title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Camara Jones, an epidemiologist who once worked for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said this was socioeconomic and not because of any natural difference in black and white people's bodies. In the United States, black citizens are more likely to work jobs where they serve the public directly and to ride on public transport rather than take their own cars to work. This makes them more likely to be infected than people who work in private offices or from home. Sharrelle Barber, an epidemiologist and biostatistician from Drexel University, also said black Americans can live in crowded neighborhoods where social distancing is harder to do and healthy food harder to find. Both Barber and Jones blamed the long history of racism in the United States for these things. Three senators, Kamala Harris, Cory Booker and Elizabeth Warren said the federal government should start recording the race of COVID-19 patients so scientists could study this problem.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: In June, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) told the public that people using the United States' government's Medicare health program had different results depending on race. Four times as many black Medicare patients went to hospitals for COVID-19 than white Medicare patients. There were twice as many hospitalized Hispanic patients than white patients. There were three hospitalized Asian patients for every two hospitalized white patients. The head of CMS, Seema Verma, said this was mostly because of socioeconomic status.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: In the United Kingdom, twice as many black COVID-19 patients died as white COVID-19 patients. Other non-white people, like people from India and Bangladesh, were also more likely to die of COVID-19 than whites. Britain's Office of National Statistics said that the differences in money and education explained some of this difference but not all of it. They also said they did not know whether non-white patients caught COVID-19 more often or whether they caught more severe cases. Only female Chinese Britons were less likely to die of COVID-19 than white Britons.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Native Americans in the United States have shown more deaths from COVID-19 than the rest of the U.S. As of May, the Navajo Nation had 88 deaths and 2,757 cases, and the money they had been promised by the government arrived several weeks late. Only 30% of the people in the Navajo Nation have pipes with running water, which made it difficult for people to wash their hands.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Scientists from Chapman University made a plan to protect the Tsimane people in Bolivia from COVID-19 and said this plan would also work for other indigenous peoples living on their own land. The scientists said that many indigenous peoples have problems that make COVID-19 more dangerous for them, like poverty, less clean water, and other lung diseases. Hospitals may be a long distance away, and racism can affect the way doctors and nurses react. But they also sometimes have things that help, like traditions of making decisions together and the ability to grow food nearby. The scientists found people who spoke the Tsimane language as a first language and made teams to go to Tsimane towns to warn them about COVID-19. They also used radio stations. They said the best plan was for whole communities to decide to isolate. They found this worked well because the Tsimane already usually made their big decisions together as a community in special meetings and already had a tradition of quarantining new mothers. The Chapman scientists said their plan would also work for other indigenous peoples who also make decisions together, like the Tsimane.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: In May 2020, police officers in Minneapolis, Minnesota killed an unarmed black man called George Floyd while they were arresting him. There were weeks of protests all over the world against police brutality and racism. Experts said they were worried protesters and police could spread SARS-CoV-2 to each other. Other experts said some of the reasons that the protests were so big was because non-white people were being killed by COVID-19 more than white people were, because poor leadership in the COVID-19 crisis reminded them of poor leadership about racism, and because the lockdowns shut down workplaces and other things. This meant people had more time to protest.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: African Americans are more likely to catch the virus compared to their white counterparts in the United States, and are also more likely to die from it. 50,000 African Americans died of COVID-19 in 2020. African Americans are the least likely to get vaccinated against the disease.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: In early 2020, some people began to think that the SARS-CoV-2 may have been made on purpose in a laboratory and either released by accident or on purpose like a weapon. Some Iranians thought the Americans might have made it. Chinese state media said COVID-19 came from the United States to China and not the other way around. Some Americans thought the Chinese might have made it. Some Britons thought it might have been created by accident by 5G cell phone networks.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: On March 17, 2020, scientists from Columbia University and other places published a paper in "Nature Medicine" showing that SARS-CoV-2 was almost surely not made by humans in a laboratory. They did this by comparing the genomes of different viruses to each other. The scientists saw that SARS-CoV-2 did not match any of the viral backbones that already exist for virologists to use. Within a few weeks, it became one of the most cited scientific papers in history, meaning that other scientists were reading and using it.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: On December 31, 2019, China alerted WHO to several cases of unusual pneumonia in Wuhan, Hubei province.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: On January 20, 2020, Chinese premier Li Keqiang called for efforts to stop and control the pneumonia epidemic caused by a novel coronavirus. As of February 5, 2020, 24,588 cases have been confirmed, including in every province-level division of China. A larger number of people may have been infected, but not detected (especially mild cases). The first local transmission of the virus outside China occurred in Vietnam between family members, while the first local transmission not involving family occurred in Germany, on January 22, when a German man contracted the disease from a Chinese business visitor at a meeting. , 493 deaths have been attributed to the virus since the first confirmed death on January 9, with 990 recoveries. The first death outside China was reported in the Philippines, in a 44-year-old Chinese male on February 1. but another source reported:


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: "The first cases of COVID-19 outside of China were identified on January 13 in Thailand and on January 16 in Japan".


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: There has been testing which have showed over 6000 confirmed cases in China, some of whom are healthcare workers.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Confirmed cases have also been reported in Thailand, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Macau, Hong Kong, the United States (Everett, Washington and Chicago), Singapore, Vietnam, France and Nepal.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: The World Health Organization declared that this is a Public Health Emergency of International Concern since January 30, 2020.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Bloomberg News and other business publications have reported several plant closures, travel restrictions, and imposed quarantines as a result of this outbreak.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: As of February 10, 2020 there have been 40,235 confirmed cases reported of people infected by the virus in China. Also reported were 909 deaths, and 319 cases in 24 other countries, including one death, according to WHO chief Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: On November 14, 2020, there were 53,853,718 global COVID-19 cases and 1,311,524 deaths with cases in 217 countries and territories.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: The pandemic made it more difficult for millions of people all over the world to get enough food. People lost their jobs, so they did not have money to buy food. Farms were shut down, so there was less food made. Processing plants and food factories were shut down, so less food was made ready for people to eat.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: In April, Arif Husain of the United Nations' World Food Program said that 130 million more people could go hungry, in addition to the 135 million who were already hungry before the pandemic began. He said that poorer countries would be more affected than rich countries because the way they move raw food from farms to cities and other places where people live is less organized and relies more on human beings than on automatic systems.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: This hunger crisis is different from crises in other years because it happened to the whole world at the same time. That meant that people working in other countries could not help by sending money home.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: All over the world, children who ate meals at school had less access to food when the schools were shut down.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Scientists from the University of Michigan said the pandemic was making it harder for people to find food. In a study published in May, they said one in seven Americans over age 50 said they had trouble getting enough food before the pandemic, and it got worse when senior centers that provided meals were closed. Federal and state governments started programs to bring food to older people and children. There were also more food donation drives in towns.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: 40% of all COVID-19 deaths in the country. Nursing homes are group homes for old people who need medical care, for disabled people who need medical care, and for people recovering from severe sickness or injury, like stroke patients.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Many people who live in nursing homes pay through the government program Medicaid, which pays less than Medicare or regular insurance companies. In June, many American nursing homes were caught throwing their regular patients out so they could make room for COVID-19 patients who could pay them more. Because nursing homes had stopped allowing visitors, it took longer for them to get caught. United States law requires nursing homes to warn patients 30 days before kicking them out, but the nursing homes did not do this.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Some of the nursing homes took the COVID-19 patients because state governments asked them to and they say they sent their elderly residents away because they were worried they would catch COVID-19 from the sick patients.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Because so many governments told people to stay at home, there was less air pollution than usual for that time of year. Pollution in New York fell by 50% and the use of coal in China fell by 40%. The European Space Agency showed pictures taken from a satellite of China's pollution disappearing during quarantine and coming back when everyone went back to work.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: The pandemic and shutdowns made people use less electricity. In the United States, people got less of their electricity from coal power but kept using gas and renewable power like wind and solar power. This was because coal plants are more expensive to run, so power companies used them less.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Pollution from before the pandemic also affected what happened after people became sick. Scientists saw that more people died from COVID-19 in places with large amounts of air pollution. One team of scientists from Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg looked at air pollution information from satellites and statistics on COVID-19 deaths in Italy, France, Germany and Spain and saw that places with large amounts of nitrogen dioxide pollution had more people die from COVID-19. Nitrogen dioxide can damage the lungs.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: The shutdowns and social distancing also affected animals. Human beings started staying at home about the same time in the spring when sea turtles like to come on land to lay their eggs. Turtle scientists in the United States and Thailand both reported more nests than usual on seashores in Florida and Phuket. They say it is because people are not coming to the beach or bringing their dogs to the beach and because there are fewer boats in the water nearby. Scientists also say they see more dugong and dolphins. With fewer cars driving down roads, salamanders, frogs, and other amphibians were able to cross them for their spring migration. According to citizen scientists from Big Night Maine, a group that watches amphibians, four amphibians made it across the roads alive for every one amphibian killed by cars. Most years, it is only two to one.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Not all ocean mammals did well. According to marine biologists in Florida, manatee deaths in April and May were 20% higher than in 2019. They say this was because many people decided to go boating because other things to do were closed.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Researchers from the San Diego Zoo Global had the idea for a system that people could use to find dangerous germs before they become pandemics or even before they jump from other animals to humans. They said it was important to watch the wildlife trade, like in the Wuhan wet market. The scientists said that over the past eleven years it has gotten easier and easier to sequence viral genomes, and it does not have to be done by a large lab or by a government any more. The scientists said it would be better to spread the work out among more people.


title: COVID-19 pandemic

text: Avoiding traveling and staying home will greatly reduce your risk from catching COVID-19. Staying home doesn't apply if one is sick and needs medical care. Get enough rest and stay hydrated. Wearing a mask and washing your hands can prevent the virus from spreading. Masks should not be placed on children under 2 years of age, people who have trouble breathing, have a respiratory or other medical condition which renders one unable to wear a mask safely, or anyone who is unable to remove the mask without help. Covering coughs and sneezes also reduce the risk of spreading the virus, but one can infect someone else by touching things with coughed/sneezed-in hands. Making sure not to share drinking glasses, cups and particularly other objects which people will drink or eat out of is important if one assumes they are infected or tested positive in the past. Washing eating utensils and other oral eating objects is preferable and cleaning surfaces or possessions which have been repeatedly touched is also important. These include, according to the Centers For Disease Control and Prevention, phones, remote controls, counters, tabletops, doorknobs, bathroom fixtures, toilets, keyboards, tablets, and bedside tables. Avoid touching your face, nose, or mouth with your hands. Avoiding public transportation, taxis or taking rides with others can stop one's exposure to the virus. Rumors spread about high doses of Vitamin C preventing COVID-19, but these as of October 14, 2020, there has been no conclusive evidence to support this idea. However, there has been evidence pointing to the fact that dosing patients with Vitamin C, either through mouth or IV can reduce time on mechanical ventilators for seriously ill patients by 14%.Drinking tea such as black tea and green tea can inhibit the virus. Staying home for the holidays, having a small gathering of close friends and family members who are consistently taking measures to reduce the spread of COVID-19 and celebrating virtually through social media can prevent being infected by the virus. Airports, bus stations, train stations, public transport, gas stations, and rest stops are all places travelers can be exposed to catching the virus. Eating a healthy diet that is high in fruits and vegetables, getting rest and sleep, exercising, consuming raw honey, probiotics, garlic, mushrooms and elderberry can boost the immune system. Playing video games to pass time during quarantine can prevent the virus from spreading. Flavanols and proanthocyanidins which are chemicals found in dark chocolate, grapes and green tea may block SARS-CoV-2 proteins. Places you are most likely to catch the virus are churches, hair and nail salons, cruise ships, hospitals and the doctor’s office, restaurants and bars, theaters, sporting events, concert venues, buses, restrooms, elevators, the gym, airplanes, hotels, public swimming pools, nightclubs and the beach. Vaccinated people still need to wear a mask. Flying in a private jet can prevent the spread of coronavirus. Smoking marijuana and tobacco can further damage your lungs. Getting vaccinated can prevent new virus strains.


title: Moscow

text: Moscow ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city is on the Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population of around 13 million people in the city limits, over 17 million people in the urban area, and over 20 million people in the metropolitan area. The city has an area of . Moscow's urban area has an area of . Moscow's metropolitan area has an area of over . Moscow is one of the world's largest cities. It is the most populous city that is only in Europe. It is also the largest urban and metropolitan area in Europe and the largest city by land area on the European continent.


title: Moscow

text: It was first wrote about in 1147. Moscow grew to become a powerful city that was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Moscow stayed the political and economic center of the country when the Tsardom of Russia was made. When the Tsardom turned into the Russian Empire, the capital was moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg which lowered the influence of the city. The capital was moved back to Moscow after the October Revolution. This brought the city back as the political center of the Russian SFSR and then the Soviet Union. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Moscow stayed the capital city of the new Russian Federation.


title: Moscow

text: Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity in the world. It has a history that goes through eight centuries. Moscow is a federal city of Russia since 1993 that is the political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe. Moscow has one of the world's largest urban economies as an alpha world city. The city is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in the world, and it is one of Europe's most visited cities. Moscow is home to the seventh-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world. The Moscow International Business Center is one of the largest financial centers in Europe and the world. Moscow has most of Europe's tallest skyscrapers. Moscow was the host city of the 1980 Summer Olympics, and one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Moscow

text: Moscow is the home of many Russian artists, scientists, and sportspeople. The city also has several UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Moscow is well known for its Russian architecture. This includes its historic Red Square, and buildings such as the Saint Basil's Cathedral and the Moscow Kremlin. The Moscow Kremlin is the seat of power of the Government of Russia. Moscow is home to many Russian companies in different industries. It has a large transit network, which includes four international airports, ten railway terminals, a tram system, a monorail system, and the Moscow Metro. The Moscow Metro is the busiest metro system in Europe. It is one of the largest rapid transit systems in the world. The city has over 40 percent of its land covered by greenery. This makes it one of the greenest cities in Europe and the world.


title: Moscow

text: A person from Moscow is called a "" ("moskvich") for male or "ка" ("moskvichka") for female. In English, people from Moscow are called "Muscovites".


title: Moscow

text: It is by the Moskva River in the Moscow Oblast, in the European part of Russia. Moscow sits on the center of three parts of Earth's crust. It was once the capital of the Soviet Union (1918-1991), Russian Empire, Tsardom of Russia and the Grand Duchy of Moscow (1480-1703). It is the place of the Moscow Kremlin, one of the World Heritage Sites in the city, which is the home of the President of Russia. The Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council of Russia (Federation Council) and the Government of Russia also are in Moscow.


title: Moscow

text: The city has a humid continental climate. The winter (usually cold) is lasting from mid-November to the end of March. The average temperature in winter is about −10 °C (−14 °F). The summer is usually warm or even hot with temperature ranging from 15 to 35 °C (50 to 95 °F) .


title: Moscow

text: Moscow has a large economic infrastructure. It is home to the most billionaires in the world. In 2008 Moscow was named the world's most expensive city for non-Russian workers for the third year in a row. In 2009, however, Moscow went down to third after Tokyo and Osaka came in first and second.


title: Moscow

text: The city is named after the river (old , which means "the city next to the Moskva River"). The beginning of the name is not known, but some people have a few ideas. One is that the name might be from a very old Finnic language, in which it means "dark" and "cloudy". In 12th century tribes of Vyatichi and Krivichs lived on that land. The first Russian reference to Moscow is from 1147 when Yuri Dolgoruki called upon the prince of Novgorod-Severski to "come to me, brother, to Moscow."


title: Moscow

text: Nine years later, in 1156, Prince Yuri Dolgoruki ordered the building of a wooden wall, which had to be redone many times, to go around the growing city. After the attack of 1237–1238, when the Mongols burned the city to the ground and killed its people living there, Moscow grew back and became the capital of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (an amount of land ruled by a prince) in 1327. Its good place on the start of the Volga River helped the city to grow slowly bigger and bigger. Moscow turned into a peaceful and rich principality, known as the Grand Duchy of Moscow, for many years and a large number of people from across Russia moved to live there.


title: Moscow

text: Under Ivan I the city replaced Tver as a political center of Vladimir-Suzdal and became the only collector of taxes for the Mongol-Tatar rulers. By paying high taxes, Ivan worked out an important deal with the Khan. Unlike other principalities, Moscow was not divided among his sons but was passed whole to his oldest. However, Moscow did not like the Mongol rule. In 1380, prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a Russian army to an important victory over the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo. Only two years later Moscow was raided by the Khan Tokhtamysh. In 1480, Ivan III finally broke the Russians free from Tatar control, allowing Moscow to become the center of power in Russia. Under Ivan III the city became the capital of an empire that would eventually include all of Russia and other countries.


title: Moscow

text: In 1609 the Swedish army, led by Count Jacob De la Gardie and Evert Horn, marched from Veliky Novgorod toward Moscow to help Tsar Vasili Shuiski. They entered Moscow in 1610 and stopped the revolution against the Tsar, but left early in 1611. After that the Polish invaded. During the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618) hetman (army commander) Stanisław Żółkiewski entered Moscow after he defeated the Russians in the Battle of Klushino. The 17th century had lots of revolutions, such as the Salt Riot (1648), the Copper Riot (1662), and the Moscow Uprising of 1682.


title: Moscow

text: The plague of 1654–1656 killed half the population of Moscow. The city stopped being Russia’s capital in 1712, after the building of Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great near the Baltic coast in 1703. The Plague of 1771 was the last big plague in central Russia, killing 100,000 people in Moscow alone. During the French invasion of Russia in 1812, the Muscovites burned the city and ran away, as Napoleon’s army was coming near to the city on 14 September. Napoleon’s army, which was very hungry and cold, had to leave and was nearly destroyed by the freezing Russian winter and some attacks by the army.


title: Moscow

text: In January 1905, Alexander Adrianov became Moscow’s first mayor. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, on 12 March 1918 Moscow became the capital of the Soviet Union. During World War II (known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War), after the German invasion of the USSR, the Soviet State Defense Group and commanders of the Red Army were placed in Moscow.


title: Moscow

text: In 1941, 16 groups of national volunteers (more than 160,000 people), twenty-five battalions (18,500 people) and four engineering regiments were created among the Muscovites. That November, the German Army was stopped at the edge of the city and then driven off in the Battle of Moscow. Many factories were moved away, and much of the government was too, and from 20 October the city was declared to be under siege. Its people who stayed built and used anti-tank defences, and the city was bombed from the air. Joseph Stalin (the leader of Russia) did not leave the city, so the general staff remained in the city as well. Even with a siege going on, the construction of the Moscow Metro system continued through the war, and by the end of the war a few new metro lines were open.


title: Moscow

text: On 1 May 1944, a medal "For the defence of Moscow" and in 1947 another medal "In memory of the 800th year of Moscow" were given to Moscow. In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany, on 8 May 1965, Moscow became one of twelve Soviet cities awarded the title of Hero City.


title: Moscow

text: In 1980, Moscow hosted the Summer Olympic Games, which the United States and several other countries did not go to because of the Soviet Union's war in Afghanistan in the end of 1979. In 1991, Moscow was the scene of a failed overthrow attempt by government members opposed to Mikhail Gorbachev. When the USSR ended in the same year, Moscow continued to be the capital of Russia.


title: Moscow

text: Since then, the beginning of a market economy in Moscow has caused an explosion of Western-style stores, services, architecture, and lifestyles. In 1998, it hosted the first World Youth Games.


title: Moscow

text: Moscow metro is one of the largest and the beautiful ones in the World. It was opened for passengers in 1935.


title: Moscow

text: The Moscow trolley system was the largest in the World before ending of 2010s. In 2020 it was closed.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born as Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili) (18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) (Name in Georgian იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი; Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин) was a Georgian politician who became leader of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death in 1953 from a cerebral haemorrhage. He replaced Vladimir Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union. His ideas and policies turned the Soviet Union into a powerful, relatively modern country, as the largest on Earth. His way of thinking was called Marxism-Leninism, and his form of government was later called Stalinism.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin invaded Poland on 18 September 1939. In the subsequent World War II, Stalin stayed neutral but signed a peace deal with Germany's leader Adolf Hitler. He then led a bloody war after Germany invaded the Soviet Union known as Operation Barbarossa . And after the end of the war Stalin gained control of all Eastern Europe including part of Germany. There, a series of loyal Marxist-Leninist single-party states were set up, extending his power and determining the Soviet Union's position as a superpower.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin was born as Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili or Iosif Dzhugashvili. He began calling himself "Stalin" in 1912.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Ioseb Vissarionovich Jugashvili was born in a small one room house in Gori, Georgia, on 18 December 1878. His father made and repaired shoes. His father was often drunk and used to hit his wife and his son until his death in a fight in 1890. Joseph had smallpox when he was young. This left his face scarred. Later, photographs were often changed to hide the scars. His left arm was also shorter because of an accident. He was educated at the Gori church school. Stalin studied to be a priest at a seminary (school for priests) in Tbilisi. He was an active student reading many books, especially books that were not allowed by the seminary. This included books by Karl Marx. He joined a Marxist group in 1898, the Mesame Dasi, or Group Three.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin left school in 1899 and got a job at the Tbilisi Physical Institute. He joined groups that were trying to start a revolution to remove the Tsar. They wanted a different type of government. The police raided his house in 1901 while hunting for people who opposed the government. Stalin escaped but went into hiding so the police could not find him. He organized anti-government activities such as May Day marches and protests. He became a Bolshevik. He supported a violent revolution, and did not support the Mensheviks. The secret police caught him in April 1902 and exiled him without trial to Siberia. He lived in the village of Novaya Uda.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: He soon escaped from Siberia. This led to many later claims that he was a police spy. The arrest of another Bolshevik, Stephan Shaumyan, a rival of Stalin, increased these beliefs. At the end of 1905, he went to a meeting in Finland and met Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Lenin was not what Stalin had expected. The government arrested and exiled Stalin several times in the next ten years. This increased his power in the Bolshevik party and he was elected to the Central Committee of the party in 1912. He was promoted to a position at St.Petersburg.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin was a member of the Bolshevik Party, but did not do much in the Russian Revolution of 1917. He was writing and editing Pravda, the party newspaper. He had a number of organizational jobs in the Communist Party. In 1922 he became General Secretary. He was able to give jobs to people he liked in the Communist Party. These supporters helped him become the leader after Vladimir Lenin died in 1924.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin tried to collectivize farms. "Collectivization" meant taking the land from owners of all farms and joining it into large farms run by the government. Communist officials then let farmers work the new farms and told them to turn the harvest over to the government.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Collectivization did not work well. There was a famine 1932–33, in which millions died. Because farmers were not paid much money, and whatever they grew went to the state, the workers did not try their best. The best farming worked on very small bits of land given to the peasants to grow what they liked. On these pieces of land, farmers could keep what they grew. In 1938 these parts of land were 4% of Soviet farmland. However, they grew 20% of its produce.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: There was a second great famine in the Soviet Union in 19461947. The conditions were caused by drought, made worse by the devastation caused by World War II. The grain harvest in 1946 totaled 39.6 million tons - barely 40% of the yield in 1940.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: To eliminate "enemies of the working class", Stalin instituted the "Great Purge". Over a million people were imprisoned and at least 700,000 executed between 1934 and 1939. Those executed included most of the generals in the Red Army, whom Stalin saw as a threat to his rule. This greatly weakened the army in the early months of the Wehrmacht's offensive against the Soviet Union in 1941.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin cooperated with German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. They signed a mutual non-aggression pact. However, Hitler hated communism. After invading and neutralising France, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. After the Operation Barbarossa invasion, the USSR began working with the Western Allies to defeat Germany. In the end, Germany lost, but the USSR had more casualties than any other country during the war.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: When World War II was over, the Soviet army occupied many countries in Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and part of Germany. They imposed Marxism-Leninism on these countries. This was done against the wishes, and over the protests, of the American and British governments.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin continued to rule over the Soviet Union until he died. He also militarized Russia by focusing the country's time and energy towards weapons, vehicles, and the armed forces.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Led by Lavrentiy Beria, the leading group in the Kremlin were Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Malenkov and Nikita Krushchev. Much later, Krushchev began a process of "De-Stalinization", which meant taking apart much of the political system that Stalin made. Stalin was denounced as a tyrant. After outsmarting and defeating his rivals, Krushchev established a personal control over the government comparable to Stalin's own. Krushchev is himself a fascinating figure in Soviet history. His attempts to expand Soviet influence ended with the Cuban missile crisis.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: In 2003 a group of Russian and American historians claimed that Stalin had been poisoned with powerful rat poison warfarin, possibly by the men who took over the government after Stalin died. Bear in mind, however, that Stalin was in his mid-seventies when he died, and modern pharmacology was in the future (statins etc). Those facts make it likely that his death was natural.


title: Joseph Stalin

text: Stalin is a controversial figure in history. Many historians see him as a ruthless dictator, though some praise him as the Father of the Soviet State. Stalin has been criticized for his role in the Holodomor. A recent poll in Russia (2008) listed him as the third most popular person in Russian history. In 2006, a poll stated that almost half the adults in Russia thought Joseph Stalin was a good person.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter (Latin: "Iuppiter") is the king of the gods in Roman mythology. He was the god of the sky and thunder. His brother's name was Pluto and his sister was Ceres.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Saturn, who was the previous king of the gods, began to swallow the children that he had with his wife,(Greek equivalent Rhea), when they were born. This was because he had been warned that one of his children would overthrow him. Saturn swallowed the children Neptune, Pluto, Ceres, Juno and Vesta. When Ops realised that she was pregnant with Jupiter, she had the baby secretly and moved to Crete, giving a stone wrapped in baby clothes to Saturn for him to eat. Saturn believed he had eaten Jupiter but Jupiter was saved.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: After Jupiter was raised by his mother, his destiny was to take over his own father, Saturn, as revenge for all he had done to his brothers and sisters in the past. When Jupiter grew up, he made Saturn vomit up all of the children he had swallowed. All the brothers and sisters joined forces and overthrew Saturn.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Then, with the help of the Cyclops and the Hundred-handed Giants, they declared war on Saturn and the other Titans. Jupiter finally defeated the Titans and they were imprisoned in Tartarus.


title: Jupiter (mythology)

text: Jupiter and his brothers divided the universe into three parts, Jupiter obtaining the heavens, Neptune the sea and Pluto the underworld. This is how Jupiter became the king of the gods.


title: Rainbow

text: A rainbow is an arc of colour in the sky that can be seen when the sun shines through falling rain. The pattern of colours, called a spectrum, starts with red on the outside and changes through orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet on the inside. Sometimes a second, larger, dimmer rainbow is seen.


title: Rainbow

text: A rainbow is created when white light is bent (refracted) while entering a droplet of water, split into separate colours, and reflected back. A rainbow is actually round like a circle. On the ground, the bottom part is hidden, but in the sky, like from a flying airplane, it can be seen as a circle around the point opposite the Sun.


title: Rainbow

text: The rainbow effect can be seen when there are water drops in the air and the sun is giving light at the back of the observer at a low distance up or angle.


title: Rainbow

text: Rainbows always appear opposite the Sun: they form circles around the shadow of your head (which is the point opposite the Sun).


title: Rainbow

text: While sunlight is white, all white light is actually a blend of many different colours. Water and other materials bend the different colours at different angles, some more strongly than others. This is called dispersion. By splitting up white light into its separate colours, rainbows appear colourful even though the source of light hitting them is white.


title: Rainbow

text: Another common place to see the rainbow effect is near waterfalls. Parts of rainbows can be seen some of the time:


title: Rainbow

text: The rainbow has no definite number of physical colours, but seven are traditionally listed. Below is a commonly used list of seven colors in the order seen in a rainbow. Computer screens cannot show them precisely but can make colors that look similar. (Each color shows the number codes used to tell a computer how to display the color.)


title: Bacteria

text: Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are very small organisms. They are prokaryotic microorganisms. Bacterial cells do not have a nucleus, and most have no organelles with membranes around them. Most have a cell wall. They do have DNA, and their biochemistry is basically the same as other living things. They are amongst the simplest and the oldest organisms.


title: Bacteria

text: Almost all bacteria are so tiny they can only be seen through a microscope. Bacteria are made up of one cell, so they are a kind of "unicellular organism". They were one of the earliest forms of life, and are simple single-celled organisms. They include extremophiles, which live in extreme habitats.


title: Bacteria

text: There are probably more individual bacteria than any other sort of organism on the planet, except viruses. Most bacteria live in the ground or in water, but many live inside or on the skin of other organisms, including humans. There are about as many bacterial cells as human cells in each of our bodies. Some bacteria cause diseases, but others help us in everyday activities like digesting food (gut flora). Some we use in factories to make cheese and yogurt.


title: Bacteria

text: The founder of bacteriology was a German biologist called Ferdinand Cohn (18281898). He published the first biological classification of bacteria, based on their appearance.


title: Bacteria

text: A bacterium reproduces (creates more bacteria) by dividing in half and creating two "daughter" cells. Each daughter is identical in shape to the parent.


title: Bacteria

text: Bacteria do not have sexes, but they do transmit DNA by several kinds of horizontal gene transfer. This is how they share resistance to antibiotics from one strain to another. The complete DNA sequence is known for many bacterial strains. Each bacterium has only one chromosome.


title: Bacteria

text: Bacteria vary widely in size and shape, but in general they are at least ten times larger than viruses. A typical bacterium is about 1 µm (one micrometer) in diameter, so a thousand bacteria lined up would be one millimeter long. There are about five nonillion (5×10) bacteria on Earth.


title: Bacteria

text: Bacteria are identified and grouped by their shapes. Bacilli are rod-shaped, cocci are ball-shaped, spirilla are spiral-shaped, and vibrio are shaped like a comma or a boomerang.


title: Bacteria

text: Pathogenic bacteria, the harmful kind, enter the human body from the air, water or food. Once inside, these bacteria attach themselves to or invade specific cells in our respiratory system, digestive tract or in any open wound. There they begin to reproduce and spread while using your body's food and nutrients to give them energy to help them reproduce.


title: Bacteria

text: Some bacteria are extremophiles. Some microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 meters below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometers of ocean off the Pacific Northwest of the United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."


title: Bacteria

text: Viruses were the first and are the most serious enemies of bacteria. Everywhere bacteria are, they get attacked by viruses. The viruses which attack bacteria are called bacteriophages.


title: Bacteria

text: Something is now known about how bacteria protect themselves against viruses. Most bacteria have CRISPR–Cas systems as an adaptive defence against viruses. These keep sections of viral DNA. These are used to target and destroy later infections by the virus. The process is similar to RNA interference.


title: Bacteria

text: All modern ideas start with the sequence analysis of DNA and RNA. In 1987, Carl Woese, the forerunner of the molecular phylogeny revolution, divided bacteria into 11 divisions based on 16S ribosomal RNA (SSU) sequences:


title: Track and field athletics

text: Track and field is part of the sport of athletics. Athletics is a collection of sport events that includes running, jumping and "throwing". Track and field events take place in a sports stadium, either on the running track, or on the field inside the running track. These tracks are generally made up of synthetic rubber – rubber particles bound with latex or polyurethane. Other athletics events that are not track and field, include cross country running, road running, marathon running, and race-walking - these events take place outside a sports stadium.


title: Track and field athletics

text: Athletics is a very common sporting event over the world. Athletics is a combination of different sports, generally running, jumping and throwing events. Running events include marathons, hurdle races, long distance and short-distance events. Some jumping events are high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault. Throwing events involve javelin throw, discus throw, hammer throw and shot put.


title: Track and field athletics

text: There are also events that combine parts of running, jumping, and throwing. One of these is the "decathlon", which includes two short-distance races, a mile run, a hurdles race, javelin, discus, shot-put, high jump and pole vault.


title: Track and field athletics

text: All participants are timed or have a distance measured and this is their result. Participants train hard for an event and always aim to better their results.


title: Track and field athletics

text: Athletics is a sport that people take part in all over the world. It is a sport that is most common between young children up to younger adults. Athletics can be played for enjoyment, but it can also be a competitive sport. Athletics is also an event in the Olympic games.


title: Heavy metal music

text: Heavy metal is a loud, aggressive style of rock music. The bands who play heavy metal music usually have one or two guitars, a bass guitar and drums. In some bands, electronic keyboards, organs, or other instruments are used. Heavy metal songs are loud and powerful-sounding, and have strong rhythms that are repeated. There are many different types of heavy metal, some of which are described below.


title: Heavy metal music

text: Common features of heavy metal include slackened (downtuned) instruments and unusual key changes and time signatures (metre).


title: Heavy metal music

text: Heavy metal bands sometimes dress in jeans, leather jackets, and leather boots, and have long hair. Heavy metal bands sometimes behave in a dramatic way when they play their instruments or sing. However, many heavy metal bands do not like to do this.


title: Heavy metal music

text: In the very late 1960s and 1970s, rock and roll turned into a harder, louder form of music called rock. In the 1970s, rock music bands played huge, loud concerts in outdoor stadiums. In the early 1970s, many rock bands played psychedelic rock, a type of rock music with lyrics and sounds that were intended to give the listener some idea of what it felt like to be on so-called "mind-expanding" (and usually illegal) drugs, and which some believe even enhanced the experience of being on the drugs themselves. Many bands from Britain played blues music mixed with rock music, such as The Animals, The Kinks, The Who, Jimi Hendrix, and Jeff Beck.


title: Heavy metal music

text: In the late 1960s, a harder and heavier form of rock music called "heavy metal" was first played. The first use of the term was in a 1968 song by Steppenwolf, "Born to be Wild", and other early heavy metal bands appeared in the same year. Many historians believe that Black Sabbath invented heavy metal music in the late 1960s. The band played loud, hard rock music based on blues music. Heavy metal music was mostly based on the sounds of the electric guitar. The electric guitar in heavy metal is always amplified through powerful amplifiers so that it has a loud, distorted, angry sound. Other bands such Deep Purple, Black Sabbath, Judas Priest, Eric Burdon and Alice Cooper played even louder, harder forms of heavy metal rock music.


title: Heavy metal music

text: Many debate which played heavy metal first, Black Sabbath or Led Zeppelin, however it is generally accepted in the metal community that both created heavy metal.


title: Heavy metal music

text: In the 1980s more sub-genre's of Heavy Metal bands were created, one of which was "Hair-Metal" with Bands such as Mötley Crüe, W.A.S.P. and Ratt became popular. Heavy Metal rock bands had long hair and the men wore make up (lipstick and eyeshadow) and tight leather pants and boots. Many metal songs were about love, sex, partying, having a good time, illegal drug use, and drinking alcohol. Rarely, but sometimes, metal songs were also politically and socially critical. In the late 1980s, groups such as Poison and Warrant were very successful, smashing the field with songs like “Talk Dirty to Me,” and “Cherry Pie.”


title: Heavy metal music

text: Another type of heavy metal in the 1980s was thrash metal, also known as thrash. Thrash metal bands played a faster, more aggressive type of metal. Thrash metal bands Metallica, Megadeth, Anthrax and Slayer are considered "The Big Four of Thrash."


title: Heavy metal music

text: In the 1990s, a new form of heavy metal developed, called alternative metal. Alternative metal combined thrash metal and grunge rock with hip-hop music and industrial music.


title: Heavy metal music

text: Also in the 1990s was nu metal, a shortening of "new metal". Nu metal mixed rap and hip hop style singing with metal music. Nu metal bands also often include DJ decks, synthesizers and other electronic instruments. Nu metal was very successful and made a lot of money, especially bands such as Linkin Park, Limp Bizkit, Slipknot and Disturbed.


title: Heavy metal music

text: Two more aggressive styles of heavy metal music, death metal and black metal, are louder and faster than other types of metal.The singers usually do not sing, but instead they growl or roar to make the songs more intense. These lyrics often tell of suffering, dying, and war. The guitars are usually distorted and drum sets containing .


title: Heavy metal music

text: Other important styles of metal are: power metal, a style whose music often is about fiction and epics like "The Lord of the Rings", and gothic metal, which has melancholy songs about abstract subjects like pain, life, death, faith and religion.


title: Video game

text: Video games are electronic games played on a video screen (normally a television, computer monitor, or built-in screen when played on a handheld machine).


title: Video game

text: There are many types, or genres, of these games: role-playing games; shooters, first-person shooters, side-scrollers, and platformer.


title: Video game

text: Video games usually come on CDs, DVDs or digital download. Many games used to come on cartridges. A specialized device used to play a video game at home is called a console. There have been many types of consoles and home computers used to play video games. Some of the first were the Atari 2600, the Sega Master System, and Nintendo Entertainment System in the 1980s. Newer video game consoles are Microsoft's Xbox Series X, Sony's PlayStation 5 and Nintendo's Nintendo Switch. The best-selling video game console of all time is the PlayStation 2, made by Sony.


title: Video game

text: People can also use computers to play games, which are sometimes called PC games. The older consoles do not have new games developed for them often, although console games are emulated for PCs (see emulator). This means that new computers can play many old console games along with games made just for new computers. Older games are often more popular emulated than when they were first on sale, because of the ease of download.


title: Video game

text: People can play portable video games anywhere. Mobile devices (running operating systems such as iOS or Android) also can download games, making them portable game machines. Mobile phones have many games, some of them using a mobile emulator for games from consoles. Not all PC or console Games are on mobile or iPad/ iPod/Tablet.


title: Video game

text: The only handheld console that is supported today is the Switch, which looks like a tablet computer but can also be plugged into a TV. It is the first example of a "hybrid console" that can be used as both as a TV-based model and a handheld device. It was released in March 2017.


title: Video game

text: Sony's PlayStation Portable (PSP) came out in 2004. A new version, the PlayStation Vita, first came out in 2012.


title: Video game

text: Also in 2004, Nintendo released the DS(Dual Screen), which has two separate screens, one of which is a touchscreen. New versions came out in later years, such as the Nintendo DSi in 2008 and the Nintendo DSi XL. The Nintendo 3DS, the first handheld console with 3D graphics, came out in 2011. The 2DS followed in 2013. The New 3DS XL, which is similar to the 3DS but with updated graphical capabilities, was released in 2015. The latest entry into the DS lineup is the "New 2DS XL", released on the 28th of July 2017.


title: Video game

text: The first video game ever is often said to be "Tennis for Two", a rudimentary tennis game to be played with two people developed in 1958. Another early example is "Spacewar!", developed in 1962.


title: Video game

text: In the 1950s, when the first computers began to be made, three people had some ideas to create the basis of actual video games. In 1951, Ralph Baer, an American engineer of Loral Electronics, tried to create "the best television", proposing to add a gaming module, but his employer did not like his idea. Even if his idea was never realized, he is the first man to have thought of the idea of video games, later creating the first video game console, the Odyssey. Later, in 1952, A.S Douglas, of the Cambridge University in the UK, made a video game on a computer in order to illustrate one of his speeches. The game, called "OXO", was a tic-tac-toe game, with two players (the person itself and the opponent, the computer) .In 1953, Willy Higinbotham made a game called "Tennis For Two", similar to the later "Pong", to entertain visitors to Brookhaven National Laboratory. Another early video game is a version of checkers, but this is largely overlooked.


title: Video game

text: One of the most famous and one of the earliest video games ever is called "Space Invaders". "Space Invaders" was made in 1978 as a coin operated arcade game but a version has been made for almost every game console and home computer ever available.


title: Video game

text: A message signaling that the game has ended, usually because the player failed (for example by losing all of their lives) but sometimes following successful completion of the game.


title: Supernatural

text: The word supernatural (from ) is used for things that some people believe are real, but that are not part of nature or inexplicable by the scientific laws of nature. Because we cannot prove whether these things are real, people often disagree about these things.


title: Supernatural

text: Some say that we should talk about things without talking about the supernatural, because we cannot prove that supernatural things are real. Other people say that although we cannot prove supernatural things in a scientific way, they are real. Some examples of supernatural things or examples are:


title: DNA

text: DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the genetic code of organisms. This includes animals, plants, protists, archaea and bacteria. It is made up of two polynucleotide chains in a double helix.


title: DNA

text: DNA is in each cell in the organism and tells cells what proteins to make. Mostly, these proteins are enzymes. DNA is inherited by children from their parents. This is why children share traits with their parents, such as skin, hair and eye color. The DNA in a person is a combination of the DNA from each of their parents.


title: DNA

text: Part of an organism's DNA is "non-coding DNA" sequences. They do not code for protein sequences. Some noncoding DNA is transcribed into non-coding RNA molecules, such as transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and regulatory RNAs. Other sequences are not transcribed at all, or give rise to RNA of unknown function. The amount of non-coding DNA varies greatly among species. For example, over 98% of the human genome is non-coding DNA, while only about 2% of a typical bacterial genome is non-coding DNA.


title: DNA

text: Viruses use either DNA or RNA to infect organisms. The genome replication of most DNA viruses takes place in the cell's nucleus, whereas RNA viruses usually replicate in the cytoplasm.


title: DNA

text: Inside eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into chromosomes. Before cell division, more chromosomes are made in the process of DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms like animals, plants, fungi and protists store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus. But prokaryotes, like bacteria and archaea store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, in circular chromosomes. Inside eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones, help to compact and organize DNA.


title: DNA

text: DNA has a double helix shape, which is like a ladder twisted into a spiral. Each step of the ladder is a pair of nucleotides.


title: DNA

text: The 'rungs' of the DNA ladder are each made of two bases, one base coming from each leg. The bases connect in the middle: 'A' "only" pairs with 'T', and 'C' "only" pairs with 'G'. The bases are held together by hydrogen bonds.


title: DNA

text: Adenine (A) and thymine (T) can pair up because they make two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C) and guanine (G) pair up to make three hydrogen bonds. Although the bases are always in fixed pairs, the pairs can come in any order (A-T or T-A; similarly, C-G or G-C). This way, DNA can write 'codes' out of the 'letters' that are the bases. These codes contain the message that tells the cell what to do.


title: DNA

text: On chromosomes, the DNA is bound up with proteins called histones to form chromatin. This association takes part in epigenetics and gene regulation. Genes are switched on and off during development and cell activity, and this regulation is the basis of most of the activity which takes place in cells.


title: DNA

text: When DNA is copied, this is called DNA replication. Briefly, the hydrogen bonds holding together paired bases are broken and the molecule is split in half: the legs of the ladder are separated. This gives two single strands. New strands are formed by matching the bases (A with T and G with C) to make the missing strands.


title: DNA

text: First, an enzyme called DNA helicase splits the DNA down the middle by breaking the hydrogen bonds. Then after the DNA molecule is in two separate pieces, another molecule called DNA polymerase makes a new strand that matches each of the strands of the split DNA molecule. Each copy of a DNA molecule is made of half of the original (starting) molecule and half of new bases.


title: DNA

text: When DNA is copied, mistakes are sometimes made – these are called mutations. There are four main types of mutations:


title: DNA

text: Mutations may also be classified by their effect on the structure and function of proteins, or their effect on fitness. Mutations may be bad for the organism, or neutral, or of benefit. Sometimes mutations are fatal for the organism – the protein made by the new DNA does not work at all, and this causes the embryo to die. On the other hand, evolution is moved forward by mutations, when the new version of the protein works better for the organism.


title: DNA

text: A section of DNA that contains instructions to make a protein is called a gene. Each gene has the sequence for at least one polypeptide. Proteins form structures, and also form enzymes. The enzymes do most of the work in cells. Proteins are made out of smaller polypeptides, which are formed of amino acids. To make a protein to do a particular job, the correct amino acids need to be joined up in the correct order.


title: DNA

text: Proteins are made by tiny machines in the cell called ribosomes. Ribosomes are in the main body of the cell, but DNA is only in the nucleus of the cell. The codon is part of the DNA, but DNA never leaves the nucleus. Because DNA cannot leave the nucleus, the cell nucleus makes a copy of the DNA sequence in RNA. This is smaller and can get through the holes – pores – in the membrane of the nucleus and out into the cell.


title: DNA

text: Genes encoded in DNA are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) by proteins such as RNA polymerase. Mature mRNA is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome. Ribosomes read codons, 'words' made of three base pairs that tell the ribosome which amino acid to add. The ribosome scans along an mRNA, reading the code while it makes protein. Another RNA called tRNA helps match the right amino acid to each codon.


title: DNA

text: DNA was first isolated (extracted from cells) by Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in 1869, when he was working on bacteria from the pus in surgical bandages. The molecule was found in the nucleus of the cells and so he called it "nuclein".


title: DNA

text: In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of "Pneumococcus" could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.


title: DNA

text: DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952, when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 bacteriophage.


title: DNA

text: In the 1950s, Erwin Chargaff found that the amount of thymine (T) present in a molecule of DNA was about equal to the amount of adenine (A) present. He found that the same applies to guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Chargaff's rules summarises this finding.


title: DNA

text: In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double-helix model of DNA structure in the journal "Nature". Their double-helix, molecular model of DNA was then based on a single X-ray diffraction image "Photo 51", taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952.


title: DNA

text: Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model was published in a series of five articles in the same issue of "Nature". Of these, Franklin and Gosling's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partly supported the Watson and Crick model; this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and "in vivo" B-DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence "in vivo" of the double-helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double-helix molecular model of DNA in the previous two pages of "Nature". In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.


title: DNA

text: In 1957, Crick explained the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, in the central dogma of molecular biology.


title: DNA

text: How DNA was copied (the replication mechanism) came in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment. More work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons. These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.


title: DNA

text: How Watson and Crick got Franklin's results has been much debated. Crick, Watson and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their work on DNA – Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958.


title: DNA

text: DNA gets damaged a lot of times in cells which is a problem has DNA provide instructions to making proteins. But, cells have ways to fix these problems most of the time. Cells make use of special enzymes. Different enzymes fix different types of damages to DNA. The problem comes in different types:


title: DNA

text: Police in the United States used DNA and family tree public databases to solve cold cases. The American Civil Liberties Union raised concerns over this practice.


title: 19th century

text: The 19th century was the century from 1801 to 1900. Most of this century is normally called the Victorian period because Queen Victoria ruled the United Kingdom.


title: 19th century

text: The Industrial Revolution started in this century in most western countries. George Burns was also born in the 19th century until he died at the age of 100 in 1996.


title: 19th century

text: Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes:


title: John of England

text: King John (24 December 1166 – 19 October 1216) was the son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was King of England from 6 April 1199, until his death. He became King of England after the death of his brother Richard I (Richard the Lionheart).


title: John of England

text: His reign was marked by disputes between John and his barons and bishops. Because of this the nobles forced him to agree to the Magna Carta, which limited his power. The Magna Carta was a significant legal document in English history, as well as one of the first English “bills of rights”. It introduced the idea that monarchs had limited rights and had to follow certain laws, and it gave the nobles more say in the government. It affected English government and inspired those of other countries.


title: John of England

text: As a young man, John already had a reputation for treachery. He conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers, Henry, Richard and Geoffrey. In 1184, John and Richard both claimed that they were the rightful heir to Aquitaine, one of many unfriendly encounters between the two.


title: John of England

text: Richard, now King Richard I of England was absent on the Third Crusade from 1190 to 1194. John attempted to overthrow William Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely, who was Richard's designated 'chief justiciar' (like a Regent or Prime Minister). This was one of the events which led later writers to cast John as the villain in the legend of Robin Hood.


title: John of England

text: John was more popular than Longchamp in London. In October 1191 the leading citizens of the city opened the gates to John while Longchamp was confined in the tower. John promised the city the right to govern itself as a commune in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.


title: John of England

text: As he returned from the Crusade, Richard was captured by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and handed over to Henry VI, the Holy Roman Emperor, who held him for ransom. Meanwhile, John had joined forces with Philip Augustus, King of France. They sent a letter to Henry asking him to keep Richard away from England for as long as possible, offering payment to keep Richard imprisoned. Henry declined their offer, and got his ransom from Eleanor of Aquitaine (who had to pawn the Crown Jewels). Richard was set free. John then begged forgiveness from Richard, who granted it and named him heir presumptive.


title: John of England

text: On Richard's death (6 April 1199) John was accepted in Normandy and England. He was crowned king at Westminster on 27 May, Ascension Day.


title: John of England

text: However, Anjou, Maine, and Brittany declared for Arthur of Brittany, son of his elder brother Geoffrey. Arthur fought his uncle for the throne, with the support of Philip II of France. The conflict between Arthur and John had serious consequences for both. Finally, Philip recognised John over Arthur. The price paid was John's agreement to be Philip's vassal in Normandy and Angevin.


title: John of England

text: Nevertheless, conflicts continued until in 1202 Philip declared all John's French lands and territories, except Gascony in the southwest, and immediately occupied them. Philip gave Arthur all the land he had taken from John, except for Normandy, and betrothed him to his daughter Marie.


title: John of England

text: John now needed to fight to get back 'his' land in France. In 1203 John ordered all shipyards in England to provide at least one ship, with the newly built Portsmouth Naval Base to provide several. He made Portsmouth the new home of the navy. By the end of 1204, John had 45 large ships available to him, and from then on an average of four new ones every year. He also created an Admiralty of four admirals, responsible for various parts of the new navy. During John's reign, major improvements were made in ship design. He also created the first big transport ships. John is sometimes credited with the founding of the modern Royal Navy.


title: John of England

text: As part of the war, Arthur attempted to kidnap his own grandmother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, at Mirebeau, but was defeated and captured by John's forces. Arthur was imprisoned first at Falaise and then at Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains unknown, but it is believed that he was murdered by John. Assuming that he was murdered, Brittany, and later Normandy, rebelled against John. John also imprisoned his niece, Eleanor. Through deeds such as these, John acquired a reputation for ruthlessness.


title: John of England

text: In 1203, John exempted the citizens and merchants of Bordeaux from the "Grande Coutume", which was the principal tax on their exports. In exchange, the regions of Bordeaux, Bayonne and Dax pledged support against the French Crown. The unblocked ports gave Gascon merchants open access to the English wine market for the first time. The following year, John granted the same exemptions to La Rochelle and Poitou.


title: John of England

text: In June 1204, the fall of Rouen allowed Phillip to annex Normandy and also take parts of Anjou and Poitou.


title: John of England

text: John needed money for his army, but the loss of the French territories, especially Normandy, greatly reduced the state income. A huge tax would be needed to reclaim these territories. He imposed the first income tax, raising the (then) huge sum of £70,000.


title: John of England

text: When Archbishop of Canterbury Hubert Walter died on 13 July 1205, John became involved in a dispute with Pope Innocent III. The Canterbury Cathedral Chapter claimed the sole right to elect Hubert's successor, and favoured Reginald, a candidate out of their midst. However, both the English bishops and the King wanted someone else to have this powerful office. The king wanted John de Gray, one of his own men. When their dispute could not be settled, the Chapter secretly elected one of their members as Archbishop. A second election imposed by John resulted in another nominee. When they both appeared in the Vatican, Innocent disavowed (rejected) both elections, and his candidate, Stephen Langton, was elected despite the objections of John's observers. John was supported in his position by the English barons and many of the English bishops, and refused to accept Langton.


title: John of England

text: John expelled (dismissed) the Canterbury Chapter in July 1207, to which the Pope reacted by placing an interdict on the kingdom which meant that no one could receive religious blessings. John retaliated by closing down the churches. He confiscated (on paper) all church possessions, but individual churches were able to negotiate terms for managing their own properties and keeping the produce of their estates. After his excommunication, John tightened these measures and he got plenty from the income of vacant sees and abbeys. For example, the church lost an estimated 100,000 marks to the Crown in 1213. The Pope gave permission for some churches to hold Mass behind closed doors in 1209. In 1212, they allowed last rites to the dying. While the interdict was a burden to many, it did not result in rebellion against John.


title: John of England

text: In November 1209 John was excommunicated, and in February 1213, Innocent threatened stronger measures unless John submitted. The papal terms for submission were accepted in the presence of the papal legate Pandulph in May 1213 (according to Matthew Paris, at the Knights Templar Church at Dover); in addition, John offered to surrender the Kingdom of England to God and the Saints Peter and Paul for a feudal service of 1,000 marks annually, 700 for England and 300 for Ireland. With this submission, written in a document, John gained the support of his papal overlord in his new dispute with the English barons.


title: John of England

text: After settling his dispute with the papacy, John turned his attentions back to France. The European wars ended in defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214, which forced the king to accept an unfavourable peace with France.


title: John of England

text: The heavy scutage levy for the failed campaign was the last straw, and when John attempted to raise more in September 1214, many barons refused to pay. The barons no longer believed that John was capable of regaining his lost lands.


title: John of England

text: In May 1215, Robert Fitz Walter led forty barons to renounce homage to the king at Northampton. The so-called 'Army of God' marched on London, taking the capital as well as taking Lincoln and Exeter.


title: John of England

text: John met their leaders and with their French and Scots allies at Runnymede, near London, on 15 June 1215. There, they sealed the Great Charter, called in Latin "Magna Carta". It established a council of 25 barons to see John kept to the clauses like protection from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, parliamentary assent for taxation, and scutage limitations.


title: John of England

text: Because he was forced to seal the charter, John sought approval to break it, from his overlord the Pope. Denouncing it as "not only shameful and demeaning but also illegal and unjust", the Pope agreed, which provoked the First Barons' War. The barons invited a French invasion by Prince Louis VIII of France, who accepted the offer of the crown of England as a reward for his support.


title: John of England

text: John travelled around the country to oppose the rebel forces, and directed a two-month siege of the rebel-held Rochester Castle. While a small force arrived in rebel-held London in November, the Scots under their king, Alexander II, invaded northern England. By the end of December, John was leading a murderous expedition in the north, culminating with the sacking of Berwick-upon-Tweed.


title: John of England

text: The French retook Rochester and much of the south, although the royalists held on to Windsor and Dover.


title: John of England

text: With the momentum swinging from John, some of his generals, including his half-brother William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury, went to the rebel side. By the end of the summer, Louis held a third of the country and had the support of two-third of the barons. In September, Alexander II travelled down to pay homage to Louis at Dover, where the French pretender had being laying siege to Dover Castle.


title: John of England

text: Retreating from the French invasion, John took a safe route around the marshy area of The Wash to avoid the rebel held area of East Anglia. His slow baggage train (including the Crown Jewels), took a direct route across it and was lost to the incoming tide. This dealt John a terrible blow, which affected his health and state of mind. Succumbing to dysentery and moving from place to place, he died at Newark Castle. He was buried at Worcester Cathedral, in the West Midlands.


title: John of England

text: When King John died on 18 October, 1216 his nine-year-old son, Henry was too young to rule the kingdom. William Marshal was appointed as Regent to Henry III to make decisions on Henry’s behalf until he came of age. The barons switched their allegiance to the new king, forcing Louis to give up his claim and sign the Treaty of Lambeth in 1217.


title: John of England

text: King John's reign began with military defeats since he lost Normandy to Philip II of France in his first five years on the throne. His reign ended with England torn by civil war and himself on the verge of being forced out of power. In 1213, he made England a papal fief to resolve a conflict with the Catholic Church, and his rebellious barons forced him to seal Magna Carta in 1215, the act for which he is best remembered.


title: John of England

text: John is responsible for the creation of another English cultural icon, the historic, medieval London Bridge. To finance the construction of a large bridge across the Thames, John allowed houses, shops, and a church to be built on top of the bridge.


title: John of England

text: John was an efficient ruler, but he lost the approval of the barons by taxing them in ways outside those traditionally allowed by feudal overlords. The tax known as scutage became particularly unpopular. John was a fair-minded and well informed king, however. He often sat as a judge in the Royal Courts, and his justice was much sought after. Also, John's employment of an able Chancellor and clerks resulted in the first proper set of records.


title: John of England

text: Winston Churchill summarised the legacy of John's reign: "When the long tally is added, it will be seen that the British nation and the English-speaking world owe far more to the vices of John than to the labours of virtuous sovereigns". The medieval historian C. Warren Hollister called John an "enigmatic figure":


title: John of England

text: In 1189, John was married to Isabel of Gloucester. They had no children. John had their marriage annulled, and she was never acknowledged as queen. John remarried, on 24 August 1200, , who was twenty years his junior. John had kidnapped her from her fiancé, Hugh X of Lusignan.


title: John of England

text: John had many illegitimate children. Matthew Paris accuses him of seducing the more attractive daughters and sisters of his barons and relatives. John had these illegitimate children:


title: John of England

text: John is also famous for his part in the Robin Hood stories in which he plays one of Robin's enemies. Popular culture suggests that many people did not like him, but it is actually unknown what ordinary people thought in the 13th century.


title: John of England

text: William Shakespeare wrote a play about John. It was mostly about Arthur of Brittany and did not mention Robin Hood or Magna Carta.


title: XXXTentacion

text: Jahseh Dwayne Ricardo Onfroy (January 23, 1998 – June 18, 2018), known professionally as XXXTentacion () (sometimes stylized as xxxtentacion or XXXTENTACION and referred to colloquially as X), was an American rapper, singer, and songwriter.


title: XXXTentacion

text: Born in Plantation, Florida, Onfroy spent most of his childhood in Lauderhill. His parents are Jamaican. He began writing music after being released from a juvenile detention center and released his first song on SoundCloud in June 2013, titled "News/Flock". He was a popular figure in SoundCloud rap, a trap scene that takes elements of lo-fi music and harsh 808s.


title: XXXTentacion

text: He released his first album, "17", on August 25, 2017. Onfroy's second album, "?", was released on March 16, 2018. It debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200. Its singles "Sad!", "Changes" and "Moonlight" all reached the top 20 of the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: XXXTentacion

text: On June 18, 2018, Onfroy was shot to death at the age of 20 after he was robbed at a motorcycle dealership in Deerfield Beach, Florida.


title: XXXTentacion

text: Seven months after his death, his son, Gekyume Onfroy was born with Jenesis Sanchez on January 26, 2019.


title: XXXTentacion

text: On June 18, 2018, Onfroy went to a bank to withdraw some money before heading to a motor sports dealership at Riva Motorsports. As he was leaving the store, a black SUV blocked his car from leaving the parking lot. Two men stepped out of the SUV and started fighting Onfroy. The men stole a Louis Vuitton bag from Onfroy's car. Then they shot him a few times in the neck. He was dead on arrival at hospital.


title: Colombia

text: Colombia (; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a tropical equatorial country in northern South America. It is in the northwest part of the continent, and it has an area of 1,141,748 km² (440,839 sq mi).


title: Colombia

text: The countries that have borders on the continent with Colombia are: Venezuela (east), Brazil (southeast), Peru (south), Ecuador (southwest) and Panama (west). The countries that have borders with Colombia on the sea are: Nicaragua, Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and Dominican Republic.


title: Colombia

text: More than 50 million people live in Colombia. It is the third most populated country in Latin America after Mexico and Brazil.


title: Colombia

text: The capital of Colombia is Bogotá. The second city is Medellín, a large industrial center. The third largest city is Cali, home to many multinational companies. The most important city of the country on the Caribbean coast is Barranquilla. It was also the first national port. Cartagena de Indias has a great Spanish wall from the 17th Century and an old town with 500-year-old buildings. After these cities comes Bucaramanga, a large city near the Venezuelan border, and the center of the textile industry in Colombia.


title: Colombia

text: The word ""Colombia"" is named after Christopher Columbus, the explorer who began the European colonization of the Americas.


title: Colombia

text: In 1819, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama declared independence from Spain, and formed a country called ""Gran Colombia"". Venezuela and Ecuador separated in 1830. Panama continued to be part of Colombia until 1903, at which point it proclaimed independence. The official language is Spanish, but there are many languages spoken by minorities that are official in local jurisdictions.


title: Colombia

text: The land where Colombia now stands has been home to people for more than 20,000 years. The first people had many groups, cultures, and languages. There are many tools, caves, and things of those peoples. In Colombia, the peoples were similar to those of Asia, because scientists say that the first people came to America from Siberia or southeast Asia more than 50,000 years ago. The peoples of Colombia were called Arawak, Caribe, and Chibcha, but there were many other groups. The most famous were the Muiscas. legend of El Dorado comes from the Muiscas. The king of the Muiscas used to bathe in Lake Guatavita and he used a lot of gold for his bath. The Spanish heard about this, and the people told them that there was a great golden city somewhere. They started to look for El Dorado. The International Airport of Bogotá is called El Dorado International Airport, because the legend was born in Colombia. The descendants of the first peoples of Colombia live integrated with others. Some groups live in the forest, but many live in the countryside and in the cities.


title: Colombia

text: The Spanish, led by Christopher Columbus, first came to the Americas in 1492. Columbus saw the coasts of Venezuela, Colombia and Panama and he gave them his own name. But Alonso de Ojeda was the first colonist to explore the area of the Gulf of Darién. After that, the Spanish founded the first European cities on the American continent: Santa Marta in 1525 and Cartagena de Indias in 1533. It was from Colombia that the Spanish conquered the Incas of Peru.


title: Colombia

text: Spain would enslave the indigenous peoples who were already living there, but they also used the port they built at Cartagena to bring many black slaves from Africa into the area. The Spanish captured many, many people from Africa and forced them to work on plantations and ranches, in mines, and as personal servants.


title: Colombia

text: While this was happening, they founded the city of Popayán in 1536 and they conquered the "Confederation of the Muiscas". In Bacatá, the capital of the Muiscas, the Spanish founded the city of Santa Fe in 1538. In 1550 the Spanish declared the territory as a colony and its capital was "Santa Fe de Bogotá", but in the first decades it depended on Peru. Soon after, it was declared a Viceroyalty.


title: Colombia

text: On November 11, 1810, the city of Cartagena de Indias declared its independence from Spain. The whole region would fight a war to become independent, led by people like Antonio Nariño and Simón Bolívar. Nariño was one of the most important leaders in the war for the independence of Colombia. He was a politician, journalist and soldier. Bolivar was another important leader, and he was a president and a colonel. Bolivar had promised Alexandre Pétion, the president of Haiti, that he would abolish slavery during his independence war. But he only agreed because he was afraid the slaves would revolt against the slaveowners, like they did in Haiti, and only freed slaves if they agreed to fight in his army. He never freed all the slaves, and slavery was not abolished in Colombia until 1851.


title: Colombia

text: The geography of Colombia has six main natural regions, Each has its own unique characteristics. The Andes mountain region shares borders with Ecuador and Venezuela. The Pacific Coast region shares borders with Panama and Ecuador. The Caribbean coastal region shares borders with Venezuela and Panama. The "Llanos" (plains) shares a border with Venezuela. The Amazon Rainforest region shares a border with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. The insular region includes all the islands of the country.


title: Colombia

text: The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.


title: Colombia

text: Most of the population lives in the Andes region. But the plains make over half the land. Only about 6% of the people live in the plains. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar).


title: Colombia

text: Colombia's temperature changes with the altitude, and the temperature is different by region. The regions around the Andes are colder than the coast, which is lower.


title: Colombia

text: Because of the many altitudes, Colombia has many different fruits, vegetables and kinds of animals. It has many valleys, beaches, plains, mountains and forests like the Amazon rainforest.


title: Colombia

text: The top of some of the mountains in Colombia are so cold that people can ski over the equator. The lower mountains have warmer climates. The sea shores are cooled by ocean breezes. At sea level near the equator it is hot.


title: Colombia

text: Rivers are important as waterways in the land for shipping things. One of the most important rivers in Colombia is the Magdalena-Cauca. The Magdelena River divides the eastern and center mountains. It makes a fertile valley. The Cauca River divides the center mountain range and the western ridge, making another great valley. The Cauca is really a part of the Magdalena. However, the two do not meet until a few miles before the Magdalena goes into the Caribbean Sea.


title: Colombia

text: Colombia is a megadiverse country. This means the country is home to a majority of Earth's species. There are also a high number of endemic species.


title: Colombia

text: Colombia has 1,900 species of bird, more than any other country. There are about 2,000 species of marine fish. It is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 species. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles. There are about 2,900 species of mollusk.


title: Colombia

text: In May 2006, President Álvaro Uribe was re-elected. His term lasted until 2010. Uribe was the first President in Colombia to win a second election in over 100 years.


title: Colombia

text: In August 2010, Juan Manuel Santos became Colombia's president. Santos won the election on June 20 by a landslide. He promised to "preside over a government of national unity that will bring social prosperity for all Colombians"


title: Colombia

text: Eight years later, conservative Senator Iván Duque Márquez was elected president. He won the election by 2 million votes against his rival liberal Senator Gustavo Petro.


title: Colombia

text: The actual president is Gustavo Petro, former senator and guerrilla in M-19 who won with 11 million votes and the second place was Rodolfo Hernandez, a polemic former mayor and entrepeneur.


title: Colombia

text: Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district. The capital district is treated as a department. Departments are divided into municipalities. Municipalities are divided into "corregimientos". Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms. Each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. Each "corregimiento" by an elected "corregidor", or local leader.


title: Colombia

text: The population of Colombia was approximately 47 million as of 2016. The ethnic groups of the population are:


title: Colombia

text: There are several guerilla groups in Colombia, the FARC being the most powerful, a guerilla group responsible for kidnappings, murders, attacks, and drug-dealing. Drug dealing is a problem the government has been trying to fight. This creates violence in the cities. With Operation: Jaque, Ingrid Betancourt, three Americans, and 11 soldiers were rescued from the FARC.


title: Colombia

text: Most parts of Colombia are modern and the country has many roads. All major Colombian cities have airports and there are many ports on both oceans (Pacific and Atlantic). Because Colombia is a huge country and there are many mountains, airports are very important in the country. There are some regions like the Amazon Forest and Dariend, where the most important way of transportation is by the rivers.


title: Colombia

text: Colombia has made many advances in medicine. Many foreigners come to the country to get health services, such as organ transplants or plastic surgery. Doctor Manuel Elkin Patarroyo of Colombia discovered a medicine against malaria. He donated his discovery to be used in Africa and Latin America. He did not want to make business of it, instead he wanted to use it to help people.


title: Colombia

text: Colombia is known for its coffee, coal, and emeralds. It is also the biggest supplier of plantains to the United States. There are a few armed conflicts in Colombia. Most rebel groups finance their operations with the trade of illegal drugs (mostly cocaine).


title: Great Lakes

text: The Great Lakes are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water.


title: Great Lakes

text: Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.


title: Great Lakes

text: All together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa).


title: Great Lakes

text: The cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.


title: Great Lakes

text: Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south.


title: Great Lakes

text: Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called "inland lakes".


title: Great Lakes

text: The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake. A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.


title: Great Lakes

text: The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations.


title: Great Lakes

text: Accidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.


title: Great Lakes

text: Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel, first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989. These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish.


title: Great Lakes

text: Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade. Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.


title: Great Lakes

text: Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria.


title: Advertising

text: Advertising is how a company encourages people to buy their products, services or ideas. Advertising is one element of marketing, which also includes design, research and data mining.


title: Advertising

text: An advertisement (or "ad" for short) is anything that draws good attention towards these things. It is usually designed by an advertising agency for a sponsor or brand and made public by various media. Ads appear on television, radio, newspapers, magazines and billboards in streets and cities. Advertisers use methods that attract attention.


title: Advertising

text: Advertisers influence our emotions by techniques that include stereotyping and targeting the audience: who we are. Emotions are influenced by our occupation, beliefs, personality, self esteem, lifestyle, relationships, friends, how we look and what we wear.


title: Advertising

text: Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient Greece and Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC.


title: Advertising

text: Londoner Thomas J. Barratt (1841–1914) has been called "the father of modern advertising". He worked for the Pears Soap company, eventually becoming its chairman. Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. It used targeted slogans, images and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century.


title: Advertising

text: Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste."


title: Advertising

text: As the economy expanded across the world during the 19th century, advertising grew alongside. In the United States, the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising.


title: Advertising

text: Very important was the growth of mass media, with mass circulation illustrated newspapers in the later 19th century followed by movies, radio and television.


title: Advertising

text: Advertising happens in many different ways. Many products are advertised on television, although not all channels permit advertising. The advertisements usually appear during breaks between a television show. They are usually for products, other television shows or movies and are not normally much longer than 30 seconds. Some radio stations have audio advertisements that play between programmes.


title: Advertising

text: An advertisement for a movie is called a trailer. It shows a short collection of clips from the movie, and shows the date it will be released in cinemas.


title: Advertising

text: Advertising also takes place on websites. These may appear as "banner ads" or "popups". They are often still images or flash animations. The owner of the website will get money when a user clicks on the advertisement. Sometimes they will get a percentage of the money if they buy a product.


title: Advertising

text: Billboards advertise products on highways and city streets. These may simply be freestanding billboards or may be part of street furniture such as a bus shelter. Buses and taxis are often covered in adverts, while budget airlines sometimes allow advertising inside their planes. Adverts also appear in newspapers, magazines and sports programmes. Many stadiums have adverts set around them. Sports teams, tournaments, television programmes and public events may have a sponsor who is the main or sometimes only advertiser.


title: Advertising

text: Advertisers use many different techniques to get people to notice their adverts, often using deliberately shocking or provocative images. Once they have managed to make people notice their advert, they need to 'sell' the product or brand. They may try to make the product look appealing, however often advertisers use humor in such a way that get people to remember the brand without actually promoting the product. Poor adverts can damage sales or spoil a brand's identity.