title: Jason Street

text: Later in the season, Jason meets a waitress named Erin during a blind date gone bad. The two end up sleeping together, which results in Erin becoming pregnant. The season ends with Jason convincing her to keep the baby after having been previously told by doctors that his injury would prevent him from being able to conceive a child. Erin remains skeptical as they are both only nineteen and she needs to keep her job as a waitress.


title: Jason Street

text: Season 3 picks up almost a year later. Erin has given birth to a baby boy named Noah. Jason is shown to be a great father and has come to love Erin very much. However, Erin becomes wary of Jason's ability to support her and Noah, especially when Jason says he wants to get in the highly-risky business of 'flipping' houses. He, Herc and the Riggins brothers buy Buddy Garrity's old house, to fix up and successfully sell. Despite this, Erin tells Jason that she cannot support herself and Noah living in Dillon and intends to move back to New Jersey with her parents and raise their son there, although reassuring Jason that he is welcome to visit anytime.


title: Jason Street

text: Jason meets Grant, a sports agent, at Dillon High School during practice one day, who gives Jason his card and tells him to look him up whenever he is in New York City. However, the sports agent only gives Jason his card because he (the agent) was trying to sign Jason's former Panthers teammate, Wendell Foley, now a college football star. Jason misinterprets the statement and goes to New York with Tim, believing he will land a job at the agency and provide support and stay in Erin and Noah's lives. The agent, surprised to see him, tells Jason that he has graduates from Ivy League schools fighting to get into the firm daily, and that he must maintain quotas just to keep his own job. Furthermore, Foley has decided to sign with a different agent.


title: Jason Street

text: In an effort to prove himself, Jason convinces Foley to sign with the agency. Jason shows up at Grant's office with Foley in tow and receives an entry-level job as a result. After that, he goes to Erin's home in New Jersey and tells her that he has found a job in New York so he can be close to her and Noah and is willing to find a place that's "far enough away that I'm not going to be a stalker...but close enough that I can be here.". Erin happily agrees, saying that she has missed him.


title: Jason Street

text: In "Perfect Record," Jason returns to Dillon and meets his former mentor Coach Taylor to see if he is interested in taking a college coaching job, which the Coach politely turns down. He updates Coach Taylor on his life so far: he and Erin have since married, Noah is now a toddler and is learning how to throw a football, Erin wants to have another child (after some convincing) and, recently, he was promoted to a full-fledged sports agent. Later he drops by East Dillon to watch a practice session and Vince Howard's father, Ornette, is seen standing at the sidelines over-enthusiastically trying to convince Jason to look at Vince and recommend him to top colleges, much to Jason and Coach Taylor's concern. While supportive of Taylor, his former coach at West Dillon, Street comes to the rivalry game supporting the Dillon Panthers, having been the former starting quarterback there, and is seen doing the pre-game chant. He shows displeasure when the East Dillon Lions run up the score against the Panthers.


title: Jason Street

text: Jason is briefly mentioned in the next several episodes as he has recommended Coach Taylor to a state university in Florida, who decides to pursue Taylor and tries to (unsuccessfully) convince him to sign with them. In the series ending montage in "Always," the words "J.Street" are seen written below the 'P' in the Dillon Panthers' locker room.


title: Jason Street

text: Porter was praised by paralyzed viewers of the show for his "inspiring and believable" portrayal of a quadriplegic in the first season when Jason is first injured and then endures several months in rehab. A former high school football player himself, Porter stated in an interview with "TV Guide" that he had visited a spinal cord injury rehabilitation facility in Austin, Texas to do research on his character.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Full House () is a manhwa series written and illustrated by Won Soo-yeon. It was later adapted into the 2004 Korean television drama of the same name.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Full House was also heavily featured in "Twenty-Five Twenty-One". Following its appearance on the drama, Full House saw a sales growth of 1,044% in February 2022 (when the drama started airing) which was followed by a 24.3% sales increase in March 2022 compared to the previous month.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ellie lives in "Full House," the house that her architect father built before passing away a few years ago. She loves the place, but one day people come to kick her out, claiming that the place now belongs to the famous British actor Ryder Bayer. Furious, she grabs her scripts that she has worked hard on writing, and wanders, trying to figure out why her house was taken. While walking across the street, she narrowly avoids being hit by a car, but the wheel does roll over her foot. And the owner of the car turns out to be none other than Ryder Bayer.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: As compensation for the accident, she asks for her house back, but he refuses, and they decide to enter a contract marriage and split the house between them. The manhwa is about their explosive marriage, and how they eventually fell in love with each other despite cataclysmic fights and dirty scandals.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Born to a Korean father and an English Mother, Elle is an aspiring screenwriter. Her late Father was an architect and built Full House before he died. The family home was the only thing left of her parents for Ellie, and to keep it she married Ryder. She is intelligent, abrasive, short, but also very kind, shy, and protective towards everyone but Ryder, who she sees as her enemy. Due to her lack of care about her appearance, she has a pimply face, for which Ryder calls her "ugly".


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: A British actor living in Ellie's house who is forced to marry her. Ryder's life as a superstar was rocked by rumors, tabloid and scandal, the most recent one of him being gay and having an affair with his director. He vows not to fall in love due to a broken heart over his deceased child-hood friend and sister-in-law Jasmine. He is seen as a player, and he has a short temper and gets jealous easily. He is smooth and sweet, a heavy smoker, and aspires to be a better actor who gets more than princely roles just for his face.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ryder's manager. She is in love with Ryder, and believes that as long as she lets him play around he will return to her. She at first supports the marriage between Ellie and Ryder to get rid of some of the scandal, but tries to break them up because she sees Ryder falling in love with Ellie. She is smart and stylish, seen by many as "gorgeous", she does not see how Ryder could fall for someone like Ellie. She often ends up playing tricks on the two of them, such as stealing Ryder's wedding ring.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ryder's friend and fashion designer, he often cheers the couple on from a distance, and ends up consoling Miranda when she complains about how the couple's relationship continues to improve. Many of his styles become influenced by the couple, and he often uses his friend as models, joking about the money he saves by doing so.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ryder's body guard, he is often perceived as being a big brute due to his hulking size, strength, and voice. But he is childlike, shy, and has never been in a relationship before, due to him devoting his entire life to his "Young Master", Ryder. He addresses everyone as "Miss" or "Mr", and always wears a suit and sunglasses even in summer or on vacation, saying he wants to look appropriate for his job. He was the one who originally kicked Ellie out of her house, though he does not remember.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ellie's best friend, she believes that the couple's relationship will fail. She makes a deal that she will visit Ellie's and Ryder's house in two years, but then says that by then the divorce would be over with. She helps with her family's restaurant, but does not know what she wants to do with her life other than that.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ellie's ex-boyfriend and childhood friend, he breaks up with her because she refuses to kiss him, though he does not realize it is because she has painful cavities. He attempts reuniting with her when he finds out, but he learns of her engagement to Ryder. He still holds out hope, but eventually loses it when he figures out Ellie loves Ryder. He is sweet, a bit naive, and obsessed with Ellie. After they break up for good, when ever he gets together with a woman romantically he calls her Ellie, and often gets hit.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ryder's grandmother, she is the only family member who supports his marriage to Ellie, and says she likes her. When sick she is taken care of by Ellie, and learns to play cards from her.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ryder's elder brother and head of the family. He disapproves of Ryder's career and his sudden marriage, especially to a foreigner, since she may weaken the Lions bloodline. He was married to Ryder's childhood love Jasmine, and after her death became strict and intolerant.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: Ryder's younger sister, she is used to being spoiled by her brother so she resents Ellie taking him away from her. She often plots with her friend Susan to break them up, and hates Ellie even more for "stealing her grandmother". she rebels by not coming and visiting her family in the hospital, hanging out with delinquents, and smoking, and is more worried about what her brother thinks of her than if anyone gets hurt.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: The bad guy. he got Full House off of Ellie's father in a fixed bet, and then sold it to Ryder. When Ellie tries to find out what happened, he tries to kill her. He is a psychopath, and has many illegal holdings around the country.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: A publisher and heir to a vast media network. He falls in love with Ellie, and thinks if he confesses enough and truthfully, she will accept his feelings. He is also Ellie's boss when she begins writing a column for his magazine.


title: Full House (manhwa)

text: A director, he dislikes Ryder as a person and belittles his career, though he believes he is a good actor. He becomes friends with Ellie, and directs her first script.


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: Supa Dupa Fly is the debut studio album by American rapper Missy "Misdemeanor" Elliott, released July 15, 1997, on The Goldmind and Elektra Records. The album was recorded and produced solely by Timbaland in October 1996, and features the singles, "The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)", "Sock It 2 Me", "Hit Em wit da Hee" and "Beep Me 911". Guest appearances on the album include Busta Rhymes, Ginuwine, 702, Magoo, Da Brat, Lil' Kim, and Aaliyah. The album was recorded in just two weeks.


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: The album received acclaim from critics, who praised Timbaland's futuristic production style and Elliott's performances and persona. It debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200 and topped the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and has sold 1.2 million copies in the United States.


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: In 2020, the album was ranked 93 on "Rolling Stone"s "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" and, in 2022, 53 on their "100 Best Debut Albums of All Time".


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: While in high school, Elliott formed a group called Fayze—later to be renamed Sista—with three of her friends. The group attracted the attention of record producer DeVante Swing, who was part of the R&B group Jodeci. After being signed to the Swing Mob record label, Sista recorded an album in New York, but the album was never released. This led to subsequent termination of Sista's recording contract. Elliott returned to Portsmouth, Virginia, where she and record producer Timbaland began writing songs and contributed to singer Aaliyah's album "One in a Million". In 1996, Elliott was signed to Elektra Records and was given her own record label, The Goldmind Inc. Sylvia Rhone, then the chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of Elektra, encouraged Elliott to embark upon a solo career. Recording sessions of "Supa Dupa Fly" took place at the Master Sound Studios in Virginia Beach, Virginia; the recording process took place over slightly more than a week. The album was produced solely by Timbaland.


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: The first single released from the album was "The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)". As part of the promotional drive for her album, Elliott took part of the 1998 Lilith Fair tour; she became the first female rapper to perform at the event. She also joined rapper Jay-Z's Rock the Mic tour.


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: "Supa Dupa Fly" brings together elements of hip hop, dance, R&B, electronic music, and soul. Music critic Garry Mulholland described Timbaland's production as "eschewing samples for a bump 'n' grind electronica, strongly influenced by the digital rhythms of dancehall reggae, but rounder, fuller, fatter". AllMusic described it as consisting of "lean, digital grooves [...] packed with unpredictable arrangements and stuttering rhythms that often resemble slowed-down drum'n'bass breakbeats." A retrospective review from "The New Yorker" emphasizes the usage of "extra-musical noises" as "instruments in and of themselves" on the album, and describes the result as "a futuristic sound in which the organic and the synthetic were complementary".


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: Elliott's raps were described as "full of hilariously surreal free associations that fit the off-kilter sensibility of the music to a tee". According to author Mickey Hess, the album's lyrical content "reveals Elliott's complex, creative, and challenging discussion about womanhood; her demand for respect, respect for her personal voice and her desire for fulfilling intimacy with lovers and friends". Elliott has also been recognized for her diverse cadences and deliveries on the album, a versatility that has been described as her "oily ability to slip from singing to rapping to elliptical riffing". The album's opening track, "Busta's Intro", features rapper Busta Rhymes as a town crier warning of a "historical event about to unfold". "The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)" contains a sample of Ann Peebles' 1973 song "I Can't Stand the Rain". "Pass da Blunt" is partly based on the song "Pass the Dutchie" by Musical Youth. The track "Bite Our Style (Interlude)" samples the song "Morning Glory" by Jamiroquai.


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: Upon its release, "Supa Dupa Fly" received acclaim among music critics. Writers lauded record producer Timbaland's production as unique and revolutionary. AllMusic called the album a "boundary-shattering postmodern masterpiece" whose "futuristic, nearly experimental style became the de facto sound of urban radio at the close of the millennium". Elliott's rapping, singing and songwriting also received much acclaim. The 2004 edition of "The Rolling Stone Album Guide" rated the album five out of five stars, noting that the avant-garde sound of the album "made Elliott and Timbaland the hottest writer/producer team around". Mulholland called the album a "key prophecy of the dominant 21st century black pop", noting Elliott's ability to "avoid the whole east vs. west, playas vs. gangstas mess." He described Elliott's style as "everything the hip hop doctor ordered; a woman who could flip between aggression and romance, sex and nonsense, materialism and imagination, without batting one outrageously spidery eyelash".


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: "Spin" magazine ranked the album at number nine on its Top 20 Albums of the Year. In 1998, four out of five music critics from "The New York Times" ranked the album as one of their top ten favorite albums of 1997. The album earned Elliott two Grammy Award nominations: Best Rap Album and Best Rap Solo Performance for "The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)".


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: With the release of "Supa Dupa Fly", Elliott became one of the most prominent female rappers. Her persona on the album established a niche separate from the archetypes of "hypersexualized vixens or rugged hip hop purists", leading it to be argued that "Supa Dupa Fly" "caused a shift in how women in rap were perceived". The album is credited for redefining hip hop and R&B; in particular, Elliott's combination of rapped and sung vocals has been described as "pioneering". Its production has been described as "visionary" for its usage of sampling, in which samples are not used straightforwardly and instead undergo "bending... to fit the album's unconventional tempos". Its sound is frequently described as "futuristic" and "ahead of its time", with retrospective reviews often stating that the album retains that feel even decades after its release. Steve Huey of AllMusic felt that the album was "arguably the most influential album ever released by a female hip-hop artist".


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: The music videos from "Supa Dupa Fly" have been recognized as influential for their Afrofuturist style, with Elliott's leather "trash bag suit" in the "I Can't Stand the Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)" video being hailed as especially iconic.


title: Supa Dupa Fly

text: "Supa Dupa Fly" debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200 with 129,000 copies sold in the first week released, becoming the highest debut for a female rapper at the time. The album remained on the chart for 37 weeks. On September 19, 1997, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over a million copies. As of June 2008, it has sold 1.2 million copies in the United States.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Brasenose College (BNC) is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom. It began as Brasenose Hall in the 13th century, before being founded as a college in 1509. The library and chapel were added in the mid-17th century and the new quadrangle in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: For 2020–21, Brasenose placed 4th in the Norrington Table (an unofficial measure of performance in undergraduate degree examinations). In a recent Oxford Barometer Survey, Brasenose's undergraduates registered 98% overall satisfaction. In recent years, around 80% of the UK undergraduate intake have been from state schools.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The history of Brasenose College, Oxford stretches back to 1509, when the college was founded on the site of Brasenose Hall, a medieval academic hall whose name is first mentioned in 1279. Its name is believed to derive from the name of a brass or bronze knocker that adorned the hall's door.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The college was associated with Lancashire and Cheshire, the county origins of its two founders – Sir Richard Sutton and the Bishop of Lincoln, William Smyth – a link which was maintained strongly until the latter half of the twentieth century. The first principals navigated Brasenose, with its Catholic sympathisers, through the Reformation and continuing religious reforms.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Most of Brasenose favoured the Royalist side during the English Civil War, although it produced notable generals and clergy on both sides.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The library and chapel were completed in the mid-17th century, despite Brasenose suffering continuing financial problems.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: After 1785 the college prospered under Principal William Cleaver. The college began to be populated by gentlemen, its income doubling between 1790 and 1810, and achieved considerable academic success. But the reconstruction of Brasenose was not completed until the end of the 19th century with the addition of New Quad between 1886 and 1911. Brasenose's financial position remained secure, although under the tenure of Principal Edward Hartopp Cradock Brasenose's academic record waned greatly, with much of its success focused on sport, where it excelled most notably in cricket and rowing.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The mid-century Royal Commissions were navigated; although they were initially opposed, some recommendations were welcomed, including the election of fellows on merit rather than by their place of birth. The election of Charles Heberden as principal in 1889 led to a gradual improvement in Brasenose's academic fortunes, although its sporting performance suffered. As the first lay principal, Heberden presided over an increasingly secular college, which opened up the library to undergraduates, instituted an entrance exam for the first time and accepted Rhodes scholars.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Brasenose lost 115 men in the First World War (including a quarter of the 1913 year), with its undergraduate numbers greatly reduced.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Lord Curzon's post-War reforms were successfully instituted. The inter-war period was defined by William Stallybrass, who as fellow and eventual principal (until 1948) dominated college life. Brasenose once again produced top sportsmen – cricketers, rowers, and others. This came at the cost of falling academic standards and poorly performing finances, which would see Stallybrass' authority challenged. He died in a railway accident before he could be forced out, however.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: After the war, sporting achievements waned (although there were notable exceptions) but academic success did not improve significantly, in what was now one of Oxford's largest colleges.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The 1970s saw considerable social change in Brasenose, with more post-graduate attendees and fewer domestic staff. In 1974 Brasenose became one of the first men's colleges to admit women as full members, bringing an end to 470 years of the college as a men-only institution. The other previously all-male colleges to begin admitting women in 1974 were Jesus College, Hertford, St Catherine's, and Wadham. The College's first female Governing Body Fellow, lawyer Mary Stokes, was elected in May 1981 and took up her Fellowship in October 1982.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: There was also considerable construction work to ensure that undergraduates could be housed for the entirety of their degree on the main site and on the Frewin site; this objective was finally achieved in 1997 with the opening of the St Cross annexe and Frewin extension. Brasenose's finances were secured, and it thus entered the twenty-first century in a good position as regards financial, extracurricular and academic success.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: As of 2022 the college admits undergraduates for most major courses in 17 subject groups across science, humanities, social science and arts.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Brasenose faces the west side of Radcliffe Square opposite the Radcliffe Camera in the centre of Oxford. The north side is defined by Brasenose Lane, while the south side reaches the High Street. To the west is Lincoln College. At its south-east end, the college is separated from the University Church by St Mary's Passage. The main entrance of the college can be found on Radcliffe Square. Although not located on Turl Street the college has informal links with the three Turl Street colleges (Lincoln, Jesus, and Exeter). The college is also physically linked to Lincoln College through a connecting door, through which Brasenose College members are permitted to enter Lincoln College on Ascension Day each year. The door is opened for five minutes and it is the only time during the year that this door is unlocked. Brasenose members are then served an ale by Lincoln College, which is traditionally flavoured with ground ivy.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The main college site comprises three quads, the original Old Quad, a small quad known as the Deer Park, and the large New Quad, as well as collection of smaller houses facing Radcliffe Square and the High Street. The original college buildings comprised a single two-storey quad, incorporating the original kitchen of Brasenose Hall on the south side. In the 17th century a third floor was added to the quad to form the current Old Quad. A separate chapel was also built to the south, connected to the quad by a library built over a cloister as shown in a 1670 print, thus enclosing the Deer Park. The cloister was for a time the college burial ground, and evidence suggests there were at least 59 people buried there, with the last recorded burial being in 1754. The cloister was filled in to make two or three chambers in around 1807, used as student bedrooms or administrative offices until 1971, when the space was converted into the graduate common room. More recently the graduate common room moved to the Old Quad, and the space, still known as the "Old Cloisters" has been used as a library overspill area, a teaching room and, in 2010–11, as the temporary Senior Common Room. In January 2015, archaeological investigations began as a prelude to a major building project that will restore the stone work and integrate the lower and upper reading rooms, greatly enhancing the college's library provision. The nickname for the Chapel Quad is often thought to be a friendly jibe at Magdalen College which has a genuine deer park known as The Grove.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: In the 16th century the dining hall was heated by an open fire in the centre of the room, supplemented by movable braziers. In the 1680s the hall was renovated, with a raised floor to accommodate a wine cellar below and a reconstructed roof. Another renovation phase in the mid-18th century included a new chimneypiece, a new ceiling to cover the original timber beams and two gilded chandeliers. The original brazen nose was placed above high table in 1890.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Building began on the current chapel in 1656, and it replaced an old chapel which was located in a space now occupied by the Senior Common Room. An inscription commemorates this above the door to Staircase IV. Building materials were taken from a disused chapel at the site of St Mary's College (now Frewin Hall), transported piece by piece by horse-and-cart to Brasenose College. The chapel, a mix of Gothic and Baroque styles, features a hanging fan vault ceiling of wood and plaster, and was consecrated in 1666. The internal fittings are largely 18th and 19th century, and include chandeliers presented to the college in 1749. These were donated to a parish church and later converted to gas but then returned to Brasenose when the church switched to electric lights. The chandeliers were then converted back to their original state so that candles could be used in them once again.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Various alterations were made to the Chapel after completion. Although repairs were undertaken in the meantime, the interior of the Chapel was renovated (having fallen into a poor state) in 1819, and the exterior beginning in 1841. In 1892–3 a new organ was purchased and fitted, paid for by the then Principal Charles Buller Heberden; the current organ was installed in 1973, and rebuilt in 2001–2.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The current library was begun in 1658 and received its first books in 1664. It replaced a smaller library on Staircase IV, which is now used as a meeting room. The books in the current library were fixed by chains, which were only removed in the 1780s, over a hundred years later.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: In May 2018 author Philip Pullman opened the extensively renovated Greenland Library following a £4 million project to provide a better working space for students (architects - Lee/Fitzgerald). The library works were funded by three college alumni, Duncan Greenland, James Del Favero and Gerald Smith. Two reading rooms are named in honour of Del Favero and Smith respectively with the overall library taking Greenland's name The renovations won an RIBA regional RIBA Conservation award in 2019.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: New Quad was designed by TG Jackson and finished in 1911, replacing a number of existing buildings. The current site was completed in 1961 with new buildings, used largely for first year undergraduate accommodation, designed by the architects Powell and Moya.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: In 2010 a project was begun to renovate the kitchens, servery, dining hall and some other areas of college. The project included the installation of under floor heating and a new timber floor in the dining hall, new kitchen equipment, a new servery area, additional dining and meeting places, and disabled access to the dining hall. During the project, the Old Quad housed a temporary dining hall and kitchen, while the New Quad was used to store building materials.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The dining hall refurbishment was completed by September 2010, whilst the remaining work was completed around Easter 2012. The new catering facilities were unveiled during a ceremony on 14 March 2012. During the ceremony, college members gathered in a restored 15th century building in the heart of college, originally the college kitchens and most recently used as the servery. This room, to be known as the Mediaeval Kitchen, will be used as a new dining space in addition to the main dining hall, which will remain the usual location for student meals. The temporary kitchen and builder's yard were removed and the Quads restored to their normal state during the Easter 2012 vacation.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The college has a large undergraduate annexe situated on St Michael's Street, developed from Frewin Hall in the 1940s. Frewin Hall had previously housed a number of tenants from outside the college, including King Edward VII.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Second, Third and Fourth year undergraduates typically choose to live in bedrooms at Frewin. A recent building project at Frewin, aimed to increase the undergraduate bedroom provision and improve facilities, has unearthed some significant archeological finds including a 4,000-year-old prehistoric burial mound, a limestone wall foundation, butchered animal bones, decorated floor tiles, a stone flagon, a bone comb and a medieval long cross silver penny


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: There is also a graduate annexe shared with St Cross College, which was completed in 1995. The St Cross annexe is laid out in clusters of five bed-sitting rooms, sharing two shower rooms and a kitchen. A second graduate annexe, Hollybush Row, was opened in September 2008 and is located close to the railway station and Said Business School. It consists of single rooms with en-suite bathrooms and shared kitchens.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Brasenose College's coat of arms is quite complex, since it incorporates the personal arms of the founders and the arms of the See of Lincoln.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Its blazon (description in formal heraldic terms) is: "Tierced in pale: (1) Argent, a chevron sable between three roses gules seeded or, barbed vert (for Smyth); (2) or, an escutcheon of the arms of the See of Lincoln (gules, two lions of England in pale or, on a chief azure Our Lady crowned seated on a tombstone issuant from the chief, in her dexter arm the Infant Jesus, in her sinister arm a sceptre, all or) ensigned with a mitre proper; (3) quarterly, first and fourth argent, a chevron between three bugle-horns stringed sable; second and third argent, a chevron between three crosses crosslet sable (for Sutton)".


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: A simpler form has occasionally been used where the central tierce contains the arms of the See of Lincoln, rather than displaying them on a mitred escutcheon. Because of the complexity of the arms they are not suitable for use on items such as the college crested tie, where the brazen nose is used instead.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The college prayer is read by the principal or a fellow at evensong on Sundays during term and at gaudies.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Individual benefactors are commemorated in an annual pattern, with the founders being commemorated (as shown above) on the first Sunday of Michaelmas Term, and at all gaudies.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The grace after dinner is only read on special occasions, and the list of benefactors included in this grace is quite variable.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The JCR plays a central part in the life of the undergraduate community. Offering social, recreational and welfare support to the students, the elected committee addresses many aspects of student life and liaises with the governing body and graduate student representatives.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Unlike most Oxford colleges, the graduate common room is known as the Hulme Common Room (HCR), named after a past benefactor, rather than the Middle Common Room (MCR).


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The college also organises an annual summer arts festival, one of the largest in the university. First staged in 1994, it features plays, pantomimes, comedy evenings, musical performances, and a keenly-contested bake-off. In 2016, the college held its 22nd summer arts festival, which featured six days of open-air plays, music concerts, a stage combat workshop, an outdoor film night, a poetry brunch as well as an outdoor summer bar, all organised by Brasenose students. In 2015 Brasenose also celebrated the 40th anniversary of the admission of women into the college through an exhibition, which modelled the portraits in the Dining Hall, by filling the JCR with a series of portraits of female alumnae "40 Years of Brasenose Women". In 2017 the undergraduates held their first "Frewchella" festival, named after the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in California and the college's Frewin Annexe, featuring food, music and a bouncy castle. In 2018 special events included Chinese New Year, a St David's Day dinner and an Egg Hunt.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The college has a director of music, who directs the chapel choir with the assistance of three organ scholars. The director of music also facilitates a range of concerts, which usually happen on a weekly basis. These include the professional Platnauer Concerts, held in memory of Maurice Platnauer, principal of Brasenose (1956–1960). Other concerts are designed to highlight talented soloists or groups of performers in college. The college awards up to four music scholarships at any one time through auditions in the year prior to entry or at the beginning of the academic year.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Brasenose College has a non-auditioned choir, although up to eight choral scholarships are offered to members of Brasenose, again, through auditions in the year prior to entry or at the beginning of the academic year. The choir sings Evensong every Sunday, and also sings for various special services and events, including two carol services, the annual joint service with Lincoln College and other occasions. Recently there has been the inauguration of a biennial Alumni and Music Reunion Dinner, with a Festal Evensong for all attendees preceding this. The choir regularly goes on tour, for instance to Paris in 2006, Lombardy in 2009, Rome in 2010 and Belgium in 2013, and sings at cathedrals near Oxford during term-time.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: In 2010 and 2011 the college ran the Wondrous Machine event, where local primary school children were invited to Brasenose for interactive sessions to learn about the pipe organ and the science behind the musical instrument.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Brasenose students participate in a wide range of sports including football, netball, hockey, lacrosse, basketball, badminton, squash, pool, rugby, darts, boxing, dancesport and more. Student play at all levels and participation is completely optional and forms no part of the admissions process.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Brasenose College Boat Club (commonly abbreviated to BNCBC) is the rowing club of the college and is believed to be one of the oldest boat clubs in the world. The date of formation of the club is impossible to verify: a boat from the college took part in the earliest recorded race between rowing clubs anywhere in the world. This was a head race in Oxford in 1815, beating Jesus College Boat Club. A number of college members have rowed for the university against Cambridge University in the Boat Race and the Women's Boat Race. Notably, Walter Woodgate, a Boat Race winner, eleven-time Henley champion and inventor of the coxless four, John (Con) Cherry who represented Great Britain at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin and Andrew Lindsay who won a gold medal in rowing at the 2000 Summer Olympics, and participated in the Boat Race in 1998 and 1999.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: The college boathouse, which is shared with Exeter College Boat Club, is in Christ Church Meadow, on the Isis (as the River Thames is called in Oxford). It replaced a moored barge used by club-member and spectators. Brasenose College Rugby Football Club (abbreviated to BNCRFC) can draw association with William Webb Ellis, who is often credited as the inventor of the game and studied at Brasenose.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Notable former students of the college have included politicians, scientists, writers, entertainers and academics.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Among the best known living Brasenose alumni are former Prime Minister David Cameron, former Prime Minister of Australia Malcolm Turnbull, actor/comedian Mark Williams, actor/comedian Michael Palin, and Jessie Burton, author of "The Miniaturist", as well as Duncan Campbell, journalist and co-founder of the charity Stonewall, Dominic Barton, former managing director of McKinsey and the Canadian ambassador to China, author David Langford, Bruce Kent, active in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, J. Michael Kosterlitz, Nobel laureate in Physics in 2016, Kate Allen director of Amnesty International UK, and George Monbiot, environmental and political activist.


title: Brasenose College, Oxford

text: Earlier alumni include Henry Addington, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Elias Ashmole, founder of the Ashmolean Museum, John Buchan, author of "The Thirty-Nine Steps", John Clavell, highwayman and author, Colin Cowdrey, English Test batsman, William Webb Ellis, often credited with the invention of Rugby football, John Foxe, author of "Actes and Monuments" popularly abridged as "Foxe's Book of Martyrs", William Golding, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, John Gorton, Prime Minister of Australia, William Robert Grove, pioneer of fuel cells, Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig, soldier, Robert Runcie, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Thomas Traherne, poet and theologian.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: Ollantaytambo () is a town and an Inca archaeological site in southern Peru some by road northwest of the city of Cusco. It is located at an altitude of above sea level in the district of Ollantaytambo, province of Urubamba, Cusco region. During the Inca Empire, Ollantaytambo was the royal estate of Emperor Pachacuti, who conquered the region, and built the town and a ceremonial center. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru, it served as a stronghold for Manco Inca Yupanqui, leader of the Inca resistance. Nowadays, located in what is called the Sacred Valley of the Incas, it is an important tourist attraction on account of its Inca ruins and its location en route to one of the most common starting points for the four-day, three-night hike known as the Inca Trail.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: Around the mid-15th century, the Inca emperor Pachacuti conquered and razed Ollantaytambo; the town and the nearby region were incorporated into his personal estate. The emperor rebuilt the town with sumptuous constructions and undertook extensive works of terracing and irrigation in the Urubamba Valley; the town provided lodging for the Inca nobility, while the terraces were farmed by "yanakuna", retainers of the emperor. After Pachacuti's death, the estate came under the administration of his "panaqa", his family clan.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: During the Spanish conquest of Peru, Ollantaytambo served as a temporary capital for Manco Inca, leader of the native resistance against the conquistadors. He fortified the town and its approaches in the direction of the former Inca capital of Cusco, which had fallen under Spanish domination. In 1536, on the plain of Mascabamba, near Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca defeated a Spanish expedition, blocking their advance from a set of high terraces and flooding the plain. Despite his victory, however, Manco Inca did not consider his position tenable, so the following year, he withdrew to the heavily forested site of Vilcabamba, where he established the Neo-Inca State.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: In the 19th century, the Inca ruins at Ollantaytambo attracted the attention of several foreign explorers; among them, Clements Markham, Ephraim Squier, Charles Wiener, and Ernst Middendorf published accounts of their findings.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: Hiram Bingham III stopped here in 1911 on his journey up the Urubamba River in search of Machu Picchu.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: The town of Ollantaytambo is located along the Patakancha River, close to the point where it joins the Willkanuta River. The main settlement is located on the left margin of the Patakancha with a smaller compound called 'Araqhama on the right margin. The main Inca ceremonial center is located beyond 'Araqhama on a hill called Cerro Bandolista. Several Inca structures are in the surrounding areas, and what follows is a brief description of the main sites.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: The main settlement at Ollantaytambo has an orthogonal layout with four longitudinal streets crossed by seven parallel streets. At the center of this grid, the Incas built a large plaza that may have been up to four blocks large; it was open to the east and surrounded by halls and other town blocks on its other three sides. All blocks on the southern half of the town were built to the same design; each comprised two "kancha", walled compounds with four one-room buildings around a central courtyard. Buildings in the northern half are more varied in design; however, most are in such a bad condition that their original plan is hard to establish.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: Ollantaytambo dates from the late 15th century and has some of the oldest continuously occupied dwellings in South America. Its layout and buildings have been altered to different degrees by later constructions; for instance, on the southern edge of the town, an Inca esplanade with the original entrance to the town was rebuilt as a Plaza de Armas surrounded by colonial and republican buildings. The plaza at the center of the town also disappeared, as several buildings were built over it in colonial times.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: 'Araqhama is a western prolongation of the main settlement, across the Patakancha River; it features a large plaza, called Manyaraki, surrounded by constructions made out of adobe and semicut stones. These buildings have a much larger area than their counterparts in the main settlement; they also have very tall walls and oversized doors. To the south are other structures, but smaller and built out of fieldstones. Araqhama has been continuously occupied since Inca times, as evidenced by the Roman Catholic church on the eastern side of the plaza. To the north of Manyaraki are several sanctuaries with carved stones, sculpted rock faces, and elaborate waterworks; they include the Templo de Agua and the Baño de la Ñusta.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: 'Araqhama is bordered to the west by Cerro Bandolista, a steep hill on which the Incas built a ceremonial center. The part of the hill facing the town is occupied by the terraces of Pumatallis, framed on both flanks by rock outcrops. Due to impressive character of these terraces, the Temple Hill is commonly known as the Fortress, but this is a misnomer, as the main functions of this site were religious. The main access to the ceremonial center is a series of stairways that climb to the top of the terrace complex. At this point, the site is divided into three main areas: the Middle sector, directly in front of the terraces; the Temple sector, to the south; and the Funerary sector, to the north.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: The Temple sector is built out of cut and fitted stones in contrast to the other two sectors of the Temple Hill, which are made out of fieldstones. It is accessed by a stairway that ends on a terrace with a half-finished gate and the Enclosure of the Ten Niches, a one-room building. Behind them is an open space which hosts the Platform of the Carved Seat and two unfinished monumental walls. The main structure of the whole sector is the Sun Temple, an uncompleted building which features the Wall of the Six Monoliths. The Middle and Funerary sectors have several rectangular buildings, some of them with two floors; also, several fountains are in the Middle sector.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: The unfinished structures at the Temple Hill and the numerous stone blocks that litter the site indicate that it was still undergoing construction at the time of its abandonment. Some of the blocks show evidence of having been removed from finished walls, which provides evidence that a major remodeling effort was also underway. Which event halted construction at the Temple Hill is unknown; likely candidates include the war of succession between Huáscar and Atahualpa, the Spanish Conquest of Peru, and the retreat of Manco Inca from Ollantaytambo to Vilcabamba. However it is also theorised that they are the work of the earlier Tiwanaku culture.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: The valleys of the Urubamba and Patakancha Rivers along Ollantaytambo are covered by an extensive set of agricultural terraces or andenes which start at the bottom of the valleys and climb up the surrounding hills. The andenes permitted farming on otherwise unusable terrain; they also allowed the Incas to take advantage of the different ecological zones created by variations in altitude. Terraces at Ollantaytambo were built to a higher standard than common Inca agricultural terraces; for instance, they have higher walls made of cut stones instead of rough fieldstones. This type of high-prestige terracing is also found in other Inca royal estates such as Chinchero, Pisaq, and Yucay.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: A set of sunken terraces starts south of Ollantaytambo's Plaza de Armas, stretching all the way to the Urubamba River. They are about 700 m long, 60 m wide, and up to 15 m below the level of surrounding terraces; due to their shape, they are called "Callejón", the Spanish word for alley. Land inside Callejón is protected from the wind by lateral walls which also absorb solar radiation during the day and release it during the night; this creates a microclimate zone 2 to 3 °C warmer than the ground above it. These conditions allowed the Incas to grow species of plants native to lower altitudes that otherwise could not have flourished at this site.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: At the southern end of Callejón, overlooking the Urubamba River, is an Inca site called Q'ellu Raqay. Its interconnected buildings and plazas form an unusual design quite unlike the single-room structures common in Inca architecture. As the site is isolated from the rest of Ollantaytambo and surrounded by an elaborate terraces, it was postulated to be a palace built for emperor Pachacuti.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: The Incas built several storehouses or "qullqas" () out of fieldstones on the hills surrounding Ollantaytambo. Their location at high altitudes, where more wind and lower temperatures occur, defended their contents against decay. To enhance this effect, the Ollantaytambo "qullqas "feature ventilation systems. They are thought to have been used to store the production of the agricultural terraces built around the site. Grain would be poured in the windows on the uphill side of each building, then emptied out through the downhill side window.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: The main quarries of Ollantaytambo were located at Kachiqhata, in a ravine across the Urubamba River some 5 km from the town. The site features three main quarrying areas: Mullup'urku, Kantirayoq, and Sirkusirkuyoq; all of them provided blocks of rose rhyolite for the elaborate buildings of the Temple Hill. An elaborate network of roads, ramps, and slides connected them with the main building areas. In the quarries are several "chullpas", small stone towers used as burial sites in pre-Hispanic times.


title: Ollantaytambo

text: As Ollantaytambo is surrounded by mountains, and the main access routes run along the Urubamba Valley; there, the Incas built roads connecting the site with Machu Picchu to the west and Pisaq to the east. During the Spanish conquest of Peru, emperor Manco Inca fortified the eastern approaches to fend off Spanish attacks from Cusco during the Battle of Ollantaytambo. The first line of defense was a steep bank of terraces at Pachar, near the confluence of the Anta and Urubamba Rivers. Behind it, the Incas channeled the Urubamba to make it cross the valley from right to left and back, thus forming two more lines, which were backed by the fortifications of Choqana on the left bank and 'Inkapintay on the right bank. Past them, at the plain of Mascabamba, 11 high terraces closed the valley between the mountains and a deep canyon formed by the Urubamba. The only way to continue was through the gate of T'iyupunku, a thick defensive wall with two narrow doorways. To the west of Ollantaytambo, the small fort of Choquequillca defended the road to Machu Picchu. In the event of these fortifications being overrun, the Temple Hill itself with its high terraces provided a last line of defense against invaders.


title: 19 (number)

text: formula_1 is the eighth prime number, and forms a sexy prime with 13, a twin prime with 17, and a cousin prime with 23. It is the third full reptend prime, the fifth central trinomial coefficient, and the seventh Mersenne prime exponent. It is also the second Keith number, and more specifically the first Keith prime.


title: 19 (number)

text: If the Tits group is included as a "non-strict" group of Lie type, then there are nineteen finite simple groups that are not sporadic groups. In the Happy Family, nineteen of twenty-six sporadic groups are subquotients of the Friendly Giant, which is also its own subquotient.


title: 19 (number)

text: In the Bábí and Baháʼí Faiths, a group of 19 is called a "Váhid", a Unity (Arabic: واحد "wāhid", "one"). The numerical value of this word in the Abjad numeral system is 19.


title: 19 (number)

text: 19 is a sacred number of the goddess Brigid because it is said to represent the 19-year cycle of the Great Celtic Year and the amount of time it takes the Moon to coincide with the winter solstice.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: The 18th congressional district of New York is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives that contains the northern suburbs and exurbs of New York City. It is currently represented by Democrat Sean Patrick Maloney.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: The 18th district includes all of Orange County, as well most of Dutchess and Ulster Counties. The district includes the cities of Newburgh, Beacon, and Poughkeepsie.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: The 18th District was created in 1813. For many years it was the upper Manhattan district. It was the east side Manhattan seat in the 1970s and then a Bronx district in the 1980s, Following the 1992 remap it became a Westchester-based district with narrow corridor through the Bronx and a large portion of central Queens. The 2002 remap gave those Queens areas to the 5th District and the 18th absorbed some Rockland areas due to the deconstruction of the old Orange-Rockland 20th District. In 2012, population lost in New York pushed the district further north, into the mid-Hudson Valley suburbs. From 2002 to 2013, the 18th district included most of Westchester County and part of Rockland County. It included Larchmont, Mamaroneck, New Rochelle, Ossining, the Town of Pelham, Scarsdale, Tarrytown, White Plains as well as most of New City and Yonkers.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: The redrawn district is composed of the following percentages of voters of the 2003-2013 congressional districts: 1 percent from the 18th congressional district; 76 percent from the 19th congressional district; 2 percent from the 20th congressional district; and 21 percent from the 22nd congressional district.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: In the August 23, 2022 Democratic Party primary Ulster County executive Pat Ryan defeated Aisha Mills and Moses Mugulusi. On the same date Ryan also defeated Dutchess County executive Marc Molinaro (Republican) in a special election to fill a vacant seat in the district. The latter contest was seen as a victory in a bellwether district. In the November 8, 2022 general election Ryan defeated New York State Assembly member Republican Colin Schmitt.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: Republican Molinaro ran in the New York's 19th congressional district in the November general election and defeated Democrat Josh Riley.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: Incumbent Sean Patrick Maloney changed his election district to the New York's 17th congressional district, after redistricting maps were announced.


title: New York's 18th congressional district

text: Note that in New York State electoral politics there are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties will invariably endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for every office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes (Listed as "Recap").


title: 2019–20 Paris Saint-Germain F.C. season

text: The 2019–20 season was Paris Saint-Germain Football Club's 47th professional season since its creation in 1970, and its 46th consecutive season in the top-flight of French football. It was their 50th season in existence.


title: 2019–20 Paris Saint-Germain F.C. season

text: On 30 April 2020, Paris Saint-Germain were awarded the championship based on PPG ratio following the early cancellation of the 2019–20 season due to the COVID-19 pandemic. They subsequently claimed both national cups to achieve a domestic treble. Furthermore, the team then qualified for its first-ever Champions League final, hoping to win its first European trophy since 1996. However, they were defeated by Bayern Munich 1–0.


title: 2019–20 Paris Saint-Germain F.C. season

text: French teams were limited to four players without EU citizenship. Hence, the squad list includes only the principal nationality of each player; several non-European players on the squad had dual citizenship with an EU country. Also, players from the ACP countries—countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific that were signatories to the Cotonou Agreement—are not counted against non-EU quotas due to the Kolpak ruling.


title: 2019–20 Paris Saint-Germain F.C. season

text: The Ligue 1 schedule was announced on 14 June 2019. The Ligue 1 matches were suspended by the LFP on 13 March 2020 owing to COVID-19 until further notices. On 28 April 2020, it was announced that Ligue 1 and Ligue 2 campaigns would not resume, after the country banned all sporting events until September. On 30 April, The LFP ended officially the 2019–20 season.


title: 2019–20 Paris Saint-Germain F.C. season

text: ! colspan="16" style="background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center"| Players transferred out during the season


title: March (territory)

text: In medieval Europe, a march or mark was, in broad terms, any kind of borderland, as opposed to a national "heartland". More specifically, a march was a border between realms or a neutral buffer zone under joint control of two states in which different laws might apply. In both of these senses, marches served a political purpose, such as providing warning of military incursions or regulating cross-border trade.


title: March (territory)

text: Marches gave rise to titles such as marquess (masculine) or marchioness (feminine) in England, "marqués" (masculine) and "marquesa" (feminine) in Spanish-speaker countries, as well as in the Catalan and Galician regions, "marquês" (masculine) and "marquesa" (feminine) in Portuguese-speaker countries, "markesa" (both masculine and feminine) in Euskadi, "marquis" (masculine) or "marquise" (feminine) in France and Scotland, margrave (; masculine) or margravine (, feminine) in Germany, and corresponding titles in other European states.


title: March (territory)

text: The word "march" derives ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European root *"mereg-", meaning "edge, boundary". The root *"mereg-" produced Latin "margo" ("margin"), Old Irish "mruig" ("borderland"), Welsh "bro" ("region, border, valley") and Persian and Armenian "marz" ("borderland"). The Proto-Germanic "*marko" gave rise to the Old English word "mearc" and Frankish "marka", as well as Old Norse "mörk" meaning "borderland, forest", and derived from "merki" "boundary, sign", denoting a borderland between two centres of power.


title: March (territory)

text: It seems that in Old English "mark" meant "boundary" or "sign of a boundary", and the meaning only later evolved to encompass "sign" in general, "impression" and "trace".


title: March (territory)

text: The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia took its name from West Saxon "mearc" "marches", which in this instance referred explicitly to the territory's position on the Anglo-Saxon frontier with the Romano-British to the west.


title: March (territory)

text: The name Denmark preserves the Old Norse cognates "merki" ("boundary") "mörk" ("wood", "forest") up to the present. Following the Anschluss, the Nazi German government revived the old name 'Ostmark' for Austria.


title: March (territory)

text: After some early setbacks, Charlemagne's son Louis ventured beyond the province of Septimania and eventually took Barcelona from the Moorish emir in 801. Thus he established a foothold in the borderland between the Franks and the Moors. The Carolingian "Hispanic Marches" ("Marca Hispánica") became a buffer zone ruled by a number of feudal lords, among them the Count of Barcelona. It had its own outlying territories, each ruled by a lesser "miles" with armed retainers, who theoretically owed allegiance through a Count to the Emperor or, with less fealty, to his Carolingian and Ottonian successors. Such territory had a "catlá" ("castellan" or lord of the castle) in an area largely defined by a day's ride, and the region became known, like Castile at a later date, as "Catalunya". Counties in the Pyrenees that appeared in the 9th century, in addition to the County of Barcelona, included Cerdanya, Girona and Urgell.


title: March (territory)

text: In the early ninth century, Charlemagne issued his new kind of land grant, the "aprisio", which redisposed land belonging to the Imperial "fisc" in deserted areas, and included special rights and immunities that resulted in a range of independence of action. Historians interpret the "aprisio" both as the basis of feudalism and in economic and military terms as a mechanism to entice settlers to a depopulated border region. Such self-sufficient landholders would aid the counts in providing armed men in defense of the Frankish frontier. "Aprisio" grants (the first ones were in Septimania) emanated directly from the Carolingian king, and they reinforced central loyalties, to counterbalance the local power exercised by powerful marcher counts.


title: March (territory)

text: But communications were arduous, and the power centre was far away. Primitive feudal entities developed, self-sufficient and agrarian, each ruled by a small hereditary military elite. The sequence in Catalonia exhibits a pattern that emerges similarly in marches everywhere. The Count is appointed by the king (from 802), the appointment settles on the heirs of a strong count (Sunifred) and the appointment becomes a formality, until the position is declared hereditary (897) and then the County declares itself independent (by Borrell II in 985). At each stage the "de facto" situation precedes the "de jure" assertion, which merely regularizes an existing fact of life. This is feudalism in the larger landscape.


title: March (territory)

text: Certain of the Counts aspired to the characteristically Frankish (Germanic) title "Margrave of the Hispanic March", a "margrave" being a "graf" ("count") of the march.


title: March (territory)

text: The early History of Andorra provides a fairly typical career of another such buffer state, the only modern survivor in the Pyrenees of the Hispanic Marches.


title: March (territory)

text: The province of France called Marche (), sometimes "Marche Limousine", was originally a small border district between the Duchy of Aquitaine and the domains of the Frankish kings in central France, partly of Limousin and partly of Poitou.


title: March (territory)

text: Its area was increased during the 13th century and remained the same until the French Revolution. Marche was bounded on the north by Berry, on the east by Bourbonnais and Auvergne; on the south by Limousin itself and on the west by Poitou. It embraced the greater part of the modern "département" of Creuse, a considerable part of the northern Haute-Vienne, and a fragment of Indre, up to Saint-Benoît-du-Sault. Its area was about its capital was Charroux and later Guéret, and among its other principal towns were Dorat, Bellac and Confolens.


title: March (territory)

text: Marche first appeared as a separate fief about the middle of the 10th century when William III, duke of Aquitaine, gave it to one of his vassals named Boso, who took the title of count. In the 12th century it passed to the family of Lusignan, sometimes also Counts of Angoulême, until the death of the childless Count Hugh in 1303, when it was seized by King Philip IV. In 1316 it was made an appanage for his youngest son the Prince, afterwards King Charles IV and a few years later (1327) it passed into the hands of the family of Bourbon.


title: March (territory)

text: The family of Armagnac held it from 1435 to 1477, when it reverted to the Bourbons, and in 1527 it was seized by King Francis I and became part of the domains of the French crown. It was divided into Haute-Marche (i.e. "Upper Marche") and Basse-Marche (i.e. "Lower Marche"), the estates of the former being in existence until the 17th century. From 1470 until the Revolution the province was under the jurisdiction of the "parlement" of Paris.


title: March (territory)

text: The Germanic tribes that Romans called Marcomanni, who battled the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries, were simply the "men of the borderlands".


title: March (territory)

text: Marches were territorial organisations created as borderlands in the Carolingian Empire and had a long career as purely conventional designations under the Holy Roman Empire. In modern German, "Mark" denotes a piece of land that historically was a borderland, as in the following names:


title: March (territory)

text: From the Carolingian period onwards the name "marca" begins to appear in Italy, first the Marca Fermana for the mountainous part of Picenum, the Marca Camerinese for the district farther north, including a part of Umbria, and the Marca Anconitana for the former Pentapolis (Ancona). In 1080, the "marca Anconitana" was given in investiture to Robert Guiscard by Pope Gregory VII, to whom the Countess Matilda ceded the marches of Camerino and Fermo.


title: March (territory)

text: In 1105, the Emperor Henry IV invested Werner with the whole territory of the three marches, under the name of the March of Ancona. It was afterwards once more recovered by the Church and governed by papal legates as part of the Papal States. The Marche became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. After Italian unification in the 1860s, Austria-Hungary still controlled territory Italian nationalists still claimed as part of Italy. One of these territories was Austrian Littoral, which Italian nationalists began to call the Julian March because of its positioning and as an act of defiance against the hated Austro-Hungarian empire.


title: March (territory)

text: "Marche" were repeated on a miniature level, fringing many of the small territorial states of pre-Risorgimento Italy with a ring of smaller dependencies on their borders, which represent territorial "marche" on a small scale. A map of the Duchy of Mantua in 1702 (Braudel 1984, fig 26) reveals the independent, though socially and economically dependent arc of small territories from the principality of Castiglione in the northwest across the south to the duchy of Mirandola southeast of Mantua: the lords of Bozolo, Sabioneta, Dosolo, Guastalla, the count of Novellare.


title: March (territory)

text: In medieval Hungary the system of "gyepű" and "gyepűelve", effective until the mid-13th century, can be considered as marches even though in its organisation it shows major differences from Western European feudal marches. For one thing, the "gyepű" was not controlled by a Marquess.


title: March (territory)

text: The "Gyepű" was a strip of land that was specially fortified or made impassable, while "gyepűelve" was the mostly uninhabited or sparsely inhabited land beyond it. The "gyepűelve" is much more comparable to modern buffer zones than traditional European marches.


title: March (territory)

text: Portions of the "gyepű" were usually guarded by tribes who had joined the Hungarian nation and were granted special rights for their services at the borders, such as the Székelys, Pechenegs and Cumans. A ban on settlement north of Niš by the Byzantine Empire in the twelfth century helped to establish uninhabited marchland between the empire's territory and Hungary.


title: March (territory)

text: The Hungarian "gyepű" originates from the Turkish "yapi" meaning "palisade". During the 17th and 18th centuries these borderlands were called Markland in the area of Transylvania that bordered with the Kingdom of Hungary and was controlled by a Count or Countess.


title: March (territory)

text: In addition to the Carolingian "Marca Hispanica", Iberia was home to several marches set up by the native states. The future kingdoms of Portugal and Castile were founded as marcher counties intended to protect the Kingdom of León from the Cordoban Emirate, to the south and east respectively.


title: March (territory)

text: Likewise, Córdoba set up its own marches as a buffer to the Christian states to the north. The Upper March ("al-Tagr al-A'la"), centered on Zaragoza, faced the eastern "Marca Hispanica" and the western Pyrenees, and included the Distant or Farthest March ("al-Tagr al-Aqsa"). The Middle March ("al-Tagr al-Awsat"), centred on Toledo and later Medinaceli, faced the western Pyrenees and Asturias. The Lower March ("al-Tagr al-Adna"), centred on Mérida and later Badajoz, facing León and Portugal. These too would give rise to Kingdoms, the Taifas of Zaragoza, Toledo, and Badajoz.


title: March (territory)

text: In Norse, "mark" meant "borderlands" and "forest"; in present-day Norwegian and Swedish it has acquired the meaning "ground", while in Danish it has come to mean "field" or "grassland".


title: March (territory)

text: The forests surrounding Norwegian cities are called "Marka" – the marches. For example, the forests surrounding Oslo are called Nordmarka, Østmarka and Vestmarka – i.e. the northern, eastern and western marches.


title: March (territory)

text: In Värmland in Sweden, Nordmark Hundred was the frontier area near the border to Norway. Almost all of it is now a part of Årjäng Municipality. In the Middle Ages the area was called "Nordmarkerna" and was a part of Dalsland and not of Värmland.


title: March (territory)

text: The name of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in the midlands of England was Mercia. The name "Mercia" comes from the Old English for "boundary folk", and the traditional interpretation was that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the Welsh and the Anglo-Saxon invaders, although P. Hunter Blair has argued an alternative interpretation that they emerged along the frontier between the Kingdom of Northumbria and the inhabitants of the River Trent valley.


title: March (territory)

text: Latinizing the Anglo-Saxon term "mearc", the border areas between England and Wales were collectively known as the Welsh Marches ("marchia Wallia"), while the native Welsh lands to the west were considered Wales Proper ("pura Wallia"). The Norman lords in the Welsh Marches were to become the new Marcher Lords.


title: March (territory)

text: The title "Earl of March" is at least two distinct feudal titles: one in the northern marches, as an alternative title for the Earl of Dunbar (c. 1290 in the Peerage of Scotland); and one, that was held by the family of Mortimer (1328 in the Peerage of England), in the west Welsh Marches.


title: March (territory)

text: The Scottish Marches is a term for the border regions on both sides of the border between England and Scotland. From the Norman conquest of England until the reign of King James VI of Scotland, who also became King James I of England, border clashes were common and the monarchs of both countries relied on Marcher Lords to defend the frontier areas known as the Marches. They were hand-picked for their suitability for the challenges the responsibilities presented.


title: March (territory)

text: Patrick Dunbar, 8th Earl of Dunbar, a descendant of the Earls of Northumbria was recognized in the end of the 13th century to use the name March as his earldom in Scotland, otherwise known as Dunbar, Lothian, and Northumbrian border.


title: March (territory)

text: Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, Regent of England together with Isabella of France during the minority of her son, Edward III, was a usurper who had deposed, and allegedly arranged the murder of, King Edward II. He was created an earl in September 1328 at the height of his "de facto" rule. His wife was Joan de Geneville, 2nd Baroness Geneville, whose mother, Jeanne of Lusignan was one of the heiresses of the French Counts of La Marche and Angouleme.


title: March (territory)

text: His family, Mortimer Lords of Wigmore, had been border lords and leaders of defenders of Welsh marches for centuries. He selected "March" as the name of his earldom for several reasons: Welsh marches referred to several counties, whereby the title signified superiority compared to usual single county-based earldoms. Mercia was an ancient kingdom. His wife's ancestors had been Counts of La Marche and Angouleme in France.


title: March (territory)

text: In Ireland, a hybrid system of marches existed which was condemned as barbaric at the time. The Irish marches constituted the territory between English and Irish-dominated lands, which appeared as soon as the English did and were called by King John to be fortified. By the 14th century, they had become defined as the land between The Pale and the rest of Ireland. Local Anglo-Irish and Gaelic chieftains who acted as powerful spokespeople were recognised by the Crown and given a degree of independence. Uniquely, the keepers of the marches were given the power to terminate indictments. In later years, wardens of the Irish marches took Irish tenants.


title: March (territory)

text: Marquis, marchese and margrave ("Markgraf") all had their origins in feudal lords who held trusted positions in the borderlands. The English title was a foreign importation from France, tested out tentatively in 1385 by Richard II, but not naturalized until the mid-15th century, and now more often spelled "marquess".


title: March (territory)

text: The specific subdivisions of Armenia are each called "marz, մարզ" (pl. "marzer, մարզեր"), a loanword from Persian.


title: March (territory)

text: The Chinese concept of March is called "Fan" (藩), referring to feudatory domains and petty kingdoms on the borderlands of the empire.


title: March (territory)

text: In their initial development during the later Zhou dynasty, the commanderies ("jùn", 郡) functioned as marches, ranking below the dukes' and kings' original fiefs and below the more secure and populous counties ("xiàn"). As the commanderies formed the front lines between the major states, however, their military strength and strategic importance were typically much greater than the counties'. Over time, however, the commanderies were eventually developed into regular provinces and then discontinued entirely during the Tang dynasty reforms.


title: March (territory)

text: The European concept of "marches" applies just as well to the fief of Matsumae clan on the southern tip of Hokkaidō which was at Japan's northern border with the Ainu people of Hokkaidō, known as Ezo at the time. In 1590, this land was granted to the Kakizaki clan, who took the name Matsumae from then on. The Lords of Matsumae, as they are sometimes called, were exempt from owing rice to the "shōgun" in tribute, and from the "sankin-kōtai" system established by Tokugawa Ieyasu, under which most lords ("daimyōs") had to spend half the year at court (in the capital of Edo).


title: March (territory)

text: By guarding the border, rather than conquering or colonizing Ezo, the Matsumae, in essence, made the majority of the island an Ainu reservation. This also meant that Ezo, and the Kurile Islands beyond, were left essentially open to Russian colonization. However, the Russians never did colonize Ezo, and the marches were officially eliminated during the Meiji Restoration in the late 19th century, when the Ainu came under Japanese control, and Ezo was renamed Hokkaidō, and annexed to Japan.


title: March (territory)

text: functioned as a "borderland" or "march" and gained its current name, which is derived from a Slavic term of the same meaning (see above for similar in Slovenia, etc.), ultimately from this function. This, though, was merely a continuation of a semi-formal arrangement with the Poles, before escalating feuds, political infighting in Poland, and religious differences (mainly Eastern Orthodox vs. Roman Catholic) saw a loose coalition of Ukrainian lords and independent landowners collectively known as the Cossacks shift to ally with the Russian Empire.


title: March (territory)

text: The Cossacks became a significant part of Russian military history in their role as military border/buffer-troops in the Wild Fields of Ukraine. The Tatar slave raids in East Slavic lands brought considerable devastation and depopulation to this area prior to the rise of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. As settlement advanced and the borders moved, the Tsars transferred or formed Cossack units to perform similar functions on other borderlands/marches further south and east in (for example) the Kuban and in Siberia, forming (for example) the Black Sea Cossack Host, the Kuban Cossack Host and the Amur Cossack Host.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: The 2001 Backlash was the third Backlash professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 29, 2001, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois and was presented by Castrol GTX. Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event's card. The concept of the pay-per-view was based around the backlash from WrestleMania X-Seven.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: The main event was a "winner take all" tag team match in which the WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin teamed with his Power Trip ally, Intercontinental Champion Triple H, to take on the WWF Tag Team Champions, The Brothers of Destruction (The Undertaker and Kane). The stipulations were that if Austin and Triple H won, they would become the new tag team champions. If Undertaker and Kane won, the WWF and Intercontinental Championships would be awarded to them based on who scored the winning fall. The Power Trip won the match after Triple H hit Kane with a sledgehammer, thus gaining the tag team championship and retaining their own titles.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: Featured matches on the undercard included a Last Man Standing match between Shane McMahon and The Big Show, which McMahon won, and an Ultimate Submission match featuring Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle, which Benoit won.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: Backlash is a pay-per-view (PPV) event that was established by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1999. The concept of the pay-per-view was based around the backlash from WWF's flagship event, WrestleMania. The 2001 event was the third event in the Backlash chronology. It was scheduled to take place on April 29, 2001, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. The 2001 event featured the backlash from WrestleMania X-Seven.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: The event featured seven professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing scripted feuds and storylines. Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of events which built tension, culminating in a wrestling match or series of matches.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: At WrestleMania X-Seven, Stone Cold Steve Austin fought The Rock for the WWF Championship. During the match, Vince McMahon interfered, which eventually led to Austin attacking The Rock with a steel chair to win the WWF Championship and in the process align himself with his long-time enemy. The next night on "Raw is War", a rematch between the pair took place in a steel cage match. Triple H interfered in the match, attacking The Rock and partnering up with Austin and McMahon. Briefly known as The McMahon Alliance, the pair began being referred to as "The Two Man Power Trip" (or "The Power Trip" for short). On the episode of "SmackDown!" following WrestleMania, Austin assaulted his long-time friend Jim Ross after Ross criticized his alliance with Triple H and McMahon. Triple H then defeated Chris Jericho to win the Intercontinental Championship for a third time in the main event, bringing both of the major singles titles in the company to the new alliance.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: Shortly after this happened, The Brothers of Destruction (Kane and The Undertaker) began feuding with Austin and Triple H (in between, Triple H traded the Intercontinental Championship back and forth with Jeff Hardy for a brief period). A match between the two teams was signed for Backlash. Undertaker and Kane were not simply satisfied with that, and they demanded and were given a title shot at the reigning WWF Tag Team Champions, Edge and Christian, on the April 19, 2001 edition of "SmackDown!". The brothers won the match, but were attacked by the Power Trip afterwards.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: On the next "Raw is War", McMahon told Austin and Triple H that the match at Backlash, which was now to be contested for the Tag Team Championship, had an additional stipulation added to it. At the time, he and his wife Linda were going through (kayfabe) problems in their marriage and Linda, who McMahon had demanded a divorce from in December 2000, was seeking a divorce that he refused to give her. Since Linda was still the (on-screen) CEO of the company, this gave her power to veto her husband's decisions and force compromises.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: McMahon told the Power Trip that Linda had forced him to include one other caveat in the match. Austin and Triple H would indeed get their championship opportunity at Backlash, but in order to do so they would be required to place their singles titles at stake as well. The winning team would receive control of all three championships. If Austin and Triple H were to win, they would become Tag Team Champions in addition to their status as the WWF and Intercontinental Champions. If Undertaker and Kane were to win, they would receive both singles titles. Whoever scored the fall would receive the title of the wrestler they defeated, with the other receiving the other title; this meant if Austin took the fall, he would lose his WWF Championship to whoever pinned him or made him submit and Triple H would have to forfeit his Intercontinental Championship to whoever did not score the victory for the Brothers of Destruction.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: Before the event began, a dark match took place on Heat in which Crash Holly defended the WWF Light Heavyweight Championship against Jerry Lynn. Lynn pinned Holly with a Roll Up whilst holding Holly's tights to win the title.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: The event opened with X-Factor (X-Pac, Justin Credible and Albert) facing The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley, D-Von Dudley and Spike Dudley). X-Pac and Credible performed a double Superkick on Bubba to win the match.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: Next, Rhyno defended the WWF Hardcore Championship against Raven in a Hardcore match. Rhyno performed a Gore on Raven to retain the title.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: After that, WWF commissioner William Regal faced Chris Jericho in a Duchess of Queensbury Rules match. Jericho attempted a Lionsault on Regal but the Duchess announced the first round had expired, allowing Regal to pin Jericho with a roll up for a near-fall. Jericho forced Regal to submit to the Walls of Jericho but the Duchess announced submissions did not count. Jericho applied the Walls of Jericho on the Duchess, allowing Regal to hit Jericho with a steel chair to win the match.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: In the fourth match, Kurt Angle faced Chris Benoit in a 30-minute Ultimate Submission match, a variation of an Iron Man match. Angle forced Benoit to submit to a Leglock to make the score 1–0. Benoit forced Angle to submit to a Cross Armbreaker to make the score 1–1. Angle forced Benoit to submit to the Ankle lock to make the score 2–1. Angle forced Benoit to submit to the Crippler Crossface to make the score 3–1. Benoit forced Angle to submit to a Single Leg Boston Crab with his knee on Angle's neck to make the score 3–2. Benoit forced Angle to submit to the Ankle Lock to make the score 3–3. The time limit expired, leading to the referee continuing the match in overtime. Benoit forced Angle to submit to the Crippler Crossface to win the match 4–3.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: Next, Shane McMahon faced Big Show in a Last Man Standing match. Test interfered, performing a Big Boot on Big Show. Shane climbed the stage structure, allowing Test to attack Big Show in the staging area. Shane performed a Leap of Faith off the Titantron onto Big Show, who was lay in the staging area. Test used a Camera to help Shane stand but Big Show could not stand by a ten count, meaning Shane won the match.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: After that, Matt Hardy defended the WWF European Championship against Christian and Eddie Guerrero. Edge interfered, performing a Spear on Hardy. Jeff Hardy interfered, attacking Edge. Christian performed an Unprettier on Guerrero but Jeff broke up the pin with a Swanton Bomb. Hardy performed a Twist of Fate on Christian to retain the title.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: In the main event, The Two-Man Power Trip (Stone Cold Steve Austin and Triple H) faced The Brothers of Destruction (Kane and The Undertaker) in a Tag team match for The Brothers of Destruction's WWF Tag Team Championship, Triple H's WWF Intercontinental Championship and Austin's WWF Championship. Triple H performed a Pedigree on Kane and Austin pinned Kane but Undertaker broke up the pinfall. Kane performed an Enziguiri on Austin, causing Austin to collide with the referee. Undertaker performed a Last Ride on Triple H but the referee did not see the tag, voiding the pinfall. Stephanie McMahon interfered, leading to Kane performing a Big Boot on McMahon. Vince McMahon interfered, handing Triple H his sledgehammer. Triple H hit Kane with the sledgehammer to win the match, retain the WWF Intercontinental Championship and Austin's WWF Championship and win the WWF Tag Team Championship.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: The feud between The Two Man Power Trip and The Brothers of Destruction continued. The next night on "Raw is War", Austin and Triple H broke Kane's arm in storyline. It was then announced Kane would face Triple H in a Chain match for the Intercontinental Championship and Undertaker would face Austin for the WWF Championship at Judgment Day. At Judgment Day, Austin accidentally hit Triple H with a steel chair during his chain match with Kane, causing Triple H to lose his Intercontinental Championship. Triple H did not return the favor, however; instead, he helped Austin retain his title against the Undertaker. The next night on "Raw", the Two-Man Power Trip faced Chris Benoit and Chris Jericho with the tag title on the line. In this match, Triple H suffered a legitimate and career-threatening injury when he misstepped, causing him to suffer a tear in his left quadriceps. Despite his inability to place any weight on his leg, Triple H was able to complete the match. Near the end of the match, Jericho tried to pin Austin, but Triple H got in the ring and tried to hit Jericho with the sledgehammer. Jericho avoided the blow and the sledgehammer instead hit Austin, a situation Jericho and Benoit took advantage of to win the match and the titles.


title: Backlash (2001)

text: The 2001 Backlash would be the final Backlash event to occur before the introduction of the brand extension the following year in March, where the promotion split its roster between the Raw and SmackDown! brands where the wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform. The 2002 event in turn featured wrestlers from both brands.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert FitzRoy, 1st Earl of Gloucester (c. 1090 – 31 October 1147) ("alias" Robert Rufus, Robert de Caen (Latinised to Robertus de Cadomo), Robert Consul) was an illegitimate son of King Henry I of England. He was the half-brother of the Empress Matilda, and her chief military supporter during the civil war known as The Anarchy, in which she vied with Stephen of Blois for the throne of England.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert was probably the eldest of Henry's many illegitimate children. He was born before his father's accession to the English throne, either during the reign of his grandfather William the Conqueror or his uncle William Rufus. He is sometimes and erroneously designated as a son of Nest, daughter of Rhys ap Tewdwr, last king of Deheubarth, although his mother has been identified as a member of "the Gay or Gayt family of north Oxfordshire", possibly a daughter of Rainald Gay (fl. 1086) of Hampton Gay and Northbrook Gay in Oxfordshire. Rainald had known issue, Robert Gay of Hampton (died c. 1138) and Stephen Gay of Northbrook (died after 1154). A number of Oxfordshire women feature as the mothers of Robert's siblings.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert may have been a native of Caen or he may have been only the Constable and Governor of that city, jure uxoris.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert's father had contracted him in marriage to Mabel FitzRobert, daughter and heir of Robert Fitzhamon, but the marriage was not solemnized until June 1119 at Lisieux. His wife brought him the substantial honours of Gloucester in England and Glamorgan in Wales, and the honours of Sainte-Scholasse-sur-Sarthe and Évrecy in Normandy, as well as Creully. After the "White Ship" disaster late in 1120, and probably because of this marriage, in 1121 or 1122 his father created him Earl of Gloucester.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: In either 1121 or 1122, his father created him the 1st Earl of Gloucester. Robert became powerful in both the countries of Normandy and England with this act, as Caen may have remained his principal seat.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert possessed many castles and land through grants made to him by his father, King Henry. He was the keeper of Gloucester Castle, Canterbury Castle, and fortresses of Bristol, Leeds, and Dover. Bristol Castle was Robert's principal seat in England and he constructed additions to its exterior fortifications and rebuilt the interior. Robert held Gloucester Castle in right of his earldom, however, after Miles of Gloucester, 1st Earl of Hereford was created earl, Miles became the constable of it under Robert, his liege-lord, as Florence of Worcester called him.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: There is evidence in the contemporary source, the "Gesta Stephani", that Robert was proposed by some as a candidate for the throne, after his father's death, but his illegitimacy ruled him out:


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: This suggestion cannot have led to any idea that he and Stephen were rivals for the Crown, as Geoffrey of Monmouth in 1136 referred to Robert as one of the 'pillars' of the new King's rule.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: For the first five years after the death of his father, Henry I, and usurpation of power by Stephen in 1135, Robert seems to have been an inactive spectator of the struggle between Stephen and Matilda.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: In June 1138, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou persuaded Robert to join the party opposing King Stephen through prayers and promises given to Robert when Geoffrey entered Normandy. It is said that when the hostilities first began, Robert acted with "great prudence, and still held aloof," but that his hostility to Stephen was not disguised. Thus, while Robert sided in June 1138 with the party opposing Stephen's rule was a great change in the power dynamics in England, it may not have been quite as unexpected as some scholars make it out to be, as "his hostility to Stephen was scarcely disguised."


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: In 1139, Robert, along with Guy de Sablé and several others, took Matilda to England. On August 31, 1139, they landed in England and were received at Arundel castle by their step-mother Adeliza, the queen-dowager. Matilda was given leave from King Stephen to pass through England under safe conduct. Robert hosted Matilda after her arrival in England at Bristol Castle and led her forces against Stephen.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert commanded the empress's forces during the Battle of Lincoln, during which Robert's son-in-law Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester commanded his own forces for the empress.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: The capture of King Stephen at the Battle of Lincoln on 2 February 1141 gave Empress Matilda the upper hand in her battle for the throne, but by alienating the citizens of London she failed to be crowned Queen. Robert imprisoned Stephen in Bristol. Her forces were defeated at the Rout of Winchester on 14 September 1141, and Robert of Gloucester was captured nearby at Stockbridge.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Without the Earl of Gloucester, the party of Matilda was powerless, so the two prisoners, King Stephen and Robert of Gloucester, were then exchanged. But by freeing Stephen, Empress Matilda had given up her best chance of becoming queen. She would later return to France, where she died in 1167, though her son succeeded Stephen as King Henry II in 1154.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: With the success of Stephen in England, Robert and Matilda returned to Normandy, where the earl recruited fresh levies. He soon crossed the channel again, taking with him his nephew, Henry, then ten years old. Robert was devoted to the education of his young charge and taught him English habits and culture. Following their crossing of the channel, Robert went to Wareham, Dorsetshire and sent Henry to Somersetshire, where he was received by friends of his mother, Matilda.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: The civil war continued on without much success, with alternate triumphs and defeats for three more years. However, it came to a quiet close in 1147 when Robert died and the queen and her son, now deprived of Gloucester's protection, returned to Normandy.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert of Gloucester died in 1147 at Bristol Castle, where he had previously imprisoned King Stephen, and was buried at St James' Priory, Bristol, which he had founded in 1129.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert of Gloucester is a figure in many of the novels by Ellis Peters in the Cadfael Chronicles (written between 1977 and 1994) where he is seen as a strong moderating force to his half-sister (see "Saint Peter's Fair"). His efforts to gain the crown for his sister by capturing King Stephen and her own actions in London are part of the plot in "The Pilgrim of Hate". His capture by Stephen's wife Queen Mathilda is in the background of the plot of "An Excellent Mystery". The exchange of the imprisoned Robert for the imprisoned Stephen is in the background of the plot of "The Raven in the Foregate". Robert's travels to persuade his brother-in-law to aid Empress Maud militarily in England is in the background of the novel "The Rose Rent." His return to England when Empress Maud is trapped in Oxford Castle figures in "The Hermit of Eyton Forest".


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert's return to England with his young nephew Henry, years later the king succeeding Stephen, is in the background of the plot of "The Confession of Brother Haluin", as the battles begin anew with Robert's military guidance. Robert's success in the Battle of Wilton (1143) leads to the death of a fictional character, part of the plot of "The Potter's Field". In the last novel, he is a father who can disagree with and then forgive his son Philip (see the last novel, "Brother Cadfael's Penance"). In that last novel, Brother Cadfael speculates on the possibly different path for England if the first son of old King Henry, the illegitimate Robert of Gloucester, had been recognised and accepted. In Wales of that era, a son was not illegitimate if recognized by his father, and to many in the novels, Robert of Gloucester seemed the best of the contenders to succeed his father.


title: Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester

text: Robert is also a central character in Sharon Penman's 1995 novel "When Christ and His Saints Slept". He was also central in the struggle during The Anarchy as portrayed in Ken Follet's 1989 novel "The Pillars of the Earth" and in the 2010 mini-series of the same name.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The Central Park Zoo is a zoo located at the southeast corner of Central Park in New York City. It is part of an integrated system of four zoos and one aquarium managed by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). In conjunction with the Central Park Zoo's operations, the WCS offers children's educational programs, is engaged in restoration of endangered species populations, and reaches out to the local community through volunteer programs.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: Its precursor, a menagerie, was founded in 1864, becoming the first public zoo to open in New York. The present facility first opened as a city zoo on December 2, 1934, and was part of a larger revitalization program of city parks, playgrounds and zoos initiated in 1934 by New York City Department of Parks and Recreation (NYC Parks) commissioner Robert Moses. It was built, in large part, through Civil Works Administration and Works Progress Administration (WPA) labor and funding. The Children's Zoo opened to the north of the main zoo in 1960, using funding from a donation by Senator Herbert Lehman and his wife Edith.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: After 49 years of operation as a city zoo run by NYC Parks, Central Park Zoo closed in 1983 for reconstruction. The closure was part of a five-year, $35 million renovation program, that completely replaced the zoo's cages with naturalistic environments. It was rededicated on August 8, 1988, as part of a system of five facilities managed by the WCS, all of which are accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA).


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The Central Park Zoo is part of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), an integrated network of four zoos and an aquarium spread throughout New York City. Located at East 64th Street and Fifth Avenue, the zoo is situated on a plot in Central Park. Visitors may enter through the Fifth Avenue entrance or from within Central Park.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The Central Park Zoo is a major tourist attraction within Central Park, drawing more than one million people every year. According to a 2011 study by the Central Park Conservancy, the zoo and its surroundings were visited by an estimated four million people each year. However, the WCS cites much lower figures since it only counts patrons with tickets. In 2007, it recorded that 1.01 million people visited the Central Park Zoo, and in 2006, 1.03 million people. , the Central Park Zoo had 1,487 animals representing 163 species.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: Trellised, vine-clad, glass-roofed pergolas link the three major exhibit areas—tropic, temperate and polar—housed in discrete buildings of brick trimmed with granite, masked by vines. The exhibit areas are centered around a square central garden that contains a square sea lion pool in its center. The sea lion pool is surrounded by glass fencing to allow visitors to observe the sea lions and their daily feedings.