title: Victor Hugo

text: His mother, Sophie, went to Italy with her husband who was a governor of a province near Naples. They also went to Spain where Joseph governed three Spanish provinces. Sophie separated temporarily from her husband in 1803, as it was a difficult life. She settled in Paris. This meant she dominated Hugo's education. Therefore, Hugo's early work, mainly in poetry, show him praising monarchism and faith. The 1848 Revolution made Hugo rebel against his Catholic Royalist education. After that revolution, he preferred republicanism and freethought.


title: Victor Hugo

text: When he was young, Victor Hugo fell in love. He became secretly engaged to his childhood friend Adèle Foucher (1803-1868), against his mother's wishes.


title: Victor Hugo

text: He married Adèle in 1822, after his mother's death in 1821. Their first child, Léopold (born in 1823), died in infancy. Hugo had four other children called Léopoldine (28 August 1824), Charles (4 November 1826), François-Victor (28 October 1828) and Adèle (24 August 1830). Hugo published his first novel in 1823 ("Han d'Islande"). His second came three years later ("Bug-Jargal", 1826). He published five more volumes of poetry ("Les Orientales", 1829; "Les Feuilles d'automne", 1831; "Les Chants du crépuscule", 1835; "Les Voix intérieures", 1837; and "Les Rayons et les ombres", 1840) between 1829 and 1840. This helped his reputation as one of the greatest elegiac and lyric poets of his time.


title: Victor Hugo

text: The death of his oldest and favourite daughter, Léopoldine, made Hugo very sad. She died at the age of 19, in 1843. This was only shortly after her marriage. She drowned in the Seine at Villequier. Her heavy skirts pulled her down, when a boat overturned. Her husband died as he tried to save her. At the time; Victor Hugo was travelling with his mistress in the south of France. He learned about Léopoldine's death from a newspaper when he was sitting in a café. He describes his shock and grief in his poem "À Villequier":


title: Victor Hugo

text: After this, he wrote many poems about his daughter's life and death. One of his most famous poem is probably "Demain, dès l'aube". In this poem, he describes visiting her grave.


title: Victor Hugo

text: François-René de Chateaubriand, the famous Romantic writer, influenced Hugo during the early 1800s. When Hugo was young, he said he would be "Chateaubriand ou rien" (“Chateaubriand or nothing”). Many things Chateaubriand did, Hugo copied. First, he defended the cause of Romanticism. Then, he became involved in politics and supported Republicanism. Finally, he was forced into exile because of his political views. Hugo's passion and eloquence in his early work made him successful and famous at an early age. His first collection of poetry ("Odes et poésies diverses") was published in 1822. At the time, Hugo was only twenty years old. It earned him a "royal pension" (money from the king) from Louis XVIII. His poems were admired but it was his next collection, four years later in 1826 ("Odes et Ballades") which revealed Hugo to be a great poet.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Victor Hugo's first mature work of fiction appeared in 1829. It reflected his interest for society which appeared more often in his later work. "Le Dernier jour d'un condamné" ("The Last Day of a Condemned Man") had a big influence on later writers such as Albert Camus, Charles Dickens, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. "Claude Gueux" appeared in 1834. It is a documentary short story about a real-life murderer who had been executed in France. Hugo himself considered it to be a precursor to his great work on social injustice, "Les Misérables". But Hugo’s first successful novel "Notre-Dame de Paris" ("The Hunchback of Notre Dame"), which was published in 1831. It was quickly translated into other languages across Europe. One of the effects of the novel was to make the inhabitants of Paris restore the neglected Cathedral of Notre Dame, which was attracting thousands of tourists who had read the popular novel. The book also inspired a renewed appreciation for pre-renaissance buildings, which began to be actively preserved.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo began planning a major novel about social misery and injustice as early as the 1830s, but it would take a full 17 years for "Les Misérables", to be realized and finally published in 1862. The author was acutely aware of the quality of the novel and publication of the work went to the highest bidder. The Belgian publishing house Lacroix and Verboeckhoven undertook a marketing campaign unusual for the time, issuing press releases about the work a full six months before the launch. It also initially published only the first part of the novel (“Fantine”), which was launched simultaneously in major cities. Installments of the book sold out within hours, and had enormous impact on French society. The critical establishment was generally hostile to the novel; Taine found it insincere, Barbey d'Aurevilly complained of its vulgarity, Flaubert found within it "neither truth nor greatness," the Goncourts lambasted its artificiality, and Baudelaire - despite giving favorable reviews in newspapers - castigated it in private as "tasteless and inept." "Les Misérables" proved popular enough with the masses that the issues it highlighted were soon on the agenda of the French National Assembly. Today the novel remains his most enduringly popular work. It is popular worldwide, has been adapted for cinema, television and stage shows.


title: Victor Hugo

text: The shortest correspondence in history is between Hugo and his publisher Hurst & Blackett in 1862. It is said Hugo was on vacation when Les Misérables (which is over 1200 pages) was published. He telegraphed the single-character message '?' to his publisher, who replied with a single '!'.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo turned away from social or political issues in his next novel, "Les Travailleurs de la Mer" ("Toilers of the Sea"), published in 1866. Still, the book was well received, perhaps due to the earlier success of "Les Misérables". Dedicated to the channel island of Guernsey, where he spent fifteen years of exile, Hugo’s story about Man’s battle with the sea and the creatures in its depths, started an unusual trend in Paris: squids. From squid dishes and exhibitions, to squid hats and parties, Parisians became fascinated by these unusual sea creatures.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo returned to political and social issues in his next novel, "L'Homme Qui Rit" ("The Man Who Laughs"), which was published in 1869 and painted a critical picture of the aristocracy. However, the novel was not as successful as his previous efforts, and Hugo himself began to comment on the growing distance between himself and literary contemporaries such as Flaubert and Émile Zola, whose realist and naturalist novels were now exceeding the popularity of his own work. His last novel, "Quatre-vingt-treize" ("Ninety-Three"), published in 1874, was about a subject that Hugo had previously avoided: the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.


title: Victor Hugo

text: After three unsuccessful attempts, Hugo was finally elected to the Académie française in 1841, confirming his position in the world of French arts and letters. A group of French scholars, particularly Etienne de Jouy, were fighting against the "romantic evolution" and had managed to delay Victor Hugo's election. After that he became increasingly involved in French politics. He was raised to the peerage by King Louis-Philippe in 1841 and entered the Higher Chamber as a "pair de France", where he spoke against the death penalty and social injustice, and in favour of freedom of the press and self-government for Poland. However, he was also becoming more supportive of the Republican form of government and, following the 1848 Revolution and the formation of the Second Republic, was elected to the Constitutional Assembly and the Legislative Assembly.


title: Victor Hugo

text: When Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) grabbed complete power in 1851, establishing an anti-parliamentary constitution, Hugo openly declared him a traitor to France. He relocated to Brussels, then Jersey, and finally settled with his family on the channel island of Guernsey at Hauteville House, where he would live in exile until 1870.


title: Victor Hugo

text: While in exile, Hugo published his famous political pamphlets against Napoleon III, "Napoléon le Petit" and "Histoire d'un crime". The pamphlets were banned in France, but nonetheless had a strong impact there. He also composed or published some of his best work during his period in Guernsey, including "Les Misérables", and three widely praised collections of poetry ("Les Châtiments", 1853; "Les Contemplations", 1856; and "La Légende des siècles", 1859).


title: Victor Hugo

text: He convinced the government of Queen Victoria to spare the lives of six Irish people convicted of terrorist activities and his influence was credited in the removal of the death penalty from the constitutions of Geneva, Portugal and Colombia. He had also pleaded for Benito Juarez to spare the recently captured emperor Maximilian I of Mexico but to no avail.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Although Napoleon III granted an amnesty to all political exiles in 1859, Hugo declined, as it meant he would have to curtail his criticisms of the government. It was only after Napoleon III fell from power and the Third Republic was proclaimed that Hugo finally returned to his homeland in 1870, where he was promptly elected to the National Assembly and the Senate.


title: Victor Hugo

text: He was in Paris during the siege by the Prussian army in 1870, famously eating animals given to him by the Paris zoo. As the siege continued, and food became ever more scarce, he wrote in his diary that he was reduced to "eating the unknown".


title: Victor Hugo

text: Because of his concern for the rights of artists and copyright, he was a founding member of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale, which led to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo's religious views changed radically over the course of his life. In his youth, he called himself as a Catholic and professed respect for Church hierarchy and authority. From there he became a non-practicing Catholic, and increasingly expressed anti-catholic views. He had a casual interest in Spiritualism during his exile (where he participated also in seances), and in later years settled into a Rationalist Deism similar to that espoused by Voltaire. A census-taker asked Hugo in 1872 if he was a Catholic, and he replied, "No. A Freethinker".


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo never lost his antipathy towards the Roman Catholic Church, due largely to what he saw as the Church's indifference to the plight of the working class under the oppression of the monarchy; and perhaps also due to the frequency with which Hugo's work appeared on the Pope's list of "proscribed books" (Hugo counted 740 attacks on "Les Misérables" in the Catholic press). On the deaths of his sons Charles and François-Victor, he insisted that they be buried without crucifix or priest, and in his will made the same stipulation about his own death and funeral. However, although Hugo believed Catholic dogma to be outdated and dying, he never directly attacked the institution itself.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo's Rationalism can be found in poems such as "Torquemada" (1869, about religious fanaticism), "The Pope" (1878, anti-clerical), "Religions and Religion" (1880, denying the usefulness of churches) and, published posthumously, "The End of Satan" and "God" (1886 and 1891 respectively, in which he represents Christianity as a griffin and Rationalism as an angel).


title: Victor Hugo

text: Although Hugo's many talents did not include exceptional musical ability, he nevertheless had a great impact on the music world through the endless inspiration that his works provided for composers of the 19th and 20th century. Hugo himself particularly enjoyed the music of Gluck and Weber and greatly admired Beethoven, and rather unusually for his time, he also appreciated works by composers from earlier centuries such as Palestrina and Monteverdi. Two famous musicians of the 19th century were friends of Hugo: Berlioz and Liszt. The latter played Beethoven in Hugo’s home, and Hugo joked in a letter to a friend that thanks to Liszt’s piano lessons, he learned how to play a favourite song on the piano – even though only with one finger! Hugo also worked with composer Louise Bertin, writing the libretto for her 1836 opera "La Esmeralda" which was based on the character in "The Hunchback of Notre Dame". Although for various reasons the opera closed soon after its fifth performance and is little known today, it has been recently enjoying a revival, both in a piano/song concert version by Liszt at the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux 2007 and in a full orchestral version to be presented in July 2008 at Le Festival de Radio France et Montpellier Languedoc-Roussillon.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Well over one thousand musical compositions have been inspired by Hugo’s works from the 1800s until the present day. In particular, Hugo’s plays, in which he rejected the rules of classical theatre in favour of romantic drama, attracted the interest of many composers who adapted them into operas. More than one hundred operas are based on Hugo’s works and among them are Donizetti’s "Lucrezia Borgia" (1833), Verdi’s "Rigoletto" (1851) and Ernani (1844), and Ponchielli’s "La Gioconda" (1876). Hugo’s novels as well as his plays have been a great source of inspiration for musicians, stirring them to create not only opera and ballet but musical theatre such as Notre-Dame de Paris and the ever-popular Les Misérables, London West End’s longest running musical. Additionally, Hugo’s beautiful poems have attracted an exceptional amount of interest from musicians, and numerous melodies have been based on his poetry by composers such as Berlioz, Bizet, Fauré, Franck, Lalo, Liszt, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Rachmaninov and Wagner.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Today, Hugo’s work continues to stimulate musicians to create new compositions. For example, Hugo’s novel against capital punishment, The Last Day of a Condemned Man, has recently been adapted into an opera by David Alagna (libretto by Frédérico Alagna). Their brother, tenor Roberto Alagna, performed in the opera’s premiere in Paris in the summer of 2007 and again in February 2008 in Valencia with Erwin Schrott as part of the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux 2008. In Guernsey, every two years the Victor Hugo International Music Festival attracts a wide range of musicians and the premiere of songs specially commissioned from Guillaume Connesson and based on Hugo’s poetry.


title: Victor Hugo

text: When Hugo returned to Paris in 1870, the country hailed him as a national hero. Despite his popularity Hugo lost his bid for reelection to the National Assembly in 1872. Within a brief period, he suffered a mild stroke, his daughter Adèle’s internment in an insane asylum, and the death of his two sons. (Adèle's biography inspired the movie "The Story of Adele H.") His wife Adèle had died in 1868. His faithful mistress, Juliette Drouet, died in 1883, only two years before his own death. Despite his personal loss, Hugo remained committed to the cause of political change. On 30 January 1876 Hugo was elected to the newly created Senate. The last phase of his political career is considered a failure. Hugo took on the role of a maverick and got little done in the Senate.


title: Victor Hugo

text: In February 1881 Hugo celebrated his 79th birthday. To honor the fact that he was entering his eightieth year, one of the greatest tributes to a living writer was held. The celebrations began on the 25th when Hugo was presented with a Sèvres vase, the traditional gift for sovereigns. On the 27th one of the largest parades in French history was held. Marchers stretched from Avenue d'Eylau, down the Champs-Élysées, and all the way to the center of Paris. The paraders marched for six hours to pass Hugo as he sat in the window at his house. Every inch and detail of the event was for Hugo; the official guides even wore cornflowers as an allusion to Cosette's song in "Les Misérables."


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo died on 22 May 1885 in Paris, France from an infection, aged 83. His death generated intense national mourning. He was not only revered as a towering figure in literature, he was a statesman who shaped the Third Republic and democracy in France. More than two million people joined his funeral procession in Paris from the Arc de Triomphe to the Panthéon, where he was buried. He shares a crypt within the Panthéon with Alexandre Dumas, père and Émile Zola. Most large French towns and cities have a street named for him. The avenue where he died, in Paris, now bears his name.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Many are not aware that Hugo was almost as prolific in the visual arts as he was in literature, producing more than 4,000 drawings in his lifetime. Originally pursued as a casual hobby, drawing became more important to Hugo shortly before his exile, when he made the decision to stop writing in order to devote himself to politics. Drawing became his exclusive creative outlet during the period 1848-1851.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo worked only on paper, and on a small scale; usually in dark brown or black pen-and-ink wash, sometimes with touches of white, and rarely with color. The surviving drawings are surprisingly accomplished and "modern" in their style and execution, foreshadowing the experimental techniques of Surrealism and Abstract Expressionism.


title: Victor Hugo

text: He would not hesitate to use his children's stencils, ink blots, puddles and stains, lace impressions, "pliage" or folding (i.e. Rorschach blots), "grattage" or rubbing, often using the charcoal from match sticks or his fingers instead of pen or brush. Sometimes he would even toss in coffee or soot to get the effects he wanted. It is reported that Hugo often drew with his left hand or without looking at the page, or during Spiritualist séances, in order to access his unconscious mind, a concept only later popularized by Sigmund Freud.


title: Victor Hugo

text: Hugo kept his artwork out of the public eye, fearing it would overshadow his literary work. However, he enjoyed sharing his drawings with his family and friends, often in the form of ornately handmade calling cards, many of which were given as gifts to visitors when he was in political exile. Some of his work was shown to, and appreciated by, contemporary artists such as Van Gogh and Delacroix; the latter expressed the opinion that if Hugo had decided to become a painter instead of a writer, he would have outshone the artists of their century.


title: Victor Hugo

text: The people of Guernsey built a statue in Candie Gardens (St. Peter Port) to commemorate his stay in the islands. The City of Paris has preserved his residences Hauteville House, Guernsey and 6, Place des Vosges as museums. The house where he stayed in Vianden, Luxembourg, in 1871 has also become a museum.


title: Victor Hugo

text: The Avenue Victor-Hugo in the XVIème arrondissement of Paris bears Hugo's name, and links the Place de l'Étoile to the vicinity of the Bois de Boulogne by way of the Place Victor-Hugo. This square is served by a Paris Métro stop also named in his honor. A number of streets and avenues throughout France are likewise named after him. The school Lycée Victor Hugo was founded in his town of birth, Besançon in France. Avenue Victor-Hugo, in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada, was named to honor him.


title: Victor Hugo

text: In the city of Avellino, Italy, Victor Hugo briefly stayed in what is now known as Il Palazzo Culturale, when reuniting with his father, Leopold Sigisbert Hugo, in 1808. Victor would later write about his brief stay here quoting "C’était un palais de marbre...". In the city of Edinburgh, Scotland there is a delicatessen named Victor Hugo Delicatessen, it was originally run by a French couple but was purchased in 2005. The shop is on Melville Terrace, over looking the meadows and next to University of Edinburgh halls of residence, Sciennes.


title: Charles Babbage

text: Sir Charles Babbage (26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871) was an English mathematician, analytical philosopher, mechanical engineer and computer scientist. He was the first person to invent the idea of a computer that could be programmed. Unfinished parts of his mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum.


title: Charles Babbage

text: Charles Babbage was born in England, at 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road, London. Babbage's father, Benjamin Babbage, was a banker in London who owned the Bitton Estate in Teignmouth. His mother was Betsy Plumleigh Babbage. In 1808, the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East Teignmouth.


title: Charles Babbage

text: Babbage worked and wrote on many ideas of science, engineering and mathematics, but he is most famous for two machines he started and never finished. His Difference Engine would have been a much better calculator than any made before then. His Analytical Engine would have been the first real computer.


title: Charles Babbage

text: Knowing that there were many errors in the calculation of mathematical tables, Babbage wanted to find a way to calculate them mechanically, removing errors made by humans. Three different factors seem to have influenced him: a dislike of untidiness; his experience working on logarithmic tables and differential calculus; and work on calculating machines already done by Wilhelm Schickard, Blaise Pascal, and Gottfried Leibniz. He first talked about the principles of a calculating engine in a letter to Sir Humphrey Davy in 1822.


title: Charles Babbage

text: Babbage's engines were among the first mechanical computers. His engines were not actually completed because he did not have enough money. Babbage realized that a machine could do the work better and more reliably than a human being. Babbage controlled building of some steam-powered machines that more or less did their job; calculations could be mechanized to an extent. Although Babbage's machines were large machines they were organized in a way similar to modern computer architecture. The data and program memory were separated, operation was instruction based, control unit could make conditional jumps and the machine had a separate I/O unit. Ada Lovelace studied how to program them.


title: Koala

text: Koala ("Phascolarctos cinereus") is an herbivore marsupials that live in the eucalyptus forests of eastern Australia. They are the only living species in the family Phascolarctidae. They are related to the wombats.


title: Koala

text: Koalas are often called "koala bears", because a koala looks like a small bear or teddy bear. However, it is not a bear, it is quite a different type of animal.


title: Koala

text: Koalas have brownish-grey or silver-grey fur, and a big pink, dark red or/and black nose. They have sharp claws which help them to climb.


title: Koala

text: Koalas also have finger prints which look the same as human finger prints. Finger print experts have had difficulty in being able to tell if the prints are from a human or koala. Finger prints are rare among mammals that climb trees. Scientists do not know why the koala has them, but their best guess is that it helps the koala choose leaves to eat.


title: Koala

text: Koalas are mostly active at night. They live in trees and are rarely found on the ground. Koalas have two unusual characteristics.


title: Koala

text: They eat leaves of eucalyptus trees. Koalas do not drink often, they get most of their water from the eucalyptus leaves they eat. Eucalyptus leaves are poisonous, but koalas do not get poisoned. This is because they have certain bacteria in their digestive tract that can detoxify the poison in the leaves. Koalas, however, have to sleep long hours because eucalyptus leaves do not produce much energy and also because the digestive process takes a long time.


title: Koala

text: Koalas have a peculiar way of cooling themselves. Unlike humans who sweat and other animals, which either pant or lick their fur to stay cool, koalas reduce their body heat by hugging a tree. The temperature of the trunks of certain trees is up to 9 degrees Celsius lower than the air temperature. Koalas prefer to stay on these trees on a hot day even if they do not have the tastiest leaves.


title: Koala

text: Koalas live alone most of the time, but they have a social hierarchy with the other koalas who live near.


title: Koala

text: After a pregnancy of 35 days, the newly born koala is about a quarter of an inch long, and is born with no ears, eyes, or hair. It crawls into its mothers pouch on its own. After 12 months the young koala is old enough that it does not go into its mother's pouch or need milk anymore. The female koala can have another baby then. Young koalas usually leave their mothers when they are 18 months old, but if their mother does not have another baby they sometimes stay for up to three years. Koalas become mature when they are about two years old, but they often have their first baby after another two years.


title: Koala

text: The koala is not an endangered species, but it is a near vulnerable species. One reason is the loss of habitat, which means that koalas have less space to live. In some places there are very few koalas left. But there are also places, such as French Island (Victoria), with too many koalas that eat too much. Because of this the eucalyptus trees and other animals are in danger. A study looking at koala numbers at 1800 sites for 20 years, shows that the number of koalas is falling. The study, by the Australian Koala Foundation, estimates that there are only about 50,000 koalas left. there is over 500 types of gum trees in the world, however, koalas only eat 4-6 types that they prefer.


title: Koala

text: Many koalas are infected with Chlamydia. This is affecting the survival of the species. Koalas on French Island do not have the disease, and so groups of them are often moved to the mainland to repopulate some areas. The disease can cause blindness, pneumonia, urinary tract infections and reproductive tract infections.


title: Water cycle

text: Water is essential for life as we know it. It is present throughout the Solar System, and was part of the Earth from its formation. The source of the water was the same as the source of the Earth's rock : the cloud particles which condensed in the origin of the solar system.


title: Elvis Presley

text: Elvis Aaron Presley (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977) was an American singer, musician and actor. He is widely considered as the most influential and most famous musician of the 20th century, and is widely regarded as a cultural icon. He was one of the first and most famous in rock and roll music. He also starred in many movies. His fame has lasted for a long time after his death and is currently still one of the most popular men in history. He is one of the most well-known people from the 20th(twentieth) century in the world. He is so popular that some people know him as only "Elvis". He is also referred to as the "King of Rock and Roll", or simply "The King".


title: Elvis Presley

text: Presley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi. He and his family moved to Memphis, Tennessee, when he was 13 years old. His music career began there in 1954. He first started to work with Sam Phillips who was the owner of Sun Records. RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker. Presley's first RCA single, "Heartbreak Hotel" was released in January 1956. It was a number-one hit in the US. He became the leading figure of rock and roll after many of television appearances and chart-topping records. His energetic attitude towards his music and his performance style, made him very popular—and controversial.


title: Elvis Presley

text: In November 1956, he made his film debut in "Love Me Tender". In 1958, he was drafted into military service. When he resumed his recording career two years later, he made some of his most successful work. In the 1960s, Presley gave most of his time to making Hollywood movies. After a long seven-year break from live performances, he returned to the stage in 1968. In 1973, Presley was featured in the first globally broadcast concert. Several years of prescription drug abuse damaged his health, and he died in 1977 at the age of 42. Before Presley died, he had type 2 diabetes that he was diagnosed with on April 29, 1972, due to his weight gain and after a medical check-up


title: Elvis Presley

text: Elvis Presley was born on January 8, 1935 in Tupelo, Mississippi to 18-year-old Vernon Elvis Presley and 22-year-old Gladys Love Presley (born Smith), in the two-room shotgun house built by Vernon's father in preparation for the child's birth. Jesse Garon Presley, his identical twin brother, was delivered stillborn 35 minutes before him. As an only child, Presley became close to both parents and formed an unusually tight bond with his mother. The family attended an Assembly of God church, where he found his initial musical inspiration. Presley's ancestry was primarily a Western European mix: on his mother's side, he was Scots-Irish, with some French Norman; one of Gladys' great-great-grandmothers was Cherokee. According to a third cousin of Presley's, one of Gladys's great-grandmothers was Jewish. There is no evidence that Presley or his mother shared this belief in a Jewish heritage. Syndicated columnist Nate Bloom has challenged the cousin's account, which he calls a "tall tale". Presley's father's forebears were of Scottish and German ancestry. Gladys was regarded by relatives and friends as the dominant member of the small family. Vernon moved from one odd job to the next, evidencing little ambition. The family often relied on help from neighbors and government food assistance. The Presleys survived the F5 tornado in the 1936 Tupelo-Gainesville tornado outbreak. In 1938, they lost their home after Vernon was found guilty of altering a check written by the landowner. He was jailed for eight months, and Gladys and Elvis moved in with relatives. He moved to Memphis, Tennessee with his family when he was 13 years old. Presley was one of the first musicians to play a type of music called rockabilly, which combined country music with rhythm and blues. His first No. 1 hit, "Heartbreak Hotel", from 1955, and was one of the first popular rock and roll songs.


title: Elvis Presley

text: Presley entered the military in 1958, and was stationed in Germany. He was honorably discharged from the military, and returned to the United States in 1960. In Germany, he met Priscilla Beaulieu, whom he married in 1967. They had a daughter which they named Lisa Marie (who was married to pop singer Michael Jackson).


title: Elvis Presley

text: In 1973, Priscilla and Elvis divorced. By this point, he had become addicted to many prescription drugs.


title: Elvis Presley

text: In November 2018, Presley received posthumous the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Donald Trump.


title: Elvis Presley

text: Presley's rise to national attention in 1956 changed the field of popular music forever. It also had a great effect on popular culture. Because his music had racially mixed origins, it gave a new acceptance and appreciation of black culture. Presley was one of the first celebrities in the era of mass communication: at age 21, within a year of his first appearance on the American television network, he was already one of the most famous men in the world. He is the best-selling solo artist in history, with worldwide sales between 600 million to one billion records. His name, image and voice are instantly recognizable worldwide. It has inspired many imitators. Being a Elvis impersonator can be a professional job. In polls and surveys, he is recognized as one of the most important and influential American musical artists.


title: Elvis Presley

text: He died on August 16, 1977 from heart disease by drug intoxication. He was discovered dead in his bathroom.


title: Geography

text: Geography (from Greek: , "geographia", literally "earth description") is the study of earth and its people. Its features are things like continents, seas, rivers and mountains. Its inhabitants are all the people and animals that live on it. Its phenomena are the things that happen like tides, winds, and earthquakes.


title: Geography

text: A person who is an expert in geography is a geographer. A geographer tries to understand the world and the things that are in it, how they started and how they have changed.


title: Geography

text: Geography is divided into two main parts called physical geography and human geography. Physical geography studies the natural environment and human geography studies the human environment. The human environmental studies would include things such as the population in a country, how a country's economy is doing, and more. There is also environmental geography.


title: Geography

text: Maps are a main tool of geography, so geographers spend much time making and studying them. Making maps is called cartography, and people who specialize in making maps are cartographers.


title: Geography

text: Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere).


title: Geography

text: Human geography is the social science that covers the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies and their interaction with the environment. Geographers studying the human environment may look at:


title: Geography

text: The oldest known world map dates back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known Babylonian world map is the "Imago Mundi" of 600 BC. Star charts (maps of the sky) are of similar age.


title: Geography

text: During the Middle Ages, people in Europe made fewer maps. People in the Islamic world and made more. Abū Zayd al-Balkhī created the "Balkhī school" of mapping in Baghdad.


title: Geography

text: Western Europe became known as the leader of geographic thought during the European Renaissance and The Age of Exploration (1400–1600). The printing press made maps and information about the world avalible to everyone.


title: Geography

text: In the 1700s and 1800s scientists started to study the relationship between the enviroment and its people


title: Ice hockey

text: Ice hockey is a sport that is played by two teams on ice. The players wear ice skates on their feet and can skate across the ice at very high speeds. They hold hockey sticks, which they use to push, shoot or pass a puck around the ice. The players score by shooting the puck into a net; the goaltenders try to stop them. Six players on each team play at once, but a whole team has over 20 players. Each team has 2 defenders, 3 forwards, and a goalie on the ice at a time. When a player breaks a rule, a referee calls a penalty, and the player has to sit in a penalty box for 2-4 minutes. While the player sits in the penalty box, their team has to play without them, and will have fewer players on the ice until the penalty is over.


title: Ice hockey

text: Ice hockey is very well-known and well-liked in Canada, Russia, Sweden, Finland, the Czech Republic, the United States, Latvia and Slovakia. Most of the best players in the world play in the National Hockey League (NHL), which has 32 teams in the United States and Canada. These teams are divided 2 conferences and 4 divisions. In the regular season, they play 82 games. Each team faces each other about 3 times. They try to win the Stanley Cup at the end of the year. Another popular hockey league is the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL), which has teams in Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Belarus, Slovakia, China and Croatia. In North America, women play in the Canadian Women's Hockey League and the Western Women's Hockey League. In North America and Europe, men's hockey is much more popular than women's hockey. Hockey is played by both men and women at the Olympic games, and at world championships. Ice hockey began in Canada in the 19th century. There are two types of penalty: The major and the minor. The minor is the main one the referee will call during a game and the players have to go in the penalty box for two minutes. The major is when players fight with each other or when someone did something very dangerous. Most of time players are kicked out of the games but in a fight they only get 5 minutes in the penalty box. In the National Hockey League (NHL) there are four referees. Two lineman and two head referee. Only head referees can call the penalty. They can be recognized by the orange armband on their arm. In the major league, the game is separated into three periods of 20 minutes. For the minor league, the time can be different for each category. Each period starts after the face-off. A face-off is when two teams are in position around the face-off circle. Then, the referee drops the puck between the players who play center. There are 6 different positions: center, right wing, left wing, right defense, left defense and goalie. The play is over after a whistle of any referee. After a whistle-blow, the time stops running. Each team can have a maximum of 20 players, including two goaltenders who have a zone to defend. Each team has one captain and two or three assistant captains. The ice is separated into three zones. Each zone is marked by lines. The center zone is between two blue lines and team zones are between one blue line and the end of the ice. The lineman can whistle for two reasons: icing and offside. An icing is when a player throws the puck into the zone before he crosses the red line (center line) and an offside is when a player enters the zone before the one who has the puck enters with it.


title: Money

text: Money, also sometimes called currency, can be defined as anything that people use to buy goods and services. Money is what many people receive for selling their own things or services.


title: Money

text: There are lots of different kinds of money in the world. Most countries have their own kind of money, such as the United States dollar or the British pound.


title: Money

text: The idea of bartering things is very old. A long time ago, people did not buy or sell with money. Instead, they traded one thing for another to get what they wanted or needed. One person who owned many cows could trade with another person who had a lot of wheat. Each would trade a little of what he had with the other. This would support the people on his farm. Other things that were easier to carry around than cows also came to be held as valuable. This gave rise to trade items such as jewelry and spices.


title: Money

text: When people changed from trading in things like, for example, cows and wheat to using money instead, they needed things that would last a long time. They must still have a known value, and could be carried around. The first country in the world to make metal coins was called Lydia. These first appeared during the 7th century BC, in the western part of what is now Turkey. The Lydian coins were made of a weighed amount of precious metal and were stamped with a picture of a lion. This idea soon spread to Greece, the rest of the Mediterranean, and the rest of the world. Coins were all made to the same size and shape. In some parts of the world, different things have been used as money, like clam shells or blocks of salt.


title: Money

text: Besides being easier to carry than cows, using money had many other advantages. Money is "easier to divide" than many trade goods. If someone own cows, and wants to trade for only "half a cow's worth" of wheat, he probably does not want to cut his cow in half. But if he sells his cow for money, and buys wheat with money, he can get exactly the amount he wants.


title: Money

text: Cows die, and wheat rots. But money "lasts longer" than most trade goods. If someone sells a cow for money, he can save that money away until he needs it. He can always leave it to his children when he dies. It can last a very long time, and he can use it at any time.


title: Money

text: Not every cow is as good as another cow. Some cows are sick and old, and others are healthy and young. Some wheat is good and other wheat is moldy or stale. So if a person trades cows for wheat, he might have a hard time arguing over how much wheat each cow is worth. However, money is "standard". That means one dollar is worth the same as another dollar. It is easier to add up and count money, than to add up the value of different cows or amounts of wheat.


title: Money

text: Later, after coins had been used for hundreds of years, paper money started out as a promise to pay in coin, much like an "I.O.U." note. The first true paper money was used in China in the 10th century AD. Paper money was also printed in Sweden between 1660 and 1664. Both times, it did not work well, and had to be stopped because the banks kept running out of coins to pay on the notes. Massachusetts Bay Colony printed paper money in the 1690s. This time, the use became more common.


title: Money

text: Today, most of what people think of as money is not even things you can hold. It is numbers in bank accounts, saved in computer memories. Many people still feel more comfortable using coins and paper, and do not totally trust using electronic money on a computer memory.


title: Money

text: "Commodity money" can be used for other purposes besides serving as a medium of exchange. We say it possesses intrinsic value, because it is useful or valuable by itself. Some examples of commodity money are cattle, silk, gold and silver. Convertible paper money is money that is convertible into gold and silver. Gold and Silver certificates are convertible paper money as they can be fully convertible into gold and silver.


title: Money

text: Inconvertible money is money that cannot be converted into gold and silver. Notes and coins are inconvertible money. They are inconvertible and are declared by the government money. Such fiat money is a country's legal tender. Today, notes and coins are the currencies used in bank deposits.


title: Clinical thermometer

text: A clinical thermometer is a thermometer used to measure human body temperature. Most made in the 20th century are mercury-in-glass thermometers. They are accurate and sensitive, having a narrow place where the mercury level rises very fast. A kink in the tube stops the mercury level from falling on its own.


title: Clinical thermometer

text: These thermometers are used in clinics by doctors, it is a clinical thermometers they are also called a doctor's thermometers or medical thermometers. Most show both Celsius scale and Fahrenheit temperature scales, and run from 35 degree Celsius to 42 degree Celsius.


title: Clinical thermometer

text: For centuries medical thermometers were large, and took many minutes to register a temperature. Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit invented a quicker mercury thermometer in 1714, and the Fahrenheit temperature scale. In the 1860s smaller, better ones were made, and thus thermometers were more often used. An ear thermometer was invented in the 1960s, which works quickly and easily. Digital thermometers became widespread in the late 20th century.


title: Sound

text: Sound is caused by sound waves. It can be heard when goes through a medium to the ear. All sounds are made by vibrations of molecules. For example, when a person hits a drum or a cymbal the object vibrates. These vibrations make air molecules move. Sound waves move away from where they came from. When the vibrating air molecules reach our ears, the eardrum vibrates, too. The bones of the ear vibrate in way the object that started the sound wave vibrated.


title: Sound

text: There are three different mediums. They are solids, liquids and gas. Sound travels the fastest through solids because the particles in a solid are closer together than they are in gas and liquid.


title: Sound

text: These vibrations let you hear different things. Even music is vibrations. Irregular vibrations are noise. People can make very complex sounds. We use them for speech.


title: Sound

text: Sound waves are longitudinal waves with two parts: "compression" and "rarefaction". Compression is the part of the sound waves where the molecules of air are pushed ("compressed") together. Rarefaction is the part of the waves where the molecules are far away from each other. Sound waves are a sequence of compression and rarefaction.


title: Sound

text: Since sound is a vibration of a medium, it cannot go through a vacuum. A vacuum is a place where there is no medium, for example in outer space. The word comes from the Latin adjective "vacuus" for "vacant" or "void".


title: Sound

text: Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. The thicker the medium, the faster it goes, but they cannot travel through a vacuum (a place with nothing in it). This is why astronauts cannot talk to each other in space: they need a radio to hear each other. Sound can travel through water faster than through air; and even faster in solids like stone, iron, and steel. At room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure, sound travels at 344 m/s (1134 ft/s), 761 miles per hour). Because the temperature and pressure change with altitude in the atmosphere, speed will vary as well.


title: Sound

text: "Pitch" is the highness or lowness of sound. Pitch is how humans hear different frequencies. Frequency is determined by the number of vibrations per second. The highest key on a piano, for instance, vibrates 4,000 times per second. It has a frequency of 4000 hertz (Hz), or 4 kilohertz (kHz). Lower keys have lower frequencies. A note an octave higher than another note has twice the frequency of that note.


title: Sound

text: The intensity of a sound is how much sound energy goes through a square meter in one second. Sound waves with higher amplitude (bigger vibration) have higher intensity. The intensity of a sound is higher closer to the sound source. Farther away, it's less intense. The inverse-square law shows how sound intensity becomes smaller, farther from the source. "Inverse square" says that when distance gets multiplied by a number, sound intensity gets divided by that number squared (the number times itself). Thus, twice the distance means a quarter the intensity.


title: Sound

text: Sound intensities can be very different. They can range from 0.000000000001, which are barely heard, to 1 W/m (painfully loud). The decibel scale makes sound intensity numbers easier to work with. A 0.000000000001 W/m intensity is 0 dB (decibels). It is an exponential scale, so when the decibel number increases by 10, the intensity is ten times as much. So, a 1 W/m intensity is 120 dB.


title: Sound

text: Loudness is how people sense the intensity of sound. Loudness depends on sound intensity, sound frequency, and the person's hearing.


title: Sound

text: Audible sound has frequencies between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Human beings can hear audible sound. Sound waves with frequency above 20 kHz are called ultrasound waves. Sound waves with frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasound waves. Human beings cannot hear ultrasound waves and infrasound waves, but some animals, like bats and dolphins, use them. Older people have an even smaller hearing range. People are best at hearing sounds between 1000 Hz and 6000 Hz.


title: Sound

text: When a sound source is moving towards someone, the frequency seems to increase. The same thing happens when someone moves toward the sound source. Frequency seems to decrease when someone moves away from a sound source. It also seems to decrease when the sound source moves away from someone. This is called the Doppler effect.


title: Sound

text: Halpern, Alvin, Erich Erlbach (1998). "Beginning Physics II: Waves, Electromagnetism, Optics, and Modern Physics," pg. 50-56


title: Harold Macmillan

text: Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, OM, PC (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986), was a Conservative statesman. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963.


title: Harold Macmillan

text: Macmillan served in the Grenadier Guards during the First World War. After the war he joined his family publishing company, then entered Parliament at the 1924 general election. After losing his seat in 1929, he regained it in 1931.


title: Harold Macmillan

text: During World War II, Churchill made Macmillan Minister Resident in the Mediterranean. This made him the go-between for Churchill and the British forces in North Africa and the Middle East. The Mediterranean was a major theatre of war, and Macmillan's work made his name as a serious politician.


title: Harold Macmillan

text: Macmillan became Foreign Secretary and then Chancellor of the Exchequer under Churchill's successor Sir Anthony Eden. When Eden resigned in 1957 after the Suez Crisis, Macmillan succeeded him as Prime Minister and Leader of the Conservative Party.


title: Harold Macmillan

text: Macmillan presided over a country becoming more affluent (rich), with low unemployment and high (but uneven) economic growth. In his Bedford speech of July 1957 he told the nation they had 'never had it so good'.


title: Singer

text: A Singer is a person who sings with their voice. Anyone who is singing is a singer. Some people do it as a job (professional singer), others may sing without being paid (amateur singer). Singers may sing anything: songs, opera, etc. They may be accompanied by an instrument or an orchestra. Some singers also play a musical instrument such as piano, guitar or harp while they sing (they accompany themselves). Singing is important in movies and in the theatre.


title: Singer

text: The lead vocalist (or lead singer) is the member of a band who sings the main solo vocal portions of a song. The lead vocalist may also play one or more instruments, and is usually the "leader" of their group, often the spokesperson in interviews and before the public. The lead vocalist is sometimes referred to as the frontman. For example, Jerry Garcia was the lead singer and frontman for the Grateful Dead.


title: Singer

text: A good singer will have to think of a lot of different things in a performance. Some attributes of singing skill are good vocal technique, a large vocal range, as well as "feeling the song" through emotional language and breathing, and also acting to provide a song with meaning. A good singer may be able to learn a song quickly, but it may take some time before they really feel it has become "part of them." A lead singer has to be a strong singer since background vocalists sing accompaniment.


title: Singer

text: Mongolian throat singing has become popular because due to it’s geographic location and culture. The open landscape of Tuva allows for the sounds to carry a great distance.


title: Singer

text: Singers can sing as a solo, or in a group or a choir. Choirs can include gospel music, church music and even pop songs where there are usually two male groups of singers (bass and tenor) and two female groups of singers (soprano and alto). Sopranos have a higher range and altos have a lower range. Combining these two can create various harmonies which add textures to songs and make them more interesting to listen to.


title: Singer

text: People may feel like singing for various reasons. They may want to share their feelings with other people. They may be feeling happy about something, or sad, or excited, frustrated or angry. Singing is an art in which mood is expressed through the voice.


title: Kazakhstan

text: Kazakhstan is a country in the middle of Eurasia. Its official name is the Republic of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan is the ninth biggest country in the world, and it is also the biggest landlocked country in the world. Before the end of the Soviet Union, it was called "Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic". The president of the country from 1991 through March 2019 was Nursultan Nazarbayev. Astana is the capital city of Kazakhstan. Almaty was the capital until 1998, when it moved to Astana.


title: Kazakhstan

text: The Kazakh language, which is a Turkic language, is the native language, but Russian has equal official status for all administrative and institutional purposes. Islam is the largest religion- about 70% of the population are Muslims, with Christianity practiced by 26%; Russia leases (rents) the land for the Baikonur Cosmodrome (site of Russian spacecraft launches) from Kazakhstan.


title: Kazakhstan

text: Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country mostly in Asia with a small western part across the Ural River in Europe. It has borders with the Russian Federation in the north and west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the southwest, and China in the far east. The northern border is mostly with Siberia, Russia, so Russia has the longest border with Kazakhstan. Basically, Kazakhstan runs from the Caspian Sea in the west to the mainly Muslim Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang.


title: Kazakhstan

text: Kazakhstan has no ocean shoreline, but borders the Caspian Sea, which boats use to get to neighboring countries. The Caspian Sea is an Endorheic basin without connections to any ocean.


title: Kazakhstan

text: Kazakhstan has plenty of petroleum, natural gas, and mining. It attracted over $40 billion in foreign investment since 1993 and accounts for some 57% of the nation's industrial output. According to some estimates, Kazakhstan has the second largest uranium, chromium, lead, and zinc reserves, the third largest manganese reserves, the fifth largest copper reserves, and ranks in the top ten for coal, iron, and gold. It is also an exporter of diamonds. Kazakhstan has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.


title: Kazakhstan

text: Almaty and Astana cities have the status of State importance and are not in any region. Baikonur city has a special status because it is leased to Russia for Baikonur cosmodrome until 2050.


title: Kazakhstan

text: Each province is headed by an Akim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal Akims are appointed by province Akims. The Government of Kazakhstan moved its capital from Almaty to Astana on December 10, 1997.


title: Kazakhstan

text: The population of Kazakhstan is 17,165,000. It takes the 62th place in the List of countries by population. Average density is one of the lowest on earth with almost 6 people/km ( List of countries by population density).


title: Vietnam War

text: The Vietnam War (also known as Second Indochina War or American War in Vietnam) lasted from 1 November 1955 to 30 April 1975, (19 years, 5 months, 4 weeks, and 1 day). It was fought between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and North Korea, and South Vietnam was supported by the United States, South Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines. People from other countries also went to fight but not in their own national armies. The conflict between communist and capitalist countries was part of the Cold War.


title: Vietnam War

text: The Viet Cong, also known as the National Liberation Front or NLF, was a South Vietnamese communist force that was helped by North Vietnam. It fought a guerrilla war against South Vietnamese anticommunist forces. The People's Army of Vietnam (also known as the North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war by at times putting large forces to battle.


title: Vietnam War

text: The Vietnam War was very controversial, especially in the United States. It was the first war to feature live television coverage and the first major armed conflict that the United States lost. The war became so unpopular in the United States that President Richard Nixon eventually agreed to send American soldiers home in 1973.


title: Vietnam War

text: France began to colonize Vietnam between 1859 and 1862, when it took control of Saigon. By 1864, it had controlled all of Cochinchina, in the south of Vietnam. France took control of Annam, the large central part of Vietnam, in 1874. After France defeated China during the Sino-French War (1884–1885), it took over Tonkin, the north of Vietnam. French Indochina was formed in October 1887 from these three areas of Vietnam (Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin), as well as Cambodia. Laos was added after a war against Thailand, the Franco-Siamese War, in 1893.


title: Vietnam War

text: During World War II, after Nazi Germany had defeated France in 1940, French Indochina was controlled by the Vichy French government, a puppet government recognized by Germany. In March 1945, the Japanese Empire launched the Second French Indochina Campaign. Japan occupied Indochina but surrendered in August 1945.


title: Vietnam War

text: After the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Vichy government was no longer in control of France or its territories. The newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic attempted to take back control of its former colonies in Indochina by force, if necessary, but France's efforts at regaining its colony in Vietnam were opposed by a communist Vietnamese army, the Viet Minh.


title: Vietnam War

text: The Viet Minh had been founded in 1941 by the Vietnamese Communist Party and was led by Hồ Chí Minh. That led to the First Indochina War between France and the Viet Minh. Fighting started with the French bombardment of Haiphong Harbor in November 1946 and ended with a triumph of the Viet Minh at Dien Bien Phu.


title: Vietnam War

text: In July 1954, France and the Viet Minh signed the Geneva Peace Accord, which resulted in dividing Vietnam along the 17th parallel into a northern section, under the control of the communists, led by Ho Chi Minh, and a southern section, led by the Catholic anticommunist Ngo Dinh Diem. The partition was to be temporary until elections in 1956. However, Diem started arresting suspected communist sympathizers that year and wanted to keep power for himself. The elections were never held, and in 1957, North Vietnam began guerrilla warfare against the south.


title: Vietnam War

text: The United States supported the anticommunist government in South Vietnam and began to send military advisors to help train and support the South Vietnamese Army. It was fighting against the Viet Cong, also known as the National Liberation Front, a communist party based in South Vietnam that was controlled with North Vietnam. The Viet Cong began a campaign of assassination in 1957. In 1959, North Vietnam dramatically increased its military assistance to the Viet Cong, which then began attacking South Vietnamese military units. Because of domino theory, the US feared that if communism took hold in Vietnam, it would then spread to other countries nearby.


title: Vietnam War

text: On 2 August 1964, the destroyer USS "Maddox" was in the Gulf of Tonkin, on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast. The US said that three North Vietnamese torpedo boats attacked the destroyer. The "Maddox" fired back and damaged the three torpedo boats. The US later claimed that two days later, the torpedo boats again attacked the "Maddox" and the destroyer USS "Turner Joy". In the second attack, the US ships did not actually see the torpedo boats, but it was said that they had been found by using the ship's radar.


title: Vietnam War

text: After the alleged second attack, the US launched air strikes against North Vietnam. The Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Joint Resolution (H.J. RES 1145) on 7 August 1964 and so gave the president the power to run large-scale military operations in Southeast Asia without declaring war. There was little to no proof of the attacks, and it was believed by some that they had been an excuse for expanded US involvement in Indochina.


title: Vietnam War

text: The communists were supplied by a vast network of hidden trails, known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail. It was very well hidden although many attempts were made by the US to bomb and destroy it. Supplies and soldiers from North Vietnam were sent through Laos to communists forces in South Vietnam. American planes heavily bombed the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and of bombs were dropped on Laos. That slowed down but did not stop the trail system.


title: Vietnam War

text: Severe communist losses during the 1968 Tet Offensive made it possible for the US to withdraw many soldiers. As part of a policy called "Vietnamization," South Vietnamese troops were trained and equipped to replace the Americans who had left. By 1973, 95% of the American troops had left.


title: Vietnam War

text: All of the parties signed a peace treaty in Parisi in January 1973, but the fighting continued until 1975, when the South Vietnamese government surrendered after its capital, Saigon, had fallen.


title: Vietnam War

text: There were some large-scale battles during the Vietnam War, but most of the fighting was guerilla warfare, which is different from the large-scale battles fought between armies like those during World War II.


title: Vietnam War

text: In guerilla warfare, small units fight limited battles against an enemy force, set up ambushes, make surprise attacks, and then retreat to the countryside or blend into the local population. That also includes making it difficult for the enemy to operate by engaging in sabotage and harassing the enemy with lethal means such as the land mine and the booby trap. The communist troops more often engaged in guerilla warfare against South Vietnamese and American troops than the reverse because the communists knew of their weakness in conventional (large-scale) warfare.


title: Vietnam War

text: Although few of the traps were explosive, all of the explosive traps used grenades. A tripwire was placed, and if a soldier tripped over the wire, a grenade pin was pulled out, the grenade would blow, and the soldier would usually be killed.


title: Vietnam War

text: Another style of trap was nicknamed the Venus flytrap. It had about eight barbs attached to a rectangular frame sitting on a small hole. The barbs faced down so that when the soldier’s leg got caught in it, it would not hurt until he pulled his leg out, when the barbs would rip through his leg.


title: Vietnam War

text: Another Viet Cong trap was the Punji trap. Two wooden platforms were placed and covered with leaves to camouflage it. There were spikes on the inside of the wood. When a soldier came along and walked on the wood, it caved in, and the spikes would go through the soldier’s foot. That trap was the most common because it was the cheapest one and was very effective. It was also often contaminated, often with feces, so that the soldier would also become infected.


title: Vietnam War

text: The Fall of Saigon was the capture of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, by the People's Army of Vietnam and the National Liberation Front on April 30, 1975. That marked the end of the Vietnam War and the beginning of the formal reunification of Vietnam into a communist state.


title: Vietnam War

text: Before the city fell, the few American civilian and military personnel had left Vietnam, and tens of thousands of South Vietnamese soldiers and civilians had also fled.


title: Vietnam War

text: The North Vietnamese forces, commanded by General Văn Tiến Dũng and began their final attack on Saigon, whose defence was commanded by General Nguyen Van Toan on April 29. A heavy artillery bombardment of Tân Sơn Nhứt Airport killed the last two American servicemen who died in Vietnam: Charles McMahon and Darwin Judge.


title: Vietnam War

text: By the afternoon of the next day, North Vietnamese troops had occupied the important points within the city and raised their flag over the South Vietnamese presidential palace. The government of South Vietnam soon formally surrendered.


title: Vietnam War

text: The Americans still in Saigon were evacuated by helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft. The surrender of Saigon was given in person by South Vietnamese President General Duong Van Minh: "We are here to hand over to you the power in order to avoid bloodshed." He was president for two days as his country crumbled.


title: Vietnam War

text: The war made potential farmland useless, as it was bombed and affected by Agent Orange. The economy crashed because inflation was high and so unemployment was common, and there was poor health care. Many people fled Vietnam because of these conditions.


title: Vietnam War

text: The Đổi Mới reforms helped to improve many of the problems that had been caused by the war. Although there are still many situations with serious economic issues, Vietnam now has a fairly successful economy. The income and the standard of living of the average Vietnamese people have kept improving since the 1990s.


title: Vietnam War

text: The war also had lasting effects on the US. It led to divisions in American society that are still seen today, and many Americans became more wary of their government. Many veterans came back with PTSD and were not treated well; people who opposed the war saw them as killers, and people who supported the war saw them as losers.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The flag of Scotland is a white X-shaped cross (a saltire), which represents the cross of the patron saint of Scotland, Saint Andrew on a blue sky. The flag is called Saint Andrew's Cross or the Saltire.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: According to legend, in 832 A.D. King Óengus (II) (or King Angus) led the Picts and Scots in battle against the Angles near modern-day Athelstaneford in East Lothian. King Angus and his men were surrounded and he prayed for deliverance. During the night Saint Andrew, who was martyred on a saltire cross, appeared to Angus and assured him of victory. On the following morning a white saltire against the background of a blue sky appeared to both sides. The Picts and Scots were heartened by this, but the Angles lost confidence and were defeated. According to the legend, this saltire design has been the Scottish flag ever since.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: Material evidence of the saltire's use dates from many centuries later. In 1385 the Parliament of Scotland decreed that Scottish soldiers should wear a saltire as a distinguishing mark. The earliest surviving Scottish flag consisting solely of the saltire dates from 1503: a white cross on a red background. By 1540 the legend of King Angus had been altered to include the vision of the cross against a blue sky. Thereafter, this saltire design in its present form became the national flag of Scotland.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: There are five flagpoles outside the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh. The flag of Scotland is flown every day, alongside the Union Flag and the flag of Europe. The fourth flagpole is used for special occasions such as Commonwealth Day and United Nations Day. The fifth pole is used for the Royal Standard of Scotland.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: Edinburgh Castle is managed by Historic Scotland, and has a military garrison of the British Army. Like all British Army bases, it flies the Union Flag (in ratio3:5) and the Army flies it every day from the Clock Tower. The Saltire is flown every day at the Half Moon Battery.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The flying of the Union Flag at Edinburgh Castle has sometimes caused controversy. In 2001, a group of 20 Scottish National Party MSPs called for the Union Flag to be replaced by the Saltire.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The Scottish Government has decreed that the flag of Scotland will fly on all its buildings every day from 8 am until sunset. An exception is made for "national days". On these days, the Saltire shall be lowered and replaced with the Union Flag. These days are the same as the flag days of the United Kingdom with the exception of 3 September (Merchant Navy Day), which is a specific flag day in Scotland and during which the Red Ensign may also be used.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: Another difference with the rest of the UK's days is that on Saint Andrew's Day, the Union Flag will only be flown if the building has more than one flagpole – the Saltire will not be lowered to make way for the Union Flag if there is only one flagpole. This difference arose after Members of the Scottish Parliament complained that Scotland was the only country in the world that could not fly its national flag on its national day.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The flag can be flown at any time by any individual, company, local authority, hospital or school. There is no need to get consent to fly the flag from a vertical flagpole. The flagpole itself may need planning permission.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: Most local authorities in Scotland fly the Saltire. Glasgow City Council fly the flag from the City Chambers building in George Square, while the City of Edinburgh Council fly the flag from their own city chambers.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: In 2007 Angus Council led by Robert Myles decided to change the Saltire for a new Angus flag. This move led to public outcry across Scotland with more than 7,000 people signing a petition opposing the council's move, leading to a compromise whereby the Angus flag would not replace but be flown alongside the Saltire on Council buildings.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: At various times throughout history colours as light as sky blue or as dark as dark navy blue have been used (a selection apparently motivated by which colour of blue dye was available at the time). When incorporated as part of the Union Flag, the navy blue colour used was that of the Blue ensign belonging to the historic 'Blue Squadron' of the British Royal Navy. Dark blue was primarily used for reasons of expediency—it suffered less from the effects of fading resulting from prolonged exposure to the elements (namely sunlight and salt spray).


title: Flag of Scotland

text: Although this navy blue colour was used specifically for depicting the Union Flag on maritime flags on the basis of durability, it soon became standard on Union Flags, both on land and at sea. This navy blue colour trend was adopted for the Saltire itself by many flag manufacturers, resulting in a variety of shades of blue being depicted on the flag of Scotland ranging from "sky blue" to "royal blue" to "navy blue". Eventually, this situation resulted in calls to standardise the colour of Scotland's national flag.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: In 2003, a committee of the Scottish Parliament met to examine a petition that the Scottish Government adopt the Pantone 300 colour as a standard. (Note that this blue is of a lighter shade than the Pantone 280 of the Union Flag). Having taken advice from a number of sources including the office of the Lord Lyon King of Arms, the committee recommended that the optimum shade of blue for the Saltire should be Pantone 300 (that is, 0, 101, 189 in the RGB colour model, or #0065BD as hexadecimal web colours). Recent versions of the Saltire have therefore largely converged on this official recommendation, though dark blue has continued in use.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The flag's proportion is not fixed, but is generally taken as 1:2, 2:3, 3:5 or 4:5. The bars in the cross should be 1/5 (i.e., 20%) the width of the flag.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: Inverse representations (blue saltire on a white field) of the Scottish Saltire are also used outside Scotland. In Canada, an inverse representation of the Saltire, combined with the shield from the Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland, forms the modern flag of the Canadian Province of Nova Scotia, the first colonial venture of the Kingdom of Scotland into the Americas.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: In Russia, during the period before and after the Soviet Union, the naval ensign of the Russian Navy has been an inverse representation of the Cross of Saint Andrew. (Saint Andrew is also a patron saint of Russia). The very same Saltire was also flown as the flag of Galicia in Spain until 1891, when Russia requested the Galician flag to be modified in order to avoid confusion between Galician ships and Russian Navy ships. The current Galician flag is actually the original blue-over-white saltire but without one of the arms of the cross.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The U.S. state of Alabama's flag is officially "a crimson cross of St. Andrew on a field of white," but the reference is used only to describe the shape without using the vexillological term saltire as that flag's origins are from either or both of the Confederate Battle Flag or the , both of which have saltires and are associated with the history of that state. Similarly, the Spanish island of Tenerife and the remote Colombian islands of San Andrés and Providencia also use the saltire on their flags.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The Scottish Saltire is also used unofficially by students and graduates of Xavier University because of the university's blue and white official colors and the resemblance of the flag to the letter "X". It is also the flag for St. Andrew's Scots School, Argentina (founded in 1838) and its "spinoff" university Universidad de San Andrés.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The Dutch municipality of Sint-Oedenrode, named after the Scottish princess Saint Oda, also uses the Saltire as the basis of its flag.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The Scottish Saltire and field is one of the key components of the Union Flag. The Union Flag has been used in a variety of forms since 1606, when the flags of the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of England were first merged to symbolise the Union of the Crowns. (The Union of the Crowns having occurred in 1603.) In Scotland, and in particular on Scottish vessels at sea, historical evidence suggests that a separate design of Union Flag was sometimes flown to that used in England. Following the Acts of Union of 1707, which united the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England, the standard Union Flag became the national flag of the new United Kingdom of Great Britain.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: From 1801, in order to symbolise the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, a new design was adopted for the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The 1801 design did not change with the partition of Ireland in 1921 and creation of the Irish Free State, and is the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland today.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: The Royal Standard of the King of Scots, also known as the Royal Flag of Scotland or the Lion Rampant, is the flag used historically by the King of Scots. It remains the personal banner of the monarch and use of this flag is restricted under the Act of the Parliament of Scotland 1672 cap. 47 and 30 & 31 Vict. cap. 17.


title: Flag of Scotland

text: Despite the legal restrictions concerning the use of this flag, it is often regarded as a second, albeit unofficial, national flag for Scotland, most often seen at sporting events.


title: Male reproductive system

text: The male reproductive system is made up of a number of sex organs. It works in the process of human reproduction. Some organs are outside the body, some are in the pelvis.


title: Male reproductive system

text: The main male sex organs are the penis and the testicles, which produce sperm. During sexual intercourse the penis delivers the sperm into a woman's vagina. The sperm can fertilize the egg cell in the woman's womb. The fertilized egg will develop into a fetus, which is later born as a baby.


title: Male reproductive system

text: The penis is an organ that is used for urination and sexual intercourse. The urethra is a passage runs underside of the penis. The urine and the semen are released through the urethra. When the male becomes sexually aroused, the penis becomes hard and bigger and ready for sexual intercourse. This erection occurs because the erectile tissue of the penis is filled with blood.


title: Male reproductive system

text: The scrotum is a pouch-like structure that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the testicles. The function of the scrotum is to keep the testicles less warm than the rest of the body.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Testicles are the small ball-like organs. An adult testicle size is about 4 to 5 cm long. The testicles produce sperm cells from teenage years to old age. The sperm cells are produced in the seminiferous tubules, which are the main part of the testicles. After the sperms are produced, they are stored temporarily in the epididymis. The epididymis is covering the top of the testicle.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Testicles are also called as the gonads and they are very important in sexual works. Leydig cells in the testicles product the testosterone. The testosterone cause puberty in boys and maintain the male characteristics for adult. If the testicles are removed, male characteristics are decreased.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Intestinal cells of Leydig: These cells are mainly used in the production of the testosterone which flows into the blood streams and establish the secondary individuality of a person.


title: Male reproductive system

text: These characteristics include the beards, breaking of voice (deep voice) heavy bones (masculinity) and constricted pelvis that in charge of producing offspring.


title: Male reproductive system

text: The seminal vesicles are a pair of tube-like glands. They are found behind the bladder. The seminal vesicle produces fluid that aids to alive the sperms after they are finally released.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Prostate gland is located under the bladder. It produces a thick fluid which aids the protection and transportation of the sperms which are now referred to as the semen.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Most causes of infertility in men is as a result of male reproductive system disorders. An abnormal penis may not be able to deliver the semen properly. In hypospadias or epispadias where the opening of the penis is in an abnormal position, male infertility is a possibility.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Varicocele: This is a condition characterized by enlargement, elongation and coiling of the blood vessels around the scrotum. Most times, it appears as bag of warm in the scrotum. It is seen in 10% of normal males and 40% of males with infertility.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Drugs: Impotence in men has been found as side effects of some drugs like nitrofurantoin, antihypertensive drug particularly the sympatholytic ones, cimetidine, cancer drugs etc.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Irradiation like X-ray, GSM etc. triggers release of free radicals and can directly halt the Spermatogenesis (process of sperm formation). This is the reason behind covering the scrotum (Testes) during X-ray.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Autoimmune Antibodies: It has been found that some people have antibodies (defense chemicals) against their own sperm cells. By this interaction, the antibodies destroy the sperm cells leading to Azoospermia, oligospermia or normospermia depending on the degree of damage. This condition can be treated if diagnosed.


title: Male reproductive system

text: Liver disease: The liver is a vital organ which ensures that the male hormone (testosterone) dominates in action than female hormone, oestrogen. This it does by breaking down the oestrogen continually. However in a case of liver disease which may impair liver functions, the level of female hormone, oestrogen, increases leading to male characteristics, loss of pubic hair and impotence.


title: Mumbai

text: Mumbai (previously known as Bombay until 1996) is a natural harbour on the west coast of India, and is the capital city of Maharashtra state.


title: Mumbai

text: Mumbai is India's largest city, and one of the world's most populous cities. It is the financial capital of India and a global city. Many billionaires live there. The city is the second most-populous in the world. It has about 13 million people. Along with the neighbouring cities of Navi Mumbai and Thane, it forms the world's 4th largest urban agglomeration. They have around 19.1 million people


title: Mumbai

text: The seven islands that form Bombay were home to fishing colonies. The islands were ruled by successive kingdoms and indigenous empires before Portuguese settlers took it. Then, it went to the British East India Company. During the mid-18th century, Bombay became a major trading town. It became a strong place for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century. When India became independent in 1947, the city was put into Bombay State. In 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital. It was renamed Mumbai in 1996.


title: Mumbai

text: Mumbai generates more than 6% of India's GDP. It accounts for 25% of industrial output, 40% of sea trade, and 70% of capital transactions to India's economy. The Reserve Bank of India, the Bombay Stock Exchange, the National Stock Exchange of India and many Indian companies and multinational corporations are in the city. It also has the Hindi film and television industry, known as Bollywood.


title: Jaat

text: Jats had its origins in pastoralism in the lower Indus valley of Sindh until they were forced northwards due to the Islamic conquests.


title: Jaat

text: Many Jat people serve in the Indian Army, including the Jat Regiment, Sikh Regiment, Rajputana Rifles and the Grenadiers, where they have won many of the highest military awards for gallantry and bravery. Jat people also serve in the Pakistan Army especially in the Punjab Regiment.


title: Jaat

text: Jaats inhabited throughout the Punjab region, Sindh and some other northwestern parts of Subcontinent.


title: My Computer

text: My Computer is seen on the Microsoft Windows computers. My Computer allows the user to access the local drives, such as the local disk, also known as the C: Drive. The user can also access external drives. Examples of an external drive are a floppy disk drive (A: Drive) and the CD Drive (D:). My computer also lets the user access My Documents and other files.


title: My Computer

text: Whenever any external drive is attached to the computer, the user can directly access that drive from My Computer menu. "My Computer" gives us an overview about different types of drives present in the computer. The My Computer folder is a gateway to all the data stored on the computer, attached devices, and the network -- as well as a shortcut to most of your system information.


title: Karachi

text: Karachi () is the largest city in Pakistan and the capital of the province of Sindh. Until 1958, it was also the capital of Pakistan. It is also called the City of Lights. It is also one of the world's biggest megacities. In 2017, there are about 17.63 million people who live in Karachi. It is the largest city in the Muslim world.


title: Karachi

text: Karachi has many names including "Mai Kolachi Jo Goth" and "Karatishi". A native of Karachi is called a Karachiite. Quaid-e-Azam (Muhammad Ali Jinnah), who was the founder of Pakistan, was born and buried in Karachi. Karachi has two important regional seaports. Karachi also makes the largest share of Pakistan's GDP and national revenue.


title: Karachi

text: Karachi has five districts: District South, District East, District West, District Central, and District Malir. The city is the financial and commercial center of Pakistan.


title: Karachi

text: Karachi has 26 universities including the University of Karachi. It is home to the National Stadium, which hosts many cricket games, and several other sports complexes. The city has several long sandy beaches including Clifton/Kemari beach and Sandspit beach. Clifton beach suffered from an oil spillage but the beach was cleaned. Karachi has Pakistan's first nuclear site, KANUP in 1952 from Canada. Karachi hosted the first ever night hockey match between India and Pakistan in 1986 at Hockey Club of Pakistan Stadium.


title: Karachi

text: Karachi has many large and small shopping areas including the Saddar area in downtown Karachi. Karachi also has a number of large modern shopping malls.


title: Karachi

text: The city has a modern international airport (Jinnah International Airport) and two large shipping ports, the Port of Karachi and Port Qasim. Karachi is linked by railway to the rest of Pakistan.


title: Succession to the British throne

text: The line of succession to the British throne is the order in which members of the royal family would come to the throne if the reigning king or queen died.


title: Succession to the British throne

text: At present the first in line is William, Prince of Wales and then Prince William's son, Prince George of Wales.


title: Succession to the British throne

text: Traditionally, males came before females in the line of succession. However, the law changed on 26 March 2015, so at present, for people born after 28 October 2011 the succession is decided only by age: older children come before younger children. This system of inheritance is called absolute primogeniture, as opposed to male-preference primogeniture. When someone who is in line to the throne has a child, that child comes after them and their older children, but before anyone else in the line of succession.


title: Succession to the British throne

text: No official, complete version of the line of succession is currently maintained. Any person's actual position in the line of succession may change when people are born or when they die. This list shows only those people who are descended from the sons of George V.


title: Enma

text: Enma is the god of hell in the Buddhist religion. He is often called Yama. He is the god who judges whether the souls of people go to heaven or hell.


title: Enma

text: Enma is the god of hell who judges right and wrong after a human dies and falls into hell. Enma gives many kinds of dreadful punishments. The word "Enma" comes from "Yama" in Sanskrit and Pali, a language for Buddhist writings in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand. He is said to be a human ancestor in the "Rigveda" (an ancient Indian sacred book). He is a god of the Indian Veda myth and he is said to be the incarnation of the "Jizo Bosatsu", the stone statue which is the god of help in Japanese Buddhism.


title: Enma

text: Believers in Buddhism think Enma comes from the start of the world. He was linked with death at first. People thought he was king of paradise for the dead, the god who ruled people when they lived in heaven. People thought he tied up souls of the people with the rope that he held in the hand. He became a feared god. Then he was treated as just the god of death. Because he is also an incarnation of the god of help, it is said that he can come and go freely between heaven and hell.


title: Enma

text: The appearance of Enma usually frightening in nature. Enma is always shown wearing Chinese traditional clothes from the Sung era (AD 960–1279). Why he wears Chinese traditional clothes is unknown. Usually, his dress and face are both red. He has a square crown on his head and a mace in his right hand. His eyes are open wide and angry, and are slanted upwards.


title: Enma

text: However in other countries and at different times in history, Enma is pictured differently. For example, in old pictures from India, Enma has a crown and is riding a water buffalo. He has a club and a big rope. Another Enma from ancient India has a flag and steps on water buffalo with one leg. Enma is well built, with thick arms and a very big chest.


title: Enma

text: Enma was the first person in the world to die. He went to paradise, called "Gokuraku Jyoudo" (極楽浄土). He lived in paradise and his job was looking after the dead. People believed Enma was the god of paradise. Over time people became scared of Enma. His job was changed from looking after the dead to judging them. Enma used a club and a big rope to tie up the souls of dead people. He ruled the lower world and judged the dead. He decided if a dead person went to heaven or hell. He made his judgment on what they had done in their lives. People who had behaved well went to heaven. People who had behaved badly go to hell.


title: Enma

text: The stories about Enma are very mysterious. The most famous story is how Enma will pull someone’s tongue out if they did a bad thing. Japanese parents teach their children to be honest by using this story. Enma can also bring dead people back to life. "Abe-no-seimei", a famous person in Japanese history, died and was revived by Enma. He also can decide when life should end.


title: Enma

text: One of the strangest stories involves an actor who died and met Enma. The actor went to hell because he played other people – in other words "lying". He told Enma all about himself his life and Enma started to be interested in his acting. He said “I would like to see you act.” The actor agreed and said "I need a costume, so please give me yours." Enma gave it to him and the actor played as Enma, saying "Ogres! Ogres! Take this bad man away!" Enma was taken away and punished. The actor became a new Enma instead of the real Enma.


title: Enma

text: There are a number of books and movies about Enma in Japan and even in other countries. Enma has been written about by many Japanese novelists. "The First Love of Enma, Bungeisya", by Hideo Watanabe, is about escaping from hell and falling in love with a beautiful dead woman along the way. Another side of Enma is shown in "Enma’s sword, Syodensya and Hiraiwa" by Koshihiro Igawa and "The Worship of Enma" by Yumie. Enma is not fearful or strong at all. In comic books, like "Dragon Ball ", Enma is shown as kind and calm. Enma in "Ojarumaru" is funny. In the American movie called "Heaven Can Wait" (1943), a dead man talked with Enma about his whole life before his death. This Enma is not kind but strict. This movie was nominated for best picture. Enma has also appeared in One Piece as the name of the sword wielded by Kozuki Oden who passed it onto his daughter Kozuki Hiyori, who then entrusted it to Roronoa Zoro as a replacement for his Shusui. Some writers write about his power and the fear he causes and others write about his opposite side, kind, and calm.


title: The Addams Family (1964 TV series)

text: The Addams Family is an American horror/black comedy sitcom based on the characters from Charles Addams' "New Yorker" cartoons.


title: The Addams Family (1964 TV series)

text: The show starred Carolyn Jones as Morticia Addams, John Astin as Gomez Addams, Jackie Coogan as Uncle Fester Addams, Ted Cassidy as Lurch, Marie Blake as Grandmamma Addams, Lisa Loring as Wednesday Addams and Ken Weatherwax as Pugsley Addams.


title: The Addams Family (1964 TV series)

text: The 30-minute television series was created by David Levy and Donald Saltzman and shot in black-and-white, airing for two seasons on ABC from September 18, 1964, to April 8, 1966, for a total of 64 episodes.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is widely known as the father of dynamics, the study of motion. He developed three laws that are the foundation of classical mechanics. They are believed to be true because the results of experiments by scientists agree with his laws.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: A "uniform velocity" means that an object moves at a constant speed without changing direction (i.e. in a straight line). A "net force" means that the forces acting on the object are not balanced. In other words, the first law states two things:


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: The first part states that a table resting on the ground will not move unless pushed. Although gravity is acting on the table, pulling it down, there is a "reaction force" from the ground which is pushing it back. The forces acting on the table are "balanced", so the object will not move.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: The second part is harder to explain. A ball rolling along a flat surface will slow down and eventually come to a halt. This is because of friction, which is a force that slows the ball down. A ball rolling down a slope is also affected by friction, but the effect of the force of gravity is stronger than the friction, so there is a net force acting in the direction in which the ball is moving. In a place without the forces of friction, air resistance and gravity (e.g. in outer space) a moving object would keep on moving in a straight line if there were no force to slow it down or change its direction.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: Newton's second law states that acceleration of a particle is dependent on the forces acting upon the particle and the particle's mass. For a given particle, if the net force is increased, the acceleration is increased. It's also started that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force act. For a given net force, the more mass a particle has, the less acceleration it has.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: For example, weight is a force that we feel on Earth, caused by the gravity. The weight on a particle is given by


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: where is the mass of the particle and is the local gravitational acceleration (not to be confused with "G", the universal gravitational constant), roughly equal to 9.8 meters per second (32 feet per second) on Earth.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: We can express Newton's second law in terms of momentum. The momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass and velocity :


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: In classical mechanics, the two forms of the second law, formula_1 and formula_6, are completely equivalent. Note that we assume that the mass of a particle does not change.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: This is best understood with billiard balls, where you can easily see the action/reaction pairs of forces. Likewise, when you kick a football, not only does the ball move, but you feel a force on your foot.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the water will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for fish to swim.


title: Newton's laws of motion

text: Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car has wheels which spin forwards. As the wheels spin forwards, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The size of the force on the road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.


title: Utah

text: Utah is a state in the west United States. The capital and largest city is Salt Lake City. Utah became a state in the U.S. on January 4, 1896.


title: Utah

text: Utah is bordered by Idaho and Wyoming in the north and Colorado in the east. It touches a single point of New Mexico to the southeast at Four Corners. Utah is bordered by Arizona in the south, and by Nevada in the west. It covers an area of 84,899 square miles (219,887 km²).


title: Utah

text: Utah is mostly rocky with three distinct geological regions: the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, and the Colorado Plateau. Utah is known for its natural diversity and is home to features ranging from arid deserts with sand dunes to thriving pine forests in mountain valleys, which has attracted many tourists.


title: Utah

text: Utah has a dry, semi-arid to climate, although its many mountains have large, wide, differences of climates, with the highest points in the Uinta Mountains being above the . The dry weather from the state lying mostly in the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada in California. The eastern half of the state is in the rain shadow of the Wasatch Mountains. The primary source of rain for the state is the Pacific Ocean, with the state normally lying in the path of large Pacific storms from mid-October through April, although northern Utah often sees these large storms earlier and later. In summer, the state, normally southern and eastern Utah, is in the path of monsoon from the Gulf of California. Most of the lowland areas get less than 12 inches (300 mm) of rain a year. The Great Salt Lake Desert is the driest area of the state, with less than 5 inches (125 mm). Snowfall is common in all but the far southern valleys. Although St. George only gets about 3 inches (7.5 cm) per year, Salt Lake City sees about 60 inches (150 cm), enhanced by the lake-effect snow from the Great Salt Lake, which increases snowfall totals to the south, southeast, and east of the lake. Some areas of the Wasatch Range in the path of the lake-effect get up to 700 inches (1,770 cm) per year. The dry, fluffy, snow led Utah's ski industry to get the slogan "the Greatest Snow on Earth" in the 1980s. In the winter, temperature are a phenomenon across Utah's low basins and valleys, leading to thick humidity and fog that can sometimes last for weeks at a time, normally in the Uintah Basin.


title: Utah

text: The center of population of Utah is in Salt Lake County in the city of "Salt Lake City". As of July 1, 2008 the Census Bureau believes Utah has a population of 2,736,424. In 2008, the US Census Bureau determined Utah to be the fastest growing state in the country in terms of population growth.