title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: A 2011 "Los Angeles Times" article stated that complaints about sudden acceleration and rollover from 2006 to 2009 models have led to recalls. On another matter, an NHTSA database shows that 49% of all customer complaints about these model years were related to lighting, headlamps or visibility. Out of 216,000 Priuses with the optional high intensity discharge (HID) headlamps, there were 28,000 warranty repairs of this system. The headlamps would sometimes shut off without warning, and in rare cases, both headlamps would shut off. There were some injuries but no fatalities. Toyota avoided a recall on the headlights by agreeing to a class action settlement in which the warranty period was extended from three years to five years and by agreeing to reimburse owners for previous repairs. There was some remaining controversy over whether the failures were caused by the bulbs themselves or the computer system controlling them.


title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash testing of the 2004 US model year Prius yielded a five-star driver and four-star passenger rating in the frontal-collision test (out of five stars). Side crash results were four out of five stars for both front and rear seats. The car scored four out of five stars in rollover testing.


title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: US Insurance Institute for Highway Safety crash tests scored the Prius "Good" overall in frontal collisions and "Good" overall in side-impact collisions in models equipped with side airbags. A "Poor" score was given to models without side airbags. Side curtain and torso airbags became standard on 2007 American models.


title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) test results must be posted on new vehicle windows, and are the only fuel consumption figures that can be advertised. EPA testing procedures for all vehicles were revised in 2007 in an attempt to better match what the average driver would achieve.


title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: The following data is taken from the EPA figures for the Prius: city driving, highway driving, combined.


title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: The official UK fuel consumption data, provided by the Department for Transport, rates the Prius as: urban, extra urban and combined.


title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: In the United States the EPA measures a vehicle's air-borne pollution based on hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and formaldehyde before assigning them a score. In most states the XW20 Prius is rated Tier II Bin 3. CARB also does its own emission scoring, the XW20 Prius meets AT-PZEV certification in California and states that adopted CARB emission rules.


title: Toyota Prius (XW20)

text: The second generation Prius tied with the MINI Cooper D as the fourth least -emitting vehicles at 104 g/km, behind the Ford Fiesta Econetic at 98 g/km and the tied Volkswagen Polo 1.4 TDI/SEAT Ibiza 1.4 TDI at 99 g/km. It is the least -emitting "gasoline" powered car (the Ford and the Polo/Ibiza run on diesel).


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Horn-rimmed glasses are a type of eyeglasses. Originally made out of either horn or tortoise shell, for most of their history they have actually been constructed out of thick plastics designed to imitate those materials. They are characterized by their bold appearance on the wearer's face, in contrast to metal frames, which appear less pronounced.


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Horn-rimmed glasses were one of the first styles of eyeglasses to become a popular fashion item, after comedian Harold Lloyd began wearing a round pair in his films. The glasses have enjoyed various periods of popularity throughout the 20th century, being considered especially fashionable in the 1920s–1930s and in the 1950s–1960s in particular, while ceding to rimless and wire framed glasses during the 1970s and 1990s–2000s.


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Michael Caine's first appearance as Harry Palmer in "The Ipcress File" in 1965 featured his signature look of thick horn-rimmed glasses which made him a style icon of the 1960s. The style has brought a resurgence of popularity in the late 20th (1980s–1990s) and early 21st (2010s) centuries, with an emphasis on retro fashions. This may be due in part from the influence of hipster subculture, and the television series "Mad Men", which repopularized 1960s fashions in general.


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Horn rim glasses were initially popularized by comedian Harold Lloyd after he wore them in his 1917 comedy short "Over the Fence." Lloyd had risen to fame playing an eccentric named Lonesome Luke, characterized by an ostentatious appearance. In an effort to break away from the character and revitalize his career, Lloyd crafted a new character who would be Luke's opposite and made distinct by a nondescript appearance. Lloyd outfitted himself in clothing popular among Americans in the 1910s, completing the ensemble with a pair of round, horn-rimmed glasses that would solidify the character's status as "ordinary." Glasses wearing had long been stigmatized, with wearers stereotyped as physically weak intellectuals, members of the clergy, or simply elderly; President Theodore Roosevelt's wearing of rimless eyeglasses had only recently begun to eliminate the stigma, albeit with glasses designed to minimize their appearance.


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Lloyd named the character "The Glasses Character" or "The Glass Character" after the frames; the lenses themselves had in fact been removed, both because Lloyd did not require glasses to see, and because studio lights reflecting off of the lenses obscured Lloyd's eyes on film. The character proved to be a tremendous success with audiences and resulted in an unexpected rise in popularity of horn-rimmed glasses: sales around the world rose as the popular Lloyd's appearance wearing glasses helped to dispel negative stereotypes of glasses wearers. When Lloyd ultimately broke the frames and attempted to order a new pair from the manufacturer, his check was returned along with an order of twenty frames and a note from the company thanking him for his endorsement. Explaining his reasons for the glasses, as well as their sartorial advantages, Lloyd said: "They make low-comedy clothes unnecessary, permit enough romantic appeal to catch the feminine eye, usually diverted from comedies, and they hold me down to no particular type or range of story."


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Horn-rimmed glasses were popular in the 1920s but steadily lost their appeal as sturdier metal styles became more economic alternatives during the Depression. Exposure to heat and sunlight rendered the plastic brittle and prone to breakage, often to the point that they would break should an optician attempt to install new lenses.


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: A variant of horn-rimmed glasses, browline glasses, became one of the defining eyeglass styles of the 1940s and 1950s. Invented in 1947, the style combined the aesthetics of horn-rimmed glasses with the stability of metal frames by fitting prominent plastic "brows" over the tops of metal frames, creating a distinctive look that was also sturdier than solid plastic frames. Browlines quickly became popular in post-World War II America, and composed half of all eyeglass sales throughout the 1950s. Ray-Ban introduced the Wayfarer sunglasses in 1952.


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Plastic eyeglasses mounted in popularity throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s, ultimately supplanting tortoiseshell as the most popular material for eyeglass frames. Buddy Holly iconisized the horn-rimmed style, with his upbeat pop culture rock and roll music. The trend died out in the 1970s with a backlash against 50s and 60s culture, as oversized metal glasses in the style of the Ray-Ban Aviator became popular. Semi-round horn-rimmed glasses came back into fashion in the 1980s, with tortoiseshell being fashionable amongst entrepreneurs and "yuppies". Wayfarers were popular among New Wave musicians, which popularized them among the late 1970s anti-disco "resistance".


title: Horn-rimmed glasses

text: Horn-rimmed glasses fell back out of fashion in the 1990s but returned to popularity with the rise of the emo and hipster subcultures in the early 2000s. Many glasses manufactured during this period tended to imitate popular metal eyeglass styles, with significantly thinner frames and vertically smaller lenses. The popularization of 1960s styles by the television show "Mad Men" led to horn-rimmed frames produced in the 2010s being more traditional, with large lenses and thick, heavy frames.


title: Diether Ocampo

text: Ocampo was born on July 19, 1973 in Aniban, Bacoor, Cavite, where he attended school. He attended De La Salle University-Dasmarinas. He is of German, Spanish, and Chinese ancestry.


title: Diether Ocampo

text: He started out as a dancer before being discovered by ABS-CBN in the mid-1990s. He is part of the band Blow, where he is known as 'Capt. Mongrel'. In 2001, he was an executive producer for The Pin-Ups debut album, "Hello Pain", that enabled the band to become the first Philippines-based band to be signed to a U.S. label.


title: Diether Ocampo

text: Ocampo started with ABS-CBN and being managed by Star Magic headed by Johnny Manahan. He auditioned for ABS-CBN's talent search in 1995. A year and a half later, he became one of the members of Star Circle Batch II. His first movie appearance was in the movie adaptation of teen program "Ang TV". He is active in charitable works through his K.I.D.S. (Kabataan Inyong Dapat Suportahan) Foundation to help under privileged children of Metro Manila.


title: Diether Ocampo

text: In 2016, he starred in TV5's series "Bakit Manipis ang Ulap?" together with Cesar Montano and Claudine Barretto.


title: Diether Ocampo

text: In 2017, after a short brief break from showbiz, Ocampo went out of retirement and is now a freelancer.


title: Diether Ocampo

text: Ocampo was married to Kristine Hermosa on September 21, 2004. The marriage was later annulled on January 30, 2009.


title: Abrasive

text: An abrasive is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a workpiece through rubbing which leads to part of the workpiece being worn away by friction. While finishing a material often means polishing it to gain a smooth, reflective surface, the process can also involve roughening as in satin, matte or beaded finishes. In short, the ceramics which are used to cut, grind and polish other softer materials are known as abrasives.


title: Abrasive

text: Abrasives are extremely commonplace and are used very extensively in a wide variety of industrial, domestic, and technological applications. This gives rise to a large variation in the physical and chemical composition of abrasives as well as the shape of the abrasive. Some common uses for abrasives include grinding, polishing, buffing, honing, cutting, drilling, sharpening, lapping, and sanding (see abrasive machining). (For simplicity, "mineral" in this article will be used loosely to refer to both minerals and mineral-like substances whether man-made or not.)


title: Abrasive

text: Files are not abrasives; they remove material not by scratching or rubbing, but by the cutting action of sharp teeth which have been cut into the surface of the file, very much like those of a saw. However, diamond files are a form of coated abrasive (as they are metal rods coated with diamond powder).


title: Abrasive

text: Abrasives generally rely upon a difference in hardness between the abrasive and the material being worked upon, the abrasive being the harder of the two substances. However, is not necessary as any two solid materials that repeatedly rub against each other will tend to wear each other away; examples include, softer shoe soles wearing away wooden or stone steps over decades or centuries or glaciers abrading stone valleys.


title: Abrasive

text: Typically, materials used as abrasives are either hard minerals (rated at 7 or above on Mohs scale of mineral hardness) or are synthetic stones, some of which may be chemically and physically identical to naturally occurring minerals but which cannot be called minerals as they did not arise naturally. (While useful for comparative purposes, the Mohs scale is of limited value to materials engineers as it is an arbitrary, ordinal, irregular scale.) Diamond, a common abrasive, for instance occurs both naturally and is industrially produced, as is corundum which occurs naturally but which is nowadays more commonly manufactured from bauxite. However, even softer minerals like calcium carbonate are used as abrasives, such as "polishing agents" in toothpaste.


title: Abrasive

text: These minerals are either crushed or are already of a sufficiently small size (anywhere from macroscopic grains as large as about 2 mm to microscopic grains about 0.001 mm in diameter) to permit their use as an abrasive. These grains, commonly called grit, have rough edges, often terminating in points which will decrease the surface area in contact and increase the localised contact pressure. The abrasive and the material to be worked are brought into contact while in relative motion to each other. Force applied through the grains causes fragments of the worked material to break away, while simultaneously smoothing the abrasive grain and/or causing the grain to work loose from the rest of the abrasive.


title: Abrasive

text: Abrasives may be classified as either natural or synthetic. When discussing sharpening stones, natural stones have long been considered superior but advances in material technology are seeing this distinction become less distinct. Many synthetic abrasives are effectively identical to a natural mineral, differing only in that the synthetic mineral has been manufactured rather than mined. Impurities in the natural mineral may make it less effective.


title: Abrasive

text: Some abrasive minerals (such as zirconia alumina) occur naturally but are sufficiently rare or sufficiently more difficult or costly to obtain such that a synthetic stone is used industrially. These and other artificial abrasives include:


title: Abrasive

text: Abrasives are shaped for various purposes. Natural abrasives are often sold as dressed stones, usually in the form of a rectangular block. Both natural and synthetic abrasives are commonly available in a wide variety of shapes, often coming as bonded or coated abrasives, including blocks, belts, discs, wheels, sheets, rods and loose grains.


title: Abrasive

text: A bonded abrasive is composed of an abrasive material contained within a matrix, although very fine aluminium oxide abrasive may comprise sintered material. This matrix is called a binder and is often a clay, a resin, a glass or a rubber. This mixture of binder and abrasive is typically shaped into blocks, sticks, or wheels. The most common abrasive used is aluminium oxide. Also common are silicon carbide, tungsten carbide and garnet. Artificial sharpening stones are often a bonded abrasive and are readily available as a two sided block, each side being a different grade of grit.


title: Abrasive

text: Grinding wheels are cylinders that are rotated at high speed. While once worked with a foot pedal or hand crank, the introduction of electric motors has made it necessary to construct the wheel to withstand greater radial stress to prevent the wheel flying apart as it spins. Similar issues arise with cutting wheels, which are often structurally reinforced with impregnated fibres. High relative speed between abrasive and workpiece often makes necessary the use of a lubricant of some kind. Traditionally, they were called coolants as they were used to prevent frictional heat build up which could damage the workpiece (such as ruining the temper of a blade). Some research suggests that the heat transport property of a lubricant is less important when dealing with metals as the metal will quickly conduct heat from the work surface. More important are their effects upon lessening tensile stresses while increasing some compressive stresses and reducing "thermal and mechanical stresses during chip formation".


title: Abrasive

text: Various shapes are also used as heads on rotary tools used in precision work, such as scale modelling.


title: Abrasive

text: Bonded abrasives need to be trued and dressed after they are used. Dressing is the cleaning of the waste material (swarf and loose abrasive) from the surface and exposing fresh grit. Depending upon the abrasive and how it was used, dressing may involve the abrasive being simply placed under running water and brushed with a stiff brush for a soft stone or the abrasive being ground against another abrasive, such as aluminium oxide used to dress a grinding wheel.


title: Abrasive

text: Truing is restoring the abrasive to its original surface shape. Wheels and stones tend to wear unevenly, leaving the cutting surface no longer flat (said to be "dished out" if it is meant to be a flat stone) or no longer the same diameter across the cutting face. This will lead to uneven abrasion and other difficulties.


title: Abrasive

text: A "coated abrasive" comprises an abrasive fixed to a backing material such as paper, cloth, rubber, resin, polyester or even metal, many of which are flexible. Sandpaper is a very common coated abrasive. Coated abrasives are most commonly the same minerals as are used for bonded abrasives. A bonding agent (often some sort of adhesive or resin) is applied to the backing to provide a flat surface to which the grit is then subsequently adhered. A woven backing may also use a filler agent (again, often a resin) to provide additional resilience.


title: Abrasive

text: Coated abrasives may be shaped for use in rotary and orbital sanders, for wrapping around sanding blocks, as handpads, as closed loops for use on belt grinders, as striking surfaces on matchboxes, on diamond plates and diamond steels. Diamond tools, though for cutting, are often abrasive in nature.


title: Abrasive

text: Sand, glass beads, metal pellets copper slag and dry ice may all be used for a process called sandblasting (or similar, such as the use of glass beads which is "bead blasting"). Dry ice will sublimate leaving behind no residual abrasive.


title: Abrasive

text: Cutting compound used on automotive paint is an example of an abrasive suspended in a liquid, paste or wax, as are some polishing liquids for silverware and optical media. The liquid, paste or wax acts as a binding agent that keeps the abrasive attached to the cloth which is used as a backing to move the abrasive across the work piece. On cars in particular, wax may serve as both a protective agent by preventing exposure of the paint of metal to air and also act as an optical filler to make scratches less noticeable. Toothpaste contains calcium carbonate or silica as a "polishing agent" to remove plaque and other matter from teeth as the hardness of calcium carbonate is less than that of tooth enamel but more than that of the contaminating agent.


title: Abrasive

text: Very fine rouge powder was commonly used for grinding glass, being somewhat replaced by modern ceramics, and is still used in jewellery making for a highly reflective finish.


title: Abrasive

text: Cleaning products may also contain abrasives suspended in a paste or cream. They are chosen to be reasonably safe on some linoleum, tile, metal or stone surfaces. However, many laminate surfaces and ceramic topped stoves are easily damaged by these abrasive compounds. Even ceramic/pottery tableware or cookware can damage these surfaces, particularly the bottom of the tableware, which is often unglazed in part or in whole and acts as simply another bonded abrasive.


title: Abrasive

text: Metal pots and stoves are often scoured with abrasive cleaners, typically in the form of the aforementioned cream or paste or of steel wool and non woven scouring pads which holds fine grits abrasives.


title: Abrasive

text: Human skin is also subjected to abrasion in the form of exfoliation. Abrasives for this can be much softer and more exotic than for other purposes and may include things like almond and oatmeal. Dermabrasion and microdermabrasion are now rather commonplace cosmetic procedures which use mineral abrasives.


title: Abrasive

text: Scratched compact discs and DVDs may sometimes be repaired through buffing with a very fine compound, the principle being that a multitude of small scratches will be more optically transparent than a single large scratch. However, this does take some skill and will eventually cause the protective coating of the disc to be entirely eroded (especially if the original scratch is deep), at which time, the data surface will be destroyed if abrasion continues.


title: Abrasive

text: The shape, size and nature of the workpiece and the desired finish will influence the choice of the abrasive used. A bonded abrasive grind wheel may be used to commercially sharpen a knife (producing a hollow grind), but an individual may then sharpen the same knife with a natural sharpening stone or an even flexible coated abrasive (like a sandpaper) stuck to a soft, non-slip surface to make achieving a convex grind easier. Similarly, a brass mirror may be cut with a bonded abrasive, have its surface flattened with a coated abrasive to achieve a basic shape, and then have finer grades of abrasive successively applied culminating in a wax paste impregnated with rouge to leave a sort of "grainless finish" called, in this case, a "mirror finish".


title: Abrasive

text: Also, different shapes of adhesive may make it harder to abrade certain areas of the workpiece. Health hazards can arise from any dust produced (which may be ameliorated through the use of a lubricant) which could lead to silicosis (when the abrasive or workpiece is a silicate) and the choice of any lubricant. Besides water, oils are the most common lubricants. These may present inhalation hazards, contact hazards and, as friction necessarily produces heat, flammable material hazards.


title: Abrasive

text: An abrasive which is too hard or too coarse can remove too much material or leave undesired scratch marks. Besides being unsightly, scratching can have other, more serious effects. Excessive abrasion or the presence of scratches may:


title: Abrasive

text: A finer or softer abrasive will tend to leave much finer scratch marks which may even be invisible to the naked eye (a "grainless finish"); a softer abrasive may not even significantly abrade a certain object. A softer or finer abrasive will take longer to cut, as it tends to cut less deeply than a coarser, harder material. Also, the softer abrasive may become less effective more quickly as the abrasive is itself abraded. This allows fine abrasives to be used in the polishing of metal and lenses where the series of increasingly fine scratches tends to take on a much more shiny or reflective appearance or greater transparency. Very fine abrasives may be used to coat the strop for a cut-throat razors, however, the purpose of stropping is not to abrade material but to straighten the burr on an edge. The final stage of sharpening Japanese swords is called polishing and may be a form of superfinishing.


title: Abrasive

text: Different chemical or structural modifications may be made to alter the cutting properties of the abrasive.


title: Abrasive

text: Other very important considerations are price and availability. Diamond, for a long time considered the hardest substance in existence, is actually softer than fullerite and even harder aggregated diamond nanorods, both of which have been synthesised in laboratories, but no commercial process has yet been developed. Diamond itself is expensive due to scarcity in nature and the cost of synthesising it. Bauxite is a very common ore which, along with corundum's reasonably high hardness, contributes to corundum's status as a common, inexpensive abrasive.


title: Abrasive

text: Thought must be given to the desired task about using an appropriately hard abrasive. At one end, using an excessively hard abrasive wastes money by wearing it down when a cheaper, less hard abrasive would suffice. At the other end, if the abrasive substance is too soft, abrasion does not take place in a timely fashion, effectively wasting the abrasive as well as any accruing costs associated with loss of time.


title: Abrasive

text: Aside from the aforementioned uses of shaping and finishing, abrasives may also be used to prepare surfaces for application of some sort of paint of adhesive. An excessively smooth surface may prevent paint and adhesives from adhering as strongly as an irregular surface could allow. Inflatable tyre repair kits (which, on bicycles particularly, are actually patches for the inner tube rather than the tyre) require use of an abrasive so that the self-vulcanising cement will stick strongly.


title: Abrasive

text: Inadvertently, people who use knives on glass or metal cutting boards are abrading their knife blades. The pressure at the knife edge can easily create microscopic (or even macroscopic) cuts in the board. This cut is a ready source of abrasive material as well as a channel full of this abrasive through which the edge slides. For this reason, and without regard for the health benefits, wooden boards are much more desirable. A similar occurrence arises with glass-cutters. Glass-cutters have circular blades that are designed to roll not slide. They should never retrace an already effected cut.


title: Abrasive

text: Undesired abrasion may result from the presence of carbon in internal combustion engines. While smaller particles are readily transported by the lubrication system, larger carbon particles may abrade components with close tolerances. The carbon arises from the excessive heating of engine oil or from incomplete combustion. This soot may contain fullerenes which are noted for their extreme hardness—and small size and limited quantity which would tend to limit their effect.


title: Ryan Peake

text: Ryan Anthony Peake (born March 1, 1973) is a Canadian musician, singer and songwriter who is best known as the rhythm guitarist, keyboardist, and backing vocalist of the Canadian rock band Nickelback. He has been with the band since their inception and is best known for his prominent vocals on the Nickelback songs "Savin' Me", "Hollywood", and "Gotta Be Somebody". He has performed lead vocals on a range of different cover songs at live Nickelback concerts such as "Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting", "Use Somebody", "I Ran", "Everlong" and "Super Bon Bon". When Nickelback performs Chad Kroeger's solo hit "Hero" live, Ryan sings the vocal parts originally performed by Josey Scott. Peake has writing credits for several Nickelback songs such as "Someday", "Savin' Me", "Miss You", and "Edge of a Revolution". Peake's instruments have included Gibson Flying Vs, Gibson Explorers, and Gibson Les Pauls. When Nickelback performs their song "Photograph", he uses an acoustic guitar once owned by his father.


title: Ryan Peake

text: Peake "grew up with solid metal", listing such bands as Anthrax, Megadeth, and Metallica as early favorites. He subsequently grew interested in Canadian country rock group Blue Rodeo, mentioning that their music "really got me thinking about what fits together. Chord-wise, melody-wise, where harmonies feel good and feel right." Along with brothers Chad and Mike Kroeger, Peake cofounded Village Idiot, a cover band with a playlist consisting primarily of Metallica songs. The band mostly played in bars in and around Peake and the Kroegers' hometown of Hanna, Alberta, Canada. Later, the group reformed as Nickelback and Peake was responsible for the early funding of the band, borrowing $30,000 from a local bank on a line of credit. Early in his career, Peake primarily played Fender Telecasters.


title: Ryan Peake

text: Peake is married to Treana Peake, a Mount Pleasant, Vancouver-based fashion designer and philanthropist, actively involved in her charity-based fashion company, Obakki. The couple met in high school and have two children together. Peake tests new music he's working on with his wife, son, daughter, and brother.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu ( ) is the third-largest city in Kenya after the capital, Nairobi, and the coastal city of Mombasa (census 2019). It is the third-largest city after Kampala and Mwanza in the Lake Victoria Basin.


title: Kisumu

text: Apart from being an important political city, it is one of the premier industrial and commercial centres in Kenya. The city is currently undergoing an urban rejuvenation of the downtown and lower town which includes modernizing the lake front, decongesting main streets, and making the streets pedestrian-friendly.


title: Kisumu

text: Culturally, Kisumu serves as the center of the Luo people of East Africa. It was the most prominent urban centre in the pre-colonial, post-colonial, and modern era for natives of the Kavirondo region. It was briefly renamed to Port Florence before being reverted to its original name.


title: Kisumu

text: The city serves as the capital of Kisumu County and was the immediate former capital of now defuct Nyanza Province. It is an important link in the trade route between Lake Victoria and Mombasa because of its water and rail connections. It is also the chief terminus for the agricultural produce of Nyanza and Western regions. Kisumu International Airport has regular flights to Nairobi and other neighboring cities such as Mombasa. According to the United Nations, Kisumu is now recognized as a key city and a "Millennium City" – the first of its kind in the world and also in East Africa.


title: Kisumu

text: Its elevation is above sea level. Kisumu is about northwest of Nairobi and its located on the shores of Lake Victoria. It lies at the northeastern edge of the Winam Gulf, a long, shallow arm that protrudes from the main body of Lake Victoria. Kisumu is south of the equator and has, due to its elevation, a moderate temperatures.


title: Kisumu

text: The metropolitan region comprises the city and its suburbs and satellite towns of Maseno, Kondele, and Ahero.


title: Kisumu

text: When Europeans first settled in the area in the late 19th century, Kisumu became a trading post – attracting the Luo people from as far as Migori and Siaya County. The Kisumu region was then occupied by the Luo community. A person going to Kisumu at that time would say, "Adhi Kisuma" to mean I'm going to trade. Derived from the word "Kisuma", the word for a trading post in Luo is "Kisumo", and in Nandi, "Kesumett". The current name "Kisumu" is an English corruption of the word "Kisumo" or "Kesumett".


title: Kisumu

text: An opposing theory states that Kisumu acquired its name from 'Kusuma', the Maragoli word for 'trading'. Because, before Luo arrived in the area, the Maragoli were already trading with other people in the area like the Nandi and the Maasai. Some Luo words were acquired from the Maragoli.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu city is believed to be one of the oldest settlements in Kenya. Historical records indicate that Kisumu was dominated by diverse communities at different times long before Europeans


title: Kisumu

text: arrived. The people from the Nandi, Kalenjin, Kisii, Maasai, Luo and Luhya communities converged at the tip of Lake Victoria and called the place "sumo" which literally means "a place of barter trade". Each community called it different names, for instance:


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu was identified by the British explorers in early 1898 as an alternative railway terminus and port for the Uganda Railway, then under construction. It was to replace Port Victoria, then an important centre on the caravan trade route, near the delta of the Nzoia River. Kisumu was ideally located on the shores of Lake Victoria at the cusp of the Winam Gulf, at the end of the caravan trail from Pemba, Mombasa, Malindi and had the potential for connection to the whole of the Lake region by steamers. In July 1899, the first skeleton plan for Kisumu was prepared. This included landing places and wharves along the northern lakeshore, near the present-day Airport Road. Demarcations for government buildings and retail shops were also included in the plan.


title: Kisumu

text: Another plan was later prepared in May 1900, when plots were allocated to a few European firms as well as to Indian traders who had travelled to Kisumu on contracts to build the Uganda Railway and had decided to settle at the expanding terminus. A later plan included a flying boat jetty (now used by the Fisheries Department). In October 1900, the 62-ton ship SS William Mackinnon was reassembled and registered in Kisumu, and made its maiden voyage to Entebbe, marking the beginning of the Lake Marine Services. The SS Winifred (1901) and the SS Sybil (1901) were later added to the fleet in 1902 and 1904, respectively. On Friday, 20 December 1901, the railway line reached the Kisumu pier, adopting a new name, Port Florence.


title: Kisumu

text: By February 1903, the railway line had been opened for goods and passenger transportation. Kisumu was also privileged to host the first flight in Kenya; the current police workshop was the first hangar in Kenya. Before the jet airline era, the city was a landing point on the British flying boat passenger and mail route from Southampton to Cape Town. Kisumu also linked Port Bell to Nairobi.


title: Kisumu

text: In the meantime, it was realised that the site originally chosen for the township north of the Nyanza Gulf was unsuitable for the town's expansion, due to its flat topography and poor soils. An alternative site was therefore identified and the town's location moved to the ridge on the southern shore of the Gulf, where the town is today. Consequently, another plan was prepared in 1902, which provided the basic layout of the new town on the southern ridge. This was followed by the construction of a number of government buildings, notably the former Provincial Commissioner's Office (now State Lodge) and the Old Prison (now earmarked for the construction of an Anglican cathedral).


title: Kisumu

text: In 1903, the township boundaries were gazetted and some , including water, set aside for its development. The new township reverted to its original name, Kisumu, in substitution for Port Florence. At this time, there was an 'Old Kisumu' that consisted of two rows of stalls (Dukas) on Mumias Road, north of the Gulf. It was demolished in the twenties when new plots became available on Odera and Ogada Streets in the present-day Kisumu, hence the new area acquired the name 'New Bazaar'. Winston Churchill visited Kisumu in 1907.


title: Kisumu

text: By the 1930s and 40s, the city had become a leading centre for commerce, administrative and military installations. In the 1960s the population of Asians in relation to locals was significantly higher. The town was elevated to the status of a municipal board in 1940 and later to a municipal mouncil in 1960. In the early sixties, very little development took place in Kisumu, with an acute shortage in housing, shops and offices. The situation was made worse by the influx of locals into the town following the declaration of independence in 1963.


title: Kisumu

text: The city's growth and prosperity slowed down temporarily in 1977, as a result of the collapse of the East African Community. However, the city spurred with the reformation of the community in 1996 and with its designation as a "city." The port has been stimulated by the transformation of international business and trade, as well as the shipments of goods destined for Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo.


title: Kisumu

text: Currently, Kisumu is one of the fastest-growing cities in Kenya. It is thriving with the sugar and rice irrigation industries, whose contribution to the national economy is immense due to its natural resources and as the epicentre for business in Kenya.


title: Kisumu

text: English is one of two official languages of Kenya, the other being Kiswahili. Most people in Kisumu are trilingual and are also fluent in Dholuo, the local language of the Luo, Kenya's fourth-largest ethnic group to which 90% of Kisumu residents belong. Due to its growth since the advent of devolution, there has been a recent increase in other local ethnic groups within the city.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu features a tropical rainforest climate with no true dry season and significant rainfall year-round. January is the driest month while the month of April receives the most rainfall. The average temperature is 22.9° Celsius.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu has highly fertile land and variations in temperature and rainfall with two rainy seasons per year across the region provide a suitable environment for a broad range of agricultural crops. The Kisumu region has approximately 1.6 million hectares of agricultural land. However, it is estimated that only 58 percent of the land is currently used. The majority of farming in the lake basin region is subsistence agriculture, leading to relatively low production volumes. Current crop yields are considered to be significantly lower than the potential afforded by soil and climate conditions. Current low land utilisation and yields are driven by the lack of guaranteed markets and associated support services. Like agriculture, livestock farming is currently performed primarily on a subsistence basis. Cattle are predominantly indigenous breeds with lower milk output than grade cattle.


title: Kisumu

text: The Kenyan part of Lake Victoria covers approximately 400000 hectares (4,100 square kilometres), with of lake shoreline; most of this shoreline is under-used.


title: Kisumu

text: Attractions in the city include Kibuye Market, Oile Market, the Kisumu Museum, an impala sanctuary, a bird sanctuary, Hippo Point, shopping malls and the nearby Kit Mikaye and Ndere Island National Park. Although Kisumu has modernized over the years, it still maintains that old town feel, especially on the outskirts and the culture is still very ingrained.


title: Kisumu

text: On the main street of Kisumu city, Oginga Odinga Road, a tall town clock stands in the middle of the road. It was unveiled on 19 August 1938 by the then Governor of Kenya Sir Robert Brooke-Popham. The town clock was built in memory of Kassim Lakha, who arrived in East Africa in 1871 and died in Kampala in 1910. It was erected by his sons Mohamed, Alibhai, Hassan and Rahimtulla Kassim, as the inscription on the Town Clock reads.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu Museum, established in 1980, has a series of outdoor pavilions laid out in a formation similar to that of a Luo homestead. Some of the pavilions contain live animals. For example, one pavilion contains numerous aquaria with a wide variety of fish from Lake Victoria, along with explanatory posters. Another pavilion contains a terrarium containing mambas, spitting cobras, puff adders and other venomous Kenyan snakes. Outside, the museum has a few additional exhibits, including a snake pit and a crocodile container.


title: Kisumu

text: Other pavilions show weaponry, jewellery, farm tools and other artefacts made by the various peoples of Nyanza Province. Additionally, there are exhibits of stuffed animals, birds and fish. One pavilion houses the prehistoric TARA rock art, which was removed for its own protection to the museum after it was defaced by graffiti in its original location.


title: Kisumu

text: The museum's most important and largest exhibition is the UNESCO-sponsored Ber-gi-dala. This is a full-scale recreation of a traditional Luo homestead. Ber-gi-dala consists of the home, granaries and livestock corrals of an imaginary Luo man as well as the homes of each of his three wives and his eldest son. Through signs and taped programs in both Luo and English, the exhibition also explains the origins of the Luo people, their migration to western Kenya, traditional healing plants, and the process of establishing a new home.


title: Kisumu

text: Dunga Beach and Wetland is known for its unique eco-cultural attractions due to its biodiversity and cultural rich and diverse papyrus wetland ecosystem and local community respectively. Ecofinder Kenya has established Dunga Wetland Pedagogical Centre at Dunga Beach, a grass-roots led intervention whose cardinal goal is the empowerment of the Dunga Wetland Community and improvement of the livelihood security of its people. Therefore, some of the main focuses in the centre are promoting eco-cultural tourism and facilitating the conservation of the Dunga Papyrus Wetland Ecosystem.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu is the location of the . During British rule, the Impala Park sanctuary was called Connaught Parade. Measuring just , the sanctuary is one of Kenya's smallest wildlife preserves. As its name suggests, it is home to a herd of impala, some hippos, and many reptiles and birds. Additionally, several baboons (monkeys) and leopards who faced difficulties in the wild are housed in cages. Over 115 different species of birds live there.


title: Kisumu

text: Hippo Point is a viewing area on Lake Victoria. Despite its name, it is better known as a viewing point for its unobstructed sunsets over the lake than for its occasional hippos. Hippo Point is located near the village of Dunga, a few kilometres southwest of the city. The village also has a fishing port and a camping site.


title: Kisumu

text: Kit Mikayi, a large rock with three rocks on top, is located off Kisumu Bondo Road towards Bondo. Kit-mikayi means "Stones of the first wife" or "First Wife Rocks" in Dholuo, the Luo language. It is a weeping rock; it is believed that Mikayi (literally, "the first wife") went up the hill to the stones when her husband took a second wife and has been weeping ever since. It has become a local pilgrimage site for adherents of the Legio Maria sect who come to the rock to pray and fast for several weeks at a time.


title: Kisumu

text: Ndere Island is a small island in the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria. It was gazetted as the Ndere Island National Reserve in November 1986 and has since been uninhabited. It has great sweeping views over the lake with a serene and tranquil environment compared to the mainland.


title: Kisumu

text: Peter Anyang' Nyong'o, the governor and father of Hollywood star Lupita Nyong'o, announced that the county will build a brand new stadium. At the same time, the country's current government has plans to build a national stadium. As of 2018, neither plan has materialized.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu is represented in the nationwide rugby league by Kisumu RFC. The city is also host to a leg of the national rugby sevens circuit, one of only six city hosts. The Kisumu leg is referred to as the Dala sevens and the annual tournament attracts thousands of fans from across the country.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu is represented in the Kenya Basketball Federation League by Kisumu Lakeside which plays its home games at Jomo Kenyatta Sports Grounds.


title: Kisumu

text: Before the jet airline era, Kisumu was a landing point on the British flying boat passenger and mail route from Southampton to Cape Town. Kisumu linked Port Bell and Nairobi.


title: Kisumu

text: Kisumu is served by Kisumu International Airport which has international status, with regular daily flights to Nairobi and Mombasa. Expansion of the airport cargo facility after completion of the passenger terminals is currently going on in anticipation of increased trade brought about by the recreated East African Community of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.


title: Kisumu

text: Lake Victoria ferries have operated from the port linking the railway to Mwanza and Bukoba in Tanzania, and to Entebbe, Port Bell, and Jinja in Uganda. The first steamships built in Kisumu in 1905 were the SS Sybilla and the SS Nyanza.


title: Kisumu

text: Until 2013 passenger trains operate between Nairobi and Kisumu using the revamped meter gauge rail run by the defunct Rift Valley Railways .


title: Kisumu

text: A standard gauge railway from Nairobi to Naivasha was opened up to Suswa in 2019. A second section of should have brought the standard gauge to Kisumu, a new station and a port on Lake Victoria being planned. The plans not materialising due to lack of funding, a project to rebuild the metre gauge line from the Ugandan capital Kampala to the frontier and onwards to the existing Kenyan metre gauge railway past Kisumu found funding from the African Development Bank in 2022.


title: Kisumu

text: Former president Mwai Kibaki launched a Ksh. 6.8 billion road project for a major overhaul of Kisumu's road network on 24 July 2009.


title: Kisumu

text: The city is connected to the cities of Nakuru, Nairobi and Mombasa via the A104 highway and to the city of Eldoret via the B1 highway.


title: Kisumu

text: A Lake Victoria ring road along the shores of the lake is currently under construction and will pass by the city.


title: Kisumu

text: During World War II, three aircraft operated by the South African Air Force crashed into Lake Victoria soon after take-off from Kisumu Airport. The first, a Lockheed Lodestar aircraft number "K"-248 (ex ZS-ATK) carrying a senior South African military officer, Major General Dan Pienaar, crashed on 19 December 1942, killing all 12 persons on board. The other two crashes involved Douglas C-47 planes; the first on 11 May 1945 (one fatality) and the second exactly three months later, on 11 July 1945 (28 fatalities). The bodies from the two earlier accidents were repatriated to South Africa, those from the third accident are buried in the Kisumu war-graves cemetery. The cause of the accidents is currently thought to have been the katabatic wind condition which often affects Kisumu in the early morning.


title: Kisumu

text: The first took place outside Kisumu on 15 August 2000. The brakes on the train failed, causing it to roll. Thirteen people were killed and 37 received injuries. The second took place on the morning of 16 October 2005, when a "matatu" (taxi minibus) was struck by a passenger train. Six people died and 23 more were injured.


title: Kisumu

text: After that there have been accidents in its major towns with notable black spots: "Ojola/Kisian", "Kisat bridge", "Ahero", "Sondu", "Awasi" just to mention a few.


title: Kisumu

text: Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kisumu (Catholic Church), Anglican Church of Kenya (Anglican Communion), Presbyterian Church of East Africa (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Baptist Convention of Kenya (Baptist World Alliance), Assemblies of God. There are also Muslim mosques and a Hindu temple.


title: Kisumu

text: The term used to refer to a native of Kisumu is "jakisumo" (plural, "jokisumo"). Notable "jokisumo" include


title: Unisex

text: Unisex is an adjective indicating something is not sex-specific, i.e. is suitable for any type of sex. The term can also mean gender-blindness or gender neutrality.


title: Unisex

text: The term 'unisex' was coined as a neologism in the 1960s and was used fairly informally. The combining prefix "uni-" is from Latin "unus", meaning "one" or "single". However, 'unisex' seems to have been influenced by words such as "united" and "universal", in which "uni-" takes the related sense "shared". Unisex then means "shared by sexes".


title: Unisex

text: Hair stylists and beauty salons that serve both men and women are often referred to as unisex. This is also typical of other services and products that had traditionally been separated by sexes, such as clothing shops or beauty products. Public toilets are commonly sex segregated but if that is not the case, they are referred to as unisex public toilets. Unisex clothing includes garments like T-shirts; versions of other garments may be tailored for the different fits depending on one's sex, such as jeans. The sharing of a pool or recreational facility by swimmers and others of various sexes is commonly referred to as mixed bathing. When a school admits students of various sexes, it may be called coeducational or a mixed-sex school.


title: Pendragon

text: Pendragon or (, "pen[n] dragon"; composed of Welsh , 'head, chief, top' and / "dragon", 'dragon; warrior'; borrowed from the Latin word , plural , 'dragon[s]', ) literally means 'chief dragon' or 'head dragon', but in a figurative sense: 'chief leader', 'chief of warriors', 'commander-in-chief', , or 'chief governor'). It is the epithet of Uther, father of King Arthur in medieval and modern Arthurian literature and occasionally applied to historical Welsh heroes in medieval Welsh poetry, such as Rhodri ab Owain Gwynedd.


title: Pendragon

text: In the , one of the earliest texts of the Arthurian legend, only Uther is given the surname "Pendragon", which is explained by the author Geoffrey of Monmouth as literally meaning "dragon's head".


title: Pendragon

text: In the prose version of Robert de Boron's "Merlin", the name of Uther's elder brother Ambrosius is given as "Pendragon", while Uter (Uther) changes his name after his brother's death to "Uterpendragon".


title: Pendragon

text: The use of "Pendragon" to refer to Arthur, rather than to Uther or his brother, is of much more recent vintage. In literature, one of its earliest uses to refer to Arthur is in Alfred Tennyson's poem "Lancelot and Elaine", where, however, it appears as Arthur's title rather than his surname, following contemporary speculation that "pendragon" had been a term for an ancient Welsh war-chief. In C. S. Lewis's 1945 novel "That Hideous Strength", the Pendragon leads a national moral struggle through the centuries; bearers of the title include Cassibelaun, Uther, Arthur, and Elwin Ransom.


title: Pendragon

text: Mark Twain in "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court" makes various satirical and scathing remarks about "The Pendragon Dynasty" which are in fact aimed at ridiculing much later British dynasties.


title: Pendragon

text: The story of "The Pendragon Legend" by Antal Szerb revolves around a Welsh noble family called Pendragon.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj (, ; ) is a town on the southern coast of Montenegro and the capital of Ulcinj Municipality. It has an urban population of 10,707 (2011), the majority being Albanians.


title: Ulcinj

text: As one of the oldest settlements in the Adriatic coast, it was founded in 5th century BC. It was captured by the Romans in 163 BC from the Illyrians. With the division of the Roman Empire, it became part of the Byzantine Empire. It was known as a base for piracy.


title: Ulcinj

text: During the Middle Ages it was under South Slavic rule for a few centuries. In 1405 it became part of the Republic of Venice.


title: Ulcinj

text: In 1571 Ulcinj was conquered by the Ottoman Empire with the aid of North African corsairs after the Battle of Lepanto. The town was renamed "Ülgün" and gradually became a Muslim-majority settlement. Under the Ottomans, numerous oriental-style hammams, mosques, and clock towers were built. Ulcinj remained a den of piracy until this was finally put to an end by Mehmed Pasha Bushati. In 1673, the self-proclaimed Jewish Messiah Sabbatai Zevi was exiled here from Istanbul.


title: Ulcinj

text: The Venetians attempted to capture the town twice, in 1696 and 1718, but were unsuccessful on both occasions.


title: Ulcinj

text: During the 19th century, the town began to regain its position as a flourishing port. The geographer Antonio Baldacci reported a merchant marine of 500 ships plying the trade routes between the Adriatic and Mediterranean coasts.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj remained an Ottoman town for more than 300 years until it was ceded to the Principality of Montenegro in 1878. It is a former medieval Catholic bishopric and remains a Latin titular see.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj is a destination for tourists, because of its Long Beach, Lake Šas, Ada Bojana Island and for its two-millennia-old Ulcinj Castle. There are 26 mosques in the town and surrounding countryside. Ulcinj is the centre of the Albanian community in Montenegro.


title: Ulcinj

text: Early historian Livy (59 BC–AD 17) mentioned it, as did Pliny the Elder (23–79), who mentioned it as "Olcinium", its old name "Colchinium", "founded by [settlers from] Colchis" (Olchinium quod antea Colchinium dictum est a Colchis conditum). Ptolemy (90–168) mentions the city as Greek "Oulkinion" (Ουλκίνιον). Although the ancient writers preferred a connection with Cholchis, the name of the settlement appears to be connected with the Albanian word "ujk" or "ulk" (meaning wolf in English), from Proto-Albanian "*(w)ulka", from Proto-Indo-European "*wĺ̥kʷos". In modern Albanian, it is known as "Ulqin". The name, through Late (Vulgar) Roman, became Middle Latin Ulcinium, (), and "Dolchin", modern Italian "Dulcigno" Slavic: "Ulcinj", Old Serbian: Льцин, Ульцин and .


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj is an ancient seaport. The wider area of Ulcinj has been inhabited since the Bronze Age, based on dating of Illyrian tombs (tumuli) found in the village of Zogaj, in the vicinity of Ulcinj. The town is believed to have been founded in the 5th century BC by colonists from Colchis, as mentioned in the 3rd century BC poem by Apollonius of Rhodes. Illyrians lived in the region at the time as there are traces of immense Cyclopean walls still visible in the old Citadel.


title: Ulcinj

text: All the way in the pre-medieval period, Ulcinj was known as one of the pirate capitals of the Adriatic Sea. This is also seen during the later period of Illyrian Kingdom. Inhabitants of Ulcinj were known before time of Christ, especially from 20 BC to around 300 AD, to be very confrontational to those who were foreigners to their land; they were especially meticulous about border disputes as well.


title: Ulcinj

text: In 168 BC, during the Third Illyrian War, Olcinium broke with Gentius and defected to the Romans (Livy 45:26:2). Under Roman rule the town received the status of "oppidum civium Romanorum" (settlement of Roman citizens), only to be later granted "municipium" (independent town) status. A section of their re-fortification can be distinguished from the Illyrio-Greek by the rustication of the walls.


title: Ulcinj

text: The "Periplus Maris Erythraei" names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed in an easterly direction to "Khruse" (Kruče - seaside village in Ulcinj).


title: Ulcinj

text: After the division of the Roman Empire, Ulcinj became a part of the Byzantine province of Prevalis and the population converted to Christianity. From Medieval times, and quiet likely earlier, it was regarded as an important trading and maritime center and still maintained the status of city autonomy. From circa 820, the city was the see of a Diocese of Ulcinj, which was only suppressed in 1532, and would be revived as a Latin titular bishopric.


title: Ulcinj

text: In the 9th century, it was in the Dyrrhachium theme, a military governorate of the Byzantine Empire. In 1010, "Tsar" Samuel of Bulgaria (r. 997-1014†) failed to conquer the town during the war against the Byzantines.


title: Ulcinj

text: By 1040, "archon" Stefan Vojislav of Duklja conquered the region. In 1183, Serbian Prince Stefan Nemanja conquered Olcinium and the town prospered as one of the most significant coastal towns. Ulcinj remained in Nemanjić hands in their Kingdom and Empire, and after the death of Emperor Dušan (r. 1331-1355†), the region, known as "Lower Zeta", was under the supervision of "gospodin" Žarko, a "voivode" of Emperor Uroš the Weak until his death in 1360. Žarko's lands were then held by the Balšić family. Under Balšić control, Ulcinj continued to be an important town and also minted coins. The Balšić Tower in the upper part of the Old Town was built by the Balšić noble family in the late 14th century.


title: Ulcinj

text: In 1405 the Venetians conquered the town. Under Venetian control, the city was renamed "Dulcigno" in Italian, and it was incorporated in the Albania Veneta. The Venetians maintained control until 1571, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Dulcigno with the help of Barbary pirates, who didn't leave the town after conquering. It was renamed Ülgün and remained within the Ottoman domain for over 300 years, during which time its far-reaching reputation as a lair of pirates was established.According to historian Luigi Paulucci at the time of the Venetians the town was half Albanian, a quarter Venetian and one quarter Slavic.


title: Ulcinj

text: In the 17th century a self-proclaimed Jewish Messiah named Sabbatai Zevi caused turmoil throughout the Turkish Empire with his evangelizing, which attracted thousands of followers. He was eventually captured and exiled to Ulcinj in 1666, where he died quietly ten years later. He was buried in the courtyard of a Muslim house which is still preserved as a mausoleum; along with two Jewish altars in the Balšic Tower.


title: Ulcinj

text: In 1867, Ulcinj became a kaza of the İşkodra sanjak of Rumeli veyalet. After the Congress of Berlin in 1878, borders between Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire were redrawn, with Plav and Gusinje being ceded to Montenegro. But Muslim Albanian resistance prevented the Montenegrins from taking over Plav and Gusinje, so the Great Powers in 1880 decided to reverse the territorial transfer and offered Ulcinj to Montenegro as compensation.


title: Ulcinj

text: After the city's annexation to Montenegro, of its 8,000-strong population about 3,000 Albanians left and settled elsewhere in northern Albania. 142 Montenegrin families were brought to settle in the outskirts of Ulcinj in the 1880s. The population of Ulcinj steadily decreased until the post-WWII period.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj became a part of the Kingdom of Montenegro from 1878 until 1918 when Montenegro was absorbed into the Kingdom of Serbia for a short time before all would be incorporated into the first of the Yugoslav federations at the end of the year. Ulcinj remained within a Montenegrin entity whilst a South Slavic state had existed until 2006 when which it became part of an independent Montenegro following a referendum.


title: Ulcinj

text: During the 20th century, Ulcinj survived heavy declines and new ascents. Ulcinj was the second biggest town of Montenegro when it joined the kingdom in 1880. In just three decades, it backslided to 6th place for economic development and number of inhabitants (after Podgorica, Niksic, Cetinje, Tivar and Plava). During World War I Ulcinj was conquered by Austria-Hungary in 1916 and Italy on November 4, 1918, and since 1920 it was part of the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian Kingdom, later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.


title: Ulcinj

text: As the southernmost city of the coast of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Ulcinj had a strong turnaround in the 1930s with the development of the tourist industry. At that time hotels were built such as Krištja, Republic, Jadran and Koop (later Galeb).


title: Ulcinj

text: World War II halted economic momentum. From 1941 to 1944, Ulcinj was under the Albanian administration. On November 7, 1943, Ulcinj was bombarded by Allied forces, with over 46 people killed and many more injured. The Yugoslav Partisans took Ulcinj on November 26, 1944, and the city become part of Socialist Yugoslavia.


title: Ulcinj

text: The 1950s and 1960s marked the greatest period of economic development for Ulcinj, with the construction of a range of modern hotels in the city and the Great Plain, as well as major economic collectives (NHT "Riviera of Ulcinj", "Agroulqini", Primary Building Company, "Otrantkomerc", "Ultep" and others). In the catastrophic earthquake on April 15, 1979, the city was severely damaged, but after only a few years, with the solidarity of the citizens of entire Yugoslavia, it was quickly renovated. Ulcinj at the end of the eighties had about 40 percent of the tourist turnover in Montenegro, while two-thirds of the guests were foreign, mostly German.


title: Ulcinj

text: During the Kosovo War, in 1998 and 1999, thousands of Kosovo Albanians flocked to Ulcinj and its surroundings, where they were welcomed in the best possible conditions by the ethnic Albanian population of Ulcinj and the surrounding area.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj is the administrative centre of Ulcinj Municipality, which has a population of 19,921. The town of Ulcinj itself has a population of 10,707. Ulcinj Municipality is the centre of the Albanian community in Montenegro. It is one of two municipalities in Montenegro where Albanians form the majority with 70%, the other being Tuzi with a 68% majority.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj is a tourist destination in summer. In January 2010, the New York Times named ranked the south coast region of Montenegro, featuring Velika Plaza, Ada Bojana, and the Hotel Mediteran, as one of "The Top 31 Places to Go in 2010".


title: Ulcinj

text: Although Ulcinj is still undiscovered by many travelers from larger countries, repeat tourists and an increasing amount of first-time visitors make it a hot spot for vacationers between the months of May and September. It is most famous for its sandy beaches. The most valuable resource of the Ulcinj riviera is Velika plaža (Albanian: Plazha e Madhe; English: Long Beach), which is a long stretch of sandy beach and the longest beach on the Montenegrin coast. There is a small pebble beach called Ladies Beach which folk tradition holds to have qualities conducive to fertility.


title: Ulcinj

text: There is also a beach called "Mala Plaža" (Albanian: Plazhi i Vogël; English: Small Beach) which is much smaller in size, but is located in the centre of town and very popular with visitors. "The Korzo", as it is called by locals, is a promenade which separates a street lined with coffee shops from Mala plaža. At night during the summer months, the Korzo is pedestrianised and families and young people gather. There are many more less known smaller beaches that serve as get-aways from the main tourist areas. Ulcinj has also a large number of religious buildings like mosques, türbes and churches, including Pasha's Mosque, Sailors' Mosque and St. Nicholas' Church.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj's old town is a well preserved castle-looking community that is left over from medieval times. The old town sits atop a mountain overlooking the shore and is a tourist attraction on its own. Ada Bojana (Albanian: "Buna") is popular among foreign tourists from Western Europe for its peace and atmosphere. A large naturist campsite is located in Ada Bojana. Lake Šas and Ulcinj's salt pond are visited by birdwatchers, because Ulcinj and its surroundings are major resting points for over 200 bird species on their migration paths. There are numerous cafés, discos, and bars that dot the city that are usually filled to capacity throughout the summer. The majority of tourists that visit Ulcinj are Albanians, Serbians, Croatians, Bosnians, Slovenians, Macedonians, Russians, Ukrainians, and other Europeans.


title: Ulcinj

text: The Ulcinj "south coast" region is well known for its active sports, recreation possibilities and hunting . Kitesurfing at Ada Bojana, all manner of water sports at Velika plaža, scuba diving among wrecks and sunken cities, mountain biking, hiking, orienteering, cycling through the olive groves at Valdanos, long walks along the pristine beaches of the south coast of Montenegro, even deep sea fishing on the Adriatic, lake fishing at Lake Skadar, and river fishing in Ada Bojana, Due to the fact that the favorable habitat for wild life, has excellent conditions of hunting tourism. This place is the haven of ornithological (gourmand) hunting in Reč and Shenkol most common wildlife are woodcock, Hare, Wild boar, and ducks.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj has a borderline humid subtropical ("Cfa") and Mediterranean climate ("Csa") in the Köppen climate classification, since only one summer month has less than of rainfall, preventing it from being classified as solely humid subtropical or Mediterranean. Winters are cool and very rainy, and summers are hot and humid with possible afternoon thunder showers. Unlike Podgorica which is located inland, temperatures rarely exceed and seldom drop below .


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj is connected with the rest of Montenegro by a two-lane highway. It is connected with other coastal towns by the Adriatic Motorway. Reaching inland is made possible by detouring from the Adriatic Motorway at Budva or Sutomore (through the Sozina tunnel).


title: Ulcinj

text: As of today, there are no airports in the city of Ulcinj. However, nearby airports in Tivat and Podgorica are both around away. There are regular flights to Belgrade and Zürich from Tivat. Podgorica Airport has regular flights to major Europe and destinations throughout the year. Many tourists traveling to Ulcinj from abroad arrive to the city from the airport in Tivat due to its recent renovations and general ease of navigation. There are also intercity buses that connect to other towns in the country and buses that go to Serbia, Albania, Northern Macedonia, Greece, and Germany (during tourist seasons) as well Flex bus operates in this area connecting to Bana Luka (Bosnia) and Dubrovnik.


title: Ulcinj

text: Ulcinj is a founding member of the Union of Albanian Municipalities in the Region. Ulcinj is twinned with:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: In quantum physics, a measurement is the testing or manipulation of a physical system to yield a numerical result. The predictions that quantum physics makes are in general probabilistic. The mathematical tools for making predictions about what measurement outcomes may occur were developed during the 20th century and make use of linear algebra and functional analysis.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: Quantum physics has proven to be an empirical success and to have wide-ranging applicability. However, on a more philosophical level, debates continue about the meaning of the measurement concept.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: In quantum mechanics, each physical system is associated with a Hilbert space, each element of which represents a possible state of the physical system. The approach codified by John von Neumann represents a measurement upon a physical system by a self-adjoint operator on that Hilbert space termed an "observable". These observables play the role of measurable quantities familiar from classical physics: position, momentum, energy, angular momentum and so on. The dimension of the Hilbert space may be infinite, as it is for the space of square-integrable functions on a line, which is used to define the quantum physics of a continuous degree of freedom. Alternatively, the Hilbert space may be finite-dimensional, as occurs for spin degrees of freedom. Many treatments of the theory focus on the finite-dimensional case, as the mathematics involved is somewhat less demanding. Indeed, introductory physics texts on quantum mechanics often gloss over mathematical technicalities that arise for continuous-valued observables and infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces, such as the distinction between bounded and unbounded operators; questions of convergence (whether the limit of a sequence of Hilbert-space elements also belongs to the Hilbert space), exotic possibilities for sets of eigenvalues, like Cantor sets; and so forth. These issues can be satisfactorily resolved using spectral theory; the present article will avoid them whenever possible.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: The eigenvectors of a von Neumann observable form an orthonormal basis for the Hilbert space, and each possible outcome of that measurement corresponds to one of the vectors comprising the basis. A density operator is a positive-semidefinite operator on the Hilbert space whose trace is equal to 1. For each measurement that can be defined, the probability distribution over the outcomes of that measurement can be computed from the density operator. The procedure for doing so is the Born rule, which states that


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: where formula_2 is the density operator, and formula_3 is the projection operator onto the basis vector corresponding to the measurement outcome formula_4. The average of the eigenvalues of a von Neumann observable, weighted by the Born-rule probabilities, is the expectation value of that observable. For an observable formula_5, the expectation value given a quantum state formula_2 is


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: A density operator that is a rank-1 projection is known as a "pure" quantum state, and all quantum states that are not pure are designated "mixed". Pure states are also known as "wavefunctions". Assigning a pure state to a quantum system implies certainty about the outcome of some measurement on that system (i.e., formula_8 for some outcome formula_9). Any mixed state can be written as a convex combination of pure states, though not in a unique way. The state space of a quantum system is the set of all states, pure and mixed, that can be assigned to it.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: The Born rule associates a probability with each unit vector in the Hilbert space, in such a way that these probabilities sum to 1 for any set of unit vectors comprising an orthonormal basis. Moreover, the probability associated with a unit vector is a function of the density operator and the unit vector, and not of additional information like a choice of basis for that vector to be embedded in. Gleason's theorem establishes the converse: all assignments of probabilities to unit vectors (or, equivalently, to the operators that project onto them) that satisfy these conditions take the form of applying the Born rule to some density operator.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: In functional analysis and quantum measurement theory, a positive-operator-valued measure (POVM) is a measure whose values are positive semi-definite operators on a Hilbert space. POVMs are a generalisation of projection-valued measures (PVMs) and, correspondingly, quantum measurements described by POVMs are a generalisation of quantum measurement described by PVMs. In rough analogy, a POVM is to a PVM what a mixed state is to a pure state. Mixed states are needed to specify the state of a subsystem of a larger system (see Schrödinger–HJW theorem); analogously, POVMs are necessary to describe the effect on a subsystem of a projective measurement performed on a larger system. POVMs are the most general kind of measurement in quantum mechanics, and can also be used in quantum field theory. They are extensively used in the field of quantum information.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: In the simplest case, of a POVM with a finite number of elements acting on a finite-dimensional Hilbert space, a POVM is a set of positive semi-definite matrices formula_10 on a Hilbert space formula_11 that sum to the identity matrix,


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: In quantum mechanics, the POVM element formula_13 is associated with the measurement outcome formula_14, such that the probability of obtaining it when making a measurement on the quantum state formula_2 is given by


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: where formula_17 is the trace operator. When the quantum state being measured is a pure state formula_18 this formula reduces to


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: A measurement upon a quantum system will generally bring about a change of the quantum state of that system. Writing a POVM does not provide the complete information necessary to describe this state-change process. To remedy this, further information is specified by decomposing each POVM element into a product:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: The Kraus operators formula_21, named for Karl Kraus, provide a specification of the state-change process. They are not necessarily self-adjoint, but the products formula_22 are. If upon performing the measurement the outcome formula_23 is obtained, then the initial state formula_2 is updated to


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: An important special case is the Lüders rule, named for Gerhart Lüders. If the POVM is itself a PVM, then the Kraus operators can be taken to be the projectors onto the eigenspaces of the von Neumann observable:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: If the initial state formula_2 is pure, and the projectors formula_3 have rank 1, they can be written as projectors onto the vectors formula_18 and formula_30, respectively. The formula simplifies thus to


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: This has historically been known as the "reduction of the wave packet" or the "collapse of the wavefunction". The pure state formula_30 implies a probability-one prediction for any von Neumann observable that has formula_30 as an eigenvector. Introductory texts on quantum theory often express this by saying that if a quantum measurement is repeated in quick succession, the same outcome will occur both times. This is an oversimplification, since the physical implementation of a quantum measurement may involve a process like the absorption of a photon; after the measurement, the photon does not exist to be measured again.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: We can define a linear, trace-preserving, completely positive map, by summing over all the possible post-measurement states of a POVM without the normalisation:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: It is an example of a quantum channel, and can be interpreted as expressing how a quantum state changes if a measurement is performed but the result of that measurement is lost.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: The prototypical example of a finite-dimensional Hilbert space is a qubit, a quantum system whose Hilbert space is 2-dimensional. A pure state for a qubit can be written as a linear combination of two orthogonal basis states formula_35 and formula_36 with complex coefficients:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: A measurement in the formula_38 basis will yield outcome formula_35 with probability formula_40 and outcome formula_36 with probability formula_42, so by normalization,


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: An arbitrary state for a qubit can be written as a linear combination of the Pauli matrices, which provide a basis for formula_44 self-adjoint matrices:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: POVM elements can be represented likewise, though the trace of a POVM element is not fixed to equal 1. The Pauli matrices are traceless and orthogonal to one another with respect to the Hilbert–Schmidt inner product, and so the coordinates formula_46 of the state formula_2 are the expectation values of the three von Neumann measurements defined by the Pauli matrices. If such a measurement is applied to a qubit, then by the Lüders rule, the state will update to the eigenvector of that Pauli matrix corresponding to the measurement outcome. The eigenvectors of formula_50 are the basis states formula_51 and formula_52, and a measurement of formula_50 is often called a measurement in the "computational basis." After a measurement in the computational basis, the outcome of a formula_54 or formula_55 measurement is maximally uncertain.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: A pair of qubits together form a system whose Hilbert space is 4-dimensional. One significant von Neumann measurement on this system is that defined by the Bell basis, a set of four maximally entangled states:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: A common and useful example of quantum mechanics applied to a continuous degree of freedom is the quantum harmonic oscillator. This system is defined by the Hamiltonian


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: expresses the probability that one state will pass a test for identifying a successful preparation of the other. The trace distance provides bounds on the fidelity via the Fuchs–van de Graaf inequalities:


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: Quantum circuits are a model for quantum computation in which a computation is a sequence of quantum gates followed by measurements. The gates are reversible transformations on a quantum mechanical analog of an "n"-bit register. This analogous structure is referred to as an "n"-qubit register. Measurements, drawn on a circuit diagram as stylized pointer dials, indicate where and how a result is obtained from the quantum computer after the steps of the computation are executed. Without loss of generality, one can work with the standard circuit model, in which the set of gates are single-qubit unitary transformations and controlled NOT gates on pairs of qubits, and all measurements are in the computational basis.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: Measurement-based quantum computation (MBQC) is a model of quantum computing in which the answer to a question is, informally speaking, created in the act of measuring the physical system that serves as the computer.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: Quantum state tomography is a process by which, given a set of data representing the results of quantum measurements, a quantum state consistent with those measurement results is computed. It is named by analogy with tomography, the reconstruction of three-dimensional images from slices taken through them, as in a CT scan. Tomography of quantum states can be extended to tomography of quantum channels and even of measurements.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: Quantum metrology is the use of quantum physics to aid the measurement of quantities that, generally, had meaning in classical physics, such as exploiting quantum effects to increase the precision with which a length can be measured. A celebrated example is the introduction of squeezed light into the LIGO experiment, which increased its sensitivity to gravitational waves.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: The range of physical procedures to which the mathematics of quantum measurement can be applied is very broad. In the early years of the subject, laboratory procedures involved the recording of spectral lines, the darkening of photographic film, the observation of scintillations, finding tracks in cloud chambers, and hearing clicks from Geiger counters. Language from this era persists, such as the description of measurement outcomes in the abstract as "detector clicks".


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: The double-slit experiment is a prototypical illustration of quantum interference, typically described using electrons or photons. The first interference experiment to be carried out in a regime where both wave-like and particle-like aspects of photon behavior are significant was G. I. Taylor's test in 1909. Taylor used screens of smoked glass to attenuate the light passing through his apparatus, to the extent that, in modern language, only one photon would be illuminating the interferometer slits at a time. He recorded the interference patterns on photographic plates; for the dimmest light, the exposure time required was roughly three months. In 1974, the Italian physicists Pier Giorgio Merli, Gian Franco Missiroli, and Giulio Pozzi implemented the double-slit experiment using single electrons and a television tube. A quarter-century later, a team at the University of Vienna performed an interference experiment with buckyballs, in which the buckyballs that passed through the interferometer were ionized by a laser, and the ions then induced the emission of electrons, emissions which were in turn amplified and detected by an electron multiplier.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: Modern quantum optics experiments can employ single-photon detectors. For example, in the "BIG Bell test" of 2018, several of the laboratory setups used single-photon avalanche diodes. Another laboratory setup used superconducting qubits. The standard method for performing measurements upon superconducting qubits is to couple a qubit with a resonator in such a way that the characteristic frequency of the resonator shifts according to the state for the qubit, and detecting this shift by observing how the resonator reacts to a probe signal.


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: Despite the consensus among scientists that quantum physics is in practice a successful theory, disagreements persist on a more philosophical level. Many debates in the area known as quantum foundations concern the role of measurement in quantum mechanics. Recurring questions include which interpretation of probability theory is best suited for the probabilities calculated from the Born rule; and whether the apparent randomness of quantum measurement outcomes is fundamental, or a consequence of a deeper deterministic process. Worldviews that present answers to questions like these are known as "interpretations" of quantum mechanics; as the physicist N. David Mermin once quipped, "New interpretations appear every year. None ever disappear."


title: Measurement in quantum mechanics

text: A central concern within quantum foundations is the "quantum measurement problem," though how this problem is delimited, and whether it should be counted as one question or multiple separate issues, are contested topics. Of primary interest is the seeming disparity between apparently distinct types of time evolution. Von Neumann declared that quantum mechanics contains "two fundamentally different types" of quantum-state change. First, there are those changes involving a measurement process, and second, there is unitary time evolution in the absence of measurement. The former is stochastic and discontinuous, writes von Neumann, and the latter deterministic and continuous. This dichotomy has set the tone for much later debate. Some interpretations of quantum mechanics find the reliance upon two different types of time evolution distasteful and regard the ambiguity of when to invoke one or the other as a deficiency of the way quantum theory was historically presented. To bolster these interpretations, their proponents have worked to derive ways of regarding "measurement" as a secondary concept and deducing the seemingly stochastic effect of measurement processes as approximations to more fundamental deterministic dynamics. However, consensus has not been achieved among proponents of the correct way to implement this program, and in particular how to justify the use of the Born rule to calculate probabilities. Other interpretations regard quantum states as statistical information about quantum systems, thus asserting that abrupt and discontinuous changes of quantum states are not problematic, simply reflecting updates of the available information. Of this line of thought, Bell asked, ""Whose" information? Information about "what"?" Answers to these questions vary among proponents of the informationally-oriented interpretations.


The Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK; , "Roathaphibal Chamroh Kampuchea Pracheathipatai"), renamed in 1990 to the National Government of Cambodia (NGC; , "Roathaphibal Cheat Ney Kampuchea"), was a coalition government in exile composed of three Cambodian political factions, namely Prince Norodom Sihanouk's FUNCINPEC party, the Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK; often referred to as the Khmer Rouge) and the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) formed in 1982, broadening the "de facto" deposed Democratic Kampuchea regime. For most of its existence, it was the internationally recognized government of Cambodia.


title: Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea

text: The signing ceremony of the coalition took place in Kuala Lumpur on 22 June 1982. The president of the coalition was Prince Norodom Sihanouk, the prime minister was the KPNLF leader Son Sann and the foreign secretary was PDK leader Khieu Samphan.


text: The CGDK was allowed to retain the Cambodian/Kampuchean seat in the United Nations on the premise that it was a legitimate Cambodian government in contrast to the pro-Vietnamese/pro-Soviet People's Republic of Kampuchea regime. The Western states had previously opposed proposals by the Eastern Bloc countries to replace the Khmer Rouge-held seat of Cambodia by the representation of the Vietnamese-installed regime.


text: The United Nations General Assembly voted on the proposed ouster of Democratic Kampuchea: 91 rejected the proposal, there were 29 countries in favour and 26 abstentions. In contrast, the results in 1981 had been 77–37–31. The CGDK was also recognised by North Korea, whose leader, Kim Il-Sung had offered Sihanouk sanctuary with China. During a meeting in Pyongyang between Kim Il-sung and Sihanouk on 10 April 1986, Kim Il-Sung reassured Sihanouk that North Korea would continue to regard him as the legitimate head of state of Cambodia.


text: After the Khmer Rouge regime was overthrown, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping was unhappy with Vietnam's influence over the PRK government. Deng proposed to Sihanouk that he co-operate with the Khmer Rouge to overthrow the PRK government, but Sihanouk rejected it, as he opposed the genocidal policies pursued by the Khmer Rouge while they were in power. In March 1981, Sihanouk established a resistance movement, FUNCINPEC, which was complemented by a small resistance army known as (ANS). He appointed In Tam, who had briefly served as prime minister in the Khmer Republic, as the commander-in-chief of ANS.


text: The ANS needed military aid from China, and Deng seized the opportunity to sway Sihanouk into collaborating with the Khmer Rouge. Sihanouk reluctantly agreed, and started talks in March 1981 with the Khmer Rouge and the Son Sann-led KPNLF on a unified anti-PRK resistance movement. After several rounds of negotiations mediated by Deng and Singapore's prime minister Lee Kuan Yew, FUNCINPEC, KPNLF, and the Khmer Rouge agreed to form the CGDK in June 1982. The CGDK was headed by Sihanouk, and functioned as a government-in-exile.


text: Prior to the formation of the CGDK political coalition, in the late 1980s and early 1990s the Sonn Sann and Sihanouk opposition forces, then known as the KPNLF and FUNCINPEC, drew some military and financial support from the United States, which sought to assist these two movements as part of the Reagan Doctrine effort to counter Soviet and Vietnamese involvement in Cambodia. In 1984 and 1985, the Vietnamese army's offensives severely weakened the CGDK troops' positions, in effect eliminating the two non-communist factions as military players, leaving the Khmer Rouge as the sole military force of importance of the CGDK.


text: One of the Reagan Doctrine's principal architects, The Heritage Foundation's Michael Johns, visited with Sonn Sann and Sihanouk forces in Cambodia in 1987 and returned to Washington urging expanded United States support for the KPNLF and the Sihanouk resistance forces as a third alternative to both the Vietnamese-installed and supported Cambodian government and the Khmer Rouge, which also was resisting the government.


text: Although the PDK was for the most part isolated from diplomacy, their National Army of Democratic Kampuchea were the largest and most effective armed forces of the CGDK. In 1987, Prince Sihanouk proceeded to take a leave of absence from his position as the president of the CGDK, a move that raised the hopes of Hanoi and Moscow that he would depart the coalition.


text: In 1990, in the run up to the United Nations sponsored Paris Peace Agreement of 1991 the CGDK renamed itself the National Government of Cambodia. It was dissolved in 1993, a year which saw the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia turn power over to the restored Kingdom of Cambodia. In July 1994, the Khmer Rouge would form an internationally unrecognised rival government known as the Provisional Government of National Union and National Salvation of Cambodia.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: The Pope Lick Monster (more commonly, colloquially, the Goat Man) is a legendary part-man, part-goat and part-sheep creature reported to live beneath a railroad trestle bridge over Pope Lick Creek, in the Fisherville neighborhood of Louisville, Kentucky, United States.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: Numerous urban legends exist about the creature's origins and the methods it employs to claim its victims. According to some accounts, the creature uses either hypnosis or voice mimicry to lure trespassers onto the trestle to meet their death before an oncoming train. Other stories claim the monster jumps down from the trestle onto the roofs of cars passing beneath it. Yet other legends tell that it attacks its victims with a blood-stained axe and that the very sight of the creature is so unsettling that those who see it while walking across the high trestle are driven to leap off.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: Other legends hold that the monster is a human-goat hybrid, and that it was a circus freak who vowed revenge after being mistreated. In one version, it is said the monster escaped after a train derailed on the trestle. Another version commonly told by locals of the area claims that the monster is really the twisted reincarnated form of a farmer who sacrificed goats in exchange for Satanic powers.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: The legends have turned the area into a site for legend tripping. There have been a number of deaths and accidents at the trestle since its construction, despite the presence of an fence to keep thrill-seekers out.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: There is a common misconception that the trestle is abandoned and no longer used; in reality, the bridge carries a major rail artery into Louisville. Heavy freight trains cross the bridge several times daily, so it is easy for someone to get caught atop it while an oncoming train barrels down on them. Norfolk Southern Railway urged citizens not to climb the trestle, saying if caught they would be arrested.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: The monster was the subject of a 1988 film by Louisville filmmaker Ron Schildknecht called "The Legend of the Pope Lick Monster". The 16-minute, $6,000 film premiered on December 29, 1988 at the Uptown Theater. Most of the film was shot at the Pope Lick Trestle, but scenes showing the characters up on the trestle were shot at another, safer location.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: Norfolk Southern Railway officials were very upset about the film, as they thought it would encourage teenagers to visit the trestles. They found one scene in particular dangerously misleading. In the scene, the main character, a high school student, narrowly escapes an approaching train by hanging off the side of the trestle. In reality, few people would have the strength to hang on for the 5 to 7 minutes it takes for a long train to clear the trestle; in addition, the vibrations from the train are so strong that the ground beneath the trestle shakes as the train passes.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: Because railroad officials were worried that the film would add to the death toll, Norfolk Southern issued a statement, read at the premiere, which warned of the trestle's dangers and informed the audience that anyone caught on the trestle could be prosecuted for trespassing.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: Several people have died on or near the train trestle at Pope Creek in pursuit of the Pope Lick Monster legend. On April 23, 2016, a 26-year-old tourist, Roquel Bain, from Ohio died after being hit by a train while searching for the monster. Her boyfriend survived by hanging on the side of the trestle.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: In 1988, a 17 year old young man, Jack “J.C.” Charles Bahm II, was hit and killed by a train and another young man was injured while trying to cross the trestle. In 1994, a man was killed by a train after his ATV overturned on the trestle, trapping him on the track. In 2000, a 19-year-old fell to his death after encountering a train.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: On May 26, 2019, Savanna Bright, 15, was pronounced dead at the scene after she and another teenage girl were on the train tracks near the Pope Lick trestle. Bright's unidentified companion was taken to University of Louisville Hospital.


title: Pope Lick Monster

text: The story of the monster was featured in an episode of Destination America's "Monsters and Mysteries in America" titled "Ozarks".


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Kappa Alpha Theta (), also known simply as Theta, is an international women’s fraternity founded on January 27, 1870, at DePauw University, formerly Indiana Asbury. It was the first Greek-letter fraternity established for women. The fraternity (the term "sorority" had not yet been invented) was founded by four female students, Bettie Locke Hamilton, Alice Allen Brant, Bettie Tipton Lindsey, and Hannah Fitch Shaw. The organization has 147 chapters at colleges and universities in the United States and Canada. The organization was the first women's fraternity to establish a chapter in Canada. Theta's total living initiated membership, as of 2020, was more than 250,000. There are more than 200 alumnae chapters and circles worldwide.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Kappa Alpha Theta is a member of the National Panhellenic Conference (NPC), an umbrella organization that encompasses 26 social sororities found throughout North America. The organization's own headquarters are located in Indianapolis, Indiana.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: The "Alpha chapter" of Kappa Alpha Theta was founded at Indiana Asbury College, now DePauw University, on January 27, 1870. The university began admitting women in 1867 after 30 years of a male-only student body. However, women were excluded from male-only clubs and societies. In response to the lack of women's organizations, the fraternity's founding members established the first Greek letter women's organization. The Founders were:


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Bettie Locke developed the idea for a Greek letter women's society through the encouragement of her father, a professor at Indiana Asbury and a member of Beta Theta Pi, and the members of Phi Gamma Delta (FIJI) at Indiana Asbury, which included her brother. Initially, the collegiate men of FIJI offered Locke their badge as a token of their friendship, but voted against initiating her as a member. Locke refused to wear the badge as she did not know the secrets and purposes the badge represented, since she was unable to become a member. Ultimately, the fraternity gifted her a symbolic silver fruit basket instead to represent their relationship and fondness for her.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Upon discovering that there were no Greek letter fraternities for women in existence (only literary societies for women existed at the time), Locke decided to create her own Greek letter fraternity for women. Kappa Alpha Theta's ritual, organizational structure, badge, and coat of arms were influenced by those of Beta Theta Pi and Phi Gamma Delta due to her familial connections. Locke and her friend Alice Allen wrote a constitution, planned rituals, designed a badge, and sought out women on campus to become members. Along with Hannah Fitch and Bettie Tipton, the first initiation was held in secret on January 27, 1870, establishing the "Alpha chapter" of Kappa Alpha Theta.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: In 1887, Theta became an international organization with the establishment of the "Sigma chapter" at The University of Toronto. This became the first Canadian women's fraternity.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: G. William Domhoff, writing in "Who Rules America?", listed Kappa Alpha Theta as one of "the four or five sororities with nationwide prestige" in the mid-1960s.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Kappa Alpha Theta's colors are black and gold. The official symbols are both the kite and twin stars, while the official flower is the black and gold pansy. The fraternity does not recognize an official stone.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Theta's Grand Convention voted to establish a magazine in 1885 and to place its editorship with "Kappa chapter" at Kansas. In the intervening years, Kappa Alpha Theta's magazine has undergone a change of title (from "The Journal" to "The Kappa Alpha Theta Magazine"), and a change of publication schedule (from monthly to quarterly). Today, "The Kappa Alpha Theta Magazine" is published in April, June, September, and December of each year.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Kappa Alpha Theta has more than 143 active college chapters and more than 212 alumnae chapters across the United States and Canada. Alumnae chapters are alumnae groups that have been granted charters from Grand Council. The following is a list of the chapters of Kappa Alpha Theta: Active chapters and colonies listed in bold, inactive chapters listed in "italics".


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: Some notable alumni of Kappa Alpha Theta include Laura Bush, Barbara Bush, Jenna Bush, Tory Burch, Melinda French Gates


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: , Amy Holmes, Sheryl Crow, Gretchen Whitmer, Kerri Strug, Rue McClanahan, Amy Grant, and Jennifer Cook O'Toole. Laura Bush was a member of the "Beta Sigma chapter" at Southern Methodist University. Her daughters Barbara and Jenna Bush were members at Yale University and University at Texas at Austin, respectively. Tory Burch, an American fashion designer, businesswoman, and philanthropist was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta at the University of Pennsylvania. Amy Holmes, an American journalist and political commentator was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta at Princeton University. Sheryl Crow was a member at the University of Missouri. Gretchen Whitmer, Governor of Michigan, was a Theta at Michigan State University. Amy Grant, a famous American singer, was a member of the "Alpha Eta chapter" at Vanderbilt University.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: The Kappa Alpha Theta Foundation was founded in 1960 and is the philanthropic arm of the organization. The Theta Foundation awards annual undergraduate and graduate scholarships to its members, awarding more than $1.1 million per year. In addition to scholarships, the Theta Foundation also supports the sorority's educational programs as well as its international philanthropy, Court Appointed Special Advocates (CASA). Court Appointed Special Advocates (CASA's) are community volunteers who serve as the voice for abused and neglected foster care children who are going through the court system. CASA's are appointed by a judge and their purpose is to ensure all legal actions made are in the child's best interest. In order to directly volunteer at CASA you must be 21 years of age or older.


title: Kappa Alpha Theta

text: In 2000, the chapter at the University of Cincinnati was temporarily suspended for hazing. The pledges were forced to endure several demeaning tasks, one of which included crawling up the steps of the sorority house for the amusement of their big sisters.