly lower peaks, including the Aiguille d'Argentière, the Aiguille du Chardonnet and the Aiguille du Tour, before dropping down to the Col de Balme. The Swiss – Italian border runs southwest from Mont Dolent, down to the twin passes of Col Ferret.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The massif contains 11 main summits over in altitude, as well as numerous subsidiary points above this height. Crowning the massif is Mont Blanc (), the highest mountain in the Alps and in western Europe. From the summit of Mont Blanc to the Arve near Chamonix there is a drop in altitude over a distance of just . Because of its great elevation, much of the massif is snow- and ice-covered, and has been deeply dissected by glaciers. The Mer de Glace is the longest glacier in the range as well as the longest in France and the second longest in the Alps. The debris-covered Miage Glacier on the southern side of the massif is the longest in Italy.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The entire massif can be circumnavigated by the Tour du Mont Blanc, a walking route of approximately . It usually takes around 11 days to complete, but is also used for an annual mountain ultramarathon, with top competitors expected to complete the whole route in less than 21 hours.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The main mountain passes, or cols, that connect different valleys and towns around the Mont Blanc massif are:


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc massif includes eleven independent and six subsidiary summits over in height. These (including Mont Blanc) are shared between Italy and France only, the highest in Switzerland being the Aiguille d'Argentière. The massif is amongst the three major subranges of the Alps having the highest concentration of four-thousanders, together with the Pennine Alps and the Bernese Alps.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The first ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel Paccard initiated the sport of alpine mountaineering, and it was during the golden age of alpinism (185465) and the silver age of alpinism (186582) that the majority of the main summits of the massif were first attained. Members of the England-based Alpine Club were instrumental in many of the first ascents, usually accompanied by guides from Chamonix or Courmayeur, such as Michel Croz, Michel Payot and Émile Rey, as well as the Swiss guide, Christian Almer. Across the massif there are now more than two thousand different mountaineering routes to the summits, ranging greatly in both length and difficulty. These attract climbers from all over the world who, unlike the early ascensionists, now have access to numerous climbing guidebooks, modern safety equipment, good information on climbing routes and technical difficulty, as well as weather forecasts and mountain accommodation and food.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: A wide range of glaciers and glacial structures can be found across the Mont Blanc massif, all of which can be easily reached or viewed. Glaciers cover of the massif, of which fall within France. The Mer de Glace is the largest glacier in the western Alps, and the second largest in Europe. It has a total length of from highest snowfield to terminus and an area of 35–40 km (14–15 sq mi).


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: At around in length, the Miage Glacier is Italy's longest glacier and also the largest debris-covered glacier in Europe. Other large glaciers include the Argentière Glacier (), the Saleina Glacier (), Trient Glacier (), the Bossons Glacier ( ) and the Brenva Glacier. Whilst these glaciers appear to show similar fluctuations in length, research shows that each glacier of the Mont Blanc massif has its own individual and distinctive response time to changes in snowfall and climate. The Bossons Glacier is known to respond first, then the Argentière and the Trient Glaciers respond four to seven years later, with the Mer de Glace reacting last —between eleven and fifteen years after changes are first observed in the movement of ice in the Bossons Glacier.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Even the smallest glaciers can have a significant impact on the environment and on human activity. In 1892, a large body of water which had accumulated under the surface of the Tête Rousse Glacier, burst suddenly on the night of 11 July. It released of water and ice which flowed down the mountainside, killing 175 people in Saint-Gervais. The recent rediscovery of a further build-up of water deep within the glacier is now a cause of serious concern.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The inexorable downward movement and melting of glaciers can result in objects lost within them reappearing many years later.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The first recorded account of a body reappearing from a glacier in the Mont Blanc range was made by Viscount Edmond de Catelin in 1861. It concerned three alpine guides who were buried in a crevasse during an avalanche on 20 August 1820 near the Rocher Rouges, high up on Mont Blanc, during an expedition organised by . Forty years later the remains of two of them were discovered, re-exposed within fissures in the Bossons glacier. They were lower down from the point where they were lost; the corpse of the third guide was discovered the following year. In 2014, a group of climbers found a body on the Glacier du Talèfre, close to the Couvercle Hut. It was identified as that of a young Chamonix guide who had been caught in a winter storm during a solo ascent of the Nant Blanc face of the Aiguille Verte in 1982 and was assumed to have fallen into a crevasse. In 2013, a box of valuable gemstones was found by a climber on the Bossons Glacier. It had re-emerged, having been carried downhill from the site of one of two Air India plane crashes. These occurred at almost identical locations high up near the summit of Mont Blanc: one in 1950 (Air India Flight 245), and one in 1966 (Air India Flight 101). Debris from these crashes is still commonly found on the glacier below.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc massif consists predominantly of ancient granite rocks. The Alps have their origins 770million years ago when upheaval of the earth's crust lifted up schist, gneiss and limestone rocks. These were destined to form the base of the Alps range, and this period of upheaval ended 300million years ago. Granite intrusions and associated metamorphic rocks formed the base of the mountains we now call the Mont Blanc massif as well as the nearby Aiguilles Rouges. But these rocks were then heavily eroded away, eventually being ground down and inundated by the sea, so allowing sedimentary rocks to form. Then, once again, this part of the earth's crust was uplifted as a result of the collision of continental plates. The huge mountain ranges of today's Alps began to form. This happened towards the end of the Tertiary period, 15million years ago. Finally, came the Quaternary era, when successive ice ages saw vast glaciers advance, retreat, and then advance again. Their movement across the landscape ground down and shaped the mountains and the valleys we see today.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Both the Mont Blanc massif, and the Aiguilles Rouges range to its north, now form part of the external zone of the Alps, effectively being the outermost layers of rock. The central granites make up Mont Blanc, the steep slopes of the Drus, the Grandes Jorasses and the Dent du Géant, and at the highest points are topped by schists, which are visible in places such as Grands Montets and near Mont Blanc's summit.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The granite mountains around Chamonix have been eroded into steep needle-shaped peaks (known as ). Known locally as "protogine", these rocks are lower in the mineral biotite mica and richer in quartz than the granites commonly found elsewhere.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: A large part of the massif is covered by ice fields and is cut by numerous glaciers, mostly flowing northwestwards on the French side; southeastwards on the Italian side and eastwards on the Swiss side. With much steeper slopes on the Italian side, many glaciers drop very sharply and some, such as the Miage Glacier and the Brenva Glacier, are very heavily covered in rock debris. The massif is itself defined by broad valleys which formed along fault lines and which have subsequently been shaped by ice during the last glacial period of the ice age.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: During the mid-19th century the granite of the Mont Blanc massif was an important source of stone for buildings; one hundred Italian stonemasons were brought to the Chamonix valley by Charles Albert of Sardinia for reconstructing the towns of Sallanches and Cluses, both of which had at that time just been destroyed by fires.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The massif has been an important source of mineral specimens for crystal-hunters for over 250 years. The mountaineer and explorer, Edward Whymper, noted that the basin of the Glacier de Talèfre was "considered good hunting-ground for crystals", and that the slopes below les Courtes had yielded many large specimens. He recounted that in 1745 a guide had stated he had collected over of specimens there in just three hours.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The first systematic account of the minerals of the Mont Blanc area was published in 1873 by Venance Payot. His list, entitled "Statistique minéralogique des environs du Mt-Blanc", catalogued 90 mineral types although it also included those present only as very small components of rocks. If these are excluded, it is known today that at least 68 separate mineral species occur across the whole range of the Mont Blanc massif.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In order to preserve the mineralogical heritage of Mont Blanc, in 2008 the commune of Chamonix banned all mineral-hunting activities and collection of specimens without a prior permit being issued by the mayor's office. Use of explosives, heavy machinery or helicopters for removing material were also banned, and a code of practice put in place which requires an annual declaration of all finds to be made. It also gives a right for the Chamonix crystal museum (Musée des Cristaux) to have first option to acquire specimens of significance for its collections. To further protect the scientific value of material collected, all specimens offered for sale must be labelled with details of where they were found. The crystal museum opened to the public in 2006 and tells the story of the early crystal-hunters (known as ). Many specimens collected from across the massif are displayed there.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Located on the watershed between the Rhône and the Po, the Mont Blanc massif is also situated between the two different climatic regions of the northern and western Alps and that of the southern Alps. Climatic conditions on the Mer de Glace are similar to those found on the northern side of the Swiss Alps.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The climate of the Mont Blanc massif is cold and temperate (Köppen climate classification "Cfb"), and is greatly influenced by altitude. The main valley settlements around the perimeter of the massif are at an altitude ranging between . Daytime valley temperatures in July and August may range up to , sometimes reaching . The greatest snowfall occurs between the months of November and April.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The best weather for mountaineering or hiking occurs between late June to early October but, being the highest part of the Alps, the Mont Blanc massif can create its own weather patterns. Temperatures drop as the mountains gain in height, and the summit of Mont Blanc is a permanent ice cap, with temperatures around . The summit is also prone to strong winds and sudden weather changes. Because of the massif's great overall height, a considerable proportion is permanently glaciated or snow-covered and is exposed to extremely cold conditions. Even on the high passes of the Tour du Mont Blanc, around , summer temperatures can be between , but feeling much colder because of wind chill in windy or wet conditions.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Precipitation is distributed fairly evenly over all months of the year, and mostly originates from a westerly airflow. There is, however, significant variation in precipitation with altitude. For example, Chamonix has an elevation of approximately and receives around of annual precipitation, whilst the Col du Midi, which is at above sea level, receives significantly more, totalling . However, at an even higher altitude (near to the summit of Mont Blanc) precipitation is considerably less, with only around recorded, despite the latter measurements being taken at a height of .


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In the mountains further south of the Mont Blanc range, annual precipitation is significantly less than at equivalent altitudes within the massif. For example, the valleys in the Pelvoux massif at around receive only around of precipitation per year, which is significantly less than that in either Courmayeur or Chamonix.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The massif contains a very rich variety of biodiversity as a result of the huge height range and different habitats found between the valleys and the highest summits. Mild temperatures occur at altitudes between , whereas arctic conditions occur from up to the highest point at .


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Whilst the Mont Blanc massif does not contain any species that are endemic to it, there are many rare and legally protected species found within its four major habitat zones. These are the: montane forests, sub-alpine, alpine and nival zones. The major habitats are coniferous forests, moors, rock and talus slopes, plus glacial moraines. The biological richness is further influenced by the different aspects of the faces, by the geology, and by the influence of man on the lower and middle slopes where forest clearance has created open grassland. The native forest habitats are essential for the survival of many species, with the key conifer species including larch, pine, stone pine and red pine.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Over a thousand plant species have been recorded across the massif, from the valley bottoms right up to where the alpine chrysanthemum ("") can be found at a record-breaking height.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Early explorers, such as Alexander von Humboldt in 1807, observed a number of notable species in the mountains around Mont Blanc at altitudes above . This was well above the permanent snow line, but on rocks that were so steep that little snow could rest. These arctic-alpine species included: '; '; '; "Cardamine bellidifolia"; "Draba hirta"; ' and "Silene acaulis" (occurring down to ). Between , Humboldt noted the following species of flowering plants amongst rocky debris around permanent snow fields and the highest alpine glaciers: '; "Achillea atrata"; "Gentiana nivalis"; "Juncus trifidus"; "Ranunculus glacialis"; ' and "Saxifraga oppositifolia".


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In the mid-1800s, Venance Payot, a Chamonix naturalist, published a number of articles on the flora around the Mont Blanc area, including a list of the flowering plants, ferns mosses and lichens found at les Grands Mulets and elsewhere in the massif around Chamonix and the Aosta Valley.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: High up in the middle of the Glacier de Talèfre, completely surrounded by ice, and due south of Les Droites, lies a large triangular region of steep mountainside containing an unusual mixture of high-alpine vegetation. Known as the "Jardin de Talèfre", its name derives from the rich assemblage of plants which occur at great altitude there (between ). Described as "one of the loftiest patches of vegetation in Europe upon an islet of rock in the midst of a wilderness of snow and ice", it is higher than the adjacent ground by tens of metres and, as a result, was spared glacial scouring and subsequent loss of its vegetation during the Little Ice Age (between 1300 and 1850). Nevertheless, it would at that time still have been surrounded by ice on all three sides, as evidenced by the three glacial moraines found there today.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Saussurea Alpine Botanical Garden above Courmayeur is located at above sea level, and is the highest botanical garden in Europe. It contains around 800 plant species and covers an area of . It was originally created in 1987 just as a tourist attraction but, with the subsequent designation of the adjacent Pavillon du Mont Frety as a protected area, it has since increased in scientific importance. It can be reached either from the mid-way station of the Skyway Monte Bianco, or on foot from La Palud within two hours and an ascent of . The botanical garden derives its name from the genus of mountain flowers, "Saussurea" (Saw-worts) which itself was named after Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, whose enthusiasm for scientific research in the mountains led to the first ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The mountains around Mont Blanc are home to many mammal species, including ibex, chamois, deer, mountain hare and alpine marmot (including a small population of albino marmots within Val Ferret). Eurasian lynx have been reintroduced into the French Alps and, although present around the Mont Blanc massif, are extremely unlikely to be encountered.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Over 80 different bird species have been recorded on the Italian side of the massif from within Val Ferret, including 63 nesting species and nine regional or national rarities. The following birds have been recorded in different habitats right across the Mont Blanc massif:


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Seven of the massif's largest indigenous mammal species are housed in the Merlet Animal Park near Les Houches, including ibex, chamois, marmot, fallow and roe deer. Located above the village, the park was founded in 1968 and contains eighty animal species from mountain habitats around the world.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The region in which the Mont Blanc massif is located has been occupied by humans for at least 70,000 years, although, as now—and because of the great height and glaciated nature of the mountains—only the lower parts of the valleys around its perimeter would have been inhabited or used as routes of communication.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Romans, who occupied the region 2,000 years ago, used the main valleys around the massif for military purposes. They gave the name "Alpes Penninae", or "Poeninae", to the highest parts of the Alpswhich extended from Mont Blanc to Monte Rosa. They took over Aosta from the Salassi Celtic tribe in 25 AD and engineered roads which extended northwards into Europe via the Great St Bernard Pass and the Little St Bernard Pass. Courmayeur, on the southern side of the massif, began to develop as a stop-off along their trans-alpine trading routes between Italy and France. Parts of the modern Tour du Mont Blanc walking trail still follow the route of a Roman road along the Col du Bonhomme and the Col de la Seigne.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Romans occupied Martigny to the north of the massif, and their influence spread out well beyond the Alps into much of northern Europe. As a result of aggressive pressure from tribes in the north, the imperial forces of Rome were gradually withdrawn from the alpine regions until, by the 5th century AD, they had left completely. The areas left behind were occupied in the western part by the Burgundian tribes from what is today France, whilst the Alemanni tribes from Germany moved into eastern parts, resulting in the linguistic divide found today across the Alps.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: For many centuries thereafter, the settlements around the Mont Blanc massif comprised a rural population of peasant mountain farmers, living off animal husbandry, supplemented with a meagre harvest of rye and oats. Some farmers in the valley of Chamonix joined their counterparts from the neighbouring valleys of Maurienne, Beaufortain and Tarentaise and crossed the Alps into southern Germany, Austria and northern Italy to sell their products and bring back goods for sale in local markets.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In 1741, the "Chamouny" valley and its glaciers on the north side of the massif were discovered and written about by two aristocratic travelling Englishmen, named William Windham and Richard Pococke. The descriptions of their exploits were published across Europe, bringing the mountains of the Mont Blanc range to the attention of a wide audience for the first time. In 1760, Horace-Bénédict de Saussure offered a large financial prize to the first people who successfully ascended Mont Blanc. The summit was finally attained on 8 August 1786 by two Chamonix men, the guide Jacques Balmat and Dr. Michel Paccard. The decades that followed saw the gradual opening up of Chamonix to the world, as well as the rest of the Mont Blanc massif. The many published accounts of climbs and impressive sights amongst or around the mountain range attracted numerous wealthy and notable visitors, for whom a visit to marvel at the "Sea of Ice" (the Mer de Glace) became a fashionable thing to experience.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In July 1816, Mary Shelley and Percy Bysshe Shelley toured the Alps and visited Chamouni (as it was then known), as well as the Mer de Glace and the Bossons Glacier. They jointly published their accounts and letters in a work entitled: "History of a Six Weeks' Tour through a part of France, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland; with Letters Descriptive of a Sail Round the Lake of Geneva and of the Glaciers of Chamouni". The book concludes with "Mont Blanc", a 144-line poem by Percy Shelley, written whilst in Chamonix and which was inspired by the river Arve, the snow-covered summits, the chaotic glaciers and the forests that he experienced during their visit.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Amongst many other notable visitors were: Goethe (1779); Chateaubriand (1805); Madame de Staël; Victor Hugo; Louis Pasteur and Franz Liszt (1836), plus two successive wives of Napoleon Bonaparte: Joséphine de Beauharnais (1810) and Marie Louise of Austria (1814). In 1849, John Ruskin spent a month in Chamonix, from where he painted some of the massif's mountains before undertaking the Tour of Mont Blanc. When Savoy was eventually annexed to France in 1860, Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie visited the region to mark the event and undertook to enhance road access leading to the end of the Arve valley.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The 19th century saw considerable economic development which turned the small agricultural town of Chamonix into a base for tourists, with luxurious hotels and mountain lodges being built to accommodate them. A trade in selling local items to visiting foreigners soon developed. Crystals collected from across the massif were much in demand, as were locally produced goods such as horn trinkets and honey.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In just 50 years the Mont Blanc massif, and Chamonix and Courmayeur in particular, had become a popular destination for many travellers, and its economy changed from 80% agriculture to 80% tourism. It saw the emergence and spread of the sport of alpine mountaineering, and visitor numbers increased significantly. By the end of the 18th century, Chamonix was home to around 1,500 summer visitors. By 1850 it was welcoming 5,000 visitors, and by 1892 those numbers had risen to 24,000 a year. In 1906, the eleventh edition of a guidebook written by Edward Whymper about Chamonix and the Mont Blanc range estimated that 130,000 visitors had gone there during the previous season. It also reported that the railway service to Chamonix, which had previously been suspended in winter, was now running throughout the year. The tourist boom to the mountains had started. In 1924, a "Winter Sports Week" was held in Chamonix, with patronage from the International Olympic Committee. It attracted over 10,000 paying visitors and was retrospectively named as the first Winter Olympic Games.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc massif is now a significant tourist destination. The region attracts over sixmillion people per annum, with around one in five gaining access to its slopes by means of mechanical infrastructure (cable cars or funicular railways). Some surveys have shown that tourists mostly come to the Mont Blanc massif and its environs for winter sports such as skiing as well as summer outdoor activities like hiking, climbing and cycling.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Aiguille du Midi Cable Car in Chamonix attracts 500,000 people each year and gives views over much of the massif, and up towards Mont Blanc itself. From Chamonix it rises to the summit of the Aiguille du Midi at , and holds the world record for the highest vertical ascent of any cable car ().


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The building of the new Skyway Monte Bianco cable car on the Italian side of the massif is expected to increase visitor numbers to Courmayeur from 100,000 to 300,000 per annum, following complete replacement of an earlier cable car system in 2015. It takes tourists from La Palud up to the Torino Hut at its top on Pointe Helbronner.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Costing over 105million euros, the Skyway Monte Bianco is regarded as the world's most expensive cable car installation.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Other recent enhancements to tourist infrastructure across the massif have included construction of a new, and ultra-modern Goûter Hut to accommodate the increasing numbers of mountaineers attempting the popular Goûter Route to the summit of Mont Blanc, and investment of ½ billion euros in Les Grands Montets and other ski areas over a six-year period from 2014 onwards.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Increasing numbers of mountain tourists, ease of access into the high mountain environment, plus promotion and encouragement by tour companies offering ascents of Mont Blanc to people with little or no previous alpine experience, have led to an increase in mountain accidents and even inappropriate demands to be rescued. With up to 30,000 climbing parties now attempting to ascend Mont Blanc each year, it has gained the reputation of being one of the world's deadliest mountains. Deaths from mountaineering-related accidents across the Mont Blanc massif average almost 100 a year, with the majority occurring on Mont Blanc itself. There have also been various stunts, some of which the local authorities have called reckless or stupid. In recent years, guards have been placed on the most popular route of ascent to Mont Blanc's summit at peak periods in order to ensure that those entering the mountain environment are adequately equipped and skilled. This has led to calls to limit access to the most popular summits and for the mountains to be treated with greater respect.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc massif has provided numerous opportunities for academic research, dating back to the very first ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786 during which Michel Paccard carried scientific equipment to confirm it as the highest summit. In 1820, an ill-fated expedition led by Dr Hamel included pigeons intended for release at varying altitudes to measure the impact of reduced air density on their ability to fly. In 1890, Joseph Vallot built a small meteorological observatory at approximately between the Dôme du Goûter and Mont Blanc's summit from where numerous measurements and scientific experiments were conducted. One study involved taking simultaneous temperature measurements made over many months at Chamonix, the Grands Mulets and at the observatory itself. In 1893, Pierre Janssen constructed an astronomical observatory on the top of Mont Blanc, partially buried within the summit ice to hold it in place. A telescope and a spectrograph for measuring the oxygen content of the sun were installed. The observatory was removed when it started to collapse around 1906.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: <br>Three examples of modern-day uses of the high mountains for scientific research include neutrino detection, uranium pollution monitoring and climate change:


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: A troop garrison, known as the Casermetta, was active for many years at the Col de la Seigne, on the border between France and Italy.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In the 1930s, during a period of increased international tension, the Mont Blanc massif was used by both countries wanting to demonstrate their military might, and large drills and troop exercises were undertaken at high altitude. During World War II, at a time when the French army had already been defeated by Nazi Germany, France found itself under attack again, but this time by Italian soldiers in many alpine locations including the area around the Col de la Seigne. Evidence of past fortifications and old firing points are still visible throughout the area


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Towards the end of World War II, the highest engagement of the entire war occurred on the glaciers above Chamonix. With the Germans nearly defeated, and their garrison in Chamonix surrounded by the liberating forces, a contingent of Austro-German soldier—who were based around the Torino Hut on the Italian side of the massif—launched a dawn bombardment on Chamonix from positions adjacent to the cable car station on the Col du Midi. Their attack was met with fierce opposition from French resistance fighters, and took place at an altitude of . Nine of the attacking soldiers were killed, including their commander.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: By 1932 France had established the École de Haute Montagne in Chamonix to train mountain troops, but in 1945 it was reconstituted to provide specialised mountaineering training, skiing and tactical skills to the entire army. It was later renamed as the (EMHM) and it continues to fulfil that role to this day, training approximately 1,500 troops every year.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: A number of noteworthy incidents have occurred across the massif over the last two centuries which stand out from the routine toll of mountain-related deaths, of which there are now approximately 100 per annum.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc massif is accessible by road from within France via the A40–E25, or from Switzerland via Martigny and the Forclaz pass (), or via Orsières to reach the Swiss Val Ferret. From within Italy the A40 from Aosta leads to Courmayeur, as does the higher mountain route from Bourg-Saint-Maurice via the Col du Petit St. Bernard ().


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The French and Swiss sides of the massif are linked since 1908 with a narrow-gauge railway running from Saint-Gervais to Martigny, via Chamonix and Finhaut. It is constituted by the Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine section and the Martigny–Châtelard section. Trains running on the line are called "Mont Blanc Express".


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The massif can be quickly crossed in a north–south direction by one of two transport routes, one aimed at through-traffic, the other intended solely for tourists:


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Elsewhere in the massif, the Montenvers Railway connects Chamonix to Montenvers near the foot of the Mer de Glace, whilst the Téléphérique du Lognan connects Argentière with Aiguille des Grands Montets, where Les Grand Montets is an important winter skiing area in the region. At , the summit station also provides relatively easy access for climbers to the northeastern peaks of the range, including short introductory rock scrambles and a simple ice-face route on the NW face of the Petite Aiguille Verte.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: The Mont Blanc Tramway takes tourists and hikers from Saint-Gervais to the Nid d'Aigle, near the Glacier de Bionnassay. It also provides mountaineers with ready access to the first stage of the Goûter Route for an attempt on the most popular route to the summit of Mont Blanc.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: From Les Houches, one of two cable cars links to Bellevue plateau (), giving access to walking paths, mountain bike trails and winter ski-runs as well as to a halt on the Mont Blanc Tramway, A second links the town to the adjacent Prarion plateau ().


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Heli-skiing gives ready access to many remote or off-piste ski routes in the Mont Blanc massif. Because heli-skiing is banned across France for environmental reasons, companies offering this service only operate on the Swiss and Italian sides of the range.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Since the very early days of alpine mountaineering a number of high-altitude mountain refuges have been positioned strategically across the massif to give climbers easier access to the high summits by permitting an overnight stay. The majority are owned by national mountaineering clubs, and many are wardened during the summer months, although the smaller bivouac huts are unmanned and have very basic facilities.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Those on the most popular routes, such as the Goûter Hut, now require all climbers to pre-book. Some tiny huts, such as the remote Eccles Hut, can also be extremely crowded during good mountaineering weather, and some climbers prefer to bivouac outside.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Weather records show that since the 1960s there has been a trend of less snow at lower altitudes, whilst since the 1990s average mountain temperatures have increased more than at lower levels. Temperatures in Chamonix have risen by 1.5 °C over the last 75 years, and fresh snow build-up has halved there in the last 40 years, and there has been an increase in the melting and retreat of the massif's glaciers. The Mer de Glace has retreated in length since 1820 and, at Montenvers, has reduced in thickness by . In the last 20 years the glacier has been retreating at a rate of around every year. Since 1994 it has lost in length and in depth.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: To help counter these effects, in 2012 the various Chamonix-Mont Blanc authorities introduced a climate and energy action plan, committing the region to a 22% reduction in its greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. The plan included proposals to improve air quality by banning those lorries from using the Mont Blanc Tunnel which were deemed to be the most polluting and which, at times, had reduced air quality to levels more usually associated with the streets of Paris.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Concerns over the state of the environment around the most popular parts of the Mont Blanc massif, and the need for visitors to better respect it, were reflected in a statement in 2014 by Jean-Marc Peillex, the mayor of Saint-Gervais, who said:Mont Blanc is a heap of garbage ... a mountain covered with the crap, urine and detritus of the last 50 years. The problems are covered up by a nice, white blanket of snow. But I want to confront people with the reality and to reach those people who abuse the mountain. Following the construction of the new Goûter Hut used by most climbers ascending Mont Blanc, the authorities now strictly enforce a 'no wild-camping' ban above the level of Tête Rousses Hut. Each high altitude hut faces its own individual challenges, often relating to water and energy supply or waste management, and the provision of services to visitors can sometimes conflict with environmental protection. A range of individual solutions for a selection of huts within the massif and elsewhere in the Alps was identified by a project run by Espace Mont Blanc between 2007 and 2013.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In 1991, the environment ministers for France, Italy and Switzerland came together to agree the formation of Espace Mont Blanc – a partnership of national authorities and local communities to plan for the future development and protection of the Mont Blanc region. In 1998, the group was charged with creating a sustainable development scheme for the region (finally launched in 2005), whilst in 2003 it adopted a plan for safeguarding sensitive environments and landscapes. In 2007, it produced its position statement regarding the classification of Mont Blanc as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and in 2009 a Transboundary Integrated Plan (PIT) was announced, with the implementation of six regional projects running until 2013. In 2014, the group launched "Strategy for the Future", which is intended to be a strategic tool for ensuring that public policies are consistent across the different territories around the Mont Blanc massif.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In 1951 the French portion of the Mont Blanc massif was classified as a (or 'listed site') and this was extended in 1976 to cover . By 1989 there had been calls for the creation of an International Park for Mont Blanc. In June 2000 France did add the Mont Blanc Massif to UNESCO's Tentative List, which is a first step to formal nomination for World Heritage Site status. This was followed in January 2008 by a cross-border submission from Italy, which included France and Switzerland. However, as of 2016, it had neither a national park designation nor UNESCO World Heritage Site status.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: As a result of long delays, many environmental groups from France, Italy and Switzerland have worked together under the umbrella organisation, proMONT BLANC, to jointly raise concerns and to put pressure on national governments and the European Union to support and make quicker progress with World Heritage classification. In 2012 the organisation published a detailed assessment and supportive rationale into the state of the Mont Blanc application to be a World Heritage Site. ProMont Blanc also undertakes reviews of a suite of 24 environmental, 24 economic and 10 social indicators across 15 towns around the massif (seven French, five Italian and three Swiss), and monitors and reports on the effectiveness of measures intended to deliver sustainable development across the region.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: In October 2017 representatives from all three nations finally signed a joint declaration of intent as the first formal step towards submitting a bid for the Mont Blanc massif to be a candidate for inclusion on UNESCO's World Heritage Site list.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: All the French parts of the Mont Blanc massif, plus the neighbouring Aiguille Rouges range, have been listed as a Zone naturelle d'intérêt écologique, faunistique et floristique (ZNIEFF). This does not give regulatory protection, but is a recognition of the outstanding biodiversity of the area, and of its landscape, geomorphological, geological, historical and scientific importance. The 2011 schedule documents list over 150 species of animals and plants for which the massif is important. In Italy, the whole Val Ferret watershed was designated a Special Protection Area (Italian: Zone di Protezione Speciale) in 2003, and this area now forms part of the European Union's Natura 2000 network of protected sites.


title: Mont Blanc massif

text: Despite these individual designations, the Mont Blanc massif as a whole is still regarded by conservationists as representing an important missing link in the wider network of protected areas of the western Alps.


title: Religious cosmology

text: Religious cosmology is an explanation of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe from a religious perspective. This may include beliefs on origin in the form of a creation myth, subsequent evolution, current organizational form and nature, and eventual fate or destiny. There are various traditions in religion or religious mythology asserting how and why everything is the way it is and the significance of it all. Religious cosmologies describe the spatial lay-out of the universe in terms of the world in which people typically dwell as well as other dimensions, such as the seven dimensions of religion; these are ritual, experiential and emotional, narrative and mythical, doctrinal, ethical, social, and material.


title: Religious cosmology

text: Religious mythologies may include descriptions of an act or process of creation by a creator deity or a larger pantheon of deities, explanations of the transformation of chaos into order, or the assertion that existence is a matter of endless cyclical transformations. Religious cosmology differs from a strictly scientific cosmology informed by contemporary astronomy, physics, and similar fields, and may differ in conceptualizations of the world's physical structure and place in the universe, its creation, and forecasts or predictions on its future.


title: Religious cosmology

text: The scope of religious cosmology is more inclusive than a strictly scientific cosmology (physical cosmology and quantum cosmology) in that religious cosmology is not limited to experiential observation, testing of hypotheses, and proposals of theories; for example, religious cosmology may explain why everything is the way it is or seems to be the way it is and prescribing what humans should do in context. Variations in religious cosmology include those such as from India Buddhism, Hindu, and Jain; the religious beliefs of China, Chinese Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, Japan's Shintoisim and the beliefs of the Abrahamic faiths, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Religious cosmologies have often developed into the formal logics of metaphysical systems, such as Platonism, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Taoism, Kabbalah, Wuxing or the great chain of being.


title: Religious cosmology

text: The universe of the ancient Israelites was made up of a flat disc-shaped Earth floating on water, heaven above, underworld below. Humans inhabited Earth during life and the underworld after death, and the underworld was morally neutral; only in Hellenistic times (after c.330 BC) did Jews begin to adopt the Greek idea that it would be a place of punishment for misdeeds, and that the righteous would enjoy an afterlife in heaven. In this period too the older three-level cosmology was widely replaced by the Greek concept of a spherical Earth suspended in space at the centre of a number of concentric heavens.


title: Religious cosmology

text: The belief that God created matter is called "creatio ex nihilo". It is the accepted orthodoxy of most denominations of Judaism and Christianity. Most denominations of Christianity and Judaism believe that a single, uncreated God was responsible for the creation of the cosmos.


title: Religious cosmology

text: Islam teaches that God created the universe, including Earth's physical environment and human beings. The highest goal is to visualize the cosmos as a book of symbols for meditation and contemplation for spiritual upliftment or as a prison from which the human soul must escape to attain true freedom in the spiritual journey to God.


title: Religious cosmology

text: "And the heavens We constructed with strength, and indeed, We are [its] expander." () Sahih International


title: Religious cosmology

text: In Buddhism, like other Indian religions, there is no ultimate beginning nor final end to the universe. It considers all existence as eternal, and believes there is no creator god. Buddhism views the universe as impermanent and always in flux. This cosmology is the foundation of its Samsara theory, that evolved over time the mechanistic details on how the wheel of mundane existence works over the endless cycles of rebirth and redeath. In early Buddhist traditions, "Saṃsāra" cosmology consisted of five realms through which wheel of existence recycled. This included hells ("niraya"), hungry ghosts ("pretas"), animals ("tiryak"), humans ("manushya"), and gods ("devas", heavenly). In latter traditions, this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth, adding demi-gods ("asuras"). The "hungry ghost, heavenly, hellish realms" respectively formulate the ritual, literary and moral spheres of many contemporary Buddhist traditions.