title: Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)

text: The final two decades of Milutin reign were marked by civil strife with his brother Dragutin and the regional nobles, and with territorial losses to Hungarians in the north. Milutin also faced problems with his illegitimate son Stefan Dečanski, who was unhappy with his fathers favouritism towards his legitimate younger brother Konstantin. When Milutin died without leaving a testament, civil war erupted between Dečanski, Konstantin and their cousin Vladislav II. Dečanski ended up victorious, and was crowned as Stefan Uroš III Dečanski.


title: Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)

text: Stefan Dečanski spread the kingdom to the east by winning the town of Nis and surrounding counties, and to the south by acquiring territories in Macedonia, He built the Visoki Dečani monastery in Metohija, the most monumental example of Serbian Medieval architecture, earning him his moniker. Stefan Dečanski defeated the Bulgarians in Battle of Velbazhd in 1330.


title: Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)

text: However, it started not so well. During the civil war after Milutin's death, Serbia lost Zachlumia and Vidin. Zachlumia felt under Bosnian control, while the Despotate of Vidin, under Mihail Shishman, got to set free from Serbian suzerainty and returned to that of Bulgaria. Shishman would become Bulgarian tsar in 1323. On the other side, Byzantium was not doing well hard-pressed withstanding periodic Serbian and Bulgarian raids. Civil war erupted in which Bulgarians supported young Andronikos, and Serbs the elder Andronikos side. Despite younger Andronikos win within Byzantine internal struggle for power, by the time Byzantine civil war ended Serbia was the dominant Balkan power. Despite having supported the losing side, Serbia had managed to expand itself into Macedonia, which was the bone of contention between the three sides. As result, Byzantines and Bulgarians viewed Dečanski as a threat, and forged an anti-Serbian treaty which took action in 1330 when both launched an offensive against Serbia. Andronikos attacked Serbian-held parts of Macedonia, while Bulgarians met in a decisive battle near Kyustendil (Velbuzhd) in eastern Macedonia. The Bulgarian army was destroyed in that battle, and Mihail Shishman, Bulgarian Tsar, fatally wounded. When Andronikos heard the news, he quickly withdrew.


title: Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)

text: The Battle of Velbazhd had enormous consequences. After the defeat, Bulgaria lay militarily crippled and politically subordinated to Serbia's interests. Sources diverge whether all of Bulgaria, or some parts, or technically officially not, Bulgaria became a vassal of Serbia, but Bulgaria's new tsar, Ivan Alexander, in this new reality, had his ability to conduct independent Bulgarian policies somehow limited.


title: Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)

text: Dečanski then launched a war of total Macedonian conquest in 1331. Andronikos tied to negotiate peace in 1334, however Byzantines slipped into another civil war, leaving open way for Serbia to gain more power and territory and consolidate its hegemonic position in the Balkans. Serb nobles were eager to deliver a final strike to the Byzantines, but Dečanski decided otherwise. His son, Stefan Dušan took advantage of this alienation of Serb nobility, and lead a coup that deposed his father.


title: Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)

text: Stefan Dečanski was overthrown in 1331 by his son, Stefan Dušan. Taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, Dušan doubled the size of his kingdom, seizing territories to the south, southeast, and east at the expense of the Byzantine Empire. He conquered almost the entire territory of present-day Greece, except for the Peloponnese and the islands. After he conquered the city of Serres, he was crowned the "Emperor of Serbs and Greeks" in Skoplje (former Bulgarian capital) by the Serbian Patriarch, on April 16, 1346. These actions, which the Byzantines received with indignation, appear to have been supported by the Bulgarian Empire and tsar Ivan Alexander, as the Patriarch of Bulgaria Simeon had participated in both the creation of a Serbian Patriarchate of Peć and the imperial coronation of Stefan Uroš IV Dušan. Dushan made marriage alliance with Bulgarian tsar Ivan Alexander, marrying his sister Helena, freeing himself from its concerns over the eastern bordering. The goal of Stefan Dushan was to become the successor of the Byzantine Emperors, and he tried to organize a Crusade with the Pope against the threatening Turks. He then turned to the South and pushed the borders towards Thessaloniki where he was stopped by the cities strong walls. Dušan accepted Andronikos peace offer in 1334, however, when Andronikos died, in 1341, there was a renewed civil war in Byzantium. One of the sides, John VI Kantakouzenos, appealed to Dušan for help, and was granted asylum in Serbia. However, when the governor of Thessaly, who also controlled South Epirus, recognised Kantakouzenos as emperor, Dušan ceased its support and switched sides. This is when Kantakouzenos turns towards Seljuk Turks for help and Turks for first time entered European soil.


title: Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)

text: The Imperial constitution, Dušan's Code (), was enacted in 1349 and amended in 1354. The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law. The legal transplanting is notable within articles 171 and 172 of Dušan's Code, which regulated the juridical independence. They were taken from the Byzantine code Basilika (book VII, 1, 16-17). Dušan opened new trade routes and strengthened the economy of the state. Serbia flourished, becoming one of the most developed countries and cultures in Europe, with a high political, economic, and cultural reputation.


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL for Embedded Systems (OpenGL ES or GLES) is a subset of the OpenGL computer graphics rendering application programming interface (API) for rendering 2D and 3D computer graphics such as those used by video games, typically hardware-accelerated using a graphics processing unit (GPU). It is designed for embedded systems like smartphones, tablet computers, video game consoles and PDAs. OpenGL ES is the "most widely deployed 3D graphics API in history".


title: OpenGL ES

text: The API is cross-language and multi-platform. The GLU library and the original GLUT are not available for OpenGL ES, freeglut however, supports it. OpenGL ES is managed by the non-profit technology consortium Khronos Group. Vulkan, a next-generation API from Khronos, is made for simpler high performance drivers for mobile and desktop devices.


title: OpenGL ES

text: Several versions of the OpenGL ES specification now exist. OpenGL ES 1.0 is drawn up against the OpenGL 1.3 specification, OpenGL ES 1.1 is defined relative to the OpenGL 1.5 specification and OpenGL ES 2.0 is defined relative to the OpenGL 2.0 specification. This means that, for example, an application written for OpenGL ES 1.0 should be easily portable to the desktop OpenGL 1.3; as the OpenGL ES is a stripped-down version of the API, the reverse may or may not be true, depending on the particular features used.


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES comes with its own version of shading language (OpenGL ES SL), which is different from OpenGL SL.


title: OpenGL ES

text: Version 1.0 and 1.1 both have "common" (CM) and "common lite" (CL) profiles, the difference being that the "common lite" profile only supports fixed-point instead of floating point data type support, whereas "common" supports both.


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES 1.0 was released publicly July 28, 2003. OpenGL ES 1.0 is based on the original OpenGL 1.3 API, with much functionality removed and a little bit added. One significant difference between OpenGL and OpenGL ES is that OpenGL ES removed the need to bracket OpenGL library calls with codice_1 and codice_2. Other significant differences are that the calling semantics for primitive rendering functions were changed in favor of vertex arrays, and fixed-point data types were introduced for vertex coordinates. Attributes were also added to better support the computational abilities of embedded processors, which often lack a floating point unit (FPU). Many other functions and rendering primitives were removed in version 1.0 to produce a lightweight interface, including:


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES 1.1 added features such as mandatory support for multitexture, better multitexture support (including combiners and dot product texture operations), automatic mipmap generation, vertex buffer objects, state queries, user clip planes, and greater control over point rendering.


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES 2.0 was publicly released in March 2007. It is roughly based on OpenGL 2.0, but it eliminates most of the fixed-function rendering pipeline in favor of a programmable one in a move similar to the transition from OpenGL 3.0 to 3.1. Control flow in shaders is generally limited to forward branching and to loops where the maximum number of iterations can easily be determined at compile time. Almost all rendering features of the transform and lighting stage, such as the specification of materials and light parameters formerly specified by the fixed-function API, are replaced by shaders written by the graphics programmer. As a result, OpenGL ES 2.0 is not backward compatible with OpenGL ES 1.1. Some incompatibilities between the desktop version of OpenGL and OpenGL ES 2.0 persisted until OpenGL 4.1, which added the codice_4 extension.


title: OpenGL ES

text: The Khronos Group has written a document describing the differences between OpenGL ES 2.0 and ordinary OpenGL 2.0.


title: OpenGL ES

text: The OpenGL ES 3.0 specification was publicly released in August 2012. OpenGL ES 3.0 is backwards compatible with OpenGL ES 2.0, enabling applications to incrementally add new visual features to applications. OpenGL 4.3 provides full compatibility with OpenGL ES 3.0. Version 3.0 is also the basis for WebGL 2.0.


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES 3.1 is backward compatible with OpenGL ES 2.0 and 3.0, thus enabling applications to incrementally incorporate new features. Actual Version is 3.1-(November 2016).


title: OpenGL ES

text: Some more extensions are developed or in Development in Mesa for next OpenGL ES Version (see Mesamatrix).


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES 1.0 added an official 3D graphics API to the Android and Symbian operating systems, as well as by QNX It is also supported by the PlayStation 3 as one of its official graphics APIs (the other one being low level "libgcm" library) with Nvidia's Cg in lieu of GLSL. The PlayStation 3 also includes several features of the 2.0 version of OpenGL ES.


title: OpenGL ES

text: Supported by Windows, Linux, Android (since version 5.0) on devices with appropriate hardware and drivers, including:


title: OpenGL ES

text: Android Extension Pack (AEP) is a set of OpenGL ES 3.1 extensions, all bundled into a single extension introduced by Google in 2014. This allows applications to use all of the features of the set of extensions, while only testing for the presence of a single one. The AEP was officially added to Android Lollipop to provide extra features like tessellation over what was officially in the GLES 3.1 revision. OpenGL ES 3.2 update is largely made up of the AEP additions, which are already present in desktop OpenGL.


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES 3.2, incorporating the Android Extension Pack (AEP), "boasts a small number of improvements over last year’s OpenGL ES 3.1. Both make use of similar features from the AEP. From the AEP, OpenGL ES 3.2 compliant hardware will support Tessellation for additional geometry detail, new geometry shaders, ASTC texture compression for a smaller memory bandwidth footprint, floating point render targets for high accuracy compute processes, and new debugging features for developers. These high-end features are already found in the group’s full OpenGL 4 specification."


title: OpenGL ES

text: Supported by Windows, Linux, Android (since version 6.0 possible, 7.0+ Vulkan 1.0 and OpenGL ES 3.2 needed) on devices with appropriate hardware and drivers, including:


title: OpenGL ES

text: OpenGL ES (and OpenGL) is deprecated in Apple's operating systems, but still works in up to at least iOS 12.


title: OpenGL ES

text: There is currently no plan for a new core version of OpenGL ES, as adoption of Vulkan has been deemed to displace it in embedded and mobile applications. Development of extensions to OpenGL ES continues as of 2017.


title: First Solar

text: First Solar, Inc. is an American manufacturer of solar panels, and a provider of utility-scale PV power plants and supporting services that include finance, construction, maintenance and end-of-life panel recycling. First Solar uses rigid thin-film modules for its solar panels, and produces CdTe panels using cadmium telluride (CdTe) as a semiconductor.


title: First Solar

text: The company was founded in 1990 by inventor Harold McMaster as Solar Cells, Inc. and the Florida Corporation in 1993 with JD Polk. In 1999 it was purchased by True North Partners, LLC, who rebranded it as First Solar, Inc.


title: First Solar

text: The company went public in 2006, trading on the NASDAQ. Its current chief executive is Mark Widmar, who succeeded the previous CEO James Hughes July 1, 2016. First Solar is based in Tempe, Arizona.


title: First Solar

text: In 2009, First Solar became the first solar panel manufacturing company to lower its manufacturing cost to $1 per watt. As of 2010, First Solar was considered the second-largest maker of PV modules worldwide and ranked sixth in "Fast Company"'s list of the world's 50 most innovative companies.


title: First Solar

text: In 2011, it ranked first on Forbes's list of America's 25 fastest-growing technology companies. It is listed on the Photovoltaik Global 30 Index since the beginning of this stock index in 2009. The company was also listed as No. 1 in Solar Power World magazine's 2012 and 2013 rankings of solar contractors.


title: First Solar

text: First Solar manufactures cadmium telluride (CdTe)-based photovoltaic (PV) modules, which produce electricity with a thin CdTe film on glass.


title: First Solar

text: In 2013, the company produced CdTe-panels with an efficiency of about 14 percent at a reported cost of 59 cents per watt. In August 2019, researchers from NREL and First Solar published a "Nature Energy" article demonstrating a way to achieve 20.8% solar cell efficiency.


title: First Solar

text: In 1984, inventor and entrepreneur Harold McMaster founded Glasstech Solar. After trying amorphous silicon, he shifted to CdTe and founded Solar Cells, Inc. (SCI) in 1990. In February 1999, SCI was acquired by True North Partners, which then formed First Solar, LLC.


title: First Solar

text: At the end of 2009, First Solar had surpassed an energy power production rate of 1 GW and was the largest producer of PV cells in the world.


title: First Solar

text: The company is headquartered in Tempe, Arizona and has manufacturing facilities in Perrysburg, Ohio and Kulim, Malaysia.


title: First Solar

text: In July 2010, First Solar formed a utility systems business group to address the large-scale PV systems solutions market. Utility systems are now the company's core business focus, with a strategy to focus on markets that do not require subsidies to support the solar generation business.


title: First Solar

text: On April 17, 2012, First Solar announced it would restructure operations worldwide. This restructuring process included phasing out operations in Frankfurt (Oder), Germany and idling four production lines in Kulim, Malaysia. 30% of First Solar's workforce was laid off as a result of these actions, which were blamed on market volatility and reduced demand. Mark Widmar, the CFO of First Solar, said, "We need to resize our business to a level of demand that is highly reliable and predictable."


title: First Solar

text: On July 1, 2016, Mark Widmar was appointed CEO of First Solar. Previously he had been chief financial officer. Company founder and former CEO Mike Ahearn remains chairman of the board.


title: First Solar

text: Historically, First Solar sold its products to solar project developers, system integrators, and independent power producers. Early sales were primarily in Germany because of strong incentives for solar enacted in the German Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) of 2000 (cp. Solar power in Germany). Declines and uncertainty in feed-in-tariff subsidies for solar power in European markets, including Germany, France, Italy and Spain, prompted major PV manufacturers, such as First Solar, to accelerate their expansion into other markets, including the U.S., India and China.


title: First Solar

text: Beginning in December 2011, First Solar shifted away from existing markets that are heavily dependent on government subsidies and toward providing utility-scale PV systems in sustainable markets with immediate need. As a result, it now competes against conventional power generators, and has reduced its focus on the rooftop market.


title: First Solar

text: On February 24, 2009, First Solar's cost per watt broke the $1 barrier, reaching $0.98. Production cost has continued to fall and in February 2013, reached $0.68 per watt.


title: First Solar

text: In 2019, the company was expected to pass annual shipments of panels for 5,400 MWp. Production started in Perrysburg, Ohio, expanded in 2010. Between 2007 and 2012, production grew in additional plants in Frankfurt (Oder) in Germany, in Kulim Hi-Tech Park in Malaysia and in France. Other locations considered for expansions before 2012 were Vietnam and Mesa, AZ.


title: First Solar

text: While First Solar witnessed record sales of over $3.37 billion in 2012, its restructuring efforts impacted the bottom line, leading to a net loss of $96.3 million – or $1.11 per share – for the year.


title: First Solar

text: Historically, the low cost of First Solar's modules has been the key to its market performance. The use of cadmium telluride instead of silicon allowed it to achieve a significantly lower module cost ($0.67 per watt), compared to crystalline-silicon PV, which averaged $1.85 per watt in 2010.


title: First Solar

text: As the company shifts its focus away from module sales to utility-scale projects, it will need to become price competitive with non-solar power sources, a move which its executives say will require the company to reduce manufacturing costs and optimize efficiency.


title: First Solar

text: In November 2012, First Solar announced that its manufacturing cost had fallen to 67 cents per watt, a 6-cent decrease from February 2012. By 2015, it expects to drive down cost per watt to make solar modules to between 52 and 54 cents. The biggest driver of the lower costs is better efficiency.


title: First Solar

text: In a December 2012 RenewEconomy interview with First Solar CEO James Hughes, he made the following comments regarding Grid parity:


title: First Solar

text: First Solar had installed 1,505 MW of solar capacity as of 2012. As of 2019, First Solar has over 17GW deployed globally. Below are some of First Solar's solar installations and development projects:


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: "Nutbush City Limits" is a semi-autobiographical song written by Tina Turner which commemorates her rural hometown of Nutbush in Haywood County, Tennessee, United States. Originally released as a single on United Artists Records in August 1973, it is one of the last hits that husband-wife R&B duo Ike & Tina Turner released together.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: In the years since, "Nutbush City Limits" has been performed by a number of other artists, most notably Bob Seger and The Silver Bullet Band, and Turner herself has re-recorded several different versions of the song.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: As an unincorporated rural community, Nutbush does not have official city limits; rather, its general boundaries are described by signs reading "Nutbush, Unincorporated" which are posted on the local highway (Tennessee State Route 19).


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: A line dance to the song, called the "Nutbush", created in the 1970s disco era, took off in Australia during the 1980s, and it has seen sustained success to this day, including gaining viral popularity internationally through TikTok.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: Produced by Ike Turner, "Nutbush City Limits" was recorded at the Turners' Bolic Sound recording studio in Inglewood, California in May 1973. The song is characterized by inventive guitar sounds, a clavinet, a substantial Moog synthesizer solo by Ike, and a funky brass section.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: Typical of the period, none of the session musicians who contributed to "Nutbush City Limits" were given specific mention in the song credits. Alan Krigger, the future drummer of Giuffria, claimed being the drummer in an interview. It has been rumored for years that Marc Bolan, frontman for the glam rock band T. Rex, played guitar on the track. Gloria Jones, his girlfriend at the time—who herself provided backing vocals for Ike & Tina Turner during the 1960s—asserted that this was the case in the 2007 BBC4 documentary "Marc Bolan: The Final Word". This claim is bolstered by the fact that Bolan toured the U.S. extensively and resided in the Los Angeles area during the mid-1970s, and is also acknowledged to have played on the Ike & Tina Turner singles "Sexy Ida (Part 2)" and "Baby—Get It On". However, a 2008 "Ebony" magazine article about Ike Turner's death identified James "Bino" Lewis, then a member of Ike & Tina's backing band Kings of Rhythm, as the guitarist. It has also been suggested that James Lewis is the guitarist on "Baby—Get It On". But there are two guitars on that track: fuzz rhythm centre pan (which could be Bolan), with wah-wah guitar in the right channel, very typical of Afro-American playing like Lewis's.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: Originally released as a single on United Artists Records in August 1973, it's one of the last hits that husband-wife R&B duo Ike & Tina Turner released together.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: The single was a hit in various countries, peaking at No. 11 on the "Billboard" R&B singles chart, No. 22 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and No. 4 on the UK Singles Chart. It also reached No. 1 in Austria, and No. 2 in Switzerland and West Germany. In Australia, the single peaked at No. 14, spent 52 weeks in the top 100, and is still a party staple among Generation X and Y where it is accompanied by a dance of the same name.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: The song was the lead single from album "Nutbush City Limits", released in November 1973, which peaked at No. 22 on the "Billboard" R&B albums chart.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: In 1973, the single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling a quarter of a million units. In 1974, the Turners received the first ever Golden European Award for selling more than one million records of "Nutbush City Limits" in Europe.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: Following the couple's split, the song became a staple of Tina's live show where she reworked the funky studio version into a hard-driving rock and roll showstopper. A live recording of "Nutbush City Limits" from Turner's 1986–1987 "Break Every Rule Tour" was released as the lead single to promote the 1988 double album "Tina Live in Europe", but it was in fact a different recording than the one that appeared on the official concert album. While this version did not manage to register much of an impact on any charts, the single is notable for being one of the first by Turner to be released on compact disc, at that time a relatively new format, in addition to 7" and 3-track 12" vinyl editions.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: Both the CD and 12" singles featured a 10-minute 57-second live rendition of ZZ Top's song "Legs" from their 1983 album "Eliminator", which was not included on the "Tina Live in Europe" album. A shorter version of "Legs", recorded during Turner's 1993 "What's Love? Tour", would later appear on her 1994 CD box set "The Collected Recordings - Sixties to Nineties".


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: Turner re-recorded "Nutbush City Limits" in a modern dance style—subtitled "The 90s Version"—for inclusion on her 1991 compilation album "Simply the Best". Upon its release as a single, the song peaked at No. 23 on the UK Singles Chart and was a Top 20 hit in several other European countries. A different rendition, entitled "Nutbush City Limits ('91)", appeared alongside "The 90s Version". This funkier yet more laid-back arrangement is actually the one for which Turner recorded new vocals that were later remixed by producers Chris "C. J." Mackintosh and Dave Dorrell to become "The 90s Version". The 12" single also featured an extended six-minute version of the dance remix, and a limited-release promotional DJ edition from the UK included still another take, "A Little Bit o' Bush". The corresponding music video for "The 90s Version" shows Turner recording the song in studio, intercut with footage of the various landmarks mentioned.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: In 1993, Turner re-recorded the track as a re-working of the original studio arrangement for the "What's Love Got to Do with It" soundtrack album.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: The song has gained cult popularity in Australia, particularly due to the Nutbush dance. The dance is often performed at weddings, school concerts, and bushdances. Turner has never performed a version of the dance to the song. The origin of the Nutbush dance is unknown, but there has been some suggestion that the Nutbush is a modification of the Madison line dance.


title: Nutbush City Limits

text: In 2015, dancers in the Victorian town of Horsham set the first Guinness World Record for the number of people doing the Nutbush, with 254 dancers. On 19 October 2017, students at Rivermount College in Yatala, Queensland doubled this record with 522 dancers. On 12 July 2018 the record was broken again at The Big Red Bash, a music festival situated beneath the Big Red Dune on the edge of the Simpson Desert in outback Queensland. Crowds lined up to take part, dancing along to "Nutbush City Limits" as 1,719 people took part in the challenge. On 16 July 2019, a new record of 2,330 people performed the Nutbush at the Big Red Bash, breaking the previous year's record.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: The raising of Jairus' daughter is a reported miracle of Jesus that occurs in the synoptic Gospels, where it is interwoven with the account of the healing of a bleeding woman. The narratives can be found in Mark 5:21–43, –26 and Luke 8:40–56.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: Scholars have long recognised the Lukan and Matthean accounts of the story derive from the Markan account and are a typical example of a Synoptic triple tradition. It has no equivalent in the Gospel of John. Although some have drawn comparisons with the Healing the royal official's son (John 4) and Raising of Lazarus (John 11) narratives, Zwiep (2015) stated that 'they are entirely different and unrelated stories, according to most biblical scholars to date.'


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: The differences between the three Gospel narratives are well known amongst scholars. The premise of the story in Mark and Luke is that a ruler (Mark: εἷς τῶν ἀρχισυναγώγων "one of the synagogue rulers"; Luke: ἄρχων τῆς συναγωγῆς "a ruler of a synagogue") of a Galilean synagogue called "Jairus" (, "Iaeiros", from the Hebrew name Yair) wants Jesus to 'heal/save' (Mark: σωθῇ) his 12-year-old daughter who was 'dying' (Luke: ἀπέθνῃσκεν) or 'holding at (the point of) the end' (Mark: ἐσχάτως ἔχει; often translated as 'at the point of death'). In Matthew, the synagogue ruler is unnamed, the girl's age is not mentioned, she has already 'just died' (ἄρτι ἐτελεύτησεν), and the father's request is that Jesus lay his hand upon her 'and she will live [again]' (Matthew: καὶ ζήσεται). In other words, in Matthew he requests Jesus to reverse her death rather than prevent it, as in Mark and Luke.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: The timing and setting differs somewhat between the Gospels. In Mark and Luke, the story immediately follows the exorcism at Gerasa; Jairus comes up to Jesus as soon as he disembarks from his boat. In Matthew chapter 9, it is first preceded by three other events (Healing the paralytic, Calling of Matthew, New Wine into Old Wineskins). There, Jesus is at Matthew the Apostle's house associating with tax collectors and sinners, while debating Pharisees and disciples of John the Baptist, when the synagogue ruler arrives.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: Mark and Luke report a large crowd (ὄχλος) following Jesus around and pressing against him (συνέθλιβον/συνέπνιγον αὐτόν) as he followed Jairus to his house. Matthew makes no such mention; it is only Jesus and his disciples (μαθηταὶ) following the synagogue ruler.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: The narrative about Jairus' daughter is interrupted by the appearance of a woman who had a haemorrhage (Matthew: αἱμορροοῦσα "haimorroousa" "having had a flow of blood"; Mark/Luke: οὖσα ἐν ῥύσει αἵματος "ousa en rhysei haimatos" "being with a flow of blood") for 12 years. Mark and Luke inform the reader that all this time nobody could heal her, with Mark dramatically adding 'she had spent all she had on physicians to no avail' (Mark 5:25–26; Luke 8:43). When she touched Jesus' cloak, her bleeding stopped immediately according to Mark and Luke. In Matthew, she was not healed until after Jesus had told her: "Take courage, daughter, your faith healed you." Matthew's story of the bleeding woman also concludes there (Matthew 9:20–22).


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: In Mark and Luke, the woman's act of touching his cloak appears to disturb Jesus, who seems agitated or even angry (given the mention that the woman φοβηθεῖσα καὶ τρέμουσα 'trembled in fear' at his reaction), as he feels (Mark) or says (Luke) that 'power had gone out of him/me'. Jesus asks around the crowd 'Who touched me/my clothes?' Luke claims that all those in the crowd denied they did it, and has Peter say that crowds are pressing against Jesus (Mark only reports the latter, from the mouths of 'the disciples'). Unsatisfied, Jesus keeps inspecting the crowd until the now-healed woman, trembling in fear, falls at Jesus' feet and admits that it was her. Jesus answers: 'Daughter, your faith has healed you. Go in peace (and be freed from your suffering)', concluding the Markan and Lukan bleeding woman accounts (Mark 5:25–34, Luke 8:43–48).


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: In Mark's and Luke's narrative, '[people] come' (Mark: ἔρχονται, plural) or 'someone comes' (Luke: ἔρχεταί τις, singular) with the news that Jairus' daughter had died, and Jairus is advised not to trouble Jesus any further. However, Jesus responds: "Don’t be afraid; just believe," with Luke extending the quote with "and she will be healed/saved" (σωθήσεται). When arriving at Jairus' house, Jesus doesn't let anyone follow him inside 'except Peter, James and John, the brother of James', with Luke adding 'and the father of the child and the mother', later also added by Mark (Mark 5:35–37,40; Luke 8:49–50).


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: In Matthew's account, the daughter was already dead from the start, so this event does not happen. Moreover, Matthew's Jesus 'allows no bystanders to witness Jesus performing the resurrection miracle (Mt. 9.25)'.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: At Jairus' house, Mark and Luke report that Jesus "saw a commotion, with people crying and wailing loudly" (Mark 5:38; Luke 8:52 NIV); according to Matthew, he "saw the noisy crowd and people playing pipes" (Matthew 9:23 NIV). He informed all those present that the girl was not dead but asleep; in Matthew, Jesus even tells the crowd to 'Go away'. But the crowd laughed at Jesus. Mark says Jesus put the crowd outside; Matthew confirms this happens without mentioning who does it; Luke doesn't report it, but instead emphasises that the crowd 'knew she had died'.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: Jesus then went back inside (Mark, Matthew). He took the girl by the hand, and she got up. In Mark's account, the Aramaic phrase "Talitha koum" (transliterated into Greek as ταλιθα κουμ and reportedly meaning, "Little girl, I say to you, get up!") is attributed to Jesus (Mark 5:41 NIV). Luke's Jesus says "My child, get up!"; Matthew's Jesus is silent. The accounts in Mark and Luke end with Jesus' commands that the girl should be fed and that Jairus and his wife should tell no-one what had happened. On the other hand, Matthew concludes the narrative by saying: 'News of this spread through all that region.'


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: The following comparison table is primarily based on the New International Version (NIV) English translation of the New Testament.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: The combined stories have been used as an example of intercalation ("sandwich story"), where one incident is inserted within another, linked in this case by the connection between the 12-year ailment and the 12-year-old girl. 12 years also represents the age at which girls come of age in Judaism, and so it appears that Mark and Luke mention the girl's age to emphasise the tragedy of her dying before her father could marry her off, receive a dowry and expect grandchildren to continue his lineage. Mary Ann Getty-Sullivan (2001): 'Thus the father may have faced financial loss as well as social disgrace, in addition to the personal sorrow of his daughter's illness and death.'


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: Other links established by Getty-Sullivan include the fact that Jesus calls the bleeding woman 'daughter' while he's on the way to Jairus' daughter; the apparent inferior status of both females as the girl's father represents her (and she is not given her own name, but rather the 'daughter of'), and the woman dares not face Jesus directly to ask for healing, but secretly approaches him from behind to touch his clothes; and the fact that both the woman and girl are rendered ritually unclean by their afflictions, and yet Jesus miraculously heals them by touching them.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: According to Barbara E. Reid (1996), it is significant that Luke adds that it is the father's "only" daughter, and that the Raising of the son of the widow of Nain narrative (only told in Luke's gospel, 7:11–17) mirrors it exactly by stating that he was the mother's "only" son. Seeing that the genders are reversed here, but nevertheless treated in the same way, Reid concluded that daughters and sons were treated as equals by Luke's Jesus, in contrast to that society's culture, which valued sons far above daughters.


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: John Donahue and Daniel Harrington (2015) state that this episode shows that "faith, especially as embodied by the bleeding woman, can exist in seemingly hopeless situations". Michael Keene (2002) states that there is a link between Jairus and the woman: "The link between them is faith since both Jairus and the bleeding woman showed great faith in Jesus". John Walvoord and Roy Zuck (1983) state that: "What appeared to be a disastrous delay in the healing of the woman actually assured the restoration of Jairus' daughter. It was providentially ordered to test and strengthen Jairus' faith." Johann Lange (1960) also states that: "This delay would serve both to try and to strengthen the faith of Jairus."


title: Raising of Jairus' daughter

text: William Robertson Nicoll (1897) suggested that the instruction to feed the girl is placed "in a more prominent position" in Luke than in Mark "to show that as she had been really dead, she was now really alive and well; needing food and able to take it". Frédéric Louis Godet remarks "on the calmness with which Jesus gave the order after such a stupendous event": "As simply as a physician feels the pulse of a patient He regulates her diet for the day". Getty-Sullivan (2001) pointed out that, rather than Mark/Luke's verb ἀνίστημι ("to stand up, to get up"), Matthew used the verb ἐγείρω ("to (a)rise") that is commonly connected to the resurrection of Jesus, suggesting that Matthew wanted to cast Jesus' miraculous revival of Jairus' daughter as a foreshadowing of what would later happen to Jesus himself.


title: CZ 82

text: The Pistole vz. 82 is a compact semi-automatic pistol made for the Czechoslovakian military. "vz." is an abbreviation for "vzor", which translates to "model." A civilian export version is called the CZ 83.


title: CZ 82

text: Manufactured by the Czechoslovak firm Česká zbrojovka the vz. 82 replaced the 7.62×25mm Tokarev vz. 52 pistol in Czechoslovak military service in 1983. It is a compact, single/double-action, semi-automatic pistol with a conventional blowback action. This type of action allows the barrel to remain solidly fixed to the frame, resulting in improved accuracy over pistols with pivoting barrels (like the U.S. M1911 series). The low bore axis of the vz. 82 provides for less muzzle rise and quicker follow-up shots. For added convenience, both the frame-mounted thumb safety and the magazine release are ambidextrous. The vz. 82 was the first service pistol to feature both these features. The bore is chrome plated, which gives it three advantages: longer barrel life, resistance to rust from the use of corrosive ammunition, and ease of cleaning. Another feature of this pistol is the use of polygonal rifling in the barrel bore. This replaces the traditional lands and grooves rifling design with a rounded, smooth polygonal pattern which has a more "hills and valleys" appearance.


title: CZ 82

text: The Vz. 82 was made in 9×18mm only while the CZ 83 is available in a variety of finishes and chamberings:


title: CZ 82

text: The vz. 82 was added to the US government's "Curio and Relic" list with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (BATFE) in February 2007, after an individual wrote a letter to the ATF attaching a letter from a federal museum curator who stated that the vz. 82 had "museum interest" as a curio and relic.


title: Holacracy

text: Holacracy is a method of decentralized management and organizational governance, which claims to distribute authority and decision-making through a holarchy of self-organizing teams rather than being vested in a management hierarchy. Holacracy has been adopted by for-profit and non-profit organizations in several countries. This can be seen as a greater movement within organisational design to cope with increasing complex social environments, that promises a greater degree of transparency, effectiveness and agility.


title: Holacracy

text: The New York Times wrote in 2015 that "The goal of Holacracy is to create a dynamic workplace where everyone has a voice and bureaucracy doesn’t stifle innovation." The Wall Street Journal had already asked in 2007 "Can a Company Be Run as a Democracy?" (and conceded that it "sounds like a recipe for anarchy)." The answer reported came when 18 percent of the employees at an online seller which had adopted this "radical self-management system" quit.


title: Holacracy

text: The term is found printed for the first time in the adjectival form "holocratic" in a book from the Collège de 'Pataphysique in May 1957.


title: Holacracy

text: The Holacracy system was developed at "Ternary Software" in Exton, Pennsylvania. Ternary founder Brian Robertson distilled the company's best practices into an organizational system that became known as Holacracy in 2007. Robertson later developed the "Holacracy Constitution" which lays out the core principles and practices of the system. In 2011, he released a Manifesto 16 of Holacracy which was later developed in June 2015, as the book "Holacracy: The New Management System for a Rapidly Changing World," that details and explains his practices. He claims that it resembles Scaled Agile Framework, Sociocracy and Nexus. Robertson claims that the term holacracy is derived from the term holarchy; the latter was coined by Arthur Koestler in his 1967 book "The Ghost in the Machine".


title: Holacracy

text: Koestler wrote that a holarchy is composed of holons (Greek: ὅλον, holon neuter form of ὅλος, holos "whole") or units that are autonomous and self-reliant, but also dependent on the greater whole of which they are part. Thus a holarchy is a hierarchy of self-regulating holons that function both as autonomous wholes and as dependent parts.


title: Holacracy

text: Holacracy, which is an alternative to command-and-control, is one of several systems of flat organization. It has been compared to sociocracy, a system of governance developed in the second half of the 20th century.


title: Holacracy

text: In contrast to the governance process, which is collective and integrative, each member filling a role has a lot of autonomy and authority to make decisions on how to best achieve his or her goals. Some have described the authority paradigm in Holacracy as completely opposite to the one of the traditional management hierarchy; instead of needing permission to act or innovate, Holacracy gives blanket authority to take any action needed to perform the work of the roles, unless it is restricted via policies in governance or it involves spending some assets of the organization (money, intellectual property, etc.) Holacracy is highly biased toward action and innovation: it defaults to autonomy and freedom, then uses internal processes to limit that autonomy when its use in a specific way turns out to be detrimental.


title: Holacracy

text: Holacracy specifies a tactical meeting process that every circle goes through, usually on a weekly basis. A particular feature of this last phase, known as "triage", is to focus discussions on the concrete next steps needed by the individual who added the agenda item to address his or her issue. The intention is to avoid large, unproductive discussions dominated by the louder voices.


title: Holacracy

text: Its developer was described by "The New York Times" as "a computer programmer with no training in human resources, let alone occupational psychology" and "The Wall Street Journal" identified the requirement for "every decision must be unanimous" as detrimental. They also reported that "Fifteen percent of an organization’s time is spent in" ($27 billion of them "unproductive") meetings and made mention of Robertson's book.


title: Holacracy

text: In the U.S., for-profit and not-for-profit organizations have adopted and practiced Holacracy. Examples include Zappos. Medium used Holacracy for several years before abandoning it in 2016. A small number of research projects have reported the use of this style of management within the area of software development who promote its benefits for the search for greater innovation but raise concerns such as lack of usual structures and cultural habits around organising work, but more research is needed.


title: Holacracy

text: Various claims have been made in respect of Holacracy. It is said to increase agility, efficiency, transparency, innovation and accountability within an organization, and to encourage individual team members to take initiative and gives them a process in which their concerns or ideas can be addressed. Further that the system of distributed authority reduces the burden on leaders to make every decision and can speed up communications and decision making processes (but this can introduce its own challenges). According to Zappos's CEO Tony Hsieh, Holacracy makes individuals more responsible for their own thoughts and actions.


title: Holacracy

text: Steve Denning warned against viewing Holacracy as a panacea, claiming that instead of removing hierarchy, decisions are funneled down from circle to circle in a clear hierarchy, with each subsequent circle knowing less about the big picture than the one above. He also claimed that the rules and procedures are very detailed and focused on "administrivia." Lastly, Denning added that the voice of the customer was missing from the Holacracy model, concluding that for agile and customer-focused companies such as Zappos, Holacracy is a way to add administrative rigor, but that Holacracy would not necessarily work well in an organization that did not already have agility and passion for the customer. HolacracyOne partner Olivier Compagne replied to those criticisms on the company's blog, claiming that Denning's criticisms misunderstand Holacracy.


title: Holacracy

text: Problems occur when transitioning to this system, particularly if older systems of management are allowed to become a hidden structure and system of power, in addition to this, individuals' space can become lost within the constant connectedness.


title: Holacracy

text: In moving away from Holacracy, Andy Doyle of "Medium" noted that "for larger initiatives, which require coordination across functions, it can be time-consuming and divisive to gain alignment" and that Medium believed that "the act of codifying responsibilities in explicit detail hindered a proactive attitude and sense of communal ownership". They also noted that the inaccurate media coverage of Holacracy created a challenge for recruitment.


title: Holacracy

text: At Zappos, about 14% of the company left voluntarily in 2015 in a deliberate attempt by Zappos to only retain employees who believed in holacracy.


title: Holacracy

text: Other criticisms include a "one-size-fits-all" approach, layers of bureaucracy and more psychological weight.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: Michael Costello (born January 20, 1983) is an American fashion designer and reality television personality. He appeared on the eighth season of "Project Runway" and the first season of "Project Runway All Stars".


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: Michael Costello was born on January 20, 1983, in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles. Costello's father is Italian-Hungarian and his mother is Greek Romani and Russian. At the age of 15, he moved to Palm Springs, California.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: Costello started designing clothes at the age of two by drawing dresses on his bedroom walls. At the age of 15, he opened his first store at 286 North Palm Canyon Drive in Palm Springs. It was at his first store in Palm Springs where Costello started making custom pieces for celebrities including Céline Dion, Jennifer Lopez, Toni Braxton, Barry Manilow, Suzanne Somers, Faye Dunaway, Florence Henderson, and more. Costello made headlines for designing a matching hat and dress for rapper Cardi B for Paris Fashion Week. Kylie Jenner wore one of his dresses for her birthday magazine cover and Costello has partied with Lady Gaga. Costello's dresses were featured in Nicki Minaj's game app, Nicki Minaj: The Empire. He collaborated with Essie nail polish and designed his own lipstick and eyeshadow shades for Inglot Cosmetics.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: In 2010, Costello appeared on the 8th season of "Project Runway". Costello placed 4th place, and became best friends with fellow contestant Mondo Guerra. In 2012, Costello competed as part of "Project Runway All Stars" and finished as the 2nd runner up.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: On January 26, 2014, Costello garnered nationwide attention by dressing Beyoncé in a white lace dress for the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. Costello credits that moment as the turning-point of his career. Since then, Costello has continuously dressed her for On the Run Tour, The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour, the Grammy-sponsored Stevie Wonder tribute, the Wearable Art Gala at the California African American Museum, and more.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: On February 15, 2016, Costello dressed Meghan Trainor at the Grammys. Costello's designs for Beyoncé, Meghan Trainor, Tamar Braxton, Toni Braxton, Alicia Keys, Maren Morris, and more are on display at the Grammy Museum at L.A. Live.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: In 2016, Costello collaborated with award-winning costume designer Lou Eyrich to design gowns for Lady Gaga for the TV series American Horror Story, leading up to the team's Primetime Emmy Award win for Outstanding Costumes For a Contemporary Series, Limited Series or Movie.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: On July 12, 2016, Costello appeared on "Good Morning America" and won a nationwide fashion challenge. The following day, he worked with Kim Kardashian in creating a red carpet dress for the ESPY Awards. The styling session was filmed for E! Entertainment Television's "Keeping Up With the Kardashians".


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: Costello has appeared as a fashion guest for television shows like "Wendy", "Steve Harvey Show", "Good Day LA", "Good Day NY", and more.


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: On March 18, 2017, Costello received a star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars. The presentation was held by Palm Springs Mayor Robert Moon, who also gave Costello the key to the City of Palm Springs and declared March 18 as the "Michael Costello Day".


title: Michael Costello (fashion designer)

text: Costello has two children Giovanni and Coco from an arranged marriage that ended in 2006. He is openly gay.


title: Docent

text: Docent is a title at some European universities to denote a specific academic appointment within a set structure of academic ranks at or below the full professor rank, similar to a British readership, a French ""maître de conférences"" (MCF) and equal or above the title of "associate professor".


title: Docent

text: Docent is also used at some (mainly German) universities generically for a person who has the right to teach. The term is derived from the Latin word "docēns", which is the present active participle of "docēre" (to teach, to lecture). Becoming a docent is often referred to as Habilitation or Doctor of Science and is an academic evidence that proves that a holder is capable of appointment at the level of associate or full professor. Docent is the highest academic title in several countries and the qualifying criteria are research output that corresponds to 3-5 doctoral dissertations, supervision of PhD students, and concrete evidence of teaching at undergraduate and graduate level.


title: Docent

text: In the Flemish universities of Belgium "docent" is the first of four university professor ranks, the others being "hoofddocent" (head docent), "hoogleraar" (professor) and "gewoon hoogleraar". To be awarded the docent title at the Flemish universities, a candidate has to have a Doctorate. In the French-speaking universities, the word docent is not used in their titles.


title: Docent

text: In Germany, Austria and in the German-speaking part of Switzerland, "Dozent" or "Hochschuldozent" denotes an academic appointment at a university or similar institution, at a mid-level ranking of seniority.


title: Docent

text: The title of "Privatdozent" is used (with certain conditions) by those who have successfully completed a "Habilitation", thereby denoting that its holder has the right to independently teach without being supervised by a professor. In this way, a Privatdozent may for instance hold an appointment as "Dozent" or "Hochschuldozent".


title: Docent

text: In the French speaking countries (particularly in France), Maître de conférences (MCF) may refer to docent, equivalent to associate professor in the US or senior reader in the UK. It is a tenured academic post enjoying the status of civil servant (""). The French Ministry of Higher Education provided a table summarizing the equivalent academic ranks of "professeur" and "Maître de conférences (MCF)" in other countries.


title: Docent

text: In countries with academic traditions that stem from German-speaking countries, "docent" is an academic appointment below that of a full professor. This is the situation in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. "Docent" is considered equal to or above the title "associate professor" as used in Western European countries. In the Czech Republic, a "docent" holder is considered capable of conducting research independently as well as giving lectures.


title: Docent

text: In Poland, the title of "docent" used to be mandatory in order to become a full professor. This is no longer a requirement, and the title nearly vanished in the last 20 years. Currently, it may be given to a teacher or instructor not engaged in research. Only a scientific researcher may apply for the title of "professor", and therefore "docent" is the highest title for teachers and instructors.


title: Docent

text: In countries such as Lithuania, Bulgaria, "docent" is used as an academic title equivalent to associate professor in German-speaking countries.


title: Docent

text: In most former Yugoslav countries, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia, the system of academic ranks is similar to that of North America. The academic rank of "docent" corresponds to assistant professor.


title: Docent

text: In Armenia, the title of "docent" — equivalent to Associate professor — is awarded to either a Candidate of Sciences or a Doctor of Sciences before becoming a full professor.


title: Docent

text: In Denmark and Norway, docent is traditionally a title ranking between associate professor and professor, similar to a readership in the United Kingdom. All docents in universities in Norway became full professors in 1985, when the traditional docent title was abolished. In 2006 the title docent was introduced as the new title of the former teaching docents in Norway; while administratively on the same level as professors, the promotion criteria are different and based on teaching.


title: Docent

text: In Finland, Sweden, Estonia, and Latvia, docent (Finnish "dosentti", Swedish "docent", Estonian "dotsent", Latvian "docents") is an academic title conferred to a person fulfilling requirements similar to German Privatdozent. Such persons are usually expected to give lectures on their specialties if their professional activities permit this. Most docents are employed at the university where they are docents, but usually in a different position (often with the title Senior Lecturer; "universitetslektor"). The Scandinavian title "docent" as used in e.g. Sweden is often translated into English as Reader to avoid confusion with foreign uses of the term "docent". In Finland, the Docents' Union of Finland recommends the term associate professor in English, while the term used by the University of Helsinki is Title of Docent.


title: Docent

text: In Sweden, there used to be both stipendiary ("docentstipendiat") and non-stipendiary ("oavlönad docent") docent positions. A stipendiary docent both held the docent title (for life), and benefited from a stipend that paid for their salary at the university for up to six years. The non-stipendiary alternative was solely an academic title (also for life). Today, most universities only confer a non-stipendiary docent title. The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Chalmers university of technology still maintain the stipendiary. The title is in most cases awarded to people employed as Assistant Professor("biträdande universitetslektor"), or Associate Professor ("universitetslektor"/Senior Lecturer) with a distinguished international reputation after a rigorous review of their research. "Docent" can be used as an English term for the Swedish title docent. Since the Swedish title "docent" is rather a mark of competence than an employment, it is in some contexts less appropriate to use the terms "reader" and "associate professor" for this concept in English.


title: Docent

text: The title of docent is the second highest grade in the Swedish academic system, the highest being (full) professor. A docentship should be regarded as an educational title not connected with the employment pyramid as such. This is rather an assurance of the level of expertise, to enable the person to advance further in his/her academic career. A docent qualification is required of all head doctoral student supervisors. For conferment of the title, there is a requirement that the researcher has a good overview of their research area and has demonstrated both the ability to formulate research problems and to independently carry through research programs. It is a requirement that the researcher should be able to lead research projects. The researcher must have substantial scientific research experience and be well published in scientific journals.


title: Docent

text: In Finland, docent is solely an academic title (, ) awarded by a university. The title is often translated to adjunct professor or associate professor to make the title more comparable those of the Anglo-Saxon university system. The title of docent can either be awarded for life or for stipulated period of time depending on the choice of the unit that is conferring it. As a prerequisite, a candidate must have comprehensive knowledge of their own field, a capacity for independent research or artistic work demonstrated through publication or some other manner, and good teaching skills. The applicant must demonstrate scientific publications at least to the extent of two doctoral theses from the field of study. Candidates are required to give a lecture demonstrating their teaching skills, and are evaluated by an academic committee.


title: Docent

text: While traditionally a docentship used to be a formal position without a salary, the 2009 change in legislation changed it to a title only. Thus, docentship is nowadays an official recognition of individual expertise as well as a title equivalent to that of an associate professor also bestowing the right to teach () and supervise doctoral students independently. Docents may work as professors, associate professors, assistant professors, university lecturers or researchers at the university, or work elsewhere full-time. The rank of a docent entitles scientists to teach at the universities and to be principal researchers, lead research groups and act as responsible supervisors of doctoral students.


title: Docent

text: The title cannot be revoked in any circumstances according to Finnish legislation. There has been some discussion among academics whether revoking it should be possible in cases such as criminal convictions.


title: Docent

text: In Norway, the title docent () was traditionally used for positions immediately below full professors and above those holding the title førsteamanuensis (corresponding to associate professor in the US and senior lecturer in the Commonwealth) until 1985. The requirements were the same as for full university professors, but until then, each department usually only had one professor and other academics with similar qualifications were appointed as docents. Hence, docents could be seen as professors without chair (professor extraordinarius). The title was comparable to reader or associate professor in many Commonwealth countries and professor extraordinarius in continental Europe. All docents were lifted to full professor status in 1985, when the title was abolished at the universities.


title: Docent

text: The title docent remained in use in the rural colleges (), in the form of college docent (), which is a position focused on teaching that ranks below professors. In the 2000s only a handful of people still held the title college docent. In 1995, the college docents received the right to apply for promotion to professor. In 2003, the position teaching docent () was introduced. The title was changed to just docent () in 2006, although it is not a successor of the earlier docent position as used in the universities prior to 1985. The position is similar to college docent and focused on teaching activities rather than research.


title: Docent

text: Both the titles college docent and (teaching) docent are almost exclusively used in the colleges and new universities, and usually not used in the old universities. (Teaching) docent is ranked within the state pay grade system as administratively equivalent to the position of professor, but promotion to docent is based on a different set of merits, with more emphasis on teaching qualifications relative to research merits than in professorial appointments. Persons holding a permanent position as senior teaching fellow () at a university or university college may apply for promotion to docent. After the 2006 changes there are three parallel academic career ladders in Norway, one focused on both research and teaching, one focused on research and one focused on teaching.


title: Docent

text: In Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands, "docente" (Portuguese and Spanish) and "docent" (Dutch) are a synonym for "teacher" as well as "professor", and are widely used across all academic ranks.


title: Docent

text: In Spain, an academic with a 'docent' level is one who has been given the accreditation 'profesor titular de universidad' by the 'Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad y Acreditación' (ANECA). This is the equivalent to 'associate professor' in UK or 'Dozent' in Germany.


title: Docent

text: The following level evaluated by ANECA is 'catedrático de universidad', that is 'university professor', according to European standards.


title: Docent

text: In South Africa, the Afrikaans word "dosent" refers to any full-time university lecturer, independent of rank. While in Indonesia, the Indonesian word "dosen" refers to any tertiary education lecturer, independent of rank.


title: Docent

text: In Turkey, "doçent" is an academic appointment equivalent to an associate professor, ranking between instructor doctor and professor. A "doçent" candidate has to have a doctor's degree and must meet the requirements provided by the interuniversity board. The title of docent is mandatory in order to become a full professor. In recent years there is no longer need for a docent thesis, rather a candidate must provide evidence of a number of journal papers, or a research-level book in their field with a detail equivalent to journal article.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet (Kumaoni: ) is a hill station and cantonment town, nearby Almora Town in Almora district in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is the home for the Military Hospital, Kumaon Regiment (KRC) and Naga Regiment and is maintained by the Indian Army.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet is at an altitude of 1,869 metres (6,132 ft) above sea level and within sight of the western peaks of the Himalayas. Ranikhet is a Class IV town with a civic status of a Cantonment board.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet, which means "Queen's Meadow" in Kumaoni, gets its name from a local legend, which states that it was here, that Raja Sudhardev, a Katyuri ruler, won the heart of his queen, Rani Padmini, who subsequently chose the area for her residence, giving it the name, Ranikhet, though no palace exists in the area.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet had been under Nepalese rule after the Nepalese invasion of Kumaon and Doti in 1790, and the Kumaonis won it under the leadership of their able General Kashi Nath Adhikari – after whom the small town of Kashipur was named (which at one point of time was the gateway to the hills and is now an educational and institutional hub) – with the help of British at around 1816 and is a part of India now.


title: Ranikhet

text: After the conquest of Almora on 3 May 1815, when Kumaon had been handed over to the British by the Gorkhas, the soldiers and officers of the British army started to live in Hawalbagh. It continued till 1839, when the army offices were shifted to Almora Cantonment and the troops were stationed at Lohaghat and Pithoragarh so as to enable them to effectively monitor the Indo-Nepal Border. However, a local rebellion in 1846 resulted in the removal of military camp from Lohaghat and the troops were transferred back to Hawalbagh where they remained stationed until the establishment of another permanent Cantonment at Ranikhet.


title: Ranikhet

text: Between 1830 and 1856, various European groups acquired land in the region in hope of establishing tea gardens in the district. One of them was the Troupe family, that bought the land from the villagers of Chaubatia, Holm Khet and Upat. In 1868, this site was selected for the residence of British soldiers, and the following year a cantonment was formed here after acquiring land from the villagers of Sarna, Kotli and Tana on a compensation of Rs 13,024. All the properties of the Troupe family were also acquired in the same year, except for the Holm estate, which was not incorporated into the cantonment until 1893.


title: Ranikhet

text: In 1869, the British established the headquarters of the Kumaon Regiment as well as pargana Pali here and used the station as a retreat from the heat of the Indian summer. The treasury was opened here on 1 April 1869 and a Cantonment Committee was formed in 1871. A police station was also established in the city in 1869–70. The forests around Ranikhet were declared reserved forests in 1873. These forests had been brought under an action plan by 1887, although they continued to be managed under then-prevalent cantonment laws and regulations until 1915. Under these rules grazing and cutting of grass and burning of forests without permission were forbidden. On 3 December 1915, a portion of the cantonment was notified as a reserve forest under the Indian Forest Act of 1878.


title: Ranikhet

text: At one time during British Raj, it was also proposed as the summer headquarters of Government of India, in lieu of Shimla. In 1900, it had a summer population of 7,705, and its corresponding winter population was measured in 1901 as 3,153


title: Ranikhet

text: A demand to bifurcate the Almora district to form a separate Ranikhet district started to gain popularity soon after the independence of India. Movements for Ranikhet district had begun by the 1960s, and these movements had grown, both in number and scale, by 1985. In 1987, a committee headed by Venkat Ramani, the President of the Uttar Pradesh Revenue Council recommended the district and then two years later, in 1989, the Eighth Finance Commission gave its financial approval to the district. Even after this, when the district was not formed, a movement started again in 1993–94, after which a CO and ADM were appointed in Ranikhet; the latter was soon removed.


title: Ranikhet

text: In 2004 & 2005 people again agitated for the demand of a separate district. In 2007, an official proposal for formation of Ranikhet district was sent to the state government by the administration. According to this proposal, six blocks, five tehsils, 1309 revenue villages, 59 justice panchayats and 120 patwari areas were to be included in Ranikhet district. The proposed district was to have a population of 3,40,456 according to the 2001 census, and would be spread over an area of 13,735.740 hectares. In 2010 another mass movement was led by advocates. This agitation lasted for eight months, and after this, the then Chief Minister of Uttarakhand, Ramesh Pokhriyal announced the creation of the Ranikhet district which would include the Ranikhet, Salt, Bhikiasain, Dwarahat, and Chaukhutia tehsils of Almora district in 2011. However, the district never came into existence because no gazette notification was ever issued.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet Cantonment is spread over a total area of 4,176.031 acres, of which 2,580.135 acres is Reserve Forest area, 920.328 acres is Station area and 675,568 acres is Military area. The cantonment is spread across two ridges, the first, called the Ranikhet ridge, is situated at an elevation of and the second, the Chaubatia ridge, is at an elevation of . The Ranikhet Cantonment Board - a 14 membered board formed under the Cantonment Board Act of 1924 - looks after the administration of the town. Ranikhet is a first class cantonment, and is divided into 7 wards for administrative functions. Of the total 14 members in Ranikhet Cantonment Board, 7 are elected from these wards.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet has an average elevation of at a distance of from Almora and from Nainital. Administratively, the town is a part of Almora district; located to the west of district headquarters. It houses the headquarters of the Ranikhet tehsil and Ranikhet sub-division. The western narrow strips and eastern part of Ranikhet are comparatively high and covered with a dense forest mainly of pine.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet is nestled in the sylvan surroundings inhabited by pine ("Pinus roxburghii"), oak ("Quercus"), buransh ("Rhododendron arboreum") and deodar ("Deodar Cedar") forests that host a large variety of fauna, such as leopards, rhesus monkeys, pine martens, Himalayan langur, dhole, rabbits, barking deer, sambar, and more. Exotic plants of Ranikhet include "Ginkgo biloba" and "saffron".


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet becomes very cold in the winters and remains moderate in summers, and is best enjoyed from March to October. Ranikhet gets snowfall in the winter season, mainly in the months of December, January and February. But in the rest of the months the weather of Ranikhet remains pleasant.


title: Ranikhet

text: The Cantonment Town of Ranikhet has a population of 19,049 persons. 16271 persons in Ranikhet are literates (10206 Male and 6065 Female). The literacy rate in Ranikhet town is significantly ahead of others in the district. Female Literacy is 91.18 percent. In 1881, when the first edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of India was published, Ranikhet had a population of 5,984, and the city was home to 3,313 Hindus, 1,090 Muslims, and 1,573 Europeans.


title: Ranikhet

text: The Ranikhet Cantonment area is home to several tourist places. The KRC Museum, maintained by the Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army, has a collection of pictures and aretfacts, mainly focusing on the contributions of the Regiment during the World wars, Sino-Indian War, Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 & 1971, the Kargil war and Operation Pawan. It has on display the various weapons captured, flags of enemies captured by the army and a LTTE boat captured during Operation Pawan. The meuseum also showcases medals and uniforms of the soldiers and stories of the First and the Second Param Vir Chakra winners, and all the Army Generals who belonged to the Kumaon Regiment. Other tourist places in the cantonment include the Ashiyana Park, which was specially designed & developed for children. The Mankameshwar Temple, constructed and maintained by the Kumaon regiment, is located in the middle of the cantonment. Opposite the temple is a Gurudwara and a Shawl factory. The Rani Jheel, located near Nar Singh Stadium, is a man-made lake, where tourists can enjoy boat rides. St. Bridget's Church is an old church in Ranikhet town.


title: Ranikhet

text: The Ranikhet Golf Course, located at Upat Kalika is one of the highest golf courses of Asia. It is situated at a distance of from main Ranikhet City. Ranikhet Golf Course is a 9-hole course making it one of the prime attractions of Ranikhet. The green meadow of the golf course at such high altitude is awe-inspiring. The golf club provides membership plans for outsiders as well.


title: Ranikhet

text: Situated 4 km from Ranikhet at Chilianaula, the Haidakhan Temple, constructed by Haidakhan Babaji, is dedicated to Lord Shiva. The Jhula Devi temple is situated at a distance of from the town of Ranikhet near Chaubatia. The temple is dedicated to Maa Durga, who is believed to have protected the villagers from wild animals, leopards and tigers, that roamed in the dense jungles around the temple. The temple is festooned with numerous bells owing to the tradition of offering a bell to the goddess upon fulfilment of one's wishes. Located in the vicinity of Jhula Devi temple is the Rama Mandir, dedicated to lord Rama. The Rama Mandir has a monastery where students are taught ancient vedas along with vedic and modern mathematics. The Binsar Mahadev Temple is situated close to a stream amidst beautiful pine and deodar trees.


title: Ranikhet

text: Other nearby places include Chaubatia, Tarikhet, Syalikhet and Majkhali. Chaubatia, located about from Ranikhet, is famous for its apple orchards. There are also plantations of apricots, peaches, chestnuts, and almonds. The Bhalu Dam, located near Chaubatia is a man-made lake that supplies drinking water to Ranikhet Town. Tarikhet is located at a distance of from Ranikhet Cantt, and is well known for its Gandhi Kuti, and the temple of Golu Devata. Syalikhet is a scenic spot situated at a distance of from Ranikhet. Syalikhet is located in the amidst green forest and apple orchards and is known for a temple of Syahi Devi. Majkhali is a picnic spot on the Ranikhet-Almora road. It is located at a distance of 12 km from Ranikhet and offers a close view of the snowy Himalayas with peaceful surroundings. It also holds 'melas' during festivals. Baburkhola village, which resembles a Scottish countryside, is at a distance of 5 km from Majhkali.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet is situated at a distance of from Delhi, well connected by road and railway. The nearest railway station is Kathgodam, approximately from Ranikhet (GMAPS) one can also use taxis from kathgodam & Haldwani railway stations towards Ranikhet at reasonable cost. Pantnagar Airport is the nearest airport. Nearest hill stations are Almora - 50 km, Nainital - 60 km. There are some more places nearby which can be visited like Chaubatia, Dwarahat, Kausani, Chaukhutia, Majhkhali, Naina Gaon, Jalali, Barakham, Doonagiri, Naithna, Masi and Pali.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet's economy is based on the cantonment town and emerging tourism. Commodities manufactured in Ranikhet include sweet meats, jam and hosiery.


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet Town has 10 Primary Schools, 6 Middle Schools, 4 Secondary Schools and 6 Senior Secondary schools. As per the Census of India (2011) one college


title: Ranikhet

text: Ranikhet has an All India Radio Relay station known as Akashvani Ranikhet. It broadcasts on FM frequencies.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Aeolian processes, also spelled eolian, pertain to wind activity in the study of geology and weather and specifically to the wind's ability to shape the surface of the Earth (or other planets). Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation, a lack of soil moisture and a large supply of unconsolidated sediments. Although water is a much more powerful eroding force than wind, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts.


title: Aeolian processes

text: "Aeolian processes" are those processes of erosion, transport, and deposition of sediments that are caused by wind at or near the surface of the earth. Sediment deposits produced by the action of wind and the sedimentary structures characteristic of these deposits are also described as "aeolian".


title: Aeolian processes

text: Aeolian processes are most important in areas where there is little or no vegetation. However, aeolian deposits are not restricted to arid climates. They are also seen along shorelines; along stream courses in semiarid climates; in areas of ample sand weathered from weakly cemented sandstone outcrops; and in areas of glacial outwash.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Loess, which is silt deposited by wind, is common in humid to subhumid climates. Much of North America and Europe are underlain by sand and loess of Pleistocene age originating from glacial outwash.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The lee (downwind) side of river valleys in semiarid regions are often blanketed with sand and sand dunes. Examples in North America include the Platte, Arkansas, and Missouri Rivers.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Wind erodes the Earth's surface by "deflation" (the removal of loose, fine-grained particles by the turbulent action of the wind) and by "abrasion" (the wearing down of surfaces by the grinding action and sandblasting by windborne particles). Once entrained in the wind, collisions between particles further break them down, a process called "attrition".


title: Aeolian processes

text: Worldwide, erosion by water is more important than erosion by wind, but wind erosion is important in semiarid and arid regions. Wind erosion is increased by some human activities, such as the use of 4x4 vehicles.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose material from the surface by wind turbulence. It takes place by three mechanisms: traction/surface creep, saltation, and suspension. Traction or surface creep is a process of larger grains sliding or rolling across the surface. Saltation refers to particles bouncing across the surface for short distances. Suspended particles are fully entrained in the wind, which carries them for long distances. Saltation likely accounts for 50–70 % of deflation, while suspension accounts for 30–40 % and surface creep accounts for 5–25 %.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Regions which experience intense and sustained erosion are called deflation zones. Most aeolian deflation zones are composed of desert pavement, a sheet-like surface of rock fragments that remains after wind and water have removed the fine particles. The rock mantle in desert pavements protects the underlying material from further deflation. Areas of desert pavement form the "regs" or stony deserts of the Sahara. These are further divided into rocky areas called "hamadas" and areas of small rocks and gravel called "serirs". Desert pavement is extremely common in desert environments.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Blowouts are hollows formed by wind deflation. Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to several kilometers in diameter. The smallest are mere dimples deep and in diameter. The largest include the blowout hollows of Mongolia, which can be across and deep. Big Hollow in Wyoming, US, extends and is up to deep.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Abrasion (also sometimes called "corrasion") is the process of wind-driven grains knocking or wearing material off of landforms. It was once considered a major contributor to desert erosion, but by the mid-20th Century, it had come to be considered much less important. Wind can normally lift sand only a short distance, with most windborne sand remaining within of the surface and practically none normally being carried above . Many desert features once attributed to wind abrasion, including wind caves, mushroom rocks, and the honeycomb weathering called tafoni, are now attributed to differential weathering, rainwash, deflation rather than abrasion, or other processes.


title: Aeolian processes

text: "Yardangs" are one kind of desert feature that is widely attributed to wind abrasion. These are rock ridges, up to tens of meters high and kilometers long, that have been streamlined by desert winds. Yardangs characteristically show elongated furrows or grooves aligned with the prevailing wind. They form mostly in softer material such as silts.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Abrasion produces polishing and pitting, grooving, shaping, and faceting of exposed surfaces. These are widespread in arid environments but geologically insignificant. Polished or faceted surfaces called "ventifacts" are rare, requiring abundant sand, powerful winds, and a lack of vegetation for their formation.


title: Aeolian processes

text: In parts of Antarctica wind-blown snowflakes that are technically sediments have also caused abrasion of exposed rocks.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Attrition is the wearing down by collisions of particles entrained in a moving fluid. It is effective at rounding sand grains and at giving them a distinctive "frosted" surface texture.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Collisions between windborne particles is a major source of dust in the size range of 2-5 microns. Most of this is produced by the removal of a weathered clay coating from the grains.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Wind dominates the transport of sand and finer sediments in arid environments. Wind transport is also important in periglacial areas, on river flood plains, and in coastal areas. Coastal winds transport significant amounts of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments inland, while wind storms and dust storms can carry clay and silt particles great distances. Wind transports much of the sediments deposited in deep ocean basins. In "ergs" (desert sand seas), wind is very effective at transporting grains of sand size and smaller.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Particles are transported by winds through suspension, saltation (skipping or bouncing) and creeping (rolling or sliding) along the ground. The minimum wind velocity to initiate transport is called the "fluid threshold" or "static threshold" and is the wind velocity required to begin dislodging grains from the surface. Once transport is initiated, there is a cascade effect from grains tearing loose other grains, so that transport continues until the wind velocity drops below the "dynamic threshold" or "impact threshold", which is usually less than the fluid threshold. In other words, there is hysteresis in the wind transport system.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Small particles may be held in the atmosphere in suspension. Turbulent air motion supports the weight of suspended particles and allows them to be transported for great distances. Wind is particularly effective at separating sediment grains under 0.05 mm in size from coarser grains as suspended particles.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Saltation is downwind movement of particles in a series of jumps or skips. Saltation is most important for grains of up to 2 mm in size. A saltating grain may hit other grains that jump up to continue the saltation. The grain may also hit larger grains (over 2 mm in size) that are too heavy to hop, but that slowly creep forward as they are pushed by saltating grains. Surface creep accounts for as much as 25 percent of grain movement in a desert.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Vegetation is effective at suppressing aeolian transport. Vegetation cover of as little as 15% is sufficient to eliminate most sand transport. The size of shore dunes is limited mostly by the amount of open space between vegetated areas.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Aeolian transport from deserts plays an important role in ecosystems globally. For example, wind transports minerals from the Sahara to the Amazon basin. Saharan dust is also responsible for forming red clay soils in southern Europe.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Dust storms are wind storms that have entrained enough dust to reduce visibility to less than . Most occur on the synoptic (regional) scale, due to strong winds along weather fronts, or locally from downbursts from thunderstorms.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Crops, people, and possibly even climates are affected by dust storms. On Earth, dust can cross entire oceans, as occurs with dust from the Sahara that reaches the Amazon Basin. Dust storms on Mars periodically engulf the entire planet. When the Mariner 9 spacecraft entered its orbit around Mars in 1971, a dust storm lasting one month covered the entire planet, thus delaying the task of photo-mapping the planet's surface.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Most of the dust carried by dust storms is in the form of silt-size particles. Deposits of this windblown silt are known as loess. The thickest known deposit of loess, up to , is on the Loess Plateau in China. This very same Asian dust is blown for thousands of miles, forming deep beds in places as far away as Hawaii. The Peoria Loess of North America is up to thick in parts of western Iowa. The soils developed on loess are generally highly productive for agriculture.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Small whirlwinds, called dust devils, are common in arid lands and are thought to be related to very intense local heating of the air that results in instabilities of the air mass. Dust devils may be as much as one kilometer high. Dust devils on Mars have been observed as high as , though this is uncommon.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Wind is very effective at separating sand from silt and clay. As a result, there are distinct sandy (erg) and silty (loess) aeolian deposits, with only limited interbedding between the two. Loess deposits are found further from the original source of sediments than ergs. An example of this is the Sand Hills of Nebraska, US. Here vegetation-stabilized sand dunes are found to the west and loess deposits to the east, further from the original sediment source in the Ogallala Formation at the feet of the Rocky Mountains.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Some of the most significant experimental measurements on aeolian landforms were performed by Ralph Alger Bagnold, a British army engineer who worked in Egypt prior to World War II. Bagnold investigated the physics of particles moving through the atmosphere and deposited by wind. He recognized two basic dune types, the crescentic dune, which he called "barchan", and the linear dune, which he called longitudinal or "seif" (Arabic for "sword"). Bagnold developed a classification scheme that included small-scale ripples and sand sheets as well as various types of dunes.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Bagnold's classification is most applicable in areas devoid of vegetation. In 1941, John Tilton Hack added parabolic dunes, which are strongly influenced by vegetation, to the list of dune types. The discovery of dunes on Mars reinvigorated aeolian process research, which increasingly makes use of computer simulation.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Wind-deposited materials hold clues to past as well as to present wind directions and intensities. These features help us understand the present climate and the forces that molded it. For example, vast inactive ergs in much of the modern world attest to late Pleistocene trade wind belts being much expanded during the Last Glacial Maximum. Ice cores show a tenfold increase in non-volcanic dust during glacial maxima. The highest dust peak in the Vostok ice cores dates to 20 to 21 thousand years ago. The abundant dust is attributed to a vigorous low-latitude wind system plus more exposed continental shelf due to low sea levels.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Wind blowing on a sand surface ripples the surface into crests and troughs whose long axes are perpendicular to the wind direction. The average length of jumps during saltation corresponds to the wavelength, or distance between adjacent crests, of the ripples. In ripples, the coarsest materials collect at the crests causing inverse grading. This distinguishes small ripples from dunes, where the coarsest materials are generally in the troughs. This is also a distinguishing feature between water laid ripples and aeolian ripples.


title: Aeolian processes

text: A "sand shadow" is an accumulation of sand on the downwind side of an obstruction, such as a boulder or an isolated patch of vegetation. Here the sand builds up to the angle of repose (the maximum stable slope angle), about 34 degrees, then begins sliding down the "slip face" of the patch. A "sandfall" is a sand shadow of a cliff or escarpment.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Closely related to sand shadows are "sand drifts". These form downwind of a gap between obstructions, due to the funneling effect of the obstructions on the wind.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Sand sheets are flat or gently undulating sandy deposits with only small surface ripples. An example is the Selima Sand Sheet in the eastern Sahara Desert, which occupies in southern Egypt and northern Sudan. This consists of a few feet of sand resting on bedrock. Sand sheets are often remarkably flat and are sometimes described as "desert peneplains".


title: Aeolian processes

text: Sand sheets are common in desert environments, particularly on the margins of dune fields, although they also occur within ergs. Conditions that favor the formation of sand sheets, instead of dunes, may include surface cementation, a high water table, the effects of vegetation, periodic flooding, or sediments rich in grains too coarse for effective saltation.


title: Aeolian processes

text: A dune is an accumulations of sediment blown by the wind into a mound or ridge. They differ from sand shadows or sand drifts in that they are independent of any topographic obstacle. Dunes have gentle upwind slopes on the windward side. The downwind portion of the dune, the lee slope, is commonly a steep avalanche slope referred to as a slipface. Dunes may have more than one slipface. The minimum height of a slipface is about 30 centimeters.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Wind-blown sand moves up the gentle upwind side of the dune by saltation or creep. Sand accumulates at the brink, the top of the slipface. When the buildup of sand at the brink exceeds the angle of repose, a small avalanche of grains slides down the slipface. Grain by grain, the dune moves downwind.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Dunes take three general forms. Linear dunes, also called longitudinal dunes or seifs, are aligned in the direction of the prevailing winds. Transverse dunes, which include crescent dunes (barchans), are aligned perpendicular to the prevailing winds. More complex dunes, such as star dunes, form where the directions of the winds are highly variable. Additional dune types arise from various kinds of topographic forcing, such as from isolated hills or escarpments.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Transverse dunes occur in areas dominated by a single direction of the prevailing wind. In areas where sand is not abundant, transverse dunes take the form of barchans or crescent dunes. These are not common, but they are highly recognizable, with a distinctive crescent shape with the tips of the crescent directed downwind. The dunes are widely separated by areas of bedrock or reg. Barchans migrate up to per year, with the taller dunes migrating faster. Barchans first form when some minor topographic feature creates a sand patch. This grows into a sand mound, and the converging streamlines of the air flow around the mound build it into the distinctive crescent shape. Growth is ultimately limited by the carrying capacity of the wind, which as the wind becomes saturated with sediments, builds up the slip face of the dune. Because barchans develop in areas of limited sand availability, they are poorly preserved in the geologic record.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Where sand is more abundant, transverse dunes take the form of aklé dunes, such as those of the western Sahara. These form a network of sinuous ridges perpendicular to the wind direction. Aklé dunes are preserved in the geologic record as sandstone with large sets of cross-bedding and many reactivation surfaces.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Draas are very large composite transverse dunes. They can be up to across and high and extend lengthwise for hundreds of kilometers. In form, they resemble a large aklé or barchanoid dune. They form over a prolonged period of time in areas of abundant sand and show a complex internal structure. Careful 3-D mapping is required to determine the morphology of a draa preserved in the geologic record.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Linear dunes can be traced up to tens of kilometers, with heights sometimes in excess of . They are typically several hundred meters across and are spaced apart. They sometimes coalesce at a Y-junction with the fork directed upwind. They have a sharp sinuous or en echelon crest. They are thought to form from a bimodal seasonal wind pattern, with a weak wind season characterized by wind directed an at acute angle to the prevailing winds of the strong wind season. The strong wind season produces a barchan form and the weak wind season stretches this into the linear form. Another possibility is that these dunes result from secondary flow, though the precise mechanism remains uncertain.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Complex dunes (star dunes or rhourd dunes) are characterized by having more than two slip faces. They are typically across and high. They consist of a central peak with radiating crests and are thought to form where strong winds can come from any direction. Those in Gran Desierto de Altar of Mexico are thought to have formed from precursor linear dunes due to a change in the wind pattern about 3000 years ago. Complex dunes show Little lateral growth but strong vertical growth and are important sand sinks.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Vegetated parabolic dunes are crescent-shaped, but the ends of the crescent point upwind, not downwind. They form from the interaction of vegetation patches with active sand sources, such as blowouts. The vegetation stabilizes the arms of the dune, and an elongated lake sometimes forms between the arms of the dune.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Clay dunes are uncommon but have been found in Africa, Australia, and along the Gulf Coast of North America. These form on mud flats on the margins of saline bodies of water subject to strong prevailing winds during a dry season. Clay particles are bound into sand-sized pellets by salts and are then deposited in the dunes, where the return of the cool season allows the pellets to absorb moisture and become bound to the dune surface.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Deserts cover 20 to 25 percent of the modern land surface of the earth, mostly between the latitudes of 10 to 30 degrees north or south. Here the descending part of the tropical atmospheric circulation (the Hadley cell) produces high atmospheric pressure and suppresses precipitation. Large areas of this desert is floored with windblown sand. Such areas are called "ergs" when they exceed about in area or "dune fields" when smaller. Ergs and dune fields make up about 20% of modern deserts or about 6% of the Earth's total land surface.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The sandy areas of today's world are somewhat anomalous. Deserts, in both the present day and in the geological record, are usually dominated by alluvial fans rather than dune fields. The present relative abundance of sandy areas may reflect reworking of Tertiary sediments following the Last Glacial Maximum. Most modern deserts have experienced extreme Quaternary climate change, and the sediments that are now being churned by wind systems were generated in upland areas during previous pluvial (moist) periods and transported to depositional basins by stream flow. The sediments, already sorted during their initial fluvial transport, were further sorted by wind, which also sculpted the sediments into eolian landforms.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The state of an aeolian system depends mainly on three things: The amount of sediment supply, the availability of sediments, and the transport capacity of the winds. The sediment supply is largely produced in pluvial periods (periods of greater rainfall) and accumulates by runoff as fan deltas or terminal fans in sedimentary basins. Another important source of sediments is the reworking of carbonate sediments on continental shelves exposed during times of lower sea level. Sediment availability depends on the coarseness of the local sediment supply, the degree of exposure of sediment grains, the amount of soil moisture, and the extent of vegetation coverage. The potential transport rate of wind is usually more than the actual transport, because the sediment supply is usually insufficient to saturate the wind. In other words, most aeolian systems are "transport-undersaturated" (or "sediment-undersaturated").


title: Aeolian processes

text: Aeolian desert systems can be divided into wet, dry, or stabilized systems. Dry systems have the water table well below the surface, where it has no stabilizing effect on sediments. Dune shapes determine whether sediment is deposited, simply moves across surface (a "bypass" system), or erosion takes place. Wet systems are characterized by a water table near the depositional surface, which exerts a strong control on deposition, bypass, or erosion. Stabilized systems have significant vegetation, surface cement, or mud drapes which dominate the evolution of the system. The Sahara shows the full range of all three types.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The movement of sediments in aeolian systems can be represented by sand-flow maps. These are based on meteorological observations, bedform orientations, and trends of yardangs. They are analogous to drainage maps, but are not as closely tied to topography, since wind can blow sand significant distances uphill.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The Sahara of North Africa is the largest hot desert in the world. Flowlines can be traced from erg to erg, demonstrating very long transport downwind. Satellite observations show yardangs aligned with the sandflow lines. All flowlines arise in the desert itself, and show indications of clockwise circulation roughly like high pressure cells. The greatest deflation occurs in dried lake beds where trade winds form a low-level jet between the Tibesti Mountains and the Ennedi Plateau. The flowlines eventually reach the, sea creating great plume of Saharan dust extending thousands of kilometers into the Atlantic Ocean. This creates a steady rain of silt into the ocean. It is estimated that 260 million tons of sediments are transported through this system each year, but the amount was much greater during the Last Glacial Maximum, based on deep-sea cores. Mineral dust of 0.1–1 microns in size is a good shortwave radiation scatterer and has a cooling effect on climate.


title: Aeolian processes

text: Another example of an aeolian system is the arid interior of Australia. With few topographic barriers to sand movement, an anticlockwise wind system is traced by systems of longitudinal dunes.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The Namib and Oman ergs are fed by coastal sediments. The Namib receives its sediments from the south through narrow deflation corridors from coast that cross more than of bedrock to the erg. The Oman was created by deflation of marine shelf carbonates during the last Pleistocene lowstand of the sea.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The Loess Plateau of China has been a long-term sink for sediments during the Quaternary ice age. It provides a record of glaciation, in the form of glacial loess layers separated by paleosols (fossil soils). The loess layers were desposited by a strong northwest winter monsoon, while the paleosols record the influence of a moist southeast monsoon.


title: Aeolian processes

text: The African savannah is mostly ergs deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum that are now stabilized by vegetation.