title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Assimilation was common for Jews in Romania, where some 757,000 of them lived but not necessarily in total peace there. Following the First World War, attacks against Jews intensified, as many Jews were stripped of citizenship. According to historian Lucy Dawidowicz, economic discrimination as well as violent antisemitism was present in Romania concomitant with Germany. Similar to Germany, Jews were forbidden full participation in Romanian society and culture, and under Antonescu the Romanianization of Jewish property was carried out, Jews were forbidden gainful employment, made to work as forced laborers, and a process of ghettoization and deportation was begun. Leading figures in Romania's antisemitic movement included the economics professor, Alexander Cuza, who founded the Fascist League of National Christian Defense, an organization that begat the notorious Iron Guard under Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. Cuza wanted to expel all Jews out of Romania; poet Octavian Coga wished to send them to Madagascar. The fascist Alexandru Razmerita advocated imprisoning the Jews in concentration camps and working them to death, while a Romanian Orthodox priest suggested drowning them all in the Black Sea. Copying the Nazis, the Romanian government enacted its version of the Nuremberg Laws in 1936. Iron Guard leader Codreanu once exclaimed that he was in favor of "eliminating the Jews completely, totally and without exception."


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: The Romanian Antonescu regime was responsible for the deaths of approximately 380,000 Jews according to historian Yehuda Bauer. An official declaration by the Romanian government that denied the existence of the Holocaust within the country's borders during World War II led in 2003 to the creation of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania. The official report of the Commission released jointly with the Romanian government concluded:


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: In cooperation with German "Einsatzgruppen" and Ukrainian auxiliaries, Romanian troops murdered hundreds of thousands of Jews in Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and Transnistria; some of the larger massacres of Jews occurred at Bogdanovka, a Romanian concentration camp along the Bug River in Transnistria, between 21 and 30 December 1941. Nearly 100,000 Jews were murdered in occupied Odessa and well over 10,000 were murdered in the Iași pogrom of June 1941. Romanian troops also massacred Jews in the Domanevka and Akhmetchetka concentration camps.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Jean Ancel, who headed the commission along with Elie Wiesel, spent his entire life researching Romania's treatment of Jews. In his book, he provides a confirmation using Romania's own archives, made available in 1994–95 after the collapse of the Soviet Union, and with Nazi documents, survivor testimonies, war crimes trial transcripts, that Romania not only participated in but independently implemented its own autonomous genocide of Jews in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and in Ukraine—the only Nazi ally to do so during the war.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: The protests of various public, political and religious figures, including Prince Constantin Karadja, against the deportation of the Jews from the Romanian Kingdom contributed to the change of policy toward the Jews starting with October 1942. The result of this change of policy and that of the actions of a relatively small number of individuals, was that at least 290,000 Romanian Jews survived.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Before the First World War, Serbia existed as an independent country before being incorporated into Yugoslavia in 1919. Approximately 16,000 Jews resided there. During the interwar years, Serbia constituted one of the places where it was comparatively safe to be a Jew, despite the presence of some general xenophobia. Serbia was occupied by Germany in April 1941. As part of their effort to occupy the northern regions of Yugoslavia, the Germans established a military government in Serbia. Serbia's collaborationist government was led by General Milan Nedić. The internal affairs of the Serbian-occupied territory were moderated by German racial laws, that were introduced in all occupied territories with immediate effects on the Jewish and Roma populations. Indigenous Serbians who harbored democratic beliefs were also targeted.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Partisan activities in Serbia elicited harsh pacification measures from the SD and Wehrmacht. The Nazis had a collective punishment policy of killing 100 Serbs for each German soldier killed and another 50 Serbs for every German soldier who was wounded. Resistance activities continued for some time in Serbia nonetheless.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Sometimes the Serbian authorities cooperated with the Germans as matter of course, whereas others took the individual initiative; some Serbian military commanders rounded up Gypsies so they could be concentrated in one area, where they were shot. German occupiers declared Serbia "Judenfrei" in August 1942. The major concentration camps in Serbia were Sajmište and Banjica but many others like Topovske Šupe, Šabac, and Niš concentration camps also interned considerable numbers of Jews. Before the war was concluded, upwards of 14,500 Serbian Jews were murdered. Legends about Serbs saving the Jews in World War II are widespread in Serbia, and 132 Serbs have been honored as Righteous Among the Nations.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: In 1938 approximately 135,000 Jews resided in Slovakia, around 40,000 of them lived in Ruthenia and Subcarpathia, areas previously ceded to Hungary; most of whom led good lives despite the presence of antisemitism among the peasant population of Slovakia. As early as April 1939, anti-Jewish legislation was enacted, but this was religious and not racial in nomenclature. Nonetheless, the restrictions against Jews proceeded accordingly, blocking them from various professions, which was accompanied by violence against the Jews from the indigenous Hlinka Guard. Slovakian Jews were among the first to be handed over en masse to the Nazis following the Wannsee Conference. Members of the Hlinka Guard went house to house and brutally seized young and fit Jews from their homes in March and April 1942, sending them to Auschwitz as slave laborers. The Hlinka Guard was assisted by the "Freiwillige Schutzstaffel" (Slovak volunteers in the SS). Between March through October 1942, Tiso's Slovakian regime deported approximately 58,000 Jews to the German-occupied part of Poland. The Slovak government even paid the Germans for the Jews that were deported. The deportation of the remaining 24,000 was stopped due to the intervention of a Papal nuncio, whereby the Slovak president was informed that the German authorities were killing the Jews deported from Slovakia. Despite this action, approximately 12,600 Slovak Jews were still sent to Auschwitz, Theresienstadt, and other camps in Germany before the deportations ceased. Around half of them were killed in concentration camps. Aggregate numbers of Holocaust victims tabulated by experts indicate that at least 60,000 Jews as well as 400 Slovakian Gypsies were killed; high estimates place the total number of Jewish victims from Slovakia at 71,000 persons.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: As early as 1903, Vladimir Lenin had already formulated a Communist ideology about the Jews, who he avowed, were not a nation since they did not possess any specified territory; this position was shared by Stalin and in the 1920s as many as 830,000 Soviet Jews were considered "lishentsy" (non-citizens). Some of those Jewish non-citizens eventually applied to work in factories and subsequently gained their citizenship but Jewish culture and literature faded fast under the Stalinist government. Nearly 90 percent of Russian Jews were urbanized and lived in one of eleven cities, with the largest groups in Moscow, Kiev, Odessa, and Leningrad. Antisemitic literature like the "Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion"—which purports to describe a Jewish conspiracy for world domination—was popular in prewar Russia. Russian pogroms targeting the Jews were among the first in the modern period to incite its citizens to violence for the sake of political expediency. Still, around three million Jews lived across the vast expanse of the Soviet Union in January 1939. The Jewish population within the Soviet territories was distributed as follows: 300,000 in Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, 5,000 in Estonia, 95,000 in Latvia, 155,000 in Lithuania (excluding Vilna), 1.5 to 1.6 million in Soviet-occupied Poland, and another 3.1 million in the USSR.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: During the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Jews were unaware of the Nazi anti-Jewish policies, partly as a result of Soviet silence about the matter. In the German-occupied Soviet territories, local Nazi collaborationist units represented over 80% of the available German forces, which provided them with a total of nearly 450,000 personnel organised in so-called "Schutzmannschaften" formations. Practically all of these units participated in the round-ups and mass shootings. The overwhelming majority were recruited in the western USSR and the Baltic region, areas recently occupied by the Soviets where the Jews were typically scapegoated, which exacerbated pre-Nazi antisemitic attitudes. Ukrainians in particular, displayed some of the most virulent hatred of the Jews and approved of German measures against them, despite their initial constraint in persecuting them. Eventually some 12,000 Ukrainian auxiliaries joined the Nazis in perpetuating the Final Solution and while many of them participated as Ukrainian nationalists, antisemitism proved a factor, one which they acquired on the job. Thousands of Ukrainians rushed to occupy businesses and homes vacated by persecuted Jews.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: German "Einsatzgruppen" units, members of the Wehrmacht, Order Police, and auxiliary units mostly from Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine were already engaged in killing operations in the summer of 1941 and by July of that year, they had helped kill 39,000 Ukrainian Jews, and another 26,000 Jews in Belarus. Local citizens aided by militias in Latvia, Bukovina, Romania, Bessarabia, Moldavia, Lithuania, Bialystok, Galicia, and elsewhere killed tens-of-thousands of Jews on their own accord. Throughout the remainder of 1941 to the autumn of 1942, the concerted murder operations proceeded apace. Not accounting for the deaths of victims from its territories, at least 700,000 Soviet Jews and 30,000 Gypsies were killed in the Holocaust. Another three-million Soviet soldiers were killed or starved-to-death by the Germans.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: During World War II, Francisco Franco remained largely silent in regard to Jewish matters, and Spain became an unlikely escape route and haven for thousands of Jews. Franco was known to harbor virulent antisemitic beliefs and agreed with Hitler that Judaism, Communism, and cosmopolitanism were related threats to European society. Western European Jews still fled to Spain, as they sought to escape deportation to concentration camps from German-occupied France, but also Sephardic Jews from Eastern Europe, especially in Hungary. Trudy Alexy refers to the "absurdity" and "paradox of refugees fleeing the Nazis' Final Solution to seek asylum in a country where no Jews had been allowed to live openly as Jews for over four centuries." In the first years of the war, "Laws regulating their admittance were written and mostly ignored." Once the tide of war began to turn against the Germans, and Count Francisco Gómez-Jordana succeeded Franco's brother-in-law Serrano Súñer as Spain's foreign minister, Spanish diplomacy became "more sympathetic to Jews", although Franco himself "never said anything" about it. Around that same time, a contingent of Spanish doctors traveling in Poland were fully informed of the Nazi extermination plans by the "Gauleiter" Frankel of Warsaw, who was under the misimpression that they would share his views about the matter; when they returned home, they passed the information to Admiral Luís Carrero Blanco, who told Franco.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Allied diplomats discussed the possibility of Spain as a route to a containment camp for Jewish refugees near Casablanca, but it came to nothing due to a lack of support. Nonetheless, control of the Spanish border with France relaxed somewhat and thousands of Jews managed to cross into Spain (many by smugglers' routes). Almost all of them survived the war. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee operated openly in Barcelona. Francoist Spain, despite its aversion to Zionism and "Judeo"-Freemasonry, does not appear to have shared the rabid antisemitic ideology promoted by the Nazis. About 20,000 to 30,000 refugees, mainly Jews, were allowed to transit through Spain to Portugal and beyond. About 5,000 Jews in occupied Europe benefitted from Spanish legal protection.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: In 2010, a document was found in Spanish archives, which revealed that Franco's government gave a main architect of the Nazi "Final Solution", Heinrich Himmler, a list of six thousand Jews living in Spain, upon his request. Jose Maria Finat y Escriva de Romani, Franco's chief of security issued an official order dated 13 May 1941 to all provincial governors requesting a list of all Jews, both local and foreign, present in their districts. After the list was compiled, Romani was appointed Spain's ambassador to Germany, enabling him to deliver the list to Himmler. Following the defeat of Germany in 1945, the Spanish government attempted to destroy all evidence of cooperation with the Nazis, but this official order survived. Spanish diplomats did save thousands of Jews, but it was done on their personal initiative.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Before the onset of the Second World War, approximately 7,000 Jews resided in Sweden, most of whom lived in Stockholm. Like Switzerland, the Swedish government remained neutral due to its financial ties and the economic advantages it secured from a friendly relationship with Germany. There was even a small fascist pro-Nazi political group—known as the Swedish National Socialist Party—but they were unable to rally support for their cause. Swedish authorities were initially resistant to Jewish immigration into the country and several thousand were turned away. That was not to last, as by 1942 the Swedish government started allowing Norwegian and Finnish immigrants, as well as taking in some 900 Norwegian Jews. Another 7,000 Danish Jews and some 9,000 Danish Christians were permitted entrance to Sweden in 1943. In 1944, the Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg traveled to Budapest and negotiated for the release of thousands of Hungarian Jews. Wallenberg's efforts secured passports for 15,000–20,000 Jews; he and those collaborating with him very likely saved the lives of some 70,000 Jews before the Red Army's arrival in Hungary during January 1945.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Proximity to Nazi Germany as a bordering nation made the Swiss government very tentative about dealing with the Jews. Sharing a physical border with Germany was also part of the reason that the Swiss maintained amicable economic relations with Germany. Correspondingly, both Sweden and especially Switzerland cooperated with the Nazis concerning banking and the exploitation of financial opportunities, as they knowingly accepted expropriation of money and goods, which previously belonged to Jewish companies and/or families for their own gain. Before 1938, Swiss alien and refugee policy was already restrictive toward certain people and groups, notably foreign Roma and Sinti. However, from that date, restrictions were intensified, particularly towards Jews. As part of that policy, the Swiss government requested that the German government mark the passports of German Jews with a "J" as they were not ready to grant asylum on the grounds of racial persecution. This policy took effect following the Anschluß with Austria, as the Swiss government was concerned about potential Jewish refugees fleeing and inundating them accordingly. In 1942 Swiss borders were completely closed to all Jewish refugees, which even included Jewish children.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: By late October 1942, news of the Jewish catastrophe had reached Switzerland. After German troops seized control of Italy, which had withdrawn its political and military support when non-fascist Italians overthrew Mussolini, hundreds of Jews escaped over the mountain passes into neutral Switzerland. French resistance fighters and activists were also instrumental in helping smuggle Jews from France into neutral Spain and Switzerland, where they were able to find shelter. Sometime in 1944, some 1,684 Hungarian Jews arrived in Switzerland from Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, another 1,200 Jews from Theresienstadt concentration camp found safety in Switzerland and by February 1945, over 115,000 refugees of various types had made their way across the Swiss border to safety.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: The International Commission of Experts (ICE) set up in 1996 by the Swiss parliament to examine relations between Nazi Germany and Switzerland reported: "Anti-Semitic views were more or less widespread amongst the political classes, the civil service, the military and the church." The ICE wrote: "by progressively closing the borders, delivering captured refugees over to their persecutors, and adhering to restrictive principles for far too long, the country stood by as many people were undoubtedly driven to certain death." Although accurate statistics are hard to put together, the commission concluded that "It must therefore be assumed that Switzerland turned back or deported over 20,000 refugees during the Second World War. Furthermore, between 1938 and November 1944, around 14,500 applications for entry visas submitted by hopeful emigrants to the Swiss diplomatic missions abroad were refused."


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: According to "The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust", the U.S. failed to live up to its creed about accepting the "tired, poor, huddled masses" of the world during the Holocaust. The U.S. policy towards Jews fleeing Germany and claiming asylum was restrictive. In 1939, the annual combined German-Austrian immigration quota was 27,370. A famous incident was the U.S. denial of entry to the "St. Louis", a ship loaded with 937 passengers. Almost all passengers aboard the vessel were Jews fleeing from Nazi Germany. Most were German citizens, some were from Eastern Europe, and a few were officially "stateless." The ship's original destination was Cuba, but the Cuban government, after admitting 28 refugees, ordered the ship to leave. The ship continued to the U.S., sailing so close to Florida that the passengers could see the lights of Miami. Some passengers on the "St. Louis" cabled President Franklin D. Roosevelt asking for refuge. Roosevelt never responded, though he could have issued an executive order to admit the "St. Louis" refugees. A State Department telegram sent to a passenger stated that the passengers must "await their turns on the waiting list and qualify for and obtain immigration visas before they may be admissible into the United States." Finally, the ship was forced to return to Europe and some 254 of its Jewish passengers eventually were murdered in the Holocaust.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: On 17 December 1942, the United States finally issued a statement condemning the Nazi extermination program, but this turned out to be a meaningless gesture as did the follow-on Bermuda Conference of April 1943. By that same year, evidence of the death camps was circulating via firsthand accounts through the State Department but U.S. leaders took no effort to bomb the camps nor did America offer to take in hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees. According to historian Victor Davis Hanson, American officials like then Assistant Secretary of State Breckinridge Long and Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy were "especially culpable" for their roles in "downplaying" evidence of the camps and for "incorrectly asserting that heavy bombers either could not reach camps like Auschwitz or could not be diverted from more important missions." In the end, the United States did not lift its immigration restriction against Jewish refugees until after the Second World War was over.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: The juridical notion of crimes against humanity was developed following the Holocaust. The sheer number of people murdered and the transnational nature of the mass killing shattered any notion of national sovereignty taking precedence over international law when prosecuting these crimes. There were a number of legal efforts established to bring Nazis and their collaborators to justice. Some of the higher-ranking Nazi officials were tried as part of the Nuremberg Trials, presided over by an Allied court; the first international tribunal of its kind. Other trials were conducted in the countries in which the defendants were citizens — in West Germany and Austria, many Nazis were let off with light sentences, with the claim of "following orders" ruled a mitigating circumstance, and many returned to society soon afterward.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: An ongoing effort to pursue Nazis and collaborators resulted, famously, in the 1960 capture of Holocaust organizer Adolf Eichmann in Argentina (an operation led by Rafi Eitan) and to his subsequent trial in Israel in 1961. Simon Wiesenthal became one of the most famous Nazi hunters.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Some former Nazis escaped any charges. For example, Reinhard Gehlen, a former intelligence officer of the Wehrmacht, managed to turn around and work for the CIA, and created what informally became known as the Gehlen Organization. He recruited ex–intelligence-officers of the Wehrmacht and Nazis from the SS and SD to work for him. On 1 April 1956, the "Bundesnachrichtendienst" (BND; the German intelligence agency) was created from the Gehlen Organization, and transferred to the West German government. Reinhard Gehlen became President of the BND and remained its head until 1968.


title: Responsibility for the Holocaust

text: Klaus Barbie, known as "the Butcher of Lyon" for his role at the head of the Gestapo, was protected from 1945 to 1955 by MI5 and the CIA, before fleeing to South America where he had a hand in Luis García Meza Tejada's 1980 "Cocaine Coup" in Bolivia. Barbie was finally arrested in 1983 and sentenced to life imprisonment for crimes against humanity in 1987.


title: Martin Riggs

text: Martin Riggs is a fictional character from the "Lethal Weapon" film series created by Shane Black. Riggs was originally played by actor Mel Gibson in all four films from 1987 to 1998, and later by Clayne Crawford in the Fox television series from 2016 to 2018.


title: Martin Riggs

text: Originally a member of the Los Angeles Police Department's Narcotics Division, upon being reassigned to the Homicide Division, Riggs is partnered up with straight-laced sergeant Roger Murtaugh. Riggs and Murtaugh remain partners and best friends throughout the film series.


title: Martin Riggs

text: Martin Riggs joined the U.S. Army at age 19, eventually becoming a member of the U.S. Army Special Forces, receiving specialized training in weaponry and hand-to-hand combat. These skills would later serve him well when he became a police officer. Most of Riggs' time in special forces was in Vietnam, where he served as an assassin under the CIA's "Phoenix Project". The first time he killed is never mentioned, but he mentions he shot a man with a sniper rifle from a long distance (1000 yards) in Laos; while his ability as a trained killer would later affect his mental health, he thought of it as "the only thing I was ever really good at".


title: Martin Riggs

text: In 1984, Riggs' wife, Victoria Lynn, dies in a car accident, sending him into a deep depression. Driven by grief to the brink of suicide, Riggs regularly puts himself (and anyone else near him) in danger, hoping someone will kill him. This total disregard for his own life makes him completely fearless, turning him into a "Lethal Weapon". By the end of the first film, however, he has vowed to move on with his life. In the second film, it is revealed that Victoria was actually murdered during an attempt on Riggs's life.


title: Martin Riggs

text: In "Lethal Weapon", Riggs is transferred from the narcotics division to the homicide division after a shooting incident. He is partnered with Detective Sergeant Roger Murtaugh in hopes that the older, more mature veteran will keep him in line. After a rough start, the two become best friends throughout the film series, even though Riggs always gets on Murtaugh's nerves. By the end of the first film, the two have worked together to rescue Murtaugh's daughter, who had been kidnapped by drug lords and mercenaries.


title: Martin Riggs

text: In "Lethal Weapon 2", Riggs discovers that South African crime lord Arjen Rudd, whom he and Murtaugh are pursuing, ordered Riggs' death in 1984. Rudd's enforcer, Pieter Vorstedt, killed Victoria Riggs by mistake and made the murder look like an automobile accident to cover up their involvement. After avenging the deaths of his wife and Rika van den Haas (whom Riggs had become involved with romantically before she, too, was murdered by Rudd and his minions), he is able to move on with his life. Meanwhile, Riggs and Murtaugh are assigned to protect a comical federal witness, Leo Getz, whom they ultimately become close friends with.


title: Martin Riggs

text: He meets Sgt. Lorna Cole, an internal affairs officer, in "Lethal Weapon 3" during an investigation into the disappearance of weapons from LAPD impound. The two make an immediate connection and work closely together to clear Murtaugh's name after he is forced to kill his son's friend in self-defense. Riggs and Cole become romantically involved and move in together after the end of the film.


title: Martin Riggs

text: In "Lethal Weapon 4", Riggs and Cole are still living together, and she is pregnant with their child, but they have dodged the issue of marriage. Both Riggs and Murtaugh are promoted to captain by the fourth film in order to keep them out of trouble, but are demoted back to sergeants at the end of the film. Leo helps Riggs finally make peace with his wife's death; Riggs marries Cole while she is giving birth to their son.


title: Martin Riggs

text: In a March 2016 newspaper article, the plot for the television pilot is as follows: "When Texas cop and former Navy SEAL Martin Riggs...suffers the loss of his wife and baby, he moves to Los Angeles to start anew. There, he gets partnered with LAPD detective Roger Murtaugh...who, having recently suffered a "minor" heart attack, must avoid any stress in his life. In the Season Two finale, Riggs kills his abusive father during a fight after rescuing Murtaugh's wife. At the end of the episode, Riggs visits his deceased wife's grave. At the gravesite, his much younger half-brother Garrett shows up, shoots him in the chest, mortally wounding him, and leaves. In the Season Three premiere, he dies from his gunshot wound in the hospital and is subsequently replaced by Wesley Cole as Murtaugh's partner.


title: Martin Riggs

text: Riggs is also a practitioner of several styles of martial arts that include Wing Chun, Judo, Taekwondo, Boxing, Capoeira, Shotokan Karate and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.


title: Martin Riggs

text: Critics have given the character a positive reception. He is praised for his dramatic and brutal fight scene with Mr. Joshua (Gary Busey) and the sharp and clever dialogue provided by Shane Black. Martin Riggs is number 100 on Empire's list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters.


title: Minami (singer)

text: Minami won the second FlyingDog Audition Grand Prix in 2017, and later signed onto FlyingDog under Victor Entertainment in 2019. On June 30, 2020, she transferred to Warner Music Japan.


title: Minami (singer)

text: Minami was born in the city of Saitama in Saitama Prefecture. Influenced by the live performances of Yutaka Ozaki in high school, she took up guitar and participated in music activities.


title: Minami (singer)

text: In 2017, the first mini-album "ETERNAL BLUE" and the first single "main actor" were released. On Tower Records in Shibuya, Sapporo, Sendai, Nagoya, Osaka, Hiroshima, Fukuoka, limited sales were made.


title: Minami (singer)

text:
• アスター (Astor)
• ハル-あと3cmの冬-
• groping
• issue
• プレッシャーボーイズ (Pressure Boys)
• Deep-sea fish
• 放課後オレンジヒーロー (After School Orange Hero)
• ETERNAL BLUE
• 留年確定
• カレーライス (Curry Rice)
• サイダーみたいだ (Like a Cider)
• 傘を忘れた日
• Summer time game!!
• 星屑のうた
• 雪見だいふくの歌


title: Erratum

text: An erratum or corrigendum (plurals: errata, corrigenda) (comes from ) is a correction of a published text. As a general rule, publishers issue an erratum for a production error (i.e., an error introduced during the publishing process) and a corrigendum for an author's error. It is usually bound into the back of a book, but for a single error a slip of paper detailing a corrigendum may be bound in before or after the page on which the error appears. An erratum may also be issued shortly after its original text is published.


title: Erratum

text: Corrigendum is the gerundive form of the Latin compound verb "corrigo -rexi -rectum" (from the verb "rego", "to make straight, rule", plus the preposition "cum", "with"), "to correct", and thus signifies "(those things) which must be corrected" and in its single form "Corrigendum" it means "(that thing) which must be corrected".


title: Erratum

text: According to the "Chicago Manual of Style", "Errata, lists of errors and their corrections, may take the form of loose, inserted sheets or bound-in pages. An errata sheet is definitely not a usual part of a book. It should never be supplied to correct simple typographical errors (which may be rectified in a later printing) or to insert additions to, or revisions of, the printed text (which should wait for the next edition of the book). It is a device to be used only in extreme cases where errors severe enough to cause misunderstanding are detected too late to correct in the normal way but before the finished book is distributed. Then the errors may be listed with their locations and their corrections on a sheet that is tipped in, either before or after the book is bound, or laid in loose, usually inside the front cover of the book. (Tipping and inserting must be done by hand, thus adding considerably to the cost of the book.)"


title: Erratum

text: Design errors and mistakes in a microprocessor's hardwired logic may also be documented and described as errata. One well-publicized example is Intel's "FDIV" erratum in early Pentium processors, known as the Pentium FDIV bug. This gave incorrect answers to a floating-point division instruction (FDIV) for a small set of numbers, due to an incorrect lookup table inside the Pentium chip.


title: Erratum

text: Similarly, design errors in peripheral devices, such as disk controllers and video display units, can result in abnormal operation under certain conditions.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The Green Line Extension (GLX) is a construction project to extend the light rail Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) Green Line northwest into Somerville and Medford, two inner suburbs of Boston, Massachusetts. The project opened in two phases in 2022 at a total cost of $2.28 billion. Total ridership on the extension is estimated to reach 45,000 one-way trips per day in 2030.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The project begins at the north end of the Lechmere Viaduct, where the former ground-level Lechmere station was replaced by an elevated station on an extended viaduct. The two branches split north of Lechmere, with the Union Square Branch following the MBTA Commuter Rail Fitchburg Line right of way to Union Square station in Somerville. The Medford Branch follows the Lowell Line right-of-way to Medford/Tufts station with four intermediate stations. A new vehicle maintenance facility and storage yard is located in the Inner Belt District. The project includes a extension of the Somerville Community Path to North Point, which is expected to open in early 2023.


title: Green Line Extension

text: An extension of service beyond Lechmere was considered as early as 1922, with the first formal proposal in 1926. Despite appearing in other regional plans throughout the 20th century, the state did not commit to the project until 1990. Planning began in 2006 with a projected completion date of 2014; this was delayed to 2015, then to 2018. A groundbreaking was held in 2012, with several early construction elements over the next two years. The federal government committed $996 million of the $2.2 billion cost in 2014.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In 2015, with projected costs increased to $3.3 billion, the project was placed on hold. A revised plan, with more modest stations and other value engineering, was submitted in 2016 and approved in 2017. The main $1.08 billion design-build contract was issued in November 2017, with several optional items like platform canopies and a larger vehicle maintenance facility included. Construction began in 2018, with the old Lechmere station closed in May 2020. The new Lechmere station and Union Square Branch opened on March 21, 2022, while the Medford Branch opened on December 12, 2022.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The GLX is primarily located in Somerville, northwest of downtown Boston, with its northernmost portion in Medford and its southernmost portion in the East Cambridge section of Cambridge. The GLX begins at the north end of the Lechmere Viaduct in East Cambridge, where a short elevated section formerly led to the surface-level Lechmere station at Lechmere Square. The new elevated GLX viaduct continues northwest for about , paralleling the O'Brien Highway. A new elevated Lechmere station is located on the viaduct on the east side of Lechmere Square. Two branches split at an aerial flying junction on the Red Bridge viaduct in the Inner Belt area:


title: Green Line Extension

text: The Vehicle Maintenance Facility (VMF) is located in the Inner Belt area adjacent to the MBTA Commuter Rail Maintenance Facility. It includes a four-track shop building, ten storage tracks with capacity for about 43 light rail vehicles (LRVs), a loop track, and a building for operator reporting and breaks. Yard leads connect the VMF to both branches near the Red Bridge flyover.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The GLX is fully grade separated, with no road grade crossings, though there are level crossings for passengers at East Somerville and Ball Square stations. Construction of the project included the replacement or modification of three rail bridges and seven road bridges. Maximum speed on the extension is , except for limits for the Union Square Branch at Red Bridge. As with the existing Green Line subway and D branch, the GLX has automatic block signaling with color light signals. The signal system is designed for 5-minute headways on each branch, with 2-minute headways through Lechmere.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The seven GLX stations are accessible; all have elevators between street level and platform level except East Somerville, which has a ramp from street level. The stations have fare vending machines, but not faregates. Most of the stations have island platforms wide and long – enough to fit three current LRVs or two future Type 10 LRVs – with provision to extend them to in the future. The platform at Lechmere is wide and long – enough to fit two current two-car trains – as it would be difficult to later extend the elevated platform. The platforms are high for accessible boarding on current LRVs, and can be raised to for future level boarding with Type 9 and Type 10 LRVs.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Stations will have validators on the fare vending machines, with proof of payment enforcement in effect. When the station designs were simplified in 2016–17, faregates were removed from the plans. The MBTA expected AFC 2.0 (the Charliecard replacement system) to be fully in place by the time the GLX opened, with passengers able to board and tap their farecards at any door on trains. However, delays to the AFC 2.0 system means the GLX opened prior to all-door boarding being implemented.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The Boston and Lowell Railroad (B&L) opened through South Medford, Somerville, and East Cambridge in 1835. Local stops were gradually added, beginning with Milk Row in Somerville later that year. The Charlestown Branch Railroad opened through Somerville and Charlestown in 1842; it was soon extended as the Fitchburg Railroad. In 1870, the B&L built a cutoff from to Somerville Junction, which allowed Lexington Branch trains to enter Boston on the B&L. The Massachusetts Central Railroad began service in 1881; it used most of the 1870-built cutoff to reach Boston. It was leased in 1886 by the B&L, which was in turn leased by the Boston and Maine Railroad (B&M) in 1887 as its Southern Division. The Fitchburg was leased by the B&M in 1900 as the Fitchburg Division. By the early 20th century, the Southern Division had stations at Medford Hillside and Tufts College in South Medford; North Somerville, Somerville Junction, Winter Hill, and Prospect Hill in Somerville; and East Cambridge. Stations were located on the Lexington Branch at North Cambridge, West Somerville, and Somerville Highlands. The Fitchburg Division had stations at Cambridge, Somerville, and Union Square.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Horsecar service by the Cambridge Railroad in Somerville began in 1858 with lines from Union Square to Sullivan Square and to Elm Street (now Davis Square) via Somerville Avenue. The Cambridge Railroad was granted permission in 1860 to run tracks over the Craigie Bridge from East Cambridge to Boston, joining with its existing line on Cambridge Street from Harvard Square, though service did not begin until around 1862. The Somerville Avenue line was extended from Union Square to Boston in 1864, joining the existing line at Lechmere Square in East Cambridge. The Cambridge Street line was converted to electric streetcar service by Cambridge Railroad successor West End Street Railway in 1891; the Somerville Avenue line and an 1888-built line to Davis Square via Highland Avenue were electrified and extended to Clarendon Hill in 1893–1895.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The West End was leased to the Boston Elevated Railway (BERy) in 1897. The three streetcar lines running through Lechmere Square began running into the Tremont Street subway upon its September 3, 1898, opening. Slow and unreliable service on the surface streetcar lines resulted in congestion in the subway. The Lechmere Viaduct and Causeway Street elevated opened on July 1, 1912, creating a grade-separated route from Lechmere Square to the subway and bypassing the Cragie Bridge. However, the surface lines through Somerville continued to be unreliable, and multiple-car trains were needed to increase subway capacity. On July 10, 1922, the BERy opened Lechmere station as a transfer point. Passengers on the Harvard Square and Clarendon Hill surface lines transferred to two-and-three-car subway trains, bringing rapid transit-style service to Lechmere.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In 1907, the BERy proposed a branch of the Charlestown Elevated following Mystic Avenue from Sullivan Square to Medford Square. In 1922, with the downtown subway network and several radial lines in service, the BERy indicated plans to built three additional radial subways: one paralleling the Midland Branch through Dorchester, a second branching from the Boylston Street subway to run under Huntington Avenue, and a third extending from Lechmere Square northwest through Somerville. (The Dorchester line was eventually built as an extension of the Cambridge–Dorchester Tunnel later that decade, while a shorter Huntington Avenue subway opened in 1941.)


title: Green Line Extension

text: The "Report on Improved Transportation Facilities", published by the Boston Division of Metropolitan Planning in 1926, was the first comprehensive transit plan for the Boston area since the 1890s. The core recommendation of the report was a conversion of the Tremont Street subway to Maverick Square–Warren Street, Brighton and Lechmere Square–Brigham Circle, Roxbury rapid transit routes. Several suburban rapid transit extensions were proposed as secondary priorities; one would run in a dedicated median in the Northern Artery from Lechmere to Winter Hill, alongside the B&M Southern Division tracks to Somerville Junction, then follow the cutoff (by then called the Fitchburg Cutoff) to North Cambridge. Several branches of that line were listed as possible extensions: North Cambridge to via the Lexington Branch, North Cambridge to via the Fitchburg mainline, and Somerville Junction to via the Southern Division and Woburn Branch.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Variations on this plan were proposed several times during the 1930s. A 1935 proposal by a citizen's group called for a subway extension from or surfacing in the North Station rail yards, then following the Southern Division and the Fitchburg Cutoff to Alewife Brook Parkway in North Cambridge. "High-speed trolley connections" would run to Arlington Heights and Belmont. A new expressway would have taken over the Causeway Street elevated and Lechmere Viaduct, then largely paralleled the new transit line to connect with the existing Mohawk Trail expressway at Alewife Brook Parkway. A 1938 proposal by Somerville mayor John M. Lynch called for an extension of the East Boston Tunnel from Bowdoin to the Lechmere Viaduct, a subway from Lechmere to Washington Street, and use of the Southern Division, Fitchburg Cutoff, and Lexington Branch to reach Arlington Center. A 1939 state resolve directed the Metropolitan District Commission to study that proposal.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Transit service in Somerville declined during this period due to the Great Depression and competition from autos, many using the 1927-completed Northern Artery. East Cambridge, Prospect Hill, and the three Fitchburg Cutoff stations closed in 1927. Winter Hill closed in the 1930s, Union Square and Somerville in 1938, and Somerville Junction in the 1940s. The Harvard Square–Lechmere route (now route ) was converted to trackless trolley in 1936. By 1940, six streetcar routes remained in Somerville: route Clarendon Hill–Lechmere via Somerville Avenue, route , Clarendon Hill–Lechmere via Highland Avenue, routes Clarendon Hill–Sullivan Square and Salem Street–Sullivan Square on Broadway, and two routes on the Fellsway running through East Somerville. Routes 87 and 88 were converted to trackless trolley in 1941; following heavy wartime ridership, routes 89 and 101 were converted in 1947. Service on the Fellsway, which included Eastern Massachusetts Street Railway service to Stoneham until 1946, lasted until 1955.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In 1943, the state legislature appointed a commission headed by Arthur W. Coolidge to plan for the future of transit in the Boston region. In 1945, a preliminary report from the Coolidge Commission recommended nine suburban rapid transit extensions – most similar to the 1926 plan – along existing railroad lines. The proposed extension from Lechmere to Woburn followed the same alignment as the 1926 plan, albeit using an extended elevated structure rather than a subway north of Lechmere. A short subway segment was to be built to avoid the grade crossings at . Annual ridership on the extension was estimated to be 11.8 million based on B&M and BERy ridership. The 1947 final report modified some routes; the Woburn route was to be extended an additional to North Woburn. Cost was estimated at $3.627 million in 1941 dollars (equivalent to $ million in ). The Coolidge Commission also laid the groundwork for the 1947 transition of the BERy to public ownership as the Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA).


title: Green Line Extension

text: In 1958, the B&M ended service to Medford Hillside, Tufts College, and North Somerville – the last three local stops south of – due to declining ridership. Route 101 was converted from trackless trolley to diesel bus in 1959; routes 69, (not a former streetcar line), 87, 88, and 89 were all converted in 1963, leaving buses as the only remaining transit in Somerville and South Medford. The 1962 "North Terminal Area Study", claiming that the 1959 Highland branch conversion showed that PCC streetcars were inadequate for suburban rapid transit service, recommended that the elevated Lechmere–North Station segment be abandoned. The Main Line (now the Orange Line) was to be relocated along the B&M Western Route; it would have a branch to Woburn or Arlington via the Southern Division.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) was formed in 1964 as an expansion of the MTA to subsidize suburban commuter rail service, as well as to construct rapid transit extensions to replace some commuter rail lines. In 1965, as part of systemwide rebranding, the Tremont Street subway and its connecting lines became the Green Line. The 1966 "Program for Mass Transportation", the MBTA's first long-range plan, listed an approximately extension from Lechmere to Washington Street as an immediate priority. New Hampshire Division (Southern Division) passenger service would be cut back from North Station to a new terminal at Washington Street. A second phase of the project would extend Green Line service from Washington Street to Mystic Valley Parkway (Route 16) or West Medford.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The 1972 final report of the Boston Transportation Planning Review listed a Green Line extension from Lechmere to as a lower priority. The cost of the extension was estimated as $26 million (equivalent to $ million in ). Extension past Lechmere was listed as low priority in a 1974 plan due to the addition of Davis station to the planned Red Line Northwest Extension. (Davis opened in 1984 as the first MBTA subway station in Somerville.) An extension to Tufts University was listed as a proposal in the 1978 and 1983 updates to the Program for Mass Transportation.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In 1980, the MBTA began a study of the "Green Line Northwest Corridor" (from to Medford) with three area of focus: replacement of the Causeway Street elevated, replacement of Lechmere station, and extension beyond Lechmere. An evaluation report for the extension was published in 1981 and updated in 1984. Alternatives recommended for further evaluation included a Green Line extension to Tufts, a Green Line extension to , and a busway to Tufts and Davis. Later in the 1980s, the MBTA made plans to relocate Lechmere station as a precursor to an extension. A new elevated station would be located on the east side of the O'Brien Highway, with a new vehicle storage yard and maintenance facility to the north. The project was not pursued due to lack of available funding.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In 1991, the state agreed to build a set of transit projects as part of the settlement of a lawsuit by the Conservation Law Foundation (CLF) over auto emissions from the Central Artery/Tunnel Project (Big Dig). Among these projects was a "Green Line Extension To Ball Square/Tufts University", to be complete by the end of 2011. While many of the projects were completed over the next 14 years, including the Old Colony Lines restoration and the South Boston Piers Transitway, the Green Line Extension was not advanced into planning. The 2003 "Program for Mass Transportation" considered both Green Line and Blue Line extensions to West Medford, including possible alignments through Union Square. Both modes were rated medium priority; the Blue Line version was twice as expensive due to the need to tunnel under the Charles River. In March 2005, with the extension not in the MBTA's five-year plan, the city of Somerville and the CLF filed a lawsuit against the state for breaching the 1991 agreement.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In May 2005, the state announced an updated agreement, which revised the set of committed projects. Improvements to the Fairmount Line and increased Framingham/Worcester Line service were added; the Red-Blue Connector and Arborway service restoration were removed. The Green Line Extension was changed to include a branch to Union Square, with the main branch running to Medford Hillside. The project was estimated to cost $559 million (equivalent to $ million in ). While the city of Medford was supportive of an extension as far as Medford Hillside, a potential further terminus at West Medford had less local support.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The "Beyond Lechmere Northwest Corridor Study", a Major Investment Study/alternatives analysis, was published in 2005. The analysis studied a variety of Green Line extensions (including a West Medford branch, a Union Square branch, both branches, and an extension to West Medford via Union Square and a tunnel under Prospect Hill), bus rapid transit (BRT) to West Medford and/or Union Square, commuter rail shuttles to West Medford or Anderson RTC with additional stops, and combinations of those modes. The highest-rated alternatives were Green Line to West Medford (estimated cost $390 million), Green Line to both West Medford and Union Square ($438 million), and Green Line to Union Square plus BRT to West Medford ($340 million).


title: Green Line Extension

text: The 2005 litigation was resolved by a November 2006 court settlement under which the Green Line Extension was to be completed in 2014. This was approved by the Environmental Protection Agency in July 2008. Proposed station sites were announced in May 2008: , , , , , Medford Hillside (between College Avenue and Winthrop Street), and . The former Yard 8 (located between the GLX tracks and Inner Belt Road) was chosen as the site for a maintenance and storage facility. The project was widely supported in Somerville, where it was seen as a development catalyst and a correction for past transportation injustices, but was less popular in more suburban Medford. Several potential tunnel alternatives – from Ball Square to , an underground station at Union Square, and tunneling all or part of the Medford Branch – were analyzed in 2008 and found not to be cost-effective.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The Massachusetts Executive Office of Transportation and Public Works submitted an Expanded Environmental Notification Form (EENF) to the Massachusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs in October 2006. The EENF identified a Green Line extension with Medford and Union Square branches as the preferred alternative, and sought permission to conduction a single environmental impact report. That December, the Secretary of Environmental Affairs issued a certificate that instead required the preparation of separate draft (DEIR) and final (FEIR) environmental impact reports. Work on the DEIR began in September 2007.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The DEIR was released in October 2009. West Medford was eliminated as a possible terminus due to the cost of modifying bridges over the Mystic River and Mystic Valley Parkway, as well as safety issues with two grade crossings. The proposed Medford Hillside station was replaced with College Avenue to improve access from the neighborhood to the north. The preferred alternative had branches to Route 16 and Union Square; however, due to cost constraints, the Route 16 terminus was deferred to a second phase, with the proposed alternative terminating at College Avenue.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The FEIR was released in June 2010, with an estimated project cost of $845 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The primary change from the DEIR was the relocation of the maintenance facility about to the east (adjacent to the MBTA Commuter Rail Maintenance Facility) due to local objections to the original site. In July 2010, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation (MassDOT) announced that the project was delayed to October 2015.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In November 2010, the MBTA reached an agreement with Pan Am Railways and the NorthPoint developers under which the MBTA would receive property on the east side of O'Brien Highway needed for the new Lechmere station; in return, Pan Am would receive the existing Lechmere station site for redevelopment. The agreement, which also included MBTA trackage rights on the Worcester Branch and in New Hampshire, was amended in January 2011 and finalized that March.


title: Green Line Extension

text: An additional delay, with service beginning between late 2018 and 2020, was announced in August 2011. This delay was due to difficulties with land acquisition – due to issues with the Greenbush Line reopening, the state decided to acquire all property before beginning construction – and concerns about cost controls and financing. The delays beyond the legal deadline of December 31, 2014, created a requirement for MassDOT to implement interim projects to reduce emissions. The selected interim measures were increased midday frequency in the corridor (Green Line service to Lechmere plus bus routes , , , , and ), the purchase of hybrid vehicles for The Ride, and completion of new parking garages at and stations.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In June 2012, the project was accepted into the preliminary engineering phase of the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) New Starts program – a requirement to access federal funding. By that time, the project was planned to cost $1.34 billion, including $200 million in finance charges. The project received a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) from the FTA in July 2012. This allowed the MBTA to open bidding on the Phase 1 construction contract. The $13 million contract was awarded to Barletta Heavy Division that December. Unlike later parts of the project, it used the traditional design–bid–build procurement method.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The City of Somerville, MassDOT, and the MBTA reached an agreement in August 2012 to open the Union Square Branch by early 2017, with construction to begin in 2014. In September 2013, MassDOT awarded a $393 million (equivalent to $ million in ), 51-month contract for the construction of Phase 2/2A – Lechmere station, the Union Square Branch, and the first segment of the Medford Branch to Washington Street station – with the stations to open in early 2017. MassDOT intended to seek $557 million (equivalent to $ million in ) in federal funds for Phase 3 (construction of the maintenance facility) and Phase 4 (construction of the remainder of the Medford Branch), which were to be completed in 2019 or 2020.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In April 2014, governor Deval Patrick signed a $12.8 billion bonding bill, which included up to $1.3 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) for the Green Line Extension. Later that month, MassDOT announced that the $39 million Somerville Community Path extension would be included in the GLX project. In May, MassDOT approved a $118 million contract with CAF USA to build 24 Type 9 LRVs to expand the Green Line fleet for GLX service. In September 2014, the MBTA indicated that the cost would be $2.3 billion – $1.6 billion direct cost plus $400 million contingency and $300 million finance charges. This represented a $200 million increase in direct costs due to the addition of the Somerville Community Path extension, additional viaduct work near Lechmere, and additional construction management by design contractor AECOM/HNTB. In December 2014, the FTA indicated that it would provide $996 million (equivalent to $ billion in ) of the $2.3 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) total project cost, with the state funding the remaining portion. The Full Funding Grant Agreement (FFGA) was signed in January 2015.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Internal cost estimates began to diverge even before funding was arranged. Construction costs were estimated at $1.17 billion by construction manager White Skanska Kiewit (WSK) in December 2013, with total project cost of $2.35 billion. However, a month later, project manager HDR/Gilbane produced estimates of $853 million and $1.83 billion. The MBTA budgeted $1.99 billion in June 2014 for total cost ($2.3 billion including finance charges), using the HDR/Gilbane estimate; this estimate was announced in September and used for the FFGA.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In August 2015, the MBTA disclosed that projected costs had increased by $700 million–1 billion from the previous $1.99 billion figure. Prices of several portions of the project had risen substantially, with Phase 2/2A rising from $387 million to $898 million. Critics including the CLF blamed the use of construction manager/general contractor (CM/GC) procurement process, under which WSK was able to set the cost of each subcontract, rather than a traditional process where the costs were set during bidding. In December 2015, the MBTA ended its contracts with WSK and three other firms. Construction work in progress continued, but no new contracts were awarded. At that time, cancellation of the project was considered possible, as were elimination of the Union Square Branch and other cost reduction measures.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In May 2016, the MassDOT and MBTA boards approved a modified project that had undergone value engineering to reduce its cost. Stations were simplified to resemble D branch surface stations rather than full rapid transit stations, with canopies, faregates, escalators, and some elevators removed. Two bridge replacements were avoided, and two others were reduced in scale by building a new span behind one abutment. The Vehicle Maintenance Facility was reduced by half, with storage for 44 LRVs rather than 88.The southern section of the Community Path was removed – prompting criticism from trail advocates – and the number of street access points was reduced. These changes were projected to reduce total project cost back to the $2.3 billion established in the FFGA.


title: Green Line Extension

text: That August, the FTA indicated it was "committed in principle" to the project but expressed reservations that any delays to the "optimistic" schedule could increase the project cost. A new project manager was hired in November 2016. In December 2016, the MBTA reached funding agreements under which Cambridge would contribute $25 million and Somerville $50 million. the MBTA announced a new planned opening date of 2021 for the extension. The FTA approved the revised cost estimate in April 2017. The first federal funds for the project were received in July 2017.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In February 2017, three consortia were shortlisted for the new design-build contract. The MBTA issued a final request for proposal to those three teams in May 2017. Proposals were required to be below an affordability limit of $1.319 billion in order to keep total project costs below $2.3 billion. Six additive options – elements removed during value engineering – were to be included if the teams could still meet cost and schedule requirements: station canopies, additional elevators at some stations, public art, an additional Community Path street connection, full-length extension of the Community Path, and improvements to the Vehicle Maintenance Facility. In August 2017, construction manager CH2M was removed from the project to avoid a conflict of interest, as it was being acquired by Jacobs Engineering Group, which was also bidding on the construction contract.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The three proposals were received in September 2017. Two of the three proposals were certified in October 2017 as meeting the affordability limit. On November 17, 2017, the MBTA selected GLX Constructors (a consortium of Fluor Enterprises, the Middlesex Corporation, Herzog Contracting Corporation, and Balfour Beatty Infrastructure) to build the project. The consortium's base bid was $954 million, with all six additive options included; the $1.08 billion contract included contingency funds. The contract was awarded on November 20, 2017.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Several elements of the reduced-cost project design were criticized by community advocates and local politicians. E. Denise Simmons criticized the scaled-down station designs at Union Square and East Somerville for having long ramps rather than elevators, saying they were not sufficient for accessibility. The Community Path extension is wide, rather than the minimum in federal guidelines. The Friends of the Somerville Community Path criticized the path width, saying it would be a safety issue as cyclists in the same direction could not safely pass each other.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The 1991 agreement to build the GLX specified "Ball Square/Tufts University" as the terminus; the 2005 update to the agreement substituted "Medford Hillside". By 2008, plans called for stations at Medford Hillside (between College Avenue and Winthrop Street) and Route 16/. However, the 2009 draft environmental impact report replaced the Medford Hillside station with one slightly to the south at College Avenue, and deferred Mystic Valley Parkway to a future second phase. During the comment periods for the 2010 final environmental impact report and the 2011 environmental assessment, some residents in Medford and Somerville questioned the advantages and legality of this change, claiming that College Avenue was not part of the Medford Hillside neighborhood and thus that the Mystic Valley Parkway station was needed to fulfill the commitment. In January 2012, MassDOT stated that "the position of MassDOT and the MBTA on the configuration of the Green Line Extension is supported and has been reinforced by multiple regulatory agencies overseeing the [State Implementation Plan], including MassDEP."


title: Green Line Extension

text: Construction of the Mystic Valley Parkway station was later planned from Boston MPO funds for 2016–2020 after the rest of the line was to be complete; however, this funding was reallocated to the main project after the cost overruns. Some environmental review for the extension has taken place, with a notice of project change released in October 2017.


title: Green Line Extension

text: An extension of the Union Square Branch to has also been proposed by local officials. Union Square station is designed so as to not preclude such an extension.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Phase 1 consisted of the reconstruction of two railroad bridges (over Harvard Street in Medford and over Medford Street in Somerville) for Green Line tracks, and the demolition of a disused MBTA facility at 21 Water Street in Cambridge to make room for the new Lechmere station. Construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony held at the Medford Street bridge on December 11, 2012. Notice to proceed was issued to Barletta Heavy Division on January 31, 2013, and construction started in March. The 21 Water Street facility was demolished in August 2014. Originally planned to last until early 2015, Phase 1 work was completed in October 2015.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Notice to proceed with the Type 9 LRV contract was given to CAF in September 2014. The first LRV was delivered in March 2018 and entered service that December. The remaining 23 LRVs were delivered in 2018–2020 and entered service in 2019–2021.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Some construction work on the main project, including piers for the Red Bridge viaduct, took place in 2014–15 before the project was put on hold. The FTA released the first $100 million in funding in December 2017, allowing the MBTA to issue a notice to proceed for the main construction contract. Some work like tree clearing, removal of old siding tracks, and geotechnical boring took place in the first half of 2018, while design of stations and other complex elements continued. A groundbreaking ceremony was held on June 25, 2018. Viaduct construction, drainage work, and retaining wall and noise wall erection began in the second half of 2018. Temporary relocation of the Lowell Line tracks, which allowed for the construction of retaining walls to widen the cut to accommodate the GLX tracks, was completed in October 2018. By the end of 2018, station designs were 60% complete.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The Homans Building, a former food distribution facility adjacent to the Gilman Square station site, was demolished in April 2019. The pace of construction increased in mid-2019, with annual spending increasing from $170 million to $400 million. Four station designs reached 100% completion in October 2020, with the remaining three nearly complete. Construction reached 20% completion in November 2019. Viaduct spans were being installed by that time, and the commuter rail tracks were shifted to the east side of the cut (allowing construction on the Green Line tracks and stations to proceed) late in 2019.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The project required the temporary closure of three road bridges (Broadway, School Street, and Medford Street) and one underpass (Washington Street) for bridge reconstruction. All but School Street closed between March and May 2019; School Street closed in April 2020, with Washington Street and Broadway reopening that May and June. Medford Street reopened in July 2022 and School Street in December 2022. Green Line service was cut back from Lechmere to North Station effective May 24, 2020, to permit connection of the Lechmere Viaduct to the new GLX viaduct. (The work was originally expected to require closing the viaduct for 17 months – the third major disruption of Lechmere service since 2004 – causing opposition to the closure in Cambridge. In November 2019, plans were revised to reduce this to 11 months, although the viaduct remained closed until the start of service to Union Square in 2022, a period of 22 months.) Demolition of the old northern section of the Lechmere Viaduct began on June 6, 2020. The main section of the viaduct was rehabilitated during the closure under a separate project.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The project was over 50% completed by October 2020. Most station platform work took place in the second half of 2020; by the end of the year, steel canopies and other structures were under construction at several stations. The final concrete span of the Red Bridge viaduct was poured in December 2020, with ballast laid later that month and track laying starting in January 2021. By March 2021, the Union Square Branch was expected to open in October 2021, followed by the Medford Branch in December 2021. By the beginning of June 2021, 65% of track was in place, as were 8 of 9 signal houses.


title: Green Line Extension

text: In June 2021, the MBTA indicated an additional delay, due in part to effects from the COVID-19 pandemic, under which the Union Square Branch was planned to open in December 2021, followed by the Medford Branch in May 2022. The first test train was moved to the new VMF in August 2021 to begin testing of the Union Square Branch. Medford Branch testing was then expected to begin in late 2021 or early 2022. The Community Path extension will open along with the Medford Branch, as it is used for construction access. The D branch was extended to North Station on October 24, 2021, with the B and C branches moved to Government Center, as part of changes in preparation for the opening of the extension. In October 2021, the Union Square Branch opening was delayed to March 2022 due to delays with a substation at Red Bridge, with the Medford Branch opening likely delayed past May 2022. Train testing on the Union Square Branch began in December 2021.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The project reached 85% completion in November 2021. That month, MassDOT moved to return the contributions from Cambridge and Somerville, as the combination of construction being under budget and American Rescue Plan Act funds being received meant the municipal monies were not needed. Medford Branch testing began in May 2022 following the March 2022 opening of the Union Square Branch. Total project cost is estimated to be $2.28 billion: $0.996 billion from the federal government and $1.28 billion from state and other sources. Daily ridership on the extension is projected to be 45,000 by 2030.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Plans prior to construction called for the Union Square Branch to be through-routed with the E Branch and the Medford Branch to be through-routed with the D Branch. However, in April 2021, the MBTA indicated that these would be reversed, with the D going to Union Square and the E to Medford/Tufts. The D and E branches were chosen for the extension because they serve the Longwood Medical Area; the D branch was assigned to the shorter Union Square Branch because its western leg is longer than that of the E branch. The Union Square Branch was initially served by the E branch rather than the D branch.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Pre-revenue service, where trains on the Union Square Branch were operated on a revenue schedule but without passengers aboard, began on January 16, 2022. On February 24, 2022, the MBTA announced that Lechmere and the Union Square Branch would open on March 21, while the Medford Branch would open in "late summer". Service to Union Square began on March 21 as scheduled. In August 2022, the MBTA indicated that the Medford Branch opening was delayed to late November 2022 due to several factors including additional testing of the traction power system. The Union Square Branch was also closed from August 22 to September 18, 2022; the closure allowed for final integration of the Medford Branch, elimination of a speed restriction on the Lechmere Viaduct, demolition of the Government Center Garage, and other work. D and C branch trains served Union Square from August 6 to 21, 2022, while the E branch was closed for unrelated work, and primarily D branch service has served Union Square since September 19. The Medford Branch opened on December 12, 2022.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The GLX is expected to have substantial economic benefits for Somerville. Along with Assembly station, it will increase the proportion of the city's population within walking distance of rapid transit from 15% to 85%; of land (mostly near Union Square) were opened for redevelopment in parallel with the project. Transit construction can result in gentrification – and displacement in turn – as wealthier residents seek to live close to stations, though this varies substantially depending on other factors like development planning. The 1984 opening of Davis station (Somerville's only transit station until Assembly station opened in 2014) resulted in gentrification and rising housing prices in the Davis Square neighborhood.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Residents and politicians raised concerns about gentrification and displacement resulting from the project even before construction began. A February 2014 study found that 740 to 810 households in the GLX corridor were at risk of displacement from projected rent increases, up to 475 at risk from conversion of apartments to condominiums, and 245 at risk from expiration of housing subsidies. Property tax increases were not expected to cause significant displacement. Some 6,300 to 9,000 new housing units would be needed by 2030 to prevent additional displacement.


title: Green Line Extension

text: The areas around Union Square and East Somerville stations were expected to have the highest rent increases – up to 67% in some instances. The US2 mixed-use development in Union Square, which is primarily replacing light industrial buildings, is intended as an anti-gentrification measure by increasing housing supply and subsidizing nearby households and businesses at risk of displacement. By late 2014, both residential and commercial rents were rising more than typical in Union Square.


title: Green Line Extension

text: Title VI analysis conducted in May 2021 indicated that the project would result in "disparate benefit to nonminority populations and a disproportionate benefit to non-low-income populations" – primarily due to demographic changes in the project area since planning began – though both protected populations would see an overall increase in service. The MBTA Board voted to address the disparity by retaining service on the route bus (which had been planned for discontinuance when the GLX opened) and as part of an ongoing bus network redesign. By 2021, home sale prices in Somerville had increased by 40% since 2016. Somerville was formerly popular with artists due to lower prices than Boston and Cambridge, but artists have reported that affordable studio space is largely nonexistent, in part due to GLX-related gentrification.


title: Chestnut blight

text: The pathogenic fungus Cryphonectria parasitica (formerly "Endothia parasitica") is a member of the Ascomycota (sac fungi). This necrotrophic fungus is native to East Asia and South East Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America in the early 1900s. The fungus spread rapidly and caused significant tree loss in both regions.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Cryphonectria parasitica is a parasitic fungus of chestnut trees. This disease came to be known as chestnut blight. Naturally found in South East Asia, accidental introductions led to invasive populations of "C. parasitica" in North America and Europe. The fungal disease has had a devastating economic and social impact on communities in the eastern United States. In the first half of the 20th century it killed an estimated four billion trees; or, by another count, 3.5 billion trees through 2013. Less severe impacts have occurred in Europe due to widespread CHV1-induced "hypovirulence". CHV1 is one of at least two viral pathogens that weaken the fungus through hypovirulence and helps trees survive.


title: Chestnut blight

text: The American chestnut ("Castanea dentata") and American chinquapin ("Ca. pumila") are highly susceptible to chestnut blight. The European chestnut ("Ca. sativa") is also susceptible, but due to widespread CHV1 hypoviruluence, blight-induced tree death is less common. The fungus can infect other tree species such as oaks, red maples, staghorn sumacs, and shagbark hickories. Once infected, these trees also exhibit orange bark with cankers but they do not die. The pathogen can persist in these trees, producing spores that may infect other trees. The fungus is spread by wind-borne ascospores and, over a shorter distance, conidia distributed by rain-splash action. Infection is local in range, so some isolated American chestnuts survive where there is no other tree within . The root collar and root system of the chestnut tree have some resistance to blight infection due to soil organisms adversely reacting to the fungus; consequently, a large number of small American chestnut trees still exist as shoots growing from existing root bases. However, these regrown shoots seldom reach the sexually reproductive stage before being killed by the fungus.


title: Chestnut blight

text: The fungus originally infects the Chinese chestnut ("Ca. mollissima") and the Japanese chestnut ("Ca. crenata"). These two species have co-evolved with the pathogen, making them resistant to its ill effects.


title: Chestnut blight

text: The chestnut blight was accidentally introduced to North America around 1904 when "Cryphonectria parasitica" was introduced into the United States from East Asia from the introduction of the cultivation of Japanese chestnut trees into the United States for commercial purposes. It was first found in the chestnut trees on the grounds of the New York Zoological Garden (the "Bronx Zoo") by Herman W. Merkel, a forester at the zoo. In 1905, American mycologist William Murrill isolated and described the fungus responsible (which he named "Diaporthe parasitica"), and demonstrated by inoculation into healthy plants that the fungus caused the disease. By 1940, most mature American chestnut trees had been wiped out by the disease.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Infection of American chestnut trees with "C. parasitica" simultaneously appeared in numerous places elsewhere on the East Coast, most likely from Japanese chestnuts, which had become popular imports. Japanese and Chinese chestnut trees have resistance to infection by "C. parasitica": the infection usually does not kill these Asian chestnut species. Within 40 years the nearly four-billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated; only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, and the Pacific Northwest. Because of the disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from the market for decades, although it can still be obtained as reclaimed lumber.


title: Chestnut blight

text: It is estimated that in some places, such as the Appalachian Mountains, one in every four hardwoods was an American chestnut. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for 50 feet and could grow up to 100 feet tall with a trunk diameter of 14 feet at a few feet above ground level. The reddish-brown wood was lightweight, soft, easy to split, very resistant to decay, and did not warp or shrink. For three centuries many barns and homes near the Appalachian Mountains were made from American chestnut. Its straight-grained wood was ideal for building furniture and caskets. The fruit that fell to the ground was an important cash crop and food source. The bark and wood were rich in tannic acid, which provided tannins for use in the tanning of leather. Many native animals fed on chestnuts, and chestnuts were used for livestock feed, which kept the cost of raising livestock low.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Efforts started in the 1930s and are still ongoing, in Massachusetts and many other places in the United States, to repopulate the country with chestnut trees. Surviving American chestnut trees are being bred for resistance to the blight, notably by The American Chestnut Foundation, which aims to reintroduce a blight-resistant American chestnut to its original forest range within the early decades of the 21st century. Japanese chestnut and Chinese chestnut, as well as Seguin's chestnut and Henry's chestnut, have been used in these breeding programs in the US to create disease-resistant hybrids with the American chestnut. Chinese chestnut trees have been found to have the highest resistance to chestnut blight; however, individuals within the Chinese chestnut species may vary in blight resistance. Some individuals are still quite susceptible while others are essentially immune.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Hypovirulence is not widespread in the US and attempts to commercially introduce CHV1 have not been widely successful. Though CHV1 persists in the applied tree, it does not spread naturally as it does in Europe, preventing it from being an effective form of biocontrol.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Chestnut blight was first identified around Genoa in 1938. This quickly spread and was identified in France in 1946, Switzerland in 1951, and Greece in 1963. It has most recently been found in the UK. Due to genetic differences between the fungal populations, it is likely that a second introduction of chestnut blight occurred in Georgia and Azerbaijan in 1938. The fungal infections initially caused widespread tree death in Europe. However, in the early 1950s trees were identified in Italy that survived fungal infection. On these trees, the fungus caused more superficial cankers, that appeared to be healing. The reduced infection was due to the presence of CHV1, an RNA virus that infects "C. parasitica". CHV1 spread naturally throughout Europe but is also spread artificially as a biocontrol measure (particularly in France). CHV1 is currently not present in the UK, Northern France, or Eastern Georgia but an introduction for biocontrol is being considered.


title: Chestnut blight

text: The fungus enters through wounds on susceptible trees and grows in and beneath the bark, eventually killing the cambium all the way around the twig, branch, or trunk. The first symptom of "C. parasitica" infection is a small orange-brown area on the tree bark. A sunken canker then forms as the mycelial fan spreads under the bark. As the hyphae spread, they produce several toxic compounds, the most notable of which is oxalic acid. This acid lowers the pH of the infected tissue from around the normal 5.5 to approximately 2.8, which is toxic to plant cells. The canker eventually girdles the tree, killing everything above it. Distinctive yellow tendrils (cirrus) of conidia can be seen extruding in wet weather.


title: Chestnut blight

text: The primary plant tissues targeted by "C. parasitica" are the inner bark, an area containing the conductive tissue, and the cambium, a layer of actively dividing cells that give rise to secondary vascular tissues. In these tissues, the pathogen forms diffuse cankers in which the mycelium overwinters. In the following spring, two types of fruiting bodies will form: pycnidia, usually first, and perithecia. Following rainfall, the pycnidia ooze orange tendrils of conidia, the asexual spores, while perithecia forcibly eject ascospores, the sexual spores. Upon becoming airborne, ascospores are carried by eddies of wind to new hosts or infect other parts of the same tree. When insects, birds, or other wildlife come into contact with the cankers, they can mechanically disperse the conidia to a new host. Additionally, the asexual spores can be dispersed by rain splash. Once on the new host, or new area of the tree, the spores can germinate and infect the inner bark through insect wounds and fissures in the outer bark.


title: Chestnut blight

text: If cankers continue to form and expand, the fungus can girdle the stem, severing the flow of nutrients and water to the vital vegetative tissues. The absence of nutrient dispersal will result in tree death; however, the root system will survive. As a result, American chestnuts exist mainly as shrubs sprouting from the old, surviving roots. These sprouts usually succumb to infection by "C. parasitica" before reaching sexual maturity.


title: Chestnut blight

text: In Europe, during the late 1960s, it was found that a strain of "C. parasitica" was less virulent, only able to produce shallow cankers that the tree's callus tissue could eventually limit and isolate. The trait of hypovirulence could be transferred from an avirulent strain to a lethal strain through anastomosis—the fusion of hyphae. It was later discovered that this attenuated virulence was due to infection by a dsRNA mycovirus, "Cryphonectria hypovirus 1" (CHV1) of genus "Hypovirus".


title: Chestnut blight

text: Considering the nature of hypovirulent strains, there has been a strong interest to use them to manage lethal "C. parasitica" strains. In Europe, natural dissemination of hypovirulence in pathogen populations resulted in the restoration of economically valuable chestnuts. Unfortunately, this was not the case in the United States. Compared to Europe, the US has a greater diversity of "C. parasitica" strains. Thus, the spread of the mycovirus in American "C. parasitica" populations is inhibited by vegetative incompatibility, an allorecognition system that inhibits the fusion of hyphae between individuals that are genetically distinct at specific loci. In 2016, however, "super mycovirus donor strains" of "C. parasitica" were engineered to overcome this incompatibility system. This could potentially be employed as a method of biological control.


title: Chestnut blight

text: As mentioned above some soil microorganisms suppress "C. parasitica". This can be used to treat the cankers, by using a soil compress, a quantity of soil held against the trunk itself with plastic wrap and some adhesive tape around that.


title: Chestnut blight

text: In addition to biocontrol, chestnut blight can also be managed by sanitation practices and chemical control; however, such management strategies are only feasible on a small scale, such as in an orchard. Sanitation practices like the pruning of symptomatic limbs and removal of infected trees can serve to eliminate sources of inoculum and limit the spread of the pathogen.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Additionally, some fungicides may be effective at controlling this fungal disease. A study on the chemical control of chestnut blight in "Castanea sativa", may have found that the external application of both copper oxychloride and carbendazim could reduce the rate of disease by almost 50%


title: Chestnut blight

text: There are approximately 2,500 chestnut trees growing on near West Salem, Wisconsin, which is the world's largest remaining stand of American chestnut. These trees are the descendants of those planted by Martin Hicks, an early settler in the area. In the late 1800s, Hicks planted fewer than a dozen chestnuts. Planted outside the natural range of American chestnut, these trees escaped the initial wave of infection by chestnut blight, but in 1987 scientists found blight also in this stand. Scientists are working to try to save the trees. There is a program to bring American chestnut back to the Eastern forest funded by the American Chestnut Foundation, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, USDA Forest Service, West Virginia University, Michigan State University, and Cornell University.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Removing blighted trees to control the disease was first attempted when the blight was discovered, but this proved to be an ineffective solution. Scientists then set out to introduce a hyperparasitic hypovirus into the chestnut blight fungus. The trees infected with virus-treated fungus responded immediately and began to heal over their cankers. However, the virus was so efficient at attenuating fungal growth that it prevented the spreading of the virus from an infected fungus growing on one tree to that growing on another tree. Only the virus-treated trees recovered. Scientific opinion regarding the future of the stand varies.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Current efforts are underway by the Forest Health Initiative to use modern breeding techniques and genetic engineering to create resistant tree strains, with contributions from SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Penn State, the University of Georgia, and the US Forest Service. One of the most successful methods of breeding is to create a back cross of a resistant species (such as one from China or Japan) and American chestnut. Researchers identified two or three genes that allow for blight resistance, and are focusing on giving the American chestnut hybrids only those genes from the Chinese or Japanese chestnut.


title: Chestnut blight

text: The two species are first bred to create a 50/50 hybrid. After three backcrosses with American chestnut, the remaining genome is approximately 1/16 that of the resistant tree and 15/16 American. The strategy is to select blight-resistance genes during the backcrossing while preserving the more wild-type traits of American chestnut as the dominant phenotype. Thus, the newly bred hybrid chestnut trees should reach the same heights as the original American chestnut. Many of these 15/16 American chestnut hybrids have been planted along the East Coast, including in the Jefferson National Forest and on the Flight 93 National Memorial. Some of these sites have had researchers check on the saplings that have been planted to see their survival rate. For the hybrids to do well, they need areas with decent drainage and abundant sunlight. Meeting these needs can be hard to do, so not all restoration areas have been successful with hybrid survival.


title: Chestnut blight

text: A 1983 study on hypovirulence had shown that chestnut blight infected with hypovirus produced less oxalic acid when attacking the cambium. Meanwhile, a plant pathologist, Dr. William Powell, had been trying to figure out how to transfer all of the Asian chestnut's resistance genetics to its American relatives. In the 1990s, he had the idea to give up on the more complicated and larger job, and instead look around for a single gene elsewhere. (In related work, in 2001 Liang, Mayard, Allen, and Powell successfully inserted an oxalate oxidase (OxO) gene from wheat into "Populus × euramericana" ("Ogy") for "Septoria musiva" resistance. This enzyme breaks down the oxalic acid secreted by the fungus into carbon dioxide and hydrogen peroxide.) In 2007 Welch, Stipanovic, Maynard, and Powell showed that transgenic "C. dentata" expressing a wheat OxO did indeed have lower lignin degradation by OA, and suggested this was the path to take.


title: Chestnut blight

text: A few years later this line of research culminated in the final product: Powell and another plant pathologist, Dr. Charles Maynard, working at the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry have developed American chestnuts which have full blight resistance. Full resistance was attained by introducing a wheat OxO gene into the American chestnut genome. (Because an unrelated gene was transferred, this did not make the chestnut trees produce gluten, and the nuts remain gluten free.) The transgenic trees have blight resistance either equal to or surpassing that of "Castanea mollissima", Chinese chestnuts. In 2013, SUNY ESF had over 100 individual events being tested, with more than 400 slated to be in the field or in the lab for various assay tests in the next several years and more than 1,000 trees growing in several field sites in 2014. Government approval will be required before returning any of these blight resistant trees to the wild. The New York Botanical Garden has planted several of the transgenic trees for public display.


title: Chestnut blight

text: At the start, there are very few such engineered chestnut trees. For seed multiplication, grafting would work. Normal tree growth requires 6, 7, or even 8 years before a chestnut will flower. However normal orchard management will accelerate that up to 2–3 years for pollen production (although still without fruiting). Powell's lab has been able to use growth chambers with higher light inputs to get it down to less than a year to pollen production.


title: Chestnut blight

text: In less than fifty years after its emergence, "C. parasitica" virtually eliminated American chestnut as a canopy species in of forest. The chestnut fruit was a major food source for animals in the low elevation Appalachian forests. This loss resulted in a drastic decrease in the squirrel population, the extinction of seven native moth species, and the slowed recovery of deer, Cooper's hawk, cougar, and bobcat populations. The effects of this disease also rippled further through the ecosystem, being linked to a decrease in the abundance of cavity-nesting birds and to a decrease in river water quality which negatively affected aquatic invertebrate populations.


title: Chestnut blight

text: In 1912, standing chestnut timber in just three states was estimated to be $82.5 million ($1.9 billion in current dollars) in value. Therefore, in addition to ecological impacts, "C. parasitica" potentially caused a devastating loss in economic welfare for communities dependent on the chestnut tree. Mountaineers, residents of Appalachian Mountain communities, had to drastically alter their lifestyles to cope with the effects of this disease.


title: Chestnut blight

text: Economic effects have also been considerable in Europe, particularly before CHV1 spreads naturally to a region. In Greece for example, the disease forced the migration of people who could no longer afford to live off chestnut trees. It has also led to a 40% decline in Greek chestnut production.


title: Feed the Machine

text: Feed the Machine is the ninth studio album by Canadian rock band Nickelback, and was released on June 16, 2017. It is the band's first release through record label BMG. "Feed the Machine" debuted at number five on the US "Billboard" 200 with 47,000 album-equivalent units.


title: Feed the Machine

text: Following the release of their prior album, "No Fixed Address", in 2014, the band cancelled the majority of their touring due to Chad Kroeger needing to have surgery to remove a cyst in his vocal cord. The band subsequently became bogged down in legal battles related to the cancellation of the tour.


title: Feed the Machine

text: The album was released on June 16, 2017. Shortly after the release of the album, the band began a 44-city tour on June 23, 2017 in North America, co-headlined with Daughtry, Shaman's Harvest and Cheap Trick as supporting acts.


title: Feed the Machine

text: The album's first single, "Feed the Machine" was released on February 1, 2017. The second single, "Song on Fire", was released on April 28, 2017. On June 1, 2017, Nickelback made the song "Must Be Nice" available on their YouTube channel and gave it away to those who had pre-ordered the album. "Must Be Nice" was released to American rock radio stations on June 6, 2017 as the album's third official single and second rock single.


title: Feed the Machine

text: "Feed the Machine" debuted at number five on the US "Billboard" 200 with 47,000 album-equivalent units, of which 43,000 were pure album sales. It debuted at number three in the UK, becoming their highest-debuting album of their career in that country. Later, it has been certified Silver by the BPI for sales in excess of 60,000 copies.


title: The Implant

text: "The Implant" is the 59th episode of the sitcom "Seinfeld". It is the 19th episode of the fourth season, and first aired on February 25, 1993. The title refers to Elaine's belief that Jerry's girlfriend has breast implants, which is shaken when she accidentally grabs her breasts in a sauna incident. In a secondary plotline, George goes to a funeral for his girlfriend's aunt in hopes that it will advance their relationship.


title: The Implant

text: Jerry dumps his girlfriend, Sidra, after Elaine convinces him that her breasts are probably the result of implants. Kramer claims a man at the health club who introduces himself as "Sal Bass" is actually author Salman Rushdie. Later, Elaine and Sidra are in a sauna together, and Elaine accidentally grabs onto Sidra's breasts to break her fall after tripping. Elaine goes to Jerry and admits that she now thinks that Sidra's breasts are real and "are "spectacular"". Jerry decides to take Sidra back. Elaine later carelessly enters Jerry's apartment when Sidra is there, cluing in Sidra that the two of them are friends. Sidra dumps Jerry, thinking that he had Elaine deliberately feel her breasts in the sauna. Sidra tells Jerry as she leaves, "...And, by the way, they're real, and they're "spectacular"! ..."


title: The Implant

text: George accompanies his girlfriend, Betsy, to Detroit for her aunt's wake, hoping to accelerate their relationship by being supportive in the midst of her grief. He tries to get a copy of the death certificate of the aunt while he is there, so that he can get a 50% bereavement discount on the airfare. George gets into an argument at the funeral reception with Betsy's brother, Timmy, over the social acceptability of double-dipping a chip. It devolves into a disruptive fistfight, leading an upset Betsy to break up with him. George was not able to get a copy of the death certificate. George shows to an airline clerk a picture of him next to the casket, but the clerk does not consider this to be sufficient proof.


title: The Implant

text: During the taping, Larry David asked Teri Hatcher to add the line "And, by the way, they're real, and they're "spectacular".", which was not in the script.


title: The Implant

text: The television show "MythBusters" tested the theory that double dipping was like "putting your whole mouth right in the dip" on the April 22, 2009 episode. The "MythBusters" found that double-dipping produced fewer microbes than putting all the dip in your mouth. Also, the number of microbes present was negligible compared to the amount found in a regular dip.


title: The Implant

text: In Salman Rushdie's non-fiction book "", Rushdie recounts bumping into Jerry Seinfeld at a cocktail party where Seinfeld nervously asked his opinion of "The Implant" and "visibly relaxed" upon Rushdie's telling him "that he had thought the episode very funny."


title: Brazilian Integralism

text: Brazilian Integralism () was a political movement in Brazil, created in October 1932. Founded and led by Plínio Salgado, a literary figure who was somewhat famous for his participation in the 1922 Modern Art Week. The movement had adopted some characteristics of European mass movements of those times, specifically of Italian fascism, but distancing itself from Nazism because Salgado himself did not support racism. He believed that every person of every race should unite under the Integralist flag. Despite the movement's slogan "Union of all races and all peoples", members and leaders like Gustavo Barroso held anti-Semitic views. The name of the party created to support its doctrine was Brazilian Integralist Action (, AIB). The reference to Integralism mirrored a traditionalist movement in Portugal, the Lusitanian Integralism. For its symbol, the AIB used a flag with a white disk on a royal blue background, with an uppercase sigma (Σ) in its center.