title: Citroën XM

text: In January 1990 UK's Car Magazine ran a comparison of the 2.0 Si against the BMW 520i and Lancia Thema 16V 2.0 in a review of lower-end executive sector cars. The article says, "Citroën expects business buyers to account for 80% of the 9000 XMs it hopes to shift in 1990... This is the middle trim level of a range that is extremely well-equipped, presumably as an inducement to forget your preconceptions." CAR called the XM "a rather exotic dish for executives raised on a staple of Granadas, Carltons, Rovers." The theme of polarizing styling was repeated in the 1990 review: "Anyone who feared that Citroën's individuality might perish in PSA Group's drive for increased sales and profitability will be heartened by the XM. There's a touch of love it or loathe it about the styling, but there's no denying that it is striking." The slim Valeo headlamps design helped to make feasible the "low, penetrating front end" styling. While the Citroën had a drag coefficient of 0.28, the BMW 520's was 0.30 and the Lancia's was 0.32. The article explained that the UK market XM's were not fitted with the self-centering power-steering because "buyers here don't like it." Regarding performance, the Lancia recorded a 0–60 mph time of 9.6 seconds versus 12.4 for the Citroën and 10.6 for the BMW. The Thema was "the most mettlesome of the trio" due to sharp throttle responses and engine sound quality. The XM was marked down for the coarseness of the 2.0-litre XU series engine which was "rough and noisy. There's no pleasure to be gained from revving it hard. Yet this is precisely what you must do to proceed with any sort of haste." Performance was reckoned to be "par for the class. Above 80 mph acceleration falls off dramatically, a victim of a tall top gear." The fuel economy of all three cars was considered "poor" under test conditions. The XM's braking action was "the least satisfactory of the group." Under roadholding, "the XM introduces a new motoring experience to those who don't work as engineers on active ride projects – the flat cornering attitude. In medium speed bends, the XM scurries around with little discernable body roll, wheels upright and all four tyres planted firmly on the tarmac. Body roll isn't entirely cancelled out, though as Hydractive doesn't act as an anti-roll bar, it merely stiffens spring and damper rates. In tight, fast corners the XM leans like any conventional car. When grip from the XM's 195/60 Michelin MXV2s runs out the Citroën starts to understeer gently. The tail can feel a bit light if you lift off part of the way around the corner, but it's a sensation that doesn't develop into anything more sinister." The steering was criticized for lack of feel at high speeds. The XM cabin was praised for its solid quality and roominess though the Lancia was reckoned to be as wide and had as much front head room and rear legroom. The BMW was comparatively less spacious. "Rear seat riders are best off in the XM, where they enjoy the most headroom of the group ... put the centre armrest down, and there is a soft armchair quality to the seats. The front chairs are similar, yet they manage to locate you well when pressing on, and remain comfortable on long journeys." About the ride quality the reviewer wrote that "the XM's ride quality is a big disappointment, especially at low speeds. Fractured urban road surfaces make it thud noisily, while it pummels rather than absorbs, the contusions. It's jittery around town and will slap its tyres over ridges. A BX feels more composed in the same conditions. At higher speeds the XM is more impressive." In comparison, the BMW was reckoned to have a "ride superior to that of the Citroën." There were "occasional flashes of brilliance from the XM's chassis, but for the majority of the time it is outshone by the BMW." Under driver appeal, the relatively thick a-pillar, foot-operated park brake and obstructed passenger-side mirror came in for criticism. To drive the car "practice is required to drive it fluidly." On the inside "the XM's cabin is cossetting and is a relaxing place to spend a full day of motorway driving. The quality of trim is easily the best ever to adorn a Citroën, and looks plusher than that of the plainer BMW." The conclusion of the article was that the BMW won the test against "all comers in the 2.0 litre class", primarily for its completeness and engineering quality. But "in spite of its faults you can't help be intrigued by the XM. You get the feeling that there is a lot to be learned about the car over an extended period of ownership, a hidden facet that can only be revealed by familiarity. And there's the satisfaction of driving a car that looks so distinctive." Reported fuel consumption for the cars at were: Citroën , Lancia and BMW .


title: Citroën XM

text: In March 1990 "Autocar & Motor" reviewed the 2.0 turbo diesel variant, labelled Turbo SD. The car's plus points were its economy, space, excellent ride and handling. The negative aspects of the XM were the slow turbo response, engine refinement and gearchange. In detail, "Autocar & Motor" described the instrumentation as "excellent" and the accommodation as "generous." The chassis was judged to be "superb, combining fail-safe handling with a pliant ride". Ventilation through-put was described as "excellent". The overall the ride quality was commended as "almost unbeatable" for its capacity to "swallow up persistent motorway undulations almost as if they didn't exist" and to "spit out surface imperfections as if they didn't exist". It was admitted that though not often there were conditions the XM's suspension handled less well. These were transverse ridges or some instances where "some surfaces produce an unpleasant rocking or pitching motion" In summary, Autocar & Motor's view was that "in turbodiesel form, the XM is a fast and effortless long-distance tourer that was always return excellent economy of such a roomy car. Yes, refinement and noise-suppression could be better, and the controls lack the engineered slickness of a BMW or a Mercedes but the XM is a welcome addition to the growing ranks of diesel-powered cars and in interesting alternative to conventional petrol-driven saloons."


title: Citroën XM

text: CAR magazine tested the diesel variant in July 1990. CAR's opinion was that "a weekend trip to Bavaria proved this latest addition to the XM range to be a very competent and economical long-hauler. At more moderate British road speeds, we have managed 43mpg in mixed running with four people aboard." In this review the car was viewed as being superior to a BMW 5 Series: "Early in the trip the car was uncannily smooth over the bumpy back roads between Calais and Dunkirk. On German autobahns, travelling at speeds which turn bends into corners, the XM remained impressively flat as the suspension altered to cope with high cornering loads. We made the trip accompanied by a BMW 535i, which rolled appreciably more through fast bends, and passengers who tried both cars preferred the XM." Points of criticism were again, the left-side mirror and rear headroom: " The most serious [problem] is ungenerous rear headroom, though three passengers of average height found the rear bench comfortable for a 12-hour journey. More irritating, because avoidable, is the nearside mirror, which is partially obscured by the A-pillar. This deficiency is particularly noticeable on the continent, when you need the mirror for overtaking." The foot-operated parking brake was also criticized: "... four days weren't enough to dispel our annoyance with the US-style foot-operated parking brake. We noted sourly that you would probably fail a driving test in the XM, because you cannot apply the brake (using your left foot) until you have put the car in neutral." In conclusion, CAR's view was that "the XM is a car that grows on you, and in Turbo Diesel form, it's cheap to operate. If you're contemplating high mileages, particularly abroad where diesel is sensibly priced much cheaper than petrol, it's well worth considering the stiff extra price of the oil-burner. If you care about reducing carbon dioxide emissions by improving fuel consumption, the XM Turbo Diesel offers dramatic gains without sacrificing big-car virtues."


title: Citroën XM

text: Tested by "Autocar" against the Alfa Romeo Cloverleaf V6, the V6 version of the XM was placed ahead, but the car was described as "an uneven performer - high ability but somewhat retarded in the finesse department". Reservations related to the gear change and the ride quality over rough road surfaces.


title: Citroën XM

text: In February 1991, Car Magazine tested the XM in V6 form alongside ten other executive cars (Alfa Romeo 164 V6 Lusso, BMW 525i 24v, Ford Scorpio 2.9 EFi, Jaguar XJ6 3.2, Mercedes Benz 260E, Peugeot 605 3.0 SVE, Rover Sterling, Saab 9000 CDs 2.3 turbo, Vauxhall Senator CD 3.0i and Volvo 960 3.0i-24). The winner was the Jaguar with the XM in second place. The summary was that "... the Citroën in second place impressed us enormously. The XM is the most advanced car here, the precursor of even better things to come. Such are the Citroën's accomplishments that we'd have put it first had its refinement measured up that of the Peugeot stablemate." The Peugeot shared the same engine as the Citroën but in the Peugeot installation it was more refined and less "inexplicably throbby." In terms of styling CAR preferred the originality of the XM to the anonymity of the Peugeot: "criticize the fussy, multi-pillared super-structure if you will but the XM eschews convention and for that we applaud this individualistic car." For performance, the XM was praised for its robust acceleration (9.3 seconds to 60 mph ) and its top speed (133 mph). Under roadholding and handling: "Hydractive suspension engenders unique feel, making the XM like no other car. Sharp steering and limpet cornering give uncanny responses, modest body roll and terrific composure. Torque steer seldom a problem. Brakes strong and sensitive." The report for the accommodation and comfort noted that the instrument dials were too small and that minor switches were mounted too low, out of sight (they are inside the radius of the steering wheel). The hatchback boot was described as "massive" and "can be extended by folding the seats." The XM interior was described as "plush, its seats soft, supportive and electric." The XM tied with the Ford Granada for having the most rear-legroom. The rear was described as "spacious." With the head restraint of the front seat set to its minimum height rear passengers enjoyed an uninterrupted view out through the windscreen. The model tested was an automatic and cost 25,330 GBP versus the Jaguar's 27,500 GBP price.


title: Citroën XM

text: Benchmarked against the Mercedes E-class, CAR rated it as superior in 1991. When compared to the BMW 5 Series the same journal considered it both inferior and superior. By 1994, the XM was described as a car that "deals less smoothly with surface abrasions". Motoring magazine programme "Top Gear", reviewing the "high speed hold-all" market, compared the XM estate with the Audi 100 in 1991 (Season 14, episode 16). The presenter reported Citroën's claim that its XM had the world's largest estate loading bay and went on to say: "with this high rear window line you have truly a vast volume of space hidden from prying eyes." The load capacity of the boot was cited as 25 cubic feet with the load bay tonneau removed, helped by a "low sill and a spare tyre you get at from underneath." The Audi 100 had less concealed load space, a flimsy cover and less load space overall. The Audi's maximum capacity was 44 cubic feet versus the Citroën's 69 cubic feet. On driving quality, the XM "is acknowledged to have one of the finest ride qualities in the world and the estate version is just as good." But the minor controls were said to be "intimidating" and the high rear window line was criticized for its effect on outward visibility. "Behind the helm the XM shows itself to be a disarmingly fine car," reported the presenter. "Its poised magic carpet ride and velvetty drive train make for gentle and unruffled progress." At autobahn speed the car was said to be able "to soak up every pimple and declivity without so much as a solitary thud." With improved quality, shorter service intervals and good looks the "Top Gear" view was that residual values "should stay healthy."


title: Citroën XM

text: The revised 2.0 turbo model was tested in February 1993 by "Autocar". "Autocar"'s view was that fitting a turbo-charger avoided turbo lag, but "there's no mistaking the engine's hesitant nature at low revs, making smooth first gear getaways ... unnecessarily awkward". However, the turbo-charged version was a "swift performer" with achieved in 8.2 seconds versus the non-turbo's 11.2 seconds. Top speed increased to , ahead of the Ford Granada and Vauxhall Carlton. The XM was commended for its motorway handling, with low rpms at cruising speed and "excellent" overtaking ability. Engine noise was reduced, addressing earlier criticisms. The ride was improved by a recalibration of the engine's mounting points. In summary, "add this new found refinement and performance to the XM's other strengths, most noticeably its superb ride and excellent cabin space, and you'd be hard pushed to find a better motorway mile-eater." All in all, the revisions to the XM left it in a "much more competitive position".


title: Citroën XM

text: In July 1994, Roger Bell of the UK's "Independent" tested the 2.5-litre turbodiesel variant of the XM. He said that "the introduction of a new high-torque diesel is among a range of sales-boosting improvements made by Citroën to its flagging flagship, still shunned by the British as a Gallic oddity." The pricing and equipment were viewed as competitive. The comfort and roominess were praised, but comments on the drive quality focused on the idiosyncrasies. Even though the steering ratio was much reduced compared to the CX, Bell still considered it over-direct and said that "clumsy drivers should look elsewhere". Roger Bell's conclusion was that "anyone in the market for a big, roomy, comfortable car that goes well on little fuel would be foolish to ignore it. Apart from being good value, the XM is one of the last true 'characters' left in a market of lookalikes." Fuel economy of 40 mpg was reported for this test.


title: Citroën XM

text: In May 1995, John Simister of "CAR" tested the revised XM 2.0 VSX against the Alfa Romeo 164 2.0 T-Spark, Ford Scorpio 2.0 16V Ghia and Vauxhall Omega 2.0 GLS 16V. The article highlighted an entirely new iteration of the Omega and the recent launch of the Ford Scorpio. Simister introduced the XM as the "daring maverick of the quartet, technically and aesthetically." Due to its hydraulic steering, brakes and suspension the XM was recognized as having "a different feel." The conclusion of the test highlighted the XM's uneven capabilities and also the extent to which the competition was catching up on Citroën's unique sales propositions of ride quality and comfort: "there's a telling generation gap between the two front-drive cars [XM and 164] and the younger rear-drive pair in this confrontation [Scorpio and Omega]". Though based on the architecture of a much older car, the Mk3 Ford Granada of 1985, the Scorpio bested the XM on seat comfort and rear legroom. The XM's front seats and cabin ambience did not fare well against the Ford or Vauxhall. However, the turbo-charged Citroën beat the Ford on performance. The Alfa was viewed as having the "sportiest character" with best handling, but the Citroën had better space, comfort, finish and refinement. So a combination of superior speed (compared to the Ford) and comfort (compared to the Alfa) put the XM in second place. The Vauxhall's all-round competence, but particularly its ride, put it in first place. The Vauxhall's suspension was described as "brilliant. The ride is supple, controlled, well damped ... to obtain such outstanding results through conventional means is to challenge Citroën's innovation." The Opel also boasted accurate steering and "splendid centre-point responses. No rival turns into corners with greater resolution, bite or fluency." The XM's gearchange was described as "graunchy, downgraded by the mushy clutch." And "despite mid-life refurbishment the XM's dash and switchgear are not up the best." The XM was highly rated in steering, it being "nicely responsive rather than ultra-sharp – especially at speed, when little more than telepathy is needed to corner with inch-perfect precision." In contrast to the Vauxhall and Ford, the Citroën's suspension failed to absorb surface abrasions which "generate high-frequency agitation and knobbliness". However, the oleo-pneumatic suspension could "waft over foundation irregularities" better than the competitors. The foot-applied parking brake was described as "treacherous." The luggage capacity of the XM was rated at 460 litres, joint third place with the Ford.


title: Citroën XM

text: An unrelated article in the same edition of CAR discussed the sales performance of large, diesel cars in the UK market in the previous year. The Volkswagen Passat was ranked first and the XM took eighth place. Under the category "Could Do Better Department" the XM was described as a "technofest." The unnamed author exhorted readers as follows: "Listen people, they're fab, so try one."


title: Citroën XM

text: Discussing the merits of turbo-diesels, the Glasgow Herald described the car in mid-1996 in the following way: "The Citroën XM in turbo diesel form is a splendid long-legged autoroute car. " The same edition of the Glasgow Herald summarised the car as "a fine motorway cruiser, with unexpectedly good handling around the lanes, and masses of space for passengers and luggage. "


title: Citroën XM

text: The view of the Daily Express World Car Guide 1998 was that the XM was "as distinctive an executive class car as it's possible to find." The interior was described as "huge." The news for that model year was the replacement of the 12-valve 3.0-litre V6 with a 24-valve 3.0-litre V6 that was used in the Citroën Xantia. The Guide commented that the interior was looking dated, but it was described as a "thoroughly relaxing drive."


title: Citroën XM

text: The Daily Express World Car Guide 1999 said "Citroën's largest car is also the most quirky." But the XM "is not without its qualities though, with a smooth ride and mile-munching motorway ability." The depreciation to which the car was prone had become part of the car's identity in many reviews. Typical is "only a few hundred are sold and values plummet on the used market." The 2.1- and 2.5-litre diesels were said to be "stars of the range with economy and reasonable performance." In contrast to earlier reviews, the Guide thought the interiors were "fragile." But the ergonomics remained a point of criticism: "the interior takes some getting used to." Referring to the load carrying capacity of the estate, the Guide said the car was "capable of carrying more than some vans."


title: Citroën XM

text: By September 2000 the Citroën XM's press visibility had diminished. CAR magazine's GBU section was one of the last places it was reviewed. The summary was that the XM as "an ancient intergalactic cruiser reminds us of what Citroën used to be. Bertone's needle-nosed styling is wearing quite well, and comfy, spacious cabin a pleasure on top of the hydraulic chassis. Quite good in diesel and turbo forms ... Estate an unbeatable load carrier but at a decade old this monster is best avoided."


title: Citroën XM

text: CAR magazine's final article on the XM was from November 2000. The "Parting Shot" series was known for its unequivocally harsh stance so the commentary in that tradition was almost wholly negative. The article in question, by Richard Bremner, focused on the issue of the defective electrical connectors: "Early XMs could be relied upon to go wrong, but little else. And often the cause of the trouble could be pinpointed to one component – a defective electrical connector". The result of this reputation was that people "stayed away in droves, even if some got cars that gave no trouble at all." The article noted that "Citroën worked hard at fixing the problems, introducing a new kind of connector after the car was launched, but by then the XM had lost almost all connections with its potential audience." The article conceded that a changed market also made conditions difficult for the XM: "While the CX before it sold well to successful types who needed something big and futuristic, by the time the XM came along their thoughts were turning towards the slickly packaged prestige of BMW and Benz. The market for big cars from volume makers was dying". Bremner pointed out that it was going to be difficult for any modern Citroën to be great. "What it really needed to be, however unreasonable it is to expect one car company to keep delivering it, was a new concept in big car design, something as radical as the Renault Espace. But the XM was not that and it has died unloved and destined, one suspects, to become very rare very soon".


title: Citroën XM

text: The XM has a mixed reputation in its post-production twilight. Discussing bargain used cars, the Glasgow Herald wrote in 1999 that the XM has "a solid reputation, smooth engines, plenty of street presence and lots of room for people and luggage." But, writing in "The Daily Telegraph" in September 2005, Andrew English led his discussion on the Citroën C6 with this comment: "It has been 17 years since Citroën last introduced a large car. The slab-of-cheese-like XM that went out of production in 2000 was a mockery of the idea, however. Not just in the coincidence of its design house's name, Bertone, with that of Flaminio Bertoni, who penned the beautiful and elegant DS models in the 1950s, but also for its staggering unreliability". When reviewing the Citroën C6 in 2006, The Irish Times referred to the marked improvement in the quality of the new vehicle compared to its predecessor: "unlike previous big Citroëns, such as the XM, the C6 has a feel of quality in its fit and finish".


title: Citroën XM

text: Britain's Classic & Sportscar published an essay on Citroën's large cars, from DS to C6. The tone is more charitable, but still refers to a car with a reputation "tarnished by complexity". For comparison purposes a Series 2 XM in 2.1-litre diesel configuration was presented. The article's contention was that the XM was intended to compete with the ascendant German marques. The article views the car's design as influenced strongly by the Citroën SM and calls it "the world's most subtle retro design." On interior (a series 2 which resembles the Xantia's), the author says "the black cabin is a little dour, but there are playful touches, too, such as the black strip of smoked plastic behind the wheel, from which warning lights emerge and vanish." Turning to the driving quality, the author remarks, "you'll find a confidence not always present in its ancestors. There's little understeer, the brakes are more conventionally controlled and the 2.1-litre turbocharged unit has ample torque for cannoning the XM from bend to bend. The bump-eliminating suspension ... still features – you'll barely notice cattle grids – but with it comes a firmness more orientated towards the sporting driver."


title: Citroën XM

text: The UK-based car review website Honest John summarises the XM, as a used purchase, as "Comfortable and spacious, especially the estate. Excellent ride and tidy handling. Plenty of potential problems, so buy with care and find an experienced XM specialist."


title: Citroën XM

text: The used-car website Compucars views the XM as "surprisingly good to drive thanks to that suspension system. You find yourself relishing country B roads, despite the car's obvious bulk. You need to be careful with the foot-operated parking brake though. A lever on the dashboard, which can take some getting used to, releases it." The overall impression of the car, according to Compucars is: "Gallic charm with attitude. The XM makes a pleasant change from normal executive fare. Buy carefully and enjoy."


title: Citroën XM

text: Components supplier Valeo designed the XM's lamps and a similar design was used on the Eagle Premier. The goal of the design was to reduce the size of the lamps and to increase their output. The XM's new "complex surface" headlamps were not powerful enough on dipped beam, though main beam was perfectly adequate. This could be traced to the use of a plastic optical element between the bulb and the outer lens, which yellowed with age.


title: Citroën XM

text: The XM was not alone here; the pre-facelifted first-generation Ford Mondeos suffered from the same problem. Series 2 (from mid-1994 onwards) LHD XMs had improved light units without the plastic element, but slow United Kingdom sales meant these were never fitted to RHD forms. Headlamp retrofit kits using dual or triple round optics are available from third party suppliers, though this changes the aesthetics of the car. Series 1 cars can be fitted with series 2 headlights.


title: Citroën XM

text: The XM was imported into the United States by CXA, a company that had imported several hundred CX25 GTi and Prestige model cars for Citroën loyalists in the USA. These cars can be recognized by small filler plates at the headlights, as CxAuto installed the slightly narrower headlight units from the 1988–1993 Pontiac Grand Prix.


title: Citroën XM

text: CxAuto presented the XM at the 1991 New York Motor Show, in the spring of 1991 and began converting and selling the XM Pallas (combined with the 2.0 injection engine) and the XM Vitesse (combined with the 3.0 V6 engine). In 1993, the XM Exclusive was added to the range. Unfortunately, the XM cost 40 percent more than the CX Prestige, with a price in excess of $50,000 due to the costs needed to modify the cars for US approval and only a few examples were sold. As a result of newer, tougher US anti-pollution standards, the import of these cars ceased in 1997. XM parts must be sent over from Europe.


title: Citroën XM

text: The Citroën XM, along with the Citroën Xantia were assembled in a form of CKD in Huizhou, Guangdong province. This venture lasted for only two years in 1996 and 1997 and production numbers were extremely low. The cars were imported to China more or less fully assembled with only minor additions done in China as a way to avoid the high import tariffs on cars that existed at the time. The two models were given the same name: Fengshen Xietuolong XM.


title: The Trammps

text: The Trammps are an American disco and soul band, who were based in Philadelphia and were one of the first disco bands.


title: The Trammps

text: The band's first major success was their 1972 cover version of "Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart", while the first disco track they released was "Love Epidemic" in 1973. However, they are best known for their song "Disco Inferno" which was included on the Grammy-winning "Saturday Night Fever" soundtrack. When originally released in 1976, "Disco Inferno" became a UK pop hit and US R&B and Dance hit topping the Dance chart for 5 weeks in early 1977. After inclusion on the "Saturday Night Fever" soundtrack, the song was re-released in 1978 and became a modest US pop hit peaking at number 11.


title: The Trammps

text: The history of the Trammps grew from the 1960s group the Volcanos, who later became the Moods. With a number of line-up changes by the early 1970s, the band membership included gospel-influenced lead singer Jimmy Ellis, drummer and singer (bass voice) Earl Young, with brothers Stanley and Harold 'Doc' Wade. Members of the Philadelphia recording band MFSB played with the group on records and on tour in the 1970s with singer Robert Upchurch joining later. The group was produced by the Philadelphia team of Ronnie Baker, Norman Harris and Young, all MFSB mainstays who played on the recording sessions and contributed songs.


title: The Trammps

text: Their debut chart entry came via an upbeat cover version of the standard "Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart", featuring Young's bass voice, which became a top 20 US R&B chart hit in 1972.


title: The Trammps

text: Their first few recordings were released on Buddah Records, including "Hold Back the Night", which was a hit on the "Billboard" R&B chart in 1973, before a re-release saw it climb in the UK two years later. Several R&B hits followed during a stay with Philadelphia International subsidiary Golden Fleece (run by Baker-Harris-Young) before they signed to Atlantic Records.


title: The Trammps

text: Their single "Disco Inferno" (1976), which was included on the Grammy Award-winning "" in 1977, reached No. 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in May 1978.


title: The Trammps

text: Other major hits included "Hold Back the Night" (1975) (UK No. 5) and "That's Where the Happy People Go" (1976). In late 1977, the Trammps released the song "The Night the Lights Went Out" to commemorate the electrical blackout that affected New York City on July 13–14, 1977.


title: The Trammps

text: Their signature song "Disco Inferno" has been covered by Tina Turner and Cyndi Lauper. In addition, Graham Parker covered "Hold Back the Night" on "The Pink Parker EP" in 1977, and reached No. 24 in the UK Singles Chart, and top 60 in the US. In 2021, "Disco Inferno" was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry, together with "Can We Come Together" (from the album "Where the Happy People Go").


title: The Trammps

text: On September 19, 2005, the group's "Disco Inferno" was inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame at a ceremony held in New York. The song was part-written by Ron Kersey, a producer-arranger and a member of MFSB, who also played with Trammps in the 1970s for a time. During the ceremony, the original band members performed together for the first time in 25 years. Disco Inferno has also had a resurgence and has garnered new fans with the 2016 presidential political campaign of Bernie Sanders in the USA due to the song's refrain of "burn, baby, burn" (slightly altered to "Bern, baby, Bern").


title: The Trammps

text: On March 8, 2012, lead singer Jimmy Ellis died at a nursing home in Rock Hill, South Carolina (where he was born on November 15, 1937), at the age of 74. The cause of death was not immediately known but he suffered from Alzheimer's disease.


title: The Trammps

text: Earl Young's Trammps still continue to record and as of August 2014 have recently released "Get Your Lovin While You Can" written by the Steals brothers renowned for their Philly hits such as "Could It Be I'm Falling In Love" for The Detroit Spinners.


title: The Trammps

text: The music journalist Ron Wynn noted: "the Trammps' prowess can't be measured by chart popularity; Ellis' booming, joyous vocals brilliantly championed the celebratory fervor and atmosphere that made disco both loved and hated among music fans."


title: The Trammps

text: On June 30, 2019, the Trammps appeared on HBO's "Big Little Lies", Season 2, episode 4 entitled "She Knows".


title: Baoh

text: 17-year-old Ikuro Hashizawa is kidnapped and turned into a Baoh, a bioweapon with superhuman strength and other abilities, by the Doress Laboratory. He escapes with the help of Sumire, a 9-year-old psychic girl. Professor Kasuminome, head scientist at Doress, sends various assassins and monsters to try and kill Ikuro, in means of stopping the Baoh virus from spreading and infecting the world.


title: Baoh

text: The manga was licensed in English and released in monthly chapters by Viz Media in 1990; sales were pitiful, and it was not until 1995 that they released it in graphic novel format. The OVA was licensed for an English DVD release by AnimEigo in 2000 and was released in 2001.


title: Baoh

text: The series' main protagonist, Ikuro Hashizawa, was released on 14 November 2013 as a downloadable playable character in "" in his Baoh form. In the 2022 remaster "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: All Star Battle R" he is included in the initial roster.


title: Baoh

text: Hiroyuki Takei, author of the manga "Shaman King", said it was one of his favorite series along with "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" in his youth.


title: London Dungeon

text: The London Dungeon is a tourist attraction along London's South Bank, England, which recreates various gory and macabre historical events in a gallows humour style. It uses a mixture of live actors, special effects and rides.


title: London Dungeon

text: The London Dungeon was opened in 1974 by Annabel Geddes. The attraction was originally a wax exhibition of the horrifying history, comprising themed tableaux under the Tooley Street arches. Early characters included Boudica, Mary Tudor and Thomas Becket and had scenes from the Norman Conquest.


title: London Dungeon

text: From the late 1980s to mid 90s, it evolved to feature walkthrough theatrical shows, such as the Great Fire of London and Jack the Ripper, during which time it was owned by the Kunick Leisure Group. It was acquired by Vardon Attractions in 1992, which later became Merlin Entertainments through a management buy out, led by Nick Varney. Merlin rebranded the Dungeon more as an interactive horror attraction, less historically-accurate and based around bad taste humour.


title: London Dungeon

text: In 2013, the London Dungeon moved from its premises of 39 years in Tooley Street, to County Hall, South Bank, to be grouped with other Merlin-owned attractions such as the London Eye. The new building was designed by architect Ralph Knott and was influenced by Baroque-style art. It is located directly opposite the Houses of Parliament – the same buildings Guy Fawkes tried to blow up with gunpowder in 1605. The move brought the opportunity to reinvigorate the Dungeon; the rebuild took an entire year and a budget of £20 million.


title: London Dungeon

text: The London Dungeon features 19 shows, 20 actors and 2 rides. Visitors are taken on a journey through 1000 years of London's history where they meet actors performing as some of London's most infamous characters, including Jack the Ripper and Sweeney Todd. The Dungeon's shows are staged on theatrical sets with special effects. The show incorporates events such as the Black Death and the Gunpowder Plot, and includes characters such as "The Torturer", "The Plague Doctor", and "The Judge". Guests are encouraged to participate in the shows. The experience also includes a "drop ride to doom", a free-fall ride staged as a public hanging.


title: London Dungeon

text: The original London Dungeon opened in 1974 as a gory horror exhibition through dark British history, operating as a free-flow walkthrough attraction, themed to torture and sin. It was expanded in the 1980s and 90s with several elaborate animated walkthrough attractions, such as the "Great Fire of London" and "Jack The Ripper".


title: London Dungeon

text: In 1997, by which time the Dungeon was managed by Vardon Attractions, the majority of the attraction was completely redesigned as a batched walkthrough rather than a free-flow exhibit. This saw the arrival of "Judgment Day", a water dark ride that began with visitors entering a mock trial to be sentenced to death, then boarding a boat through Traitor's Gate to their execution. The boat ride itself was a masterpiece in design in a crowded space. Many of the original horror tableaux were refurbished as part of a new ransacked village scene, at the start of the ride, and the finale included a lift into the unknown, followed by a turntable and a backwards drop. The original story at the top of the drop was of an executioner with an axe, but this was later changed to a firing squad, that shot, just as guests plunged backwards.


title: London Dungeon

text: 2000 saw the re-introduction of the "Fire of London" segment, which simulated the burning streets of 17th-century London and featured a spinning trommel with smoke effects.


title: London Dungeon

text: Under Merlin Entertainments, increasingly actor-led segments were added during the 2000s, such as the "Labyrinth of the Lost" mirror maze and the "Great Plague". In 2004, the "Judgement Day" boat ride was altered and renamed to "Traitor - Boat Ride to Hell", removing the original effects and scenes to become a simple boat ride, largely through darkness.


title: London Dungeon

text: 2006 saw the arrival of a Sweeney Todd segment. The attraction used surround sound and sensory effects to simulate an encounter with the titular character, before visitors' chairs were suddenly tilted backwards as a shock effect. Another ride segment was added in 2007, "Extremis - Drop Ride to Doom", based on the hangings at Newgate gallows. Guests were raised 20 feet to meet an animatronic judge, priest and hangman before a free-fall drop into darkness. The new ride replaced the "Blood and Guts Café".


title: London Dungeon

text: In 2008, there were changes to the Jack the Ripper segment, which included a new ending scene in the "Ten Bells" pub. In 2009 came "Surgery - Blood and Guts", which focused on gore and anatomy and used audience interaction. "Bloody Mary: Killer Queen" opened in 2010 in place of the "Fire of London" segment, and selected a random audience member to be publicly burned as a "heretic" using smoke effects.


title: London Dungeon

text: "Vengeance 5D" opened in 2011, an interactive seated shooter ride, themed to a séance. The ride was constructed in areas of the original Jack the Ripper attraction, which was significantly shortened to accommodate the new ride. Vengeance lasted only one season.


title: London Dungeon

text: The new County Hall Dungeon features some of the attractions repurposed from the Tooley Street Dungeon, not including Bloody Mary and Vengeance 5D. When it departed its first home, many props were sold at a car boot sale in nearby Pimlico. The sale Items on offer included an “array of torture and surgical equipment, severed limbs, false eyeballs, plague doctor's potions & a severed head”.


title: London Dungeon

text: The London Dungeon is one of six Dungeons in the UK. There are also a number of related attractions around the world.


title: London Dungeon

text: In its changing years, the London Dungeon has been the subject of mixed response by visitors and leisure critics. In 1988, the attraction received much publicised appraisal from the then Lord Mayor of London Sir Greville Spratt for its dramatic depiction of the Great Fire of London. The original Great Fire attraction doubled attendance to the Dungeon upon opening.


title: London Dungeon

text: By contrast, in 2009, Rick Steves described the London Dungeon as "just a highly advertised, overpriced haunted house" and an "amateurish attraction" in his book on the city. The "Rough Guide to Britain" describes it as best enjoyed by "young teenagers and the credulous".


title: Condorcet method

text: A Condorcet method (; ) is an election method that elects the candidate who wins a majority of the vote in every head-to-head election against each of the other candidates, that is, a candidate preferred by more voters than any others, whenever there is such a candidate. A candidate with this property, the "pairwise champion" or "beats-all winner", is formally called the "Condorcet winner". The head-to-head elections need not be done separately; a voter's choice within any given pair can be determined from the ranking.


title: Condorcet method

text: Some elections may not yield a Condorcet winner because voter preferences may be cyclic—that is, it is possible (but rare) that every candidate has an opponent that defeats them in a two-candidate contest.(This is similar to the game rock paper scissors, where each hand shape wins against one opponent and loses to another one). The possibility of such cyclic preferences is known as the Condorcet paradox. However, a smallest group of candidates that beat all candidates not in the group, known as the Smith set, always exists. The Smith set is guaranteed to have the Condorcet winner in it should one exist. Many Condorcet methods elect a candidate who is in the Smith set absent a Condorcet winner, and is thus said to be "Smith-efficient". The Condorcet winner is also usually but not necessarily the utilitarian winner (the one that maximizes social welfare).


title: Condorcet method

text: Condorcet voting methods are named for the 18th-century French mathematician and philosopher Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, the Marquis de Condorcet, who championed such systems. However, Ramon Llull devised the earliest known Condorcet method in 1299. It was equivalent to Copeland's method in cases with no pairwise ties.


title: Condorcet method

text: Condorcet methods may use preferential ranked, rated vote ballots, or explicit votes between all pairs of candidates.


title: Condorcet method

text: Most Condorcet methods employ a single round of preferential voting, in which each voter ranks the candidates from most (marked as number 1) to least preferred (marked with a higher number). A voter's ranking is often called their "order of preference." Votes can be tallied in many ways to find a winner. All Condorcet methods will elect the Condorcet winner if there is one. If there is no Condorcet winner different Condorcet-compliant methods may elect different winners in the case of a cycle—Condorcet methods differ on which other criteria they satisfy.


title: Condorcet method

text: The procedure given in Robert's Rules of Order for voting on motions and amendments is also a Condorcet method, even though the voters do not vote by expressing their orders of preference. There are multiple rounds of voting, and in each round the vote is between two of the alternatives. The loser (by majority rule) of a pairing is eliminated, and the winner of a pairing survives to be paired in a later round against another alternative. Eventually, only one alternative remains, and it is the winner. This is analogous to a single-winner or round-robin tournament; the total number of pairings is one less than the number of alternatives. Since a Condorcet winner will win by majority rule in each of its pairings, it will never be eliminated by Robert's Rules. But this method cannot reveal a voting paradox in which there is no Condorcet winner and a majority prefer an early loser over the eventual winner (though it will always elect someone in the Smith set). A considerable portion of the literature on social choice theory is about the properties of this method since it is widely used and is used by important organizations (legislatures, councils, committees, etc.). It is not practical for use in public elections, however, since its multiple rounds of voting would be very expensive for voters, for candidates, and for governments to administer.


title: Condorcet method

text: In a contest between candidates A, B and C using the preferential-vote form of Condorcet method, a head-to-head race is conducted between each pair of candidates. A and B, B and C, and C and A. If one candidate is preferred over all others, they are the Condorcet Winner and winner of the election.


title: Condorcet method

text: Because of the possibility of the Condorcet paradox, it is possible, but unlikely, that a Condorcet winner may not exist in a specific election. This is sometimes called a "Condorcet cycle" or just "cycle" and can be thought of as Rock beating Scissors, Scissors beating Paper, and Paper beating Rock. Various Condorcet methods differ in how they resolve such a cycle. (Note that most elections do not have cycles. See Condorcet paradox#Likelihood of the paradox for estimates.) If there is no cycle, all Condorcet methods elect the same candidate and are operationally equivalent.


title: Condorcet method

text: For most Condorcet methods, those counts usually suffice to determine the complete order of finish (i.e. who won, who came in 2nd place, etc.). They always suffice to determine whether there is a Condorcet winner.


title: Condorcet method

text: Additional information may be needed in the event of ties. Ties can be pairings that have no majority, or they can be majorities that are the same size. Such ties will be rare when there are many voters. Some Condorcet methods may have other kinds of ties. For example, with Copeland's method, it would not be rare for two or more candidates to win the same number of pairings, when there is no Condorcet winner.


title: Condorcet method

text: A Condorcet method is a voting system that will always elect the Condorcet winner (if there is one); this is the candidate whom voters prefer to each other candidate, when compared to them one at a time. This candidate can be found (if they exist; see next paragraph) by checking if there is a candidate who beats all other candidates; this can be done by using Copeland's method and then checking if the Copeland winner has the highest possible Copeland score. They can also be found by conducting a series of pairwise comparisons, using the procedure given in Robert's Rules of Order described above. For "N" candidates, this requires "N" − 1 pairwise hypothetical elections. For example, with 5 candidates there are 4 pairwise comparisons to be made, since after each comparison, a candidate is eliminated, and after 4 eliminations, only one of the original 5 candidates will remain.


title: Condorcet method

text: To confirm that a Condorcet winner exists in a given election, first do the Robert's Rules of Order procedure, declare the final remaining candidate the procedure's winner, and then do at most an additional "N" − 2 pairwise comparisons between the procedure's winner and any candidates they have not been compared against yet (including all previously eliminated candidates). If the procedure's winner does not win all pairwise matchups, then no Condorcet winner exists in the election (and thus the Smith set has multiple candidates in it).


title: Condorcet method

text: Note that computing all pairwise comparisons requires ½"N"("N"−1) pairwise comparisons for "N" candidates. For 10 candidates, this means 0.5*10*9=45 comparisons, which can make elections with many candidates hard to count the votes for.


title: Condorcet method

text: The family of Condorcet methods is also referred to collectively as Condorcet's method. A voting system that always elects the Condorcet winner when there is one is described by electoral scientists as a system that satisfies the Condorcet criterion. Additionally, a voting system can be considered to have Condorcet consistency, or be Condorcet consistent, if it elects any Condorcet winner.


title: Condorcet method

text: In certain circumstances, an election has no Condorcet winner. This occurs as a result of a kind of tie known as a "majority rule cycle", described by Condorcet's paradox. The manner in which a winner is then chosen varies from one Condorcet method to another. Some Condorcet methods involve the basic procedure described below, coupled with a Condorcet completion method, which is used to find a winner when there is no Condorcet winner. Other Condorcet methods involve an entirely different system of counting, but are classified as Condorcet methods, or Condorcet consistent, because they will still elect the Condorcet winner if there is one.


title: Condorcet method

text: It is important to note that not all single winner, ranked voting systems are Condorcet methods. For example, instant-runoff voting and the Borda count are not Condorcet methods.


title: Condorcet method

text: At the same time, Bernard Grofman's conjecture cited by Peyton Young—that Condorcet and Borda methods mostly lead to same outcomes—has been proved for a large society by Andranik Tangian.


title: Condorcet method

text: In a Condorcet election the voter ranks the list of candidates in order of preference. If a ranked ballot is used, the voter gives a "1" to their first preference, a "2" to their second preference, and so on. Some Condorcet methods allow voters to rank more than one candidate equally so that the voter might express two first preferences rather than just one. If a scored ballot is used, voters rate or score the candidates on a scale, for example as is used in Score voting, with a higher rating indicating a greater preference.


title: Condorcet method

text: When a voter does not give a full list of preferences, it is typically assumed that they prefer the candidates that they have ranked over all the candidates that were not ranked, and that there is no preference between candidates that were left unranked. Some Condorcet elections permit write-in candidates.


title: Condorcet method

text: The count is conducted by pitting every candidate against every other candidate in a series of hypothetical one-on-one contests. The winner of each pairing is the candidate preferred by a majority of voters. Unless they tie, there is always a majority when there are only two choices. The candidate preferred by each voter is taken to be the one in the pair that the voter ranks (or rates) higher on their ballot paper. For example, if Alice is paired against Bob it is necessary to count both the number of voters who have ranked Alice higher than Bob, and the number who have ranked Bob higher than Alice. If Alice is preferred by more voters then she is the winner of that pairing. When all possible pairings of candidates have been considered, if one candidate beats every other candidate in these contests then they are declared the Condorcet winner. As noted above, if there is no Condorcet winner a further method must be used to find the winner of the election, and this mechanism varies from one Condorcet consistent method to another. In any Condorcet method that passes Independence of Smith-dominated alternatives, it can sometimes help to identify the Smith set from the head-to-head matchups, and eliminate all candidates not in the set before doing the procedure for that Condorcet method.


title: Condorcet method

text: Condorcet methods use pairwise counting. For each possible pair of candidates, one pairwise count indicates how many voters prefer one of the paired candidates over the other candidate, and another pairwise count indicates how many voters have the opposite preference. The counts for all possible pairs of candidates summarize all the pairwise preferences of all the voters.


title: Condorcet method

text: Pairwise counts are often displayed in a "pairwise comparison matrix" or "outranking matrix" such as those below. In these matrices, each row represents each candidate as a 'runner', while each column represents each candidate as an 'opponent'. The cells at the intersection of rows and columns each show the result of a particular pairwise comparison. Cells comparing a candidate to themselves are left blank.


title: Condorcet method

text: Imagine there is an election between four candidates: A, B, C, and D. The first matrix below records the preferences expressed on a single ballot paper, in which the voter's preferences are (B, C, A, D); that is, the voter ranked B first, C second, A third, and D fourth. In the matrix a '1' indicates that the runner is preferred over the 'opponent', while a '0' indicates that the runner is defeated.


title: Condorcet method

text: Using a matrix like the one above, one can find the overall results of an election. Each ballot can be transformed into this style of matrix, and then added to all other ballot matrices using matrix addition. The sum of all ballots in an election is called the sum matrix.


title: Condorcet method

text: Suppose that in the imaginary election there are two other voters. Their preferences are (D, A, C, B) and (A, C, B, D). Added to the first voter, these ballots would give the following sum matrix:


title: Condorcet method

text: When the sum matrix is found, the contest between each pair of candidates is considered. The number of votes for runner over opponent (runner, opponent) is compared with the number of votes for opponent over runner (opponent, runner) to find the Condorcet winner. In the sum matrix above, A is the Condorcet winner because A beats every other candidate. When there is no Condorcet winner Condorcet completion methods, such as Ranked Pairs and the Schulze method, use the information contained in the sum matrix to choose a winner.


title: Condorcet method

text: Cells marked '—' in the matrices above have a numerical value of '0', but a dash is used since candidates are never preferred to themselves. The first matrix, that represents a single ballot, is inversely symmetric: (runner, opponent) is ¬(opponent, runner). Or (runner, opponent) + (opponent, runner) = 1. The sum matrix has this property: (runner, opponent) + (opponent, runner) = N for N voters, if all runners were fully ranked by each voter.


title: Condorcet method

text: To find the Condorcet winner every candidate must be matched against every other candidate in a series of imaginary one-on-one contests. In each pairing the winner is the candidate preferred by a majority of voters. When results for every possible pairing have been found they are as follows:


title: Condorcet method

text: As can be seen from both of the tables above, Nashville beats every other candidate. This means that Nashville is the Condorcet winner. Nashville will thus win an election held under any possible Condorcet method.


title: Condorcet method

text: While any Condorcet method will elect Nashville as the winner, if instead an election based on the same votes were held using first-past-the-post or instant-runoff voting, these systems would select Memphis and Knoxville respectively. This would occur despite the fact that most people would have preferred Nashville to either of those "winners". Condorcet methods make these preferences obvious rather than ignoring or discarding them.


title: Condorcet method

text: On the other hand, note that in this example Chattanooga also defeats Knoxville and Memphis when paired against those cities. If we changed the basis for defining preference and determined that Memphis voters preferred Chattanooga as a second choice rather than as a third choice, Chattanooga would be the Condorcet winner even though finishing in last place in a first-past-the-post election.


title: Condorcet method

text: An alternative way of thinking about this example if a Smith-efficient Condorcet method that passes ISDA is used to determine the winner is that 58% of the voters, a mutual majority, ranked Memphis last (making Memphis the majority loser) and Nashville, Chattanooga, and Knoxville above Memphis, ruling Memphis out. At that point, the voters who preferred Memphis as their 1st choice could only help to choose a winner among Nashville, Chattanooga, and Knoxville, and because they all preferred Nashville as their 1st choice among those three, Nashville would have had a 68% majority of 1st choices among the remaining candidates and won as the majority's 1st choice.


title: Condorcet method

text: As noted above, sometimes an election has no Condorcet winner because there is no candidate who is preferred by voters to all other candidates. When this occurs the situation is known as a 'Condorcet cycle', 'majority rule cycle', 'circular ambiguity', 'circular tie', 'Condorcet paradox', or simply a 'cycle'. This situation emerges when, once all votes have been tallied, the preferences of voters with respect to some candidates form a circle in which every candidate is beaten by at least one other candidate (Intransitivity).


title: Condorcet method

text: For example, if there are three candidates, Candidate Rock, Candidate Scissors, and Candidate Paper, there will be no Condorcet winner if voters prefer Candidate Rock over Candidate Scissors and Scissors over Paper, but also Candidate Paper over Rock. Depending on the context in which elections are held, circular ambiguities may or may not be common, but there is no known case of a governmental election with ranked-choice voting in which a circular ambiguity is evident from the record of ranked ballots. Nonetheless a cycle is always possible, and so every Condorcet method should be capable of determining a winner when this contingency occurs. A mechanism for resolving an ambiguity is known as ambiguity resolution, cycle resolution method, or "Condorcet completion method".


title: Condorcet method

text: Circular ambiguities arise as a result of the voting paradox—the result of an election can be intransitive (forming a cycle) even though all individual voters expressed a transitive preference. In a Condorcet election it is impossible for the preferences of a single voter to be cyclical, because a voter must rank all candidates in order, from top-choice to bottom-choice, and can only rank each candidate once, but the paradox of voting means that it is still possible for a circular ambiguity in voter tallies to emerge.


title: Condorcet method

text: The idealized notion of a political spectrum is often used to describe political candidates and policies. Where this kind of spectrum exists, and voters prefer candidates who are closest to their own position on the spectrum, there is a Condorcet winner (Black's Single-Peakedness Theorem).


title: Condorcet method

text: In Condorcet methods, as in most electoral systems, there is also the possibility of an ordinary tie. This occurs when two or more candidates tie with each other but defeat every other candidate. As in other systems this can be resolved by a random method such as the drawing of lots. Ties can also be settled through other methods like seeing which of the tied winners had the most first choice votes, but this and some other non-random methods may re-introduce a degree of tactical voting, especially if voters know the race will be close.


title: Condorcet method

text: The method used to resolve circular ambiguities is the main difference between the various Condorcet methods. There are countless ways in which this can be done, but every Condorcet method involves ignoring the majorities expressed by voters in at least some pairwise matchings. Some cycle resolution methods are Smith-efficient, meaning that they pass the Smith criterion. This guarantees that when there is a cycle (and no pairwise ties), only the candidates in the cycle can win, and that if there is a mutual majority, one of their preferred candidates will win.


title: Condorcet method

text: Many one-method systems and some two-method systems will give the same result as each other if there are fewer than 4 candidates in the circular tie, and all voters separately rank at least two of those candidates. These include Smith-Minimax (Minimax but done only after all candidates not in the Smith set are eliminated), Ranked Pairs, and Schulze. For example, with three candidates in the Smith set in a Condorcet cycle, because Schulze and Ranked Pairs pass ISDA, all candidates not in the Smith set can be eliminated first, and then for Schulze, dropping the weakest defeat of the three allows the candidate who had that weakest defeat to be the only candidate who can beat or tie all other candidates, while with Ranked Pairs, once the first two strongest defeats are locked in, the weakest cannot, since it'd create a cycle, and so the candidate with the weakest defeat will have no defeats locked in against them).


title: Condorcet method

text: One family of Condorcet methods consists of systems that first conduct a series of pairwise comparisons and then, if there is no Condorcet winner, fall back to an entirely different, non-Condorcet method to determine a winner. The simplest such fall-back methods involve entirely disregarding the results of the pairwise comparisons. For example, the Black method chooses the Condorcet winner if it exists, but uses the Borda count instead if there is a cycle (the method is named for Duncan Black).


title: Condorcet method

text: A more sophisticated two-stage process is, in the event of a cycle, to use a separate voting system to find the winner but to restrict this second stage to a certain subset of candidates found by scrutinizing the results of the pairwise comparisons. Sets used for this purpose are defined so that they will always contain only the Condorcet winner if there is one, and will always, in any case, contain at least one candidate. Such sets include the


title: Condorcet method

text: One possible method is to apply instant-runoff voting in various ways, such as to the candidates of the Smith set. One variation of this method has been described as "Smith/IRV", with another being Tideman's alternative methods. It is also possible to do "Smith/Approval" by allowing voters to rank candidates, and indicate which candidates they approve, such that the candidate in the Smith set approved by the most voters wins; this is often done using an approval threshold (i.e. if voters approve their 3rd choices, those voters are automatically considered to approve their 1st and 2nd choices too). In Smith/Score, the candidate in the Smith set with the highest total score wins, with the pairwise comparisons done based on which candidates are scored higher than others.


title: Condorcet method

text: Some Condorcet methods use a single procedure that inherently meets the Condorcet criteria and, without any extra procedure, also resolves circular ambiguities when they arise. In other words, these methods do not involve separate procedures for different situations. Typically these methods base their calculations on pairwise counts. These methods include:


title: Condorcet method

text: Ranked Pairs and Schulze are procedurally in some sense opposite approaches (although they very frequently give the same results):


title: Condorcet method

text: Minimax could be considered as more "blunt" than either of these approaches, as instead of removing defeats it can be seen as immediately removing candidates by looking at the strongest defeats (although their victories are still considered for subsequent candidate eliminations). One way to think of it in terms of removing defeats is that Minimax removes each candidate's weakest defeats until some group of candidates with only pairwise ties between them have no defeats left, at which point the group ties to win.


title: Condorcet method

text: The Kemeny–Young method considers every possible sequence of choices in terms of which choice might be most popular, which choice might be second-most popular, and so on down to which choice might be least popular. Each such sequence is associated with a Kemeny score that is equal to the sum of the pairwise counts that apply to the specified sequence. The sequence with the highest score is identified as the overall ranking, from most popular to least popular.


title: Condorcet method

text: When the pairwise counts are arranged in a matrix in which the choices appear in sequence from most popular (top and left) to least popular (bottom and right), the winning Kemeny score equals the sum of the counts in the upper-right, triangular half of the matrix (shown here in bold on a green background).


title: Condorcet method

text: In this example, the Kemeny Score of the sequence Nashville > Chattanooga > Knoxville > Memphis would be 393.


title: Condorcet method

text: Calculating every Kemeny score requires considerable computation time in cases that involve more than a few choices. However, fast calculation methods based on integer programming allow a computation time in seconds for some cases with as many as 40 choices.


title: Condorcet method

text: The order of finish is constructed a piece at a time by considering the (pairwise) majorities one at a time, from largest majority to smallest majority. For each majority, their higher-ranked candidate is placed ahead of their lower-ranked candidate in the (partially constructed) order of finish, except when their lower-ranked candidate has already been placed ahead of their higher-ranked candidate.


title: Condorcet method

text: For example, suppose the voters' orders of preference are such that 75% rank B over C, 65% rank A over B, and 60% rank C over A. (The three majorities are a rock paper scissors cycle.) Ranked pairs begins with the largest majority, who rank B over C, and places B ahead of C in the order of finish. Then it considers the second largest majority, who rank A over B, and places A ahead of B in the order of finish. At this point, it has been established that A finishes ahead of B and B finishes ahead of C, which implies A also finishes ahead of C. So when ranked pairs considers the third largest majority, who rank C over A, their lower-ranked candidate A has already been placed ahead of their higher-ranked candidate C, so C is not placed ahead of A. The order of finish is "A, B, C" and A is the winner.


title: Condorcet method

text: An equivalent definition is to find the order of finish that minimizes the size of the largest reversed majority. (In the 'lexicographical order' sense. If the largest majority reversed in two orders of finish is the same, the two orders of finish are compared by their second largest reversed majorities, etc. See the discussion of MinMax, MinLexMax and Ranked Pairs in the 'Motivation and uses' section of the Lexicographical Order article). (In the example, the order of finish "A, B, C" reverses the 60% who rank C over A. Any other order of finish would reverse a larger majority.) This definition is useful for simplifying some of the proofs of Ranked Pairs' properties, but the "constructive" definition executes much faster (small polynomial time).


title: Condorcet method

text: In other words, this procedure repeatedly throws away the weakest pairwise defeat within the top set, until finally the number of votes left over produce an unambiguous decision.


title: Condorcet method

text: Some pairwise methods—including minimax, Ranked Pairs, and the Schulze method—resolve circular ambiguities based on the relative strength of the defeats. There are different ways to measure the strength of each defeat, and these include considering "winning votes" and "margins":


title: Condorcet method

text: If voters do not rank their preferences for all of the candidates, these two approaches can yield different results. Consider, for example, the following election:


title: Condorcet method

text: Using the winning votes definition of defeat strength, the defeat of B by C is the weakest, and the defeat of A by B is the strongest. Using the margins definition of defeat strength, the defeat of C by A is the weakest, and the defeat of A by B is the strongest.


title: Condorcet method

text: Using winning votes as the definition of defeat strength, candidate B would win under minimax, Ranked Pairs and the Schulze method, but, using margins as the definition of defeat strength, candidate C would win in the same methods.


title: Condorcet method

text: If all voters give complete rankings of the candidates, then winning votes and margins will always produce the same result. The difference between them can only come into play when some voters declare equal preferences amongst candidates, as occurs implicitly if they do not rank all candidates, as in the example above.


title: Condorcet method

text: The choice between margins and winning votes is the subject of scholarly debate. Because all Condorcet methods always choose the Condorcet winner when one exists, the difference between methods only appears when cyclic ambiguity resolution is required. The argument for using winning votes follows from this: Because cycle resolution involves disenfranchising a selection of votes, then the selection should disenfranchise the fewest possible number of votes. When margins are used, the difference between the number of two candidates' votes may be small, but the number of votes may be very large—or not. Only methods employing winning votes satisfy Woodall's plurality criterion.


title: Condorcet method

text: An argument in favour of using margins is the fact that the result of a pairwise comparison is decided by the presence of more votes for one side than the other and thus that it follows naturally to assess the strength of a comparison by this "surplus" for the winning side. Otherwise, changing only a few votes from the winner to the loser could cause a sudden large change from a large score for one side to a large score for the other. In other words, one could consider losing votes being in fact disenfranchised when it comes to ambiguity resolution with winning votes. Also, using winning votes, a vote containing ties (possibly implicitly in the case of an incompletely ranked ballot) does not have the same effect as a number of equally weighted votes with total weight equaling one vote, such that the ties are broken in every possible way (a violation of Woodall's symmetric-completion criterion), as opposed to margins.


title: Condorcet method

text: Under winning votes, if two more of the "B" voters decided to vote "BC", the A->C arm of the cycle would be overturned and Condorcet would pick C instead of B. This is an example of "Unburying" or "Later does harm". The margin method would pick C anyway.


title: Condorcet method

text: Under the margin method, if three more "BC" voters decided to "bury" C by just voting "B", the A->C arm of the cycle would be strengthened and the resolution strategies would end up breaking the C->B arm and giving the win to B. This is an example of "Burying". The winning votes method would pick B anyway.


title: Condorcet method

text: Some Condorcet methods produce not just a single winner, but a ranking of all candidates from first to last place. A Condorcet ranking is a list of candidates with the property that the Condorcet winner (if one exists) comes first and the Condorcet loser (if one exists) comes last, and this holds recursively for the candidates ranked between them.


title: Condorcet method

text: Though there will not always be a Condorcet winner or Condorcet loser, there is always a Smith set and "Smith loser set" (smallest group of candidates who lose to all candidates not in the set in head-to-head elections). Some voting methods produce rankings that sort all candidates in the Smith set above all others, and all candidates in the Smith loser set below all others, with this holding recursively for all candidates ranked between them; in essence, this guarantees that when the candidates can be split into two groups, such that every candidate in the first group beats every candidate in the second group head-to-head, then all candidates in the first group are ranked higher than all candidates in the second group. Because the Smith set and Smith loser set are equivalent to the Condorcet winner and Condorcet loser when they exist, methods that always produce Smith set rankings also always produce Condorcet rankings.


title: Condorcet method

text: Many proponents of instant-runoff voting (IRV) are attracted by the belief that if their first choice does not win, their vote will be given to their second choice; if their second choice does not win, their vote will be given to their third choice, etc. This sounds perfect, but it is not true for every voter with IRV. If someone voted for a strong candidate, and their 2nd and 3rd choices are eliminated before their first choice is eliminated, IRV gives their vote to their 4th choice candidate, not their 2nd choice. Condorcet voting takes all rankings into account simultaneously, but at the expense of violating the later-no-harm criterion and the later-no-help criterion. With IRV, indicating a second choice will never affect your first choice. With Condorcet voting, it is possible that indicating a second choice will cause your first choice to lose.


title: Condorcet method

text: Plurality voting is simple, and theoretically provides incentives for voters to compromise for centrist candidates rather than throw away their votes on candidates who cannot win. Opponents to plurality voting point out that voters often vote for the lesser of evils because they heard on the news that those two are the only two with a chance of winning, not necessarily because those two are the two natural compromises. This gives the media significant election powers. And if voters do compromise according to the media, the post election counts will prove the media right for next time. Condorcet runs each candidate against the other head to head, so that voters elect the candidate who would win the most sincere runoffs, instead of the one they thought they had to vote for.


title: Condorcet method

text: There are circumstances, as in the examples above, when both instant-runoff voting and the "first-past-the-post" plurality system will fail to pick the Condorcet winner. (In fact, FPTP can elect the Condorcet loser and IRV can elect the second-worst candidate, who would lose to every candidate except the Condorcet loser.) In cases where there is a Condorcet Winner, and where IRV does not choose it, a majority would by definition prefer the Condorcet Winner to the IRV winner. Proponents of the Condorcet criterion see it as a principal issue in selecting an electoral system. They see the Condorcet criterion as a natural extension of majority rule. Condorcet methods tend to encourage the selection of centrist candidates who appeal to the median voter. Here is an example that is designed to support IRV at the expense of Condorcet:


title: Condorcet method

text: B is preferred by a 501–499 majority to A, and by a 502–498 majority to C. So, according to the Condorcet criterion, B should win, despite the fact that very few voters rank B in first place. By contrast, IRV elects C and plurality elects A. The goal of a ranked voting system is for voters to be able to vote sincerely and trust the system to protect their intent. Plurality voting forces voters to do all their tactics before they vote, so that the system does not need to figure out their intent.


title: Condorcet method

text: The significance of this scenario, of two parties with strong support, and the one with weak support being the Condorcet winner, may be misleading, though, as it is a common mode in plurality voting systems (see Duverger's law), but much less likely to occur in Condorcet or IRV elections, which unlike Plurality voting, punish candidates who alienate a significant block of voters.


title: Condorcet method

text: B would win against either A or C by more than a 65–35 margin in a one-on-one election, but IRV eliminates B first, leaving a contest between the more "polar" candidates, A and C. Proponents of plurality voting state that their system is simpler than any other and more easily understood.


title: Condorcet method

text: All three systems are susceptible to tactical voting, but the types of tactics used and the frequency of strategic incentive differ in each method.


title: Condorcet method

text: Like all voting methods, Condorcet methods are vulnerable to compromising. That is, voters can help avoid the election of a less-preferred candidate by insincerely raising the position of a more-preferred candidate on their ballot. However, Condorcet methods are only vulnerable to compromising when there is a majority rule cycle, or when one can be created.


title: Condorcet method

text: Condorcet methods are vulnerable to burying. In some elections, voters can help a more-preferred candidate by insincerely lowering the position of a less-preferred candidate on their ballot. For example, in an election with three candidates, voters may be able to falsify their second choice to help their preferred candidate win.


title: Condorcet method

text: Supporters of Condorcet methods which exhibit this potential problem could rebut this concern by pointing out that pre-election polls are most necessary with plurality voting, and that voters, armed with ranked choice voting, could lie to pre-election pollsters, making it impossible for Candidate A to know whether or how to bury. It is also nearly impossible to predict ahead of time how many supporters of A would actually follow the instructions, and how many would be alienated by such an obvious attempt to manipulate the system.


title: Condorcet method

text: Scholars of electoral systems often compare them using mathematically defined voting system criteria. The criteria which Condorcet methods satisfy vary from one Condorcet method to another. However, the Condorcet criterion implies the majority criterion, and thus is incompatible with independence of irrelevant alternatives (though it implies a weaker analogous form of the criterion: when there is a Condorcet winner, losing candidates can drop out of the election without changing the result), later-no-harm, the participation criterion, and the consistency criterion.


title: Condorcet method

text: Condorcet methods are not known to be currently in use in government elections anywhere in the world, but a Condorcet method known as Nanson's method was used in city elections in the U.S. town of Marquette, Michigan in the 1920s, and today Condorcet methods are used by a number of political parties and private organizations. Organizations which currently use some variant of the Condorcet method are:


title: Tremec TR-6060 transmission

text: The Tremec TR-6060 six-speed manual transmission features six forward speeds and one reverse speed. It is derived from the Tremec T-56 6-speed manual transmission. As usual, the forward helical cut gears are synchronized. However, the reverse gear operates through a fully synchronized constant-mesh system. The TR-6060 contains removable wear pads on the shift forks, and uses aluminum alloys for the main case, extension housing, and clutch housing. It is manufactured by TREMEC (formerly Transmission Technologies Corporation) and is rated for of torque.


title: Tremec TR-6060 transmission

text: The FG Falcon launch documentation describes the new gearbox: "The new synchroniser package features triple synchromesh on first and second gears, and double synchromesh on all other gears, including reverse, which has significantly reduced gear shift efforts and shift travel.


title: Tremec TR-6060 transmission

text: The reduced shift travel provided by the synchroniser package has also allowed increased space for the use of larger gears, which are stronger to deliver improved torque capacity and gearbox durability. A new single-piece counter shaft also contributes to the greater torque capacity and durability enhancements.


title: Tremec TR-6060 transmission

text: General Motors uses Texaco ATF Type III 1863 fluid and is certified "fill-for-life," requiring no fluid changes.


title: Tremec TR-6060 transmission

text: Ford US lists a fill specification of 3.65 quarts of Mercon-V automatic transmission fluid. FCA Applications use Mopar ATF +4 Automatic Transmission Fluid.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The Renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes at the outset of the High Middle Ages. It included social, political and economic transformations, and an intellectual revitalization of Western Europe with strong philosophical and scientific roots. These changes paved the way for later achievements such as the literary and artistic movement of the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century and the scientific developments of the 17th century.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The groundwork for the rebirth of learning was laid by the process of political consolidation and centralization of the monarchies of Europe. This process of centralization began with Charlemagne (768–814) King of the Franks and later (800–814), Holy Roman Emperor. Charlemagne's inclination towards education, which led to the creation of many new churches and schools where students were required to learn Latin and Greek, has been called the Carolingian Renaissance.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: A second "renaissance" occurred during the reign of Otto I (The Great) (936–973) King of the Saxons and from 962 onwards Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto was successful in unifying his kingdom and asserting his right to appoint bishops and archbishops throughout his kingdom. Otto's assumption of this ecclesiastical power brought him into close contact with the best educated and ablest class of men in his kingdom. Because of this close contact many new reforms were introduced in the Saxon Kingdom and in the Holy Roman Empire. Thus, Otto's reign has been called the Ottonian Renaissance.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: Therefore, the Renaissance of the 12th century has been identified as the third and final of the medieval renaissances. Yet the renaissance of the twelfth century was far more thoroughgoing than those renaissances that preceded in the Carolingian or in the Ottonian periods. Indeed, Charlemagne's Carolingian Renaissance was really more particular to Charlemagne himself, and was really more of a "veneer on a changing society" than a true renaissance springing up from society, and the same might be said of the Ottonian Renaissance.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The Harvard professor Charles Homer Haskins was the first historian to write extensively about a renaissance that ushered in the High Middle Ages starting about 1070. In 1927, he wrote that:


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The English art historian Kenneth Clark wrote that Western Europe's first "great age of civilisation" was ready to begin around the year 1000. From 1100, he wrote, monumental abbeys and cathedrals were constructed and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics and works belonging to one of the greatest epochs of art and providing stark contrast to the monotonous and cramped conditions of ordinary living during the period. Abbot Suger of the Abbey of St. Denis is considered an influential early patron of Gothic architecture and believed that love of beauty brought people closer to God: "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material". Clark calls this "the intellectual background of all the sublime works of art of the next century and in fact has remained the basis of our belief of the value of art until today".


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The translation of texts from other cultures, especially ancient Greek works, was an important aspect of both this Twelfth-Century Renaissance and the later Renaissance of the 15th century. It is inaccurate, however, to say that the relevant difference was that Latin scholars of the earlier period focused almost entirely on translating and studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, while the later Renaissance focused on literary and historical texts, since some of the most significant Greek translations of the 15th century were those by Mauricio Ficino, including several works of Plato and Neoplatonist authors, as well as a highly significant translation of the Corpus Hermeticum. These were works of Pythagorean and Platonic spirituality and philosophy of far more importance to later philosophical and religious debate than the translations of the 12th century.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The era of the Crusades brought large groups of Europeans into contact with the technologies and luxuries of Byzantium for the first time in many centuries. Crusaders returning to Europe brought numerous small luxuries and souvenirs with them, stimulating a new appetite for trade. The rising Italian maritime powers such as Genoa and Venice began to monopolize trade between Europe, Muslims, and Byzantium via the Mediterranean Sea, having developed advanced commercial and financial techniques; cities such as Florence became major centers of this financial industry.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: In Northern Europe, the Hanseatic League was founded in the 12th century, with the foundation of the city of Lübeck in 1158–1159. Many northern cities of the Holy Roman Empire became Hanseatic cities, including Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen and Rostock. Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance, Bruges, London and the Polish city of Danzig (Gdańsk). In Bergen and Novgorod the league had factories and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonizing Eastern Europe beyond the Empire, into Prussia and Silesia.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: In the mid 13th century, the "Pax Mongolica" re-invigorated the land-based trade routes between China and West Asia that had fallen dormant in the 9th and 10th centuries. Following the Mongol incursion into Europe in 1241, the Pope and some European rulers sent clerics as emissaries and/or missionaries to the Mongol court; these included William of Rubruck, Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, Andrew of Longjumeau, Odoric of Pordenone, Giovanni de Marignolli, Giovanni di Monte Corvino, and other travelers such as Niccolò da Conti. While the accounts of Carpini et al were written in Latin as letters to their sponsors, the account of the later Italian traveller Marco Polo, who followed his father and uncle as far as China, was written first in French c.1300 and later in other popular languages, making it relatively accessible to larger groups of Europeans.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Western Europe had entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties. Apart from depopulation and other factors, most classical scientific treatises of classical antiquity, written in Greek or Latin, had become unavailable or lost entirely. Philosophical and scientific teaching of the Early Middle Ages was based upon the few Latin translations and commentaries on ancient Greek scientific and philosophical texts that remained in the Latin West, the study of which remained at minimal levels. Only the Christian church maintained copies of these written works, and they were periodically replaced and distributed to other churches.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: This scenario changed during the renaissance of the 12th century. For several centuries, popes had been sending clerics to the various kings of Europe. Kings of Europe were typically illiterate. Literate clerics would be specialists of some subject or other, such as music, medicine or history etc., otherwise known as Roman cohors amicorum, the root of the Italian word corte 'court'. As such, these clerics would become part of a king's retinue or court, educating the king and his children, paid for by the pope, whilst facilitating the spread of knowledge into the Middle Ages. The church maintained classic scriptures in scrolls and books in numerous scriptoria across Europe, thus preserving the classic knowledge and allowing access to this important information to the European kings. In return, kings were encouraged to build monasteries that would act as orphanages, hospitals and schools, benefiting societies and eventually smoothing the transition from the Middle Ages.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The increased contact with the Islamic world in Muslim-dominated Iberia and Southern Italy, the Crusades, the Reconquista, as well as increased contact with Byzantium, allowed Western Europeans to seek and translate the works of Hellenic and Islamic philosophers and scientists, especially the works of Aristotle. Several translations were made of Euclid but no extensive commentary was written until the middle of the 13th century.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The development of medieval universities allowed them to aid materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, the European university put many of these texts at the centre of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendant."


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of some ancient Greek scientific works, though not of the Mechanika, an accurate translation of Euclid, or of the scientific advances of the NeoPlatonists. But those texts that were available were studied and elaborated, leading to new insights into the nature of the universe. The influence of this revival is evident in the scientific work of Robert Grosseteste and the NeoPlatonism of Bernardus Silvestris (?1085-?1178).


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: During the High Middle Ages in Europe, there was increased innovation in means of production, leading to economic growth.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: Alfred Crosby described some of this technological revolution in "The Measure of Reality : Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600" and other major historians of technology have also noted it.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The early 12th century saw a revival of the study of Latin classics, prose, and verse before and independent of the revival of Greek philosophy in Latin translation. The Cathedral schools at Chartres, Orleans, and Canterbury were centers of Latin literature staffed by notable scholars. John of Salisbury, secretary at Canterbury, became the bishop of Chartres. He held Cicero in the highest regard in philosophy, language, and the humanities. Latin humanists possessed and read virtually all the Latin authors we have today—Ovid, Virgil, Terence, Horace, Seneca, Cicero. The exceptions were few—Tacitus, Livy, Lucretius. In poetry, Virgil was universally admired, followed by Ovid.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: Like the earlier Carolingian revival, the 12th-century Latin revival would not be permanent. While religious opposition to pagan Roman literature existed, Haskins argues that “it was not religion but logic” in particular “Aristotle’s New Logic toward the middle of [the 12th] century [that] threw a heavy weight on the side of dialectic ...” at the expense of the letters, literature, oratory, and poetry of the Latin authors. The nascent universities would become Aristotelean centers displacing the Latin humanist heritage until its final revival by Petrarch in the 14th century.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The study of the "Digest" was the first step to the revival of Roman legal jurisprudence and the establishment of Roman law as the basis of civil law in continental Europe. The University of Bologna, recognised as the world's oldest continuously operating university, was Europe's centre of legal scholarship during this period.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: A new method of learning called scholasticism developed in the late 12th century from the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle; the works of medieval Muslims and Jews influenced by him, notably Maimonides, Avicenna (see Avicennism) and Averroes (see Averroism). The great scholastic scholars of the 13th century were Albertus Magnus, Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas. Those who practiced the scholastic method defended Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study and logic. Other notable scholastics ("schoolmen") included Roscelin and Peter Lombard. One of the main questions during this time was the problem of the universals. Prominent non-scholastics of the time included Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Damian, Bernard of Clairvaux, and the Victorines.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: The 12th-century renaissance saw a revival of interest in poetry. Writing mostly in their own native languages, contemporary poets produced significantly more work than those of the Carolingian Renaissance. The subject matter varied wildly across epic, lyric, and dramatic. Meter was no longer confined to the classical forms and began to diverge into newer schemes. Additionally, the division between religious and secular poetry became smaller. In particular, the Goliards were noted for profane parodies of religious texts.


title: Renaissance of the 12th century

text: These expansions of poetic form contributed to the rise of vernacular literature, which tended to prefer the newer rhythms and structures.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: Belle Isle Park, known simply as Belle Isle (), is a island park in Detroit, Michigan, developed in the late 19th century. It consists of Belle Isle, an island in the Detroit River, as well as several surrounding islets. The U.S.-Canada border is in the channel south of Belle Isle.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: Owned by the city of Detroit, Belle Isle is managed as a state park by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources through a 30-year lease initiated in 2013; it was previously a city park. Belle Isle Park is the largest city-owned island park in the United States, and Belle Isle is the third largest island in the Detroit River, after Grosse Ile and Fighting Island. It is connected to mainland Detroit by the MacArthur Bridge.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: Belle Isle Park is home to the Belle Isle Aquarium, the Belle Isle Conservatory, the Belle Isle Nature Center, the James Scott Memorial Fountain, the Dossin Great Lakes Museum, a municipal golf course, a half-mile (800 m) swimming beach, and numerous other monuments and attractions. It is also the site of a Coast Guard station. The Detroit Yacht Club is located on an adjacent island, connected to Belle Isle by a bridge.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: The island was settled by French colonists in the 18th century, who named it "Île aux Cochons" (Hog Island). They allowed their livestock free range on the island.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: Following his victory in the War of 1812, American General Alexander Macomb, Jr. was assigned to this region and owned the island as his estate. He was later appointed as Commanding General of the US Army. A monument to him was erected in the Washington Boulevard Historic District in downtown Detroit.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: On July 4, 1845, a historic picnic party was held on the island; attendees decided to change its name to "Belle Isle" in honor of Miss Isabelle Cass, daughter of Governor (General) Lewis Cass. The name "Belle Isle" (an archaic spelling of "Belle Île") means "beautiful island" in French.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: The city planned to develop the island as a park, and hired prominent American urban park designer Frederick Law Olmsted in the 1880s to design it. He is known for his design of Central Park in New York City. But only some elements of his design were completed.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: The 1908 Belle Isle Casino building is not used as a gambling facility; rather, it serves for occasional public events. Highlights of Belle Isle include a botanical garden and the Belle Isle Conservatory (1904). Both the conservatory and the adjacent aquarium were designed by Detroit architect Albert Kahn, who designed Cadillac Place and the Ford Rouge Factory, now recognized as city and national landmarks.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: One night in 1908, Byron Carter of Cartercar stopped to help a stranded motorist on Belle Isle. When he cranked her Cadillac, it kicked back and broke his jaw. Complications from the injury resulted in his contracting pneumonia and he died. Henry Leland, founder of Cadillac Motors, said that "The Cadillac car will kill no more men if we can help it". He hired Charles Kettering, who established Delco and developed the electric self-starter. This soon became standard on all automobiles.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: Architect Cass Gilbert designed Belle Isle's "James Scott Memorial Fountain", completed in 1925. Gilbert's other works include the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC. William Livingstone Memorial Light, the only marble lighthouse in the United States, is located on the east end of the island, and features sumptuous materials and architecture. It was named for the president of the Lakes Carriers Association, who advocated safety and navigational improvements in Great Lakes shipping.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: During World War II, the US military used the island park for training. They also staged a re-enactment of the invasion of a Pacific island invasion by the Navy and Marine Corps. The island was temporarily renamed Bella Jima, and Detroiters witnessed an island invasion without the bloodshed. This event was conducted after the successful US invasion of Iwo Jima.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: The 1943 Detroit race riot began at Belle Isle, and spread to other areas of Detroit. 34 people were killed and 433 were injured.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: At one time, the island housed a canoe concession, which provided rental canoes and stored private ones. Canoe riders often stopped at the nearby Remick Band Shell, which hosted regular concerts from 1950 to 1980. The band shell replaced an earlier facility and provided more amenities for performers and audience members. It was constructed at a cost of $150,000 and was named for resident Jerome H. Remick, who owned the world's largest music publishing house at the time.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: The Detroit Boat Club operated rented facilities on the island from 1902 until 1996. The marina and building are currently closed, and only rowing activities are still conducted at that location. The Belle Isle Golf Course opened in 1922. The Detroit Yacht Club building dates to 1923 and still houses an active private sailing club; it also offers swimming and other country club amenities. The Activities Building was the site of a restaurant. The Flynn Pavilion (1949) was designed by Eero Saarinen and used for ice skating rental.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: A ferry service to the island existed from 1840 to 1957, although the bridge was completed to the island in 1923. Riding stables were housed in an 1863 market building that was relocated from Detroit to the island in the 1890s. The building was disassembled and stored by Greenfield Village in the 2000s. The park headquarters and police station are each located in 1860s-era houses.


title: Belle Isle Park (Michigan)

text: From the 1890s, the island was home to a large herd of European fallow deer. But this isolated population fell prey to disease at the close of the 20th century as a result of cyclic inbreeding. In 2004, the last of the 300 animals were captured and moved to the Detroit Zoo and nature center, located on Belle Isle. The children's zoo on the island and the aquarium closed due to budget constraints.