title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: During the Qianlong era (17351796), scholar Wei Shu () commented on Jiang Tong's () essay "Xironglun" (), stating that if the Muslims did not migrate, they would end up like the Five Hu, who overthrew the Western Jin and caused an ethnic conflict to break out between the Five Hu and the Han Chinese. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, there were clashes between the Qing authorities and the Jahriyya Sufi sect, but not with the majority non-Sufi Sunnis or the Khafiyya Sufis.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Chinese Muslims had traveled to West Asia for many years prior to the Hui Minorities' War. In the 18th century several prominent Muslim clerics from Gansu studied in Mecca and Yemen under Naqshbandi Sufi teachers. Two different forms of Sufism were brought back to northwest China by two charismatic Hui sheikhs: Khufiyya, associated with Ma Laichi (1681–1766), and the more radical Jahriyya, founded by Ma Mingxin (1719?–1781). These coexisted with the more traditional, non-Sufi Sunni practices, centered around local mosques and known as "gedimu" (qadim, or ). The Khufiyya school and non-Sufi gedimu tradition—both tolerated by Qing authorities—were referred to as "Old Teaching" (), while Jahriyya, viewed by authorities as suspect, became known as the "New Teaching" ().


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Disagreements between adherents of Khufiyya and Jahriya, as well as perceived mismanagement, corruption and the anti-Sufi attitudes of Qing officials, resulted in uprisings by Hui and Salar followers of the New Teaching in 1781 and 1783, but these were promptly suppressed. Hostilities between different groups of Sufis contributed to the violent atmosphere before the Dungan revolt between 1862 and 1877.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: In the Jahriyya revolt sectarian violence between two suborders of the Naqshbandi Sufis, the Jahriyya Sufi Muslims and their rivals, the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims, led to a Jahriyya Sufi Muslim revolt which the Qing dynasty in China crushed with the help of the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: As Taiping troops approached southeastern Shaanxi in the spring of 1862, the local Han Chinese, encouraged by the Qing government, formed "Yong Ying" militias to defend the region against the attackers. Afraid of the now-armed Han, the Muslims formed their own militia units as a response.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: According to some historians, the Dungan revolt began in 1862, not as a planned uprising but as a succession of local brawls and riots triggered by trivial causes. There were also rumors—false, as it turned out—spread that the Hui Muslims were aiding the Taiping Rebels. It was also said that the Hui Ma Hsiao-shih claimed that the Shaanxi Muslim revolt was connected to the Taiping.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Many Green Standard Army troops of the Imperial army were Hui. According to some historians, one of the incidents which led to the revolt was caused by a fight over the price of bamboo poles that a Han merchant was selling to a Hui. After this fight, Hui mobs attacked the Han and other Hui people who had not joined them in revolt. It was this seemingly trivial and unimportant dispute over bamboo poles that set off the full-scale revolt. However, according to historical records from the era, bamboo poles were bought in large quantities by the Hui to make spears as weaponry. Moreover, there had already been attacks on Han counties prior to the Shengshan bamboo incident. Historical records from the era show that prior to the conflict over the price of bamboo poles, there had already been plans among the Hui community to set up an Islamic State in the west of China . Organized through mosques and mullahs, the Hui people in Shaanxi started purchasing bamboo poles in large volumes. These poles were then used to make spears. Before the Shengshan bamboo incident, there had already been attacks on Han in Dali county and Weinan county. Fearing persecution, the Shaanxi Han populace fled the Hui or hid underground in cellars.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Given the low prestige of the Qing dynasty and its armies being occupied elsewhere, the revolt that began in the spring of 1862 in the Wei River valley spread rapidly throughout southeastern Shaanxi. By late June 1862, organized Muslim bands laid siege to Xi'an, which was not relieved by Qing general (sometimes written To-lung-a) until the fall of 1863. Dorongga was a Manchu bannerman in command of the army in Hunan. His forces defeated the Muslim rebels and completely destroyed their position in Shaanxi province, driving them out of the province to Gansu. Dorangga was later killed in action in March 1864 by Taiping rebels in Shaanxi.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Governor-general of the region, En-lin, advised the Imperial government not to alienate Muslims. He officially made it clear that there was to be no mistreatment of or discrimination against Muslims, resulting in the implementation of a "policy of reconciliation". Muslim rebels tried to seize Lingzhou (present-day Lingwu) and Guyuan in several attacks as a result of false rumors spread by some Muslims that the government was going to kill all Muslims.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: A vast number of Muslim refugees from Shaanxi fled to Gansu. Some of them formed the "Eighteen Great Battalions" in eastern Gansu, intending to fight their way back to their homes in Shaanxi. While the Hui rebels were preparing to attack Gansu and Shaanxi, Yaqub Beg, who had fled from Kokand Khanate in 1865 or 1866 after losing Tashkent to the Russians, declared himself ruler of Kashgar and soon managed to take complete control of Xinjiang.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: In 1867 the Qing government sent one of its most capable commanders, General Zuo Zongtang—who had been instrumental in putting down the Taiping Rebellion—to Shaanxi. Zuo's approach was to pacify the region by promoting agriculture, especially the growing of cotton and grain, as well as supporting orthodox Confucian education. Due to the region's extreme poverty, Zuo had to rely on financial support from outside Northwestern China.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Zuo Zongtang called on the government to "support the armies in the northwest with the resources of the southeast", and arranged the finances of his planned expedition to conquer Gansu by obtaining loans worth millions of taels from foreign banks in the southeastern provinces. The loans from the banks would be paid back by fees and taxes levied by Chinese authorities on goods imported through their ports. Zuo also arranged for massive amounts of supplies to be available before he would go on the offensive.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Ten thousand of the old Hunan Army troops commanded by General Zeng Guofan, were dispatched by him under Gen. Liu Songshan to Shaanxi to help General Zuo, who had already raised a 55,000-man army in Hunan before he began the final push to reconquer Gansu from the Dungan rebels. They participated along with other regional armies (the Szechuan, Anhui and Henan Armies also joined the battle).


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Zuo's forces consisted of the Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui and Henan Armies, along with thousands of cavalry. The Hunan soldiers were expert marksmen and excelled in battlefield maneuvers under the command of Gen. Liu Songshan. Western military drill was experimented with, but Zuo decided to abandon it. The troops practiced "twice a day for ten days" with their western made guns.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Lanzhou Arsenal was established in 1872 by Zuo Zongtang during the revolt and staffed by Cantonese. The Cantonese officer in charge of the arsenal was Lai Ch'ang, who was skilled at artillery. The facility manufactured "steel rifle-barreled breechloaders" and provided munitions for artillery and guns.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Muslim Jahriyya leader Ma Hualong controlled a massive Muslim trading network with many traders, having control over trade routes to multiple cities over various kinds of terrain. He monopolized trade in the area and used his wealth to purchase guns. Zuo Zongtang became suspicious of Ma's intentions, thinking that he wanted to seize control over the whole of Mongolia.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Liu Songshan died in combat during an offensive against the hundreds of rebel forts protected by difficult terrain. Liu Jintang, his nephew, took over his command whereupon a temporary lull in the offensive set in.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: After suppressing the revolt in Shaanxi and building up enough grain reserves to feed his army, Zuo attacked Ma Hualong. General Liu Jintang led the siege, bombarding the town over its walls with shells. The people of the town had to cannibalize dead bodies and eat grass roots to survive. Zuo's troops reached Ma's stronghold, Jinjibao () in what was then north-eastern Gansu


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: in September 1870, bringing Krupp siege guns with him. Zuo and Lai Ch'ang themselves directed the artillery fire against the city. Mines were also utilized.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: After a sixteen-month siege, Ma Hualong was forced to surrender in January 1871. Zuo sentenced Ma and over eighty of his officials to death by slicing. Thousands of Muslims were exiled to other parts of China.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Zuo's next target was Hezhou (now known as Linxia), the main center of the Hui people west of Lanzhou and a key point on the trade route between Gansu and Tibet. Hezhou was defended by the Hui forces of Ma Zhan'ao. As a pragmatic member of the Khafiya (Old Teaching) sect, he was ready to explore avenues for peaceful coexistence with the Qing government. When the revolt broke out, Ma Zhan'ao escorted Han Chinese to safety in Yixin, and did not attempt to conquer more territory during the revolt.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: After successfully repulsing Zuo Zongtang's initial assault in 1872 and inflicting heavy losses on Zuo's army, Ma Zhan'ao offered to surrender his stronghold to the Qing, and provide assistance to the dynasty for the duration of the war. He managed to preserve his Dungan community with his diplomatic skill. While Zuo Zongtang pacified other areas by exiling the local Muslims (with the policy of "washing off the Muslims" () approach that had been long advocated by some officials), in Hezhou, the non-Muslim Han were the ones Zuo chose to relocate as a reward for Ma Zhan'ao and his Muslim troops helping the Qing crush Muslim rebels. Hezhou (Linxia) remains heavily Muslim to this day, achieving the status of Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture under the PRC. Other Dungan generals including Ma Qianling and Ma Haiyan also defected to the Qing side along with Ma Zhan'ao. Ma's son Ma Anliang also defected, and their Dungan forces assisted Zuo Zongtang's Qing forces in crushing the rebel dungans. Dong Fuxiang also defected to the Qing. He was in no sense a fanatical Muslim or even interested in revolt, he merely gained support during the chaos and fought, just as many others did. He joined the Qing army of Zuo Zongtang in exchange for a Mandarinate. He acquired estates which were large.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Reinforced by the Dungan people of Hezhou, Zuo Zongtang planned to advance westward along the Hexi Corridor toward Xinjiang. However, he felt it necessary to first secure his left flank by taking Xining, which not only had a large Muslim community of its own, but also sheltered many of the refugees from Shaanxi. Xining fell after a three-month siege in late 1872. Its commander Ma Guiyuan was captured, and defenders were killed in the thousands. The Muslim population of Xining was spared but the Shaanxi refugees sheltering there were resettled to arable land in eastern and southern Gansu, which were isolated from other Muslim areas.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Despite repeated offers of amnesty, many Muslims continued to resist at Suzhou (Jiuquan), their last stronghold in the Hexi Corridor in west Gansu. The city was under the command of Ma Wenlu, who was originally from Xining. Many Hui people who had retreated from Shaanxi were also in the city. After securing his supply lines, Zuo Zongtang laid siege to Suzhou in September 1873 with 15,000 troops. The fortress could not withstand Zuo's siege guns and the city fell on October24. Zuo had 7,000 Hui people executed and resettled the rest in southern Gansu, to ensure that the entire Gansu Corridor from Lanzhou to Dunhuang would remain Hui-free, thereby preventing the possibility of future collusion between the Muslims of Gansu and Shaanxi and those of Xinjiang. Han and Hui loyal to the Qing seized the land of Hui rebels in Shaanxi, so the Shannxi Hui were resettled in Zhanjiachuan in Gansu.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The rebels were disorganized and without a common purpose. Some Han Chinese rebelled against the Qing state during the revolt, and rebel bands fought each other. The main Hui rebel leader, Ma Hualong, was even granted a military rank and title during the revolt by the Qing dynasty. Only later, when Zuo Zongtang launched his campaign to pacify the region, did he decide which rebels who surrendered were going to be executed, or spared.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The title Chaoqing in 1865 was granted by Mutushan, a Qing General to Ma Hualong after he officially submitted to the Qing but it was deemed as false by Zuo Zongtang.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Zuo Zongtang generally massacred New Teaching Jahriyya rebels, even if they surrendered, but spared Old Teaching Khafiya and Sunni Gedimu rebels. Ma Hualong belonged to the New Teaching school of thought, and Zuo executed him, while Hui generals belonging to the Old Teaching clique such as Ma Qianling, Ma Zhan'ao and Ma Anliang were granted amnesty and even promoted in the Qing military. Moreover, an army of Han Chinese rebels led by Dong Fuxiang surrendered and joined Zuo Zongtang.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: General Zuo accepted the surrender of Hui people belonging to the Old Teaching school, provided they surrendered large amounts of military equipment and supplies, and accepted relocation. He refused to accept the surrender of New Teaching Muslims who still believed in its tenets, since the Qing classified them as a dangerous heterodox cult, similar to the White Lotus Buddhists. Zuo said, "The only distinction is between the innocent and rebellious, there is none between Han and Hui".


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Qing authorities decreed that the Hui rebels who had taken part in violent attacks were merely heretics and not representative of the entire Hui population, just as the heretical White Lotus did not represent all Buddhists. Qing authorities decreed that there were two different Muslim sects, the "old" religion and "new" religion. The new were heretics and deviated from Islam in the same way that the White Lotus deviated from Buddhism and Daoism, and stated its intention to inform the Hui community that it was aware that the original Islamic religion was one united sect before the advent of new "heretics", saying they would separate Muslim rebels by which sect they belonged to.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: During the revolt, some Hui people fought for the Qing against the rebels from the beginning. A reward was bestowed upon Wang Dagui, a pro-Qing Muslim Hui leader who fought against Hui rebels. The relatives of Wang Dagui and Wang himself were then slaughtered by other anti-Qing Hui rebels


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: In addition, the Hui Chinese rebel leaders never called for Jihad, and never claimed that they wanted to establish an Islamic state. This stood in contrast to the Xinjiang Turki Muslims who called for Jihad. Instead of overthrowing the government, the rebels wanted to exact revenge from local corrupt officials and others who had done them injustices.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: When Ma Hualong originally negotiated with the Qing authorities in 1866, he agreed to a "surrender", giving up thousands of foreign weapons, spears, swords, and 26 cannons. Ma assumed a new name signifying loyalty to the Dynasty, Ma Chaoqing. Mutushan, the Manchu official, hoped that this would lead to other Muslims following his lead and surrendering, however, Ma Hualong's surrender had no effect and the revolt continued to spread.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Even after Ma Hualong was sentenced to death, Zuo canceled the execution when Ma surrendered for the second time in 1871, surrendering all his weapons, such as cannons, gingalls, shotguns, and western weapons. Zuo also ordered him to convince other leaders to surrender. Zuo then discovered a hidden cache of 1,200 western weapons in Ma Hualong's headquarters in Jinjipao, and Ma failed to persuade the others to surrender. Thereafter Ma along with male members of his family and many of his officers were killed. Zuo then stated that he would accept the surrender of New Teaching Muslims who admitted that they were deceived, radicalized, and misled by its doctrines. Zuo excluded khalifas and mullas from the surrender.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Ma Zhanao and his son Ma Anliang defected to the Qing during the Dungan rebellion. As noted in the previous sections, Zuo relocated Han Chinese from Hezhou as a reward for the Hui leader Ma Zhan'ao after he and his followers surrendered and joined the Qing to crush the rebels. Zuo also moved Shaanxi Muslim refugees from Hezhou, only allowing native Gansu Muslims to stay behind. Ma Zhanao and his Hui forces were then recruited into the Green Standard Army of the Qing military.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Hui Muslims living in areas that did not take part in the revolt were completely unaffected by it, with no restrictions placed on them, nor did they try to join the rebels. Professor Hugh D. R. Baker stated in his book "Hong Kong Images: People and Animals", that the Hui Muslim population of Beijing remained unaffected by the Muslim rebels during the Dungan revolt.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Elisabeth Allès wrote that the relationship between Hui Muslim and Han peoples continued normally in the Henan area, with no ramifications or interagency from the Muslim revolts of other areas. Allès wrote in the document "Notes on some joking relationships between Hui and Han villages in Henan" published by the French Center for Research on Contemporary China that "The major Muslim revolts in the middle of the nineteenth century which involved the Hui in Shaanxi, Gansu and Yunnan, as well as the Uyghurs in Xinjiang, do not seem to have had any direct effect on this region of the central plain." Hui Muslim officer and official Ma Xinyi served the Qing dynasty during the Dungan Revolt.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Since the Shaanxi Hui rebels, in general, were not joined by the Hui in Xi'an which remained under Qing government control, the Hui of Xi'an were spared from the war by the Qing government, and from the fighting and remained in Xi'an after the war. Xi'an's walls withstood a rebel siege for two year in 1870 and 1871 and did not fall.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: During the Panthay Revolt, peace negotiations were held by Zhejiang and Sichuan Hui Muslims who were invited by the Qing to Yunnan in 1858 and they were not involved in the revolt. The Qing dynasty did not massacre Muslims who surrendered, the Muslim General Ma Rulong, who surrendered and join the Qing campaign to crush the rebel Muslims, was promoted, and among Yunnan's military officers serving the Qing, he was the strongest. The Qing armies left alone Muslims who did not revolt like in Yunnan's northeast prefecture of Zhaotong where there was a big Muslim population density after the war.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Hui loyalists and Han both took over the land of the Shaanxi Hui who moved to Gansu and were relocated by General Zuo Zongtang to Zhangjiachuan after the war ended.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: By the 1860s, Xinjiang had been under Qing rule for a century. The area had been conquered in 1759 from the Dzungar Khanate whose core population, the Oirats, subsequently became the targets of genocide. However, as Xinjiang consisted mostly of semi-arid or desert lands, these were not attractive to potential Han settlers except some traders, so other people such as Uyghurs settled in the area. The whole of Xinjiang was divided into three administrative circuits:


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Overall military command of all three circuits fell to the General of Ili, stationed in Huiyuan Cheng. He was also in charge of the civilian administration (directly in the North-of-Tianshan Circuit, and via local Muslim (Uyghur) begs in the South Circuit). However, the Eastern Circuit was subordinated in matters of civilian administration to Gansu Province.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: In 1765 the Ush rebellion occurred in Ush Turfan. The rebellion was the result of severe misrule and exploitation by the Qing in the early years after the occupation of Xinjiang in 1759. After the conquest local Uyghur officials appointed by the Qing including ‘Abd Allah, the Hakim Beg of Ush Turfan, used their positions to extort money from the local Uyghur population. One of the Uyghur legends of the seven maidens comes from this rebellion of Uyghur girls resisting rape by Manchus. Manchus are explicitly blamed while Han Chinese are not mention by Uyghurs as the culprit in the legend. There is also another Uyghur legend about the seven maidens from the Qarakhanid wars against Buddhist kingdoms like Qocho that is unrelated to the one about Uyghur girls resisting Manchu rape.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: As a result, in 1765 when Manchu official Sucheng commandeered 240 men to take official gifts to Peking, the enslaved porters and the townspeople revolted. The Uyghur collaborator ‘Abd Allah, Sucheng, the garrisoned Qing Manchu banner force and other Qing Manchu officials were slaughtered and the rebels took command of the Qing fortress. In response to the revolt, the Qing brought a large force to the city and besieged the rebels in their compound for several months until they surrendered. The Manchu officials then cruelly retaliated against the Uyghur rebels by executing over 2,000 men and exiling some 8,000 women.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: During the Afaqi Khoja revolts there were multiple incursions by Afaqi khojas from Kokand into Kashgaria, similar to those of Jahangir Khoja in the 1820s and Wali Khan in 1857, meant that the government had increased troop levels in Xinjiang to some 50,000. Both Manchu and Han units were stationed in the province with the latter, mainly recruited in Shaanxi and Gansu, having a heavily Hui (Dungan) component. A large part of the Qing army in Xinjiang was based in the Nine Forts of the Ili Region, but there were also forts with Qing garrisons in most other cities of Xinjiang.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Maintaining this army involved much higher costs than the taxation of the local economy could sustainably provide, and required subsidies from the central government. Such support became unfeasible by the 1850-60s due to the costs of suppressing the Taiping and other rebellions in the Chinese heartland. The Qing authorities in Xinjiang responded by raising taxes, introducing new ones, and selling official posts to the highest bidders (e.g. that of governor of Yarkand to Rustam Beg of Khotan for 2,000 yambus, and that of Kucha to Sa'id Beg for 1,500 yambus). The new officeholders would then proceed to recoup their investment by fleecing their subject populations.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Increasing tax burdens and corruption only added to the discontent amongst the Xinjiang people, who had long suffered both from the maladministration of Qing officials and their local "beg" subordinates and from the destructive invasions of the khojas. Qing soldiers in Xinjiang, however, were still not paid on time or properly equipped.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: With the start of the revolt in Gansu and Shaanxi in 1862, rumors spread among the Hui (Dungans) of Xinjiang that the Qing authorities were preparing a wholesale preemptive slaughter of the Hui people in Xinjiang, or in a particular community. Opinions as to the veracity of these rumors vary: while the Tongzhi Emperor described them as "absurd" in his edict of September25, 1864, Muslim historians generally believe that massacres were indeed planned, if not by the imperial government then by various local authorities. Thus it was the Dungans who usually revolted in most Xinjiang towns, although the local Turkic peopleTaranchis, Kyrgyzs, and Kazakhswould usually quickly join the fray.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The first spark of revolt in Xinjiang proved small enough for the Qing authorities to easily extinguish it. On March17, 1863, some 200 Dungans from the village of Sandaohe (a few miles west of Suiding), supposedly provoked by a rumor of a preemptive Dungan massacre, attacked Tarchi ( now part of Huocheng County), one of the Nine Forts of the Ili Basin. The rebels seized weapons from the fort's armory and killed the soldiers of its garrison, but were soon defeated by government troops from other forts and were themselves slaughtered.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Revolt broke out again the following yearthis time, almost simultaneously in all three Circuits of Xinjiangon a scale that made its suppression beyond the capability of the authorities.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: On the night of June3–4, 1864, the Dungans of Kucha, one of the cities south of Tianshan, rose up and were soon joined by the local Turkic people. The Han fort, which, unlike many other Xinjiang locations, was inside the town rather than outside it, fell within a few days. Government buildings were burnt and some 1000 Hans and 150 Mongols killed. As neither the Dungan nor Turkic leaders of the revolt had sufficient authority over the entire community to become commonly recognized as a leader, the rebels instead choose a person who had not participated in the revolt, but was known for his spiritual role: Rashidin (Rashīdīn) Khoja, a dervish and the custodian of the grave of his ancestor of saintly fame, Arshad-al-Din (? – 1364 or 65). Over the next three years, he sent military expeditions east and west in an attempt to bring the entire Tarim Basin under his control; however, his expansion plans were frustrated by Yaqub Beg.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Only three weeks after the events in Kucha, revolt broke out in the Eastern Circuit. The Dungan soldiers of the Ürümqi garrison rebelled on June26, 1864, soon after learning about the Kucha revolt. The two Dungan leaders were Tuo Ming (a.k.a. Tuo Delin), a New Teaching "ahong" from Gansu, and Suo Huanzhang, an officer who also had close ties to Hui religious leaders. Large parts of the city were destroyed, the tea warehouses burned, and the Manchu fortress besieged. The Ürümqi rebels then advanced westward through what is today Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, taking the cities of Manas (also known then as Suilai) on July17 (the Manchu fort there fell on September16) and Wusu (Qur Qarausu) on September29.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: On October3, 1864, the Manchu fortress of Ürümqi also fell to the joint forces of Ürümqi and Kuchean rebels. In a pattern that was to repeat in other Han forts throughout the region, the Manchu commander, Pingžui, preferred to explode his gunpowder, killing himself and his family, rather than surrender.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: After they learned of the Qing authorities' plan to disarm or kill them, the Dungan soldiers in Yarkand in Kashgaria rose up in the early hours of July26, 1864. Their first attack on the Manchu fort (which was outside of the walled Muslim city) failed, but it still cost the lives of 2,000 Qing soldiers and their families. In the morning, the Dungan soldiers entered the Muslim city, where some 7,000 Hans were forcibly converted to become Muslims or massacred. The Dungans being numerically few compared to the local Turkic Muslims, they picked a somewhat neutral partyone Ghulam Husayn, a religious man from a Kabul noble familyas the puppet "padishah".


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: By the early fall of 1864, the Dungans of the Ili Basin in the Northern Circuit also rose up, encouraged by the success of Ürümqi rebels at Wusu and Manas, and worried by the prospects of preemptive repressions by the local Manchu authorities. The General of Ili, Cangcing (), hated by the local population as a corrupt oppressor, was sacked by the Qing government after the defeat of his troops by the rebels at Wusu. Attempts by Mingsioi, Cangcing's replacement, to negotiate with the Dungans proved in vain. On November10, 1864, the Dungans rose both in Ningyuan (the "Taranchi Kuldja"), the commercial center of the region, and Huiyuan (the "Manchu Kuldja"), its military and administrative headquarters. Kulja's Taranchis (Turkic-speaking farmers who later formed part of the Uyghur people) joined in the revolt. When the local Muslim Kazakhs and Kyrgyzs felt that the rebels had gained the upper hand, they joined them. Conversely, the Buddhist Kalmyks, and Xibes mostly remained loyal to the Qing government.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Ningyuan immediately fell to the Dungan and Turki rebels, but a strong government force at Huiyuan made the insurgents retreat after 12 days of heavy fighting in the streets of the city. The local Han Chinese, seeing the Manchus winning, joined forces with them. However, a counter-offensive by Qing forces failed. The imperial troops lost their artillery while Mingsioi barely escaped capture. With the fall of Wusu and Aksu, the Qing garrison, entrenched in the Huiyuan fortress was completely cut off from the rest of empire-controlled territory forcing Mingsioi to send his communications to Beijing via Russia.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: While the Qing forces in Huiyuan successfully repelled the next attack of the rebels on 12December 1864, the revolt continued to spread through the northern part of the province (Dzungaria), where the Kazakhs were glad to take revenge on the Kalmyk people that had ruled the area in the past.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: For Chinese New Year 1865, the Hui leaders of Tacheng (Chuguchak) invited the local Qing authorities and Kalmyk nobles to assemble in the Hui mosque, to swear a mutual oath of peace. However, once the Manchus and Kalmyks were in the mosque, the Hui rebels seized the city armory, and started killing the Manchus. After two days of fighting, the Muslims gained control of the town, while the Manchus were besieged in the fortress. Nevertheless, with the help of the Kalmyks the Manchus were able to retake the Tacheng area by the fall of 1865. This time, it was the Hui rebels who were locked up in the mosque. The fighting resulted in the destruction of Tacheng and the surviving residents fleeing the town.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Both the Qing government in Beijing and the beleaguered Kulja officials asked the Russians for assistance against the rebels via the Russian envoy in Beijing, and the Russian commander in Semirechye, respectively. The Russians, however, were diplomatically non-committal. On the one hand, as Vlangali wrote to Saint Petersburg, a "complete refusal" would be bad for Russia's relations with Beijing; on the other, Russian generals in Central Asia generally felt that providing China with serious assistance against Xinjiang's Muslims would do nothing to improve Russia's problems with its own new Muslim subjects. Were the revolt to succeed and lead to the creation of a permanent Hui state, having been on the Qing side of the former conflict would offer Russia no benefit in its relations with that new neighbor. The decision was thus made in Saint Petersburg in 1865 to avoid offering any serious help to the Qing, beyond agreeing to train Chinese soldiers in Siberiashould they send anyand to sell some grain to the defenders of Kuldja on credit. The main priority of the Russian government remained guarding its border with China and preventing any possibility of the spread of the revolt into Russia's own domain.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Considering that offense is the best form of defense, Kolpakovsky suggested to his superiors in February 1865 that Russia should go beyond defending its border and move in force into Xinjiang's border area then seize the Chuguchak, Kuldja and Kashgar areas. These could then be colonized with Russian settlersall to better protect the Romanov empire's other domains. The time was not ripe for such an adventure, however: as Foreign Minister Gorchakov noted, such a breach of neutrality would be not a good thing if China eventually recovered its rebel provinces.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Meanwhile, Qing forces in the Ili Valley did not fare well. In April 1865, the Huining () fortress (today's , located between Yining and Huiyuan), fell to the rebels after a three-month siege. Its 8,000 Manchu, Xibe, and Solon defenders were massacred, and two survivors with their ears and noses cut off were sent to Huiyuanthe Qing's last stronghold in the valleyto tell the Governor-general the fate of Huining.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Most of the Huiyuan (Manchu Kulja) fell to the rebels on January8, 1866. The majority of the residents and garrison perished along with some 700 rebels. Mingsioi, still holding out in the Huiyuan fortress with the remainder of his troops, but having run out of food, sent a delegation to the rebels, bearing a gift of 40 sycees of silver and four boxes of green tea, and offered to surrender, provided the rebels guaranteed their lives and allowed them to keep their allegiance to the Qing government. Twelve Manchu officials with their families left the citadel along with the delegation. The Huis and Taranchis received them and allowed the refugees from Huiyuan to settle in Yining ("the Old Kuldja"). However, the rebels would not accept Mingsioi's conditions, requiring instead that he surrender immediately and recognize the authority of the rebels. Since Mingsioi had rejected the rebels' proposal, they immediately stormed the citadel. On March3, the rebels having broken into the citadel, Mingsioi assembled his family and staff in his mansion, and blew it up, dying under its ruins. This was the temporary end, for the time being, of Qing rule in the Ili Valley.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: As noted by Muslim sources, the Qing authorities in Kashgar had all along intended to eliminate local Dungans, and managed to carry out their preemptive massacre in the summer of 1864. This weakening of the local Dungan contingent was possibly the reason why the initial revolt had not been as successful in this area as in the rest of the province. Although the Dungan rebels were able to seize Yangihissar, neither they nor the Kyrgyzs of Siddiq Beg could break into either the Manchu forts outside Yangihissar and Kashgar, nor into the walled Muslim city of Kashgar itself, which was held by Qutluq Beg, a local Muslim appointee of the Qing.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Unable to take control of the region on their own, the Dungans and Kyrgyzs turned for help to Kokand's ruler Alim Quli. Assistance arrived in early 1865 in both spiritual and material form. Spiritual aid came in the person of Buzurg Khoja (also known as Buzurg Khan), a member of the influential Afaqis family of khojas, whose religious authority could be expected to raise the rebellious spirit of the populace. He was heir to a long family tradition of starting mischief in Kashgaria, being a son of Jahangir Khoja and brother of Wali Khan Khoja. Material assistanceas well as the expected conduit of Kokandian influence in Kashgariaconsisted of Yaqub Beg, a young but already well known Kokandian military commander, with an entourage of a few dozen Kokandian soldiers, who became known in Kashgaria as "Andijanis".


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Although Siddiq Beg's Kyrgyzs had already taken the Muslim town of Kashgar by the time Buzurg Khoja and Yaqub Beg arrived, he had to allow the popular khoja to settle in the former governor's residence (the "urda"). Siddiq's attempts to assert his dominance were crushed by Yaqub Beg's and Buzurg's forces. The Kyrgyzs then had to accept Yaqub's authority.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: With his small, but comparatively well trained and disciplined army consisting of local Dungans and Kashgarian Turkic people (Uighurs, in modern terms), their Kyrgyz allies, Yaqub's own Kokandians, as well as some 200 soldiers sent by the ruler of Badakhshan, Yaqub Beg was able not only to take the Manchu fortress and the Han Chinese town of Kashgar during 1865 (the Manchu commander in Kashgar, as usual, blowing himself up), but to defeat a much larger force sent by the Rashidin of Kucha, who sought domination of the Tarim Basin region for himself.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: While Yaqub Beg asserted his authority over Kashgaria, the situation back home in Kokand changed radically. In May 1865, Alim Quli lost his life while defending Tashkent against the Russians. Many of his soldiers (primarily, of Kyrgyz and Kipchak background) deemed it advisable to flee to the comparative safety of Kashgaria. They appeared at the borders of Yaqub Beg's domain in early September 1865. Afghan warriors also assisted Yaqub Beg.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Yaqub Beg's rule was unpopular among the natives with one of the local Kashgaris, a warrior and a chieftain's son, commenting: "During the Chinese rule there was everything; there is nothing now." There was also a falling-off in trade.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The local Uyghurs of Altishahr came to view Yaqub Beg as a Kokandi foreigner and his Kokandi associates behaved ruthlessly to the local Uyghurs, an anti Yaqub Beg poem was written by the Uyghur:


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Taranchi Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang initially cooperated with the Dungans (Hui people) when they rose in revolt, but later abandoned them after the Hui attempted to subject the entire region to their rule. The Taranchi massacred the Dungans at Kuldja and drove the rest through the Talk pass to the Ili Valley.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Yaqub Beg's Kokandi Andijani Uzbek forces declared a Jihad against Dungan rebels under T'o Ming (Tuo Ming a.k.a. Daud Khalifa). Fighting broke out between Dungan and Kokandi Uzbek rebels in Xinjiang. Yaqub Beg enlisted Han militia under Xu Xuegong to fight against the Dungan troops under T'o Ming. T'o Ming's Dungan forces were defeated at the Battle of Urumqi (1870) as part of Yaqub Beg's plan to conquer Dzungaria and seize all Dungan territory.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Yakub Beg seized Aksu from Dungan forces and forced them north of the Tian Shan, committing massacres upon the Dungan people (Tunganis).


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Independent Han Chinese militia who were not affiliated with the Qing government joined both the Turkic forces under Yaqub Beg, and the Dungan rebels. In 1870, Yaqub Beg had 1,500 Han Chinese troops with his Turkic forces attacking Dungans in Ürümqi. The following year, the Han Chinese militia joined the Dungans in fighting against Turkic forces.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Russia and Britain signed several treaties with Yaqub Beg's regime in Kashgar with Yaqub seeking to secure British and Russian aid for his government.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Relations between Yaqub Beg and the Russian Empire alternated between fighting and peaceful diplomatic exchanges.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Russians detested the native population of Kashgar because of their elite's close contacts with the Kokand Khans who had recently been expelled during the Russian conquest of Turkestan. This animosity would have ruined Yaqub Beg had he sought extensive aid from them as he had originally intended.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Ottoman Empire and the British Empire both recognized Yaqub Beg's state and supplied him with thousands of guns. British diplomats Robert Barkley Shaw and Thomas Douglas Forsyth to Kashgar in 1868 and 1870 respectively, aroused British interest for Ya'qub's regime and the British concluded a commercial treaty with the emir in 1874.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Qing decided to reconquer Xinjiang in the late 1870s. Zuo Zongtang, previously a general in the Xiang Army, was the commander in chief of all Qing troops participating in this counterinsurgency. His subordinates were the Han Chinese General Liu Jintang and Manchu Jin Shun. As Zuo Zongtang moved into Xinjiang to crush the Muslim rebels under Yaqub Beg, he was joined by Dungan (Hui) General Ma Anliang and General Dong Fuxiang. Qing forces entered Ürümqi unopposed. Yaqub's subordinates defected to the Qing or fled as his forces started to fall apart, and the oasis fell easily to the Qing troops.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The mass retreat of the rebel army shrank their sphere of control smaller and smaller. Yaqub Beg lost more than 20,000 men either though desertion or at the hands of the enemy. In October 1877, after the death of Yaqub Beg, Jin Shun resumed his forward movement and encountered no serious opposition. General Zuo appeared before the walls of Aksu, the bulwark of Kashgaria on the east, and its commandant abandoned his post at the first onset. Qing army then advanced on Uqturpan, which also surrendered without a blow. Early in December, all Qing troops began their last attack against the capital city of the Kashgarian regime. The rebel troops were defeated and the residual troops started to withdraw to Yarkant, whence they fled to Russian territory. With the fall of Kashgaria Qing's reconquest of Xinjiang was completed. No further revolt was encountered, and the reestablished Qing authorities began the task of recovery and reorganization, including the establishment of the Xinjiang province in 1884.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Xiang Army and other Han Chinese male soldiers and sojourners bought Turki Musulman (Uyghur) girls as wives from their parents after Zuo Zongtang's reconquest of Xinjiang, and the Han and Uyghurs often relied on Hui intermediaries to translate and broker the marriages. A Han Chinese man with the surname Li bought a young Uyghur men from two Uyghur men who kidnapped her in 1880. They were employed by the magistrate of Pichan. A Turpan Uyghur girl named Ruo-zang-le who was 12 was sold for 30 taels in 1889 in Qitai to a young Han Chinese Shanxi man named Liu yun. She became pregnant with his child in 1892. Han Chinese men viewed the toyluq they paid in silver for their Uyghur brides as a bride price. Uyghur Muslim women married Han Chinese men in Xinjiang in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Han Chinese men, Hindu men, Armenian men, Jewish men and Russian men were married by Uyghur Muslim women who could not find husbands. Uyghur merchants would harass Hindu usurers by screaming at them asking them if they ate beef or hanging cow skins on their quarters. Uyghur men also rioted and attacked Hindus for marrying Uyghur women in 1907 in Poskam and Yarkand like Ditta Ram calling for their beheading and stoning as they engaged in anti-Hindu violence. Hindu Indian usurers engaging in a religious procession led to violence against them by Muslim Uyghurs.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: When the Qing forces under Zuo Zongtang put down the Dungan Revolt, the sons of Muslim Hui and Salar rebel leaders like Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan (马桂源) in Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai were castrated by the Qing Imperial Household Department once they became 11 years old and were sent to work as eunuch slaves for Qing garrisons in Xinjiang and the wives of the rebel leaders were also enslaved. Among the Muslim boys were Ma Sanhe (马三和), Ma Qishizi (马七十子), Ma Shaqiang (马沙枪), Ma Suo (马锁), Ma Youzong (马由宗), Ma Feifei (马飞飞), Ma Wushijiu (马五十九), Ma Wushiliu (马五十六). Ma Jincheng, a son of the Hui Naqshbandi leader Ma Hualong was also castrated. The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 9 sons of Ma Guiyuan since they already reached age 12 and were enslave as eunuchs to Qing soldiers in Xinjiang. Ma Zhenyuan (马侦源), Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan's (马桂源) wives were all enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons after the husbands were executed. Ma Yulong (马玉龙) was the father of the boys Ma Sanhe (马三和) and Ma Jibang (继邦). Ma Dingbang (马定邦) was the father of Ma Qishi (马七十), Ma Shaba (马沙把), Ma Suo (马锁) and Ma Youzong (;马由宗). Ma Chenglong (马成龙) was the father of Ma Feifei (马飞). Their sons were all sentenced to castration. The Muslim rebels themselves were subjected to execution by lingchi (slow slicing) while their sons were castrated and their female relatives enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons. The children of the Muslim rebels who were under ten included 6 year old Ga Liu (尕六), 8 year old Ga Quan (尕全) and Ma Xier (马希儿) who were imprisoned until they reached 11 and then castrated by the Imperial Household Department.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Yaqub Beg and his son Ishana's corpses were "burned to cinders" in full public view. This angered the population in Kashgar, but Qing troops quashed a rebellious plot by Hakim Khan. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included his four sons, four grandchildren (two grandsons and two granddaughters), and four wives. They either died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu or were killed by the Qing government. His sons Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors alive in 1879. They were all underage children at that time. They were put on trial and sentenced to an agonizing death if they were found to be complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition". If they were innocent, they were to be sentenced to castration and servitude as eunuch slaves to the Qing troops. Afterwards, when they reached the age of 11 years, they would be handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated. In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out, Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace. Yaqub Beg's sons and grandsons who were captured were under 10 years old Aisin Ahongju (爱散阿洪俱), Kadihuli (卡底胡里) and 10 year old Imahuli (依玛胡里).


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: On January25, 1891, a temple was constructed by Liu Jintang. He had been one of the generals participating in the counterinsurgency against the Dungan revolt and at that time he was the Governor of Gansu. The temple was built in the capital of Gansu as a memorial to the victims who died during the Dungan revolt in Kashgaria and Dzungaria. The victims numbered 24,838 and included officials, peasants, and members of all social classes and ethnic groups. It was named Chun Yi Ci. Another temple was already built in honor of the Xiang Army soldiers who fought during the revolt.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The failure of the revolt led to the immigration of some Hui people into Imperial Russia. According to Rimsky-Korsakoff (1992), three separate groups of the Hui people fled to the Russian Empire across the Tian Shan during the exceptionally severe winter of 1877/78:


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: In accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg signed in February 1881, which required the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Upper Ili Basin (the Kulja area), the Hui and Taranchi (Uighur) people of the region were allowed to opt for moving to the Russian side of the border. Most people choose that option and according to Russian statistics, 4,682 Hui moved to the Russian Empire under the treaty. They migrated in many small groups between 1881 and 1883, settling in the village of Sokuluk some west of Bishkek, as well as at a number of points between the Chinese border and Sokuluk, in south-eastern Kazakhstan and northern Kyrgyzstan.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The descendants of these rebels and refugees still live in Kyrgyzstan and neighboring parts of Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. They still call themselves the Hui people ("Huizu"), but to the outsiders they are known as Dungan, which means Eastern Gansu in Chinese.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: After the Sino-Soviet split, Soviet propaganda writers such as Rais Abdulkhakovich Tuzmukhamedov called the Dungan revolt (1862–1877) a "national liberation movement" for their political purposes.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The revolt increased the power of Hui Generals and military men in the Qing Empire. Many Hui Generals who served in the campaign were promoted by the Emperor, including Ma Anliang, and Dong Fuxiang. This led Hui armies to fight again in the Dungan Revolt (1895) against the rebels, and in the Boxer Rebellion against Christian Western Armies. The Muslim Gansu braves and Boxers, attacked and killed Chinese Christians in revenge for foreign attacks on Chinese, and were the fiercest attackers during the siege of the legations from 20 June to 14 August 1900.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Dungan rebels were known to avoid attacking Christians and people took refuge in Christian churches. Some, therefore, attribute the mass increase of Catholics and Protestant population along the west bank of yellow river in Gansu and Shanxi to people who sought refuge in churches.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Ma Fuxiang, Ma Qi, and Ma Bufang were descendants of the Hui military men from this era, and they became important and high ranking Generals in the Republic of China National Revolutionary Army.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: These pro-Qing Hui warlords rose to power by their fighting against Muslim rebels. The sons of the defected Muslim warlords of the Dungan Revolt (1862–77) helped the Qing crush the Muslim rebels in the Dungan Revolt (1895–96).


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: After General Zuo Zongtang and his Xiang Army crushed the rebels, they demanded Russia return the city of Kuldja in Xinjiang, which they had occupied. Zuo was outspoken in calling for war against Russia and hoped to settle the matter by attacking Russian forces in Xinjiang. In 1878, tensions in the area increased. Zuo massed Qing troops toward the Russian occupied Kuldja. Chinese forces also fired on Russian expeditionary forces originating from Yart Vernaic, expelling them, which resulted in a Russian retreat.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Russians were in a very bad diplomatic and military position "vis-a-vis" China. Russia feared the threat of military conflict, which forced them into diplomatic negotiations instead.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Wanyan Chonghou was dispatched to Russia to negotiate a treaty, but despite China being in the stronger negotiating position, the resulting Treaty of Livadia was highly unfavorable to China; it granted Russia a portion of Ili, extraterritorial rights, consulates, control over trade, and an indemnity. Thereafter a massive uproar by the Chinese literati ensued and they demanded the government mobilize armed forces against Russia. The government acted after this, giving important posts to officers from the Xiang Army. Charles Gordon became an advisor to the Chinese.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: Russia refused to renegotiate unless Chonghou's life was spared. Not wanting to accept the Livadia treaty and not interested in renewed fighting, China had no choice but to comply. Zeng Jize became the new negotiator and despite the outrage caused by the original terms, the resulting Treaty of Saint Petersburg only differed slightly: China retained control over almost all of Ili, but the indemnity payment was higher.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: During the Dungan revolt, the Hui Muslims of Xi'an city (in Shaanxi province) did not rebel against the Qing and refused to join the rebels while the Hui Muslims of Gansu revolted under General Ma Zhan'ao and his son Ma Anliang revolted before defecting and surrendering to the Qing.


title: Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)

text: The Hui Muslim community was divided in its support for the 1911 Xinhai Revolution. The Hui Muslims of Xi'an in Shaanxi supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of Gansu supported the Qing. The native Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of Xi'an (Shaanxi province) joined the Han Chinese revolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000 Manchu population of Xi'an city. The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general Ma Anliang sided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves and poor Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives. Young pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.


title: School district

text: A school district is a special-purpose district that operates local public primary and secondary schools in various nations.


title: School district

text: In the U.S, most K–12 public schools function as units of local school districts, which usually operate several schools, and the largest urban and suburban districts operate hundreds of schools. While practice varies significantly by state (and in some cases, within a state), most American school districts operate as independent local governmental units under a grant of authority and within geographic limits created by state law. The executive and legislative power over locally controlled policies and operations of an independent school district are, in most cases, held by a school district's board of education. Depending on state law, members of a local board of education (often referred to informally as a school board) may be elected, appointed by a political office holder, serve ex officio, or a combination of any of these.


title: School district

text: An independent school district is a legally separate body corporate and political. While the controlling law varies, in the United States most school districts operate as independent local governmental units with exclusive authority over K–12 public educational operations and policies. The extent of this control is set by state-level law. Litigation against school districts is common; law firms that specialize in school law handle such litigation and it is paid for by school board professional liability insurance.


title: School district

text: Independent school districts often exercise authority over a school system that is analogous to the authority of local governments like that of a town or a county. These include the power to enter contacts, eminent domain, and the power to issue binding rules and regulations affecting school policies and operations. The power of school districts to tax and spend is generally more limited. An independent school district's annual budget may require approval by the plebiscite (much of New York) or the local government. Additionally, independent taxation authority may or may not exist as in Virginia, whose school divisions have no taxing authority and must depend on another local government (county, city, or town) for funding. Its governing body, which is typically elected by direct popular vote but may be appointed by other governmental officials, is called a "school board", "board of trustees", "board of education," "school committee", or the like. This body appoints a "superintendent of schools", usually an experienced public school administrator, to function as the district's chief executive for carrying out day-to-day decisions and policy implementations. The school board may also exercise a quasi-judicial function in serious employee or student discipline matters.


title: School district

text: School districts in the Midwest and West tend to cross municipal boundaries, while school districts in New England and the Mid-Atlantic regions tend to adhere to city, township, and/or county boundaries. school districts were independent governmental units in 26 states, while in 17 states there were mixes of independent school districts and school districts subordinate to other local governments. In nine states there were only school districts subordinate to local governments.


title: School district

text: In most Southern states, school systems operate either as an arm of county government or at least share coextensive boundaries with the state's counties. A 2010 study by economist William A. Fischel found that "two-thirds of medium-to-large American cities have boundaries that substantially overlap those of a single school district" with substantial regional and state variations in the degree of overlap, "ranging from nearly perfect congruence in New England, New Jersey, and Virginia, to hardly any in Illinois, Texas, and Florida." Older and more populous municipalities "tend to have boundaries that closely match those of a single school district." Noting that most modern school districts were formed by consolidating one-room school districts in the first seven decades of the 20th century, Fischel argues that "outside the South, these consolidations were consented to by local voters" who "preferred districts whose boundaries conformed to their everyday interactions rather than formal units of government" and that "[t]he South ended up with county-based school districts because segregation imposed diseconomies of scale on district operations and required larger land-area districts."


title: School district

text: In New York, most school districts are separate governmental units with the power to levy taxes and incur debt, except for the five cities with a population of over 125,000 (Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Yonkers, and New York City), where the schools are operated directly by the municipalities.


title: School district

text: The Hawaii State Department of Education functions as a single statewide school district, unique among states.


title: School district

text: According to a 2021 study, the demographics of voters who elect local school boards in the United States tend not to align with the demographics of the students. This gap is "most pronounced in majority nonwhite jurisdictions and school districts with the largest racial achievement gaps."


title: School district

text: There were 130,000 school districts in the country in 1930, with an average student population of 150. From 1942 to 1951 the number of school districts declined from 108,579 to 70,452, a decrease of 38,127 or 35%. Many states had passed laws facilitating school district consolidation. In 1951 the majority of the school districts in existence were rural school districts only providing elementary education, and some school districts did not operate schools but instead provided transportation to other schools. The Midwest had a large number of rural school districts.


title: School district

text: Previously areas of the Unorganized Borough of Alaska were not served by school districts but instead served by schools directly operated by the Alaska Department of Education and by Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) schools. The state schools were transferred to the Alaska State-Operated School System (SOS) after the Alaska Legislature created it in 1971; that agency was terminated in 1975, with its schools transferred to the newly created Alaska Unorganized Borough School District, which was broken apart into twenty-one school districts the following year.


title: School district

text: In the 2017 Census of Governments, the United States Census Bureau enumerated the following numbers of school systems in the United States:


title: School district

text: School districts in the US have reduced the number of their employees by 3.3%, or 270,000 between 2008 and 2012, owing to a decline in property tax revenues during and after the Great Recession. By 2016 there were about 13,000 school districts, and the average student population was about 5,000.


title: School district

text: Although these terms can vary slightly between various states and regions, these are typical definitions for school district constitution:


title: School district

text: Outside the United States, autonomous districts or equivalent authorities often represent various groups seeking education autonomy. In European history, as in much of the world, religious (confessional), linguistic, and ethnic divisions have been a significant factor in school organization. This paradigm is shifting.


title: School district

text: In England and Wales, school boards were established in 1870, and abolished in 1902, with the county council and county borough councils becoming the local education authorities.


title: School district

text: In France, the system of the carte scolaire was dismantled by the beginning of the 2007 school year. More school choice has been given to French students; however, priority is given to those who meet the following criteria:


title: School district

text: In Germany, schools and teachers are predominately funded by the States of Germany, which also are in control of the overall education policies. On the other hand, school buildings are mostly run and funded by municipal governments on different levels of the municipal system (municipalities proper, districts), depending on the size and specialization of a certain school or the population size of a certain municipality. As with other fields of government, for more specialized schools, special government bodies ("Zweckverband") can be established, where municipalities, and not voters, are members; these are to a certain degree comparable to a school district. Other arrangements are possible: certain types of special schools in North Rhine-Westphalia are run by the Landschaftsverbände. There also exist private schools, mostly funded by the States, but run by private entities like churches or foundations.


title: School district

text: In Italy, school districts were established in 1974 by the ""Provvedimenti Delegati sulla scuola"" ("Assigned Laws [to the Government] about the school"). Each district must contain a minimum of 10,000 inhabitants. The national government attempted to link the local schools with local society and culture and local governments. The school districts were dissolved in 2003 by the "legge finanziaria" (law about the government budget) in an attempt to trim the national budget.


title: School district

text: In the Republic of Ireland, 16 Education and Training Boards (ETBs) administer a minority of secondary schools, a few primary schools, and much further education. (Most schools are neither organized geographically nor publicly managed, although the Department of Education inspects and funds them and pays teachers' salaries.) Each ETB area comprises one or more local authority areas, with city or county councilors forming the bulk of the ETB board. The ETBs was formed in 2005 by amalgamating Vocational Education Committees established in 1930, also based on local government areas.


title: School district

text: In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau divides primary schools into 36 districts, known as school nets, for its Primary One Admission System. Of the 36 districts, districts 34 and 41 in Kowloon and districts 11 and 12 in Hong Kong Island are considered the most prestigious.


title: Mike Knox

text: Michael Knoxville Hettinga (born July 17, 1978) is an American professional wrestler best known under the ring name Mike Knox. He currently performs for the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA). Hettinga is best known for his work in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), and also performed in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) under the ring name Knux.


title: Mike Knox

text: Hettinga worked for Ultimate Pro Wrestling (UPW) in 2000. He tagged with Samoa Joe at UPW Proving Ground on December 12, 2000, in the Galaxy Theatre of Santa Ana, California and defeated the debuting Al Katrazz with Basil. He also wrestled at UPW live against the boss Samoa Joe for the Heavyweight Championship, but was unable to win the title.


title: Mike Knox

text: After being trained by Steve "Navajo Warrior" Islas, Knox started wrestling for Islas' organization Impact Zone Wrestling in 2002. He was booked to win the Heavyweight Championship on two occasions and the Tag Team Championship with friend and rival Derek Neikirk on one occasion.


title: Mike Knox

text: Knox was signed to a World Wrestling Entertainment developmental deal in February 2005, and made a handful of appearances on WWE shows, including one appearance as a masked "jihadist" for Muhammad Hassan, in the infamous segment that led to Hassan's ousting from WWE. He mainly wrestled for their Atlanta, Georgia-based developmental territory, Deep South Wrestling.


title: Mike Knox

text: Knox debuted on the June 20, 2006 episode of "ECW" as a heel by interfering in Kelly Kelly's striptease segment, coming from the backstage area and covering her with a towel before escorting her off stage, though he was unnamed on-screen at the time. It was later revealed that Kelly was Knox's on-screen girlfriend, and he informed her that he did not appreciate her stripping in front of anyone but him. For his in-ring debut, a win over Danny Doring, Kelly accompanied him to the ringside acting as a valet. Knox was pushed strongly, interfering in matches, and squashing his opponents. He later formed a short-lived tag team with Test before starting a feud with CM Punk, after growing jealous of Kelly Kelly's admiration towards Punk. Punk won every match in the feud, including a qualifying match for December to Dismember's Extreme Elimination Chamber match for the ECW World Championship.


title: Mike Knox

text: Knox made his pay-per-view debut at Survivor Series where he teamed up with Team Rated-RKO to take on Team DX, but was the first man eliminated after taking a superkick from Shawn Michaels, a match Team Rated-RKO would lose. Upon his elimination, he was subsequently mocked by DX, as he was virtually unknown compared to the other participants. His next pay-per-view appearance saw him abandon Kelly Kelly during a mixed tag team match against Kevin Thorn and Ariel at December to Dismember, resulting in his team's loss. He then attacked her on the next "ECW" episode, breaking the duo up for good.


title: Mike Knox

text: After being taken off television, Knox returned on February 13, 2007, episode of "ECW", where he lost easily to CM Punk. Knox was again taken off television for several months in order to return to Deep South Wrestling. On March 1, Knox and Derek Neikirk, the reformed Team Elite, were booked to win the Tag Team Championship after defeating the Major Brothers. After DSW closed, however, Knox was sent to WWE's Florida-based territory Florida Championship Wrestling.


title: Mike Knox

text: Knox returned on the September 11 episode of "ECW", defeating Balls Mahoney. The next week, he lost in a rematch to Mahoney. He then easily defeated Nunzio the week after. The next week Knox wrestled against ECW Champion CM Punk, again losing to Punk after a Go To Sleep from Punk. After months without any notable storylines, he began a feud with Tommy Dreamer whom he defeated in a series of matches, including an Extreme Rules match on the 100th episode of "ECW". He then began a feud with Finlay. After weeks of confrontations between the two, they finally had a match on the August 26 edition of "ECW", where they had an ECW Championship scramble qualifying match, which was won by Finlay.


title: Mike Knox

text: On the October 27 and November 3, 2008, episodes of "Raw", two vignettes were aired to promote his arrival on the Raw brand. His look drastically changed as well from his previous clean-cut look to long unkempt hair and a long beard. He debuted the following week, on November 10, defeating D-Lo Brown. He attacked Rey Mysterio two times over a period of three weeks. After losing to Mysterio, Knox attacked Mysterio once again. Interviewer Todd Grisham asked Knox why he attacked Mysterio and Knox answered saying he did not know why. In a house show at Cape Girardeau, Missouri, Knox won a battle royal to become an entrant at the World Heavyweight Championship Elimination Chamber match at No Way Out. At No Way Out, he was eliminated by Chris Jericho and was the second competitor eliminated overall.


title: Mike Knox

text: On April 15, Knox was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft. He made his debut for the brand on the May 8, 2009 episode of "SmackDown", defeating R-Truth in a singles match. This was his last win on television for WWE; from late May 2009 until his release in April 2010, Knox lost all the 30 televised matches he wrestled on either "SmackDown" or "WWE Superstars", whether it be in singles, tag, or multi-man matches.


title: Mike Knox

text: On the August 14 episode of "SmackDown", Knox debuted new elements to his character that included knowledge of biology and the human anatomy, using this knowledge to methodically inflict pain upon his opponents. Knox's final match was a loss to JTG on the April 23, 2010 edition of "SmackDown", on the same day WWE announced that Knox had been released from his contract.


title: Mike Knox

text: Mike Knox competed against Corporal Robinson and Raven at JCW Bloodymania IV. Corporal Robinson won the match. In July 2012, he wrestled three times at American Pro Wrestling Alliance, winning the APWA Hardcore Cup. On October 6, 2012, Knox wrestled in the main event of House of Hardcore's first show as Mike Knoxx, losing to Carlito in a three-way match for the FWE Heavyweight Championship, which also included Tommy Dreamer. He won the American Pro Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Championship in 2012 with D.O.C., but they were later stripped of the titles, as they were made inactive, on March 1, 2013. He appeared for Pro Wrestling Syndicate with D.O.C, and D'Lo Brown on May 18, 2013. On June 18, 2013, he won the River City Wrestling Tag Team Championships. D.O.C. and Knux lost the RCW Tag Team Championships on September 7, 2013, to Hernandez and Michael Faith. on November 16, 2014, Knox competed for Alpha Omega Wrestling (AOW) where Knox lost to Jerome Robinson by disqualification. on March 20, 2015, Knox faced AOW heavyweight champion Blake Grayson for the title but lost the match.


title: Mike Knox

text: In May 2012, Knox competed in a dark match for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling against the Television Champion Devon. Successively Knux began working as a masked member of the Aces & Eights stable. At Bound for Glory, D.O.C. and Knux (still masked) defeated Bully Ray and Sting to gain full access to the Impact Zone.


title: Mike Knox

text: Knox made his official television debut on the January 3, 2013, episode of "Impact Wrestling", being revealed as a member of the villainous Aces & Eights stable after being unmasked by Kurt Angle. Knox gained his revenge on Angle the following week, hitting him in the neck with a ball-peen hammer. After Angle was stretchered away, Knox lost his debut match to Sting and was afterwards, attacked with his own hammer. On March 10 at Lockdown, Aces & Eights, consisting of Knox, now billed as Knux, Devon, D.O.C., Garett Bischoff, and Mr. Anderson were defeated by Team TNA, consisting of Eric Young, James Storm, Magnus, Samoa Joe, and Sting in a Lethal Lockdown match, with Young pinning Knux for the win. On March 18, 2013, Knux was part of the World Cup of Wrestling, teaming with D.O.C., in a winning effort against Petey Williams and Funaki. On March 19, 2013, Knux took part in a six-man tag team match at a Hardcore Justice 2, teaming with D.O.C. and Wes Brisco, in a losing effort, being defeated by James Storm, Hardcore Holly, and Magnus. On the November 21 edition of "Turning Point", Knux, Garett Bischoff, Bully Ray, and Taz (remaining members of Aces & Eights) were forced to disband the Aces & Eights after Bully Ray lost a match against Mr. Anderson with their memberships on the line against the TNA career of Mr. Anderson.


title: Mike Knox

text: In March 2014, Knux started a new storyline where he returns to his flood-ravaged hometown with his father's carnival having been ruined and the relationship with his father soured because Knux has no intention to follow his father's footsteps and to own the family operated carnival, as well as salvaging it. The following month, Knux debuted his new stable called "The Menagerie", composed of himself, Rebel, Crazzy Steve and The Freak. On the May 8 episode of "Impact Wrestling", he would defeat Kazarian in his return match. On the September 24 edition of Impact Wrestling, Knux took part in the Gold Rush tournament for a potential title opportunity facing Austin Aries in a losing effort. on the November 12 edition of Impact Wrestling, Knux, Crazzy Steve and Rebel defeated Angelina Love, Velvet Sky, and Jessie Godderz in an inter-gender elimination match. on December 5 at Victory Road, The Menagerie (Knux and The Freak) faced James Storm and Kazarian in a losing effort in a Tag team match to qualify for the Gauntlet Battle Royal match later that night. on February 16, 2015, at TNA Classic, Knux competed in a 16-man tournament where the winner will be crowned the winner of the TNA Classic. Knux defeated Kenny King but lost to Rockstar Spud in the following round. On March 6 at Joker's Wild III, Knux and Tyrus faced Ethan Carter III and Crazzy Steve in a losing effort. On March 6 (Taped February 14) at Knockouts Knockdown 3, The Menagerie (Knux, Crazzy Steve, Rebel) defeated The BroMans (Jessie Godderz, Robbie E) and Angelina Love in a Six-person intergender tag team match. On May 19, 2015, Knux officially left TNA.


title: Mike Knox

text: On April 11, 2015, Hettinga, working under the ring name Knux, made his debut for Japanese promotion Inoki Genome Federation, losing to Wang Bin. He picked up his first win in the promotion on May 5 over Daichi Hashimoto. On June 27, Knux formed an "anti-IGF" stable with Hideki Suzuki, Erik Hammer and Kevin Kross.


title: Mike Knox

text: Around 2016, he wrestled for The Great Khali's pramotion, Continental Wrestling Entertainment (CWE) in a series of 'The Great Khali returns'.


title: Mike Knox

text: On November 9, 2021, in the second part of NWA Power: By Any Means Necessary, Mike Knox made his in-company debut by attacking NWA World's Heavyweight Champion Trevor Murdoch in steel cage during event. On November 16, 2021, in NWA Power, it was announced that Knox would face Murdoch for the NWA World's Heavyweight Championship at Hard Times 2. On December 4, 2021, in the Hard Times 2, Knox was defeated by Trevor Murdoch and failed to win the title.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: The Maternity (Amendment) Bill 2017, an amendment to the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, was passed in Rajya Sabha on 11 August 2016, in Lok Sabha on 9 March 2017, and received an assent from President of India on 27 March 2017. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 protects the employment of women during the time of her maternity and entitles her of a 'maternity benefit' – i.e. full paid absence from work – to take care for her child. The Act is applicable to all establishments employing 10 or more than 10 persons in Factories, Mines, Plantation, Shops & Establishments and other entities. Establishments employing 50 or more employees are also required to provide crèche facilities, either separately or along with common facilities within a prescribed distance.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: The provisions of this act are effective from 1 April 2017. However, provision on creche facility (Section 11A) shall be effective from 1 July 2017. The Code on Social Security, 2020 consolidated the provisions of this and several other acts, repealing the acts in the process.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: The Act was applicable to all establishments which include factories, mines, plantations, Government establishments, shops and establishments under the relevant applicable legislation, or any other establishment as may be notified by the Central Government.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: As per the Act, to be eligible for maternity benefit, a woman must have been working as an employee in an establishment for a period of at least 80 days within the past 12 months. Payment during the leave period is based on the average daily wage for the period of actual absence.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: The Maternity Benefit Amendment Act has increased the duration of paid maternity leave available for women employees from the existing 12 weeks to 26 weeks. Under the Maternity Benefit Amendment Act, this benefit could be availed by women for a period extending up to a maximum of eight weeks before the expected delivery date and the remaining time can be availed after childbirth. For women who are having two or more surviving children, the duration of paid maternity leave shall be 12 weeks (i.e. six weeks before and six weeks after expected date of delivery).


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: Maternity leave of 12 weeks to be available to mothers adopting a child below the age of three months from the date of adoption as well as to the "commissioning mothers". The commissioning mother has been defined as biological mother who uses her egg to create an embryo planted in any other woman.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: The Maternity Benefit Amendment Act has also introduced an enabling provision relating to "work from home" for women, which may be exercised after the expiry of the 26-week leave period. Depending upon the nature of work, women employees may be able to avail this benefit on terms that are mutually agreed with the employer.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: The Maternity Benefit Amendment Act makes creche facility mandatory for every establishment employing 50 or more employees. Women employees would be permitted to visit the crèche four times during the day (including rest intervals) and where creche facilities are not available to women employees there should be two one-half hour rest periods.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: The Maternity Benefit Amendment Act makes it mandatory for employers to educate women about the maternity benefits available to them at the time of their appointment.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: Policy design is important and making such leave an employer mandate, as in India, ensures employers will discriminate against women of childbearing age. Additional requirements like creche facilities require more capital and operating expenditure. Some companies in India might shy away from hiring young women. When they do, the women might face a reduction in compensation as firms compensate for greater lifetime costs.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: Employers have to bear the entire cost of providing leave to employees—in terms of both continued pay while on leave, as well as the indirect cost of having to get the work done by employing other workers to finish the work of the absent employee. Also, it increases the cost of temporary training provided to the employee which is employed on behalf of the absent employee.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: Regarding how the bulk of employment is in the informal sector, Team-lease estimates, that 11-18 Lakh jobs for women will be lost because of the implementation of the Act, over the first four years.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: In most countries, the cost of maternity leave is shared by the government, employer, insurance agency and other social security programs. In Singapore, for example, the employer bears the cost for eight weeks and public funds for eight weeks. In Australia and Canada, public funds bear the full cost. A social insurance scheme bears the cost in France. In Brazil, it shared by the employer, employee and the government.


title: Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017

text: An impact study done by Team-lease after 3 years, 5 out of 10 sectors that were expected to show more participation of women in workforce, rather indicated a drop in share of women in workforce.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: The Stalag Luft III murders were war crimes perpetrated by members of the Gestapo following the "Great Escape" of Allied prisoners of war from the German Air Force prison camp known as Stalag Luft III on March 25, 1944. Of the 76 successful escapees, 73 were recaptured, most within several days of the breakout, 50 of whom were executed on the personal orders of Adolf Hitler. These summary executions were conducted within a short period following recapture.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: Outrage at the killings was expressed immediately, both in the prison camp, among comrades of the escaped prisoners and in the United Kingdom, where Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden rose in the House of Commons to announce in June 1944 that those guilty of what the British government suspected was a war crime would be "brought to exemplary justice."


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: After Nazi Germany's capitulation in May 1945, the Police branch of the Royal Air Force, with whom the 50 airmen had been serving, launched a special investigation into the killings, having branded the shootings a war crime despite official German reports that the airmen had been shot while attempting to escape from captivity following recapture. An extensive investigation headed by Wing Commander Wilfred Bowes (RAF) and Squadron Leader Frank McKenna of the Special Investigation Branch into the events following the recapture of the 73 airmen was launched, which was unique for being the only major war crime to be investigated by a single branch of any nation's military.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: The day after the mass escape from Stalag Luft III, Hitler initially gave personal orders that every recaptured officer was to be shot. "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, "Reichsführer-SS" Heinrich Himmler, chief of state security, and Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, head of the German High Command, who had ultimate control over prisoners of war, argued about the responsibility for the escape. Göring pointed out to Hitler that a massacre might bring about reprisals against German pilots in Allied hands. Hitler agreed, but insisted "more than half" were to be shot, eventually ordering Himmler to execute more than half of the escapees. Himmler fixed the total at 50. Keitel gave orders that the murdered officers were to be cremated and their ashes returned to the POW camp as a deterrent to further escapes. Himmler set up the logistics for actually killing the men, and passed it down through his subordinates in the Gestapo. The general orders were that recaptured officers would be turned over to the Criminal Police, and fifty would be handed to the Gestapo to be killed.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: As the prisoners were recaptured, they were interrogated for any useful information and taken out by motor car, usually in small parties of two at a time, on the pretext of returning them to their prison camp. Their Gestapo escorts would stop them in the country and invite the officers to relieve themselves. The prisoners were then shot at close range from behind by pistol or machine pistol fire. The bodies were then left for retrieval, after which they were cremated and returned to Stalag Luft III.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: British Military Intelligence was made aware of the extraordinary events even during conditions of wartime by letters home and as a result of communications from the protecting power, Switzerland, which as a neutral party regularly reported on conditions in prisoner camps to both sides. Notices posted in Allied POW camps on 23 July 1944 that "THE ESCAPE FROM PRISON CAMPS IS NO LONGER A SPORT" in the wake of the Stalag Luft III escape, as well as the suspicious deaths of fifty officers during their recapture, led the British government to suspect a war crime had occurred.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: The British government learned initially of 47 deaths after a routine visit to the camp by the Swiss authorities as the protecting power in May; Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden announced this news to the House of Commons on 19 May 1944. Shortly after the announcement the Senior British Officer of the camp, Group Captain Herbert Massey, was repatriated to England due to ill health. Upon his return, he informed the Government about the circumstances of the escape and the reality of the murder of the recaptured escapees. With the information received from Massey along with the official notification of the 50 deaths from the German Government, Eden updated Parliament on 23 June, promising that, at the end of the war, those responsible would be brought to exemplary justice.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: A detachment of the Special Investigation Branch of the Royal Air Force Police, headed by Wing Commander Wilfred Bowes, was given the assignment of tracking down the killers of the 50 officers. The investigation started seventeen months after the alleged crimes had been committed, making it a cold case. Worse, according to an account of the investigation, the perpetrators "belonged to a body, the Secret State Police or Gestapo, which held and exercised every facility to provide its members with false identities and forged identification papers[;] immediately they were ordered to go on the run at the moment of national surrender."


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: The small detachment of investigators, numbering 5 officers and 14 NCOs, remained active for 3 years, and identified 72 men as guilty of either murder or conspiracy to murder, of whom 69 were accounted for. Of these, 21 were eventually tried and executed (some of these for other than the Stalag Luft III murders); 17 were tried and imprisoned; 11 had committed suicide; 7 were untraced, although 4 of these were presumed dead; 6 had been killed during the war; 5 were arrested but not charged; 1 was arrested but not charged so he could be used as a material witness; 3 were charged but either acquitted or had the sentence quashed on review; and 1 remained in refuge in East Germany.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: Despite attempts to cover up the murders during the war, the investigators were aided by such things as Germany's meticulous bookkeeping, such as at various crematoria, as well as willing eyewitness accounts and many confessions among the Gestapo members themselves, who cited that they were only following orders.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: SS-"Gruppenführer" Arthur Nebe, who is believed to have selected the airmen to be shot, was later executed by the Nazis for his involvement in the 20 July plot to kill Hitler.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: American Colonel Telford Taylor was the U.S. prosecutor in the High Command case at the Nuremberg trials. The indictment in this case called for the General Staff of the Army and the High Command of the German Armed Forces to be considered criminal organizations; the witnesses were several of the surviving German Field Marshals and their staff officers. One of the crimes charged was of the murder of the 50. Luftwaffe Colonel Bernd von Brauchitsch, who served on the staff of Reich Marshal Hermann Göring, was interrogated by Captain Horace Hahn about the murders.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: The first trial specifically dealing with the Stalag Luft III murders began on 1 July 1947, against 18 defendants. The trial was held before No. 1 War Crimes Court at the Curio Haus in Hamburg. The accused all pleaded Not Guilty to the counts indicated on the table below; names in the final column are the victims that they were accused of murdering. The verdicts and sentences were handed down after a full fifty days on 3 September of that year. Max Wielen was found guilty of conspiracy and sentenced to life imprisonment. The others were found not guilty of the first two charges, but guilty of the individual charges of murder. Breithaupt received life imprisonment, Denkmann and Struve ten years' imprisonment each, and Boschert eventually received life imprisonment. The other 13 condemned prisoners were hanged at Hamelin Prison in February 1948 by British executioner Albert Pierrepoint.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: A second trial began in Hamburg on 11 October 1948, with verdicts and sentences being reached by November 6. In the interim, however, Ernest Bevin, the British Foreign Secretary, announced a Cabinet decision not to prosecute any more war criminals after 31 August 1948.


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: The murders were shown (as a single massacre rather than individuals or small groups being murdered) in the 1963 film "The Great Escape".


title: Stalag Luft III murders

text: A dramatisation of the investigation, written by Robin Brooks and Robert Radcliffe, was featured in the BBC Radio 4 "Saturday Drama" series, first broadcast on 13 April 2013.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates (full title: "Hans Brinker; or, the Silver Skates: A Story of Life in Holland") is a novel by American author Mary Mapes Dodge, first published in 1865. The novel takes place in the Netherlands and is a colorful fictional portrait of early 19th-century Dutch life, as well as a tale of youthful honor.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: The book's title refers to the beautiful silver skates to be awarded to the winner of the ice-skating race Hans Brinker hopes to enter. The novel introduced the sport of Dutch speed skating to Americans, and in U.S. media Hans Brinker is still considered the prototypical speed skater.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: The book is also notable for popularizing the story of the little Dutch boy who plugs a dyke with his finger.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Mary Mapes Dodge, who never visited the Netherlands until after the novel was published, wrote the novel at age 34. She was inspired by her reading of John L. Motley's lengthy, multi-volume history works: "The Rise of the Dutch Republic" (1856), and "History of the United Netherlands" (1860–1867). Dodge subsequently did further bibliographical research into the country. She also received much firsthand information about Dutch life from her immigrant Dutch neighbors, the Scharffs, and Dodge wrote in her preface to the 1875 edition of the book that the story of Hans Brinker's father was "founded strictly upon fact". Even so, many of the story's characters have names that are morphologically German rather than Dutch, or are completely obscure. Some editions of the story contain a footnote explaining that "Ludwig, Gretel, and Carl were named after German friends" and correctly giving Lodewijk, Grietje and Karel as the Dutch-language equivalents. Other names that seem fictitious, such as "Voost", "Broom" or "Rychie", could be corruptions of existing Dutch forms (in this case "Joost", "Bram" and "Riekie"). In Dutch editions of the book, names and other elements were adapted to make the story more believable to Dutch children; hence, translator P.J. Andriessen renamed German-sounding "Gretel" to "Griete" in the first Dutch edition of 1867, and Margreet Bruijn changed the main characters' names to the authentically Dutch regional forms of "Hannes" and "Geertje" in her 1954 adaptation.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Full of Dutch cultural and historical information, the book became an instant bestseller, outselling all other books in its first year of publication except Charles Dickens' "Our Mutual Friend". The novel has since been continuously in print, most often in multiple editions and formats, and remains a children's classic.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: In Holland, poor but industrious and honorable 15-year-old Hans Brinker and his younger sister Gretel yearn to participate in December's great ice skating race on the canal. They have little chance of doing well on their handmade wooden skates, but the prospect of the race and the prize of the silver skates excites them and fires their dreams.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Hans' father, Raff Brinker, suffered head trauma when he fell from a dike. It left him chronically ill, with episodes of amnesia and occasional violent outbursts, so he is unable to work. Mrs. Brinker, Hans, and Gretel must all work to support the family and are looked down upon in the community because they are poor. By chance, Hans meets the famous surgeon Dr. Boekman and begs him to treat their father, but the doctor's fees are expensive and he has been very gruff following the death of his wife and disappearance of his son. Eventually, Dr. Boekman is persuaded to examine Mr. Brinker. He diagnoses pressure on the brain, which can be cured by a risky and expensive operation involving trephining (a surgical intervention in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull).


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Hans earns money to buy Gretel a pair of steel skates for the race. Later, when he earns enough to buy himself a pair of skates, he instead offers the money to Doctor Boekman to pay for his father's operation. Touched by this gesture, Dr. Boekman provides the surgery for free, and Hans is able to buy good skates for himself to skate in the race. Hans sacrifices his opportunity to win the boys' race by dropping out of the race to help a friend win. Gretel wins the girls' race and the precious prize: the eponymous Silver Skates.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Mr. Brinker's operation is successful, and he is restored to health and memory. Dr. Boekman is also changed, losing his gruff demeanour when he is reunited with his lost son through the unexpected help of Mr. Brinker. The Brinkers' fortunes are changed further by the almost miraculous recovery of Mr. Brinker's savings, which had been thought lost or stolen ten years ago.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: The Brinker parents live a long and happy life. Dr. Boekman helps Hans go to medical school, and Hans becomes a successful doctor. Gretel also grows up to enjoy a happy adult life.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: "Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates" has been adapted into several films and plays, all of which center on the dramatic ice-skating competition as the climax of the story, in keeping with the book. The film adaptations include:


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: A short story within the novel has become well known in its own right in popular culture. The story, read aloud in a schoolroom in England, is about a Dutch boy who saves his country by putting his finger in a leaking dike. The boy stays there all night, in spite of the cold, until the villagers find him and repair the dike.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Found in Chapter 18 "Friends in Need", the boy and the story are called simply "The Hero of Haarlem". Although the hero of the dike-plugging tale is nameless in the book, Hans Brinker's name has sometimes erroneously been associated with the character.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: This small tale within "Hans Brinker or The Silver Skates" has generated numerous versions and adaptations in media. American poet Phoebe Cary—at whose New York City literary gatherings Dodge was a regular guest—wrote a lengthy poem about it called "The Leak in the Dike", published posthumously in 1873, which has been widely anthologized in books of poetry for schoolchildren. Cary also gave the boy a name: Peter.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: For tourism purposes, statues of the fictional dike-plugging boy have been erected in Dutch locations such as Spaarndam, Madurodam and Harlingen. The statues are sometimes mistakenly titled "Hans Brinker"; others are known as "Peter of Haarlem". The story of the dike-plugging boy is, however, not widely known in the Netherlands—it is a piece of American, rather than Dutch, folklore.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Versions of the story prior to "Hans Brinker" appear in several English-language publications from 1850 onward, including the following British and American publications:


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: The actual authorship and genesis of the story of the boy and the dike is probably the story ""Le Petit Éclusier"" by prolific French children's author Eugenie Foa (1796–1852), first published in 1848. This appeared in an English translation by Sarah West Lander, titled "The Little Dykeman" and attributed to Foa, in the monthly magazine "Merry's Museum for Boys and Girls" in March 1868.


title: Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates

text: Although Dodge was not the originator of the story of the boy and the dike, the immense popularity of her novel "Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates" made the story very widely known. The story within a story of the nameless little boy's heroism also parallels and emphasizes Hans Brinker's own heroism in the novel.


title: Square matrix

text: In mathematics, a square matrix is a matrix with the same number of rows and columns. An "n"-by-"n" matrix is known as a square matrix of order Any two square matrices of the same order can be added and multiplied.


title: Square matrix

text: Square matrices are often used to represent simple linear transformations, such as shearing or rotation. For example, if formula_1 is a square matrix representing a rotation (rotation matrix) and formula_2 is a column vector describing the position of a point in space, the product formula_3 yields another column vector describing the position of that point after that rotation. If formula_2 is a row vector, the same transformation can be obtained using where formula_5 is the transpose of


title: Square matrix

text: The entries formula_6 ("i" = 1, …, "n") form the main diagonal of a square matrix. They lie on the imaginary line which runs from the top left corner to the bottom right corner of the matrix. For instance, the main diagonal of the 4×4 matrix above contains the elements , , , .