title: Central Park Zoo

text: The structure at the central garden's southwestern corner is the "Tropic Zone", which contains a two-story representation of a rain forest. The rain forest contains Rodrigues flying foxes, Seba's short-tailed bats, emerald tree boas, pythons, cotton-top tamarins, white-eared titis, toucans, black-and-white ruffed lemurs from the Bronx Zoo and a large variety of birds including scarlet ibis, emerald starlings, superb starlings, pied avocets, speckled mousebirds, sunbittern, troupials, Taveta golden weaver, blue-crowned motmots, crested couas, blue-gray tanagers, African pygmy goose, ochre-marked parakeets, white-fronted amazons, blue-headed macaws, plum-headed parakeets, Derbyan parakeets, Fischer's lovebirds, golden conures, red bird-of-paradise, superb bird-of-paradise, Nicobar pigeons, black-naped fruit doves, Victoria crowned-pigeons, coroneted fruit doves, kagus, blue-and-yellow- and green winged macaws. The zoo also keeps piranhas, pig-nosed turtles and red-footed tortoises. There is also a large free-flight area for birds. The elephant house of the original menagerie was formerly located at the site.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: To the west of the garden is the "Temperate Territory", a landscaped series of paths surrounding a lake. It hosts animals such as red pandas, white-naped cranes, snow monkeys, and snow leopards. A snow leopard exhibit in the Temperate Territory opened in June 2009. The Temperate Territory is located on the site of the 1934 zoo's cafeteria.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The northern side of the garden is adjacent to the "Penguins and Sea Birds" section. This multilevel structure contains a chilled penguin house that contains macaroni penguins, king penguins, chinstrap penguins, gentoo penguins, tufted puffins and an outdoor pool with harbor seals, as well as an outdoor grizzly bear exhibit. It is located on the site of a lion house that was built in 1934 along with the original menagerie.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The eastern side of the central garden is next to the Arsenal, technically located outside the zoo. The structure was completed in 1851 and originally intended as a weapons and ammunition storehouse for the New York State Militia. It once served as an actual zoo building, but now contains NYC Parks Department offices. Central Park Zoo also includes a 4D theater, located to the north of the Arsenal, while a gift shop and ticket booth are located to the south of the Arsenal.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The southern side of the garden contains the Intelligence Garden, located at the site of the original menagerie's horned animal/small mammal house. Its name is inspired by a rare-animal menagerie created by King Wen of Zhou in 1100 B.C. A cafeteria, the Dancing Crane Cafe, is located to the south of the Intelligence Garden.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: Several works of public art can be found in the Central Park Zoo. Five structures, preserved from the original zoo built in 1934, still feature their original animal-themed limestone friezes sculpted by Frederick Roth. The same artist created a pair of bronze statues for the original zoo, "Dancing Goat" and "Dancing Bear", which now flank the zoo’s southern entrance. "Tigress and Cubs", one of the park's oldest statues, was created by Auguste Cain in 1867 and installed on a rock outcrop near the Lake, but moved to the zoo in 1934.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The zoo coordinates breeding programs for some endangered species as part of the Species Survival Plan, such as thick-billed parrots and red pandas. In 2011, the WCS announced that the Central Park Zoo was the first North American zoo to hatch ducklings of critically endangered scaly-sided mergansers. In addition, the first example of whispering in non-human primates was observed at the Central Park Zoo in 2013, when tamarin monkeys were heard whispering around a staff member that they disliked.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The zoo hosts educational venues as well as exhibits. The volunteer program at the Central Park Zoo engages members of the community; it is a combination outreach and educational program for adults. Volunteer guides conduct tours for visitors, while volunteer docents augment the educational program. Docents enroll in a four-month training program. The zoo also offers several programs for students.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The Children's Zoo is located north of the main zoo. It is officially named the Tisch Children's Zoo after businessman Laurence A. Tisch, whose donation funded the zoo's 1990s renovation. The Children's Zoo contains a petting zoo with mini nubian goats (a crossbreed between Nigerian dwarf and Nubian goats), sheep, pigs, alpacas, Patagonian cavies, and the only cow in Manhattan, as well as the Acorn Theatre, a performing arts theater. Admission to the Children's Zoo is included with the purchase of tickets to the main zoo.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The Lehman Gates by Paul Manship are a notable feature retained from the original Children's Zoo. They were donated by Herbert and Edith Lehman in 1960 in honor of their 50th anniversary, and as part of their donation toward the construction of the Children's Zoo itself. The gates were renovated in the 1980s. Additionally, the Delacorte Clock, a gift of George T. Delacorte dedicated in 1965, is mounted on a three-tiered tower above the arcade between the Wildlife Center and the Children's Zoo.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The zoo was not part of the original Greensward Plan for Central Park created by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux. However, a menagerie near the Arsenal, on the edge of Central Park located at Fifth Avenue facing East 64th Street, spontaneously evolved from gifts of exotic pets and other animals informally given to the park. The first animal, a bear cub tied to a tree, was left in Central Park in 1859, followed by a monkey the next year. These animals were popular with the park's visitors even though there was no formal zoo at the time. Soon, people began donating other animals such as cranes, a peacock, and goldfish. Unsolicited donations came from a variety of people, from prominent figures to young boys. The donations also included dead animals. The Central Park planning commission recorded all of these donations in its annual reports.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The American Zoological and Botanical Society, which sought to create a zoo somewhere in New York City, was created in early 1860. The group began discussing possible sites for a zoo, among them Central Park. By 1862, were set aside for the construction of a future "zoological and botanical garden", later the Central Park Zoo. However, since the zoo's site was not yet formally designated, the animals were kept in the Central Park Mall. Popular animals included three bald eagles and a bald-headed monkey. In 1864, a formal zoo received charter confirmation from New York's assembly, making it the United States' second publicly owned zoo, after the Philadelphia Zoo, which was founded in 1859. By then, the park had over 400 animals. More than 250 animals would be donated in 1864–1865 alone.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: Originally the zoo was supposed to be located in Manhattan Square, on the west side of Central Park where the American Museum of Natural History is now located, though this location was never used as a zoo. Up to twelve sites would eventually be considered for the zoo throughout the last three decades of the 19th century, including the North Meadow of Central Park. Some animals were moved to the Arsenal in 1865, and larger animals grazed there during summers. A "deer park" was established at the current site of the Metropolitan Museum of Art three years later. In 1870, when the Tammany Hall political organization took control of the Central Park commission, it mandated that the Central Park menagerie buy its own animals rather than accept donations, and it moved the animals to five structures behind the Arsenal. The same year, Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins sculpted dinosaur figures for a proposed dinosaur exhibit at the zoo, but they were destroyed by Tammany Hall officials who did not appreciate these figures, and the pieces were rumored to be buried nearby.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The menagerie became popular because of its free admission and proximity to working-class Lower Manhattan; by 1873, it saw 2.5 million annual visitors. The first permanent menagerie building was constructed behind the Arsenal in 1875. The menagerie reached peak popularity in the mid-1880s after a chimpanzee nicknamed "Mike Crowley" was imported from Liberia. Observers such as former president Ulysses S. Grant showed up at the Monkey House to see the chimpanzee, overfilling the building past capacity. However, Irish-American groups took offense to the chimpanzee's nickname, saying that the names given to animals in the Central Park menagerie were stereotypically Irish, and thus derogatory to that ethnic group. Frederick Law Olmsted also disapproved of the menagerie, believing Central Park to be better suited for scenic vistas than for entertainment, though he admitted that the zoo was the most popular part of the park.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: By the 1890s, wealthy residents of nearby neighborhoods were clamoring for the zoo to be relocated somewhere else, such as the North Meadow. However, these efforts met resistance, as the Central Park menagerie was popular among the general public and among the politicians that represented them. This subsequently led to the creation of the Bronx Zoo, a much larger, privately operated zoo in the Bronx in 1897. Though wealthy residents hoped that people would travel to the Bronx Zoo for its superior facilities, the Central Park Zoo continued to be popular even after the Bronx Zoo opened in 1899. The Central Park menagerie attracted over three million people annually by 1902, more than the Museum of Natural History and the Metropolitan Museum combined, despite only receiving one-fifth as much money as either of the museums.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: Through the early 20th century, the quality of the menagerie declined through neglect from the city government, which administered the zoo. The zoo accepted creatures of all kinds, even those with health problems, but offered insufficient veterinary care.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: In 1919, some of the structures at the Central Park menagerie were modified to accommodate the addition of new animals. Subsequently, in 1932, a new concrete structure was built for the zoo's wolves because the previous steel enclosure was deemed insufficient to contain the wolves. By then, the zoo was extremely rundown, and its 22 cages were regarded as "flimsy and rat-ridden". The wooden sheds posed a fire hazard, and the enclosures were so ineffective that zookeepers guarded the lion house to prevent the lions from escaping.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: After assuming office in January 1934, New York City mayor Fiorello La Guardia hired Robert Moses to head a newly unified Parks Department. Moses soon prepared extensive plans to reconstruct the city's parks, renovate existing facilities and create new swimming pools, zoos, playgrounds and parks. Moses acquired substantial Civil Works Administration, and later, Works Progress Administration funding and soon embarked upon an eight-year citywide construction program, relieving some of the high unemployment in New York City in this Depression year.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: Plans for the new Central Park Zoo were prepared by Aymar Embury II within a 16-day span in February 1934 and were announced the following month. Embury's plans called for nine terracotta and brick structures to replace the structures in the menagerie. These structures included seven new animal enclosures, as well as a comfort station and a garage. A sea lion pool, designed by Charles Schmieder, was to be located in the center of the new zoo, surrounded by the zoo enclosures on three sides. The new structures were designed in such a way that they could be maintained easily. The buildings, to cost $411,000, were designed in conjunction with new enclosures at the Prospect Park Zoo.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The reconstruction of the zoo was initially criticized by individuals who thought that the money spent on building a zoo would be better utilized on the construction of new schools around the city. During the reconstruction, the previous structures were entirely demolished. While construction was ongoing, animals were temporarily moved to other zoos. The rebuilt zoo opened on December 2, 1934, at a ceremony where former governor Al Smith was given the honorary title of "night superintendent". By April 1936, the renovated zoo had seen six million visitors since its reopening. To prevent the recurrence of rat infestations, Moses also instituted a rat-elimination program in and around the zoo.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: In June 1960, U.S. senator Herbert Lehman and his wife Edith donated $500,000 toward the construction of a new children's zoo just north of the existing zoo. Work began that November, and the children's zoo was officially opened on June 27, 1961. The children's zoo featured attractions like a petting area with ducks, rabbits, and chickens; a large fiberglass whale statue dubbed "Whaley" (which acted as the entrance to the small zoo); a Noah's Ark feature; and a medieval castle feature. The animals were housed in small storybook-style structures bordering an irregular pond.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: By 1967, the wooden railings around the main zoo's enclosures were rotting, and NYC Parks commissioner August Heckscher II had authorized repairs to these railings. The same year, the zoo cafeteria was renovated after a new concessionaire took control of the cafe.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the New York City Subway's 63rd Street lines, the present-day , were being built directly underneath the zoo. A graffiti wall was erected along the line's length through Central Park. The tunnel provided a subterranean gathering place for very early subway artists who hung around together in Central Park, and was named "Zoo York" by "ALI", founder of the SOUL ARTISTS graffiti crew. The name came about because it was in a "zoo" in New "York", hence "Zoo York". The construction of the subway line itself was controversial because it called for of cut-and-cover tunneling, which required digging an open trench through Central Park and then covering it over. One of the concerns was that the Central Park Zoo, and a bird sanctuary outside the zoo, were located very close to the boundary of the trench. Eventually, the New York City Transit Authority, which operated the New York City Subway, agreed to reduce disruption by halving the length of the cut.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: A nature kiosk at Central Park Zoo was added in 1972, and a $500,000 renovation for the Lion House was proposed the following year. By then, the Central Park Zoo was quite dilapidated: in November 1974, protesters gathered outside the zoo to protest the conditions there. NYC Parks commissioner Gordon Davis described the zoo as a "Rikers Island for animals". Even so, the zoo was one of the most popular attractions in Central Park through the 1980s, according to surveys taken during that era.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: Around the same time, there was a plan to shift control of the Central Park, Prospect Park, and Queens Zoos from the city government to the New York Zoological Society, a quasi-public conservation organization. At the time, none of the zoos had dedicated curatorial staff and all had only a skeletal zookeeping staff. The society proposed sending the larger animals to different zoos with more humane conditions, and animal-rights groups sued the city in an effort to close the two zoos and move the animals to the larger Bronx Zoo. A 1976 report by the World Federation for the Protection of Animals found that all three zoos were operating in "shameful conditions", and that the animals at the Central Park and Prospect Park Zoos were living in poorly maintained facilities.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: After fifteen years of sporadic conversations, the administration of mayor Ed Koch and the New York Zoological Society (renamed the Wildlife Conservation Society, or WCS, in 1993) signed a fifty-year agreement in April 1980, wherein the Central Park, Prospect Park, and Queens Zoos would be administered by the Society. They proposed renovation plans for all three zoos in 1981. The Central Park Zoo's renovation plan called for the demolition of five of the six structures around the sea lion pool (except for the Arsenal), as well as new classrooms and auditoriums for students, and a snack bar to replace the zoo's concessions. "The New York Times" reported that "the caging of these animals in inadequate spaces has long enraged animal lovers." Starting in November 1982, the Central Park Zoo's animals were temporarily moved to other zoos while construction was ongoing. Most of the large animals were permanently rehoused in larger, more natural spaces at the Bronx Zoo. The zoo had three "problem animals" that few other zoos wanted to take, but even they found homes.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The main zoo was closed in late 1983, though the children's zoo remained open. Demolition continued through 1984, though construction on the new zoo did not begin until the following year. The subsequent redesign was executed by Kevin Roche of Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo Associates. The facility's menagerie cages were replaced with three naturalistic habitats that blended with Central Park's scenery. Four of the original buildings were preserved in the redesigned zoo, though the cramped outdoor cages were demolished. The central feature of the original zoo, the sea lion pool, was retained.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: The renovation was originally budgeted at $8.3 million. The renovated zoo was then planned to reopen in 1985 at a cost of $14 million, but the project was delayed for three years. The zoo reopened to the public on August 8, 1988. The renovation ended up costing $35 million. Of this, the city contributed $22 million while the Society contributed the balance. In order to pay for the zoo construction, the Society started charging admission for zoo patrons for the first time in the zoo's history. With the reopening of the Central Park Zoo, the Society aimed to designate each of its three small zoos with a specific purpose. The Central Park Zoo would be focused toward conservation; the Prospect Park Zoo would be primarily a children's zoo; and the Queens Zoo would become a zoo with North American animals.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: By the early 1990s, some of the structures at the Children's Zoo had collapsed, and there were reports that the animals were being neglected. Under threat of closure by federal regulators, the city closed the zoo in 1991. Though the WCS had a plan to renovate the zoo, it languished for years because the restoration needed approval from the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), which had designated several zoo buildings as landmarks. Furthermore, there were disputes over what the theme of the renovated Children's Zoo should be. The $6 million plan to renovate the Children's Zoo was approved by the LPC in 1996, though it was opposed by preservationists who wanted to prevent the zoo's structures from demolition. The renovation was initially supposed to be funded by $3 million from Henry and Edith Everett, but the Everetts withdrew their gift due to disputes over how the money should be spent. With the help of a $4.5 million grant from businessman Laurence A. Tisch, the Children's Zoo was renovated and renamed the Tisch Children's Zoo upon its reopening in September 1997.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: In June 2009, the Allison Maher Stern Snow Leopard Exhibit opened with three snow leopards, moved from the Bronx Zoo. The exhibit, costing $10.6 million, was the first new feature in the zoo since its 1988 renovation.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: A famous hoax regarding the zoo is known as the "Central Park Zoo escape" and the "Central Park menagerie scare of 1874". It was a hoax perpetrated by James Gordon Bennett Jr. in his newspaper, the "New York Herald". J.I.C. Clarke was the primary writer of the hoax, under the direction and inspiration of the "Herald"s managing editor, T.B. Connery, who often walked through the zoo, and had witnessed the near-escape of a leopard. The "Herald"s cover story of November 9, 1874, claimed that there had been a mass escape of animals from the Central Park Zoo and that several people had been killed by the free-roaming beasts. A rhinoceros was said to be the first escapee, goring his keeper to death and setting into motion the escape of other animals, including a polar bear, a panther, a Numidian lion, several hyenas, and a Bengal tiger.


title: Central Park Zoo

text: At the end of the lengthy article, which was divided across several pages of the newspaper, the following notice was the only indication that the story horrifying readers across the city was a hoax: "... of course, the entire story given above is a pure fabrication. Not one word of it is true." That was not enough to assuage critics, however, who accused Bennett of inciting panic when the extent of the hoax became widely known. The authors later claimed their intent was merely to draw attention to inadequate safety precautions at the zoo, and claimed to be surprised at the extent of the reaction to their story.


title: Black triangle (badge)

text: The inverted black triangle () was an identification badge used in Nazi concentration camps to mark prisoners designated "asozial" ("asocial") and "arbeitsscheu" ("work-shy"). The Roma and Sinti people were considered asocial and tagged with the black triangle. The designation also included alcoholics, homeless, beggars, nomads, prostitutes, and violators of laws prohibiting sexual relations between Aryans and Jews. Women also deemed to be anti-social included nonconformists.


title: Black triangle (badge)

text: The symbol originates from Nazi Germany, where every prisoner had to wear a concentration camp badge on their prison clothes, of which the design and color categorized them according to the reason for their internment. The homeless were included, as were alcoholics, those who habitually avoided labor and employment, draft evaders, pacifists, Roma and Sinti people, and others.


title: Black triangle (badge)

text: Romani first wore the black triangle with a Z notation (for , meaning Gypsy) to the right of the triangle's point. Male Romani were later assigned a brown triangle. Female Romani were still deemed asocials as they were stereotyped as petty criminals (prostitutes, kidnappers and fortune tellers).


title: Black triangle (badge)

text: Some UK groups concerned with the rights of disabled people have adopted the symbol in their campaigns. Such groups cite press coverage and government policies, including changes to incapacity benefits and disability living allowance, as the reasons for their campaigns. "The Black Triangle List" was created to keep track of welfare-related deaths due to cuts by the Department for Work and Pensions.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica (, an area of roughly and about across: about the size of France). It is several hundred metres thick. The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than long, and between high above the water surface. Ninety percent of the floating ice, however, is below the water surface.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand. It floats in, and covers, a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the east of the Ross Sea.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: The ice shelf is named after Sir James Clark Ross, who discovered it on 28 January 1841. It was originally called "The Barrier", with various adjectives including "Great Ice Barrier", as it prevented sailing further south. Ross mapped the ice front eastward to 160° W. In 1947, the U.S. Board on Geographic Names applied the name "Ross Shelf Ice" to this feature and published it in the original U.S. Antarctic Gazetteer. In January 1953, the name was changed to "Ross Ice Shelf"; that name was published in 1956.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: On 5 January 1841, the British Admiralty's Ross expedition in the "Erebus" and the "Terror", three-masted ships with specially strengthened wooden hulls, was going through the pack ice of the Pacific near Antarctica in an attempt to determine the position of the South Magnetic Pole. Four days later, they found their way into open water and were hoping that they would have a clear passage to their destination. But on 11 January, the men were faced with an enormous mass of ice.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: Sir James Clark Ross, the expedition's commander, remarked: "Well, there's no more chance of sailing through that than through the cliffs of Dover". Ross, who in 1831 had located the North Magnetic Pole, spent the next two years vainly searching for a sea passage to the South Pole; later, his name was given to the ice shelf and the sea surrounding it. Two volcanoes in the region were named by Ross for his vessels.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: For later Antarctic explorers seeking to reach the South Pole, the Ross Ice Shelf became a starting area. In a first exploration of the area by the Discovery Expedition in 1901–1904, Robert Falcon Scott made a significant study of the shelf and its surroundings from his expedition's base on Ross Island. By measurement of calved ice bergs and their buoyancy, he estimated the ice sheet to be on average 274 meters thick; the undisturbed morphology of the ice sheet and its inverted temperature profile led him to conclude it was floating on water; and measurements in 1902–1903 showed it had advanced 555 meters northwards in 13.5 months. The findings were presented at a lecture entitled "Universitas Antarctica!" given 7 June 1911 and were published in the account of Scott's second expedition (the Terra Nova Expedition of 1910–1913).


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: Ernest Shackleton's southern party (Shackleton, Adams, Marshal, Wild) of the 1908 Nimrod expedition were the first humans to cross the Ice Shelf during its failed attempt to reach the South Pole. Both Roald Amundsen and Scott crossed the shelf to reach the Pole in 1911. Amundsen wrote: "Along its outer edge the Barrier shows an even, flat surface; but here, inside the bay, the conditions were entirely different. Even from the deck of the "Fram" we were able to observe great disturbances of the surface in every direction; huge ridges with hollows between them extended on all sides. The greatest elevation lay to the south in the form of a lofty, arched ridge, which we took to be about high on the horizon. But it might be assumed that this ridge continued to rise beyond the range of vision".


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: The next day, the party made its first steps on the Barrier. "After half an hour's march we were already at the first important point—the connection between the sea-ice and the Barrier. This connection had always haunted our brains. What would it be like? A high, perpendicular face of ice, up which we should have to haul our things laboriously with the help of tackles? Or a great and dangerous fissure, which we should not be able to cross without going a long way round? We naturally expected something of the sort. This mighty and terrible monster would, of course, offer resistance in some form or other," he wrote.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: "The mystic Barrier! All accounts without exception, from the days of Ross to the present time, had spoken of this remarkable natural formation with apprehensive awe. It was as though one could always read between the lines the same sentence: 'Hush, be quiet! the mystic Barrier!'


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: Ice shelves are thick plates of ice, formed continuously by glaciers, that float atop an ocean. The shelves act as "brakes" for the glaciers. These shelves serve another important purpose—"they moderate the amount of melting that occurs on the glaciers' surfaces. Once their ice shelves are removed, the glaciers increase in speed due to meltwater percolation and/or a reduction of braking forces, and they may begin to dump more ice into the ocean than they gather as snow in their catchments. Glacier ice speed increases are already observed in Peninsula areas where ice shelves disintegrated in prior years."


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: The Ross Ice Shelf is one of many such shelves. It reaches into Antarctica from the north, and covers an area of about , nearly the size of France. The ice mass is about wide and long. In some places, namely its southern areas, the ice shelf can be almost 750 m (2,450 ft) thick. The Ross Ice Shelf pushes out into the sea at between a day. Other glaciers gradually add bulk to it. At the same time, the freezing of seawater below the ice mass increases the thickness of the ice from . Sometimes, fissures and cracks may cause part of the shelf to break off; the largest known is about , that is, slightly larger than Belgium. Iceberg B-15, the world's largest recorded iceberg, was calved from the Ross Ice Shelf during March 2000.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: Scientists have long been intrigued by the shelf and its composition. Many scientific teams researching the Antarctic have made camps on or adjacent to the Ross Ice Shelf. This includes McMurdo Station. One major effort was a series of studies conducted in 1957 and 1958, which were continued during the 1960–61 season. The efforts involved an international team of scientists. Some parties explored the glaciers and others the valleys on the ice shelf.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: From 1967 to 1972 the Scott Polar Research Institute reported extensive observations using radio echo sounding. The technique allowed measurements to be taken from the air; allowing a criss cross track of 35,000 km to be covered; compared with a 3,000 km track from previous seismic sounding on the ground. More detailed surveys were executed between 1973 and 1978.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: A significant scientific endeavor called the Ross Ice Shelf Project was launched with a plan of drilling into the shelf to sample the biomass in the area and make other determinations about the shelf and its relationship to the sea floor. This is believed to be the first oceanographic ice shelf borehole. The project included surface glaciological observations as well as drilling, and the glaciological portion started during the planning phase of the drilling. The drilling portion of the project was to have begun during 1974, but the actual drilling was delayed until 1976. Finally, in 1977, the scientists were able to drill successfully through the ice, making a hole that could be sampled every few days for three weeks. The team was able to map the sea floor, study the tides, and assess the fish and various other forms of life in the waters. The team also examined the oceanographic and geological conditions as well as the temperature of the ice. They estimated that the base of the shelf was −2.16° Celsius (27.3 °F). They also made other calculations about the fluctuations of the temperatures.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: The results of these various projects were published in a series of reports in the 2 February 1979 issue of "Science".


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: During the 1980s, a network of weather stations was installed to record temperatures on the shelf and throughout the more remote parts of the continent.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: University of Colorado's National Snow and Ice Data Center has been studying ice shelves and, in 2002, announced that, based on several breakups of ice shelves, including Larsen B, has begun to reassess their stability. Their scientists stated that the temperature of the warmest portion of the shelf is "only a few degrees too cool in summer presently to undergo the same kind of retreat process. The Ross Ice Shelf is the main outlet for several major glaciers draining the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which contains the equivalent of 5 m of sea level rise in its above-sea-level ice." The report added that observations of "iceberg calving" on the Ross Ice Shelf are, in their opinion, unrelated to its stability.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: Scientific exploration continues to uncover interesting information and the analyses have resulted in some interesting theories being posited and publicized. One such opinion, given in 2006 based on a geological survey, suggested that the ice shelf had collapsed previously, perhaps suddenly, which could well happen again.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: A science team from New Zealand installed a camp in the centre of the shelf in late 2017. The expedition was led by glaciologist Christina Hulbe and brought together oceanographers, glaciologists, biologists and sedimentologists to examine the ice, ocean and sediment in the central shelf region. One of the key findings was that the ice in the region was re-freezing. This re-freezing and growth of an ice shelf is not uncommon but the Ross Ice Shelf situation appeared to be very variable as there was no evidence of long-term freezing. A recent study attribute this variability in-part to tidal mixing.


title: Ross Ice Shelf

text: A second New Zealand expedition in 2019 traveled to the grounding line region of the Kamb Ice Stream. The hot water drill borehole at this site penetrated through over 500 m of snow and ice to an ocean cavity only 30 m deep at this location. As well as sampling the ocean and sediment, it was the first deployment beneath the Ross Ice Shelf of the Remotely operated underwater vehicle Icefin developed at Georgia Tech, a vehicle designed around parameters suitable for exploration of the liquid cavities of places like Europa. The same New Zealand team returned to another site along the Kamb coast in December 2021, this time drilling through an under-ice river that proved to be essentially oceanic. The team were able to melt through the ice to discover the 250 m deep river had formed a relatively narrow channel beneath the ice. They also recorded evidence of the tsunami generated by the 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami.


title: Feluda (series)

text: Feluda is an Indian-Bengali detective media franchise created by Indian-Bengali film director and writer Satyajit Ray, featuring the character, Feluda. The titular character is a private investigator starring in a series of Bengali novels and short stories. The detective resides at 21 Rajani Sen Road, Ballygunge, Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Feluda first made his appearance in a Bengali children's magazine called "Sandesh" (সন্দেশ) in 1965, under the editorialship of Satyajit and Subhas Mukhopadhyay. His first adventure was "Feludar Goendagiri" (ফেলুদার গোয়েন্দাগিরি).


title: Feluda (series)

text: Feluda is often accompanied by his cousin who unofficially is also his assistant Tapesh Ranjan Mitter (affectionately called Topshe by Feluda), who serves as the narrator of the stories. From the sixth story, "Sonar Kella" (The Golden Fortress), the duo is joined by a popular thriller writer Jatayu (Lalmohon Ganguli).


title: Feluda (series)

text: Feluda has had been filmed at times, with the character been played by Soumitra Chatterjee, Sabyasachi Chakrabarty, Shashi Kapoor, Abir Chatterjee, Parambrata Chatterjee, Ahmed Rubel and Tota Roy Chowdhury. Satyajit Ray directed two Feluda movies — "Sonar Kella" (সোনার কেল্লা) (1974) and "Joi Baba Felunath" (জয় বাবা ফেলুনাথ) (1978). Sandip Ray made a new Feluda film series (continuation of the original series) on Feluda's adventures which started from "Baksho Rahashya" (1996). In this series, he made ten TV films and six theatrical films in Bengali on the character. Sandip Ray also made a stand-alone Feluda film "Badshahi Angti" (2014) which was intended to be the first film of a reboot series, but the series was canceled and Sandip Ray came back to the previous film series.


title: Feluda (series)

text: In the Feluda series there are 35 published and four unpublished stories. The list is chronologically arranged.


title: Feluda (series)

text: The first two film of the series was directed by Satyajit Ray in the 70's and later films by his son Sandip Ray from the 90's till now. In the first two films "Sonar Kella" (1974) and "Joi Baba Felunath" (1978), "Feluda" was played by Soumitra Chatterjee. Sabyasachi Chakrabarty was playing the character from "Baksho Rahashya" (1996) to "Double Feluda" (2016).


title: Feluda (series)

text: In September 2016, Sandip Ray sold the rights to "Sonar Kella" to Pradeep Sarkar. Pradeep is to remake Sonar Kella, directed by Satyajit Ray, in Hindi. Nothing has been announced about the casting.


title: Feluda (series)

text: Scripting of the Hindi adaptation of this cult detective story is currently in progress. Over the years, many in Bollywood have expressed their desire to make Feluda in general and "Sonar Kella" in particular. Director Shoojit Sircar was in the news for hoping to adapt "Sonar Kella" in Hindi. However, Sarkar finally walked away with the prized rights.


title: Feluda (series)

text: "Yes, it's true that I have bought the rights of 'Sonar Kella'. It will be inspired from 'Sonar Kella'. I have the Hindi rights to only this film and not the Feluda series. I am trying to make something very different. Once this script is ready, I will discuss it with Sandip Ray," Sarkar said.


title: Feluda (series)

text: Incidentally, no other director apart from the maestro himself and his son have ever directed a Feluda film in Bengali. Only Bibhas Chakraborty has made two Feluda telefilms. However, Sandip has been open to the idea of a good director adapting Feluda in Hindi. "I have given the rights of Baba's short story to Dibakar Banerjee. I have always maintained that if the director is competent, I am open to giving the Feluda rights in Hindi," he said.


title: Feluda (series)

text: According to Ray, the original names of the characters, including Feluda, Topshe, Jatayu, Mukul and Mandar Bose, will be changed in the Sarkar film. "I wanted to give the Hindi remake rights to a Bengali director. The advantage is that a Bengali director will have read the original book and watched the film. Things became very easy-going when Pradeep Sarkar met me to discuss this adaptation. It was a very warm and friendly meeting," Ray said, keeping the charges for remake rights a secret.


title: Feluda (series)

text: By 2017, Ray expected Sarkar to show him the screenplay. "As of now, we have had no discussions regarding the casting," Ray said. Will he want to collaborate with Sarkar once the Hindi film goes on the floor? "No, it will be his baby," Ray said.


title: Feluda (series)

text: In September 2013, director Shoojit Sircar told the Indian media that if he got any chance to remake Satyajit Ray's "Sonar Kella" for a worldwide audience, he would cast actor Aamir Khan as Feluda. However, in later years Sandip Ray confirmed that this would never happen, and Shoojit Sircar also stated he had told it as a joke, he was never serious about it and he had never thought of making a Feluda film. As of September 2016, according to media reports, director Shoojit Sircar was trying to acquire the rights to "Sonar Kella".


title: Feluda (series)

text: These TV series and Telefilms are not part of the original Feluda film series which was directed by Satyajit Ray and his son Sandip Ray.


title: Feluda (series)

text: A Bangladeshi streaming TV series "Feluda" from Bioscopelive streaming platform was directed by Parambrata Chatterjee who also played the title character along with Riddhi Sen playing Topshe was released in 2017–2018 in three seasons. This streaming TV series is not a part of the Feluda film canon directed by Satyajit Ray and Sandip Ray.


title: Feluda (series)

text: In 2020 a streaming television series was made, named ‘Feluda Pherot’ based on the iconic Bengali detective and there will be two popular stories, ‘Chhinnamastar Abhishap’ and 'Joto Kando Kathmandute'. Bengali actors Tota Roy Chowdhury is playing the main character 'Feluda' and Kalpan Mitra as 'Topesh' seemed to be his young assistant and the iconic character Lalmohan Ganguly, alias 'Jatayu' is playing by Anirban Chakraborty who played the main character in Detective Series Eken Babu before.


title: Feluda (series)

text: A Bengali documentary film was directed by Sagnik Chatterjee. This is the first biopic of India based on a fictional character. This film was released on 7 June 2019. Sandip Ray and many cast members were featured in the film.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Dayle Haddon (born May 26, 1948) is a Canadian model and actress, presently known for promoting anti-aging products manufactured by L'Oréal. Additionally, she is credited as author of "Ageless Beauty: A Woman's Guide to Lifelong Beauty and Well-Being".


title: Dayle Haddon

text: During the earlier part of her career as a model, Haddon appeared on the covers of many top fashion and beauty magazines, as well as the cover of the "Sports Illustrated" Swimsuit Issue in 1973. Haddon also served as a wellness contributor to CBS News where she appeared regularly on "The Early Show" from 2005 to 2008.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Born and raised in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, Haddon speaks both English and French. As a child, she was enrolled in dancing classes to develop her physique, and she performed well enough to become a member of Les Grands Ballets Canadiens at 13, and was chosen Miss Montreal at 18. Haddon is Jewish.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: As a model in the 1970s and 1980s, Haddon represented Max Factor, Revlon, Estée Lauder, and L'Oréal. She appeared on the cover of the "Sports Illustrated" Swimsuit Issue in 1973 (January 29) and was twice named to "Harper's Bazaar"'s "Ten Most Beautiful Women." She also appeared nude in the April 1973 issue of "Playboy".


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Haddon worked as an actress, appearing in the Disney movie "The World's Greatest Athlete" (1973) with Jan-Michael Vincent. She moved to Europe, continued modeling and acting, and appeared in a number of film roles in French and English, as well as occasional small parts in American movies. Her best known roles were in "Madame Claude" (1977), and "North Dallas Forty" (1979) opposite actor Nick Nolte.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Haddon was originally cast for the role of Dale Arden in the 1980 film version of "Flash Gordon", but producer Dino De Laurentiis replaced her with Melody Anderson just before filming commenced.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: During Haddon's tenure as a main face for L'Oréal, sales for the Age Perfect line have increased by 50%. According to "The New York Times", Dayle has "shattered age taboos" with her multiyear contracts with L'Oréal and Estée Lauder, among other companies.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Clairol selected her as a spokesperson, and she later broke barriers for women over the age of 35 when she became the global face of a new anti-aging line for Estée Lauder, a first in the beauty industry. On the day that her Estée Lauder contract expired L'Oréal signed her. She now has her own company, Dayle Haddon Concepts Inc. In early 2008 she was named a UNICEF ambassador.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Haddon is also the founder of a non-profit called WomenOne. The organization's motto is "changing the world one woman at a time."


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Through WomenOne, Haddon has partnered with Free The Children, an international charity, to provide scholarships for girls’ education in Kenya. Through her organization, she has raised and donated more than $150,000 for one of Free The Children's all-girls secondary schools.


title: Dayle Haddon

text: Haddon has also appeared as the face of a line of socially and environmentally responsible accessories launched by Me to We, Free The Children's partner organization.


title: Suzie Yeung

text: Suzie Yeung (born June 12, 1991) is an American voice actress who has done work for Sound Cadence Studios, Funimation, Bang Zoom! Entertainment, Studiopolis and SDI Media. She is known for playing Yuffie Kisaragi in "Final Fantasy VII Remake", Eula in "Genshin Impact," Makima in "Chainsaw Man," Kaban and Lucky Beast in "Kemono Friends", Vladilena "Lena" Milizé in "86", Miraschon in "," Sakura Element in "," and Kumiko Yamamura/Josee in "Josee, the Tiger and the Fish."


title: Suzie Yeung

text: Yeung mentioned she was born in Maine but grew up in Boston, Massachusetts. She studied Sociology at Smith College and worked as a higher education manager before becoming a full time voice actress. Her family is originally from Hong Kong. She can speak Cantonese and Mandarin Chinese and has done voice-over works in both languages.


title: Prabhakar (Telugu actor)

text: Prabhakar, also known as Kalakeya Prabhakar, is an Indian actor who predominently works in Telugu films along with Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia films. He is best known for his role as Inkoshi, king of the Kalakeyas in "" (2015). His other notable films include "Maryada Ramanna ("2010), "Dongaata" (2015), "Jai Simha" (2018), "Akhanda" (2021)"." As of July 2022, he has acted in over 120 films in five languages.


title: Prabhakar (Telugu actor)

text: Prabhakar was born in Husnabad, near Raichur. His family hails from Kondangal of Mahabubnagar district, Telangana. After studying in Husnabad, he then shifted to Vikarabad to enroll in Ananta Padmanabha college.


title: Prabhakar (Telugu actor)

text: His wife Rajya Lakshmi is a teacher and his son Sriram Rajamouli was named after the famous director Rajamouli who offered him his first full-fledged role in "Maryada Ramanna" and gave him 'a new life'. He also has another son Ritvik Preetam.


title: Prabhakar (Telugu actor)

text: Prabhakar played a minor role as villain in Mahesh Babu's "Athidi", directed by Surender Reddy and supporting artist in his earlier career.


title: Prabhakar (Telugu actor)

text: His first breakthrough film as an actor came in 2010 with "Maryada Ramanna", directed by S. S. Rajamouli. He also acted in "Gabbar Singh", directed by Harish Shankar, Dookudu, Aagadu, Lion and many more, which played well at the box office.


title: Prabhakar (Telugu actor)

text: Prabhakar gain recognition following his appearance as a Kalakeya in "" (2015), following which he came to be known as Kalakeya Prabhakar. In 2016, he appeared in "Sarrainodu" which became the third highest-grossing Telugu film that year. He also starred in "Right Right", directed by Manu, starring Sumanth Ashwin and Pooja Zaveri where he played an important role. As of July 2022, he has acted in over 120 films in five languages.


title: Cosmic string

text: Cosmic strings are hypothetical 1-dimensional topological defects which may have formed during a symmetry-breaking phase transition in the early universe when the topology of the vacuum manifold associated to this symmetry breaking was not simply connected. Their existence was first contemplated by the theoretical physicist Tom Kibble in the 1970s.


title: Cosmic string

text: The formation of cosmic strings is somewhat analogous to the imperfections that form between crystal grains in solidifying liquids, or the cracks that form when water freezes into ice. The phase transitions leading to the production of cosmic strings are likely to have occurred during the earliest moments of the universe's evolution, just after cosmological inflation, and are a fairly generic prediction in both quantum field theory and string theory models of the early universe.


title: Cosmic string

text: In string theory, the role of cosmic strings can be played by the fundamental strings (or F-strings) themselves that define the theory perturbatively, by D-strings which are related to the F-strings by weak-strong or so called S-duality, or higher-dimensional D-, NS- or M-branes that are partially wrapped on compact cycles associated to extra spacetime dimensions so that only one non-compact dimension remains.


title: Cosmic string

text: The prototypical example of a quantum field theory with cosmic strings is the Abelian Higgs model. The quantum field theory and string theory cosmic strings are expected to have many properties in common, but more research is needed to determine the precise distinguishing features. The F-strings for instance are fully quantum-mechanical and do not have a classical definition, whereas the field theory cosmic strings are almost exclusively treated classically.


title: Cosmic string

text: Cosmic strings, if they exist, would be extremely thin with diameters of the same order of magnitude as that of a proton, i.e. , or smaller. Given that this scale is much smaller than any cosmological scale, these strings are often studied in the zero-width, or Nambu–Goto approximation. Under this assumption strings behave as one-dimensional objects and obey the Nambu–Goto action, which is classically equivalent to the Polyakov action that defines the bosonic sector of superstring theory.


title: Cosmic string

text: In field theory, the string width is set by the scale of the symmetry breaking phase transition. In string theory, the string width is set (in the simplest cases) by the fundamental string scale, warp factors (associated to the spacetime curvature of an internal six-dimensional spacetime manifold) and/or the size of internal compact dimensions. (In string theory, the universe is either 10- or 11-dimensional, depending on the strength of interactions and the curvature of spacetime.)


title: Cosmic string

text: A string is a geometrical deviation from Euclidean geometry in spacetime characterized by an angular deficit: a circle around the outside of a string would comprise a total angle less than 360°. From the general theory of relativity such a geometrical defect must be in tension, and would be manifested by mass. Even though cosmic strings are thought to be extremely thin, they would have immense density, and so would represent significant gravitational wave sources. A cosmic string about a kilometer in length may be more massive than the Earth.


title: Cosmic string

text: However general relativity predicts that the gravitational potential of a straight string vanishes: there is no gravitational force on static surrounding matter. The only gravitational effect of a straight cosmic string is a relative deflection of matter (or light) passing the string on opposite sides (a purely topological effect). A closed cosmic string gravitates in a more conventional way.


title: Cosmic string

text: During the expansion of the universe, cosmic strings would form a network of loops, and in the past it was thought that their gravity could have been responsible for the original clumping of matter into galactic superclusters. It is now calculated that their contribution to the structure formation in the universe is less than 10%.


title: Cosmic string

text: The standard model of a cosmic string is a geometrical structure with an angle deficit, which thus is in tension and hence has positive mass. In 1995, Visser "et al." proposed that cosmic strings could theoretically also exist with angle excesses, and thus negative tension and hence negative mass. The stability of such exotic matter strings is problematic; however, they suggested that if a negative mass string were to be wrapped around a wormhole in the early universe, such a wormhole could be stabilized sufficiently to exist in the present day.


title: Cosmic string

text: The exterior geometry of a (straight) cosmic string can be visualized in an embedding diagram as follows: Focusing on the two-dimensional surface perpendicular to the string, its geometry is that of a cone which is obtained by cutting out a wedge of angle δ and gluing together the edges. The angular deficit δ is linearly related to the string tension (= mass per unit length), i.e. the larger the tension, the steeper the cone. Therefore, δ reaches 2π for a certain critical value of the tension, and the cone degenerates to a cylinder. (In visualizing this setup one has to think of a string with a finite thickness.) For even larger, "super-critical" values, δ exceeds 2π and the (two-dimensional) exterior geometry closes up (it becomes compact), ending in a conical singularity.


title: Cosmic string

text: However, this static geometry is unstable in the super-critical case (unlike for sub-critical tensions): Small perturbations lead to a dynamical spacetime which expands in axial direction at a constant rate. The 2D exterior is still compact, but the conical singularity can be avoided, and the embedding picture is that of a growing cigar. For even larger tensions (exceeding the critical value by approximately a factor of 1.6), the string cannot be stabilized in radial direction anymore.


title: Cosmic string

text: Realistic cosmic strings are expected to have tensions around 6 orders of magnitude below the critical value, and are thus always sub-critical. However, the inflating cosmic string solutions might be relevant in the context of brane cosmology, where the string is promoted to a 3-brane (corresponding to our universe) in a six-dimensional bulk.


title: Cosmic string

text: It was once thought that the gravitational influence of cosmic strings might contribute to the large-scale clumping of matter in the universe, but all that is known today through galaxy surveys and precision measurements of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) fits an evolution out of random, gaussian fluctuations. These precise observations therefore tend to rule out a significant role for cosmic strings and currently it is known that the contribution of cosmic strings to the CMB cannot be more than 10%.


title: Cosmic string

text: The violent oscillations of cosmic strings generically lead to the formation of cusps and kinks. These in turn cause parts of the string to pinch off into isolated loops. These loops have a finite lifespan and decay (primarily) via gravitational radiation. This radiation which leads to the strongest signal from cosmic strings may in turn be detectable in gravitational wave observatories. An important open question is to what extent do the pinched off loops backreact or change the initial state of the emitting cosmic string—such backreaction effects are almost always neglected in computations and are known to be important, even for order of magnitude estimates.


title: Cosmic string

text: Gravitational lensing of a galaxy by a straight section of a cosmic string would produce two identical, undistorted images of the galaxy. In 2003 a group led by Mikhail Sazhin reported the accidental discovery of two seemingly identical galaxies very close together in the sky, leading to speculation that a cosmic string had been found. However, observations by the Hubble Space Telescope in January 2005 showed them to be a pair of similar galaxies, not two images of the same galaxy. A cosmic string would produce a similar duplicate image of fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, which it was thought might have been detectable by the Planck Surveyor mission. However, a 2013 analysis of data from the Planck mission failed to find any evidence of cosmic strings.


title: Cosmic string

text: A piece of evidence supporting cosmic string theory is a phenomenon noticed in observations of the "double quasar" called Q0957+561A,B. Originally discovered by Dennis Walsh, Bob Carswell, and Ray Weymann in 1979, the double image of this quasar is caused by a galaxy positioned between it and the Earth. The gravitational lens effect of this intermediate galaxy bends the quasar's light so that it follows two paths of different lengths to Earth. The result is that we see two images of the same quasar, one arriving a short time after the other (about 417.1 days later). However, a team of astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics led by Rudolph Schild studied the quasar and found that during the period between September 1994 and July 1995 the two images appeared to have no time delay; changes in the brightness of the two images occurred simultaneously on four separate occasions. Schild and his team believe that the only explanation for this observation is that a cosmic string passed between the Earth and the quasar during that time period traveling at very high speed and oscillating with a period of about 100 days.


title: Cosmic string

text: Currently the most sensitive bounds on cosmic string parameters come from the non-detection of gravitational waves by Pulsar timing array data. The earthbound Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and especially the space-based gravitational wave detector Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) will search for gravitational waves and are likely to be sensitive enough to detect signals from cosmic strings, provided the relevant cosmic string tensions are not too small.


title: Cosmic string

text: During the early days of string theory both string theorists and cosmic string theorists believed that there was no direct connection between superstrings and cosmic strings (the names were chosen independently by analogy with ordinary string). The possibility of cosmic strings being produced in the early universe was first envisioned by quantum field theorist Tom Kibble in 1976, and this sprouted the first flurry of interest in the field. In 1985, during the first superstring revolution, Edward Witten contemplated on the possibility of fundamental superstrings having been produced in the early universe and stretched to macroscopic scales, in which case (following the nomenclature of Tom Kibble) they would then be referred to as cosmic superstrings. He concluded that had they been produced they would have either disintegrated into smaller strings before ever reaching macroscopic scales (in the case of Type I superstring theory), they would always appear as boundaries of domain walls whose tension would force the strings to collapse rather than grow to cosmic scales (in the context of heterotic superstring theory), or having a characteristic energy scale close to the Planck energy they would be produced before cosmological inflation and hence be diluted away with the expansion of the universe and not be observable.


title: Cosmic string

text: Much has changed since these early days, primarily due to the second superstring revolution. It is now known that string theory in addition to the fundamental strings which define the theory perturbatively also contains other one-dimensional objects, such as D-strings, and higher-dimensional objects such as D-branes, NS-branes and M-branes partially wrapped on compact internal spacetime dimensions, while being spatially extended in one non-compact dimension. The possibility of large compact dimensions and large warp factors allows strings with tension much lower than the Planck scale. Furthermore, various dualities that have been discovered point to the conclusion that actually all these apparently different types of string are just the same object as it appears in different regions of parameter space. These new developments have largely revived interest in cosmic strings, starting in the early 2000s.


title: Cosmic string

text: In 2002, Henry Tye and collaborators predicted the production of cosmic superstrings during the last stages of brane inflation, a string theory construction of the early universe that gives leads to an expanding universe and cosmological inflation. It was subsequently realized by string theorist Joseph Polchinski that the expanding Universe could have stretched a "fundamental" string (the sort which superstring theory considers) until it was of intergalactic size. Such a stretched string would exhibit many of the properties of the old "cosmic" string variety, making the older calculations useful again. As theorist Tom Kibble remarks, "string theory cosmologists have discovered cosmic strings lurking everywhere in the undergrowth". Older proposals for detecting cosmic strings could now be used to investigate superstring theory.


title: Cosmic string

text: Superstrings, D-strings or the other stringy objects mentioned above stretched to intergalactic scales would radiate gravitational waves, which could be detected using experiments like LIGO and especially the space-based gravitational wave experiment LISA. They might also cause slight irregularities in the cosmic microwave background, too subtle to have been detected yet but possibly within the realm of future observability.


title: Cosmic string

text: Note that most of these proposals depend, however, on the appropriate cosmological fundamentals (strings, branes, etc.), and no convincing experimental verification of these has been confirmed to date. Cosmic strings nevertheless provide a window into string theory. If cosmic strings are observed which is a real possibility for a wide range of cosmological string models this would provide the first experimental evidence of a string theory model underlying the structure of spacetime.


title: Third heart sound

text: The third heart sound or S is a rare extra heart sound that occurs soon after the normal two "lub-dub" heart sounds (S and S). S is associated with heart failure.


title: Third heart sound

text: It occurs at the beginning of the middle third of diastole, approximately 0.12 to 0.18 seconds after S. This produces a rhythm classically compared to the cadence of the word "Kentucky" with the final syllable (""-CKY"") representing S. One may also use the phrase "Slosh’-ing-IN" to help with the cadence (Slosh S, -ing S, -in S), as well as the pathology of the S sound, or any other number of local variants.


title: Third heart sound

text: S may be normal in people under 40 years of age and some trained athletes but should disappear before middle age. Re-emergence of this sound late in life is abnormal and may indicate serious problems like heart failure. The sound of S is lower in pitch than the normal sounds, usually faint, and best heard with the bell of the stethoscope.


title: Third heart sound

text: It has also been termed a ventricular gallop or a protodiastolic gallop because of its place in early diastole. It is a type of gallop rhythm by virtue of having an extra sound; the other gallop rhythm is called S. The two are quite different, but they may sometimes occur together forming a quadruple gallop. If the heart rate is also very fast (tachycardia), it can become difficult to distinguish between S and S thus producing a single sound called a summation gallop. S is a dull, low-pitched sound best heard with the bell placed over the cardiac apex with the patient lying in the left lateral decubitus position. This heart sound when present in a child or young adult implies the presence of a supple ventricle that can undergo rapid filling. Conversely, when heard in a middle-aged or older adult, an S is often a sign of disease, indicating increased ventricular filling due to congestive heart failure or severe mitral or tricuspid regurgitation.


title: Third heart sound

text: S is thought to be caused by the oscillation of blood back and forth between the walls of the ventricles initiated by the inflow of blood from the atria. The reason the third heart sound does not occur until the middle third of diastole is probably that, during the early part of diastole, the ventricles are not filled sufficiently to create enough tension for reverberation. It may also be a result of tensing of the chordae tendineae during rapid filling and expansion of the ventricle.


title: Third heart sound

text: In conditions affecting the pericardium or diseases that primarily affect the heart muscle (restrictive cardiomyopathies) a similar sound can be heard, but is usually more high-pitched and is called a 'pericardial knock'.The S3 can also be confused with a widely split S2, or a mitral opening snap, but these sounds are typically of much higher pitch and occur closer to the onset of S2.


title: Third heart sound

text: The condition itself does not need to be treated, but rather the underlying cause requires correction. Depending on the etiology the gallop rhythm may resolve spontaneously.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: SIX Swiss Exchange (formerly SWX Swiss Exchange), based in Zurich, is Switzerland's principal stock exchange (the other being Berne eXchange). SIX Swiss Exchange also trades other securities such as Swiss government bonds and derivatives such as stock options.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: SIX Swiss Exchange is completely owned by SIX Group, an unlisted public limited company itself controlled by 122 banks or financial institutions.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: The exchange in its current state was founded in 1993 by merging the Geneva Stock Exchange, the Basel Stock Exchange and the Zürich stock exchange into the (German for "Swiss Securities Exchanges Association"), publicly known in English as "Swiss Exchange". The newly created association took over trading in 1995. It was the first stock exchange in the world to incorporate a fully automated trading, clearing and settlement system.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: The association was renamed to SWX Swiss Exchange in 1999. In 2002, the association was changed to a public limited company called SWX Swiss Exchange AG. In July 2004, it rejected a merger proposal from Deutsche Börse, which analysts anticipated as profitable for many small companies listed on SWX Swiss Exchange. In 2008, SWX Swiss Exchange merged with SIS Group and Telekurs into the new SIX Group, and was renamed as SIX Swiss Exchange, which is still its name as of 2020.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: SIX Swiss Exchange maintains several major indices. The most known index is the SMI, or Swiss Market Index, which consists of the 20 largest and most liquid companies of the SPI. The SPI, or Swiss Performance Index, contains more than 200 companies listed on the exchange that meet requirements. The SLI, or Swiss Leader Index, is a capped index with some of the largest 30 companies. The SBI, or Swiss Bond Index, tracks obligations emitted in Swiss francs. The market capitalization of all companies listed at SIX Swiss Exchange amounted in 2018 to 1.6 trillion Swiss francs, making it one of the top exchanges in the world by capitalization.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: The first exchanges in Switzerland were created locally in major Swiss cities throughout Switzerland, with the authorization of the Cantonal authorities. Geneva paved the way in the year 1850, when the () was founded. Its trading floor was opened in 1855 and approved by the Grand Council of Geneva in 1856. The Basler Börse followed in 1866 or 1876 (sources disagree) in Basel, as well as another one in Zürich in 1873. The Berne exchange, which still exists today, was founded in 1884. Smaller exchanges were also created in Lausanne in 1873, in St. Gallen in 1887 and in Neuchâtel in 1905. The exchanges were subject by the Cantons to a value added tax.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: During the First World War, all Swiss exchanges were closed, with the exception of bond trading in the Geneva exchange. The depression of 1920–21 was followed by a bull market in the 1920s, during which a new exchange building ("alte Börse", German for "old exchange") was constructed in Zurich at Bleicherweg 5, near Paradeplatz. The building is still standing, but no longer used as an exchange.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: After the Great Depression of the 1930s, a federal banking law was introduced. This law is still in effect today and, in its form as of 2020, requires permission by the FINMA to do banking activities, as well as due diligence and banking secrecy. An exchange law was also discussed, but not introduced. Finally, Swiss exchanges were required to unite under a securities exchange association in order to set up a registration office, so that the Swiss National Bank could have the desired influence.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: After the Second World War, banking fees for trades on exchanges were unified in a broker conference. In the middle of the 1950s, the revenues of the exchanges reached new highs as in times before or between the wars until 1929. This development continued until the Kennedy Slide of 1962, which was triggered by measures against the economic slowdown, the New York crash, and the Cuban Missile Crisis.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: Following the deregulation and the termination of the Bretton Woods System (fixed exchange rates) by the United States, in the 1970s, a fundamental transformation of the economy and of the financial landscape started, which is still ongoing today. Fluctuating exchange rates carried new risks for the economy and a need for hedging solutions arose. Finance derivatives were introduced as a response to this need and in 1973, the Chicago Board Options Exchange was created as an exchange that only handles derivatives. With the oil crisis of 1974, the economy went through the biggest after-war recession since 1931. In Switzerland, the oil shock led to such a rush on investment money that it was considered to close the exchanges.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: The Geneva Stock Exchange, the Basel Stock Exchange and the Zurich stock exchange merged into SWX Swiss Exchange in 1993. On 16 August 1995, the closing bells rang for the last time on the trading floors, ending an era spanning more than a century. They were superseded with the world's first automated trading, clearing and settlement system.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: After the international financial markets recovered from the 1997/1998 Asian crisis and the 1998 Russian crisis, there was a period of two years of lasting bull market from October 1998. This bull market was mainly driven by the new economy boom and transition of this time. However, the boom was more limited on Swiss stock indices, since they are dominated by pharmaceutical, food and financial values, while Internet companies and technology companies play only a secondary role. Hence, it was only in May 2000 that the Swiss Performance Index crossed again the peak of 5,237 points that it had reached before the Russian crisis. It reached its then all-time high of 5,770 points on 23 August 2000. The bursting of the dot-com bubble sent stock prices down worldwide, and did not spare Swiss stock indices. The SPI entered a bear market. It had lost more than 20% from its previous peak by 22 March 2001, on which day it reached a temporary bottom.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: After a short recovery phase, the SPI started to erode continuously from May 2001. The 9/11 attacks accelerated this evolution, started with the bursting of the dot-com bubble, further. The SPI reached its bottom of 2,603 points one and a half years later, on 12 March 2003, at the peak of the SARS-epidemic and the Iraq war.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: In May 2007, the SWX Group, the SIS Group and Telekurs Group announced their merger to a new holding called Swiss Financial Market Services AG. The merger was official in 2008 and the new company was renamed to SIX Group AG. SWX Swiss Exchange was renamed to SIX Swiss Exchange in the same year.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: From 1998 to 2012, SIX Swiss Exchange owned 15% of Eurex, the world's second largest futures and derivatives exchange, after the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, along with its German partner Deutsche Börse (85%). Deutsche Börse purchased the 15% ownership from SIX Swiss Exchange in 2012, becoming its sole owner.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: SWX Swiss Exchange, as was its new name since 1999, acquired the stock exchange platform Tradepoint, renamed as Virt-x, for the trading of 32 Swiss bluechip stocks, regulated by the British Financial Services Authority. The new platform was opened on 25 June 2001. The main goals were on the one hand to build a pan-European exchange and on the other hand to mitigate the migration of the trading volume on SMI stocks to the London exchange.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: The listed companies were offered the choice between two market segments for SMI stocks: The EU-regulated market segment and the UK-exchange-regulated market segment. Both segments were subject to the regulations of the British Financial Services Authority, and the EU segment was in addition subject to EU regulations.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: Virt-x was renamed to SWX Europe in 2008. SWX Europe came to a halt in 2009 and the trading was transferred to SIX Swiss Exchange.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: On 30 April 2007, SWX Swiss exchange acquired, jointly with Deutsche Börse, the US option exchange ISE. With the acquisition of International Securities Exchange Holding (ISE), one of the largest trading platforms for finance derivatives emerged. The price for ISE was $2.8 billion and it was financed through Eurex, which was then owned 85% by Deutsche Börse and 15% by SWX Swiss Exchange. The revenue of ISE was about $178 million in 2006, and the profit around $55 million. The ISE remains independent and keeps its structure and branding.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: On 1 January 2007, SWX Swiss Exchange and Deutsche Börse jointly started and managed an exchange for structured products, a joint venture called Scoach.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: In February 2013, Scoach was split into Scoach Europa AG, fully owned by Deutsche Börse, and Scoach Schweiz AG, fully owned by SIX Swiss Exchange. Scoach Schweiz AG was renamed to SIX Structured Products in November 2013.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: Headquarters were moved to Selnaustrasse in 2002. In 2017, they moved again to the Hard Turm Park in Zurich West.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: For the first time in the world, in 1962, an exchange TV broadcast was introduced in Basel and Zurich. Banks started to use computers, while exchanges followed more hesitantly. In 1964, Telekurs was mandated by the Zurich stock exchange to investigate how computer technologies could be used on the exchange. Only in the 1980s did computers finally find their way into exchanges. On 8 December 1995, the electronic trading of foreign stock was introduced, on 2 August 1996 that of Swiss stock and options. Finally, on 16 August 1996, bonds were also electronically traded and the trading floor was discontinued.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: On 3 December 2020, SIX Swiss Exchange, in collaboration with the Bank for International Settlements and Swiss National Bank, completed a wholesale central bank digital currency proof-of-concept on a distributed digital asset platform.


title: SIX Swiss Exchange

text: SIX Swiss Exchange is part of the SIX Group, which provides a number of other financial infrastructure services in Switzerland. These include clearing, acting as central counterparty, custody services, market data services, share registry, payment services, and running the real-time gross settlement (RTGS) system on behalf of the central bank of Switzerland, the Swiss National Bank.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: Millettia pinnata is a species of tree in the pea family, Fabaceae, native to eastern and tropical Asia, Australia, and Pacific islands. It is often known by the synonym Pongamia pinnata. Its common names include Indian beech and Pongame oiltree.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: "Millettia pinnata" is a legume tree that grows to about in height with a large canopy that spreads equally wide. It may be deciduous for short periods. It has a straight or crooked trunk, in diameter, with grey-brown bark, which is smooth or vertically fissured. Branches are glabrous with pale stipulate scars. The imparipinnate leaves of the tree alternate and are short-stalked, rounded, or cuneate at the base, ovate or oblong along the length, obtuse-acuminate at the apex, and not toothed on the edges. They are a soft, shiny burgundy when young, and mature to a glossy, deep green as the season progresses, with prominent veins underneath.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: Flowering generally starts after 3–4 years with small clusters of white, purple, and pink flowers blossoming throughout the year. The raceme-like inflorescences bear two to four flowers that are strongly fragrant and grow to be long. The calyx of the flowers is bell-shaped and truncated, while the corolla is a rounded ovate shape with basal auricles and often with a central blotch of green color.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: Croppings of indehiscent pods can occur by 4–6 years. The brown seed pods appear immediately after flowering, and mature in 10 to 11 months. The pods are thick-walled, smooth, somewhat flattened, and elliptical, but slightly curved with a short, curved point. The pods contain within them one or two bean-like brownish-red seeds, but because they do not split open naturally, the pods need to decompose before the seeds can germinate. The seeds are about long with a brittle, oily coat, and are unpalatable in natural form to herbivores.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: The species is naturally distributed in tropical and temperate Asia, from India to Japan to Thailand to Malesia to north and north-eastern Australia to some Pacific islands; It has been propagated and distributed further around the world in humid and subtropical environments from sea level to 1200 m, although in the Himalayan foothills, it is not found above 600 m. Withstanding temperatures slightly below and up to about and annual rainfall of , the tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soils, including oolitic limestone, and will grow in most soil types, even with its roots in salt water.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight, and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot make it drought tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation, a symbiotic process by which gaseous nitrogen (N) from the air is converted into ammonium (NH, a form of nitrogen available to the plant). "M. pinnata "is also a freshwater flooded forest species, as it can survive total submergence in water for few months continuously. "M. pinnata" trees are common in Tonlesap lake swamp forests in Cambodia.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: "Millettia pinnata" is an outbreeding diploid legume tree, with a diploid chromosome number of 22. Root nodules are of the determinate type (as those on soybean and common bean) formed by the causative bacterium "Bradyrhizobium".


title: Millettia pinnata

text: "Millettia pinnata" is well-adapted to arid zones, and has many traditional uses. It is often used for landscaping as a windbreak or for shade due to the large canopy and showy, fragrant flowers. The flowers are used by gardeners as compost for plants requiring rich nutrients. The bark can be used to make twine or rope, and it also yields a black gum that has historically been used to treat wounds caused by poisonous fish. The wood is said to be beautifully grained, but splits easily when sawn, thus relegating it to firewood, posts, and tool handles.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: "Millettia pinnata" seeds generally contain oil (27-39%), protein (17-37%), starch (6-7%), crude fiber (5-7%), moisture (15-20%) and ash content (2-3%). While the oil and residue of the plant are toxic and induce nausea and vomiting if ingested in its natural form, the fruits, sprouts and seeds are used in traditional medicine. Nearly half of the oil content of "M. pinnata" seeds is oleic acid. Oil made from the seeds, known as pongamia oil, has been used as lamp oil, in soapmaking, and as a lubricant. The oil has a high content of triglycerides, and its disagreeable taste and odor are due to bitter flavonoid constituents, including karanjin, pongamol, tannin, and karanjachromene. It can be grown in rainwater harvesting ponds up to in water depth without losing its greenery and remaining useful for biodiesel production.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: Long used as shade tree, "M. pinnata" is self-seeding and can spread lateral roots up to long in 18 years. If not managed carefully, it can quickly become a weed. "M. pinnata" is broadly distributed across India, Asia, Africa, northern Australia and the Pacific and Caribbean Islands and has been cultivated and transported since the 19th century or earlier. As a result, some literature declares "M. pinnata" naturalized in Africa and certain parts of the United States, while its status as naturalized or native is uncertain in other regions.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: This dense network of lateral roots, though, makes this tree ideal for controlling soil erosion and binding sand dunes.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: The seed oil has been found to be useful in diesel generators, and along with "Jatropha" and castor, it is being explored in hundreds of projects throughout India and the third world as feedstock for biodiesel. "M. pinnata" as a biofuel is commercially valuable to the rural populations of places such as India and Bangladesh, where the plant grows abundantly, because it can support the socioeconomic development of these areas.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: Several unelectrified villages have used pongamia oil, simple processing techniques, and diesel generators to create their own grid systems to run water pumps and electric lighting.


title: Millettia pinnata

text: Research indicates potential use of "M. pinnata" as a food source for cattle, sheep and poultry, as its byproduct contains up to 30% protein. A report commissioned and financed by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH found that the protein-rich byproduct can be free from alkaloids and therefore a dietary source of protein for humans.


title: Kam Air

text: Kam Air is the largest private Afghan airline. Founded in 2003, Kam Air has twelve aircraft and a workforce of over 1,200 people, operating scheduled domestic passenger services throughout Afghanistan and international services to destinations in Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East. Its hub is at Kabul International Airport in the capital Kabul. Due to the collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, all civilian services in the country were temporarily suspended on 15 August 2021. However, domestic flights restarted on 5 September 2021. International flights were also later resumed.


title: Kam Air

text: Kam Air was the first private commercial airline established in Afghanistan by the owner and founder of Kamgar Group, Zamarai Kamgar, an Afghan businessman. Kam Air's Operator Certificate (AOC Nr. 001) was issued in August 2003 by the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation (MoTCA) of Afghanistan. Kam Air was registered with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) three letter airline code, KMF, International Air Transport Association (IATA) two letter code, RQ and financial code 384.


title: Kam Air

text: The first flight of Kam Air was operated from Kabul to Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif in November 2003 with a Boeing 727-200, while the first international flight was inaugurated in May 2004 between Kabul and Dubai.


title: Kam Air

text: On 25 January 2013, the United States blacklisted Kam Air citing a United States Army investigation that the airline smuggled opium on civilian flights to Tajikistan, an allegation denied by the airline and the Afghan government. The ban was suspended a month later.


title: Kam Air

text: On 24 February 2021, Kam Air operated Afghanistan's first ever all-female crew flight. The airline's former first and last commercial female Afghan pilot, then 22-year-old Mohadese Mirzaee, joined now former Captain Veronica Borysova from Ukraine in piloting the Boeing 737-500 from Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul to Herat. Aside from Veronica the female crew was entirely made up of women from the Hazara ethnic group. The event made global headlines and was first covered by Josh Cahill who documented the flight, and later featured on BBC News, Deutsche Welle and the "Business Insider". The flight took 90 minutes.


title: Kam Air

text: In response to the collapse of the government following the fall of Kabul, Kam Air flew some of its planes to Iran to prevent damage during the turmoil.


title: Kam Air

text: As of September 2019, Kam Air flew to a total of 16 destinations: seven domestic destinations and nine international, in eight countries. The airline had an extensive domestic network, flying to Herat, Zaranj, Kandahar, Trinkot, Mazar-e-sharif, and Faizabad. Internationally, Kam Air flew to Istanbul, Ankara, Riyadh, Jeddah, Kuwait, Tashkent, Dushanbe, Islamabad and New Delhi.


title: Kam Air

text: In August 2021, Kam Air sent an unspecified number of its aircraft to Iran for temporary storage amidst safety concerns following the fall of Kabul and the resulting chaos that surrounded the city's airport.


title: All Those Years Ago

text: "All Those Years Ago" is a song by English musician George Harrison, released in May 1981 as a single from his album "Somewhere in England". Having previously recorded the music for the song, Harrison tailored the lyrics to serve as a personal tribute to his former Beatles bandmate John Lennon, following the latter's murder in 1980. Ringo Starr is featured on drums, and Paul McCartney (along with his Wings bandmates Linda McCartney and Denny Laine) overdubbed backing vocals onto the basic track. The single spent three weeks at number 2 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, behind "Bette Davis Eyes" by Kim Carnes, and it peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. It also topped Canada's "RPM" singles chart and spent one week at number 1 on "Billboard"s Adult Contemporary listings.


title: All Those Years Ago

text: "All Those Years Ago" was the first recording on which Harrison, McCartney and Starr all appeared since the Beatles' "I Me Mine" (1970), and their last recording together until "Free as a Bird" (1995). Other musicians performing on the track include Al Kooper and Ray Cooper. The song has appeared on the Harrison compilations "Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989" and "", and a live version recorded in 1991 with Eric Clapton was included on Harrison's "Live in Japan" double album. In 2010, AOL Radio listeners voted "All Those Years Ago" in sixth place on a list of the "10 Best George Harrison Songs". The track has been featured in the books "1,001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die, and 10,001 You Must Download" by Robert Dimery, and Bruce Pollock's "The 7,500 Most Important Songs of 1944–2000".


title: All Those Years Ago

text: Prior to Lennon's death, Harrison originally wrote the song with different lyrics for Ringo Starr to record. Although he recorded it, Starr felt the vocal was too high for his range and disliked the lyrics. Harrison took the track back and, after Lennon's death, the lyrics were changed to reflect a tribute to him. In the song, Harrison makes reference to the Beatles song "All You Need Is Love" and the Lennon song "Imagine" ("you were the one who "Imagined" it all").


title: All Those Years Ago

text: The recording of the song featured all three remaining Beatles (Harrison, Starr and Paul McCartney), though this was expressly a Harrison single. It is one of only a few non-Beatles songs to feature three members of the band. Harrison and Starr recorded the song at Harrison's Friar Park studio between 19 November and 25 November 1980. The lineup was rounded out by Al Kooper on keyboards, Herbie Flowers on bass and percussionist Ray Cooper. Harrison co-produced the recording with Cooper.


title: All Those Years Ago

text: After Lennon's death the following month, Harrison removed Starr's vocals (but kept Starr's drumming track) and recorded his own vocals with rewritten lyrics honouring Lennon. McCartney, his wife Linda and their Wings bandmate Denny Laine visited Friar Park and recorded backing vocals as an overdub to the original track. The album's liner notes also thank the Beatles' former producer George Martin and engineer Geoff Emerick, who were present at the session where the backing vocals were recorded. Martin, Emerick and the members of Wings were working on McCartney's "Tug Of War" album at the time, and had traveled to Harrison's studio to record a Harrison guitar overdub for that album. The session instead turned into a vocal session for "All Those Years Ago", and Harrison's guitar piece for McCartney's album was never recorded.


title: All Those Years Ago

text: The music video features a slide show-type presentation of stills and short archival video clips. The emphasis is on Lennon and, to a lesser degree, Harrison. The post-Beatles stills of Lennon at older ages are countered with stills of Harrison from the same time frame.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: Islam is the second-largest religion in South Asia, with more than 600 million Muslims living there, forming about one-third of the region's population. History of Islam in South Asia started along the coastal regions of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka, almost as soon as it started in the Arabian Peninsula, as the Arab traders brought it to South Asia. South Asia has the largest population of Muslims in the world, with about one-third of all Muslims living here. Islam is the dominant religion in half of the South Asian countries (Pakistan, Maldives, Bangladesh and Afghanistan). It is the second largest religion in India and third largest in Sri Lanka and Nepal.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: According to legend, the first Indian "Masjid" was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur in present-day Kerala with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal), who converted to Islam during the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). On a similar note, Tamil Muslims on the eastern coast also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. The local mosques date to the early 700s. Malik Dinar was one of the first known Muslims to have come to India in order to propagate Islam in the Indian Subcontinent after Cheraman Perumal. According to "Qissat Shakarwati Farmad", the "Masjids" at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest "Masjid"s in Indian Subcontinent. Historicaly, the Barwada Mosque in Ghogha, Gujarat built before 623 CE, Cheraman Juma Mosque (629 CE) in Methala, Kerala and Palaiya Jumma Palli (630 CE) in Kilakarai, Tamil Nadu are three of the first mosques in South Asia.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: The first incursion occurred through sea by Caliph Umar's governor of Bahrain, Usman ibn Abu al-Aas, who sent his brother Hakam ibn Abu al-Aas to raid and reconnoitre the Makran region around 636 CE or 643 AD long before any Arab army reached the frontier of India by land. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked Makran in the year 649 AD, was an early partisan of Ali ibn Abu Talib. During the caliphate of Ali, many Hindu Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism and some even participated in the Battle of Camel and died fighting for Ali. According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: After the Rashidun Caliphate, the role of Islam was significantly diminished throughout the Muslim world including South Asia as Muslim political dynasties came to power.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: A small Muslim presence in South Asia was established on the southern coasts of India and Sri Lanka in the early eighth century. A commercial Middle Eastern presence on South Asia's western coasts pre-dated the emergence of Islam. With the rise of Islam, the Arab arrivals became Muslims. The Muslim mercantile community received patronage from the local non-Muslim rulers. Intermarriages with the local population in addition to further arrivals and conversions increased the Muslim population. The Muslim population became more indigenous with the birth of children to Arab merchants married with local women. Moreover, local non-Muslim authorities sent children to the Arabs to have them learn maritime skills.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott. A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district, Kerala. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur in present-day Kerala with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632). According to "Qissat Shakarwati Farmad", the Mosque at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest "Masjid"s in the Indian subcontinent. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town. On a similar note, Tamil Muslims on the eastern coasts also claim that they converted to Islam in Muhammad's lifetime. The local mosques date to the early 700s.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, a companion of Muhammad, who traveled across Sind to Makran in the year 649AD and presented a report on the area to the Caliph. He supported Ali, and died in the Battle of the Camel alongside Sindhi Jats. He was also a poet and few couplets of his poem in praise of Ali ibn Abu Talib have survived, as reported in Chachnama:


title: Islam in South Asia

text: During the reign of Ali, many Jats came under the influence of Islam. Harith ibn Murrah Al-abdi and Sayfi ibn Fil' al-Shaybani, both officers of Ali's army, attacked Sindhi bandits and chased them to Al-Qiqan (present-day Quetta) in the year 658. Sayfi was one of the seven partisans of Ali who were beheaded alongside Hujr ibn Adi al-Kindi in 660AD, near Damascus. After the Islamic conquest of Persia was completed, the Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of Persia and in 652 captured Herat.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: Under the Umayyads (661 – 750 AD), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. In 712 CE, a young Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad Empire, to be made the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah. Arab tribes became rebellious in Sindh in the early 9th century during the Abbasid period. During a period of strife in 841-2 between Yemeni and Hijazi tribes, 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari's Hijazi faction assassinated the pro-Yemeni Abbasid governor of Sindh, Imran bin Musa Barmaki, leaving Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari as the "de facto" governor of Sindh. According to al-Ya'qubi, Umar's request to be formally appointed governor was granted in 854 by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: By the mid-800s, the "Banu Munabbih" (also known as the "Banu Sama"), who claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad's Quraysh tribe came to rule Multan, and established the Emirate, which ruled for the next century. At the opening of 10th century, Ibn Rusta was first to report a well established Emirate of Multan. Muhammad III, whose full name was Muhammad bin al-Qasim bin Munabbih, was reported by Al-Biruni to be the first of the Banu Munabbih (Samid) rulers of Multan - he conquered Multan and issued silver dammas bearing his Hindu epithet "Mihiradeva" ("Sun god") on the reverse. By the mid 10th century, Multan had come under the influence of the Qarmatians. The Qarmatians had been expelled from Egypt and Iraq following their defeat at the hands of the Abbasids there. They wrested control of the city from the pro-Abbasid Amirate of Banu Munabbih, and pledged allegiance to the Fatimid Caliphate based in Cairo instead of Abbasid Caliphate at Baghdad. By the end of the 10th century CE, the region was ruled by several Hindu Shahi kings who would be subdued by the Ghaznavids. Sunni Islam arrived in North India in the 12th century via the invasions of Ghurids conquest.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: The Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire have ruled most of South Asia and the Bengal Sultanate, the Deccan sultanates and the Sur Empire have played major economic and political roles. The peak of the Islamic rule in India was marked under the sharia and proto-industrialised reign of emperor Aurangzeb, the world's largest economy, upon the compilation and establishment of the Fatawa Alamgiri. Muslim power quickly vaporized in the early 18th century after their defeat in wars and attacks. Mughals were replaced with Rajputs, the Marathas, Sikhs in Punjab, the Jats and smaller Muslim states competing for power with the British East India Company. Islamic scholars reacted slowly to the British rule. The British authorities' westernisation policies effectively destroyed the exclusive hold of the ulama over education and curtailed their administrative influence. After Mughal India's collapse, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore based in South India, which witnessed partial establishment of sharia-based economic and military policies i.e. Fathul Mujahidin, replaced Bengal ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal as South Asia's foremost economic territory. The partition was outlined in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, i.e., Crown rule in India. Hyderabad, the last major Muslim princely state, was annexed in 1948 by the modern Republic of India.


title: Islam in South Asia

text: The two self-governing independent Dominions of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The partition of India displaced between 10 and 20 million people along religious lines with estimates of the loss of life up to two million in the newly constituted dominions. The ideological character of Pakistan has been disputed, with Jinnah's 11 August speech apparently supportive of the notion that the state was formed simply to protect Muslim interests but the ulama envisioning Pakistan as an Islamic state. After Pakistan's general election, the 1973 Constitution was created by the elected Parliament, which declared Pakistan as an Islamic Republic and Islam as its state religion. In the years preceding Zia-ul-Haq's coup, Pakistan's leftist Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced vigorous opposition under the revivalist banner of "Nizam-e-Mustafa" ("Rule of the prophet"). After Zia-ul-Haq's Islamisation and Musharraf's military rule, the 2008 election brought back regular political parties instead of the religious parties.