title: Das Rheingold

text: Wotan and Loge tell Alberich that they have heard how clever he is. They ask him to show them what he can do with the Tarn helmet. Alberich puts on the helmet and changes himself into a huge dragon. Wotan and Loge pretend to be impressed. They ask him whether he can change himself into something small. Alberich show off again, changing himself into a frog. Wotan immediately puts his foot on him and catches him. Wotan and Loge take all the gold and go back to Valhalla.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Wotan and Loge tease Alberich. Alberich asks them what they want so that he can be free. Wotan demands the gold. The Nibelungs pile the gold up. Alberich is not too worried, because he still has the ring which gives him magic power. He thinks he can use this power later to get the gold back. Wotan sees the ring on Alberich’s finger. He tells him to give him the ring. Alberich is terrified, but Wotan tears it from his finger. Before Alberich goes he puts a curse on the ring. Whoever has had the ring will die. This is very important to the whole story of the four operas.


title: Das Rheingold

text: The two giants appear with Freia. The gods have become very weak, but once Freia returns they start to become stronger again. Wotan tells the giants they can have their gold. The giants say that they must pile up the gold in front of Freia until they cannot see her. They do this, but the giants say there is still a tiny hole through which they can see Freia’s eye. They see the ring on Wotan’s finger and tell him to put it in the hole. Wotan says they can have anything they want but not the ring.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Erda appears. Erda is the Earth Goddess. She is very wise. She reminds Wotan that there is a curse on the ring and that he should quickly give the ring to the giants. Wotan has no choice. He puts the ring in the hole. Now the giants are happy.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Immediately, however, the giants start to argue with one another and Fafner kills Fasolt. The curse on the ring is working. Loge tells Wotan he was wise to give up the ring. However, Fricka is still worried because Wotan did have the ring.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Donner, the god of Thunder, enters and swings his hammer. There is a flash of lightning and a crash of thunder. The clouds vanish, a rainbow makes a bridge to Valhalla and the gods enter Valhalla. The Rhinemaidens are heard crying out to Wotan to give the gold back, but Wotan takes no notice. The gods are now at the height of their glory. We shall see, at the end of the fourth opera, that the curse will catch up with them and that they, too, will die.


title: Das Rheingold

text: The music of "Das Rheingold" is beautifully written to fit every person and every situation. The famous opening starts with a low chord of E flat which describes the bottom of the river Rhine. At first the notes of the chords are held on, then gradually a ripple of broken chords and arpeggios suggest the ripples of the water. The harps make a sound like the waves. The harmony just consists of the same E flat chord for the first 136 bars until the Rhine Maidens start to sing.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Each character in the opera has his own musical leitmotif which can change and combine to show their changing moods and situations. There are big, heavy chords for the giants, creepy chromatic winding music for Loge, the god of fire, who is supposed to be very crafty, dignified music for the Earth Goddess Erda etc. There is a special leitmotif for the curse, which is heard at various times in all four operas.


title: Das Rheingold

text: Wagner actually called "Das Rheingold" a "prologue" to the other three operas, which he saw as the main operas of the cycle.


title: Work (Rihanna song)

text: "Work" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It is from her eighth studio album, "Anti". The song features Canadian rapper Drake. It was released on January 27, 2016. It was the most heard song for its first day on the over 1,200 stations monitored by Nielsen music. A few hours after its release, it was sent to digital outlets such as iTunes and Google Play Music. Rihanna announced via Twitter that "Work" was the lead single for "Anti". In June 2017, the song was certified sextuple-Platinum in the US for sales and streams equal to six million copies.


title: Work (Rihanna song)

text: The song was nominated for Record of the Year and for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in 2017.


title: Work (Rihanna song)

text: The song reached number one on the iTunes charts of over 70 countries. "Work" debuted at number 9 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, which made her one of the artists with the fifth-most top-ten singles in "Billboard" history (with 27 top-ten songs), along with singer-songwriters Mariah Carey, Janet Jackson, and Elton John. In addition, the song also managed to enter the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart at number one. "Work" reached number two in the UK, number five in Australia, and topped the charts in Canada. The song became Rihanna's 14th and Drake's second number-one single on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. Rihanna became the artist with the third-most number-one songs in Hot 100 history and the second-most for a female artist. She passed Michael Jackson's record of 13 number-ones and is behind Mariah Carey's 18 chart-toppers and The Beatles' 20 number-one songs. "Work" was the third longest-running number-one song of 2016, with nine weeks at the top of the "Billboard" Hot 100 (The Chainsmokers' "Closer" featuring Halsey has spent 12 weeks at number one, and Drake's "One Dance" has spent ten weeks at the top). The song was later replaced at number one by rapper Desiigner's first single, "Panda".


title: Work (Rihanna song)

text: "Work" is about a relationship that has turned bad and using work as a distraction from the relationship. It is a reggae-pop and dancehall song.


title: Work (Rihanna song)

text: The music video was released on February 22, 2016, two days after Rihanna's 28th birthday. It first appeared on the streaming service Tidal and was later uploaded to YouTube/Vevo. The first half of the video contains scenes of a club and shows Rihanna performing Caribbean dance moves with short hair. The second half is a different version of the video, which contains a couch and neon signs, while Rihanna, wearing much longer hair, sings to Drake, and is wearing a sheer shirt. Drake is present in both versions of the video.


title: Harmonica

text: A harmonica is small musical instrument that is played with the mouth by blowing into holes in its side. Harmonicas are cheap and easy to play. Harmonicas produce their musical sounds from the vibrations of reeds in the harmonica's metal case. Harmonicas are used in blues music, folk music, rock and roll music, and pop music. A special type of harmonica, the chromatic harmonica, is used in jazz and classical music. Harmonicas are made in several different keys: G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, and F♯. Each key can play a different range of notes.


title: Harmonica

text: Harmonicas are played by blowing or sucking air into one side. On this side, there are many holes. Each hole has a different note. Different notes are played when you blow or suck air.


title: Harmonica

text: Another type of harmonica is the chromatic harmonica. More songs can be played on it than a regular harmonica, because chromatic harmonicas can play more different notes. Chromatic harmonicas have a button which moves a sliding bar. By pressing the button, the player can play a larger range of notes.


title: Harmonica

text: The harmonica is called many different names, such as: mouth organ, mouth harp, Hobo Harp, French harp, Reckless Tram, harpoon, tin sandwich, blues harp, Mississippi saxophone, or simply harp.


title: Powderfinger

text: Powderfinger was a rock band from Brisbane, Australia. The band started in 1989. The band’s members were Bernard Fanning (singer, guitarist), Darren Middleton (guitarist), Ian Haug (guitarist), John Collins (bass), and Jon Coghill (drums).


title: Powderfinger

text: After some extended plays (EPs) that sold quite well, and making one full album, Powderfinger became popular in Australia with their second album; "Double Allergic". Their third album, "Internationalist", was even more popular and made them celebrities. It sold over 350,000 copies. "Odyssey Number Five" was their fourth album and was released in 2000. It is their most famous album; it was sold overseas in the United States and Canada. Powderfinger's next two albums were not as popular as the earlier ones, but still got to number one on the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) charts.


title: Powderfinger

text: Powder finger started in Brisbane, Australia, in 1989. Ian Hag, John Collins, and Steven Bishop (drums), had been playing music with other bands, when they decided to form Powder finger. The band's name came from the song "Powder finger" by Neil Young. Haug met Bernard Fanning at university and Fanning decided to join the band. Later, Jon Coghill joined when Bishop left. Darren Middleton was the last person to join, when Powderfinger saw one of his other bands playing and invited him to join. Powderfinger started in Brisbane, Australia, in 1989. Ian Haug, John Collins, and Steven Bishop (drums), had been playing music with other bands, when they decided to form Powderfinger. The band's name came from the song "Powderfinger" by Neil Young. Haug met Bernard Fanning at university and Fanning decided to join the band. Later, Jon Coghill joined when Bishop left. Darren Middleton was the last person to join, when Powderfinger saw one of his other bands playing and invited him to join. Powderfinger started in Brisbane, Australia, in 1989. Ian Haug, John Collins, and Steven Bishop (drums), had been playing music with other bands, when they decided to form Powderfinger. The band's name came from the song "Powderfinger" by Neil Young. Haug met Bernard Fanning at university and Fanning decided to join the band. Later, Jon Coghill joined when Bishop left. Darren Middleton was the last person to join, when Powderfinger saw one of his other bands playing and invited him to join. Powderfinger started in Brisbane, Australia, in 1989. Ian Haug, John Collins, and Steven Bishop (drums), had been playing music with other bands, when they decided to form Powderfinger. The band's name came from the song "Powderfinger" by Neil Young. Haug met Bernard Fanning at university and Fanning decided to join the band. Later, Jon Coghill joined when Bishop left. Darren Middleton was the last person to join, when Powderfinger saw one of his other bands playing and invited him to join.


title: Powderfinger

text: Powderfinger released their first extended play (EP), called "Powderfinger", in 1992. This was followed by "Transfusion" in 1993. "Transfusion" was popular in Australia, and got to number one on the ARIA Alternative Chart, a chart for alternative rock music. Powderfinger signed a contract with record label Polydor after releasing "Transfusion".


title: Powderfinger

text: Their first EPs did not sell badly, so they made an album, "Parables for Wooden Ears", in 1994. It did not do very well, and Fanning said in an interview in 2004 that "the music wasn't very good". The band then released "Double Allergic" in 1996. This album became very popular in Australia; it sold more than 200,000 copies. Jonathan Lewis from Allmusic said ""Double Allergic" established Powderfinger as one of the most exciting Australian rock acts of the late 1990s". When they were making "Double Allergic", Middleton said it was the best music the band had made so far. After releasing the album, Powderfinger went on a tour with You Am I, playing at the Livid concerts.


title: Powderfinger

text: After "Double Allergic", Powderfinger began to work on their third album. The band worked in Melbourne with a new producer, Nick DiDia. In 1998, they released "Internationalist". The album went to number one on the ARIA Albums Chart, and stayed in the top 50 for 101 weeks. It sold more than 350,000 copies. "Internationalist" was the first Powderfinger album to win an ARIA Award; it won "Album of the Year", "Best Rock Album" and "Best Cover Art" at the 1999 ARIA Awards. "The Day You Come", the first single, won "Single of the Year" in 1999.


title: Powderfinger

text: On "Internationalist", Powderfinger included songs about their political opinions and social ideas, but they said this was not done on purpose. "Internationalist" sounded different to the band's first two albums. This was because the band experimented with new ways of playing their music and writing songs.


title: Powderfinger

text: Powderfinger's next album, "Odyssey Number Five" (released in 2000), is their most famous. It won many awards including "Album of the Year" from "Rolling Stone" magazine, and the 2001 "Album of the Year" ARIA Award. It also got to number one on the ARIA Albums Chart. From "Odyssey Number Five", Powderfinger released their most popular single, "My Happiness". It won the 2001 "Single of the Year" ARIA Award, and got to number four on the ARIA Singles Chart. Two songs on "Odyssey Number Five" appeared in movies; "These Days" was from the movie "Two Hands", and "My Kind of Scene" was part of "".


title: Powderfinger

text: "Odyssey Number Five" was Powderfinger's shortest album yet. Similar to "Internationalist", it talked about political and social issues. It also had numerous songs about love. Fanning liked listening to gospel music, and to soul which is often about love, and wrote his own songs after listening to that. Reviewers disagreed on the album; "Entertainment Weekly" liked it and gave it a B+, saying the album experimented well, while Allmusic gave it one-and-a-half stars out of five, saying Powderfinger were too careful and not aggressive enough. Powderfinger toured around North America with Coldplay to help promote "Odyssey Number Five".


title: Powderfinger

text: In 2003, Powderfinger released their fifth album, "Vulture Street". It was named after a street in Brisbane where the band would rehearse. "Vulture Street" got to number one on the ARIA Albums Chart, but did not stay on the chart for as long as the two albums before it. "Vulture Street" won four ARIA Awards including "Album of the Year" in 2003.


title: Powderfinger

text: "Vulture Street" contained louder guitars and drums than the albums before it, especially "Odyssey Number Five". Bernard Zuel from "The Sydney Morning Herald" said it was "a rawer, louder, but by no means unrefined, album". Some of the album was recorded during jam sessions, and was similar to what Powderfinger sounded like when playing live. Kenneth Nguyen from "The Age" said the band "play a crowd-pleasing set".


title: Powderfinger

text: In 2004, Powderfinger released a CD/DVD of themselves playing a concert in Sydney. The release was called "These Days: Live in Concert". After this they released a "best of" album called "Fingerprints: The Best of Powderfinger, 1994–2000". This included singles from their albums so far, some songs that were not released as singles but appeared on albums, and two new songs. Both compilations did well on the ARIA Albums Chart, reaching number two.


title: Powderfinger

text: After releasing "Fingerprints: The Best of Powderfinger, 1994–2000", Powderfinger said they would have a rest from working together. During this break, Bernard Fanning made his own music, releasing an album called "Tea & Sympathy". Darren Middleton released an album, called "The Way Out" with Drag, another band he plays in. Ian Haug and John Collins made a band called The Predators during this time with Steven Bishop, who had left Powderfinger around 1992. The Predators made an EP called "Pick Up the Pace".


title: Powderfinger

text: During the break, Fanning married his girlfriend, Andrea. The wives of Middleton and Haug both had children during the break.


title: Powderfinger

text: Powderfinger returned from their break and began work on their sixth album in 2006. The band recorded in Los Angeles with Rob Schnapf, and released "Dream Days at the Hotel Existence" in 2007. The album's name came from a book called "The Brooklyn Follies" that Fanning was reading when the band recorded. "Dream Days at the Hotel Existence" contained songs about politics and the lives of Indigenous Australians, and also about love. Because of the political lyrics on one song, "Black Tears", the album was nearly banned.


title: Powderfinger

text: The album sold well and was number one in Australia, like many of Powderfinger's previous albums. However, critics did not like it as much as the band's older work; Barnaby Smith of musicOMH said "the volume has been turned down", but he said that was "not always a good thing".


title: Powderfinger

text: After the album was released, Powderfinger went on a concert tour with Silverchair, another Australian band. On the tour, called the Across the Great Divide tour, the band played shows in lots of cities in Australia and New Zealand. They did the tour to help Reconciliation Australia, an Australian charity that tries to improve the lives of Indigenous Australians.


title: Powderfinger

text: Powderfinger have done a lot of work for charities and philanthropic causes. In 2004, the band played at WaveAid, a concert in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The concert made over $2 million in profit, which was donated to help survivors of the earthquake.


title: Powderfinger

text: The 2007 Across the Great Divide tour featured Powderfinger and Silverchair playing concerts across Australia to help promote Reconciliation Australia, a charity that tries to improve the lives of Indigenous Australians. More than 200,000 saw the bands play. After the tour, the bands released a DVD, which included the bands performing, and interviews with their members.


title: Powderfinger

text: In October 2007, Powderfinger played a concert at the Sydney Opera House as part of "Breast Cancer Awareness Month". Only people who had breast cancer, and their families, were invited to the show. Silverchair and Missy Higgins also performed. After the concert, Fanning said that "musicians have a guilty conscience in general about their lives being quite good and tend to be aware of social issues".


title: Mains electricity

text: Mains electricity is a type of electric power supply. In American English it is also called utility power, power grid, domestic power, and wall power. It is the form of electrical power that is delivered to homes and businesses through electrical infrastructure in many parts of the world. People use this electricity to power everyday items, including televisions and lamps, by plugging them into a wall outlet.


title: Eraser

text: An eraser, or a rubber, is a tool made from rubber that is used to get rid of marks made from a pencil, or some types of pen. Another kind of eraser is made of felt and is used to remove chalk marks from a blackboard. Some may also be automatically be attached to a pencil, or could be bought to be shoved on a top of a pencil. Erasers can be used by rubbing the mistake and it will slowly clear away. All erasers will produce some dust called debris after rubbing and it will usually be black as it cleared away the pencil marks. Some erasers produce a lot of dust while some produce dust that all stick together. There are some good-quality erasers which are very soft and can erase easily, while some are very hard, and a lot of rubbing is needed. The classic pink eraser is made for smaller, lighter errors, whereas a thick, white eraser is made for bigger and/or darker marks.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: The App Store is an online market used on Apple's iOS, managed by Apple Inc. The App Store lets users view and download applications that were made with the iOS Software Development Kit. Apps can be downloaded onto an iOS device directly, or onto a computer using iTunes (also managed by Apple).


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Apps in the App Store are made mainly for iOS devices, such as iPhones and iPads. Some apps can be downloaded for free while others have a cost. Some have "in-app purchases", which are purchases made within the app. These are sometimes done to remove ads or to add features to an app. 30% of all profit made through apps goes to Apple, while 70% goes to whoever made the app.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Apple iOS 11 App Store is the current eleventh major release of the iOS mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. It was announced and the first beta version released to developers at the company's Worldwide Developers Conference on June 5, 2017.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: In July 2008, the App Store opened with a change to iTunes. Apple could now control app quality and add extra pricing to the already set cost of an app. A day later, the iPhone 3G was launched and it came with iOS 2.0.1. This version had App Store support, and was soon made available for older iPhones and the iPod Touch. , there are over one million apps on the App Store.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: As of January, 2011, the App Store had nearly 10 billion app downloads, which the company said using the "10 Billion App Countdown". At 10:26 am (GMT) on January 22, 2011, the 10 billionth app was downloaded from Apple App Store. As of July that year, 200 million users downloaded over 15 billion apps from the store.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Average profit per app is about US$8,700, but Apple does not let the public view this data. In May 2011, Apple approved its 500,000th app.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: The success of the App Store led other companies to release their own "app stores", and now any similar service for mobiles are sometimes called app stores.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: The word "app" is now a popular word; in early 2011, "app" was given 2010s "Word of the Year" by the American Dialect Society. Apple does not have a trademark on the word "app", which has been used as short for "application" since at least the mid-1990s and in products since 2002, for example Google Apps (first introduced in 2006).


title: App Store (iOS)

text: In February 2011, Apple announced a new subscription-based service, which will allow developers to set the length and price of subscriptions. Previously, new magazine or news releases were sold as its own release. The new feature allowed publishers to sell content directly through their apps, allowing users to receive new content over specified periods of time.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: During Apple's 2012 Worldwide Developer's Conference, Apple CEO Tim Cook said that the App Store has 400 million accounts with registered credit cards, 650,000 available apps to download and "an astounding 30 billion apps" downloaded from the app store.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: When the iPhone 5 was launched, Apple changed the look of the App Store, as well as the iTunes Store and iBookstore, as part of iOS 6.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: On January 7, 2013, Apple announced that there have been over 40 billion apps downloaded from their iOS App Store, with about half of those coming in 2012.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: On February 1, 2013, Apple told developers that they could begin using appstore.com for links to their apps.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: In September 2013, Apple announced at its Worldwide Developers Conference the addition of a Kids category to the App Store with the launch of iOS 7. The category is split by age range and apps made for children under 13 must follow the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA).


title: App Store (iOS)

text: As of the end of 2013, App Store users spent over US$10 billion in 2013, and users downloaded almost three billion apps in December 2013. This was the most successful month in App Store history, and developers have earned over $15 billion since the making of the App Store.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: On July 10, 2008, Apple CEO Steve Jobs told "USA Today" that the App Store contained 500 non-Apple applications for the iPhone and the iPod Touch, and of these 25 percent were free. These applications range from business to game applications, entertainment to educational applications, and many more. On July 11, 2008, the store opened, allowing users to buy applications and put them on an iPhone or iPod Touch with iOS 2.0. Ten million applications were downloaded the first weekend.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: On January 16, 2009, Apple said on its website that 500 million applications had been downloaded. The billionth application was downloaded on April 23, 2009. In March 2012, the number of apps downloaded reached 25 billion.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Unlike the apps that come standard on the iPhone, apps downloaded from the App Store can be removed by the user at any time.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: The iPad was launched in April 2010 with over 3000 applications made for it. About eight months after the release of the iPad, over 50,000 apps were available for it.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: As of July 2011, 16 months after the iPad launched, there were over 100,000 apps available at the App Store made for the device.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: By the end of November 2011, Apple advertised in a holiday newsletter of the online Apple Store there are more than 140,000 iPad apps available.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Apple rates apps worldwide based on their content, and gives the app an age group for which is appropriate. The following are the ratings that Apple has detailed:


title: App Store (iOS)

text: , Apple used a method of reviewing apps which had flaws, and this meant that some bad apps could get past the review process.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: According to Apple statistics 62% of common app rejections occur due to the regular non-compliance with the main Apple guidelines.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: In November 2012, Boyfriend Maker, a dating sim game, was removed due to "reports of references to violent sexual acts and paedophilia" which were not appropriate to Boyfriend Maker's age rating of 4+. A modified version named Boyfriend Maker Plus was approved by Apple in April 2013.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: On March 11, 2013, HiddenApps was approved and appeared in the App Store. This app allowed access to special developer-only menus, could allow built-in apps to be hidden, and an option to turn off iAds, Apple's ad system.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: While Apple wants the App Store to be available worldwide, their market is restricted to country borders. Different countries have slightly different app stores. Some apps may only be available on the app stores of a few countries, while others can be available in many countries. Trying to use an app store of one country while in another may be a problem: Apple warns that "one of the risks of creating a German account while you are in Greece is, our system may able to detect it and it may put restrictions on your account (German) that will prevent you from using the iTunes Store".


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Other mobile devices have other app stores available for them. Some of these are made by the company that made the device, but not all are that way. Amazon.com has the Amazon Appstore for all Android users. The Google Play store (was known as Android Market) is the official store for Google's Android devices. In 2010, Microsoft created the Windows Phone Store, an online market for their Windows Phone devices. In October 2012, the Windows Store was made for Windows 8 and Windows RT computers.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Nokia also has the Ovi Store, for Nokia devices. BlackBerry has an app store named BlackBerry World. BlackBerry 10 users do not have to use BlackBerry World, they are allowed to use other app stores as well.


title: App Store (iOS)

text: Game consoles, such as the Nintendo DSi, also have their own online stores. The DSi has the "DSi Shop", while the Sony PSP (PlayStation Portable) and the PlayStation Vita have the PlayStation Store.


title: Axis powers

text: Axis countries and Axis Powers are the names for some countries that fought together against the Allies during World War II. The war ended in 1945 with the Axis powers losing and their alliances broken.


title: Axis powers

text: The most important Axis countries formed an alliance called the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis Powers (1922 to 1945). They included:


title: Axis powers

text: All three countries had authoritarian governments, which were (and still are) often referred to as fascist.


title: Dunkirk evacuation

text: The Dunkirk evacuation sometimes called Operation Dynamo or The Miracle of Dunkirk was a British mission to rescue Allied soldiers from the beaches of Dunkirk France, from 26 May to 4 June 1940. Over 300,000 Allied soldiers were trapped in Dunkirk by the German army after the Battle of Dunkirk. For some reason, the German commanders did not order an attack against the surrounded city. Winston Churchill then ordered all ships and boats available to head for Dunkirk to pick up the soldiers.


title: Dunkirk evacuation

text: Over 900 ships participated in the evacuation, consisting mostly of fishing and pleasure boats, although some larger ships also took part. Originally, their intention was to pick up 40,000 British soldiers, and it was anticipated the Germans would try to stop them. On the first day, only 8,000 soldiers were picked up from the harbour, but none from the beach. On the second day, 17,000 soldiers were evacuated including some from the beaches. On the third day, 47,000 soldiers were successfully rescued followed by 54,000 on day four, including the first French soldiers. Evacuation reached its peak on days five and six, when over 60,000 Allied soldiers escaped. By day seven, nearly all the British had left, but the boats continued to pick up 26,000 soldiers a day (nearly all French). Evacuation ended after nine days, by which time 200,000 British soldiers and 140,000 French soldiers had escaped to Great Britain.


title: Dunkirk evacuation

text: The battle of Dunkirk was a great defeat for the British and Allied forces, but most of the British Army in France and part of the French Army escaped to fight again. They lost almost all their tanks, big guns, and other heavy equipment.


title: Chevrolet Monte Carlo

text: Chevrolet Monte Carlo was a car produced by Chevrolet from 1970 through 1988 and 1995 through 2007. Beginning with the fifth generation the Monte Carlo became the replacement for the Lumina coupé, when the Lumina was discontinued GM opted for a new look which gave the car its own unique look. The car was later refreshed and made to look like a coupé version of the 2006 Impala. The model was discontinued in 2007, Chevrolet Camaro replaced the car as Chevrolet's entry level coupé. However, GM has stated the possibility of a future Monte Carlo.


title: Max Keith

text: When he was 30 years old, he worked at a German subsidiary of Coca-Cola in 1933. Sales of Coca-Cola in Germany rose from 100,000 cases in 1933 to over 4 million cases in 1939. Because of the Allied blockade, Coca-Cola GmbH was unable to get Coca-Cola syrup during World War II. The supply of regular Coca-Cola ran out in 1942. To keep the plant in operation, Keith developed a fruit flavored drink made from apple fiber, left over from cider pressings, and whey, a byproduct from cheese manufacture, creating Fanta.


title: Max Keith

text: Fanta sold three million cases in 1943, sustaining the firm's business in Germany. In 1945, at the last stages of the war, Keith was ordered by a German general to rename the subsidiary, but he refused. The general was killed in an air raid before any action was taken against Keith.


title: Rare earth element

text: Rare earth elements ("REEs") are a set of seventeen chemical elements. They include the fifteen lanthanides plus scandium and yttrium. Scandium and yttrium are rare earth elements since they are often found in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and have similar chemical properties.


title: Rare earth element

text: Although they are called rare, rare earth elements are not extremely rare on Earth. They were called this because they are spread very evenly over the Earth, so it is hard to find a lot in one place. Promethium is rare, because it is radioactive, and decays.


title: Rare earth element

text: Cerium, one of the lanthanides, is the 25th most common element in the Earth's crust. However, most rare earth elements are not found concentrated or in pure forms.


title: Rare earth element

text: This is a table of the seventeen rare earth elements, their atomic number and symbol, the origin of their names, and some of their uses. Some of the rare earths are named after the scientists who discovered them, and some are named based on where they were discovered.


title: Rare earth element

text: Rare earth elements are heavier than iron. They are made by supernovae (exploding stars). In nature, fission of uranium-238 creates very small amounts of radioactive promethium. Most promethium is synthetically created in nuclear reactors.


title: Rare earth element

text: Rare earth elements change through time in small quantities (ppm, parts per million). Their proportion can be used for geologic dating and dating fossils.


title: Rare earth element

text: The rare earth elements are often found together. The longest-lived isotope of promethium has a half life of 17.7 years. Because of this, the element exists in nature in only very small amounts. Promethium is one of the two elements that do not have stable (non-radioactive) isotopes and are followed by stable elements (the other being technetium).


title: Rare earth element

text: Because all lanthanides are close in size, the rare earth elements have always been hard to separate. Even with eons of geological time, separation of the lanthanides in nature has only rarely gone farther than the separation between light versus heavy lanthanides, otherwise known as the cerium and yttrium earths. This geochemical separation is shown in the first two rare earths that were discovered. These were yttria in 1794 and ceria in 1803. When first found, each was a mixture of all of the rare earths. Large ore bodies of the cerium earths can be found around the world and are being exploited. Ore bodies for yttrium are rarer. Also, they are usually smaller and less concentrated.


title: Rare earth element

text: Until 1948, most of the world's rare earths came from sand deposits in India and Brazil. Through the 1950s, South Africa mined most of the world's rare earths. This happened after large veins of a rare earth bearing mineral were found there.


title: Rare earth element

text: Through the 1960s until the 1980s, a mine in California was the leading producer. Today, the Indian and South African deposits still make some rare earth concentrates, but they are very small compared to the amount being produced in China. China produces over 95% of the world's rare earth supply. Most of this has been done in Inner Mongolia, even though it had only 37% of proven reserves. These numbers have since been lowered to 90% of global production and a proven reserve rate of only 23% by 2012. All of the world's heavy rare earths (such as dysprosium) come from Chinese rare earth sources such as the polymetallic Bayan Obo deposit. In 2010, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) released a study which said the United States had 13 million metric tons of rare earth elements.


title: Rare earth element

text: New demand for these elements is higher than the supply of them. The world may soon face a shortage of the rare earths. In several years from 2009, worldwide demand for rare earth elements is expected to be more than the supply by 40,000 tonnes each year unless new sources are developed.


title: Rare earth element

text: These concerns have gotten larger because of the actions of China. China has said it will put regulations on exports and work to stop smuggling. On September 1, 2009, China said it is going to lower its exports to 35,000 tons per year in 2010–2015. China said that this was done to conserve rare resources and protect the environment. On October 19, 2010 "China Daily" reported that China will "further reduce quotas for rare earth exports by 30 percent at most next year to protect the precious metals from over-exploitation". At the end of 2010 China said that the first round of exports in 2011 for rare earths would be 14,446 tons. This was a 35% decrease from the first round of exports in 2010. In September 2011 China said it was stopping production at three of its eight rare earth mines. These mines produced almost 40% of China's total rare earth production. In August 2012, China said there would be another 20% reduction in production.


title: Rare earth element

text: Because of the increased demand and the restrictions on exports of the metals from China, some countries are stockpiling rare earth resources. Searches for new sources in Australia, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Tanzania, Greenland, and the United States are taking place. Mines in these countries were closed when China undercut world prices in the 1990s. It will take a few years to restart production.


title: Rare earth element

text: The European Union has urged the Denmark protectorate Greenland to restrict Chinese development of rare-earth projects there, as China accounts for 95 percent of the world’s current supply. As of early 2013, the government of Greenland has said that it has no plans to impose such restrictions.


title: Rare earth element

text: Nuclear reprocessing is another possible source of rare earth or any other elements. Nuclear fission of uranium or plutonium creates a many elements as well as all their isotopes. However, it is not likely that creating them can be done safely and economically because of the radioactivity of many of these isotopes.


title: Rare earth element

text: Another source of rare earths is electronic waste and other wastes that have a large amount of rare earth components. New advances in recycling technology have made getting the rare earths from these ores easier to do. Recycling plants are currently operating in Japan, where there is about 300,000 tons of rare earths in unused electronics. In France, the Rhodia group is setting up two factories in La Rochelle and Saint-Fons. These factories will produce 200 tons a year of rare earths from used fluorescent lamps, magnets and batteries.


title: Rare earth element

text: China has said that resource depletion and environmental concerns are the reasons for increased nationwide control of its rare earth mineral production. Non-environmental reasons have also been suggested to explain China's rare earth policy. According to "The Economist", "Slashing their exports of rare-earth metals...is all about moving Chinese manufacturers up the supply chain, so they can sell valuable finished goods to the world rather than lowly raw materials."


title: Rare earth element

text: The United States Department of Energy in its 2010 Critical Materials Strategy report identified dysprosium as the element that was most critical in terms of import reliance.


title: Rare earth element

text: A 2011 report issued by the U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of the Interior, “China’s Rare-Earth Industry," deals with industry trends in China. It looks at national policies that may guide the future of the country's production. The report says that China’s lead in the production of rare-earth minerals has grown over the past two decades. In 1990, China accounted for only 27% of such minerals. In 2009, world production was 132,000 metric tons. China produced 129,000 of those tons. According to the report, recent patterns suggest that China will slow the export of such materials to the world: “Owing to the increase in domestic demand, the Government has gradually reduced the export quota during the past several years.” In 2006, China allowed 47 domestic rare-earth producers and traders and 12 Sino-foreign rare-earth producers to export. By 2011, there were only 22 domestic rare-earth producers and traders and 9 Sino-foreign rare-earth producers. The government’s future policies will likely keep in place strict controls: “According to China’s draft rare-earth development plan, annual rare-earth production may be limited to between 130,000 and 140,000 [metric tons] during the period from 2009 to 2015. The export quota for rare-earth products may be about 35,000 [metric tons] and the Government may allow 20 domestic rare-earth producers and traders to export rare earths.”


title: Rare earth element

text: The United States Geological Survey is searching southern Afghanistan for rare earth deposits under the protection of United States military forces. Since 2009, the USGS has done remote surveys as well as fieldwork to verify Soviet claims that volcanic rocks containing rare earth metals exist in Helmand province near the village of Khanneshin. The USGS has found an area of rocks in the center of an extinct volcano with light rare earth elements including cerium and neodymium. It has mapped 1.3 million metric tons of useful rock. This is about 10 years of supply at current demand levels. The Pentagon has estimated its value at about $7.4 billion.


title: Rare earth element

text: Rare earth elements are not exchange-traded in the same way that precious (for instance, gold and silver) or non-ferrous metals (such as nickel, tin, copper, and aluminium) are. Instead, they are sold on the private market. This makes their prices hard to monitor and track. However, prices are published periodically on websites such as mineralprices.com. The 17 elements are not usually sold in their pure form. They are usually distributed in mixtures of varying purity, e.g. "Neodymium metal ≥ 99.5%". because of this, pricing can vary based on the quantity and quality required by the end user.


title: Gypsy

text: More generally, anyone who moves around often. For some Romani Groups, calling a person a Gypsy might be considered offensive, for other Romani Groups not.


title: Ohm's law

text: Ohm's law says that in an electrical circuit, the current passing through a resistor is related to the voltage difference and the electrical resistance between the two sides, as long as the physical conditions and the temperature of the conductor remain constant. Because there are three variables, it can be written in three ways, depending on which variable is placed on the left of the equals sign:


title: Ohm's law

text: Where I is the current in amperes, "V" is the potential difference in volts, and "R" is a constant, measured in ohms, called the resistance.


title: Ohm's law

text: Voltage is how much energy is between two points on a circuit. These two points have different charges, one is higher and the other is lower. The difference between these two points of the charge is how we measure the voltage. The unit of “volt” is the name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta who created the first chemical battery.  The letter “V” represents voltage.


title: Ohm's law

text: Current is how fast the charge is flowing. The higher the charge, the faster the current. Current has to do with electrons flowing in a circuit. Current measures how fast the electrons go. The unit of the current is “ampere,” (often referred to as “amps”). The letter “I” is usually used to represent current, from the French "intensité du courant", (current intensity).


title: Ohm's law

text: Resistance is how much the circuit resists the flow of the charge. This makes sure the charge does not flow too fast and damage the components. In a circuit, a light bulb can be a resistor. If electrons flow through the light bulb, then the light bulb will light up. If the resistance is high, then the lamp will be dimmer. The unit of resistance is “Ω”,  which is called omega, and pronounced “ohm”, it is the name of the inventor of Ohm’s law.


title: Ohm's law

text: Current, Voltage, and Resistance are related, which is called “Ohm’s law”. The unit of resistance (also named an "Ohm"), is defined so that “1 Ohm” as the resistance between two points in a conductor where the application of 1 volt will push 1 ampere, or 6.241×10^18 electrons, through. This takes energy, which (depending on the component which the charge is flowing through) is usually lost as heat.


title: Ohm's law

text: For example, a scientist knows that the value of the voltage is 20V. Resistance is known, which is in the light bulb, is 10 Ω. Now we need to find the other unknown variable, which is current. The Ohm’s law formula can be used to solve it. With the two known variables, V(voltage) and R(resistance), the only variable left to find is I(current).


title: Ohm's law

text: In a problem, a scientist always gets enough information to solve the other values, the only thing a scientist has to memorize is the Ohm’s law formula. Then it is used with what is given to solve the unknown part. In the example above, the current is 2 amps.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is a chemical element with the atomic number 99. It is a synthetic element, so all isotopes are radioactive.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is the 7th element in the actinide series. The most stable isotope of Einsteinium has 99 protons and electrons and 153 neutrons. There are 19 different (radioactive) isotopes.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium is named after Albert Einstein. It was found for the first time in 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and his team of scientists in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion, and identified as an element at the University of California, Berkeley.


title: Einsteinium

text: Einsteinium has been used to create the element Mendelevium for the first time in 1955, although no practical uses are known. It has been used before as a calibration marker in a chemical analysis spectrometer.


title: Construction

text: Construction is the process of erection or assembly of any building or infrastructure on a site. In general, there are three types of construction:


title: Construction

text: Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very important component.


title: Construction

text: The first buildings were huts and shelters, constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.


title: Construction

text: Modern construction is consistently made of materials such as glass, steel, concrete and bricks. So it is easy to build simple forms like simple cubic forms. The new style of architecture is based on the economic basic principle:


title: FIFA Confederations Cup

text: The FIFA Confederations Cup (formally known as the King Fahd Cup) was an Association football tournament for national teams held by FIFA. It was played with the winner of the FIFA confederation championships (UEFA, CONMEBOL, CONCACAF, CAF, AFC, OFC), as well as the FIFA World Cup holder and the host. The number of teams was eight. The tournament was regarded as an early step on the way to the FIFA World Cup.


title: History of the St. Louis Browns

text: The St. Louis Browns were a Major League Baseball team in St. Louis, Missouri from 1902 to 1953. The team was a member of the American League. Following the 1953 season, they relocated to Baltimore, Maryland and became the Baltimore Orioles. The Browns never won a World Series and they only won the American League once (1944).


title: Korean calendar

text: The old Korean calendar tells the phases of the moon and the day in the solar year, like other older calendars of other East Asian countries. Dates are calculated from Chinese calendar. Important dates are based in Korean culture.


title: Korean calendar

text: The Gregorian calendar officially began to be used in 1896. The dates of older important Korean events are still based on the old calendar. The most important date in Korea today is Seollal, the first day of the Korean calendar's New Year. Other important events include Daeboreum (the first full moon phase, also referred to as "Boreumdaal"), Dano (spring) and Chuseok (autumn), and Samjinnal (beginning of spring). Other minor events based on the old Korean calendar include Yudu (summer), and Chilseok (monsoon season).


title: Korean calendar

text: The old Korean calendar comes from the old Chinese calendar. The Korean calendar said what its years were by using Korean era names from 270 to 963. Then Chinese era names with Korean era names were used a few times until 1894. In 1894-1895, The calendar based on the moon was used with years numbered from the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty in 1392.


title: Korean calendar

text: The Gregorian calendar began to be used on 1 January 1896, with Korean era name "Geonyang (건양 / 建陽, "adopting solar calendar")."


title: Korean calendar

text: From 1945 to 1961 in South Korea, Gregorian calendar years were counted from the start of Gojoseon in 2333 BC (regarded as year one). These Dangi (단기 / 檀紀) years were 4278 to 4294. This numbering was often used unofficially with the Korean lunar calendar before 1945. It has only sometimes been used after 1961, mostly in North Korea before 1997.


title: Korean calendar

text: In North Korea, the Juche calendar has been used since 1997 to number its years, based on the birth of Kim Il Sung.


title: Ivory Coast

text: The capital of Côte d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro but its biggest city is Abidjan. Other cities can be found at List of cities in Côte d'Ivoire.


title: Ivory Coast

text: It borders the Gulf of Guinea to the south and five other African nations. Liberia is to the southwest, Guinea to the northwest, Mali to the north-northwest, Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east.


title: Facesitting

text: Facesitting is when a woman or man sits on a man's or maybe a woman's face. People enjoy this because there is a sense of submission by the person getting facesat, where the person sitting is controlling the breath of the "seat". Can be called "queening" or "kinging".


title: Le Corbusier

text: Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris (birth name), (6 October 1887 – 27 August 1965), known by the popular name of Le Corbusier, was an architect and writer born in Switzerland. In the 1930s, he became a French citizen. He is famous for his theories about modernism in architecture. His plans included the improvement of housing for people in large cities. This was because many people lived in poverty at that time. Many of his designs have been built across the world.


title: Le Corbusier

text: Le Corbusier grew up in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a small town in the north of Switzerland. In 1907, aged 19, he moved to the French city of Paris. He travelled across Europe, and learned a lot of new ideas. He learned to speak German and worked with famous architects, such as Peter Behrens.


title: Le Corbusier

text: During World War I, Le Corbusier went back to Switzerland and became a teacher. Soon, he opened his own architectural business with his cousin, and they worked together until 1940. It was in 1918 that he met a painter, Amédée Ozenfant, who would become a great friend. They combined their ideas to create a new type of art called Purism.


title: Le Corbusier

text: After the war, Le Corbusier concentrated on his art until 1922. After this, he began designing apartments that could be stacked on top of each other, to house people and meet their needs. This type of low-density housing was to deal with the problem of over-crowding in Paris. He said this transformation was needed, or a revolution could occur from the unhappy lower classes. He created a design for an ideal city (Ville Contemporaine) that was never built. It was a plan developed around a lot of skycrapers. He presented this plan to the French government, who refused it. This did raise their awareness of overcrowding in the city though.


title: Le Corbusier

text: Le Corbusier began to dislike capitalism, and said that people's house size should depend on the size of their family, and not by how rich they were.


title: Le Corbusier

text: Le Corbusier was not active in politics from 1942. Instead, he built smaller housing blocks around France.


title: Le Corbusier

text: The name, Le Corbusier, is French. It is a different version of his grandmother's surname, Lecorbésier. The name translates in to English as "the crowlike one". He chose this name in 1920.


title: Le Corbusier

text: He considered speed in architecture by saying that house is a machine to live in. This machine's purpose is to speed up the activities of the people who live in it.


title: Le Corbusier

text: He introduced an idea of building a residence with just some slabs, columns, and, stairs. These three things can produce any kind of residence, for any class of people.


title: Topology

text: Topology is an area of Mathematics, which studies how spaces are organized and how they are structured in terms of position. It also studies how spaces are connected. It is divided into "algebraic topology", "differential topology" and "geometric topology".


title: Topology

text: Topology has been called rubber-sheet geometry. In a topology of two dimensions there is no difference between a circle and a square. A circle made out of a rubber band can be stretched into a square. There is a difference between a circle and a figure eight. A figure eight cannot be stretched into a circle without tearing.


title: Topology

text: The spaces studied in topology are called topological spaces. They vary from familiar manifolds to some very exotic constructions.


title: Topology

text: In many problems, we often divide a large space into smaller areas. For instance, a house is divided into rooms, a nation into states, a type of quantity into numbers, and so on. Each of these smaller areas (room, state, number) is next to other small areas (other rooms/states/numbers). The places where the areas meet are connections. If we write down on paper a list of spaces, and the connections between them, we have written down a description of a space -- a topological space. All topological spaces have the same properties such as connections, and are made of the same structure (a list of smaller areas). This makes it easier to study how spaces behave. It also makes it easier to write algorithms. For instance, to program a robot to navigate a house, we simply give it a list of rooms, the connections between each room (doors), and an algorithm that can work out which rooms to go through to reach any other room. For more examples of this type of problem, look at Graph theory.


title: Topology

text: We can go further by creating subdivisions of subdivisions of space. For instance, a nation divided into states, divided into counties, divided into city boundaries, and so on. All this kind of information can be described using topology.


title: The Grand Abrhot Library

text: The Grand Abrhot Library is a public library owned by the city of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. The library was opened on January 1, 2022. The Grand Abrhot Library was directed by Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed. He led the project through the idea of creating it to its final stage. The library has 4 floors. It is on of land. The book shelf cover . The Grand Abrhot library also has 8 bookstores, a meeting room, a cafeteria and a reading area for children. The parking area can hold 115 vehicles at a time. It also has a special room for people privileged to enter.


title: The Grand Abrhot Library

text: The library is able to hold over 1.4 million books on a shelf space of 1 and a half kilometers. According to Addid Ababa mayor Adanech Abebe, the library has over 300,000 papers and books of Ethiopian researchers and authors. The library also has 120,000 international papers and books of researchers and novelists. Many books have been donated to the library


title: The Grand Abrhot Library

text: The Grand Abrhot Library was openned on the 1 January 2022 by the mayor, Adanech Abebe, and Prime Minister, Abiy Ahmed. High government officials, the Minister of Education and Minister of Health were at the openning. There were celebrities there as well. During the opening of the library, Abmed gave a speech. In his speech, he "stressed the need for the country to transfer its rich history and civilization to the next generation using such libraries. The alphabets of the 18 countries is engraved on the wall of Abrhot library."


title: The Grand Abrhot Library

text: The word "Abrhot" or "Abrihot" means enlightenment. During his speech. the Prime Minister said that Ethiopians should be enlightened to knowledge.


title: Meme

text: A meme (pronounced "meem") is an idea or style which spreads because one person copies it from another.


title: Meme

text: One idea is that culture builds in a way similar to living things. An example would be how viruses spread to different organisms. Memes change as they go, creating controversy, and sculpting society. Just as a virus would, memes evolve from their state, being photoshopped, and exaggerated. Memes can be about anything.


title: Meme

text: Biologist and evolutionary theorist Richard Dawkins invented the word "meme" in 1976. He said that tunes, catch-phrases, beliefs, clothing fashions, ways of making pots, and the technology of building arches were all examples of memes.


title: Orion Arm

text: The Orion Arm, or Orion–Cygnus Arm, is a minor spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy. It is of interest because the Solar System (including the Earth) is inside it. The spiral arm is some across and approximately in length.


title: Orion Arm

text: The Orion Arm is named after the Orion constellation, one of the most prominent constellations. It is seen in the Northern Hemisphere during winter and in the Southern Hemisphere during summer. Some of the brightest stars and most famous celestial objects are in the Orion Arm: Betelgeuse, Rigel, the stars of Orion's Belt and the Orion nebula. They are shown on the interactive map below.


title: Orion Arm

text: The Orion Arm is between the Carina–Sagittarius Arm (toward the Galactic centre) and the Perseus Arm (toward the outside Universe). The Perseus Arm is one of the two major arms of the Milky Way. The Solar system is on the Orion spur, between the two longer adjacent arms Perseus and Carina-Sagittarius.


title: Orion Arm

text: Inside the Orion Arm, the Solar System is close to the inner rim, in the Local Bubble. It is about halfway along the Orion Arm's length, about from the Galactic centre.


title: Grover Cleveland

text: Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908) was the 22nd (1885–1889) and also the 24th (1893–1897) president of the United States. He was the only president to serve a second term that did not begin as soon as the first had ended. Cleveland was the first Democrat elected as president after the Civil War.


title: Grover Cleveland

text: He was known for his honesty, integrity, and having a firm stance against corruption. He believed in small government (he wanted the government to tax less and spend less and was conservative). He used the presidential veto power over 500 times, far more than most other presidents, to reject bills he disagreed with. He did not want the United States to get its military involved in Latin America.


title: Grover Cleveland

text: Cleveland was born on March 18, 1837 in Caldwell, New Jersey. He was raised in Cleveland, Ohio. Cleveland studied at New York Institute for the Blind. He was married to Frances Folsom, who was over 20 years younger. In fact, many people expected Cleveland to marry her mother Emma. He was the first president to marry in the White House. They had one child, Ruth Cleveland, during his presidency.


title: Grover Cleveland

text: During his second term, he had an emergency surgery for jaw cancer on a boat in the middle of a river to avoid publicity. Cleveland died on June 24, 1908 from a heart attack in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 71.


title: Beowulf

text: Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem. It is not known who wrote it, and there is no agreement as to when it was written. Estimates for the date range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there is no consensus. The poem has only one manuscript source, written about 1010. "Beowulf" is 3182 lines long. Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay "On translating Beowulf".


title: Beowulf

text: The protagonist of the poem is Beowulf. In the poem, Beowulf fights three monsters: Grendel and Grendel's mother, and later in his life an unnamed dragon.


title: Beowulf

text: Hrothgar, a Danish king, has built a big mead hall, which is called Heorot. Hrothgar and his people live a good life and celebrate in Heorot. But then they are attacked by Grendel, who comes to Heorot every night and kills some of Hrothgar's people.


title: Beowulf

text: Beowulf is a warrior from Geatland (modern southern Sweden). He hears of Hrothgar's troubles with Grendel. Beowulf and his men leave Geatland to help King Hrothgar.


title: Beowulf

text: Beowulf and his men stay the night in Heorot. When Grendel comes to kill them, Beowulf fights him. Beowulf tears Grendel's arm off from his body and sticks it on the wall as a trophy. Grendel runs to his home in the marshes, where he dies. Everyone is happy that Grendel is killed and celebrates.


title: Beowulf

text: But the next night, Grendel's mother comes to Heorot and kills many people for revenge and grabs Grendel's arm. Beowulf then goes to the marshes where Grendel and his mother lived. Beowulf fights Grendel's mother and kills her.


title: Beowulf

text: Beowulf later becomes a king. He fights a dragon that was living in a barrow. With the help of the young man Wiglaf, Beowulf kills the dragon. Beowulf is wounded in the final battle and dies and crowns Wiglaf as his successor.


title: Beowulf

text: The story of "Beowulf" has often been told in books, plays, and films. Sometimes the full story is told, sometimes just parts of the story. Sometimes the plot is altered. Sometimes only ideas or themes are taken from the story.


title: Atoll

text: An atoll is a kind of island. It is made when a coral reef forms around an island that sinks over many years. In the end, the land is gone, and only the coral reef continues to grow until it becomes an atoll, a group of islands shaped like a doughnut.


title: Atoll

text: Charles Darwin, who is most famous for his theory of evolution, was the first person to find out how atolls form. He said that volcanoes in the ocean sometimes wear away or sink deeper. Coral growing on a volcano needs to be near the surface, and it keeps growing to stay there.


title: Atoll

text: Some island nations like Kiribati, Tuvalu, and the Federated States of Micronesia have atolls as all or part of their country.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: The Battle of Marathon took place in September 490 B.C. on the plain of Marathon. It was fought between the Athenians and the Persians. Athens was supported by a small force from the city of Plataea. The battle was the end of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to conquer Greece. It was part of the first Greco-Persian war.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: The Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt. Then, Athens and Eretria had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia, who were trying to overthrow Persian rule. The Athenians and Eretrians succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but were forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn Athens and Eretria to the ground.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: Once the Ionian revolt was crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade, Darius began planning to conquer Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, the group of Greek islands in the Aegean Sea. The next step was to attack Athens and Eretria. After a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians defeated, captured and burnt Eretria. "/


title: Battle of Marathon

text: The Persian force then sailed for Attica. They landed on Schinias beach on the east end of Marathon bay. The broad field, called the plain of Marathon, was flat, level and ideal for battle. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and blocked the two exits from the plain of Marathon. Stalemate ensued for five days. Then, for reasons that are not clear, the Athenians decided to attack the Persians. Despite the numerical advantage of the Persians, the Greek hoplites proved very effective against the more lightly armed Persian infantry. They routed the Persian wings before turning in on the centre of the Persian line.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: The defeat at Marathon was a decisive victory that marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. The Persian force retreated to Asia. Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece. However, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, postponing any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten. The eventual Greek triumph in these wars began at Marathon. The next two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been so influential in western society. This is why the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a key moment in European history.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: John Stuart Mill suggested that "the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings". The Battle of Marathon is perhaps now more famous as the inspiration for the Marathon race. Although historically inaccurate, the legend of a Greek messenger running to Athens with news of the victory became the inspiration for this athletic event, introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics, and originally run between Marathon and Athens.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: When the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: "At them". Most likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone", (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy. Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed mainly of missile troops (archers, spear-throwers).


title: Battle of Marathon

text: All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians. Passing through the hail of arrows, protected for the most part by their armour, the Greek line finally collided with the enemy army. Holland provides an evocative description:


title: Battle of Marathon

text: "The enemy directly in their path...realised to their horror that [the Athenians], far from providing the easy pickings for their bowmen, as they had first imagined, were not going to be halted...The impact was devastating. The Athenians had honed their style of fighting in combat with other phalanxes, wooden shields smashing against wooden shields, iron spear tips clattering against breastplates of bronze...in those first terrible seconds of collision, there was nothing but a pulverizing crash of metal into flesh and bone; then the rolling of the Athenian tide over men wearing, at most, quilted jerkins for protection, and armed, perhaps, with nothing more than bows or slings. The hoplites' ash spears, rather than shivering...could instead stab and stab again, and those of the enemy who avoided their fearful jabbing might easily be crushed to death beneath the sheer weight of the advancing men of bronze."


title: Battle of Marathon

text: The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies (conscripted troops) on the flanks, before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre, which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre. The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships, pursued by the Greeks. Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned. The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though most were able to launch.


title: Battle of Marathon

text: Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield. It is unknown how many more died in the swamps. The Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11.


title: Anne Hathaway

text: Anne Jacqueline Hathaway (born November 12, 1982) is an Academy Award winning American movie and stage actress. She played the princess in "The Princess Diaries" and "The Princess Diaries 2". In Tim Burton's 2010 movie, "Alice in Wonderland", she played the White Queen. She played Catwoman in Christopher Nolan's 2012 superhero movie "The Dark Knight Rises" and Fantine in "Les Misérables".


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: The modern day European Netherlands are divided into twelve provinces ("provincies" in Dutch). The Caribbean Netherlands and other countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands are completely separate.


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: A Dutch province is the administrative layer in between the national government and the local municipalities. It has the responsibility for matters of regional importance. The government of each province is made of three major parts: the "Provinciale Staten" which is the provincial parliament elected every four years. Elected from its members are the "Gedeputeerde Staten", a college charged with most executive tasks. This college is presided by the "Commissaris van de Koningin" or royal commissioner, appointed by the Crown.


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: Almost all Dutch provinces came from a medieval state, like a county or duchy. This is the same with the regions of Belgium. Their status changed once they came under the influence of a ruler. This single ruler then centralised their administration. They then became provinces of a larger state. In total there are 17 provinces today. From these unified Netherlands, seven northern provinces formed the Republic of the Seven United Provinces in the 16th century. These were Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland, Utrecht, Friesland, Overijssel and Groningen. The Republic's lands also included Drenthe (one of the 17, but without the autonomous status of the others), and parts of Brabant, Limburg and Flanders, which were considered to be "conquered lands" and were governed directly by the "Staten-Generaal", the parliament. From this came their name Generality Lands. They were called "Staats-Brabant", "Staats-Limburg" and "Staats-Vlaanderen", meaning "of the state". Each of these "Netherlands" had a high degree of autonomy. They co-operated with each other mainly on defense and on the international level in general. They kept to their own affairs elsewhere.


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: On January 1, 1796, during the Batavian Republic, Drenthe and Staats-Brabant became the eighth and ninth provinces of the Netherlands; the latter known as "Bataafs Brabant", Batavian Brabant, changing its name to "Noord Brabant", North Brabant, in 1815 when it became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This kingdom also contained (then) South Brabant, a province in Belgium. This new unified state featured the provinces in their modern form. Today, they are non-autonomous subdivisions of the national state. There are again numbering 17 provinces, though not all are the same as the 16th century ones. In 1839, with the independence of Belgium, the original single province of Limburg was divided between the two countries. Each country now has a province called Limburg. A year later, Holland, the largest and most populous of the Dutch provinces, was also split into two provinces for a total of 11. The 12th member was to be Flevoland, a province consisting almost entirely of reclaimed land, established on January 1, 1986.


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: During the Batavian Republic, the Netherlands were from 1798 to 1801 completely reorganised into 8 new departments, most named after rivers, inspired by the French revolutionary example, in an attempt to do away with the old autonomous provincial status. They are listed below, with their capitals and the territory of the former provinces they mostly incorporated:


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: After only three years, following a coup d'état, the borders of the former provinces were restored, though not their autonomous status. They were now also called "departments" and Drenthe was added to Overijssel. In 1806 the Kingdom of Holland replaced the republic to further French interests. It was during this administration that Holland was first split in two, with the department of "Amstelland" to the north and that of "Maasland" to the south. East Frisia, then as now in Germany, was added to the kingdom as a department in 1807 and Drenthe split off again making a total of 11 departments.


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: When the Netherlands finally did become fully part of France in 1810, the departments of the kingdom and their borders were largely maintained, with some joined together. They were however nearly all renamed, again mainly after rivers, though the names differed from their Batavian counterparts. Following are their names and the modern day province they corresponded for the most part to:


title: Provinces of the Netherlands

text: With the defeat and withdrawal of the French in 1813, the old provinces and their names were re-established, Holland was reunited and East-Frisia went its separate way. The 17 provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands were for a significant part based on the former French departments and their borders, in particular in what would later become Belgium.


title: Wombat

text: A wombat is a marsupial in the family Vombatidae. It lives in the Australian eucalypt forests. There are two genera with three living wombat species; the common wombat and the hairy-nosed wombats.


title: Wombat

text: It is a medium-sized animal that makes a burrow by digging holes in the ground. Wombats are usually around a metre (40 in) long when they are fully grown. It is a kind of animal known as a marsupial because it has a pouch on its belly that holds its young, although it faces back instead of forward like most marsupials. Having the pouch face backwards prevents dirt from building up in the pouch and hitting the offspring in the face when digging. When its young are born they spend some time growing in their mother's pouch before going into the world. Wombats are herbivores. They eat plants, roots, and grasses. They are nocturnal which means they sleep in the day and come out at night. Some wombats have thick brown fur and very small ears. They can weigh from 20 to 35 kilograms (45 to 80 lb). They can live up to 7 years.


title: Wombat

text: Wombats are commonly known and recognised by their waste products. They are the only known mammals that excrete feces in cubic shape. This lets people easily know when wombat habitats are nearby. It also tells simply what the wombat may have eaten by examining the feces thoroughly.


title: Webpage

text: A webpage (or web page) is a document from the internet which can be seen with a web browser. Web pages each have a URL or address, which is how a page is found, and is different for every page. When a webpage is part of a larger group of pages managed by a company, person, or organization, it is part of a website.


title: Webpage

text: For example, this article is a webpage. It has the URL https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webpage, and is part of the Wikipedia website. It has words and links. The links in this page are shown in blue and can be clicked to go to other webpages.


title: Webpage

text: Web pages are usually stored in HTML code which describes what to show on the page like words or pictures. Web pages also use two other types of code to tell the page how to work:


title: Sibling species

text: The classic case is "Drosophila pseudoobscura" and "D. persimilis". They are almost identical, but if flies from one species are put with flies from the other species, they do not interbreed. Another example was the European mosquito known as "Anopheles maculipennis". This turned out to be a cluster of six different species, some of which transmit malaria, and some do not.


title: Henry II of France

text: Henry II of France (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois. Henry was crowned King in Rheims, France, on July 25, 1547.


title: Henry II of France

text: Henry was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on March 31, 1519. His parents were Francis I of France and Claude of France.


title: Henry II of France

text: Henry was married to Catherine of Medici on October 28, 1533 when he was only 14 years old. Their children were:


title: Henry II of France

text: Henry did not love Catherine of Medici. He spent most of his time with his mistress, who was called Diane de Poitiers.


title: Henry II of France

text: Henry died on July 10, 1559 after a jousting accident. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. The next King was Francis II of France.


title: Cwichelm of Wessex

text: Cwichelm (died circa 636) was the King of the Gewisse, although more commonly called the King of Wessex. He reigned from 626 until his death. He was a pagan king who became a Christian shortly before his death.


title: Cwichelm of Wessex

text: Cwichelm was the son of Cynegils, King of Wessex. He ruled jointly with his father. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for 614 says Cynegils and Cwichelm fought at a place named Beandun, which cannot be identified. The account went on to say they slew two thousand sixty-five Welsh. Another chronicle entry for 627 (corrected to 626) states an Eomer was sent by "Cwichelm, king of the West Saxons, thinking to stab king Eadwine". It goes on to say Eomer stabbed his thane, Lilla, and a Forthere but only wounding the king. The plot to kill the Northumbrian king failed and the following year Eadwine (Edwin) sent an army to punish Wessex. The next mention of Cwichelm in the chronicle is for the year 628. It states that Cyngils, king of Wessex, and Cwichelm his son 'fought with Penda at Cirencester and came to an agreement with him there'. The agreement seems to have been to give Cirencester to Penda. In 634 Pope Honorius I sent Bishop Birinus to England. When he reached the territory of the Gewisse (Wessex) he found them almost completely pagan. He began to convert the West Saxons to Christianity. In 635 Cynegils was baptized and King Oswald of Northumbria stood as his Godfather. In 636 Cwichelm was baptised at Dorchester. He died later in the same year (636). Although he died before his father, both were succeeded by his brother Cenwalh in 643.


title: Oblast

text: Oblast is a type of administrative division in most Slavic countries and some countries of the former Soviet Union. The word "oblast" is used in English as well, but it is often translated as "area", "zone", "province", or "region". The last translation may lead to confusion, because the subdivision of "oblast" is called "raion" which can be translated as "region" or "district" as well.


title: Oblast

text: Oblasts are a type of administrative division of Belarus, Bulgaria, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Ukraine, it was also used by the Soviet Union which does not exist anymore. Official terms in successor states of the Soviet Union differ, the majority (except Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and the Baltics) still use a cognate of the Russian term, e.g. voblast (voblasts, voblasts' , ) is used for provinces of Belarus, and oblys (plural: oblystar) for provinces of Kazakhstan.


title: Oblast

text: Since 1997, Bulgaria has been divided into 28 "oblasti", usually translated as "provinces". Before, the country was divided into nine bigger units, also called "oblast".


title: Oblast

text: In the Russian Empire, oblasts were considered to be administrative units and were included as parts of Governorates General or krais. The majority of then-existing oblasts were on the periphery of the country or covered the areas where Cossacks lived.


title: Oblast

text: In the former Soviet Union, oblasts were one of the types of administrative divisions of the union republics. As any administrative units of this level, oblasts were composed of districts ("raions") and cities/towns directly under oblasts' jurisdiction.


title: Oblast

text: The names of oblasts did not usually correspond to the names of the historical regions, as they were created as purely administrative units. With a few exceptions, Soviet oblasts were named after their administrative centers.


title: Oblast

text: According to the Constitution of Russia, oblasts are considered to be subjects of the Federation, which is a higher status than that of administrative units they had within the Soviet Union. The federal subject status gives the oblasts some degree of autonomy and gives them representation in the Federation Council.


title: Oblast

text: Oblasts were administrative units of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes between 1922 and 1929. During that period, the country was divided into 33 oblasts. In 1929, oblasts were replaced with larger administrative units known as "banovinas".


title: Oblast

text: During the Wars] that split Yugoslavia several Serbian Autonomous Oblasts were formed in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. These oblasts were later merged into the Republic of Serbian Krajina and the Republika Srpska.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Cocaine withdrawal happens when a person who uses a lot of cocaine stops using cocaine. It can also happen when a person who uses a lot of cocaine starts using less cocaine than they did before.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Cocaine (also called coke) is a powerful stimulant. It is an illegal drug outside of hospital usage. It makes people feel very happy, talkative, energetic, and not want to eat as much food.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: After using cocaine regularly, some users will become addicted. When a person who is used to using cocaine stops right away, they will go through what is called a "crash" along with many of other cocaine withdrawal symptoms, like:


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Some cocaine users also report having similar symptoms to schizophrenia patients and feel that their mind is lost. Some users also report formication: feeling like things are crawling on the skin (also called, "coke bugs" or "spiders"). These symptoms can last for weeks or, in some cases, months.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Even after many withdrawal symptoms go away, most users feel like they need to keep using cocaine. This feeling can last for years and may get worse during times of stress. About 30-40% of cocaine addicts start using other kinds of drugs or alcohol after they stop using cocaine.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: "Twelve-step programs" like Cocaine Anonymous (modeled on Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous) have been widely used to help people addicted to cocaine. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Motivational Therapy (MT) have proven to be more helpful than 12-step programs in treating cocaine dependency. However, both of these approaches have a fairly low success rate.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Ibogaine has been researched a treatment for cocaine dependency. It is used in clinics in Mexico, the Netherlands, and Canada, but it cannot be used legally in the United States.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Non-drug treatments like acupuncture and hypnosis have been studied. However, these studies have not clearly shown that acupuncture or hypnosis helps with cocaine withdrawal.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Cocaine addiction continues to be the second-most difficult addiction to manage, behind heroin addiction.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Medications that have been studied to treat cocaine withdrawal include acetylcysteine, baclofen, bupropion, vanoxerine, and vigabatrin.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: The anti-depressant desipramine, and the stimulants methylphenidate and pemoline, have been used to treat cocaine dependence in people who also have a mental illness.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: Finally, drugs have been used to cause an "aversion reaction" (a very bad reaction) when given with cocaine. The most common of these drugs is phenelzine.


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: On February 14, 2011, two Swiss psychologists published two years' research on cocaine addiction. They found that addicts who gambled were less likely to use cocaine or to relapse on cocaine. They think gambling may refocus the brain's "reward center" from cocaine to gambling. They said that psychotherapy should be used along with gambling. More research is being done on long-term relapse rates (the number of people who eventually start using cocaine again).


title: Cocaine withdrawal

text: However, a more recent study looked at prize-based contingency management: a treatment method that offers addicts chances to win prizes if they do not use cocaine. This study found that prize-based contingency management helped cocaine addicts stay off cocaine, whether or not they had gambled recently. This suggests that it is the chance of a reward, not the gambling itself, that helps cocaine addicts stay off of cocaine.


title: The Gambia

text: The Gambia is officially called the Republic of the Gambia. This country is also known as Gambia. It is a country in West Africa. It is surrounded by Senegal. It is the smallest country on mainland Africa.


title: The Gambia

text: The geography of Gambia is unusual. It is a long, thin country. Except for its coastline it is completely surrounded by the country of Senegal. The River Gambia flows from Senegal through its centre and into the Atlantic Ocean.


title: The Gambia

text: The Gambia gained independence from the United Kingdom on 18 February 1965. It was ruled by Dawda Jawara and his People's Progressive Party (PPP) from 1965 to 1994. There was a military take-over in 1994. In 1996, Yahya Jammeh became president. Then in 2016, Adama Barrow was elected.


title: The Gambia

text: The population of The Gambia is about 1.7 million. People from The Gambia are called Gambians. A number of people from different cultures and backgrounds live in The Gambia. Some of the largest groups are called "Mandinka", "Fula", "Wolof" and "Jolo", in that order.


title: The Gambia

text: The American writer Alex Haley, who wrote the book "Roots", found that his family came from The Gambia in the 1760s.


title: OpenOffice Impress

text: OpenOffice Impress, a part of the OpenOffice office suite package and created by Sun Microsystems, is a presentation program similar to Microsoft PowerPoint. In addition to being able to create PDF files from presentations, it is also able to export presentations to SWF files, allowing it to be played on any computer with a Flash player installed. It is able to view, edit and save files in many file formats, including the .ppt format, which is used by Microsoft PowerPoint. Impress is distributed (spread) under an open source licence so people can download it as free software. It released under the terms of the Apache License.


title: OpenOffice Impress

text: OpenOffice Impress users can install the Open Clip Art Library, which adds a large amount of images for general presentation and drawing projects. Linux distributions Debian, Gentoo, Mandriva and Ubuntu have given the ready-to-use "openclipart" package for download and install from their online software repositories.


title: Carbon monoxide

text: Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It consists of one carbon atom covalently bonded to one oxygen atom. It is made when carbon compounds burn and there is not enough oxygen. It is a good fuel and burns in air with a blue flame, making carbon dioxide. It is very toxic, but it is useful for modern technology as well.


title: Carbon monoxide

text: The most important use for carbon monoxide in industry is making iron from iron ore. The carbon monoxide takes the oxygen from the iron ore when heated in a large oven called a blast furnace. Liquid metal iron is left behind. The carbon monoxide turns into carbon dioxide.


title: Carbon monoxide

text: Carbon monoxide can accidentally form when there is too little air to burn all the fuel into carbon dioxide. Such a situation may happen if the oven shutters are closed too early or if a mobile cooker is used in a small tent with no ventilation (Ventilation is fresh air coming in and smoke going out). Many people have died from carbon monoxide poisoning. Carbon monoxide poisoning can cause feelings of paranoia and hallucinations, and has been determined to be a major cause of "haunted" houses. Small amounts of it are found in coal gas, a fuel produced by heating coal without any air.


title: Carbon monoxide

text: Despite that it is a poison, carbon monoxide is very useful in chemical industry so lots of ways of making it have been discovered. Normally we burn coke at high temperature with not enough oxygen. Blast furnaces work this way. The chemical equation for this is:


title: Carbon monoxide

text: Carbon monoxide can be used as heating fuel because it burns easily into carbon dioxide. It can also be used as so-called "synthesis gas" for making man-made gasoline in the Fischer-Tropsch process.


title: Carbon monoxide

text: During the World War II when petrol was rare and reserved for the military, many cars were converted to use "wood gas". It is carbon monoxide made by burning wood chips in insufficient amount of air. The wood gas was made in a special oven called "generator", which was carried on the car. The resulting carbon monoxide was then used as fuel for the car itself. Even today there are cars which use wood gas as fuel.


title: St Paul's Cathedral

text: St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican church in the City of London. The original version was built by Mellitus in 604 AD. He was Bishop of the East Saxons.


title: St Paul's Cathedral

text: In 962 and 1087, the cathedral burnt down and was built again. Before today's version of the cathedral, there were four others. The earlier ones burnt down.


title: St Paul's Cathedral

text: Today's cathedral is made of limestone. It was built after the Great Fire of London in 1666 had destroyed the "Old St Paul's". Its architect was Sir Christopher Wren, who designed a further 50 churches. Wren designed it in the Renaissance style. St Paul's is a popular tourist attraction and is still used as a church today. It is the cathedral of the Church of England Diocese of London.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: Lee Hsien Loong (b. 10 February 1952) is the current Prime Minister of Singapore. His father is Lee Kuan Yew, first Prime Minister of Singapore.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: Lee Hsien Loong was born in Kandang Kerbau Hospital (presently known as KK Women's and Children's Hospital). He is the first child of Lee Kuan Yew and Kwa Geok Choo.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: In August 2004, Goh Chok Tong stepped down as Prime Minister, while Lee Hsien Loong took over the position. He then became the General Secretary of People's Action Party (PAP).


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: In 1971, Lee joined the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). Lee was promoted to very high rank quickly in the Singapore Army. In July 1983, he became the youngest Brigadier General in Singapore. He left SAF in 1984.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: In the 1980s, Lee Kuan Yew said he will step down as Prime Minister in 1984. Lee Hsien Loong was considered in the list of new leaders in PAP.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: In 1984, at 32, He was elected an MP. His father immediately assigned him as a Minister of State for some ministries.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: In 1987, he joined in the Cabinet as the Minister for Trade and Industry and Second Minister for Defence.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: From 2008 to 2012, Lee's salary is S$3.87 million every year. He had a salary increase of 25%, it was originally S$3,091,200.


title: Lee Hsien Loong

text: In January 2012, his salary was reduced to S$2.2 million due to the public then complaining about his unfair salary. But, he is still the prime minister with the highest salary in the world.


title: Elba

text: Elba () is third largest island of Italy, after Sardinia and Sicily. The land area of the island is about . The coastline is about 147 km. The highest mountain is Monte Capanne at 1018 metres (3340 feet). Elba and the other islands (Gorgona, Capraia, Pianosa, Montecristo, Giglio and Giannutri) of the Tuscan Archipelago are protected in the National Park of the Tuscan Archipelago. The French island of Corsica lies about 50 km to the west. Recently, the island has become famous for its wine.


title: Elba

text: The island is divided into eight communes: Portoferraio, Campo nell'Elba, Capoliveri, Marciana, Marciana Marina, Porto Azzurro, Rio Marina and Rio nell'Elba. The island has a population of about 30 000 people.


title: Elba

text: The island was well known in to the last century for the iron resources. Mines were created by the Etruscans first and (after 480 BC) the Romans. After the end of the Roman Empire, the island knew barbarians and Saracens. In the early 11th century it became a part of the Republic of Pisa. In 1398, was sold to the Visconti family of Milan. After a few years, the island was acquired by the Appiani, Lords of Piombino, who kept it for two centuries. In 1546 part of the island was controlled by Cosimo I de' Medici. He fortified Portoferraio and renamed it "Cosmopoli". In 1577, the rest of the island was returned to the Appiani. In 1603 Philip II of Spain captured Porto Azzurro and built two fortresses there.


title: Elba

text: In 1802 the island became a part of France. Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I was exiled to Elba after his forced abdication in 1814 and arrived at Portoferraio on May 3, 1814 to begin his exile there. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men. Napoleon stayed on Elba for 300 days before he escaped and returned to France on February 26 for the Hundred Days. Thanks to Napoleon Elba is well known around the world. In the Congress of Vienna the island was given to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In 1860 it became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy.


title: Elba

text: There is an airport on the island, the "Airport Marina di Campo", that can connect the island with the big cities of: Friedrichshafen, Munich and Zürich.


title: Courtship in animals

text: Courtship in animals is the behaviour by which different species select their partners for reproduction. Usually, the male starts the courtship, and the female chooses to either mate or reject the male based on his "performance".


title: Courtship in animals

text: Many animals have mate-selection courtship rituals. Animal courtship may involve complicated dances or touching, vocalizations, or displays of beauty or fighting prowess. One animal whose courtship rituals are well studied is the bowerbird, whose male builds a "bower" of collected objects. Another is the Great Crested Grebe, whose courtship dances were first described by Julian Huxley.


title: Courtship in animals

text: In cases like the Great Crested Grebe, the pairs form life (or at least long-lasting) partnerships. In that case, there are also pair-bonding dances throughout the mating season, and through the whole period of raising the young. If pairs get separated, there are exceptionally vigorous dances when they come together. There are a number of "dance routines" which occur in the different circumstances of life. All this behaviour is inherited, though the individual bird remembers the place and the partner permanently.


title: Courtship in animals

text: It might be thought that courtship only occurs in the kind of animals which have fairly complex brains, such as mammals and birds. This is not the case. Male "Drosophila" flies have to do a mating dance in front of the female before she will allow them to mate. If the dance is not "correct" for that species, she refuses the male. It was discovered over fifty years ago that, if the male carries a mutation which disrupts the dance, he cannot achieve mating: the females reject him. This behaviour is clearly advantageous to the female, whose genes have a better chance of contributing to the next generation if her partner is biologically fit. "Drosophila" are by no means the only insects which have mating rituals.


title: Courtship in animals

text: Mating ritual evolved because it is advantageous for females to have choice of partners. If the female has sperm from more than one male, then sperm competition comes into play. This is competition between sperms to fertilize the egg (only a single sperm achieves the union). In some insects, the male injects a cocktail of chemicals in the seminal fluid together with the sperm. The chemicals kill off older sperms (from any previous mating), up-regulates females' egg-laying rate, and reduces her desire to re-mate with another male. The cocktail also shortens the female's lifespan, so reducing her likelihood of mating with other males. Also, some females can get rid of the previous male's sperm.


title: Courtship in animals

text: After mating has taken place, males do various things to stop the female mating again. What the male does depends on the species. In some species, the male plugs the female opening after insemination. In some hymenoptera, the male provides a huge quantity of sperms, enough for the female's long life. In birds and mammals, the male may fight off other candidate males.


title: Courtship in animals

text: Thus, courtship is the visible part of a complex series of events whereby the males and females come together for mating. The continuation of pair-bonding after mating is common in birds and mammals because the survival of their genes depends on the fertilized eggs reaching maturity. If that requires support from "both" parents, the rituals are the way the pair keep connected. Established pairs, even in the Great Crested Grebe, will live as singles (often in a large group) outside the mating season.