title: Musical instrument classification

text: The criteria for classifying musical instruments vary depending on the point of view, time, and place. The many various approaches examine aspects such as the physical properties of the instrument (shape, construction, material composition, physical state, etc.), the manner in which the instrument is played (plucked, bowed, etc.), the means by which the instrument produces sound, the quality or timbre of the sound produced by the instrument, the tonal and dynamic range of the instrument, the musical function of the instrument (rhythmic, melodic, etc.), and the instrument's place in an orchestra or other ensemble.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: 2nd-century Greek grammarian, sophist, and rhetorician Julius Pollux, in the chapter called De Musica of his ten-volume "Onomastikon", presented the two-class system, percussion (including strings) and winds, which persisted in medieval and postmedieval Europe. It was used by St. Augustine (4th and 5th centuries), in his De Ordine, applying the terms rhythmic (percussion and strings), organic (winds), and adding harmonic (the human voice); Isidore of Seville (6th to 7th centuries); Hugh of Saint Victor (12th century), also adding the voice; Magister Lambertus (13th century), adding the human voice as well; and Michael Praetorius (17th century).


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion. It is of Greek origin (in the Hellenistic period, prominent proponents being Nicomachus and Porphyry). The scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division (although plucked strings are grouped separately from bowed strings in sheet music), but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed (woodwinds) and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips (brass instruments).


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, as a column of air is set in motion by the lips. However, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme. For example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. For this reason, keyboard instruments are often regarded as inhabiting a category of their own, including all instruments played by a keyboard, whether they have struck strings (like the piano), plucked strings (like the harpsichord) or no strings at all (like the celesta).


title: Musical instrument classification

text: It might be said that with these extra categories, the classical system of instrument classification focuses less on the fundamental way in which instruments produce sound, and more on the technique required to play them.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Victor-Charles Mahillon, curator of the musical instrument collection of the conservatoire in Brussels, for the 1888 catalogue of the collection divided instruments into four groups and assigned Greek-derived labels to the four classifications: chordophones (stringed instruments), membranophones (skin-head percussion instruments), aerophones (wind instruments), and autophones (non-skin percussion instruments). This scheme was later taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classification in "Zeitschrift für Ethnologie" in 1914. Their scheme is widely used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel–Sachs system (or the Sachs–Hornbostel system).


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Later Sachs added a fifth category, electrophones, such as theremins, which produce sound by electronic means. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category. Within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticized and revised over the years, but remains widely used by ethnomusicologists and organologists. One notable example of this criticism is that care should be taken with electrophones, as some electronic instruments like the electric guitar (chordophone) and some electronic keyboards (sometimes idiophones or chordophones) can produce music without electricity or the use of an amplifier.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: In the Hornbostel–Sachs classification of musical instruments, lamellophones are considered plucked idiophones, a category that includes various forms of jaw harp and the European mechanical music box, as well as the huge variety of African and Afro-Latin thumb pianos such as the mbira and marimbula.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: In 1932, comparative musicologist (ethnomusicologist) André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was "exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments".


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The system agrees with Mahillon and Hornbostel–Sachs for chordophones, but groups percussion instruments differently.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The MSA (Multi-Dimensional Scalogram Analysis) of René Lysloff and Jim Matson, using 37 variables, including characteristics of the sounding body, resonator, substructure, sympathetic vibrator, performance context, social context, and instrument tuning and construction, corroborated Schaeffner, producing two categories, aerophones and the chordophone-membranophone-idiophone combination.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: André Schaeffner has been president of the French association of musicologists Société française de musicologie (1958-1967).


title: Musical instrument classification

text: In 1960, German musicologist Kurt Reinhard presented a stylistic taxonomy, as opposed to a morphological one, with two divisions determined by either single or multiple voices playing. Each of these two divisions was subdivided according to pitch changeability (not changeable, freely changeable, and changeable by fixed intervals), and also by tonal continuity (discontinuous (as the marimba and drums) and continuous (the friction instruments (including bowed) and the winds), making 12 categories. He also proposed classification according to whether they had dynamic tonal variability, a characteristic that separates whole eras (e.g., the baroque from the classical) as in the transition from the terraced dynamics of the harpsichord to the crescendo of the piano, grading by degree of absolute loudness, timbral spectra, tunability, and degree of resonance.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: In 2007, Steve Mann presented a five-class, physics-based organology elaborating on the classification proposed by Schaeffner. This system is composed of gaiaphones (chordophones, membranophones, and idiophones), hydraulophones, aerophones, plasmaphones, and quintephones (electrically and optically produced music), the names referring to the five essences, earth, water, wind, fire and the quintessence, thus adding three new categories to the Schaeffner taxonomy.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Elementary organology, also known as physical organology, is a classification scheme based on the elements (i.e. states of matter) in which sound production takes place. "Elementary" refers both to "element" (state of matter) and to something that is fundamental or innate (physical). The elementary organology map can be traced to Kartomi, Schaeffner, Yamaguchi, and others, as well as to the Greek and Roman concepts of elementary classification of all objects, not just musical instruments.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Instruments can be classified by their musical range in comparison with other instruments in the same family. These terms are named after singing voice classifications:


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Some instruments fall into more than one category: for example, the cello may be considered either tenor or bass, depending on how its music fits into the ensemble, and the trombone may be alto, tenor, or bass and the French horn, bass, baritone, tenor, or alto, depending on which range it is played. In a typical concert band setting, the first alto saxophone covers soprano parts, while the second alto saxophone covers alto parts.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Many instruments include their range as part of their name: soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone, baritone saxophone, baritone horn, alto flute, bass flute, bass guitar, etc. Additional adjectives describe instruments above the soprano range or below the bass, for example: sopranino recorder, sopranino saxophone, contrabass recorder, contrabass clarinet.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: When used in the name of an instrument, these terms are relative, describing the instrument's range in comparison to other instruments of its family and not in comparison to the human voice range or instruments of other families. For example, a bass flute's range is from C to F, while a bass clarinet plays about one octave lower.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Instruments can be categorized according to typical use, such as signal instruments, a category that may include instruments in different Hornbostel–Sachs categories such as trumpets, drums, and gongs. An example based on this criterion is Bonanni (e.g., festive, military, and religious). He separately classified them according to geography and era.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Instruments can be classified according to the role they play in the ensemble. For example, the horn section in popular music typically includes both brass instruments and woodwind instruments. The symphony orchestra typically has the strings in the front, the woodwinds in the middle, and the basses, brass, and percussion in the back.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Jean-Benjamin de la Borde (1780) classified instruments according to ethnicity, his categories being Black, Abyssinian, Chinese, Arabic, Turkish, and Greek.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: An ancient system of Indian origin, dating from the 4th or 3rd century BC, in the Natya Shastra, a theoretical treatise on music and dramaturgy, by Bharata Muni, divides instruments ("vadya") into four main classification groups: instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating strings ("tata vadya", "stretched instruments"); instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating columns of air ("susira vadya", "hollow instruments"); percussion instruments made of wood or metal ("Ghana vadya", "solid instruments"); and percussion instruments with skin heads, or drums ("avanaddha vadya", "covered instruments").


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Al-Farabi, Persian scholar of the 10th century, distinguished tonal duration. In one of his four schemes, in his two-volume "Kitab al-Musiki al-Kabir" ("Great Book of Music") he identified five classes, in order of ranking, as follows: the human voice, the bowed strings (the "rebab") and winds, plucked strings, percussion, and dance, the first three pointed out as having continuous tone.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Ibn Sina, Persian scholar of the 11th century, presented a scheme in his "Kitab al-Najat" (Book of the Delivery), made the same distinction. He used two classes. In his "Kitab al-Shifa" (Book of Soul Healing), he proposed another taxonomy, of five classes: fretted instruments; unfretted (open) stringed, lyres and harps; bowed stringed; wind (reeds and some other woodwinds, such as the flute and bagpipe), other wind instruments such as the organ; and the stick-struck santur (a board zither). The distinction between fretted and open was in classic Persian fashion.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa (17th century) recognized three classes of musical instruments in his "Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun" ("Clarification and Conjecture About the Names of Books and Sciences"), a treatise on the origin and construction of instruments. This was exceptional for a Near Eastern writer, most of whom, like Near Eastern culture traditionally and early Hellenistic Greeks, ignored the percussion instruments because it regarded them as primitive.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and may date as far back as the second millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. Instruments made of stone were in one group, those of wood in another, those of silk are in a third, and those of bamboo in a fourth, as recorded in the "Yo Chi" (record of ritual music and dance), compiled from sources of the Chou period (9th–5th centuries BC) and corresponding to the four seasons and four winds.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The eight-fold system of eight sounds or timbres (八音, bā yīn), from the same source, occurred gradually, and in the legendary Emperor Shun's time (3rd millennium BC) it is believed to have been presented in the following order: metal (金, jīn), stone (石, shí), silk (絲, sī), bamboo (竹, zhú), gourd (匏, páo), clay (土, tǔ), leather (革, gé), and wood (木, mù) classes, and it correlated to the eight seasons and eight winds of Chinese culture, autumn and west, autumn-winter and NW, summer and south, spring and east, winter-spring and NE, summer-autumn and SW, winter and north, and spring-summer and SE, respectively.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: However, the Chou-Li (Rites of Chou), an anonymous treatise compiled from earlier sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order: metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd, and bamboo. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan (Commentary of Tso), attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, probably compiled in the 4th century BC.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Much later, Ming dynasty (14th–17th century) scholar Chu Tsai Yu recognized three groups: those instruments using muscle power or used for musical accompaniment, those that are blown, and those that are rhythmic, a scheme which was probably the first scholarly attempt, while the earlier ones were traditional, folk taxonomies.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: More usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced (regardless of post-processing, i.e., an electric guitar is still a string-instrument regardless of what analog or digital/computational post-processing effects pedals may be used with it).


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Classifications done for the Indonesian ensemble, the gamelan, were done by Jaap Kunst (1949), Martopangrawit, Poerbapangrawit, and Sumarsam (all in 1984). Kunst described five categories: nuclear theme ("cantus firmus" in Latin and "balungan" ("skeletal framework") in Indonesian); colotomic ( a word invented by Kunst) (interpunctuating), the gongs; countermelodic; paraphrasing ("panerusan"), subdivided as close to the nuclear theme and ornamental filling; agogic (tempo-regulating), drums.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: R. Ng. Martopangrawit has two categories, irama (the rhythm instruments) and lagu (the melodic instruments), the former corresponds to Kunst's classes 2 and 5, and the latter to Kunst's 1, 3, and 4.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Kodrat Poerbapangrawit, similar to Kunst, derives six categories: "balungan", the "saron", "demung", and "slenthem"; "rerenggan" (ornamental), the "gendèr", "gambang", and "bonang"); "wiletan" (variable formulaic melodic), "rebab" and male chorus ("gerong"); "singgetan" (interpunctuating); "kembang" (floral), flute and female voice; jejeging wirama (tempo regulating), drums.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: Minangkabau musicians (of West Sumatra) use the following taxonomy for "bunyi-bunyian" ("objects that sound"): "dipukua" ("beaten"), "dipupuik" ("blown), "dipatiek" ("plucked"), "ditariek" ("pulled"), "digesek" ("bowed"), "dipusiang" ("swung"). The last one is for the bull-roarer. They also distinguish instruments on the basis of origin because of sociohistorical contacts, and recognize three categories: Mindangkabau ("Minangkabau asli"), Arabic ("asal Arab"), and Western ("asal Barat"), each of these divided up according to the five categories. Classifying musical instruments on the basis sociohistorical factors as well as mode of sound production is common in Indonesia.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The Batak of North Sumatra recognize the following classes: beaten ("alat pukul" or "alat palu"), blown ("alat tiup"), bowed ("alat gesek"), and plucked ("alat petik") instruments, but their primary classification is of ensembles.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The T'boli of Mindanao use three categories, grouping the strings ("t'duk") with the winds ("nawa") together based on a gentleness-strength dichotomy ("lemnoy"-"megel", respectively), regarding the percussion group ("tembol") as strong and the winds-strings group as gentle. The division pervades T'boli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, and artistic styles.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: In West Africa, tribes such as the Dan, Gio, Kpelle, Hausa, Akan, and Dogon, use a human-centered system. It derives from 4 myth-based parameters: the musical instrument's nonhuman owner (spirit, mask, sorcerer, or animal), the mode of transmission to the human realm (by gift, exchange, contract, or removal), the making of the instrument by a human (according to instructions from a nonhuman, for instance), and the first human owner. Most instruments are said to have a nonhuman origin, but some are believed invented by humans, e.g., the xylophone and the lamellophone.


title: Musical instrument classification

text: The Kpelle of West Africa distinguish the struck ("yàle"), including both beaten and plucked, and the blown ("fêe"). The "yàle" group is subdivided into five categories: instruments possessing lamellas (the sanzas); those possessing strings; those possessing a membrane (various drums); hollow wooden, iron, or bottle containers; and various rattles and bells. The Hausa, also of West Africa, classify drummers into those who beat drums and those who beat (pluck) strings (the other four player classes are blowers, singers, acclaimers, and talkers),


title: Web feed

text: On the World Wide Web, a web feed (or news feed) is a data format used for providing users with frequently updated content. Content distributors "syndicate" a web feed, thereby allowing users to "subscribe" a channel to it by adding the feed resource address to a news aggregator client (also called a "feed reader" or a "news reader"). Users typically subscribe to a feed by manually entering the URL of a feed or clicking a link in a web browser or by dragging the link from the web browser to the aggregator, thus "RSS and Atom files provide news updates from a website in a simple form for your computer."


title: Web feed

text: The kinds of content delivered by a web feed are typically HTML (webpage content) or links to webpages and other kinds of digital media. Often when websites provide web feeds to notify users of content updates, they only include summaries in the web feed rather than the full content itself. Many news websites, weblogs, schools, and podcasters operate web feeds. As web feeds are designed to be machine-readable rather than human-readable they can also be used to automatically transfer information from one website to another without any human intervention.


title: Web feed

text: A web feed is a document (often XML-based) whose discrete content items include web links to the source of the content. News websites and blogs are common sources for web feeds, but feeds are also used to deliver structured information ranging from weather data to search results.


title: Web feed

text: Although RSS formats have evolved since March 1999, the RSS icon ("") first gained widespread use between 2005 and 2006. The feed icon indicates that a web feed is available.


title: Web feed

text: Dave Winer published a modified version of the RSS 0.91 specification on the UserLand website, covering how it was being used in his company's products, and claimed copyright to the document. A few months later, UserLand filed a U.S. trademark registration for RSS, but failed to respond to a USPTO trademark examiner's request and the request was rejected in December 2001.


title: Web feed

text: The RSS-DEV Working Group, a project whose members included Guha and representatives of O'Reilly Media and Moreover, produced RSS 1.0 in December 2000. This new version, which reclaimed the name RDF Site Summary from RSS 0.9, reintroduced support for RDF and added XML namespaces support, adopting elements from standard metadata vocabularies such as Dublin Core.


title: Web feed

text: a minor set of changes aside from the introduction of the enclosure element, which permitted audio files to be carried in RSS feeds and helped spark podcasting. He also released drafts of RSS 0.93 and RSS 0.94 that were subsequently withdrawn.


title: Web feed

text: In September 2002, Winer released a major new version of the format, RSS 2.0, that redubbed its initials Really Simple Syndication. RSS 2.0 removed the "type" attribute added in the RSS 0.94 draft and added support for namespaces.


title: Web feed

text: Because neither Winer nor the RSS-DEV Working Group had Netscape's involvement, they could not make an official claim on the RSS name or format. This has fueled ongoing controversy in the syndication development community as to which entity was the proper publisher of RSS.


title: Web feed

text: One product of that contentious debate was the creation of an alternative syndication format, Atom, that began in June 2003. The Atom syndication format, whose creation was in part motivated by a desire to get a clean start free of the issues surrounding RSS, has been adopted as .


title: Web feed

text: In July 2003, Winer and UserLand Software assigned the copyright of the RSS 2.0 specification to Harvard's Berkman Center for Internet & Society, where he had just begun a term as a visiting fellow. At the same time, Winer launched the RSS Advisory Board with Brent Simmons and Jon Udell, a group whose purpose was to maintain and publish the specification and answer questions about the format.


title: Web feed

text: Outlook team announced on their blogs that they were adopting the feed icon first used in the Mozilla Firefox browser , created by Stephen Horlander, a Mozilla Designer. A few months later, Opera Software followed suit. This effectively made the orange square with white radio waves the industry standard for RSS and Atom feeds, replacing the large variety of icons and text that had been used previously to identify syndication data.


title: Web feed

text: In January 2006, Rogers Cadenhead relaunched the RSS Advisory Board without Dave Winer's participation, with a stated desire to continue the development of the RSS format and resolve ambiguities. In June 2007, the board revised their version of the specification to confirm that namespaces may extend core elements with namespace attributes, as Microsoft has done in Internet Explorer 7. According to their view, a difference of interpretation left publishers unsure of whether this was permitted or forbidden.


title: Naruto: Shippuden (season 2)

text: The second season of the "" anime series is directed by Hayato Date, and produced by Pierrot and TV Tokyo. They are based on Part II for Masashi Kishimoto's manga series. Titled , the season follows Naruto Uzumaki and his friends attempting to reason with Sasuke Uchiha. The second season aired from November 2007 to April 2008 on TV Tokyo. It was also released on DVD in Japan over five discs between April 8 and August 8, 2008 by Aniplex.


title: Naruto: Shippuden (season 2)

text: "Naruto Shippuden" premiered in the United States in Disney XD in late 2009, with these episodes airing between April 2 and October 27, 2010. The season ran on Adult Swim's Toonami programming block from August 17, 2014 to February 8, 2015.


title: Naruto: Shippuden (season 2)

text: The season was collected in five DVD volumes by Viz Media from April 6 to August 10, 2010. It was also compiled in two DVD boxes alongside the first season's last episodes on August 3 and October 19, 2010. In the United Kingdom, Manga Entertainment released it in three volumes from October 10, 2010 to May 16, 2011, while it was also part of a DVD box released on March 7, 2011.


title: Naruto: Shippuden (season 2)

text: The season uses three musical themes for one opening theme and two ending themes. The opening theme for this season is "Distance" by Long Shot Party. The ending themes are by Little by Little, which is used for episodes 31 to 41, and by Matchy with Question?, which is used from episodes 42 to 53.


title: Coureur des bois

text: A coureur des bois (; ) or coureur de bois (; plural: coureurs de(s) bois) was an independent entrepreneurial French-Canadian trader who travelled in New France and the interior of North America, usually to trade with First Nations peoples by exchanging various European items for furs. Some learned the trades and practices of the indigenous peoples.


title: Coureur des bois

text: These expeditions were part of the beginning of the fur trade in the North American interior. Initially they traded for beaver coats and furs. However, as the market grew, "coureurs de bois" were trapping and trading prime beavers whose skins were to be felted in Europe.


title: Coureur des bois

text: While French settlers had lived and traded alongside Indigenous people since the earliest days of New France, coureurs des bois reached their apex during the second half of the 17th century. After 1681, the independent coureur des bois was gradually replaced by state-sponsored voyageurs, who were workers associated with licensed fur traders. They travelled extensively by canoe. Coureurs des bois lost their importance in the fur trade by the early 18th century. Yet, even while their numbers were dwindling, the coureur des bois developed as a symbol of the colony, creating a lasting myth that would continue to define New France for centuries.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Shortly after founding a permanent settlement at Quebec City in 1608, Samuel de Champlain sought to ally himself with the local native peoples or First Nations. He decided to send French boys to live among them to learn their languages in order to serve as interpreters, in the hope of persuading the natives to trade with the French rather than with the Dutch, who were active along the Hudson River and Atlantic coast.


title: Coureur des bois

text: The boys learned native languages, customs, and skills, and tended to assimilate quickly to their new environments. A year after leaving Étienne Brûlé in 1610, with a Huron tribe, Champlain visited him, and was surprised to find the young man attired completely in native clothing and able to converse fluently in the Huron language.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Early explorers such as Brûlé educated the French colonists on the complex trading networks of the natives, served as interpreters, and encouraged the burgeoning fur trade. Between 1610 and 1629, dozens of Frenchmen spent months at a time living among the natives. Over time, these early explorers and interpreters played an increasingly active role in the fur trade, paving the way for the emergence of the coureurs des bois proper in the mid-17th century.


title: Coureur des bois

text: The term "coureur des bois" is most strongly associated with those who engaged in the fur trade in ways that were considered to be outside of the mainstream. Early in the North American fur trade era, this term was applied to men who circumvented the normal channels by going deeper into the wilderness to trade.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Traditionally, the government of New France preferred to let the natives supply furs directly to French merchants, and discouraged French settlers from venturing outside the Saint Lawrence valley. By the mid-17th century, Montreal had emerged as the center of the fur trade, hosting a yearly fair in August where natives exchanged their pelts for European goods. While coureurs des bois never entirely disappeared, they were heavily discouraged by French colonial officials. In 1649, the new governor Louis d'Ailleboust permitted Frenchmen familiar with the wilderness to visit Huron Country to encourage and escort Hurons to Montreal to participate in the trade. While this did not legally sanction coureurs des bois to trade independently with the natives, some historians consider d'Ailleboust's encouragement of independent traders to mark the official emergence of the coureurs des bois.


title: Coureur des bois

text: In the 1660s, several factors resulted in a sudden spike in the number of coureurs des bois. First, the population of New France markedly increased during the late 17th century, as the colony experienced a boom in immigration between 1667–84. Of the new "engagés" (indentured male servants), discharged soldiers, and youthful immigrants from squalid, class-bound Europe arriving in great numbers in the colony, many chose freedom in the life of the coureur des bois. Furthermore, renewed peaceful relations with the Iroquois in 1667 made traveling into the interior of Canada much less perilous for the French colonists. The companies that had been monopolizing and regulating the fur trade since 1645, the "Cent Associés" and the "Communautés des Habitants", went bankrupt after the Iroquois war. The "Compagnie des Indes occidentales", which replaced them, was much less restrictive of internal trade, allowing independent merchants to become more numerous. Finally, a sudden fall in the price of beaver on the European markets in 1664 caused more traders to travel to the ""pays d'en haut"", or upper country (the area around the Great Lakes), in search of cheaper pelts. During the mid-1660s, therefore, becoming a coureur des bois became both more feasible and profitable.


title: Coureur des bois

text: This sudden growth alarmed many colonial officials. In 1680, the intendant Duchesneau estimated there were eight hundred coureurs des bois, or about 40% of the adult male population. Reports like that were wildly exaggerated: in reality, even at their zenith coureurs des bois remained a very small percentage of the population of New France.


title: Coureur des bois

text: In 1681, to curb the unregulated business of independent traders and their burgeoning profits, French minister of marine Jean-Baptiste Colbert created a system of licenses for fur traders, known as "congés". Initially, this system granted 25 annual licenses to merchants traveling inland. The recipients of these licenses came to be known as "voyageurs" (travelers), who canoed and portaged fur trade goods in the employ of a licensed fur trader or fur trading company. The congé system, therefore, created the voyageur, the legal and respectable counterpart to the coureur des bois. Under the voyageurs, the fur trade began to favor a more organized business model of the times, including monopolistic ownership and hired labor. From 1681 onwards, therefore, the voyageurs began to eclipse the coureurs des bois, although coureurs des bois continued to trade without licenses for several decades. Following the implementation of the congé system, the number of coureurs des bois dwindled, as did their influence within the colony.


title: Coureur des bois

text: A successful coureur des bois had to possess many skills, including those of businessman and expert canoeist. To survive in the Canadian wilderness, coureurs des bois also had to be competent in a range of activities including fishing, snowshoeing and hunting. As one Jesuit described them, venturing into the wilderness suited "the sort of person who thought nothing of covering five to six hundred leagues by canoe, paddle in hand, or of living off corn and bear fat for twelve to eighteen months, or of sleeping in bark or branch cabins". As the life was both physically arduous, succeeding as a coureur was extremely difficult. But the hope of making a profit motivated many, while the promise of adventure and freedom was enough to convince others to become courers.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Because of the lack of roads and the necessity to transport heavy goods and furs, fur trade in the interior of the continent depended on men conducting long-distance transportation by canoe of fur trade goods, and returning with pelts. Early travel was dangerous and the "coureurs des bois", who traded in uncharted territory, had a high mortality rate. Typically, they left Montreal in the spring, as soon as the rivers and lakes were clear of ice (usually May), their canoes loaded with supplies and goods for trading. The course west to the richest beaver lands usually went by way of the Ottawa and Mattawa rivers; it required numerous overland portages. Alternatively, some canoes proceeded by way of the upper St. Lawrence River and the lakes, passing by Detroit on the way to Michilimackinac or Green Bay. This route had fewer portages, but in times of war, it was more exposed to Iroquois attacks. The powerful Five Nations of the Confederacy had territory along the Great Lakes and sought to control their hunting grounds.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Such trading journeys often lasted for months and covered thousands of kilometers, with the "coureurs des bois" sometimes paddling twelve hours a day. Packing a canoe for such a trip was often arduous, as more than thirty articles were considered essential for a coureur des bois's survival and business. He could trade for food, hunt, and fish—but trade goods such as "broadcloth, linen and wool blankets, ammunition, metal goods (knives, hatchets, kettles), firearms, liquor, gunpowder and sometimes even finished clothing, took up the majority of space in the canoe." Food en route needed to be lightweight, practical and non-perishable.


title: Coureur des bois

text: The business of a "coureur des bois" required close contact with the indigenous peoples. Native peoples were essential because they trapped the fur-bearing animals (especially beaver) and prepared the skins. Relations between "coureurs" and natives were not always peaceful, and could sometimes become violent. In general, trade was made much easier by the two groups maintaining friendly relations. Trade was often accompanied by reciprocal gift-giving; among the Algonquin and others, exchanging gifts was customary practice to maintain alliances. Pierre-Esprit Radisson and his companions, for instance, "struck agreeable relations with Natives inland by giving European goods as gifts".Furthermore, relations between the coureur de bois and the natives often included a sexual dimension; marriage "à la façon du pays" (following local custom) was common between native women and coureurs des bois, and later between native women and voyageurs. These unions were of benefit to both sides, and in later years, winter partners of major trading companies also took native wives. As wives, indigenous women played a key role as translators, guides and mediators—becoming "women between". For one thing, Algonquin communities typically had far more women than men, likely as a result of warfare. The remaining marriages between Algonquins tended to be polygamous, with one husband marrying two or more women. Sexual relationships with coureurs des bois therefore offered native women an alternative to polygamy in a society with few available men.


title: Coureur des bois

text: To French military commanders, who were often also directly involved in the fur trade, such marriages were beneficial in that they improved relations between the French and the natives. Native leaders also encouraged such unions, particularly when the couple formed lasting, permanent bonds. Jesuits and some upper-level colonial officials viewed these relationships with disdain and disgust. French officials preferred coureurs des bois and voyageurs to settle around Quebec City and Montreal. They considered the lasting relationships with native women to be further proof of the lawlessness and perversion of the coureurs des bois.


title: Coureur des bois

text: The role and importance of the coureurs des bois have been exaggerated over the course of history. This figure has achieved mythological status, leading to many false accounts, and to the coureurs des bois being assimilated with ""Canadiens"" (Canadians).


title: Coureur des bois

text: The myth-making followed two paths; initially, people in France judged the colonies according to the fears and apprehensions which they had of the Ancien Régime. If order and discipline were proving difficult to maintain in continental Europe, it seemed impossible that the colonies would fare any better, and it was presumed things would become even worse. Accounts of young men choosing a life where they would "do nothing", be "restrained by nothing", and live "beyond the possibility of correction" played into the French aristocracy's fears of insubordination which only served to confirm their ignorance; and coureurs des bois became emblematic of the colony for those in the metropolis.


title: Coureur des bois

text: The myth of the coureurs des bois as representative of the Canadians was stimulated by the writings of 18th-century Jesuit priest F-X. Charlevoix and the 19th-century American historian Francis Parkman; their historical accounts are classified as belonging to popular rather than academic history. Charlevoix was particularly influential in his writings, because he was a trusted source of information, as he was a Jesuit priest who had journeyed in Canada. But his "historical" work has been criticized by historians for being too "light" and for relying too heavily on other authors' material (i.e. plagiarizing), rather than his own first-hand account. Critics of Charlevoix have also noted that in his account, he confuses different periods of time, and therefore does not differentiate between voyageurs and coureurs des bois, misrepresenting the importance of the latter in terms of number and proportion in terms on influence on trading. But Charlevoix was influential; his work was often cited by other authors, which further propagated the myth of the Canadian as a coureur des bois.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Finally, romans du terroir (rural novels) also added to the myth of the coureurs des bois by featuring them out of proportion to their number and influence. The coureurs des bois were portrayed in such works as extremely virile, free-spirited and of untameable natures, ideal protagonists in the romanticized novels of important 19th-century writers such as Chateaubriand, Jules Verne and Fenimore Cooper.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Most coureurs des bois were primarily or solely fur-trade entrepreneurs and not individually well known. The most prominent coureurs des bois were also explorers and gained fame as such.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Étienne Brûlé was the first European to see the Great Lakes. He traveled to New France with Samuel de Champlain.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Jean Nicolet (Nicollet) de Belleborne (Ca. 1598 – 1 November 1642) was a French coureur des bois noted for exploring Green Bay in what is now the U.S. state of Wisconsin. Nicolet was born in Normandy, France in the late 1590s and moved to New France in 1618. In that same year, he was recruited by Samuel de Champlain, who arranged for him to live with a group of Algonquians, designated as the "Nation of the Isle", to learn native languages and later serve as an interpreter. The natives quickly adopted Nicolet as one of their own, even allowing him to attend councils and negotiate treaties. In 1620, Nicolet was sent to make contact with the Nipissing, a group of natives who played an important role in the growing fur trade. After having established a good reputation for himself, Nicolet was sent on an expedition to Green Bay to settle a peace agreement with the natives of that area.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Médard Chouart des Groseilliers (1618–1696) was a French explorer and fur trader in Canada. In the early 1640s, des Groseilliers relocated to Quebec, and began to work around Huronia with the Jesuit missions in that area. There he learned the skills of a "coureur des bois" and in 1653 married his second wife, Margueritte. Her brother, Pierre-Esprit Radisson, also became a notable figure in the fur trade and is often mentioned in the same breath as des Groseilliers. Radisson and des Grosseilliers would also travel and trade together, as they did throughout the 1660s and 1670s. Together, they explored west into previously unknown territories in search of trade. Having incurred legal problems in New France because of their trade, the two explorers went to France in an attempt to rectify their legal situation. When this attempt failed, the pair turned to the English. Through this liaison with the English and thanks to their considerable knowledge and experience in the area, the pair are credited with the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Pierre-Esprit Radisson (1636–1710) was a French-Canadian fur trader and explorer. His life as explorer and trader is crucially intertwined with that of his brother-in-law, Médard des Groseilliers. Radisson came to New France in 1651, settling in Trois-Rivières. That same year, he was captured by the Mohawks while duck hunting. Although two of his companions were killed during this exchange, the natives spared Radisson's life and adopted him. Through this adoption, Radisson learned native languages that would later serve him well as an interpreter. He worked throughout the 1660s and 1670s with his brother-in-law, des Groseilliers, on various trade and exploration voyages into the west of the continent. Much of Radisson's life during this period is wrapped up in the story of des Groseilliers. Together they are credited with the establishment and shaping of the Hudson's Bay Company.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut (1639–1710) was a French soldier and explorer who is the first European known to have visited the area where the city of Duluth, Minnesota is now located and the headwaters of the Mississippi River near Grand Rapids.


title: Coureur des bois

text: Louis-Joseph de La Vérendrye and his three brothers, the sons of the Vérendrye mentioned above (1717–1761)


title: Coureur des bois

text: Martin Chartier (1655–1718) accompanied Joliet and LaSalle, became an outlaw, and eventually traded for furs in Tennessee, Ohio and Pennsylvania.


title: Coureur des bois

text: The 1910 Victor Herbert operetta "Naughty Marietta" featured the male-chorus marching song "Tramp Tramp Tramp (Along the Highway)", which included the words, "Blazing trails along the byway / Couriers de Bois are we" [sic]. (Some later versions change Rida Johnson Young's lyric to "For men of war are we.")


title: Coureur des bois

text: In James A. Michener's 1974 historical novel "Centennial" and the 1978–1979 NBC television mini-series of the "same name", the colourful, French Canadian or French Metis, coureur des bois, from Montreal, Quebec, Canada, named Pasquinel, was introduced as an early frontier mountain man and trapper, in 1795 Colorado, Spanish Upper Louisiana Territory of Mexico, now the present-day state of Colorado. Pasquinel was portrayed in the miniseries by American TV actor Robert Conrad. The fictional character of Pasquinel was loosely based on the lives of French-speaking fur traders Jacques La Ramee and Ceran St. Vrain.


title: Coureur des bois

text: In a 1990 skit called "Trappers", the Canadian comedy troupe The Kids in the Hall depict two trappers, Jacques (Dave Foley) and François (Kevin McDonald), canoeing through high-rise offices and cubicles to trap businessmen wearing designer Italian suits as a parody of this moment in Canadian colonial history.


title: Coureur des bois

text: "The Revenant" (2015), directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu, depicts a group of uncharacteristically violent, anti-Indian coureurs des bois in North Dakota, which was contrary to these trappers, who embraced the culture and way of life of Native Americans.


title: Coureur des bois

text: The 2016 television series "Frontier" chronicles the North American fur trade in late 1700s Canada, and follows Declan Harp, a part-Irish, part-Cree outlaw who is campaigning to breach the Hudson's Bay Company's monopoly on the fur trade in Canada. Several fictional coureurs des bois are featured in this realistic action-drama filmed mostly on location in Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Ontario, Canada.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Icelandic Coast Guard (, or simply ) is the Icelandic defence service responsible for search and rescue, maritime safety and security surveillance, and law enforcement in the seas surrounding Iceland. The Coast Guard maintains the Iceland Air Defence System which conducts ground surveillance of Iceland's air space and operate Keflavik airbase. It is also responsible for hydrographic surveying and nautical charting.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: Its origins can be traced to 1859, when the corvette "Ørnen" started patrolling Icelandic waters. In 1906, Iceland's first purposely built guard-ship, "Islands Falk", began operation. Iceland's own defense of its territorial waters began around 1920 and the Icelandic Coast Guard was formally founded on 1 July 1926. The first cannon was put on the trawler "Þór" in 1924 and on 23 June 1926 the first ship built for the Coast Guard, named "Óðinn", arrived in Iceland. Three years later, on 14 July 1929 the coastal defence ship "Ægir" was added to the Coast Guard fleet.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Icelandic Coast Guard played its largest role during the fishing rights dispute known as the Cod Wars, between 1972 and 1976, when the Coast Guard ships would cut the trawl wires of British and West German trawlers, resulting in confrontations with Royal Navy warships and tugs from the British Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF). The Icelandic Coast Guard goal was to enforce a disputed expansion of Iceland's exclusive economic zone. Engagements between Icelandic gunboats and British warships involving ramming became the tactic of choice during this conflict. At least 15 British frigates, five Icelandic patrol boats and one British supply ship were damaged by ramming between 1975 and 1976. In the end, Iceland achieved its overall ambition of expanding its exclusive fishery zone to by June 1976.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Icelandic Coast Guard's (ICG) primary mission as stipulated in Section 1 of Act on Icelandic Coast Guard is conduct search and rescue, maritime safety and security surveillance, and law enforcement inside the -wide economic zone. The Coast Guard operates Joint Rescue and Coordination Centre (JRCC) Iceland which is responsible for search and rescue of vessels and aircraft in Iceland's search and rescue region (SRR) according to International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (IAMSAR) Manual. Additionally the ICG is in the charge of defusing naval mines, most of which were laid during the Second World War, and monitoring fisheries in international waters outside of the Icelandic economic zone in order to blacklist any vessel partaking in unregulated fishing and thus bar them from receiving services from any member of the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission in order to make unregulated fishing unprofitable. The Icelandic Coast Guard also occasionally operates within Greenlandic and Faeroese waters, following a bilateral agreement with Denmark regarding mutual aid in security, rescue and defence matters.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Coast Guard accomplishes these tasks with the use of offshore patrol vessels (OPV), helicopters, surveillance aircraft, satellites and a network of land based surface scanning radar.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Icelandic Coast Guard is also in charge of the Iceland Air Defence System, which operates four ground-based AN-FPS(V)5 air surveillance radars and a control and command centre.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: In the 1990s the Coast Guard started hosting exercises such as "Northern Challenge" which had military units from Norway, Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom, among others, participating along with the Icelandic Coast Guard. The Coast Guard has also taken part in peacekeeping operations on behalf of the Icelandic Crisis Response Unit, although while usually using their own rank insignia, uniforms and weapons.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The fleet also takes part in Frontex operations, and in that role played a major part in the rescue of over 300 Syrian refugees in the eastern Mediterranean Sea in January 2015.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: , the Icelandic Coast Guard fleet consists of two OPVs, one coastal hydrographic and patrol vessel and an independent fast rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB), as well as numerous smaller boats assigned to the larger units. In 2011 the Coast Guard received ICGV "Þór" , built by the Asmar shipyard in Talcahuano, Chile.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: ICGV "Týr", an , the second youngest, built by Århus Flydedok a/s and launched in 1975. , lead ship of the "Ægir" class, is ICGV "Týr"s sister ship, built by Ålborg Værft a/s and launched in 1968. Each ship is equipped with two or more RHIBs of various sizes and armed with a 40 mm Bofors cannon. Various kinds of small arms as well as other man-portable weapons are also carried on board each of the ships. "Týr" and "Þór" are also equipped with sonar systems and the "Ægir"-class vessels have flight decks and a hangar for a small helicopter. While the Coast Guard doesn't operate small enough helicopters to use the hangars, the flight decks are often used by the helicopters of the Aeronautical Division on various missions.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The coastguard has as well a 73-ton patrol and hydrographic survey vessel, named "Baldur", built by Vélsmiðja Seyðisfjarðar shipyard in 1991. This vessel has no mounted weaponry but it has nonetheless been used for port security and fishery inspection.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The newest ship of the fleet, , was bought in September 2021 to replace the 46-year old ICGV "Týr". It arrived for retrofit at Damen Shiprepair Rotterdam in Schiedam on 11 October and was formally delivered to the Coast Guard on 1 November 2021. She departed for Siglufjordur on 2 November.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: After World War II, the Coast Guard occasionally leased civilian aircraft for short term monitoring of shipping and fishing in the territorial waters, first in 1948 when a Grumman Goose was leased from Loftleiðir. On 10 December 1955, the Coast Guard acquired its first aircraft when a Consolidated PBY-6A Catalina flying boat was acquired from the Civil Aviation Administration. It was originally from the Iceland Defense Force but was damaged near Langanes in 1954. It was named "Rán" and registered as TF-RAN.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: In 1972, the ICG, along with the National Life-saving Association of Iceland, bought its first specialized search and rescue helicopter, a Sikorsky S-62 that was named "Gná", from the United States Coast Guard. Three years later, "Gná" crashed in Skálafell, with no injuries, after a shaft in the tail propeller broke.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: It took five years for another SAR helicopter to arrive but in 1980, the Coast Guard bought a new Sikorsky S-76 which was given the name "Rán". The helicopter performed admirably, including in March 1983, when "Rán", along with a French Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma, one of two temporarily deployed in the country, rescued 11 people from "Hafrún ÍS-400" after it ran aground at Stigahlíð in the Westfjords. However, inn November 1983, "Rán" crashed in Jökulfirðir in the Westfjords of Iceland during a training mission, killing its four man crew, in what remains the deadliest accident in the ICG history. The loss of "Rán" and some of the Coast Guards most experienced flight members nearly caused the shutdown of its helicopter program. After some deliberation, the decision was made in 1984 to continue the program and buy a new Aérospatiale SA 365N Dauphin II and rent another until the new one would arrive.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: In 1985, the new "Sif" arrived and with it, several changes where made to the helicopter program, including to training, expanding crew rosters, addition of helicopter doctors and shift plans to expand its availability. "Sif" went on to become one of the ICG most successful aircraft to date. During its 22-year career it took part in several high profile rescue operations around Iceland and is credited to have been involved in the rescue of around 250 lives.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: In 1995, the ICG received a second specialised SAR helicopter when it bought an Aérospatiale AS-332L1 Super Puma which was given the name "Líf". The new helicopter continued on the success of "Sif" and gained national fame when it rescued 39 sailors in three separate incidents during a six-day period in March 1997.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: As a response to the withdrawal of the Iceland Defense Force in 2006, the Coast Guard expanded its helicopters to four in 2007. That number was later reduced to three and as of 2022, it operates three Airbus Helicopters H225 helicopters named "Gná", "Gróa" and "Eir".


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Coast Guard also operates a single Bombardier DHC-8-Q314, registered as TF-SIF, modified for maritime surveillance and reconnaissance. This plane has been extensively modified by FIELD to carry a modern Mission Management System and suite of surveillance sensors, air operable door and communications/navigation equipment. It is occasionally also used for surveillance of volcanic eruptions, such as the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: In addition the Coast Guard has rented or borrowed a number of civilian vessels and aircraft for shorter periods, which are not listed.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: Previous notable aircraft operated consisted of the Consolidated PBY Catalina, Douglas C-54, Fokker F27, Bell 47J/G, MD 500C, Sikorsky S-62, Sikorsky S-76, Eurocopter AS365, Eurocopter AS350


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Iceland Air Defense System monitors Iceland's airspace. Air Defense is provided by fighter jets from NATO allies, which rotate units for the Icelandic Air Policing mission to Keflavik Air Base.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Iceland Air Defense System's Control and Reporting Centre is at Keflavik Air Base and reports to NATO's Integrated Air Defense System CAOC Uedem in Germany.


title: Icelandic Coast Guard

text: The Icelandic Coast Guard possesses over 200 firearms, with more than half of them in storage. In 2014, the Coast Guard received 250 Heckler & Koch MP5 from the Norwegian Armed Forces. The acquisition of the weapons caused an uproar in Iceland due to several facts, including that the mostly unarmed Icelandic Police was to receive 150 of them and conflicting statements from Icelandic and Norwegian officials on whether they were a gift or bought.


title: Chipped beef

text: Chipped beef is a form of pressed, salted and dried beef that has been sliced into thin pieces. Some makers smoke the dried beef for more flavor. The modern product consists of small, thin, flexible leaves of partially dried beef, generally sold compressed together in jars or flat in plastic packets. The processed meat producer Hormel once described it as "an air-dried product that is similar to bresaola, but not as tasty."


title: Chipped beef

text: Chipped beef could be used to make frizzled beef (creamed chipped beef or SOS in military slang), or with eggs.


title: Chipped beef

text: Chipped beef is served in many diners and restaurants in the United States as a breakfast item. It is popular among the veteran community who generally refer to it by the dysphemism "Shit On a Shingle"; chipped beef in milk gravy (or "S.O.S.") is a common traditional meal which is served in all branches of the United States Armed Forces due to its reasonable nutritional profile, ease and speed of preparing, and relatively low cost to produce in large quantities (i.e. in quantities sufficient to properly feed an entire military outpost). Creamed chipped beef is standard fare on many such diner menus, especially in the Mid-Atlantic, but has become harder to find in chain restaurants that serve breakfast; among the restaurants still offering chipped beef on toast are Golden Corral and Silver Diner. IHOP no longer offers this on their menus, having substituted sausage gravy, and the same is true for Cracker Barrel restaurants. It is also available from companies such as Stouffer's in a frozen form which can be put on top of separately-prepared toast; it is typically quite salty. For instance, Stouffer's creamed chipped beef contains 540 mg sodium per 140 kcal serving, down only slightly from 590 mg per 140 kcal serving in 2010.


title: Chipped beef

text: The mixture was also, at one point, available from both Freezer Queen and Banquet as "hot sandwich toppers"; as of late 2007, Freezer Queen no longer makes this product, and the Banquet variety is rarely found. Finally, both the Esskay Meat Company of Baltimore and Knauss Foods make a refrigerated version of creamed chipped beef which can be easily microwaved. The meat itself is also available for purchase under the Knauss and Carson's Brand names. Steak-umm is used as a substitute.


title: Chipped beef

text: Chipped beef on toast (or creamed chipped beef on toast) is a dish comprising a white sauce and rehydrated slivers of dried beef, served on toasted bread. Hormel recommends flavoring the dish with Worcestershire sauce. Chipped beef is also often served on bagels, English muffins, biscuits, home fries, rice, mashed potato and in casserole.


title: Chipped beef

text: In the United States, chipped beef on toast was commonly served to service members of the United States Armed Forces from World War I through Vietnam. It was considered emblematic of the military experience and consequently also served to Boy Scouts of the era. In American military slang it is commonly referred to by the dysphemism "Shit On a Shingle" (SOS).


title: Chipped beef

text: According to "We Are The Mighty", the dish first appears in the "1910 Manual for Army Cooks", where a recipe for feeding 60 men can be found as below:


title: Chipped beef

text: Wentworth and Flexner cite no origin for the term, but noted "shingle" for slice of toast has had "some use since 1935" in the U.S. Army, mostly in the expression "shit on a shingle", and the latter had "wide World War II Army use".


title: Chipped beef

text: "Chipped Beef on Toast (S.O.S.)" is the title of a book of military humor. In his World War II book "Band of Brothers", Stephen E. Ambrose evokes the military basics:


title: Jean Hersholt

text: Jean Pierre Carl Buron (12 July 1886 – 2 June 1956), known professionally as Jean Hersholt, was a Danish-American actor. He is best known for starring on the radio series "Dr. Christian" (1937–1954) and in the film "Heidi" (1937). Asked how to pronounce his name, he told "The Literary Digest", "In English, "her'sholt"; in Danish, "hairs'hult"." Of his total credits, 75 were silent films and 65 were sound films (140 total); he directed four.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: Hersholt was born Jean Pierre Carl Buron in Copenhagen, Denmark. Hersholt claimed to be born into a family of actors, but in reality, both of his parents Henri Pierre Buron, the son of a French Catholic father and a Danish Protestant mother, and Clara (née Petersen), the daughter of a Danish Protestant father and a Danish Jewish mother, were hairdressers, though the father later was a cigar and wine retailer/vendor. Hersholt appeared in two of the first short films of Danish film studio Nordisk Film in 1906, but did not find much success in his early years in Denmark. He was embroiled in a scandal surrounding the so-called "big sexual offence trial" in Copenhagen 1906/07 as an informant for the tabloid newspaper "Middagsposten". The ensuing moral panic and outing of several prominent men as homosexuals eventually involved Hersholt (then Buron), who was reported to the police. He admitted to prostitution and was sentenced to 8 months in prison. He emigrated to the United States in 1913, and the remainder of his career was in America.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: Hersholt's best-remembered film roles include Marcus Schouler in Erich von Stroheim's 1924 "Greed" and Shirley Temple's beloved grandfather in the 1937 film version of the 1880 children's book, "Heidi", written by Swiss author Johanna Spyri. During his long career in the movies, his roles ran the gamut from early silent villains to secondary parts in which his mild Danish accent and pleasant voice suited him to depict a succession of benevolent fathers, doctors, professors, and European noblemen. Hersholt's last role was in the 1955 movie "Run for Cover".


title: Jean Hersholt

text: In "The Country Doctor" (1936), a movie starring the Dionne quintuplets, Hersholt portrayed Dr. John Luke, a character based on Dr. Allan Roy Dafoe, the Canadian obstetrician who delivered and cared for the Dionne quintuplets. Two sequels followed. Hersholt wanted to do the role on radio, but could not get the rights. He decided to create his own doctor character for radio, and since he was a Hans Christian Andersen enthusiast, he borrowed that name for his character of the philosophical Dr. Paul Christian who practiced in the Midwest town of River's End with the assistance of Nurse Judy Price. With the opening theme music of "Rainbow on the River", "Dr. Christian" was introduced on CBS on 7 November 1937 on "The Vaseline Program", or "Dr. Christian's Office" and later "Dr. Christian".


title: Jean Hersholt

text: The small-town physician's good humor, innate common sense, and scientific training helped drive off a series of villainous types who tried to interfere with the peaceful lifestyle of River's End. Produced by Dorothy McCann, the radio series became a popular long-running hit, continuing on CBS until 6 January 1954, with Hersholt so strongly identified with the role that he received mail asking for medical advice. Various spin-offs were produced, as Hersholt co-wrote a Dr. Christian novel and made a series of six family films as Christian from 1939 to 1941, for instance "Dr. Christian Meets the Women" in 1940. In 1956, his Dr. Christian character made the transition to television, scripted by Gene Roddenberry, with Macdonald Carey as his nephew Dr. Mark Christian. From the '30s through the '50s, Neil Reagan, brother of Ronald Reagan, directed the radio series "Dr. Christian", starring Jean Hersholt.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: In 1939, Hersholt helped form the Motion Picture Relief Fund to support industry employees with medical care when they were down on their luck. The fund was used to create the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital in Woodland Hills, California, and it led to the creation in 1956 of the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, an honorary Academy Award given to an "individual in the motion picture industry whose humanitarian efforts have brought credit to the industry".


title: Jean Hersholt

text: As president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Hersholt presented American film industry founders Colonel William N. Selig, Albert E. Smith, George K. Spoor, and Thomas Armat with special awards on the 20th anniversary of the academy's founding on March 20, 1948.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: Hersholt's large collection of Hans Christian Andersen books is now in the Library of Congress. He translated over 160 of Andersen's fairy tales into the English language. These were published in 1949 in six volumes as "The Complete Andersen", this work is "... rated as "the" standard translation, being one of the best" in English. Hersholt was appointed a knight of the Order of the Dannebrog in 1948, partly due to this endeavor.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: Hersholt appeared as the mystery guest on the popular CBS panel/quiz show "What's My Line?" on August 31, 1952.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: He was the paternal half-uncle (by marriage) of actor Leslie Nielsen and former Canadian Deputy Prime Minister Erik Nielsen.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: Hersholt died of cancer in Hollywood in 1956, and is interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. His grave is marked with a statue of Klods-Hans (English: Clumsy Hans), a Hans Christian Andersen character who left home to find his way in the world — much as Hersholt himself had done.


title: Jean Hersholt

text: Hersholt was honored for his services to the industry twice with an honorary Academy Award, first in 1940 and the second time in 1950, and in his honor the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award was named by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6501 Hollywood Boulevard for his work in motion pictures and another one at 6701 Hollywood Boulevard for his work in radio.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: Bhitarkanika National Park is a large national park in northeast Kendrapara district in Odisha in eastern India. It was designated on 16 September 1998 and obtained the status of a Ramsar site on 19 August 2002. The area is also been designated as second Ramsar site of the State after the Chilika Lake. It is surrounded by Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, which spread over .


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: Gahirmatha Beach and Marine Sanctuary are to the east, separating swamp region and mangroves from the Bay of Bengal.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: The national park and wildlife sanctuary is inundated by the rivers Brahmani, Baitarani, Dhamra, Pathsala. It hosts many mangrove species, and is the second largest mangrove ecosystem in India.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: The national park is home to Saltwater crocodile "(Crocodylus porosus)", Indian python, king cobra, black ibis, darters and many other species of flora and fauna.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: Mangroves are salt-tolerant, complex, and dynamic eco-systems that occur in tropical and subtropical intertidal regions. Bhitarkanika is one such location of rich, lush green vibrant ecosystem lying in the estuarine region of Brahmani - Baitarani in the North-Eastern corner of Kendrapara district of Odisha. The area is intersected by a network of creeks with the Bay of Bengal on the East. The alley between the meandering creeks and rivers houses the second largest viable mangrove eco-system of India. Its 672 km² of mangrove forest and wetland provides a home to well over 215 birds, including winter migrants from central Asia and Europe. Giant saltwater crocodiles and a variety of other wildlife inhabit this ecosystem, one of Asia's most spectacular wildlife sanctuaries.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: An area of 145 km² has been notified as Bhitarkanika National Park vide Notification No.19686/F in September 1998 by the government of Odisha. It has much significance about ecological, geomorphological, and biological background which includes mangrove forests, rivers, creeks, estuaries, backwater, accreted land, and mudflats. Bhitarkanika National Park is the core area of Bhitarkanika Sanctuary.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary was declared vide notification No.6958/FF AH on 22 April 1975 over an area of 672 km². The Sanctuary comprising mangrove forests meandering rivers, innumerable crisscrossed tidal inundated creeks provide the last refuge to the already endangered salt water crocodile ("Crocodilus porosus"). The sanctuary is rich in avifauna, mammalian, and reptilians and provides habitat for king cobra, Indian python, and Asian water monitor. Many water birds visit Bagagahan heronry, an area of approximately 4 ha within the Bhitarkanika Forest Block near Suajore creek from June to October. Most of the birds are Asian open bill, egrets, black ibis, cormorants, and darters. Mangrove species, casuarinas, and grasses like the indigo bush.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: The park is home to the saltwater crocodile, Indian python, black ibis, wild boar, rhesus monkey, chital, darter, cobra, monitor lizard. Olive ridley turtles nest on Gahirmatha and other nearby beaches. Bhitarkanika has one of the largest populations of endangered saltwater crocodile in India and is globally unique in that, 10% of the adults exceed 6 m length.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: In 2006, "Guinness World Records" accepted claims of a , male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika National Park. Due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a large living crocodile, the accuracy of these dimensions is yet to be verified. These observations and estimations have been made by park officials over the course of ten years, from 2006 to 2016, however, regardless of the skill of the observers it cannot be compared to a verified tape measurement, especially considering the uncertainty inherent in visual size estimation in the wild. According to the park report in 2006, there were 203 adults, of which 16 measured over ; 5 of these , and 3 over , as well as the preserved skeleton of a specimen which died one year earlier. A significant figure, since individuals over are considered rare, making the Bhitarkanika Park a suitable habitat for large individuals. The most recently published official park report shows an increase of adult crocodiles to 308 individuals, as well as a steady increase over the years. In the future, if conservation efforts pay off, these large individuals could be more common.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: Per the 2014 survey of mammals, the first of its kind to be undertaken in the forest and wetland sites of the park; 1,872 spotted deer and 1,213 wild boar have made the forest areas their home. The census breakup of other mammals is monkeys: 1,522, jackals: 305, common langur: 39, otter: 38, sambar deer: 17, jungle cat: 11, fox: 10, Mongoose: 7, wolf: 7, and fishing cats: 12.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: Avifauna includes 320 species, including eight kingfisher species. Birds such as Asian open bill, cormorants, darters, black ibis, and egrets are frequently seen in the park. Every year close to 120,000 winter visitors from abroad for wintering and 80,000 resident birds from different parts of India arrive for nesting during the monsoon season.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: It is a very good place to sight the giant Salt Water Crocodile, some growing to 23 feet in length, along with other reptiles like the Water Monitor Lizard and the King Cobra. Spotted deers and wild boars are abundant in the park and can be spotted at all the major locations. Eight varieties of Kingfishers are found here and can be spotted along the many creeks and riverines within the park.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: The boat ride from Khola to Dangmal or vice versa is highly recommended. Khola is one of the gateways into the park. This is along an artificial creek and it passes through dense mangrove forest providing a glimpse into the estuarine ecosystem and its wealth of fauna. The best time to travel through this creek is early morning or before sunset.


title: Bhitarkanika National Park

text: Bhitarkanika has a very rich historical and cultural past. It used to be the hunting grounds of the erstwhile King of Kanika . The hunting towers and artificial watering holes can be seen at many places including Bhitarkanika trail and at Dangmal. It is also the home of medieval Hindu temples which can be found dotted throughout the sanctuary. But the major attraction remains the wildlife wealth.


title: Contextual advertising

text: Contextual advertising is a form of targeted advertising for advertisements appearing on websites or other media, such as content displayed in mobile browsers. In context targeting, advertising media are controlled on the basis of the content of a website using linguistic elements. The advertisements themselves are selected and served by automated systems based on the context of what a user is looking at.


title: Contextual advertising

text: A contextual advertising system scans the text of a website for keywords and returns advertisements to the webpage based on those keywords. The advertisements may be displayed on the webpage as pop-up ads. For example, if the user is viewing a website pertaining to sports and that website uses contextual advertising, the user may see advertisements for sports-related companies, such as memorabilia dealers or ticket sellers. Contextual advertising is also used by search engines to display advertisements on their search results pages based on the keywords in the user's query.


title: Contextual advertising

text: Contextual advertising is a form of targeted advertising in which the content of an ad is in direct correlation to the content of the web page the user is viewing. An example of contextual advertising is an ad offering a special price on a flight to Italy appearing on a website concerning traveling in Europe. Contextual advertising is also called "In-Text" advertising or "In-Context" technology.


title: Contextual advertising

text: Apart from that when a visitor doesn't click on the ad in a go through time (a minimum time a user must click on the ad) the ad is automatically changed to next relevant ad showing the option below of going back to the previous ad.


title: Contextual advertising

text: Contextual ads are less irritating than traditional advertising. That is why it influences user more effectively. It shows user area of interest thus increasing the chance of receiving a response.


title: Contextual advertising

text: Google AdSense was the first major contextual advertising network. It works by providing webmasters with JavaScript code that, when inserted into webpages, displays relevant advertisements from the Google inventory of advertisers. The relevance is calculated by a separate Googlebot, that indexes the content of a webpage. Recent technology/service providers have emerged with more sophisticated systems that use language-independent proximity pattern matching algorithm to increase matching accuracy.


title: Contextual advertising

text: Contextual advertising has made a major impact on earnings of many websites. Because the advertisements are more targeted, they are more likely to be clicked, thus generating revenue for the owner of the website (and the server of the advertisement).


title: Contextual advertising

text: Contextual advertising has attracted some controversy through the use of techniques such as third-party hyperlinking, where a third-party installs software onto a user's computer that interacts with the web browser. Keywords on a webpage are displayed as hyperlinks that lead to advertisers.


title: Contextual advertising

text: With advertisers and marketers focusing on Brand Safety and Suitability, contextual advertising plays a role in protecting a brand's value. Brand positioning and contextual advertising are directly correlated to user perceptions so it is important for marketers to protect their brands by using appropriate contexts.


title: Contextual advertising

text: There are several advertising agencies that help brands understand how contextual advertising options affect their advertising plans. There are three main components to online advertising:


title: Contextual advertising

text: Contextual advertising replaces the media planning component. Instead of humans choosing placement options, that function is replaced with computers facilitating the placement across thousands of websites.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Fuat Oktay (born 1964) is a Turkish politician, civil servant and academic serving as the first and current vice president of Turkey since 10 July 2018. An independent, he previously served as undersecretary to the prime minister of Turkey from 2016 until his appointment to the vice presidency, following the creation of the office after the 2017 constitutional referendum.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Fuat Oktay was born in 1964 in Çekerek, Yozgat, and studied management at Çukurova University. Graduating in 1985, he began working at the university as a research assistant. In 1990, he obtained a master's degree from Wayne State University in Detroit in business and manufacturing engineering, as well as a doctorate in industrial engineering. While in the United States, he specialised in the fields of automotive engineering and communication.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Throughout the 2001 economic crisis, Oktay was involved in crisis management roles while also serving as the head of the Management Department and deputy dean at Beykent University. Alongside his academic career, Oktay also served as a consultant and advisor for both state-owned and private businesses, serving in the capacities of general manager, vice president and executive board member for many of them.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: From 13 May 2001 to 1 October 2003, Oktay remained in the management of Yimpas Necessity for a year and a half.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Oktay served as deputy general manager responsible for strategic planning and business development, production planning and information technology as well as sales and marketing at Turkish Airlines between 2008 and 2012. Being responsible for many development projects under the Turkish Airlines brand, he also served as an executive board member of the (DEİK) and the Turkish–English, Turkish–German and Turkish–Spanish business councils.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Oktay also served as an executive board member of Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI), of Turkish Technic and as the vice president of Türk Telekom.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Between 2012 and 2016, Oktay served as the head of the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (AFAD). During his tenure, he formulated several agreements in the field of risk and crisis management with other countries on behalf of the Turkish government.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Following the appointment of Binali Yıldırım as prime minister of Turkey, Oktay was appointed as his undersecretary on 18 June 2016. He became known for his modernisation of bureaucratic institutions with new digital and technological advances.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: He was part of the main diplomatic resistance during the Turkish coup d'état attempt on 15 July 2016. During the Operation Euphrates Shield and the Operation Olive Branch, which were carried out by Turkey, Oktay served in the capacity as co-ordinator between different bureaucratic institutions that were involved.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: In the 2017 constitutional referendum, voters narrowly approved constitutional changes that dissolved the existing parliamentary system in place of an executive presidency amid allegations of electoral fraud. The new system of government would see the president of Turkey becoming both head of state and head of government, abolishing the former head of government post of prime minister. The new system instigated the creation of the office of vice president of Turkey, who would be appointed and serve at the pleasure of the president.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: Early general elections took place on 24 June 2018 to elect the president and 600 members of parliament to the Grand National Assembly. The Justice and Development Party (AKP) candidate Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won the presidency with 52.59% of the vote outright, nullifying the need for a second round. His party also won the most seats in Parliament, falling short of a majority with 295 members of parliament.


title: Fuat Oktay

text: With the election of Erdoğan as the first president to take office under the new executive presidential system, it was speculated that he would adopt a predominantly technocratic cabinet and seek a 'United States' model by appointing just one vice president, despite the constitutional changes allowing multiple vice presidents to serve at once. Oktay was unveiled as Turkey's first vice president on 9 July 2018 with the announcement of the new cabinet, and was sworn in to office the next day.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: IUCN protected area categories, or IUCN protected area management categories, are categories used to classify protected areas in a system developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: The enlisting of such areas is part of a strategy being used toward the conservation of the world's natural environment and biodiversity. The IUCN has developed the protected area management categories system to define, record and classify the wide variety of specific aims and concerns when categorising protected areas and their objectives.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: This categorisation method is recognised on a global scale by national governments and international bodies such as the United Nations and the Convention on Biological Diversity.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: A strict nature reserve (IUCN Category Ia) is an area which is protected from all but light human use in order to protect its biodiversity and also possibly its geological/geomorphical features. These areas are often home to dense native ecosystems where all human disturbance except scientific study, environmental monitoring and education is prohibited. Because these areas are so strictly protected, they provide ideal pristine environments that enable measurement of external human influence by means of comparison with other areas.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: In some cases, strict nature reserves are of spiritual significance for surrounding communities and are also protected for this reason. The people engaged in the practice of their faith within the region have the right to continue to do so, providing it aligns with the area's conservation and management objectives.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Human impacts on strict nature reserves are increasingly difficult to prevent because climate and air pollution and newly emerging diseases do not stop at the boundaries of protected areas. If perpetual intervention is required to maintain these strict guidelines, the area will often fall into category IV or V.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: A wilderness area (IUCN Category Ib) is similar to a strict nature reserve, but generally larger and protected in a slightly less stringent manner.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: These areas are a protected domain in which biodiversity and ecosystem processes (including evolution) are allowed to flourish or experience restoration if previously disturbed by human activity. These are areas which may buffer against the effects of climate change and protect threatened species and ecological communities.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Human visitation is limited to a minimum, often allowing only those who are willing to travel of their own devices (by foot, by ski, or by boat), but this offers a unique opportunity to experience wilderness that has not been interfered with. Wilderness areas can be classified as such only if they are devoid of modern infrastructure, though they allow human activity to the level of sustaining indigenous groups and their cultural and spiritual values within their wilderness-based lifestyles.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: A national park (IUCN Category II) is similar to a wilderness area in its size and its main objective of protecting functioning ecosystems. However, national parks tend to be more lenient with human visitation and its supporting infrastructure. National parks are managed in a way that may contribute to local economies through promoting educational and recreational tourism on a scale that will not reduce the effectiveness of conservation efforts.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: The surrounding areas of a national park may be for consumptive or non-consumptive use but should nevertheless act as a barrier for the defence of the protected area's native species and communities to enable them to sustain themselves in the long term.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: A natural monument or feature (IUCN Category III) is a comparatively smaller area that is specifically allocated to protect a natural monument and its surrounding habitats. These monuments can be natural in the fullest sense or include elements that have been influenced or introduced by humans. The latter should hold biodiversity associations or could otherwise be classified as a historical or spiritual site, though this distinction can be quite difficult to ascertain.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: To be categorised as a natural monument or feature by IUCN's guidelines, the protected area could include natural geological or geomorphological features, culturally-influenced natural features, natural cultural sites, or cultural sites with associated ecology. The classification then falls into two subcategories: those in which the biodiversity is uniquely related to the conditions of the natural feature and those in which the current levels of biodiversity are dependent on the presence of the sacred sites that have created an essentially modified ecosystem.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Natural monuments or features often play a smaller but key ecological role in the operations of broader conservation objectives. They have a high cultural or spiritual value that can be utilised to gain support of conservation challenges by allowing higher visitation or recreational rights, therefore offering an incentive for the preservation of the site.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: A habitat or species management area (IUCN Category IV) is similar to a natural monument or feature, but focuses on more specific areas of conservation (though size is not necessarily a distinguishing feature), like an identifiable species or habitat that requires continuous protection rather than that of a natural feature. These protected areas will be sufficiently controlled to ensure the maintenance, conservation, and restoration of particular species and habitats—possibly through traditional means—and public education of such areas is widely encouraged as part of the management objectives.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Habitat or species management areas may exist as a fraction of a wider ecosystem or protected area and may require varying levels of active protection. Management measures may include (but are not limited to) the prevention of poaching, creation of artificial habitats, halting natural succession, and supplementary feeding practices.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: A protected landscape or protected seascape (IUCN Category V) covers an entire body of land or ocean with an explicit natural conservation plan, but usually also accommodates a range of for-profit activities.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: The main objective is to safeguard regions that have built up a distinct and valuable ecological, biological, cultural, or scenic character. In contrast with previous categories, Category V permits surrounding communities to interact more with the area, contributing to the area's sustainable management and engaging with its natural and cultural heritage.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Landscapes and seascapes that fall into this category should represent an integral balance between people and nature and can sustain activities such as traditional agricultural and forestry systems on conditions that ensure the continued protection or ecological restoration of the area.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Category V is one of the more flexible classifications of protected areas. As a result, protected landscapes and seascapes may be able to accommodate contemporary developments, such as ecotourism, at the same time as maintaining the historical management practices that may procure the sustainability of agrobiodiversity and aquatic biodiversity.:


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Though human involvement is a large factor in the management of these protected areas, developments are not intended to allow for widescale industrial production. The IUCN recommends that a proportion of the land mass remain in its natural condition—a decision to be made on a national level, usually with specificity to each protected area. Governance has to be developed to adapt the diverse—and possibly growing—range of interests that arise from the production of sustainable natural resources.


title: IUCN protected area categories

text: Category VI may be particularly suitable to vast areas that already have a low level of human occupation or in which local communities and their traditional practices have had little permanent impact on the environmental health of the region. This differs from category V in that it is not the result of long-term human interaction that has had a transformative effect on surrounding ecosystems.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Competence is the set of demonstrable characteristics and skills that enable and improve the efficiency or performance of a job. The term "competence" first appeared in an article authored by R.W. White in 1959 as a concept for performance motivation. In 1970, Craig C. Lundberg defined the concept in "Planning the Executive Development Program". The term gained traction when in 1973, David McClelland wrote a seminal paper entitled, "Testing for Competence Rather Than for Intelligence". The term was used by McClelland commissioned by the State Department, to extract characteristics common to high-performing agents of embassy, and to help them recruit and develop. It has since been popularized by Richard Boyatzis and many others, such as T.F. Gilbert (1978) who used the concept in relationship to performance improvement. Its use varies widely, which leads to considerable misunderstanding.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Some scholars see "competence" as a combination of practical and theoretical knowledge, cognitive skills, behavior and values used to improve performance; or as the state or quality of being adequately or well qualified, having the ability to perform a specific role. For instance, management competency might include systems thinking and emotional intelligence, and skills in influence and negotiation.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Studies on competency indicate that competency covers a very complicated and extensive concept, and different scientists have different definitions of competency. In 1982, Zemek conducted a study on the definition of competence. He interviewed several specialists in the field of training to evaluate carefully what makes competence. After the interviews, he concluded:


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Competency is also used as a more general description of the requirements of human beings in organizations and communities.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: If someone is able to do required tasks at the target level of proficiency, they are "competent" in that area.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Competency is sometimes thought of as being shown in action in a situation and context that might be different the next time a person has to act. In emergencies, competent people may react to a situation following behaviors they have previously found to succeed. To be competent a person would need to be able to interpret the situation in the context and to have a repertoire of possible actions to take and have trained in the possible actions in the repertoire, if this is relevant. Regardless of training, competency would grow through experience and the extent of an individual's capacity to learn and adapt. However, research has found that it is not easy to assess competencies and competence development.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Competency has multiple different meanings, and remains one of the most diffuse terms in the management development sector, and the organizational and occupational literature.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Competencies are also what people need to be successful in their jobs. Job competencies are not the same as job task. Competencies include all the related knowledge, skills, abilities, and attributes that form a person's job. This set of context-specific qualities is correlated with superior job performance and can be used as a standard against which to measure job performance as well as to develop, recruit, and hire employees.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Competencies and competency models may be applicable to all employees in an organization or they may be position specific. Identifying employee competencies can contribute to improved organizational performance. They are most effective if they meet several critical standards, including linkage to, and leverage within an organization's human resource system.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Core competencies differentiate an organization from its competition and create a company's competitive advantage in the marketplace. An organizational core competency is its strategic strength.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Competencies provide organizations with a way to define in behavioral terms what it is that people need to do to produce the results that the organization desires, in a way that is in keep with its culture. By having competencies defined in the organization, it allows employees to know what they need to be productive. When properly defined, competencies, allows organizations to evaluate the extent to which behaviors employees are demonstrating and where they may be lacking. For competencies where employees are lacking, they can learn. This will allow organizations to know potentially what resources they may need to help the employee develop and learn those competencies. Competencies can distinguish and differentiate your organization from your competitors. While two organizations may be alike in financial results, the way in which the results were achieve could be different based on the competencies that fit their particular strategy and organizational culture. Lastly, competencies can provide a structured model that can be used to integrate management practices throughout the organization. Competencies that align their recruiting, performance management, training and development and reward practices to reinforce key behaviors that the organization values.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Dreyfus and Dreyfus introduced nomenclature for the levels of competence in competency development. The causative reasoning of such a language of levels of competency may be seen in their paper on Calculative Rationality titled, "From Socrates to Expert Systems: The Limits and Dangers of Calculative Rationality". The five levels proposed by Dreyfus and Dreyfus were:


title: Competence (human resources)

text: The process of competency development is a lifelong series of doing and reflecting. As competencies apply to careers as well as jobs, lifelong competency development is linked with personal development as a management concept. And it requires a special environment, where the rules are necessary in order to introduce novices, but people at a more advanced level of competency will systematically break the rules if the situations requires it. This environment is synonymously described using terms such as learning organization, knowledge creation, self-organizing and empowerment.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Within a specific organization or professional community, professional competency is frequently valued. They are usually the same competencies that must be demonstrated in a job interview. But today there is another way of looking at it: that there are general areas of occupational competency required to retain a post, or earn a promotion. For all organizations and communities there is a set of primary tasks that competent people have to contribute to all the time. For a university student, for example, the primary tasks could be:


title: Competence (human resources)

text: The Occupational Competency movement was initiated by David McClelland in the 1960s with a view to moving away from traditional attempts to describe competency in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes and to focus instead on the specific self-image, values, traits, and motive dispositions (i.e. relatively enduring characteristics of people) that are found to consistently distinguish outstanding from typical performance in a given job or role. Different competencies predict outstanding performance in different roles, and that there is a limited number of competencies that predict outstanding performance in any given job or role. Thus, a trait that is a "competency" for one job might not predict outstanding performance in a different role. There is hence research on competencies needed in specific jobs or contexts.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: Nevertheless, there have been developments in research relating to the nature, development, and assessment of high-level competencies in homes, schools, and workplaces.


title: Competence (human resources)

text: The most recent definition has been formalized by Javier Perez-Capdevila in 2017, who has written that the competences are fusions obtained from the complete mixture of the fuzzy sets of aptitudes and attitudes possessed by employees, both in a general and singular way. In these fusions, the degree of belonging to the resulting group expresses the extent to which these competencies are possessed.