title: Syphilis

text: Syphilis is a notifiable disease in many places, including Canada, the countries in the European Union, and the United States. This means that if a healthcare provider (like a doctor or a nurse) knows that a patient has syphilis, the provider has to tell public health authorities that the patient is infected. Public health workers then talk to all of the patient's sexual partners. They tell them someone might have given them syphilis, without telling them who that person is. Doctors might also try to get patients with syphilis to tell their sexual partners to get treatment.


title: Syphilis

text: Usually, people need just one dose of penicillin G or azithromycin. If a person cannot take either of these medicines (for example, because they are allergic to them), some other medications work too. For example, Doxycycline and tetracycline are two other possible choices; however, they cannot be used in pregnant women.


title: Syphilis

text: The "Treponema pallidum" bacterium has become resistant to many different antibiotics, including macrolides, clindamycin, and rifampin. This means that these antibiotics no longer kill the bacterium.


title: Syphilis

text: For example, if a person has neurosyphilis, they need antibiotics that will kill the infection in their central nervous system (their brain and major nerves). However, it is hard for penicillin G to get into the central nervous system. Because of this, a single shot of penicillin - which will usually cure early syphilis - is not enough to cure neurosyphilis. Instead, people with neurosyphilis usually need to be given large doses of penicillin for at least 10 days. Usually, they also need to get the medicine intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein) so it goes more directly to the central nervous system. If a person is allergic to penicillin, other antibiotics like ceftriaxone, doxycycline, or tetracycline can be used, but they have to be given over longer periods of time.


title: Syphilis

text: Once a person has late-stage syphilis, treatment will keep their syphilis from getting any worse. However, if syphilis has already damaged the person's body, the treatment will not make that damage go away. At best, treatment can only have a very small effect on the damage that has already happened.


title: Syphilis

text: Sometimes, the treatment for syphilis can cause a side effect called the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction. This reaction usually starts within one hour after treatment begins, and lasts for 24 hours. Its symptoms include fever, muscle pains, headache, and a fast heart rate.


title: Syphilis

text: Antibiotic medication breaks open syphilis bacteria to kill them. As the bacteria break open, proteins come out of them. These proteins cause the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction.


title: Syphilis

text: By 1999, syphilis had infected about 12 million people. More than 90% of these people lived in the developing world.


title: Syphilis

text: Syphilis causes problems in 700,000 to 1.6 million pregnancies every year. Syphilis can cause a pregnant woman to have a miscarriage, a stillbirth, a premature baby, a baby with congenital syphilis, or a baby that dies before it is a month old. In sub-Saharan Africa, syphilis causes up to 20% of perinatal deaths (deaths that happen soon after a baby is born).


title: Syphilis

text: Syphilis used to be very common, and it caused sickness and death all over the world. It was especially very common in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. During the early 20th century, syphilis quickly became less common in the developed world, because antibiotics were being used more and more. Syphilis kept becoming less common until the 1980s and 1990s. Since the year 2000, syphilis is getting more common again in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Europe, mostly among men who have sex with men.


title: Syphilis

text: In China and Russia, syphilis has gotten more common among heterosexual ("straight") people since the 1990s. Studies say this is because of unsafe sexual practices, like having sex with many different people, prostitution (getting paid to have sex), and not having safer sex to protect against sexually transmitted diseases.


title: Syphilis

text: Over the 19th and 20th centuries, the symptoms of syphilis have become less severe (not quite as bad). This is partly because there are more treatments that work well, and if they are given early, syphilis does not get as bad. Also, the bacteria that causes syphilis has become weaker.


title: Syphilis

text: If people with syphilis get treated early on, they can usually be cured without the disease causing damage that cannot be fixed. However, syphilis is still very dangerous. It still causes serious problems, and sometimes death, if it is not treated.


title: Syphilis

text: Syphilis also makes a person two to five times more likely to get HIV. Confection (having both syphilis and HIV) is common. In some big cities, it happens in as many as 30% to 60% of people with syphilis.


title: Syphilis

text: Nobody knows exactly where and how syphilis started. There are two major ideas about where the disease came from.


title: Syphilis

text: The first idea is called the "Columbian hypothesis." (A hypothesis is an educated guess about how something happened). This hypothesis says that when Christopher Columbus's crew came back to Europe after exploring the "New World", they brought syphilis back to Europe and spread the disease there.


title: Syphilis

text: The other idea is called the "pre-Columbian hypothesis." ("Pre-Columbian" means "before Columbus.") This hypothesis says that syphilis was already in Europe before Columbus, and people just did not realize that the disease existed.


title: Syphilis

text: While there is evidence that can be used to say that either of these ideas are right, there is more evidence for the Columbian hypothesis.


title: Syphilis

text: The first written records that talk about an outbreak of syphilis in Europe are from 1494 to 1495. The outbreak happened in Naples, Italy, when France was invading (trying to take over Italy). Because syphilis was spread by French soldiers who were coming back from Italy, at first it was called the "French disease."


title: Syphilis

text: The name "syphilis" was first used in 1530 by an Italian doctor and poet named Girolamo Fracastoreo. He used the word "syphilis" as the title of a Latin poem that talked about the damage the disease was causing in Italy. At other times in history, syphilis was also called the "Great Pox".


title: Syphilis

text: In 1905, two men named Fritz Schaudinn and Erich Hoffmann discovered that syphilis is caused by the "Treponema pallidum" bacteria. Five years later, Paul Ehrlich created the first treatment that helped treat syphilis (called Salvarsan). After that, scientists started to study penicillin. In 1943, it was officially decided that penicillin worked for syphilis.


title: Syphilis

text: This was a major success in the treatment of syphilis. Before penicillin, the treatments used for syphilis were often even worse than the disease. For example, people were treated with mercury (which is poisonous and causes serious health problems), or people were just kept away from everyone else.


title: Syphilis

text: From 1932 to 1972, the United States Public Health Service did a study on syphilis in Alabama. They wanted to see how syphilis got worse when it was not treated. The researchers chose a group of poor African-American sharecroppers, but never told them they had syphilis. Even after the 1940s, when the researchers knew penicillin could cure these people, they refused to let them get treatment or even tell them that penicillin could help them. This study, now called the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, was very important in creating medical ethics.


title: Syphilis

text: Many famous people in history may have had syphilis. For example, some people think that Franz Schubert, Arthur Schopenhauer, Édouard Manet, and Adolf Hitler had the disease.


title: Disaster

text: A disaster is something very not good that happens. Disasters can destroy homes and many kinds of work. Disasters can be of different kinds, but most are caused by forces of nature.


title: Disaster

text: These may include avalanches (where snow comes down a mountain), cold (where animals and people freeze), diseases (sicknesses), droughts (when there is no water), earthquakes (where the ground moves), famine (where there is not enough food), fire that burns things and people, flood (where rivers grow too big and invade land), hail (hard ice falls like rain), heat that lowers the water supply, hurricanes that break everything, the hyper nova of a star that kills life, an impact event where meteors hit the earth, a limnic eruption (where bad chemicals come from lakes and can kill people), landslides and mudslides (where the top of the ground moves because of extra water), sink holes (where a cave falls in), solar flares (where the sun reaches out at the earth and burns it), storm surge (where water piles up and then suddenly comes on land), thunderstorms (rain with lightning and thunder), tornadoes (currents of wind that break things), tsunami (where a wall of water comes on land), volcanoes (where lava from inside the earth comes out slowly or shoots into the air), a waterspout (like a tornado on water), or winter storms (where snow falls thick and you cannot see).


title: Disaster

text: Disasters caused by humans include aviation (flying) accidents, arson, CBRNs (where a country has a powerful weapon), civil disorder (where people riot or do crimes), power outages (where electricity is interrupted), public relations crises where a company must tell bad news, radiation accidents, disasters in space, a telecommunications outage (not being able to communicate), terrorism (where a group attacks civilians or says they will attack to gain something), and war (fighting with weapons between large groups).


title: Disaster

text: To live through a disaster, it is important that your family and your city prepare in advance. This may be making a pack of things you need in an emergency, it may be a government sending soldiers to help, or it may be something in between. It is recommended to keep a disaster survival kit with canned goods, in the advent of such a disaster.


title: Placenta

text: The placenta is a temporary organ in the uterus (womb) of pregnant female mammals. Its main role is to transfer oxygen and nutrients from the mother's blood to the baby's blood, and to transfer waste molecules back from the baby's blood to the mother's. It also protects the baby from harmful substances in the mother's blood, and produces hormones that support the pregnancy.


title: Placenta

text: The placenta is attached to the wall of the uterus and connected to the baby by big blood vessels in the umbilical cord. After the baby is born, the placenta and cord are also pushed out of the uterus. At this time the placenta and cord are often called the afterbirth.


title: Placenta

text: The baby in the womb gets everything it needs through the placenta. Oxygen travels in the mother's blood from her lungs to the placenta and then in the baby's blood through the umbilical cord to the baby. Carbon dioxide waste travels the same route in reverse, from the baby's blood to the mothers blood and out through her lungs. Nutrient molecules (sugars, fats, proteins and vitamins) travel through her blood from her digestive tract to the placenta, and then in the baby's blood to the baby, and waste products travel back to her kidneys for disposal.


title: Placenta

text: One of the placenta's jobs is to make sure blood from the mother and fetus never mixes. The placenta acts as an exchange surface between the mother and the fetus. Nutrients and oxygen are passed from one bloodstream to the other by diffusion only. If the mother's and fetus's blood mixed, it could be deadly for both of them. If the mother and the fetus had different blood types, they might both die if their blood mixed.


title: Placenta

text: The placenta has two parts, one of which is genetically and biologically part of the fetus, the other part of the mother. It is implanted in the wall of the uterus, where it receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother's blood and passes out waste. This forms a barrier called the placental barrier, which filters out some substances which could harm the fetus.


title: Placenta

text: However, the placental barrier is not able to protect the fetus from everything that could hurt it. For example, alcohol goes through the placental barrier into the fetus. This is why drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. The placenta is also unable to filter out many other things. Chemicals that can cross the placental barrier and hurt the fetus are called teratogens. Some viruses can also cross this barrier and infect the fetus. On the good side, many of the mother's antibodies can pass through the placenta, and these can help the baby resist diseases in its first year.


title: Placenta

text: Throughout pregnancy the placenta produces hormones that travel through the mother's blood and help her body adapt to the pregnancy. One of these hormones is detected by pregnancy tests; it also is responsible for the nausea many women experience early in pregnancy ('morning sickness'). Once the baby is ready to be born, the placenta produces hormones that stimulate labor.


title: Placenta

text: The egg-laying mammals (echidna and platypus) and marsupial mammals produce a type of placenta that provides nutrients mostly from the egg sac, instead of from the mother's blood. It is positioned in the female's body similar to eutherian mammals. Non-mammals who give birth to live young rather than laying eggs (some snakes and lizards, and even some fish), have also evolved systems of internal development with a placenta-like tissue: these are examples of convergent evolution.


title: Bhopal

text: Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh, India, and the second largest city of the state, after Indore. Bhopal is also called the City of Lakes. It is the headquarters of Bhopal District. It is in the central part of India.


title: Bhopal

text: The city is believed to have first been called Bhojpal, named after the King of Bhoj. According to this theory, it was later changed to Bhopal.


title: Bhopal

text: In 1984 a poisoned gas was leaked from a private chemical factory at night when a worker was cleaning out a clogged pipe connected with a tank containing gas. The tank had 42 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) that was leaked at midnight and leaving more than 5,000 people and animals dead. Many people also became sick and they are still suffering from deadly diseases. This has been called as "World's worst industrial disaster".


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Panama Canal Zone () is a former unorganized United States territory. It is now the country of Panama.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In 1903, the territory was controlled by the United States. As a part of the United States, the zone had several towns and military bases.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Zone was disestablished in October 1, 1979 as part of a treaty signed in 1977 by President Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos, the unofficial leader of Panama.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Panama Canal was operated by the United States until December 31, 1999, when it returned to Panama.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The treaty was approved by the provisional Panamanian government on December 2, 1903, and by the US Senate on February 23, 1903. While the treaty was approved, the Panamanians received US$10 million, much of which the United States required to be invested in that country. The Canal Zone was formally turned over by Panama on May 4, 1904, when American officials reopened the Panama City offices of the canal company and raised the American flag.


title: Inch

text: The inch is a unit of length in the Imperial system and the United States customary system. The abbreviation for inches is in or ". There are 12 inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54 centimetres.


title: Inch

text: The word "inch" came from Middle English "unche", which came from Old English "ynce", from Latin "uncia" meaning "a twelfth part".


title: Inch

text: The inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 metres. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined.


title: Inch

text: In Britain and the United States, people use inches more than they use millimetres or centimetres. In the rest of the world, international units are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists.


title: Inch

text: In the United Kingdom, road signs that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a tunnel are required to be in feet and inches. Theme parks and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their height in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in metric measurements only.


title: Inch

text: In Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to Americanized phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems.


title: Inch

text: In the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements.


title: Inch

text: Other Commonwealth countries, including Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Jamaica use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community.


title: Coefficient of thermal expansion

text: Solids mostly expand in response to heating and contract on cooling. This response to temperature change is expressed as its coefficient of thermal expansion.


title: Coefficient of thermal expansion

text: These characteristics are closely related. The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be measured for all substances of condensed matter (liquids and solid state). The linear thermal expansion can only be measured in the solid state and is common in engineering applications.


title: Coefficient of thermal expansion

text: The expansion and contraction of material must be considered when designing large structures, when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected. The range for α is from 10 for hard solids to 10 for organic liquids. α varies with the temperature and some materials have a very high variation. Some values for common materials, given in parts per million per Celsius degree: (NOTE: This can also be in kelvins as the changes in temperature are a 1:1 ratio)


title: Coefficient of thermal expansion

text: Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to fit parts over one another, e.g. a bushing can be fitted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft, then heating it until it fits over the shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a 'shrink fit'


title: Coefficient of thermal expansion

text: There exist some alloys with a very small CTE, used in applications that demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures. One of these is Invar 36, with a coefficient in the 0.6x10 range. These alloys are useful in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur.


title: Leg

text: A leg is a weight-bearing and locomotion device. Birds and humans have two legs, but many animals have four or six or even more. A "biped" is an animal with two legs and "quadruped" is an animal with four legs.


title: Leg

text: By extension, the word is also used for some objects. For example tables and chairs, also have legs to hold them up.


title: Tom Brady

text: Thomas Edward Patrick Brady Jr. (born August 3, 1977) is an American football quarterback for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the National Football League (NFL). He spent the first 20 seasons of his career with the New England Patriots, playing in ten Super Bowls and winning seven of them, the most of any player in NFL history, from 2001 to 2022. He is widely regarded as greatest quarterback in football history, and one of the greatest football players of all time.


title: Tom Brady

text: Picked late in the 2000 NFL Draft, Brady became the starting quarterback for the New England Patriots after Drew Bledsoe got hurt. He played surprisingly well and led New England to its first Super Bowl win in 2001.


title: Tom Brady

text: Since then, he has won a record of five Super Bowl MVP awards (XXXVI, XXXVIII, XLIX, LI, LV) as well as three NFL MVP awards (2007, 2010, 2017).


title: Tom Brady

text: Brady was a 14 time NFL Pro-Bowler, an award given to outstanding players in the league at their position.


title: Tom Brady

text: On February 1, 2022, Brady announced his retirement, after 22 seasons, in an Instagram post. However, several weeks later, he announced that he was not going to retire and would return to the NFL.


title: Tom Brady

text: He’s getting divorced. His marriage lasted longer than the Confederacy, therefore we should make statues.


title: Tom Brady

text: On November 28, 2022, Brady announced may have a Happy Ending After All, at the end of the 2022 NFL season.


title: Tom Brady

text: On December 9, 2022, Brady expected to remain with Bucs if he does retire, at the end of the 2022 NFL season.


title: Tallinn

text: Tallinn is the capital of Estonia. It is on the north-eastern coast of Estonia and borders the Gulf of Finland. The city is next to many lakes. The largest of these lakes is called Lake Ülemiste, and most Tallinnites get their drinking water from this lake.


title: Tallinn

text: Tallinn first appeared on a map in 1154, when the cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, calling the city "Qlwn", added it to his map of the world. After being conquered by the Danes, the city was known as Reval until Estonia became an independent nation in the 1920s.


title: Tallinn

text: In 1285, the city became a part of the Hanseatic League. As a result, in the Middle Ages Tallinn was an important stop on the trade routes between Europe and Russia. During its history Estonia has been ruled at times by Sweden and by Russia. It became independent in 1918 after World War I, but after World War II it was ruled by the USSR. In March 1944 Tallinn was bombed by Soviet Air Force, killing 436 civilians and totally destroying 5073 buildings. Since 1991, Tallinn has been the capital of an independent Estonia.


title: Tallinn

text: Today more than 400,000 people live in Tallinn, which is one third of the population of Estonia. It is a big sea port. Its food and textile industries are important. The town has many pretty, old buildings.


The 2019 Conservative Party leadership election happened when the prime minister and leader of the Conservative Party, Theresa May, announced on 24 May 2019 that she would resign as leader on 7 June, and resign as Prime Minister when a replacement is elected.


title: 2019 Conservative Party leadership election

text: Nominations closed on 10 June 2019 with ten candidates officially being nominated. The first ballot of MPs took place on 13 June. A second one took place on 18 June with a third on 19 June and a fourth and fifth ballot on 20 June. The entire contest is expected to be completed by mid-July. After the fifth ballot, Jeremy Hunt and Boris Johnson were the final two candidates. The general membership of the party elected Johnson as the leader by postal ballot on 22 July 2019.


text: The following MPs were officially nominated by the Conservative Party as candidates for the leadership position. Each candidate passed the first five ballots.


text: The following MP was eliminated on the fifth ballot on 20 June. They failed to obtain over 24% of the votes to advance further into the contest.


text: The following MP was eliminated on the fourth ballot on 20 June. They failed to obtain over 50 votes to advance further into the contest.


text: The following MP was eliminated on the third ballot on 19 June. They failed to obtain over 30 votes to advance further into the contest.


text: The following MP was eliminated on the second ballot on 18 June. They failed to obtain over 30 votes to advance further into the contest.


text: The following MPs were eliminated on the first ballot on 13 June. They failed to obtain 17 votes to advance further into the contest.


text: The following individuals were officially nominated as a candidate for the leadership of the Conservative Party but then eventually withdrew after the first ballot of the race, due to insufficient support or other reasons:


text: The following individuals announced that they would seek the leadership of the Conservative Party but then eventually did not stand, or withdrew before the first ballot of the race, due to insufficient support or other reasons:


text: After each ballot of Conservative MPs, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. A new rule was introduced in 2019 due to the number of candidates: In the first ballot, held on 13 June 2019, candidates also needed to pass a threshold of 17 votes to avoid elimination. In the second ballot, held on 18 June, candidates needed to pass a threshold of 33 votes to avoid elimination.


title: Deafness

text: Deafness is when someone cannot hear at all, or cannot hear well. Deafness is also known as 'hearing loss'. There were many famous people who were deaf, such as Ludwig van Beethoven and Helen Keller.


title: Deafness

text: A person is considered to be deaf if they cannot hear the same range of sounds as a person with normal hearing ability. People that cannot hear any sounds are also deaf. People who are partially deaf may hear some sounds and may hear words.


title: Deafness

text: People who cannot hear and understand words well are 'hard of hearing'. And people who cannot hear and speak are called "deaf-mute".


title: Paul Morphy

text: Paul Morphy (22 June 1837 – 10 July 1884), called "the pride and sorrow of chess", was an American chess master. He was the greatest chess player of his era and an unofficial world champion (1858–1860). This was widely accepted when he defeated Adolf Anderssen, with seven wins, two losses, and two draws, in 1858. Morphy was also one of the first great chess prodigies in the modern era.<ref name="H/W">Hooper, David and Whyld, Kenneth 1992. "The Oxford companion to chess". 2nd ed, Oxford University Press. </ref>


title: Paul Morphy

text: Morphy was a Creole of mixed inheritance. He was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to a father of Portuguese, Irish, and Spanish ancestry, and a mother who was a French Creole. His father was a lawyer, and his mother was musically talented. Morphy grew up in an atmosphere of culture where chess and music were the typical highlights of a Sunday home gathering.


title: Paul Morphy

text: Morphy taught himself, and by nine he was good by the standards of the local players. At 12 he defeated the Hungarian professional Löwenthal in three casual games. Then he played little chess until he had qualified in law in April 1857. He then entered the first American Chess Congress in New York, and won it easily. Next, he accepted an invitation to play in a tournament in Birmingham, England. That started his famous European tour. He beat everyone of note in England, except Staunton, who avoided a match. Staunton was earning money editing Shakespeare, so his absence from chess was not just an evasion.


title: Paul Morphy

text: In Paris Morphy beat Harrwitz, the house professional, at the Café de la Régence. He then won easily against Anderssen, who was a bit out of practice. One of his feats was simultaneous play against five strong players, winning two, drawing two and losing one. He had a great memory, and was able to play more than one game at a time. In one example, he played eight players at the same time; he did not have a chess board himself, and he could not see their chess boards. He simply sat in a chair facing the wall, and called out his moves, and was told what the other players had moved. In summary, he proved he was the best at that time. On his return home, he toured the East Coast cities, accepting testimonials, banquets and applause. He wrote a chess column for a year in the New York Ledger in 1859–60.


title: Paul Morphy

text: Quick and simple development leading to a direct attack: that was Morphy's method. His openings were first-rate for their time. He brought off some outstanding combinations and sacrifices, and his best games are still a model for young players. His games mark the high point of the romantic movement in chess, where players would play all out for direct attacks. This style was later squashed by better defensive technique, especially for the black side in the openings. Out of this came Dr Tarrasch's classical principles, and the idea that no game can be lost without a mistake being made. The chess of the 1890s came to look quite different from Morphy's games, partly because he had forced players to think more clearly about what they were doing.


title: Paul Morphy

text: Morphy soon gave up chess, but his law practice was disrupted by the American Civil War (1861–1865). He was opposed to secession, and did not serve in the Confederate Army. Morphy traveled to Havana and to Paris, where he had a married sister, but refused invitations to play in public. His law practice never took off, and he never worked or played chess again. The last years of his life were marred by mental illness bordering on paranoia. He suffered from distrust, obsessions and delusions, and showed erratic behavior. For example, he thought people were trying to poison him, so he only ate food cooked by his mother or sister. If he saw a woman in the street that he thought looked nice, he would follow her for hours.


title: Paul Morphy

text: Morphy died at 47, in his bathtub, perhaps of a stroke. He was the first of several great American players to have a short chess career. Pillsbury died young, reputedly of syphilis, and Bobby Fischer, like Morphy, stopped voluntarily, while still a young man. Fischer showed symptoms of mental illness of a similar kind to Morphy's.


title: Old Style and New Style dates

text: Old Style (or O.S.) and New Style (or N.S.) are terms used for calendar dates in English language historical studies, for two reasons. The first reason is that the method of dating that is most widely used around the world today, the Gregorian calendar, was introduced into English cultures only in 1752. The second is that 1 January has not always been the first day of the year: in the British Empire (and some other countries), March 25th was the start of the year. Both of these conventions changed just a few centuries ago, when the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 was made law. The dating style used before 1752Juian Calendar, year beginning 25 March is called Old Style Dating and the dating style used todayGregorian Caledar, year beginning 1 January is called New Style Dating. So when a date is given in a history book (or an old book), we need to know whether it is using 'New Style' or 'Old Style' dating. During the time of the changeover, people would give both dates. Even today, when historians are writing about an event in those times, they often give the date as it was used at the time but also give the modern equivalent for your convenience.


title: Old Style and New Style dates

text: The reason for changing the calendar was that people realised that there is a mistake in the Julian calendar, that it adds too many leap years. This meant that the date of Easter was being calculated wrongly, because it depends on March 21 being the day before the equinox. So they designed a new calendar that corrected this error. The new rule was that a leap year would happen every four years (as before) "but not" if the year ended in 00 "unless" it could be divided evenly by 400. (So 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not.) Pope Gregory XIII had declared that this new calendar should be used from 1582 onwards. But only Roman Catholic countries accepted this ruling: Protestant and Eastern Orthodox countries refused to have the Pope tell them what to do. So even in Europe, the change happened at different times.


title: Old Style and New Style dates

text: For example, it was not until 1752 that Great Britain and its colonies changed over to the new calendar, also changing the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January at the same time. Russia changed in 1918, after the 'October' Revolution.


title: Old Style and New Style dates

text: The Latin words for O.S. are "stili veteris" or "stilo vetere". These terms are used in some books worldwide. They can be shortened to "st.v".


title: Old Style and New Style dates

text: In Europe and its colonies, the 'old style calendar' means the Julian calendar. Other countries used different systems: for example China, Japan and Korea used lunisolar calendars.


title: Lal Bahadur Shastri

text: Lal Bahadur Shastri (, , 2 October 1904 – 11 January 1966) was an Indian politician. He was the 2nd Prime Minister of India from 1964 to 1966. He was a senior leader of the Indian National Congress political party.


title: Lal Bahadur Shastri

text: Shastri died on 11 January 1966 in Tashkent, Soviet Union from a heart attack at the age of 61. Many people believed that there was a conspiracy to his death and that he was murdered.


title: Anna Nicole Smith

text: Anna Nicole Smith (November 28, 1967 – February 8, 2007) was an American model, actress and celebrity. She first became popular as "Playboy" magazine's 1993 Playmate of the Year.


title: Anna Nicole Smith

text: On February 8, 2007, Smith was found in a hotel room in Hollywood, Florida. At 1:38 p.m. (18:38 UTC) a nurse called 911. At 1:45 p.m. a bodyguard gave her CPR before she was taken to a local hospital and pronounced dead at 2:49 p.m. Her death was caused by an accidental overdose.


title: Anna Nicole Smith

text: Smith was addicted to prescription medications. A psychiatrist said in court in 2010 that she was a member of hospital staff in 2006, when Smith was a patient. The psychiatrist said Smith had borderline personality disorder.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat Sagdiyev (Kazakh and Russian: Борат Сагдиев) is a fictional Kazakh journalist, created and portrayed by the English comedian Sacha Baron Cohen.


title: Ossicles

text: The ossicles are the three smallest bones in the human body. They may be called ear bones or auditory ossicles. They are in the auditory system of all mammals.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Humor is often derived from Borat being a foreigner and having strange customs, thoughts, and behavior. There is also a lot of toilet humor in the series. Borat hates Gypsies and is also Anti-Semitic.


title: Ossicles

text: They are contained within the middle ear space and serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled labyrinth (cochlea). The absence of the auditory ossicles would cause moderate-to-severe deafness.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The Borat character first appeared in short clips on "F2F - The Granada Talk TV Show" that Sacha Baron Cohen presented in 1996-1997.


title: Ossicles

text: The ossicles are, in order from the eardrum to the inner ear (from superficial to deep), the malleus, incus, and stapes. The terms mean hammer, anvil, and stirrup.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat was born in the fictional village of Kuzcek, Kazakhstan to Asimbala Sagdiyev and Boltok the town rapist (who is also his mother's father). He has a 13-year-old son named Hooeylewis and 12-year-old twin boys named Biram and Bilak, as well as 17 grandchildren. He has an older sister named Natalya (whom he has claimed at different times to be either "the number four" or "number two prostitute" in Kazakhstan) and a younger brother, Bilo, who is mentally retarded. It is revealed that he has a second wife in addition to a mistress, a girlfriend and a prostitute.


title: Ossicles

text: Studies have shown that ear bones in mammal embryos are attached to the dentary, which is part of the lower jaw. These are ossified (turned into bone) portions of cartilage -- called Meckel's cartilage -- that are attached to the jaw. As the embryo develops, the cartilage hardens to form bone. Later in development, the bone structure breaks loose from the jaw and migrates to the inner ear area. The structure is known as the middle ear, and is made up of the incus, stapes, malleus, and tympanic membrane. These correspond to the quadrate, prearticular, articular, and angular structures in earlier land vertebrates.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat is shown to have been married several times, after first having been betrothed to his half-sister's plough while in his teens. His first wife Oksana was reported in the "Borat" movie to have been "broken" by a bear while taking his brother Bilo for a walk in the forest. The death of Borat's wife did not bother him; he thanks the man who brings him this "good news" — and celebrates by trying to marry Pamela Anderson and eventually reuniting with Luenell, a black prostitute he met while filming his documentary.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat is a professional journalist and announcer on Kazakh television. According to various in-character interviews with Sacha Baron Cohen, Borat learned at Astana University, where he studied English, journalism, and plague research. He claims to have created five new plagues which supposedly "killed over 5 million goats and whores in Uzbekistan."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Before this Borat was an ice maker, animal sperm retriever, gypsy catcher, and someone who removes dead birds from a computer.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat was a pagan for most of his life. However, in the movie he attends a Pentecostal church service and later converts his village neighbors to Christianity.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat greatly admires Joseph Stalin, and claims that both he and Stalin are strong men with powerful "khram" (genitals). He hates women's rights and was surprised to learn that women can vote in some countries. In his spare time, he enjoys playing ping pong, sunbathing while wearing a lime green "mankini", disco dancing, spitting, sitting on comfortable chairs, and taking pictures of women while they "make toilet".


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat is shown in each episode of "Da Ali G Show", doing funny interviews with real people in the United Kingdom and the United States. The segments were shot in low-quality video to make fun of how poor Kazakhstan is and how it cannot afford good cameras. Of Ali G, Borat comments on his website, "I appear on Alee G shows–He idiot, but it give me lot of girls & pickles; I like..."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The Borat segments on "Da Ali G Show" use a rock and roll version of the Russian folk tune "Korobeiniki" as the theme song.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Five Borat sketches were shown: "Etiquette", Hunting, Cambridge, Edinburgh and Henley. The "Guides" to "English Gentlemen", "Politics" and "Sport" were also filmed at this time but released later as part of "Ali G" DVDs.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Some of the best parts were the "Guide to Sport" and a some video of Borat's village in Kazakhstan. Though the village they used was really in Romania.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Six Borat sketches were shown in the form of "Guides" to "Dating," "Etiquette," "Acting," "Men," "Baseballs," and "The (Deep) South." A "Guide to Animals" was filmed, but released at a later date as part of an "Ali G" DVD. Alyssa Greenfill was also in it.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Shown as part of a six-part "Ali G Show" originally on HBO (USA) in July 2004. (C4 was the UK channel where Ali G and Borat originally appeared, and the series for America was a HBO/C4 co-production).


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Six Borat sketches were shown: "Wine Tasting", "Politics", "Country Music", "Hobbies", "Buying a House" and "Jobs" (careers). A "Guide to Hunting" was filmed but only aired in the UK because it bothered animal rights people in America.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat appeared in the Ali G movie "Ali G Indahouse" as a Kazak diplomat. Borat greets Ali G with a hug and kiss, but Ali pushes him away. Borat then calls Ali a "cocksucker". In the end, Borat performs a hip-hop song with superstar Max Allard.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Subtitled "Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan", the movie "Borat" is mockumentary comedy. Most of those appearing in the film are not paid performers, but real people whom Borat met on his journey. The movie was distributed by 20th Century Fox, and directed by Larry Charles. It premiered at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival, and was released across Europe and North America on November 3, 2006.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The film follows Borat in his travels across the United States as he commits cultural solecisms and exposes a few American ones. Over the course of the film, Borat falls in love with Pamela Anderson after watching a rerun of "Baywatch" and vows to make her his wife.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The film opened at # 1 in the United States, taking in $26.4 million on a limited release of 837 screens during its first weekend, beating "Fahrenheit 9/11" as the biggest opening weekend for a film released in fewer than 1,000 cinemas. Cohen celebrated the release of the movie with a host of promotional 'in-character' interviews.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: On November 9, 2006, the Russian Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography issued an opinion, citing "it could offend viewers in relation to certain ethnic groups and religions."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The movie expanded its release on the second weekend to 2,566 screens, where it took in an additional $29 million.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In 2007, Baron Cohen won a Golden Globe for "Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture - Musical Or Comedy."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: With a production budget of $18,000,000, the movie earned $128,501,044 in the United States and another $128,848,505 in the rest of the world. $257,349,549 in total as of March 2007.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In 2007, a book from Cohen was released entitled, "Touristic Guidings to Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan/ Touristic Guidings to Minor Nation of U.S. and A.", with humor about both countries in the same style as movie.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Though he pretends to speak Kazakh, Borat really speaks in Hebrew mixed with some Polish and other Slavic language phrases, such as "" and "" (Polish "how are you" and "thank you"). As such, the film became popular in Israel.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat also lapses into Hebrew while purporting to sing the Kazakhstani national anthem at a Savannah Sand Gnats game. He kept repeating a famous Hebrew folk song: (; kum bachur atzel ve'tze la'avoda; "get up lazy guy and go to work [...]" ) [...] ; kookooriku kookooriku ha'tarnegol kara; "cock-a-doodle-do the cock has crowed"), and also called Kazakhstan a distant/desolate place (literally "hole" ()("hor")).


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: His producer Azamat Bagatov (Ken Davitian) speaks Armenian, while his daughter Tutar (Maria Bakalova) speaks Bulgarian


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In the opening scenes in the town of Kuzcek, the villagers speak Romanian because these scenes were shot in Glod, Romania. As in the rest of the movie, what is spoken does not match the translation given in the subtitles. For example, when Borat's wife Oksana speaks, the subtitles show her telling Borat to "do something useful and dig his mother's grave," when she is actually telling him to go into "the devil's cunt."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Some say that Kazakhstan is not as bad as Borat says it is and that it is wrong of him to say such things.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In August 2004, the Chief Rabbi of Kazakhstan, at an international religious meeting in Brussels, stated that in 10 years in the country, he had never faced anti-Semitism. He praised the Government of Kazakhstan for its treatment of the Jewish community.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: On October 19, the Associated Press reported that Kazakhstan's Deputy Foreign Minister, Rakhat Aliyev, had invited Cohen to visit Kazakhstan to see how wrong he was about it. In an interview, Aliyev asserted that:


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: His trip could yield a lot of discoveries—that women not only travel inside buses but also drive their own cars, that we make wine from grapes, that Jews can freely attend synagogues and so on.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat's film has frequently been accused of promoting antiziganism. The scenes supposedly filmed in Borat's Kazakhstani village were actually filmed in an impoverished Roma (gipsy) village of Glod in Romania. "USA Today" reports that poverty villagers were offered between $3.30 and $5.50 to bring animals into their houses and perform other acts some critics called humiliating. The studio contends that


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Two villagers of Glod have hired reparation attorney Ed Fagan to sue the makers of the film for $30 million for human rights abuses. Fagan intends to submit lawsuits in New York and Florida state courts, as well as in Frankfurt, Germany. Fagan said that he hoped to "teach Hollywood a very expensive lesson." The lawsuit was thrown out by U.S. District Judge Loretta Preska in a hearing in early December 2006 on the ground that the charges were too vague to stand up in court. Fagan plans to refile.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The Borat character has elicited some controversy, mostly related to his frequent displays of anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Baron Cohen, who is himself Jewish, has explained his character's racism by stating that the segments show how people are sometimes racist because others around them are too and that it is important to stand up against racism.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: When I was in university, there was this major historian of the Third Reich, Ian Kershaw, who said, 'The path to Auschwitz was paved with indifference.' I know it's not very funny being a comedian talking about the Holocaust, but it's an interesting idea that not everyone in Germany had to be a raving anti-Semite. They just had to be apathetic.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Regarding the enthusiastic response to his song "In My Country There is Problem" (detailed below), he says, "Did it reveal that they were anti-Semitic? Perhaps. But maybe it just revealed that they were indifferent to anti-Semitism."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: However, the Anti-Defamation League, a U.S.-based group that “...combat[s] anti-Semitism and bigotry of all kinds”, complained to HBO after Borat performed a country western song titled "In My Country There Is Problem" that called on people to 'throw the Jew down the well', warning them that 'you must be careful of his teeth' and that 'you must grab him by his horns', to applause and joining in from some of the audience in Tucson, Arizona. The chorus goes: "Throw the Jew down the well/So my country can be free/You must grab him by his horns/Then we have a big party."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In another scene, Borat visits the Serengeti Range ranch in Texas, where the owner of the ranch confides that he believes the Holocaust was a necessity for Germany. He further implies that he would have no problem running a ranch where people can hunt, in Borat's words, "deer... then Jew."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: An interview with James Broadwater, an evangelical Christian and Republican candidate for U.S. Congress from Mississippi, caused Broadwater to receive some hateful emails after an episode of "Da Ali G Show" aired in which Broadwater stated that Jews will go to Hell. He was told that the interview would be played in foreign countries to teach others about the American political system. Broadwater later posted a letter on his website against "Da Ali G Show," explaining that his statement referred to a theological belief that anyone that "accepts Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour will spend eternity in Heaven, while everyone who rejects Him will spend eternity in Hell." Broadwater did not apologise for his comments. Instead, he insisted that "the liberal, anti-God media needs to be brought under the strict control of the FCC, and that as soon as possible."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In the movie, Borat continues to hate Jews and be fearful of them. He does not like to fly while in America in case the Jews "make another 9/11". Later, as he finds himself in a hotel run by an old Jewish couple, he tries to "escape" and throws money at two bugs on the floor, afraid that the Jews have shapeshifted into cockroaches.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Cohen later joked, upon receiving a British comedy award, that Borat was guest of honour at the International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust in Tehran.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In January 2005, after pretending to be making a documentary, Cohen angered a crowd at a rodeo in Salem, Virginia. The crowd first cheered his statements of "support" for the Iraq war, including statements like "We is support your war of terror", and "May George Bush drink the blood of every single man, woman, and child of Iraq". However, the applause softened when he exclaimed "May you destroy their country so that for the next thousand years, not even a single lizard will survive in their desert!" The crowd then got infuriated when he sang the (fictional) Kazakhstan national anthem to an off-key version of the US national anthem.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: "If he had been out there a minute longer, I think somebody would have shot him," said one witness. "People were booing him, flipping him off." For his own safety, Cohen was escorted from the venue. (Much of the event appears in the movie. A credulous news report about the incident, aired on a local television station, is included in the DVD extras).


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In November 2005, following Borat's hosting of the MTV Europe Music Awards in Lisbon, Kazakhstan's Foreign Ministry said he was worried about the character. Spokesman Yerzhan Ashykbayev told a news conference: "We view Mr Cohen's behaviour at the MTV Europe Music Awards as utterly unacceptable, being a concoction of bad taste and ill manners which is completely incompatible with the ethics and civilised behaviour of Kazakhstan's people", concluding "We reserve the right to any legal action to prevent new pranks of the kind."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Baron Cohen has since posted a video on the "Official Borat Homesite" where Borat responds to Ashykbayev in character. In the video, Borat states, in part:


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: In response to Mr. Ashykbayev's comments, I'd like to state I have no connection with Mr. Cohen and fully support my government's decision to sue this Jew. Since the 2003 Tuleyakiv reforms, Kazakhstan is as civilized as any other country in the world. Women can now travel on "inside" of bus, homosexuals no longer have to wear blue hats, and age of consent has been raised to eight years old. Please, captain of industry; I invite you to come to Kazakhstan where we have incredible natural resources, hardworking labour, and some of the cleanest prostitutes in whole of Central Asia. Goodbye! Dzienkuje!


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Reuters quoted an unnamed Western diplomat as saying, "They (the Government of Kazakhstan) are damned if they do [respond] and damned if they don't," he said. "It's sort of unfortunate that he hit upon Kazakhstan." Another unnamed source inside Kazakhstan's Washington embassy called Borat a "one-man diplomatic wrecking ball."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The next week, the government hired two Western public relations firms to counter Borat's claims, and ran a four-page advertisement in "The New York Times". The ad carried testimonials about the nation's democracy, education system and the power and influence enjoyed by women. On a previous occasion, Borat responded to such official complaints by issuing his own "press release", a bunch of random Cyrillic characters. He would again respond when promoting his movie in front of the Kazakhstani Embassy in Washington, roundly denouncing the advertisements as "Uzbek propaganda".


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: On December 13, 2005, the right to use the domain name www.borat.kz was suspended, and the site attached to it was closed down. The domain-issuing body said that they took this action since false names were given for the site's administrators, and also because the site www.borat.kz was hosted outside Kazakhstan. However, the stated underlying cause of the action was in order to censor the content of the site: "We've done this so he can't badmouth Kazakhstan under the .kz domain name," Nurlan Isin, President of the Association of Kazakh IT Companies, told Reuters. "He can go and do whatever he wants at other domains."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Reporters Without Borders petitioned the ICANN ombudsman to allow Borat to keep the website. Meanwhile, the "Official Borat Homesite" was moved to the .tv domain, where it remains. As of October 14, 2007, the former domain name was still suspended. The 2006 annual human rights report released by the US State Department cited the loss of the .kz website as evidence of the Kazakhstani government's efforts to stop free speech.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Borat has, however, recently been defended by Dariga Nazarbayeva, a politician and daughter of Kazakhstan's President Nursultan Nazarbayev. She stated on a national news programme "Karavan" that Cohen's website "damaged our image much less than its closure, which was covered by all global news agencies," and "We should not be afraid of humour and we shouldn't try to control everything, I think."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: On September 28, 2006, Cohen appeared in character as Borat at the White House gates to give a press conference and invite "Supreme Warlord Premier George Walker Bush" to a screening of his forthcoming movie, along with "O.J. Simpson", "Melvin Gibsons" and other "American dignitaries", after which they would join him for drinks at Hooters. Secret Service Uniformed Division Officers would not admit him on to the grounds.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: On October 18, 2006, European Centre for Antiziganism Research, which pleads against discrimination of Gypsies, filed a complaint with prosecutors based on Borat's comments about Gypsies in his movie. The complaint accuses him of spreading lies and inciting violence against the ethnic group.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: At a press conference just hours before the live broadcast of the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards, he shocked local and international journalists in Lisbon, Portugal, by bringing a bag of birds from Romania (the first European country to detect avian influenza) as a gift, then proceeded to apologize for them all dying.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: WAPT (Jackson, Mississippi) TV news producer Dharma Arthur states in "Newsweek" she lost her job as a result of her booking Borat on a local afternoon news program. At the time of the appearance, she was unaware of Cohen's act. During an interview with anchor Brad McMullan, Borat made sexual and scatological references, kissed McMullan, and later disrupted a live weather report. She said: "Because of him, my boss lost faith in my abilities and second-guessed everything I did... I spiralled into depression, and... was released from my contract... It took me three months to find another job, and now I'm thousands of dollars in debt and struggling to keep my house out of foreclosure... How upsetting that a man who leaves so much harm in his path is lauded as a comedic genius."


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: The broadcast, including the initial interview, the disrupted weather report, and several behind-the-scenes shots made by Borat's own movie crew, is seen in the "Borat" movie.


title: Borat Sagdiyev

text: Not all hoax victims threaten to sue, however. Behind-the-scenes interviews with Randall Shelley ("Guide to Baseball"), Danny Passmore ("Guide to Hobbies USA"), Jennifer Defrancisco / Charles Di Cagno ("Guide to Acting"), Ken Goldberg ("Guide to Being a Real Man"), and Peta Heskell ("Guide to English Gentlemen") have all resulted in the subjects deciding not to sue.


title: Asphalt

text: Asphalt, or bitumen, is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid, composed almost entirely of petroleum. It is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits. It is the material which made the La Brea tar pits.


title: Asphalt

text: Its main use is in road construction. Mixed with "aggregate" (sand, gravel, crushed stone, etc.) it makes a good road surface. It has various other names: pitch, tarmac, blacktop, asphalt concrete, asphalt pavement (US), all mean roughly the same thing.


title: Asphalt

text: Asphalt which is liquid is often called tar. Tar is also used for plant resin. Solid asphalt is often called pitch.


title: Asphalt

text: Although a block of asphalt or pitch can look like a solid, it still flows, but very slowly. There have been a few "pitch experiments" to see how long it takes for a drip to form and drop off a block of apparently solid pitch.


title: Chris Benoit

text: Christopher Michael Benoit (May 21, 1967 - June 24, 2007) was a Canadian professional wrestler. He was first noticed in the United States when he started wrestling for ECW in 1994. He would later go to WCW the next year. Within a year, he became a member of the Four Hoursemen (with Ric Flair, Arn Anderson, and Brian Pillman). He joined the WWF in January 2000. In January 2004, Benoit won the 30 man Royal Rumble match which allowed him to main event WrestleMania. He would go on to win the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XX on March 14, 2004. On June 24, 2007, Chris Benoit committed suicide by hanging after murdering his wife and son. Their dead bodies were found on June 25. Benoit's father, Michael Benoit, says that Benoit had brain damage. This is what caused Benoit to kill his family. Because brain damage can be caused by concussions, WWE no longer allows wrestlers to hit each other in the head with steel chairs. Mentions of his name were also banned thereafter.


title: Arm

text: An arm is a limb. Most humans have two arms each, coming out of their body at the shoulder, just below the neck. On the end of each arm is a hand. Humans use arms and hands to do things to other objects, this is called manipulation. The main purpose of the hand is to grasp objects. Some other primates have arms which they use to move around by holding onto trees or supporting themselves as they walk along the ground. Fingers and hand, wrist, forearm, elbow, upper arm and shoulder are parts of the arm.


title: Shawarma

text: Shawarma (; in ) is a meat sandwich eaten by people of the Arab world and the Middle East. It is served in round Arabic bread with meat and vegetables, with some spice or sauce of choice in it. Normally, the meat can either be lamb, beef, turkey, or chicken. Shawarma can also be spelled chawarma, shwarma, shawerma, or shoarmais.


title: Shawarma

text: It was first introduced by people from Turkey. They call it "çevirme", which means "turning", because the meat can be turned around in the oven, but the Arabs changed its recipe from the Turkish Doner kebab.


title: Substance

text: Substance is the material, or matter, of which something is made. Substances are physical things that can be seen, touched, or measured. They are made up of one or more elemental parts. Iron, aluminium, water and air are examples of substances.


title: Substance

text: The main problem of a clear definition of what the substance is that if, for example, to consider not just the universe (cosmos), being and non-being, and in general all, the question arises, what is the constant basic principle (attribute) is the basis of the substance, which generally consists of all (that is, matter, mind, senses, space, soul, and so on).


title: Substance

text: The Latin word "substantia" - a translation of the Greek word for the essence ("ousia"), and in Latin to describe the essence of using the word "essentia". In ancient philosophy substance is treated as a substrate, the first principle of all things (for example, "water" of Thales, the "fire" of Heraclitus).


title: Substance

text: In modern times, the concept of substance is treated and spread widely. The first view is connected with an ontological understanding of substance as ultimate bases being (Francis Bacon, Benedict Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz). Central category of metaphysics in philosophy substance is identified as with God and with nature and determined as the cause of itself (Latin, "causa sui"). The main characteristics (attributes) of a substance from Benedict Spinoza are thinking and stretch. By analogy with the philosophy of Benedict Spinoza substance considered in the light of the concept of René Descartes and Leibniz. The first substance is a unity of subject and object, and the second - the same atoms are simple beings who lose their stretch, but receive attribute aspirations (French, "appetitio"n) and multiplicity. Thanks Leibniz substance begins to associate with matter.


title: Substance

text: The second point of view on the substance - an epistemological understanding of the concept, its capabilities and the need for scientific knowledge (John Locke, David Hume). Immanuel Kant believed that the law under which any change in the substance of events and the number of stored it in nature remains the same, can be attributed to the "analogies of experience." Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel defined substance as the integrity of changing, transient side of things, as a "major step in the development of the will." For Arthur Schopenhauer substance - matter for David Hume - a fiction, the coexistence properties.


title: Mick Thomson

text: Mickael Gordon Thomson (born on November 3, 1973), or known simply as Mick, is an American musician best known as being the lead guitarist of Slipknot since 1997.


title: Cottage

text: A cottage is a term often used for a small house. This word comes from England where it is used to mean a house that has one main storey, with a second, lower storey of bedrooms which fit under the roof upstairs. In many places the word cottage is used to mean a small old-fashioned house. In the United States the word cottage is often used to mean a small holiday home.


title: Cottage

text: Cottages are usually found in villages or in the countryside, rather than in the town. They are nearly always built from material that can be found nearby. A cottage may be built of stone, of brick or of timber. It may have a roof of tiles, slates, shingles, shakes or thatch.


title: Dvergr

text: Dvergar or Norse dwarves (Old Norse "dvergar", singular "dvergr") are creatures in Norse mythology. They are associated with rocks, the earth, craft and metal work, wisdom, and greed. The dwarves came from maggots that formed on Ymir's skin as he was killed by Odin, Vé and Vili. Odin transformed the maggots into dwarves. It is said that dwarves are blacksmiths and built weapons for war between the gods. Some say that dwarves and elves are the same thing.


title: Alligator

text: Alligator is a genus in the order Crocodilia. There are two living species: the American alligator and the smaller Chinese alligator. Together with the caimans, the gharials, and the crocodiles, they make up the order Crocodilia.


title: Alligator

text: The first alligators existed about 37 million years ago. However, older species of alligators have become extinct.


title: Alligator

text: An average adult American alligator weighs and is long. However, they can grow to long and weigh over .


title: Alligator

text: The Chinese alligator is smaller. It is rarely longer than . In addition, it weighs considerably less than the American alligator. Male Chinese alligators rarely weigh over .


title: Alligator

text: Nobody knows how long alligators live, on average. An 80-year-old alligator named Muja, living in the Belgrade Zoo in Serbia, is thought to be the oldest alligator living in captivity.


title: Alligator

text: Although the alligator often moves slowly, it can run very fast for short times, especially in very short lunges. Usually, alligators' main prey are smaller animals they can kill and eat with a single bite. If the prey is not big enough to eat in one bite, they may drag the animal into the water to drown. They may also bite their prey and then spin or wildly until bite-sized chunks are torn off. This is called a "death roll".


title: Alligator

text: Alligators are generally timid towards humans and tend to walk or swim away if a human comes near them. However, they will attack humans to protect their nests. In Florida, feeding wild alligators at any time is illegal. If fed, the alligators will eventually lose their fear of humans and will learn to associate humans with food, thereby becoming both a greater danger to people, and at greater risk from them.


title: Alligator

text: American alligators live mostly in the southeast United States. According to the 2012 Scholastic Book of World Records, Louisiana has the largest alligator population, with about two million. Most American alligators live in Louisiana or Florida, which is home to about 1.3 million alligators. Southern Florida is the only place where both alligators and crocodiles live side by side.


title: Alligator

text: American alligators cannot live in saltwater very long because they do not have salt glands. Because of this, they live in freshwater environments, such as ponds, marshes, wetlands, rivers, lakes, and swamps, as well as in brackish environments.


title: Alligator

text: Once, the American alligator was endangered. In the 1970s, the United States government protected alligators under the Endangered Species Act. The species made a major recovery and are now thriving in many wilderness areas. The alligator is the state reptile of Florida, and is a symbol of the state.


title: Alligator

text: The Chinese alligator currently is found only in Eastern China, in a small area in the Yangtze River basin (along the coastline of the Pacific Ocean.


title: Alligator

text: The Chinese alligator is extremely endangered. Scientists believe that only a few dozen Chinese alligators are left in the wild. Indeed, far more Chinese alligators live in zoos around the world than in the wild. Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge in southern Louisiana has several in captivity in an attempt to preserve the species. Miami MetroZoo in Florida also has a breeding pair of Chinese alligators.


title: Alligator

text: American alligators were once an endangered species in the United States. By the 1950s, there were fewer alligators in the United States than ever before. This happened because of alligator hunting and because people were building over alligators' habitats.


title: Alligator

text: In 1967, the United States government listed the alligator as endangered. This meant the alligator was in danger of becoming extinct.


title: Alligator

text: Today, the American alligator is no longer endangered, but it is still a "protected species." It is protected because the alligator looks like some species of crocodiles and caimans, which are still endangered. Because of this, the Fish and Wildlife Service categorizes the American alligator as “threatened due to similarity of appearance.” Their goal is to prevent people from killing endangered crocodiles and caimans because they have mistaken an alligator for a crocodile or caiman. Because of this, killing alligators, and trading in products made from alligator meat or skin, are all regulated by the Fish and Wildlife Service.


title: Victoria Falls

text: Victoria Falls is a waterfall in south central Africa in the Zambezi River between southeast Zambia and northwest Zimbabwe. It is 108.3 m high and 1,703 m wide.


title: Victoria Falls

text: The falls were discovered by David Livingstone in November 1855, where he saw it on what is now known as Livingstone Island. He named it after Queen Victoria. The Chitonga name for the Falls is Mosi-oa-Tunya. That word means "the smoke that thunders". They call it that because the Falls are very misty.


title: Jack Dorsey

text: Jack Patrick Dorsey (born November 19, 1976) is an American software developer and business person, widely known as the creator of social networking service Twitter. He is also the founder and CEO of Square, a mobile payments company. In 2008, he was named as one of the top 35 innovators in the world under the age of 35.


title: Jack Dorsey

text: Dorsey was born Jack Patrick Dorsey in St. Louis, Missouri, the son of Tim and Marcia (née Smith) Dorsey. He is of English, Irish, and Italian descent. His father worked for a company that developed mass spectrometers and his mother was a homemaker.


title: Jack Dorsey

text: He was raised Catholic, and his uncle is a Catholic priest in Cincinnati. He attended the Catholic Bishop DuBourg High School. In his younger days, Dorsey worked occasionally as a fashion model.


title: Jack Dorsey

text: By age fourteen, Dorsey had become interested in dispatch routing. Some of the open-source software he created in the area of dispatch logistics is still used by taxicab companies. Dorsey attended the University of Missouri–Rolla for two-plus years (1995–97) before transferring to New York University, but he dropped out in 1999, one semester short of graduating. He came up with the idea that he developed as Twitter while studying at NYU.


title: Jack Dorsey

text: While working on dispatching as a programmer, Dorsey moved to California. In 2000, Dorsey started his company in Oakland to dispatch couriers, taxis, and emergency services from the Web. His other projects and ideas at this time included networks of medical devices and a "frictionless service market". In July 2000, building on dispatching and inspired in part by LiveJournal and by AOL Instant Messenger, he had the idea for a Web-based realtime status/short message communication service.


title: Jack Dorsey

text: When he first saw implementations of instant messaging, Dorsey wondered whether the software's user status output could be shared easily among friends. He approached Odeo, which at the time happened to be interested in text messaging. Dorsey and Biz Stone decided that SMS text suited the status-message idea, and built a prototype of Twitter in about two weeks. The idea attracted many users at Odeo and investment from Evan Williams, a co-founder of that firm in 2005 who had left Google after selling Pyra Labs and Blogger.


title: Harrow (tool)

text: A harrow is a farm tool. It is an implement for breaking up and smoothing out the surface of the soil. In this way it is different from a plow, which cuts deeper into the soil. A plow also lifts up the soil and tips it over, but a harrow works mostly by cutting into the soil and breaking it up. Harrowing is often carried out on fields to follow the rough surface left by plowing.


title: Harrow (tool)

text: The purpose of this harrowing is generally to break up clods (lumps of soil) and to provide a finer finish, a good tilth or soil structure that is good for planting seeds. It may also be used to remove weeds and to cover up seed after sowing.


title: Harrow (tool)

text: Harrows differ from cultivators in that they disturb the whole surface of the soil, instead of disturbing only narrow trails that avoid crop rows (to kill weeds).


title: Harrow (tool)

text: There are four general types of harrows: disc harrow, tine harrow, chain harrow and chain disk harrows. Harrows were originally pulled by draft animals, such as horses, mules, or oxen, or in some times and places by people. In modern practice they are almost always pulled by tractors, either from a drawbar or mounted on the three-point hitch.


title: Harrow (tool)

text: Harrows may be of several types and weights, depending on their purpose. They almost always consist of a rigid frame that holds discs, teeth, linked chains, or other means of moving soil—but tine and chain harrows are often only supported by a bar at the front of the set.


title: Harrow (tool)

text: Depending on the type of soil and the crop being planted, one or more types of harrows may be used to get the soil ready for planting. If the soil is very light so that it might easily be wind-blown, a roller can be used at the end to settle it.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Tim Hortons Inc. is a Canadian fast food restaurant known for its coffee and doughnuts. It was started in 1964 in Hamilton, Ontario by Canadian hockey player Tim Horton. In 1967 Tim Horton joined with investor Ron Joyce, who quickly took over running the company and expanded the chain into a multi-million dollar franchise.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Tim Hortons stores quickly spread and together with Subway, became bigger than McDonald's and is now Canada's largest chain of fast food restaurants. The company opened twice as many Canadian stores as did McDonald's and sales also are bigger than those of McDonald's Canadian restaurants as of 2002. The chain got 22.6% of all fast food industry revenues in Canada in 2005. Tim Hortons also has 76% of the Canadian market for baked goods (based on the number of customers) and has 62% of the Canadian coffee market (compared to Starbucks, who is the second largest with 7%). Tim Hortons had 2,733 restaurants in Canada as of July 1, 2007.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Tim Hortons also has international restaurants with 500 in the United States as of December 2008, with one opened in Detroit and owned by former NBA player Derrick Coleman and one on a Canadian military base outside Kandahar, Afghanistan. Tim Hortons' other international efforts include a small outlet at the Dublin Zoo. Tim Hortons also made a deal with the SPAR store chain in the UK and Ireland, with Tim Hortons coffee and doughnuts being sold at small self service counters in 16 SPAR stores.


title: Tim Hortons

text: The company's first store opened in 1964 in Hamilton, Ontario under the name "Tim Horton Donuts" (the word donut would later be dropped and the company name ended up as just "Tim Horton's", and later was changed to "Tim Hortons" without the apostrophe). The business was started by Tim Horton, who played in the National Hockey League from 1949 until his death in a car accident in 1974.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Soon after Horton opened the store, he met Ron Joyce, a former Hamilton police constable. In 1965, Joyce took over the Tim Horton Donut Shop on Ottawa Street North in Hamilton. By 1967, after he had opened up two more stores, he and Tim Horton became full partners in the business. After Horton's death in 1974, Joyce bought the company from the Horton family and took over as the only owner of the now forty stores. Joyce expanded the chain quickly in geography and in product selection, opening the 500th store in Aylmer, Quebec, in 1991.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Ron Joyce's very fast expansion of the Tim Hortons business brought about two major changes in the coffee and doughnut restaurant market: independent doughnut shops in Canada were almost wiped out, and Canada's per person ratio of doughnut shops rose past those of all other countries.


title: Tim Hortons

text: By the 1990s, the company name had changed to The TDL Group Ltd but the name of the restaurants are still called Tim Hortons. This was because the company wanted to also go into other types of business, and not just be seen as a doughnut company. In March 2006, shares of the company were first sold to the public.


title: Tim Hortons

text: TDL Group had $1.48 billion in sales in 2005 and has expanded across Canada and also in New York, Ohio, Michigan, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Maine.


title: Tim Hortons

text: In August 2014, the Brazilian investment company 3G Capital announced it was going to buy out the TDL Group and merge operations of Tim Hortons with that of Burger King. This was done to make it easier to make Tim Hortons a world-wide chain, just like how Burger King is. The purchase was completed in December of that year, and since then, both Tim Hortons and Burger King are part of Restaurant Brands International, which is owned mostly by 3G Capital, but also by the previous shareholders of the two chains under the ticker . But in 2018, it was reported that Tim Hortons franchisees were complaining to the Government of Canada that Restaurant Brands International did not follow the rules that were made in order for the takeover to happen.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Tim Hortons has many stores on or near many Canadian Forces Bases. TDL Group said in March 2006, that because they were asked by Chief of the Defence Staff, General Rick Hillier, it would open a store at the Canadian Forces operations base in Kandahar, Afghanistan. The new Kandahar store opened on June 29 2006, in a 40 ft trailer on the military base.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Tim Hortons' first stores only sold two products - coffee and doughnuts. As well as its coffee, tea, hot chocolate, and doughnuts, the Tim Hortons menu now includes a number of other baked goods, such as Timbits (small balls of doughnut dough), muffins, croissants, tea biscuits, cookies, rolls, danishes, and bagels (Tim Hortons now sells one out of every two bagels in the whole Canadian food industry). Cakes to take home are offered in some locations.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Since the mid-1990s, the chain has moved into other areas, such as flavoured cappuccino, iced cappuccino, iced coffee, New York-style cheesecake, and lunch items such as soup, chili, and submarine sandwiches. In fall 2006, Tim Hortons began selling a breakfast sandwich. This is made of an egg patty, processed cheese slice, either bacon or sausage, and either a biscuit or bagel, it has sold well. In October 2007 Tim Hortons began to sell a Chicken Fajita Wrap, which has spiced chicken and sautéed vegetables. In December 2007, they began to sell hash browns and the Bagel B.E.L.T., a breakfast sandwich that has lettuce and tomato.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Along with the expansion of stores and the expanded menu came the outsourcing of baked goods. Doughnuts, which used to be made at night so that they were ready for the next morning, are now fully cooked and then frozen and sent to every restaurant from Windsor, Ontario. The restaurants now bake them during the day.


title: Tim Hortons

text: Throw away cups made by the company are one of the most common litter items in Canada. Company spokespersons claim that customers are the problem, not Tim Hortons.


title: Tim Hortons

text: In May 2008, the chain came under fire after an employee in London, Ontario was fired for giving away a single $0.16 Timbit to a baby. A manager was blamed for the incident. The employee was hired at a different nearby location.


title: Škoda Auto

text: Škoda Auto (), better known as Škoda, is an automobile maker. It is based in the Czech Republic. Škoda was bought by the Volkswagen Group in 2000. Its total sales reached 684,226 cars in 2009 and 85,000 for the month of March 2011.


title: Škoda Auto

text: Škoda Auto goes back to the early 1890s as a company which started out making bicycles. In 1894, 26-year old Václav Klement (a bookseller in Mladá Boleslav) could not find any spare parts to fix his bicycle. Klement returned his bicycle to the makers, Seidel and Naumann, with a letter. It was written in Czech. The letter asked the company to repair the bicycle. When Klement got his reply, it was in German. It said (in English): "If you would like an answer to your inquiry, you should try writing in a language we can understand". Klement was very unhappy at this. Even though he did not have any experience, he decided to start a bicycle repair shop. He and Václav Laurin opened this in 1895 in Mladá Boleslav. Before working with Klement, Laurin was a bicycle maker in the town of Turnov. Turnov was near to Mladá Boleslav. In 1898, after moving to their newly-built factory, the pair bought a Werner "motorcyclist". It was made by French manufacturer Werner Brothers. Laurin & Klement's first motorcyclette was powered by an engine on the handlebars. It drove the front wheels. It was dangerous and unreliable. Laurin had an accident on it, and lost one of his front teeth. To design a safer motorcycle, the pair wrote to German specialist Robert Bosch for advice. The pair's new motorcycle went on sale in 1899.


title: Škoda Auto

text: In 1900, when the company had 32 people working for them, motorcycles began being exported. 150 machines were shipped to London. Shortly after, the press said that they were the makers of the first motorcycle. The first model, Voiturette A, was a success. The company was set up both within Austria-Hungary and all over the world. By 1905 the company was making automobiles.


title: Škoda Auto

text: After World War I, the Laurin-Klement company began making trucks. However, in 1924, the company looked for a partner after running into problems. It was bought by Škoda Works, a firearms maker. Most things made later were under the Škoda name. Škoda was successful again after an economic depression. The "Popular" in the late 1930s is an example of a popular car.


title: Škoda Auto

text: During World War II, when Nazi Germany had invaded Czechoslovakia, the Škoda works was turned into part of "Reichswerke Hermann Göring". It helped the German war effort.


title: Boer

text: Boer (IPA: /bur/) is the Dutch word for farmer which is used to call the descendants of the Dutch farmers of Southern Africa during the 1700s, as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 1800s to live in the Orange Free State, Transvaal and Natal. They did this to escape the British rule, and the wars between the British imperial government and the native tribes on the eastern frontier.


title: Boer

text: In 1657, “vrybriewe” was granted to 9 burgers, the first farmers or Boers (Boere) at the Cape. Although they were not known as Afrikaners, they did not regard themselves as living in a European country. As more immigrants from Europe arrived at the Cape, more international marriages took place. Soon their language and culture were lost and transformed. They regarded themselves as a new nation, the Afrikaner people. Paul Heyns, born in 1696 christened his son Michiel Afrikanus (the Afrikaner).


title: Boer

text: One Hendrik Bieslow in 1707 proclaimed in public “Ik ben een Afrikaander”. The Boers later created the Boer Republics, which were defeated in the 1880-1881 and 1899–1902 Anglo-Boer wars (Anglo-Boere-oorloë). After that, many Boers emigrated to other countries, but many still live in modern South Africa, Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) and Zimbabwe.


title: Howie Dorough

text: Howard Dwaine Dorough (born August 22, 1973), also known as Howie D, is an American singer. He was a member of the boy band Backstreet Boys. As one of the five singers of the Backstreet Boys, Dorough is notable for his high falsetto. As a Backstreet Boy, he has sold over 130 million albums.


title: Howie Dorough

text: On August 16, 2007, Dorough announced his engagement to long-time girlfriend, Leigh Boniello. He asked her to marry him on New Year's Day of that year. The two were married on December 8, 2007. They have one son, James, born in 2009.


title: Bulbourethral gland

text: A bulbourethral gland (or Cowper's gland) is one of two small glands found in the reproductive system of human males. They are like Bartholin's glands.


title: Bulbourethral gland

text: Bulbourethral glands are found near the urethra at the base of the penis, between the two layers of the fascia. The bulbourethral glands are about the size of a pea. They appear to slowly get smaller as a person gets older.


title: Bulbourethral gland

text: During sexual arousal each gland makes a clear liquid known as pre-ejaculate or "pre-cum". This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra for sperm to pass through. It also helps clean out any urine or dirt.


title: Hidetoshi Nakata

text: Nakata was born in Kofu on January 22, 1977. After graduating from Nirasaki High School, he joined J1 League club Bellmare Hiratsuka in 1995. He moved to Italian Serie A club Perugia. In January 2000, he moved to Roma. The club won the champions in the 2000/01 Serie A season. In summer 2001, he moved to Parma. From 2004, he played for Bologna, Fiorentina and English Premier League club Bolton Wanderers. He retired end of the 2005/06 season.


title: Hidetoshi Nakata

text: Nakata was selected the Japan U-23 national team for 1996 Summer Olympics. In first match against Brazil and Japan won Brazil (1-0). It was known as "Miracle of Miami" () in Japan. On May 21, 1997, he debuted for the Japan national team against South Korea. After the debut, he became a regular player soon. In 1998, he was selected the Japan at 1998 World Cup and played all 3 matches. In 2000, he was selected U-23 Japan for 2000 Summer Olympics. He also played at 2002 and 2006 World Cup. He played 77 games and scored 11 goals for Japan until 2006.


title: Ben Stiller

text: Benjamin Edward "Ben" Stiller (born November 30, 1965) is an American actor, comedian, voice actor, screenwriter, movie director, and producer. He is best known for his roles in "There's Something About Mary", "Zoolander" (2001), "Meet the Parents" (2001) (and its 2004 sequel "Meet the Fockers").


title: Ben Stiller

text: Stiller has also starred in "Flirting with Disaster" (1996), "Duplex" (2003) and "" (2004) among others. One of the first movies he starred in was Steven Spielberg's "Empire of the Sun" (1987) "Tropic Thunder" (2008). He directed "Reality Bites" (1994) and "The Cable Guy" (1996).


title: Ben Stiller

text: Stiller was born in New York City in 1965. His father, Jerry Stiller, was from a Jewish family that immigrated from Poland and Galicia, in Eastern Europe. His mother, Anne Meara, who was of Irish Catholic background, converted to Reform Judaism after marrying his father. She died in 2015. The family celebrated both Hanukkah and Christmas, and Stiller had a Bar Mitzvah. He has said that he is "half Jewish and half Irish Catholic." Stiller's parents frequently took him on the sets of their appearances, including "The Mike Douglas Show" when he was six. He stated in an interview that he considered his childhood unusual: "In some ways, it was a show-business upbringing—a lot of traveling, a lot of late nights—not what you'd call traditional."


title: Ben Stiller

text: His older sister, Amy, has appeared in many of his productions, including Reality Bites, DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story, and Zoolander. Stiller displayed an early interest in filmmaking and made Super 8 movies with his sister and friends.


title: Ben Stiller

text: At age 9, Stiller made his acting debut as a guest on his mother's short-lived television series, Kate McShane. In the late 1970s, he performed with the New York City troupe NYC's First All Children's Theater, playing several roles, including the title role in Clever Jack and the Magic Beanstalk. After being inspired by the television show Second City Television while in high school, Stiller realized that he wanted to get involved with sketch comedy. During his high school years, he was also the drummer of the post-punk band Capital Punishment, which released the studio album Roadkill in 1982. The band's bassist, Peter Swann, went on to become (as of 2018) an Arizona Court of Appeals Judge. The band reunited in 2018 to release a new EP, titled This is Capital Punishment, for Record Store Day.


title: Ben Stiller

text: Stiller attended The Cathedral School of St. John the Divine and graduated from the Calhoun School in New York in 1983. He started performing on the cabaret circuit as opening act to the cabaret siren Jadin Wong. Stiller then enrolled as a film student at the University of California, Los Angeles. After nine months, Stiller left school to move back to New York City. He made his way through acting classes, auditioning and trying to find an agent.


title: Ben Stiller

text: When he was approximately 15, Stiller obtained a small part with one line on the television soap opera Guiding Light, although in an interview he characterized his performance as poor.[31] He was later cast in a role in the 1986 Broadway revival of John Guare's The House of Blue Leaves, alongside John Mahoney; the production would garner four Tony Awards.


title: Ben Stiller

text: During its run, Stiller produced a satirical mockumentary whose principal was fellow actor Mahoney. Stiller's comedic work was well received by the cast and crew of the play, and he followed up with a 10-minute short titled The Hustler of Money, a parody of the Martin Scorsese film The Color of Money. The film featured him in a send-up of Tom Cruise's character and Mahoney in the Paul Newman role, only this time as a bowling hustler instead of a pool shark. The short got the attention of Saturday Night Live, which aired it in 1987 and two years later offered Stiller a spot as a writer. In the meantime, he had a bit role in Steven Spielberg's Empire of the Sun.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 1989 Stiller wrote and appeared on Saturday Night Live as a featured performer. However, since the show did not want him to make more short films, he left after four episodes. He then put together Elvis Stories, a short film about a fictitious tabloid focused on recent sightings of Elvis Presley. The film starred friends and co-stars John Cusack, Jeremy Piven, Mike Myers, Andy Dick, and Jeff Kahn. The film was considered a success, and led him to develop the short film Going Back to Brooklyn for MTV; it was a music video starring comedian Colin Quinn that parodied LL Cool J's recent hit "Going Back to Cali".


title: Ben Stiller

text: Producers at MTV were so impressed with Back to Brooklyn that they offered Stiller a 13-episode show in the experimental "vid-com" format. Titled The Ben Stiller Show, this series mixed comedy sketches with music videos and parodied various television shows, music stars, and films. It starred Stiller, along with main writer Jeff Khan and Harry O'Reilly, with his parents and sister making occasional appearances.


title: Ben Stiller

text: Although the show was canceled after its first season, it led to another show titled The Ben Stiller Show, on the Fox Network in 1992. The series aired 12 episodes on Fox, with a 13th unaired episode broadcast by Comedy Central in a later revival.[36] Among the principal writers on The Ben Stiller Show were Stiller and Judd Apatow, with the show featuring the ensemble cast of Stiller, Janeane Garofalo, Andy Dick, and Bob Odenkirk.[37] Both Denise Richards and Jeanne Tripplehorn appeared as extras in various episodes. Throughout its short run, The Ben Stiller Show frequently appeared at the bottom of the ratings, even as it garnered critical acclaim and eventually won an Emmy Award for "Outstanding Writing in a Variety or Music Program" posthumously.


title: Ben Stiller

text: A crowd of people is all looking towards a man at the center who is signing a hat. The crowd is attempting to hand him posters to sign and others are taking pictures using cameras and cell phones.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In the early 1990s Stiller had minor roles in films such as Stella and Highway to Hell as well as a cameo in The Nutt House. In 1992 Stiller was approached to direct Reality Bites, based on a script by Helen Childress. Stiller devoted the next year and a half to rewriting the script with Childress, fundraising, and recruiting cast members for the film. It was eventually released in early 1994, directed by Stiller and featuring him as a co-star. The film was produced by Danny DeVito, who would later direct Stiller's 2003 film Duplex and produce his 2004 film Along Came Polly.


title: Ben Stiller

text: Reality Bites debuted as the highest-grossing film in its opening weekend and received mixed reviews.


title: Ben Stiller

text: Stiller joined his parents in the family film Heavyweights (1995), in which he played two roles, and then had a brief uncredited role in Adam Sandler's Happy Gilmore (1996). Next, he had lead roles in If Lucy Fell and Flirting with Disaster, before tackling his next directorial effort with The Cable Guy, which starred Jim Carrey. Stiller once again was featured in his own film, as twins. The film received mixed reviews, but was noted for paying the highest salary for an actor up to that point, as Carrey received $20 million for his work in the film. The film also connected Stiller with future Frat Pack members Jack Black and Owen Wilson.


title: Ben Stiller

text: Also in 1996, MTV invited Stiller to host the VH1 Fashion Awards. Along with SNL writer Drake Sather, Stiller developed a short film for the awards about a male model known as Derek Zoolander. It was so well received that he developed another short film about the character for the 1997 VH1 Fashion Awards and finally remade the skit into a film.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 1998 Stiller put aside his directing ambitions to star in a surprise hit with a long-lasting cult following, the Farrelly Brothers' There's Something About Mary, alongside Cameron Diaz. That year, he starred in several dramas, including Zero Effect, Your Friends & Neighbors, and Permanent Midnight. He was invited to take part in hosting the Music Video awards, for which he developed a parody of the Backstreet Boys and performed a sketch with his father, commenting on his current career.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 1999 he starred in three films, including Mystery Men, where he played a superhero wannabe called Mr. Furious. He returned to directing with a new spoof television series for Fox titled Heat Vision and Jack, starring Jack Black; however, the show was not picked up by Fox after its pilot episode and the series was cancelled.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2000, Stiller starred in three more films, including one of his most recognizable roles, a male nurse named Gaylord "Greg" Focker in Meet the Parents, opposite Robert De Niro. The film was well received by critics, grossed over $330 million worldwide, and spawned two sequels. Also in 2000, MTV again invited Stiller to make another short film, and he developed Mission: Improbable, a spoof of Tom Cruise's role in Mission: Impossible II and other films.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2001, Stiller directed his third feature film, Zoolander, starring himself as Derek Zoolander. The film featured multiple cameos from a variety of celebrities, including Donald Trump, Paris Hilton, Lenny Kravitz, Heidi Klum, and David Bowie, among others. The film was banned in Malaysia (as the plot centered on an assassination attempt of a Malaysian prime minister),[52] while shots of the World Trade Center were digitally removed and hidden for the film's release after the September 11 terrorist attacks.


title: Ben Stiller

text: Over the next two years, Stiller continued with the lackluster box office film Duplex, and cameos in Orange County and Nobody Knows Anything! He has guest-starred on several television shows, including an appearance in an episode of the television series The King of Queens in a flashback as the father of the character Arthur (played by Jerry Stiller). He also made a guest appearance on World Wrestling Entertainment's WWE Raw.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2004, Stiller appeared in six different films, all of which were comedies, and include some of his highest-grossing films: Starsky & Hutch, Envy, DodgeBall: A True Underdog Story, Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy (in which he had an uncredited cameo), Along Came Polly and Meet the Fockers. While the critical flop Envy only grossed $14.5 million,[60] the most successful film of these was Meet the Fockers, which grossed over $516.6 million worldwide.


title: Ben Stiller

text: He also made extended guest appearances on Curb Your Enthusiasm and Arrested Development in the same year. In 2005, Stiller appeared in Madagascar, which was his first experience as a voice actor in an animated film. Madagascar was a massive worldwide hit, and spawned the sequels Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa in 2008 and Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted in 2012.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2006, Stiller had cameo roles in School for Scoundrels and Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny; he was executive producer of the latter. In December 2006, he had the lead role in Night at the Museum. Although not a critical favorite, it earned over $115 million in ten days.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2007, Stiller starred alongside Malin Åkerman in the romantic comedy The Heartbreak Kid. The film earned over $100 million worldwide despite receiving mostly negative reviews.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2008, Stiller directed, co-wrote, co-produced, and starred in the film Tropic Thunder, with Robert Downey Jr. and Jack Black; Stiller had originally conceived of the film's premise while filming Empire of the Sun in 1987.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2010, Stiller made a brief cameo in Joaquin Phoenix's mockumentary I'm Still Here and played the lead role in the comedy-drama Greenberg. He again portrayed Greg Focker in the critically panned but financially successful Little Fockers, the second sequel to Meet the Parents. He had planned to voice the main character in Megamind, but later dropped out while still remaining a producer and voicing a minor character in the film.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In 2011, Stiller starred with Eddie Murphy and Alan Alda in Tower Heist, about a group of maintenance workers planning a heist in a residential skyscraper. He produced, directed, and starred in The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, which was released in 2013.


title: Ben Stiller

text: In October 2016, Stiller revealed that he had been diagnosed with prostate cancer in June 2014. Following surgery, he received a cancer-free status in September 2014.