title: Roderic

text: According to the "Chronicle of 754", the Arabs took Toledo in 711 and executed many nobles still in the city on the pretense that they had assisted in the flight of Oppa, a son of Egica. Since it took place, according to the same chronicle, after Roderic's defeat, either the defeat must be moved back to 711 or the conquest of Toledo pushed back to 712; the latter is preferred by Collins. It is possible that the Oppa who fled Toledo and was a son of a previous king was the cause of the "internal fury" which wracked Hispania at the time recorded in the "Chronicle". Perhaps Oppa had been declared king at Toledo by Roderic and Achila's rivals, either before Roderic's final defeat or between his death and the Arab capture of Toledo. If so, the death of the nobles who had "ambition for the kingdom" may have been Oppa's supporters who were killed in Toledo by the Arabs shortly after the battle in the south.


title: Roderic

text: According to a 9th-century chronicle, a tombstone with the inscription "Hic requiescit Rodericus, rex Gothorum" (here rests Roderic, king of the Goths) was found at Egitania (modern Idanha-a-Velha, Portugal). According to the legend of Nazaré the king fled the battlefield alone. Roderic left a widow, Egilo, who later married one of the Arabic governors of Hispania, Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa.


title: Roderic

text: According to a legend that was for centuries treated as historical fact, Roderic seduced or raped the daughter of Count Julian, known in late accounts as Florinda la Cava. This tale of romance and treachery has inspired many works.


title: Roderic

text: Roderic appears in Nights 272 and 273 of the 1001 Nights. In the story, he opens a mysterious door in his castle that was locked and sealed shut by the previous kings. He discovers paintings of Muslim soldiers in the room and a note saying that the city of Toledo will fall to the soldiers in the paintings if the room is ever opened. This coincides with the fall of Toledo.


title: Roderic

text: Roderic is a central figure in the English playwright William Rowley's tragedy "All's Lost by Lust", which portrays him as a rapist usurped by Count Julian and the Moors.


title: Roderic

text: The Scottish writer Walter Scott, and the English writers Walter Savage Landor and Robert Southey, handled the legends associated with these events poetically: Scott in "The Vision of Don Roderick" in 1811; Landor in his tragedy "Count Julian" in 1812; and Southey in "Roderick the Last of the Goths", in 1814.


title: Roderic

text: The American writer Washington Irving retold the legends in his "Legends of the Conquest of Spain" (1835), mostly written while living in that country. These consist of "Legend of Don Roderick", "Legend of the Subjugation of Spain", and "Legend of Count Julian and His Family".


title: Roderic

text: In Alexander Pushkin's unfinished poem Roderick (Rodrik) survives the last battle, becomes a hermit and gets a promise of victory from Heaven.


title: Roderic

text: Roderic has been the subject of two operas: "Rodrigo" by George Frideric Handel and "Don Rodrigo" by Alberto Ginastera.


title: Roderic

text: Roderic appears as a minor character in the first half of Portuguese early Romantic writer Alexandre Herculano's novel "Eurico, o Presbítero" ("Euric, the Presbyter", 1844).


title: Equine coat color

text: Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings. A specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them.


title: Equine coat color

text: While most horses remain the same color throughout life, a few, over the course of several years, will develop a different coat color from that with which they were born. Most white markings are present at birth, and the underlying skin color of a healthy horse does not change. Some Equine coat colors are also related to the breed of horse, like the Friesian breed for instance.


title: Equine coat color

text: The basic outline of equine coat color genetics has largely been resolved, and DNA tests to determine the likelihood that a horse will have offspring of a given color have been developed for some colors. Discussion, research, and even controversy continues about some of the details, particularly those surrounding spotting patterns, color sub-shades such as "sooty" or "flaxen", and markings.


title: Equine coat color

text: The two basic pigment colors of horse hairs are pheomelanin ("red") which produces a reddish brown color, and eumelanin, which produces black. These two hair pigment genes create two base colors: chestnut, which is fully red, and black, which is fully black.


title: Equine coat color

text: All other coat colors are created by additional genes that modify these two base colors. The most common modifier creates point coloration of both red and black hairs, known as bay, which is classified as a base color as well. The vast range of all other coat colors are created by additional genes' action upon one of these three base colors.


title: Equine coat color

text: In the absence of DNA testing, chestnut and bay can be distinguished from each other by looking at the mane, tail and legs for the presence of black points. There is a proposed allele that darkens a bay coat to seal brown, and the sooty gene is linked to other forms of dark bay.


title: Equine coat color

text: Genetically, a chestnut horse is a horse without the ability to produce black pigment, while a black horse does not have dominant agouti to restrict their black pigment to points. The MC1R (extension) either binds alpha-MSH and signals for black and red pigment to be produced ('E' at extension), or it only signals for red ('e' at extension). ASIP (agouti) either blocks MC1R from binding to alpha-MSH and signalling for black ('A' at agouti), or it does not ('a' at agouti). The extension gene determines whether the cells can decide to produce black and red, and can be either "E" (able to produce black and red) or "e" (only able to produce red, as in chestnut). To be chestnut a horse must have two copies of "e", so the genotype is "e"/"e". A horse with a genotype of "E"/"E" or "E"/"e" can still make black and red pigments and will be bay or black. Meanwhile, the agouti gene determines whether the cells can stop producing black. The "A" version of "agouti" means that it can, so as long as has "E" at "extension" the base color will be bay. The "a" version of "agouti" means the cells cannot stop producing black, so a horse with two copies of "a" (genotype "a"/"a") and "E" at "extension" will be black rather than bay.


title: Equine coat color

text: A gray horse can be born any color, but as it gets older some hairs turn white. Most will eventually develop a complete white or a "fleabitten" coat, which retains speckles of the horse's original color. Grays are sometimes confused with certain roan, dun, or white coat colors. In particular, most "white" horses are actually grays with a fully white hair coat. A gray horse is usually distinguishable from a dominant white or a cremello horse by dark skin, particularly noticeable around the eyes, muzzle, flanks, and other areas of thin or no hair. A roan has intermixed light and dark hairs similar to a young gray horse, but unlike a gray does not lighten to white. Dun horses have a solid-colored hair coat that also does not lighten with age. Gray horses are prone to equine melanoma.


title: Equine coat color

text: Several different genetic allelic families produce colors are lighter versions of the base colors, caused by dilution genes.


title: Equine coat color

text: Cream dilution is an incomplete dominant gene that produces a lightened or "partial dilute" coat color when one copy of the allele is present and a fully dilute (or "double dilute") with two copies. The double cream dilute phenotypes overlap regardless of base coat color and often cannot be distinguished visually. Sometimes the creme allele is combined with an unrelated dilution gene from another family, which creates a cremello-like coat. Such coloration is called a "pseudo-double dilute." These distinctions usually require DNA testing to verify which alleles are present.


title: Equine coat color

text: Mixtures of dliution genes produce colors such as "dunalino" — a red dun that also carries a single cream gene and thus has a pale gold coat, white mane and tail, and very faint primitive markings.


title: Equine coat color

text: These patterns all have white hairs and often pink skin, varying from a fully white horse through the pinto patterns and smaller white markings to roan which only adds a few white hairs spread throughout the coat. These patterns can occur on top of any other color. The base color determines the color of the colored hairs, while the white patterns determine where and how many white hairs are present. Biologically the white comes from a lack of pigment cells. There are many different genetic alleles that create these patterns.


title: Equine coat color

text: There are a group of coat patterns caused by the leopard gene complex. Not every horse with leopard genetics will exhibit hair coat spotting. However, even solid individuals will exhibit secondary characteristics such as vertically striped hooves and mottled skin around the eyes, lips, and genitalia, plus a white sclera of the eye. Several breeds of horse can boast leopard-spotted (a term used collectively for all patterns) individuals including the Knabstrupper, Noriker, and the Appaloosa. There are several distinct leopard patterns:


title: Equine coat color

text: A pinto has large patches of white over any other underlying coat color. Sometimes called "Paint" in the western United States, a word that which technically refers to the American Paint Horse, a specific breed of mostly pinto horses with known Quarter Horse and/or Thoroughbred bloodlines. Other regional terms for certain pinto spotting patterns include "blagdon" in the UK. Pinto spotting is produced by a large number of genetic mechanisms, with dozens now mapped and identifiable through DNA testing.


title: Equine coat color

text: Roaning adds white hairs to any of the other colors and, unlike gray, the color does not steadily lighten over the horse's lifetime, though there may be some minor color variation from year to year or especially between summer and winter coats.


title: Equine coat color

text: Rabicano: A roan-style effect that is caused by a yet-to-be-mapped genetic modifier that creates a mealy, splotchy, or roaning pattern on only part of the body, usually limited to the underside, flanks, legs, tail and head areas. Unlike a true roan, much of the body will not have white hairs intermingled with solid ones, nor are the legs or head significantly darker than the rest of the horse.


title: Equine coat color

text: One of the rarest colors, a true genetic white horse has white hair and fully or largely unpigmented (pink) skin. These horses are born white or mostly white and remain white for life. The vast majority of so-called "white" horses are actually grays with a fully white hair coat. A truly white horse occurs one of two ways: either by inheriting one copy of a dominant white ("W") allele that produces white when heterozygous but may be a genetic lethal if homozygous, or by inheriting two copies of a non-lethal dominant white ("W") allele that produces a white coat when homozygous. There are also some genetic lethal genes unrelated to the W allelic series: a foal homozygous for the frame overo gene will have a condition known as lethal white syndrome dies shortly after birth.


title: Equine coat color

text: There are no "albinos" in the horse world. Albino, defined as animals with a white coat with pink skin and reddish eyes, is created by genetic mechanisms that do not exist in horses. In some cases, homozygous dominant white (W) is thought to be an embryonic lethal, though this does not occur with all W alleles.


title: Equine coat color

text: White markings are present at birth and unique to each horse, making them useful in identifying individual animals. Markings usually have pink skin underneath them, though some faint markings may not, and white hairs may extend past the area of underlying pink skin. Though markings that overlie dark skin may appear to change, the underlying skin color and hair growing from pink skin will not. The distinction when white markings confined to the face and legs or a few small body spots become extensive enough to constitute a white spotting pattern is usually determined by breed standards set by registries. White markings generally are now hypothesized to be a minimal expression of certain genes in the dominant white (W) allelic series.


title: Equine coat color

text: Most horses have brown eyes with minor shade variations. Blue eyes are linked to the splashed white spotting allele, and cream dilution may produce a bluish-green eye color. The champagne and pearl genes also produce lightened eye colors in the blue or green shades. The leopard complex produces a white scelara around an otherwise dark eye.


title: Equine coat color

text: The yellow or amber Tiger eye gene has been found only in the Puerto Rican Paso Fino and has two variants, Tiger-eye 1 (TE1) and Tiger-eye 2 (TE2), which are both recessive. There is no obvious link between eye shade and coat color, making this the first studied gene in horses to affect eye color but not coat color.


title: Equine coat color

text: Exterior hoof wall color is usually linked to coat color. Most horses have a dark grayish hoof wall unless they have white leg markings, in which case they will have pale-colored hooves. The leopard complex gene will create a light and dark striped hoof, and many chestnut horses have brownish hooves that are somewhat lighter than the usual dark gray.


title: Equine coat color

text: Registries have opened that accept horses (and sometimes ponies and mules) of almost any breed or type, with color either the only requirement for registration or the primary criterion. These are called "color breeds". Unlike "true" horse breeds, there are few if any unique physical characteristics required, nor is the stud book limited to only certain breeds or offspring of previously registered horses. As a general rule, offspring without the stated color are usually not eligible for recording with the color breed registry, although there are exceptions. The best-known color breed registries are for buckskins, palominos, and pintos.


title: Equine coat color

text: Some horse breeds may have a desired coat color that usually breeds on as a characteristic that is part of the breed standard, in addition to distinctive physical characteristics and a limited stud book. They are not color breeds, and include the Friesian horse (must be uniformly black for mainstream registration), the Appaloosa (with Leopard complex patterns) and the American Paint Horse. In some of these breeds, though not all, offspring of animals registered in these stud books may be registered even if they do not have the desired color, sometimes with restrictions.


title: Kaya (album)

text: Kaya is the tenth studio album released by Bob Marley and the Wailers in 1978. The album consists of tracks recorded alongside those present on the "Exodus" album in 1977.


title: Kaya (album)

text: The album has a very relaxed, laid back sound, lacking much of the militant quality of the Wailers lyrically and musically. They received criticism for 'going soft' as a result of the general sound of the album as well as the theme: songs primarily revolving around love, as well as marijuana.


title: Kaya (album)

text: The album's release coincided with the One Love Peace Concert, heralding Marley's triumphant return to Jamaica from exodus in London. Three of the songs are new versions of tracks from the 1971 album "Soul Revolution Part II". Well-known songs from the album include "Is This Love" and "Satisfy My Soul". "Kaya" reached the top five in the UK album charts.


title: Mary of Clopas

text: According to the Gospel of John, Mary of Clopas (, "María hē tou Clōpá") was one of the women present at the crucifixion of Jesus and bringing supplies for his funeral. The expression "Mary of Clopas" in the Greek text is ambiguous as to whether Mary was the daughter or wife of Clopas, but exegesis has commonly favoured the reading "wife of Clopas". Hegesippus identified Clopas as a brother of Saint Joseph. In the "Roman Martyrology" she is remembered with Saint Salome on April 24.


title: Mary of Clopas

text: Along with Mary Magdalene and Mary, mother of James, Mary of Clopas is known as one of the Three Marys at the tomb of Jesus. Her relics are said to be in France at the Church of the Saintes Maries de la Mer.


title: Mary of Clopas

text: Mary of Clopas is explicitly mentioned only in , where she is among the women present at the crucifixion of Jesus:


title: Mary of Clopas

text: The Gospels of Mark and Matthew each include similar passages that are nearly identical to one another:


title: Mary of Clopas

text: This has led some scholars to identify Mary of Clopas with "Mary the mother of James and Joseph/Joses". The Gospels of Matthew () and Mark () mention James and Joseph/Joses (with Mark always using the less common variation "Joses") among the four brothers of Jesus.


title: Mary of Clopas

text: According to some interpretations, the same Mary was also among the women that on resurrection morning went to the tomb to anoint the body of Jesus with spices. calls her "the other Mary" to distinguish her from Mary Magdalene, while uses the name "Mary, the mother of James" ("Maria Iacobi" in Latin).


title: Mary of Clopas

text: In a manner very similar to the Gospel of John, the apocryphal Gospel of Philip (3rd century) also seems to list Mary of Clopas among Jesus' female entourage:


title: Mary of Clopas

text: Adding to the confusion, the Gospel of Philip seems to refer to her as Jesus' mother's sister ("her sister") and Jesus' own sister ("his sister").


title: Mary of Clopas

text: The Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (7th century) presents Mary of Cleophas as the daughter of Cleophas and Anna:


title: Mary of Clopas

text: The expression "Mary of Clopas" in the Greek text is ambiguous as to whether Mary was the daughter or wife of Clopas, but exegesis has commonly favoured the reading "wife of Clopas". Clopas appears in early Christian writings as a brother of Joseph, and as the father of Simeon, the second bishop of Jerusalem. Eusebius of Caesarea, referencing the works of Hegesippus, relates in his "Church History" (Book III, ch. 11), that after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, the Christians of Jerusalem:


title: Mary of Clopas

text: Clopas was sometimes further identified with Cleopas and Alphaeus, father of James, one of the Twelve Apostles. In 1982, Stephen S. Smalley, Dean Emeritus of Chester Cathedral, deemed this identification "probable" In medieval tradition, Clopas was identified as the second husband of Saint Anne and as the father of Mary of Clopas, allowing Mary to be identified as the half-sister of Mary, the mother of Jesus.


title: Mary of Clopas

text: Jerome (347-420), writing "Against Helvidius" in defense of perpetual virginity of the mother of Jesus, argued that the brothers of Jesus (James, Simon, Jude (also identified in tradition with Judas Thaddeus), and Joses or Joseph) were children of Mary of Clopas, the sister of the mother of Jesus, making them first cousins of Jesus and not direct siblings.. Jerome also identified James, the brother of Jesus, with the Apostle James, son of Alphaeus (James the less) and thus supposed that Mary of Clopas was married to Alphaeus (Clopas).


title: Mary of Clopas

text: This view finds support in a fragment found in a medieval manuscript, which lists four Maries mentioned in the gospels and bears the inscription "Papia" on the margin. According to Papias, "Mary the wife of Cleophas or Alphaeus, was the mother of James, Simon and Thaddeus, and of one Joseph." The attribution of this fragment to Papias of Hierapolis (ca. 70-163 AD) however has been disputed in favour of a medieval author (possibly Papias the lexicographer, fl. 1040s–1060s) by Anglican bishops and theologians J.B. Lightfoot (1828-1889). and Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901). For example Lightfoot argued that it seems quite impossible for Jerome not to quote Papias who would have fully supported his view, despite having access to his writings, and the quote seems to be derived from Jerome's writings, some parts being almost word for word with what Jerome said in adv. Helvid.


title: Mary of Clopas

text: James Tabor deduced that "Mary the mother of James and Joses" is none other than Mary, the mother of Jesus herself. This interpretation would necessitate that Mary the mother of Jesus married a man named Clopas, after her marriage to Joseph (perhaps after his death). Tabor proposes that a brother of Joseph would have been obliged to wed his widowed wife in a Levirate marriage, despite this only being permissible if the first marriage had been childless.


title: Mary of Clopas

text: The most likely outcome is that Mary the wife of Cleophas (or Clopas) is the same as Mary the mother of James the Less, Simon, Judas (Jude/Thaddeus) and Joses, as well as Clopas' wife. This indicates that the term, 'brothers of Jesus' stood for cousins rather than siblings.


title: Al Unser

text: Alfred Unser (May 29, 1939 – December 9, 2021) was an American automobile racing driver, the younger brother of fellow racing drivers Jerry and Bobby Unser, and father of Al Unser Jr. He was the second of four men (A. J. Foyt, himself, Rick Mears and Hélio Castroneves) to have won the Indianapolis 500 four times (1970, 1971, 1978, 1987), the fourth of five to have won the race in consecutive years, and won the National Championship in 1970, 1983, and 1985. The Unser family has won the Indy 500 a record nine times. He was the only person to have both a sibling (Bobby) and child (Al Jr.) as fellow Indy 500 winners. Al's nephews Johnny and Robby Unser have also competed in that race. In 1971, he became the only driver to date to win the race on his birthday (his 32nd).


title: Al Unser

text: After his son Al Unser Jr. joined the national championship circuit in 1983, Unser was generally known by the retronyms "Al Unser Sr." or "Big Al."


title: Al Unser

text: Unser was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the youngest of four sons of Mary Catherine (Craven) and Jerome Henry "Jerry" Unser. His father and two uncles, Louis and Joe, were also drivers. Beginning in 1926 they competed in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb, an annual road race held in Colorado. Joe Unser became the first member of the Unser family to lose his life to the sport, killed while test-driving an FWD Coleman Special on the Denver highway in 1929.


title: Al Unser

text: Al's oldest brother Jerry became the first Unser to drive at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, qualifying 23rd and finishing 31st in the 1958 Indianapolis 500. However, tragedy struck the next year when he was killed by injuries sustained in a fiery crash during a practice session.


title: Al Unser

text: Middle brother Bobby drove in his first Indianapolis 500 in 1963, and in 1968, became the first member of the family to win. Son Al Unser Jr. drove in his first in 1983.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser married Wanda Jesperson in 1958 and they had three children- Alfred Jr., Mary, and Deborah. Deborah died in a dune buggy accident in 1982. Al and Wanda divorced in 1971 and Al married Karen Sue Barnes on November 22, 1977. Karen and Al divorced in 1988.


title: Al Unser

text: He began racing in 1957, at age 18, initially competing primarily in modified roadsters, sprint cars and midgets. In 1965 he raced in the Indianapolis 500 for the first time and finished ninth. His breakout year in IndyCar's was in 1970 when he joined Vel's Parnelli Jones Racing, where he would drive for the next seven years.


title: Al Unser

text: He won the Indy 500 in 1970, two years after his brother, Bobby. During the race, he led for all but ten of the 200 laps and averaged . His quick pit stops were a factor in the victory, as well as the fact that VPJ had an insurmountable advantage over the field that year. That season, he won a record ten times on oval, road and dirt tracks to capture the United States Auto Club national championship. Unser competed in USAC's Stock Car division in 1967, and was the series Rookie of the Year.


title: Al Unser

text: In 1971, with Vel's Parnelli Jones, he won the Indy 500 again, starting from the fifth position with an average speed of , and holding off Peter Revson's McLaren for the victory. Unser's bid to become the first three-time consecutive Indy 500 champion was thwarted when he finished second to Mark Donohue in the 1972 Indianapolis 500. Unser would continue driving for the team up until 1977. During a few of those years, VPJ lost their competitive edge after changing their chassis, as well as their failed F1 bid. By 1977, the team regained competitive form, although Unser would announce his departure for Jim Hall Racing at year's end. Unser would later say, in a 2020 interview, that his departure from VPJ stemmed from disagreements with Jones and his partners over the direction of the team, although Unser maintained a friendship with Jones.


title: Al Unser

text: Despite starting the 1978 Indianapolis 500 from the fifth position in a First National City Travelers Checks Chaparral Lola, Unser's car was considered before the race to be a second-tier entry at best, if not an outright long shot to win. Moving to the front of the field for the first time on lap 75, he and opponent Danny Ongais engaged in an on-again off-again duel for 75 more laps, before an engine failure on Ongais' car on lap 150 allowed Unser to assume a commanding 35 second lead. Although suffering right front-wing misalignment due to impacting a tire on his final pit stop, a situation that led to the lead shrinking steadily over the race's final 20 laps, it nevertheless proved wide enough for victory by nine seconds to spare at the checkered flag. Unser's race average speed of ranked as the then-second fastest ever run (one mile per hour less than the then-1972 record), and would not itself be topped for second for four more years.


title: Al Unser

text: In 1979, Unser departed Jim Hall's team for the Longhorn Racing Team owned by Bobby Hillin Sr.. Although Unser went winless for three seasons, he would later say that driving for the Hillin family was his most joyful experience as a driver before his successful Penske years. The team folded operations after three years, putting Unser out of a ride.


title: Al Unser

text: In the 1983 season, Unser joined Team Penske and drove for four years in a Penske-owned car. Unser controlled the late stages of the 1983 Indianapolis 500, leading 61 laps. With less than 20 laps to go, Unser got challenges from Tom Sneva who led the most laps. With help from his son - who was several laps down - Unser began pulling away from Sneva. However Sneva got by Al Jr., and set sail for Unser Sr.. Sneva caught up to Unser within one lap of passing Al Jr., and passed him to retake the lead with nine laps to go. Sneva then easily pulled away to win the race by 11 seconds, avenging his firing from the team in 1978. After the race, Unser Jr. was penalized two laps for his actions as well as having passed two cars under caution on lap 170.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser won the IndyCar championships in 1983 and 1985 by winning one race and then having several top-five finishes. In 1986, Penske decided to focus the team's attention on teammate Rick Mears when he healed from serious injuries. As a result, Unser cut down his schedule to only a few IndyCar races a year, which he would do going forward.


title: Al Unser

text: Outside of his open-wheel career, Unser was a semi-regular competitor in IROC, winning three races and the 1977-1978 championship. His final IROC start was an 11th-place finish at the 1993 Michigan race after winning the pole.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser also started five races in NASCAR, three in the late 1960s and two in 1986. His best finishes were a pair of 4th-place results, one at the 1968 Daytona 500 and the other at the 1969 Motor Trend 500 at Riverside International Raceway. He fared less well in two 1986 starts, finishing 29th at Watkins Glen and 20th at Riverside.


title: Al Unser

text: In 1987, Penske's slate of drivers included Rick Mears, Danny Sullivan, and Danny Ongais. Al Unser Sr. was dropped from the team, and entered the month of May without a ride. During the first week of practice, Al Sr. spent much of the week shopping for a ride, and a few offers were made by owners. Al Sr., however, refused the offers, as he insisted on landing a ride in a competitive, well-funded car only. Unser planned on staying through the week, and if he did not have a ride by the end of the first week of time trials, he was planning to return home. Coincidentally, his son Al Unser Jr. (driving for Shierson Racing) was having difficulty with his car's handling. At the end of the first weekend of time trials, Al Jr. surprisingly had not yet qualified. Al Sr. agreed to stay through the week in order to help his son get his car up to speed.


title: Al Unser

text: Danny Ongais crashed into the wall during the first week of practice, suffering a serious concussion, and was declared unfit to drive. Meanwhile, the Penske team's new Penske PC-16 chassis had been uncompetitive during practice. By the end of the first week of practice, Penske parked the PC-16s and elected to qualify back-up cars for the race. Mears and Sullivan were provided 1986 March-Ilmor Chevrolet machines, while a third car, a 1986 March-Cosworth, was planned for third driver.


title: Al Unser

text: Midway through the second week of practice, Roger Penske consummated a deal with Al Sr. to drive the third car. Penske promised Unser a well-funded effort, and a brand new Cosworth engine, the same chassis/engine combination that had won the previous four Indy 500s. The year-old March was removed from a Penske Racing display at a Sheraton hotel in the team's hometown of Reading, Pennsylvania, and hurriedly prepared for a return to active competition. Unser easily put the car in the field on the third day of time trials.


title: Al Unser

text: At the start Unser was in the 20th position. On a day when heavy attrition felled most of the field's front-runners, including the overwhelmingly dominant Newman-Haas entry of Mario Andretti, Unser worked his way steadily forward and took the lead on the 183rd lap, after Roberto Guerrero's car stalled on his final pit stop. Averaging , Unser bested a charging Guerrero by 4.5 seconds to win his fourth Indy 500, only five days before his 48th birthday. In doing so he tied Foyt as the winningest Indy 500 driver and broke brother Bobby's record as the oldest Indy winner.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser rode the wave of his fourth Indy victory to secure a ride at Penske for the Michigan 500, Pocono 500, and Marlboro Challenge for 1987. Near the end of the year, Unser had two other starts. He drove as a substitute for Roberto Guerrero at Nazareth, and had a competitive run until crashing a few laps short of the finish. He was then hired to drive the brand new Porsche Indy car at Laguna Seca. The team was still in its infancy, and the car dropped out. Unser left the team after only one race.


title: Al Unser

text: In 1988 and 1989, Unser returned to Penske to secure a ride at the three 500-miles races (Indianapolis, Michigan, Pocono).


title: Al Unser

text: After reorganization at Team Penske in 1990, Unser was finally crowded out of his part-time ride. With competitive rides filling up, and his career winding down, he joined the sub-par Patrick Racing Alfa Romeo team for 1990. After dropping out at Indy, Unser crashed in practice at Michigan and broke his leg. He quit the team after the crash.


title: Al Unser

text: He spent most of the month of May 1991 shopping around for a competitive ride. The restrictions on the number of leases to the Chevy Ilmor engine kept him out of a ride during the first week of practice. A last-minute deal with the UNO/Granatelli team (where he would be Arie Luyendyk's teammate) fell through when there was not enough time to prepare the car. Instead of jumping into another car "just to make the show," Unser sat out the 1991 race and watched from the sidelines for the first time since 1969.


title: Al Unser

text: In 1992, Unser entered the month of May for the second year in a row without a ride. During the first week of practice, Nelson Piquet was involved in a serious crash, and was unable to drive. Unser was hired by Team Menard to fill the position vacated by Piquet. Unser drove to a 3rd-place finish, while his son Al Unser Jr. won the race. It was Team Menard's best Indy 500 finish, the best finish for the Buick Indy engine, and the first time the Buick engine had gone the entire . Later in the year, Unser was selected to drive as a substitute for the injured Rick Mears at Nazareth. It was Unser's first start for Penske since 1989, and his final start in a CART series event. He finished 12th, earning 1 championship point.


title: Al Unser

text: In 1993, driving for King Racing, he led 15 laps at the Indianapolis 500 to extend his career laps-led record. He finished 12th, one lap down.


title: Al Unser

text: A month shy of his 55th birthday, Unser entered the 1994 race with Arizona Motorsports, hoping to qualify for what would be his 28th Indy 500. The team was very underfunded, and Unser had considerable trouble getting the car up to speed. On the first weekend of qualifying, he waved off after a poor qualifying lap. After some minimal practice the following day, he quit the team. He announced his retirement on May 17, 1994. His son Al Unser Jr. won the Indianapolis 500 on his father's 55th birthday.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser suffered from hereditary haemochromatosis, which contributed to him being diagnosed with liver cancer in 2004 and having a tumor and half of his liver removed in 2005. Unser continued to suffer from cancer for the next 17 years before dying from the disease aged 82 on December 9, 2021, in his home in Chama, New Mexico.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser has led the second most laps of any driver in the history of the Indianapolis 500, at 644. Unser tied Ralph DePalma's long standing record of 612 laps led on the last lap of his 4th victory.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser holds the record of being the oldest driver to ever win the 500 at 47 years old (1987), breaking the previous record set by his brother Bobby.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser won two 500-mile races at Pocono (in 1976 and 1978) and two more at Ontario (in 1977 and 1978) bringing his total of 500-mile race wins (including four Indianapolis 500s) to eight.


title: Al Unser

text: Unser was the 1978 IROC champion. He also competed in the 1968 Daytona 500 and four other NASCAR Winston Cup & Grand National races, all held on road courses with a best finish of fourth (twice).


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: The 2017 NXT TakeOver: WarGames (originally NXT TakeOver: Houston) was the 17th NXT TakeOver and inaugural NXT WarGames professional wrestling livestreaming event produced by WWE. It was held exclusively for wrestlers from the promotion's NXT brand division. The event aired exclusively on the WWE Network and took place on November 18, 2017, at the Toyota Center in Houston, Texas as part of that year's Survivor Series weekend. The event's name is derived from the match of the same name that was originally used in the National Wrestling Alliance and later, World Championship Wrestling.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: Five matches were contested at the event. In the main event, The Undisputed Era (Adam Cole, Bobby Fish, and Kyle O'Reilly) defeated Sanity (Alexander Wolfe, Eric Young, and Killian Dain) and the team of The Authors of Pain (Akam and Rezar) and Roderick Strong in a WarGames match. On the undercard, Ember Moon defeated Kairi Sane, Nikki Cross, and Peyton Royce in a fatal four-way match to win the vacant NXT Women's Championship, and Andrade Cien Almas defeated Drew McIntyre to win the NXT Championship.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: TakeOver was a series of professional wrestling shows that began in May 2014, as WWE's then-developmental league NXT held their second WWE Network-exclusive event, billed as TakeOver. In subsequent months, the "TakeOver" moniker became the brand used by WWE for all of their NXT live specials. WarGames was scheduled as the 17th NXT TakeOver event. Originally promoted as TakeOver: Houston, as the event was held in Houston, Texas, the event was changed to TakeOver: WarGames after an announcement by Triple H on October 4, 2017. The event's name was derived from an old match type that was originally used in the National Wrestling Alliance, and later, an annual match held by World Championship Wrestling. The TakeOver event featured the namesake match, which was the first time in nearly twenty years since the match last occurred. The inaugural TakeOver: WarGames was held on November 18, 2017, at Houston's Toyota Center and was a support show for that year's Survivor Series pay-per-view (PPV).


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: The card comprised five matches. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the NXT brand, while storylines were produced on their weekly television program, "NXT".


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: On the September 6 episode of "NXT", Asuka relinquished the NXT Women's Championship due to a legitimate injury she sustained at ; she was subsequently moved up to the main roster on the Raw brand. On September 12, Kairi Sane won the Mae Young Classic and earned herself a shot at the vacant NXT Women's Championship at TakeOver: WarGames. On the September 27 episode of "NXT", General Manager William Regal made the match at WarGames a fatal four-way for the vacant NXT Women's Championship, with qualifying matches held over the following weeks to determine the other three participants. On the October 11 episode, Peyton Royce defeated Nikki Cross (of Sanity) and Liv Morgan to qualify for the match by pinning Cross after she was distracted by Taynara Conti, who was escorted by The Undisputed Era. The following week, Ember Moon qualified by defeating Ruby Riott and Sonya Deville. On the next episode, Nikki Cross last eliminated Billie Kay in a battle royal to qualify for the last spot in the fatal four-way. Cross later defeated Taynara in a singles match on the November 1 episode. The following week, Sane defeated Kay in singles competition. The next week, after Moon defeated Mercedes Martinez, the other three competitors came to the ring and ringside area and stared each other down.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: At TakeOver: Brooklyn III, Drew McIntyre defeated Bobby Roode to win the NXT Championship; Roode was then promoted to the main roster on the SmackDown brand. On the October 4 episode of "NXT", McIntyre successfully defended his title against Roderick Strong. Two weeks later, Andrade Cien Almas's manager, Zelina Vega, interrupted McIntyre's interview, stating that Almas and McIntyre were the same, accusing him of avoiding Almas, and expressing Almas's interest in challenging him for the title. On the October 25 episode of "NXT", Vega said that they had been waiting for a contract for an NXT Championship match with McIntyre, saying that McIntyre and Strong were weak compared to Almas. Almas then defeated Strong after Vega physically interfered in their match. Afterwards, Vega challenged McIntyre to meet Almas in the ring the next week. After the show went off the air, general manager William Regal, in a video posted to Twitter, announced that McIntyre versus Almas for the title has been made official and their confrontation next week will be a contract signing. On the November 1 episode of "NXT", McIntyre signed the contract to defend his title at WarGames and brought it out to the ring, where Almas attacked McIntyre and signed the contract as well. McIntyre called Almas out on the November 14 episode, stating that Almas was taking orders from Vega and wondered if she would ever let him off his leash. Vega and Almas then came out and attacked McIntyre, standing tall with the title.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: At TakeOver: Brooklyn III, Sanity (Alexander Wolfe and Eric Young) defeated The Authors of Pain (Akam and Rezar) to win the NXT Tag Team Championship. After the match, Bobby Fish and Kyle O'Reilly attacked all four competitors. Over the next several weeks, Adam Cole (who debuted at Brooklyn III by attacking newly crowned NXT Champion Drew McIntyre), Fish, and O'Reilly, now calling themselves "The Undisputed Era", and Sanity (including Killian Dain) brawled with each other after their respective matches. On the September 27 episode of "NXT", Cole made his in-ring debut by defeating Young after Young was distracted with the faction brawl at ringside. The next week, after McIntyre successfully defended his title against Roderick Strong, The Undisputed Era came out to urge Strong to join them. On the October 18 episode, The Authors of Pain attacked Sanity during their match with Undisputed Era, holding up the tag titles and staring down Undisputed Era. The following week, after Strong's match with Andrade "Cien" Almas, Undisputed Era came down to the ring to convince Strong to join them, telling him to "think it over." On the November 1 episode, the Authors defeated Sanity by disqualification in their tag team championship rematch after they were attacked by The Undisputed Era, who beat up Sanity. Strong came out, teasing joining Undisputed Era, but attacked Cole instead, sending them running. General manager William Regal then came out and announced that in order to restore order, the three teams would face off in the only match that could contain them, a WarGames match, the first such match since the September 4, 2000, episode of "WCW Monday Nitro", at TakeOver: WarGames. On the November 8 episode, Strong defeated Cole by disqualification after Fish and O'Reilly pulled him out of the ring. After the match, a brawl ensued between all three teams.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: On the September 6 episode of "NXT", Aleister Black began a promo on his career so far, but was interrupted by Velveteen Dream, who called Black "afraid." Black then kicked the microphone out of Dream's hand. On the October 4 episode, Black was scheduled to compete against the debuting Lio Rush, but the latter was attacked by Dream, who said he would make Black "say his name." Dream then defeated Rush the following week, celebrating with Black's signature pose. The following week, during Black's match with Raul Mendoza, Dream came to ringside and wore Black's jacket, eliciting a stare from Black. On the October 25 episode, before Black's scheduled match, Dream attacked him. Then, Black ran him off and stared him down. The following episode, a video was played showing Black challenging Dream to a match at TakeOver, stating he had his attention and in which it was made official. The next week, on the November 8 episode, Dream defeated Cezar Bononi and accepted Black's challenge to a match at WarGames, promising that Black's lips would say his name.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: On the November 8 episode of "NXT", Kassius Ohno requested a match against Lars Sullivan to prove he belongs in the NXT Championship picture, which Regal accepted and made it official. The next week, after Sullivan defeated Raul Mendoza, Ohno stopped Sullivan from attacking Mendoza, staring each other down as Sullivan left the ring.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: The event opened with Lars Sullivan facing Kassius Ohno. Sullivan performed a "Freak Accident" on Ohno for the win.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: Next, Aleister Black faced the Velveteen Dream. Black executed "Black Mass" on Dream to win the match. After the match, Black acknowledged Dream.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: After that, Kairi Sane, Ember Moon, Peyton Royce, and Nikki Cross competed in a fatal four-way match for the vacant NXT Women's Championship. Moon performed the "Eclipse" on Royce and Cross, pinning Cross to win the title.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defended the NXT Championship against Andrade Cien Almas, accompanied by Zelina Vega. Almas performed a double knee smash on McIntyre, who was seated in the corner, for a near-fall. McIntyre performed a "Future Shock" on Almas for a near-fall. Whilst the referee was distracted by Almas holding the title belt, Vega performed a hurricanrana driver on McIntyre. Almas performed a hammerlock DDT on McIntyre for a near-fall. McIntyre performed a "Claymore" on Almas, but Vega placed Almas' foot on the bottom rope, voiding the pinfall at a two count. McIntyre attempted a second "Claymore", but Almas avoided and performed an elevated hammerlock DDT on McIntyre to win the title.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: In the main event, NXT Tag Team Champions Sanity (Eric Young, Alexander Wolfe, and Killian Dain), the Undisputed Era (Adam Cole, Kyle O'Reilly, and Bobby Fish), and the team of The Authors of Pain (Akam and Rezar) and Roderick Strong competed in a WarGames match. Young, Cole and Strong began the match. After the first countdown, O'Reilly and Fish entered, assisting Cole in attacking Young and Strong. After the second countdown, Akam and Rezar entered and dominated the other participants. After the third countdown, Wolfe and Dain entered the match. Wolfe attacked Akam and Rezar with a nightstick while Dain retrieved trash cans, steel chairs, kendo sticks, and two tables. Dain used a steel chain to lock the door then (kayfabe) swallowed the key. Fish and O'Reilly performed "Chasing the Dragon" on Strong whilst Cole performed a superkick on Strong. O'Reilly applied a cross armbreaker using a chain on Wolfe but Young performed a diving elbow drop on O'Reilly to break the hold. Wolfe performed a super German suplex on Akam through two tables. Dain performed a "Coast-to-Coast" on O'Reilly into a trash can. Strong performed a superplex off the cage on Cole onto the other participants and scored a near-fall. Akam and Rezar performed "The Last Chapter" on Dain on the steel platform. O'Reilly and Fish performed "Total Elimination" on Rezar. Wolfe and Young performed a belly to back suplex/diving neckbreaker combination on O'Reilly. Young performed a wheelbarrow suplex into the cage on Strong. Cole struck Young with a kendo stick and performed a shining wizard on Young into a steel chair to win the match.


title: NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2017)

text: The 2017 TakeOver: WarGames would be the first in an annual WarGames chronology for NXT. For the next three years, the event was held as a subseries of TakeOvers. While the events from 2017 to 2019 were held in November as support shows for WWE's annual Survivor Series, the ended this tradition, with the event being held in December. The TakeOver series was discontinued in late 2021, with the 2021 WarGames being NXT's first PPV and livestreaming event held following TakeOver's discontinuation. The 2021 event would in turn be the final NXT WarGames, as in 2022, the WarGames concept was moved to the main roster as part of Survivor Series, with that year's event rebranded as Survivor Series WarGames. The NXT WarGames event was replaced by NXT Deadline.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: The Evening and the Morning is a historical fiction novel by Welsh author Ken Follett. It is a prequel to "The Pillars of the Earth" set starting in 997 CE, and covering a period in the late Dark Ages and under the backdrop of Viking raids, through the year 1007 CE. The book expands upon the history and founding of the fictional town of Kingsbridge, England, and the construction of the bridge and cathedral there (and the origin of the town's name is explained). It was released on September 15, 2020.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: The title is in Genesis 1:5. Follett has said that he has chosen biblical quotes for the titles of all his Kingsbridge novels as feels that they have a more powerful and epic feeling.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: The novel begins in Combe, a fictional fishing village to the west of Portsmouth. Edgar, son of a boat builder, wakes up before dawn to sneak away with his lover Sungifu (Sunni). Upon crossing the bay to Sunni's house, Edgar sees a Viking raiding party landing and rushes to raise the alarm. Edgar tries to save Sunni, but finds her dead at the hands of a Viking, whom Edgar kills. When the raid is over, Edgar sees his village destroyed, and his father murdered. Edgar's mother, and two brothers, Erman and Eadbald, are left penniless and homeless. In the aftermath of the destruction, brothers Wilf, Ealdorman of Shiring; Wigelm, Lord of Combe (Wilf's subservient); and Wynstan, Bishop of Shiring, survey the damage. Wynstan offers the family a secretly bad farm in Dreng's Ferry, a small community with a nunnery and church a few days upriver from Combe, and the family accepts.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: The family settles into their new farm near Dreng's Ferry. They meet the malicious Dreng, owner of the eponymous ferry and an alehouse, his spoiled daughter Cwenberg, his two wives Leongifu (Leaf) and Ethel, and his Welsh slave and prostitute Blod. Cwenberg attempts to seduce Edgar, who refuses, and then Erman and Eadbald. Erman and Eadbald both marry Cwenberg. As depicted in the book, in English society of the time it is accepted, though unusual, for a man to have two wives and for a woman to have two husbands.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: Meanwhile in Cherbourg, Lady Ragnhild (called Ragna), daughter of Count Hubert, is entertaining Father Aldred, a gay monk and the armarius (librarian) of Shiring Cathedral whose greatest wish is to create a center for books and learning. Ragna is not a typical noblewoman; she is literate, intelligent, and very interested in administering justice in her lands. Wilf visits Cherbourg to ask that Count Hubert stop sheltering Viking raiders. Ragna and Wilf are immediately attracted to each other. They illicitly have sex, and Wilf returns to England, to Ragna's disappointment. Bishop Wynstan returns with an offer of marriage from Wilf to Ragna, which is accepted.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: Ragna heads to Shiring, but is robbed on the way. Ragna and her entourage take shelter in Dreng's Ferry, where she meets Edgar and is impressed by him. Edgar falls in love with Ragna, though he believes a relationship with her is impossible. At Shiring, Lady Ragna is married and settles into life governing and running the household. She takes control of lands she was granted in her marriage contract, and begins to administer Shiring on behalf of Wilf, who has no interest in governing. Ragna comes into direct opposition to Wilf's extended family, who see her as a threat. Wilf tires of Ragna and begins to sleep with other women, wounding Ragna, who begins to hate him.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: Father Aldred discovers a counterfeiting operation of the king's currency at Dreng's Ferry spearheaded by Bishop Wynstan and gets the minster shut down and turned into a monastery even though Wynstan escapes scot-free. Aldred is then "rewarded" with the position as prior of the new Dreng's Ferry monastery at. He enlists Edgar as his builder to make improvements to the church and its buildings as well as later build an entire cathedral. The alehouse burns down, so Edgar builds a stone alehouse for Dreng. Edgar uses stone from a quarry owned by Ragna and informs her that the quarryman is cheating her. Edgar "the Builder" fixes the church wall in exchange for reading lessons from Aldred and develops a fish trap to feed his family. Aldred brings a holy relic - the bones of St. Adolphus (a fictional Saint) - to the church to attract pilgrims. A jealous Wynstan has Dreng remove his ferry on a key festival day, so the pilgrims cannot get across. Aldred and Edgar build a bridge, which draws back the pilgrims and increases commerce. Wynstan, Dreng, and Wigelm burn down the bridge, killing Leaf in the process. The elimination of the bridge inconveniences King Æthelred who cannot cross the river while on a military campaign. Aldred convinces the king to grant a charter to Dreng's Ferry for a bridge, a weekly market, and an annual fair, turning the town into "Kingsbridge".


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: Ragna offers the job of quarryman to Edgar, who accepts. He greatly improves Ragna's income and a new town grows around the quarry. Dreng dies and his remaining wife, Ethel soon follows, tended by Blod and another slave, Mairead. Ethel leaves the tavern to the slaves, freeing them on her death.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: Wilf is injured in a military campaign and permanently mentally disabled as a result. Ragna has Wilf dictate a will making her regent. Looking to dislodge Ragna, Wigelm and Wynstan kill Wilf and steal his treasury and Ragna's money. On visiting the quarry, Ragna and Edgar become attracted to each other and have sex. Wigelm pressures Ragna to marry him, but she refuses. Edgar plans to sneak Ragna to the nunnery to hide, but she is betrayed by a servant and Wigelm imprisons her for a year. He rapes her repeatedly and Ragna gives birth to a boy, Alain. Faced with losing her children, Ragna returns to Shiring with Wigelm. Edgar, still in love with Ragna, leaves to Normandy to study cathedral building.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: Ragna continues to resist Wigelm and so he takes Alain away from her. Ragna is "set aside" and she moves to Kingsbridge. She works with Aldred to get Edgar to return, unsuccessfully. One night, a drunk Wigelm tries to rape Ragna. She murders him and dumps his body in a canal. Foul play is ruled out at an inquest led by Ragna.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: Ragna returns to Shiring and takes possession of the compound, her family, and the lands as regent. The local Sheriff, Den, agrees to share power with Ragna and the King affirms their plan. Bishop Wynstan resists the plans, but is losing his edge due to dementia caused by a sexually-transmitted disease. Wynstan's condition, and his lustful habits, become public knowledge and he is blocked from becoming Archbishop of Canterbury. Ragna convinces the new Archbishop to remove Wynstan, and he makes Aldred Bishop of Shiring, on condition the seat of the diocese be moved to Kingsbridge when the new cathedral is ready for use. Wynstan is imprisoned in Wilf's hunting lodge, then moved to leper island where the nunnery resides.


title: The Evening and the Morning

text: At the conclusion, Edgar arrives back from Normandy. Ragna proposes to him, and he agrees. Ragna grants lands to Edgar, making him a thane (a knight), and they are married by permission from the King.


title: Driving licence in Malaysia

text: A driving licence is required in Malaysia before a person is allowed to drive a motor vehicle of any description on a road in Malaysia under the Road Transport Act 1987, section 26(1). Under section 26(1) of the Road Transport Act, an individual must possess a valid driving licence before being permitted to drive on the road, or can be prosecuted under section 26(2). Upon conviction, the miscreant is liable to fines or jail or both. Driving licence holders are subject to all traffic rules stated in the Road Transport Act 1987.


title: Driving licence in Malaysia

text: This system is applicable to both Probationary and Competent driving licences. This system was introduced to:


title: Driving licence in Malaysia

text: Drivers whose licence has been suspended three times in a period of five years will have their driving licence revoked and are not allowed to drive or receive a driver’s licence for 12 months from the date of the licence was revoked.


title: Driving licence in Malaysia

text: Foreigners holding driving licences from countries with signatories to any treaty or agreement with Malaysia may apply for conversion of driving licence. Refer to section 28 of Road Transport Act, foreigners from ASEAN member countries only need to possess a valid driving licence to drive in Malaysia. From 2018 until December 2020 this process was stopped. One needs apply for an international driving license or enroll at a driving school to get a valid license. But from 31 December 2020, all the foreigner can convert their driving license. To know the process follow the JPJ website Malaysia.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is one of the national laboratories of the United States Department of Energy and is managed by the Battelle Energy Alliance. While the laboratory does other research, historically it has been involved with nuclear research. Much of current knowledge about how nuclear reactors behave and misbehave was discovered at what is now Idaho National Laboratory. John Grossenbacher, former INL director, said, "The history of nuclear energy for peaceful application has principally been written in Idaho".


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Various organizations have built more than 50 reactors at what is commonly called "the Site", including the ones that gave the world its first usable amount of electricity from nuclear power and the power plant for the world's first nuclear submarine. Although many are now decommissioned, these facilities are the largest concentration of reactors in the world.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: It is on a complex in the high desert of eastern Idaho, between Arco to the west and Idaho Falls and Blackfoot to the east. Atomic City, Idaho is just south. The laboratory employs approximately 4,000 people.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: What is now Idaho National Laboratory in southeastern Idaho began its life as a U.S. government artillery test range in the 1940s. Shortly after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, the U.S. military needed a safe location for performing maintenance on the Navy's most powerful turreted guns. The guns were brought in via rail to near Pocatello, Idaho, to be re-sleeved, rifled and tested. As the Navy began to focus on post-World War II and Cold War threats, the types of projects worked on in the Idaho desert changed, too. Perhaps the most well-known was the building of the prototype reactor for the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, the USS Nautilus.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In 1949, the federal research facility was established as the National Reactor Testing Station (NRTS). In 1975, the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was divided into the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The Idaho site was for a short time named ERDA and then subsequently renamed to the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) in 1977 with the creation of the United States Department of Energy (DOE) under President Jimmy Carter. After two decades as INEL, the name was changed again to the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL) in 1997. Throughout its lifetime, there have been more than 50 one-of-a-kind nuclear reactors built by various organizations at the facility for testing; all but three are out of service.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: On February 1, 2005, Battelle Energy Alliance took over operation of the lab from Bechtel, merged with Argonne National Laboratory-West, and the facility name was changed to "Idaho National Laboratory" (INL). At this time the site's clean-up activities were moved to a separate contract, the Idaho Cleanup Project, which is currently managed by the Idaho Environmental Coalition , LLC. Research activities were consolidated in the newly named Idaho National Laboratory.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: According to AP news reports in April 2018, a single barrel of "radioactive sludge" ruptured while being prepared for transport to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in Southeast New Mexico for permanent storage. The 55-gallon barrel that ruptured is part of the badly-documented radioactive waste from the Rocky Flats Plant near Denver.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In the Snake River Plain, most of INL is high desert with scrub vegetation and a number of facilities scattered throughout the area; the average elevation of the complex is above sea level. INL is accessible by U.S. Route 20, and U.S. Route 26, but most of the area (except Experimental Breeder Reactor I) is restricted to authorized personnel and requires appropriate security clearance. The tiny town of Atomic City is on the INL's southern border, and the Craters of the Moon National Monument is to the southwest.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: One part of this program to develop improved nuclear power plants is the "Next Generation Nuclear Plant" or NGNP, which would be the demonstration of a new way to use nuclear energy for more than electricity. The heat generated from nuclear fission in the plant could provide process heat for hydrogen production and other industrial purposes, while also generating electricity. And the NGNP would use a high-temperature gas reactor, which would have redundant safety systems that rely on natural physical processes more than human or mechanical intervention.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL worked with private industry to develop the NGNP between 2005 and 2011. It was commissioned to lead this effort by the United States Department of Energy as a result of the Energy Policy Act of 2005. Since 2011, the project has languished and funding for it ceased. The design for this reactor is currently owned by Framatome.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Fuel Cycle Research & Development program aims to help expand nuclear energy's benefits by addressing some of the issues inherent to the current life cycle of nuclear reactor fuel in the United States. These efforts strive to make nuclear energy's expansion safe, secure, economic and sustainable.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Currently, the United States, like many other countries, employs an "open-ended" nuclear fuel cycle, whereby nuclear power plant fuel is used only once and then placed in a repository for indefinite storage. One of the primary FCRD goals is to research, develop and demonstrate ways to "close" the fuel cycle so fuel is reused or recycled rather than being shelved before all of its energy has been used. INL coordinates many of the FCRD's national research efforts, including:


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program supports national efforts to do the research and gather the information necessary to demonstrate whether it is safe and prudent to apply for extensions beyond 60 years of operating life.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Program aims to safely and economically extend the service lives of the more than 100 electricity-generating nuclear power plants in the United States. The program brings together technical information, performs important research and organizes data to be used in license-extension applications.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Department of Energy named Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) a National Scientific User Facility in April 2007. This designation opened the facility to use by university-led scientific research groups and gives them free access to the ATR and other resources at INL and partner facilities. In addition to a rolling proposal solicitation with two closing dates each year, INL holds an annual "Users Week" and summer session to familiarize researchers with the user facility capabilities available to them.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: DOE's Nuclear Energy University Programs provide funding for university research grants, fellowships, scholarships and infrastructure upgrades.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: For example, in May 2010, the program awarded $38 million for 42 university-led R&D projects at 23 United States universities in 17 states. In FY 2009, the program awarded about $44 million to 71 R&D projects and more than $6 million in infrastructure grants to 30 U.S. universities and colleges in 23 states. INL's Center for Advanced Energy Studies administers the program for DOE. CAES is a collaboration between INL and Idaho's three public research universities: Idaho State University, Boise State University and University of Idaho.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Multiphysics Methods Group (MMG) is a program at Idaho National Laboratory (under the United States Department of Energy) begun in 2004. It uses applications based on the multiphysics and modeling framework MOOSE to simulate complex physical and chemical reactions inside nuclear reactors . The ultimate goal of the program is to use these simulation tools to enable more efficient use of nuclear fuel, resulting in lower electricity costs and less waste products.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The MMG focuses on problems within nuclear reactors related to its fuel and how heat is transferred inside the reactor. "Fuel degradation" refers to how uranium pellets and the rods they are encased in (several rods bundled together is what makes a "fuel assembly") eventually wear out over time due to high heat and irradiation inside a reactor. The group states three main objectives: "The mission of the MMG is to support the INL goal to advance the U.S. nuclear energy endeavor by:


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The work done by the group directly supports programs such as the Light Water Reactor Sustainability Program's research into advanced nuclear fuels.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL's National and Homeland Security division focuses on two main areas: protecting critical infrastructures such as electricity transmission lines, utilities and wireless communications networks, and preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: For nearly a decade, INL has been conducting vulnerability assessments and developing technology to increase infrastructure resilience. With a strong emphasis on industry collaboration and partnership, INL is enhancing electric grid reliability, control systems cybersecurity and physical security systems.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL conducts advanced cyber training and oversees simulated competitive exercises for national and international customers. The lab supports cyber security and control systems programs for the departments of Homeland Security, Energy and Defense. INL staff members are frequently asked to provide guidance and leadership to standards organizations, regulatory agencies and national policy committees.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In January 2011, it was reported by "The New York Times" that the INL was allegedly responsible for some of the initial research behind the Stuxnet virus, which allegedly crippled Iran's nuclear centrifuges. The INL, which teamed up with Siemens, conducted research on the P.C.S.-7 control system to identify its vulnerabilities. According to the "Times", that information would later be used by the American and Israeli governments to create the Stuxnet virus.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The "Times" article was later disputed by other journalists, including Forbes blogger Jeffrey Carr, as being both sensational and lacking verifiable facts. In March 2011, Vanity Fair's magazine cover story on Stuxnet carried INL's official response, stating, "Idaho National Laboratory was not involved in the creation of the Stuxnet worm. In fact, our focus is to protect and defend control systems and critical infrastructures from cyber threats like Stuxnet and we are all well recognized for these efforts. We value the relationships that we have formed within the control systems industry and in no way would risk these partnerships by divulging confidential information."


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Building on INL's nuclear mission and legacy in reactor design and operations, the lab's engineers are developing technology, shaping policy and leading initiatives to secure the nuclear fuel cycle and prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Under the direction of the National Nuclear Security Administration, INL and other national laboratory scientists are leading a global initiative to secure foreign stockpiles of fresh and spent highly enriched uranium and return it to secure storage for processing. Other engineers are working to convert U.S. research reactors and build new reactor fuels that replace highly enriched uranium with a safer, low-enriched uranium fuel. To protect against threats from the dispersal of nuclear and radiological devices, INL researchers also examine radiological materials to understand their origin and potential uses. Others have applied their knowledge to the development of detection technologies that scan and monitor containers for nuclear materials.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The laboratory's expansive desert location, nuclear facilities and wide range of source materials provide an ideal training location for military responders, law enforcement and other civilian first responders. INL routinely supports these organizations by leading classroom training, conducting field exercises and assisting in technology assessments.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL's Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity gathers information from more than 4000 plug-in-hybrid vehicles. These vehicles, operated by a wide swath of companies, local and state governments, advocacy groups, and others are located all across the United States, Canada and Finland. Together, they've logged a combined 1.5 million miles worth of data that are analyzed by specialists at INL.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Dozens of other types of vehicles, like hydrogen-fueled and pure electric cars, are also tested at INL. This data will help evaluate the performance and other factors that will be critical to widespread adoption of plug-in or other alternative vehicles.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL researchers are partnering with farmers, agricultural equipment manufacturers and universities to optimize the logistics of an industrial-scale biofuel economy. Agricultural waste products — such as wheat straw; corncobs, stalks or leaves; or bioenergy crops such as switchgrass or miscanthus — could be used to create cellulosic biofuels. INL researchers are working to determine the most economic and sustainable ways to get biofuel raw materials from fields to biorefineries.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL's robotics program researches, builds, tests and refines robots that, among other things, clean up dangerous wastes, measure radiation, scout drug-smuggling tunnels, aid search-and-rescue operations, and help protect the environment.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: These robots roll, crawl, fly, and go under water, even in swarms that communicate with each other on the go to do their jobs.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Biological Systems department is housed in 15 laboratories with a total of at the INL Research Center in Idaho Falls. The department engages in a wide variety of biological studies, including studying bacteria and other microbes that live in extreme conditions such as the extremely high temperature pools of Yellowstone National Park. These types of organisms could boost the efficiency of biofuels production. Other studies related to uncommon microbes have potential in areas such as carbon dioxide sequestration and groundwater cleanup.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL is pioneering the research and testing associated with hybrid energy systems that combine multiple energy sources for optimum carbon management and energy production. For example, a nuclear reactor could provide electricity when certain renewable resources aren't available, while also providing a carbon-free source of heat and hydrogen that could be used, for example, to make liquid transportation fuels from coal.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In , construction of a new liquid waste processing facility, the Integrated Waste Treatment Unit (IWTU), was nearing completion at INTEC on the INL site. It will process approximately 900,000 gallons of liquid nuclear waste using a steam reforming process to produce a granular product suitable for disposal. The facility is the first of its kind and based on a scaled prototype. The project is a part of the Department of Energy's Idaho Cleanup Project aimed at removing waste and demolishing old nuclear facilities at the INL site.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In May 2022, CNBC reported the Safety and Tritium Applied Research (STAR) program has been set up to looking into the production and safety protocols for working with tritium, the fuel that many startups are working on to commercialize fusion power.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Instrumentation, Control and Intelligent Systems (ICIS) Distinctive Signature supports mission-related research and development in key capability areas: safeguards and control system security, sensor technologies, intelligent automation, human systems integration, and robotics and intelligent systems. These five key areas support the INL mission to "ensure the nation's energy security with safe, competitive, and sustainable energy systems and unique national and homeland security." Through its grand challenge in resilient control systems, ICIS research is providing a holistic approach to aspects of design that have often been bolt-on, including human systems, security and modeling of complex interdependency.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL supports science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) education in classrooms across the state. Each year, the lab invests nearly $500,000 in Idaho teachers and students. Funding goes toward scholarship programs for high school graduates, technical college students and teachers who want to integrate more hands-on science activities into their lessons. INL also provides thousands of dollars worth of classroom grants to teachers seeking to upgrade their science equipment or lab infrastructure.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The lab hires more than 300 interns each summer to work alongside laboratory employees. INL is listed by Vault, the online job resource site, as one of the best places in the U.S. to get an internship Internships are offered to high school, undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate students in applicable fields including science, engineering, math, chemistry, business, communication and other fields.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In addition to subcontracting more than $100 million worth of work from Idaho's small businesses, INL technologies are often licensed to new or existing companies for commercialization. In the past 10 years, INL has negotiated roughly 500 technology licenses. And INL technology has spawned more than 40 start-up companies since 1995.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Small businesses that contract with the lab can participate in a Department of Energy program designed to enhance their capabilities. INL has worked with a variety of small businesses in this mentoring capacity, including International Management Solutions and Portage Environmental.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL's Advanced Test Reactor is much smaller than the more common electricity-producing reactors — the reactor vessel measures across and high, with the core a mere tall and across, and it does not generate electricity. As a special feature, it allows scientists to simultaneously test materials in multiple unique experimental environments. Research scientists can place experiments in one of the more than 70 test positions in the reactor. Each can generate unique experimental conditions.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Some have called the reactor a "virtual time machine", for its ability to demonstrate the effects of several years of radiation on materials in a fraction of the time.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The ATR allows scientists to place a variety of materials in an environment with specified intensities of radiation, temperature, and pressure. Specimens are then removed to examine how the time in the reactor affected the materials. The U.S. Navy is the facility's primary user, but the ATR also produces medical isotopes that can help treat cancer patients and industrial isotopes that can be used for radiography to x-ray welds on items such as skyscrapers, bridges and ship holds.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Many ATR experiments focus on materials that could make the next generation of nuclear reactors even safer and longer lasting.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Hot Fuel Examination Facility (HFEF) gives INL researchers and other scientists the ability to examine and test highly radioactive irradiated reactor fuel and other materials.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: HFEF provides 15 state-of-the-art workstations known as hot cells. For windows, each cell has leaded glass panes layered thick and separated by thin layers of oil. Remote manipulators allow users to maneuver items inside the hot cell using robotic arms. Special filtered exhaust systems keep indoor and outdoor air safe. At these stations, scientists and technicians can better determine the performance of irradiated fuels and materials. Scientists can also characterize materials destined for long-term storage at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in New Mexico.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The New Horizons mission to Pluto, which launched in 2006, is powered by a device fueled at the INL Space and Security Power Systems Facility. The Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) uses nonfissionable nonweapons-grade plutonium to produce heat and electricity for deep space missions such as this one.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Using the RTG on the New Horizons mission is a more practical power source for the satellite than solar panels because the satellite will travel to such a great distance that energy from the sun would provide insufficient power for the craft. Work on the project started in late 2004 and ended with the January 2006 successful rocket launch. The team implemented the fueling, testing and delivery of the RTG for the Pluto New Horizons mission and for the next Mars rover.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL's Fuel Conditioning Facility uses electrolysis to separate certain components from used nuclear fuel rods. Unlike traditional aqueous reprocessing techniques, which dissolve the fuel rods in acid, "pyroprocessing" melts the rods and uses electricity to separate components such as uranium and sodium out of the mix. INL is using this technique to remove the sodium metal from Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) fuel rods so they can be safely stored in a national repository.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Transient Reactor Test Facility (TREAT) is a reactor designed specifically to test new reactor fuels and materials.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Radiochemistry Lab is a facility that includes one radiation instrumentation lab, two actinide chemistry labs, and other labs for both radiological and non-radiological research.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL's Critical Infrastructure Test Range Complex (CITRC), operated by INL, is a utility-scale electric power grid test bed. The electric grid is an operational, commercially-fed system that provides power to all of INL's key research facilities on its sprawling, desert site; and includes: seven substations, a 24/7 manned dispatch and control center, 61 miles of 138kV transmission lines, and multiple distribution circuits at 15kV, 25kV and 35kV. Sections of the grid can be isolated and reconfigured for integrated testing and demonstration of state of the art power systems, components and smart grid technologies.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In addition, INL owns and operates a communications network designed to research and test cellular, mobile and emerging Internet communication protocols and technology, with both fixed and mobile 3-G platforms that allow testing and demonstration within a range of experimental frequencies in a low-background environment.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: This partnership between INL and Idaho's three public research universities — Idaho State University, University of Idaho, and Boise State University — boasts a wealth of research expertise. Its researchers, who have access to each partner institution's equipment and infrastructure, have competed for and won millions of dollars in national funding for their projects. CAES possesses capabilities and infrastructure unique to the region and nation. The center's laboratories are equipped with state-of-the-art research instruments and tools, including a Local Electrode Atom Probe (LEAP) and a Computer Assisted Virtual Environment (CAVE).


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Matched Index of Refraction facility is the largest such facility in the world. Using light mineral oil, the facility allows researchers to use fused quartz models built to scale to study the flow of liquids inside and around objects with complicated geometries, such as the core of a nuclear reactor. The facility is basically a giant loop through which the mostly transparent oil is pumped at variable speeds. Special lasers perform "Doppler velocimetry", that produces a three-dimensional image allowing inspection of an object's flow properties. Observers can also watch the flow themselves through the polycarbonate viewing panes near the laser equipment.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: INL's geocentrifuge helps researchers, among other efforts, improve models of how liquids and contaminants move through engineered caps and barriers used in underground waste disposal facilities.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The INL centrifuge is one of fewer than 25 geocentrifuges larger than two meters (about 6 feet) in the United States.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The centrifuge, located next to the INL Research Center in Idaho Falls, can be operated remotely by computer and is capable of applying 130 times the force of earth's gravity on a sample.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Many of the experiments that use the geocentrifuge require it to run for hundreds of hours in order to correctly simulate several years' worth of gravitational effects. The payload is monitored by an onboard computer and can be relayed to a remote monitoring station outside the centrifuge's chamber where technicians can observe developments.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In the early afternoon of December 20, 1951, Argonne National Laboratory scientist Walter Zinn and a small crew of assistants witnessed a row of four light bulbs light up in a nondescript brick building in the eastern Idaho desert. Electricity from a generator connected to Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I) flowed through them. This was the first time that a usable amount of electrical power had ever been generated from nuclear fission.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: Only days afterward, the reactor produced all the electricity needed for the entire EBR complex. One ton of natural uranium can produce more than 40 million kilowatt-hours of electricity — this is equivalent to burning 16,000 tons of coal or 80,000 barrels of oil.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: More central to EBR-I's purpose than just generating electricity, however, was its role in proving that a reactor could create more nuclear fuel as a by-product than it consumed during operation. In 1953, tests verified that this was the case. The site of this event is memorialized as a Registered National Historic Landmark, open to the public every day Memorial Day through Labor Day.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: From 1969 to 1994, Argonne National Laboratory's EBR-II produced nearly half of the electricity needed for test site operations.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In 1964, Experimental Breeder Reactor II and the nearby Fuel Conditioning Facility proved the concept of fuel recycling and passive safety characteristics. So-called "passive" safety includes systems that rely on natural physics laws such as gravity rather than systems that require mechanical or human intervention.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In a landmark test on April 3, 1986, such systems in EBR-II demonstrated that nuclear power plants could be designed to be inherently safe from severe accidents.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The world's first Loss-of-Fluid-Test reactor started up at INL on March 12, 1976. It repeatedly simulated loss-of-coolant accidents that could potentially occur in commercial nuclear power plants. Many safety designs for reactors around the world are based on these tests. LOFT experiments helped accident recovery efforts after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In 1949, an area of the fringe of the NRTS property named "Test Area North", or TAN, was developed by the U.S. Air Force and the Atomic Energy Commission to support the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program's attempt to develop a nuclear-powered aircraft. The program's Heat Transfer Reactor Experiments (HTRE) were conducted here in 1955 by contractor General Electric, and were a series of tests to develop a system of transferring reactor-heated air to a modified General Electric J47 jet engine. The planned aircraft, the Convair X-6, was to be test flown at TAN, and a large hangar with radiation shielding was built on the site. The program was cancelled, however, before the accompanying runway could be built.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In the early 1950s, the very first full-scale prototype nuclear plant for shipboard use, called S1W Prototype, was constructed to test the feasibility of using nuclear power aboard submarines. It was the predecessor to a similar nuclear plant of S2W design installed in the first nuclear-powered ship, the submarine . Later, two more prototype plant facilities, A1W and S5G, were built at this location called the Naval Reactors Facility (NRF for short). There is also an Expended Core Facility (ECF for short) also at NRF as well as administrative buildings/facilities. NRF's chemistry lab was located at the S1W prototype. By now, the prototype plants for shipboard use development have been shut down. Only the Expended Core Facility / Dry Storage Area is in use.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: When the nuclear industry was just getting started in the early 1950s, it was difficult to predict exactly how different kinds of metals and other materials would be affected by being used in a reactor for prolonged periods of time. MTR was a research reactor jointly designed by Argonne and Oak Ridge National Laboratories that operated until 1970 and provided important data, helping researchers make nuclear power reactors safer and longer lasting.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Boiling Water Reactors (BORAX) experiments were five reactors built between 1953 and 1964 by Argonne National Laboratory. They proved that the boiling water concept was a feasible design for an electricity-producing nuclear reactor. The BORAX III reactor was also the first in the world to power a community (Arco, Idaho) on July 17, 1955.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Idaho Chemical Processing Plant chemically processed material from used reactor cores to recover reusable nuclear material. It is now called the .


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Materials Test Area tested materials' exposure to reactor conditions. The Materials Test Area is part of the Advanced Test Reactor Complex.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: The Information Operations and Research Center and the Shelley-New Sweden Park and Ride lot is one of fourteen Federal properties listed for disposal by the Public Buildings Reform Board in their 2019 recommendations.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: On January 3, 1961, the only fatal nuclear reactor incident in the U.S. occurred at the NRTS. An experimental reactor called SL-1 (Stationary Low-Power Plant Number 1) was destroyed when a control rod was pulled too far out of the reactor, leading to a near-instantaneous prompt-critical power excursion and steam explosion. The reactor vessel jumped up . The concussion and blast killed all three military enlisted personnel working on the reactor. Due to the extensive radioactive isotope contamination, all three were buried in lead coffins. The events are the subject of two books, one published in 2003, "Idaho Falls: The untold story of America's first nuclear accident", and another, "Atomic America: How a Deadly Explosion and a Feared Admiral Changed the Course of Nuclear History", published in 2009.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: On the afternoon of November 8, 2011, in the Zero Power Physics Reactor (ZPPR), a container leaked "plutonium-related" materials, when it was opened by one of the workers. All 17 workers at the incident were immediately taken to have testing done by the Idaho Cleanup Project in the form of Whole Body Counts (scans the body for any internal radiation exposure) and were required to submit urine and fecal samples to further test for internal radioisotopes. Six of them proved to be exposed to "low-level-radiation", two of them fairly extensively. All workers were kept under close observation afterwards with repeated Whole Body Counts and urine and fecal sampling. The Idaho National Laboratory insisted that no radioactivity leaked outside the facility.


title: Idaho National Laboratory

text: In April 2018, four canisters of depleted uranium sludge suddenly overpressurized and ejected their lids at a US Department of Energy facility at Idaho National Laboratory. The waste had originated from the now-decommissioned Rocky Flats weapons plutonium production plant. In 2018, anthropologist Vincent Ialenti conducted fieldwork in Idaho exploring the accident’s root causes. Comparing the accident to a 2014 drum breach accident at the WIPP nuclear waste repository in New Mexico, Ialenti attributed Idaho’s drum breaches to “systemic incentives to speed up waste-cleanup projects beyond their organizational capacity, without commensurately expanding their safety or oversight mechanisms.”


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: The 2011–2013 Russian protests, which some English language media referred to as the Snow Revolution, began in 2011 (as protests against the 2011 Russian legislative election results) and continued into 2012 and 2013. The protests were motivated by claims by Russian and foreign journalists, political activists and members of the public that the election process was fraudulent. The Central Election Commission of Russia stated that only 11.5% of official reports of fraud could be confirmed as true.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: On 10 December 2011, after a week of small-scale demonstrations, Russia saw some of the biggest protests in Moscow since the 1990s. The focus of the protests have been the ruling party, United Russia, and its leader Vladimir Putin, the current president, previous prime minister, and previous two-term president, who announced his intention to run again for President in 2012. Another round of large protests took place on 24 December 2011. These protests were named "For Fair Elections" () and their organizers set up the movement of the same name. By this time, the "For Fair Elections" protesters had coalesced into five main points: freedom for political prisoners; annulment of the election results; the resignation of Vladimir Churov (head of the election commission) and the opening of an official investigation into vote fraud; registration of opposition parties and new democratic legislation on parties and elections, as well as new democratic and open elections.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: Initial protest actions, organized by the leaders of the Russian opposition parties and non-systemic opposition sparked fear in some quarters of a colour revolution in Russia, and a number of counter-protests and rallies in support of the government were held. On the first days following the election, Putin and United Russia were supported by rallies of two youth organizations, the government-organized Nashi and United Russia's Young Guard. On 24 December Sergey Kurginyan organised the first protest against what was viewed as "orange" protesters in Moscow, though the protest also went under the same slogan "For Fair Elections". On 4 February 2012, more protests and pro-government rallies were held throughout the country. The largest two events were in Moscow: the "anti-Orange protest" (alluding to the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the most widely known color revolution to Russians), aimed against "orangism", "collapse of the country", "perestroika" and "revolution", the largest protest action of all the protests so far according to the police; and another "For Fair Elections" protest, larger than the previous ones according to the police.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: On 6 May 2012, protests took place in Moscow the day before Putin's inauguration as President for his third term. Some called for the inauguration to be scrapped. The protests were marred by violence between the protesters and the police. About 400 protesters were arrested, including Alexei Navalny, Boris Nemtsov and Sergei Udaltsov and 80 were injured. On the day of the inauguration, 7 May, at least 120 protesters were arrested in Moscow. In June 2012, laws were enacted which set strict boundaries on protests and imposed heavy penalties for unauthorized actions. As of January 2013, interviews by Ellen Barry of "The New York Times" of working class elements which had supported the protests revealed an atmosphere of intimidation, discouragement, and alienation.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: In the 2000s, due to increased restrictions in the election legislation and the takeover of large media under state control, a non-system opposition emerged, which was barred from participation in elections. This time, it included both left and right organisations as well as nationalists.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: The largest protests and main opposition events include rallies to support the old NTV staff (2001), mass protests against Mikhail Zurabov's reforms (2005), Dissenters' March (2005–2008), Russian Marches, "I am free! I forgot what it means to fear" rallies for freedom of the press (2005–2006 and 2008), Vladivostok mass protests (2008–2010), Kaliningrad mass protests (2009–2010), Day of Wrath (Left Front actions) (2009–2011), Putin.Results and Putin.Corruption campaign, Putin must go campaign, Strategy-31 (for freedom of assembly) (2009–), etc.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: Committee 2008, wide coalition The Other Russia, Yabloko, Union of Right Forces, Vanguard of Red Youth, Left Front, Russian People's Democratic Union, United Civil Front, movement for Khimki forest, Solidarnost, TIGER, Society of Blue Buckets, Coalition "For Russia without Lawlessness and Corruption", etc. were among the main opposition groups within disorganized 2000s protest movement.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: According to RIA Novosti, there were more than 1,100 official reports of election irregularities across the country, including allegations of vote fraud, obstruction of observers and illegal campaigning. Members of the A Just Russia, Yabloko and Communist parties reported that voters were shuttled between multiple polling stations to cast several ballots. The Yabloko and LDPR parties reported that some of their observers had been banned from witnessing the sealing of the ballot boxes and from gathering video footage, and some were groundlessly expelled from polling stations. The ruling United Russia party alleged that the opposition parties had engaged in illegal campaigning by distributing leaflets and newspapers at polling stations and that at some polling stations the voters had been ordered to vote for the Communist party with threats of violence. There were several reports of almost undetectable vote fraud—swapping of final polling station protocols just before final accounting by station chairmen—that happened late at night when most observers were gone.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: The Central Electoral Commission issued a report on 3 February 2012, in which it said that it received the total of 1686 reports on irregularities, of which only 195 (11.5%) were upheld after investigation. A third (584) actually contained questions about the unclear points of electoral law, and only 60 complaints were claiming falsifications of the elections results. On 4 February 2012 the Investigation Committee of the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation announced that the majority of videos allegedly showing falsifications at polling stations were in fact falsified and originally distributed from a single server in California, and the investigation on that started.


title: 2011–2013 Russian protests

text: According to "The New York Times", the leading element has consisted of young urban professionals, the well-educated and successful working or middle-class people such as workers in social media. These groups had benefited from substantial growth in the Russian economy until the 2008 economic crisis but have been alienated by increasing political corruption as well as recent stagnation in their income. The number of such individuals is large and growing in urban centers and is thought to represent a challenge to continuation of authoritarian rule. According to Putin the legitimate grievances of this young and active element of Russian society are being exploited by opportunistic elements which seek to destabilize Russia. Nationalist elements play a significant role in the coalition which is organizing and participating in the protests.