title: Titanic

text: Alexander Brehm, a German physicist, was shocked when he heard about the disaster. He wanted to invent a technology that would be able to detect icebergs. He wasn't able to achieve that goal until his death, but he was granted patents relating to the measurement of the depth at sea, using sound. Today, this is known as echo sounding.


title: Titanic

text: The wreck was found by a French and American team, led by Robert Ballard, on September 1, 1985 early that morning.


title: Titanic

text: The story of the sinking has been made into several movies. The most popular film version is a 1997 film starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio called "Titanic". It won 11 Academy Awards, tying "Ben-Hur" for the record for the most Academy Awards won by one movie.


title: Titanic

text: Other movie versions of the story include the 1958 film "A Night to Remember", the 1953 film "Titanic", the 1979 film "S.O.S. Titanic "and the 1996 movie "Titanic".


title: Titanic

text: In the 1980 film Raise the Titanic, Directed by Jerry Lameson, salvagers raise the shipwreck from the bottom of the ocean to the surface. However, this is impossible to do in reality. The "Titanic" broke in two, and the wreck is partially stuck in the bottom, buried under more than a yard (1 m) of mud in some spots. The ship has been on the ocean floor for more than 100 years, and would shatter into many more pieces if disturbed. Worms and other animals have eaten away much of the wood and many other parts.


title: Plum

text: A plum is a sweet fruit that grows on a plum tree. The scientific name for the tree is "Prunus" "domestica". When the fruit is dried, it is called a prune. The color "plum" takes its name from the fruit.


title: Plum

text: Prunus domestica is the European plum. Most of the plums we eat are grown on varieties of this tree. Greengages and damsons are varieties of plum.


title: Plum

text: The plant is usually a large shrub or a small tree. It has attractive white blossom in spring. The branches often have thorns. The fruit can be up to 8 cm across, and is usually sweet (dessert plum). Some varieties are sour and require cooking with sugar. The fruit has a single large seed inside.


title: Plum

text: Some plum trees need another plum tree growing nearby to fertilise the flowers. Without this the plum tree may not produce any fruit.


title: Plum

text: Plum colored plums are called "purple plums" and are a deep purple color; other plums are reddish purple. Some other plums can be yellow, red, green or even white. The fruit has a groove running down one side, and a smooth stone (seed). The flesh of the fruit is brownish and is very juicy. The skin can be eaten. It can also be used to make jam and the juice can be used to make wine. It is closely related to the apricot.


title: Plum

text: Plums come in a wide variety of colors and sizes. Some are much firmer-fleshed than others, and some have yellow, white, green or red flesh, with equally varying skin color. These are some of the best-kown:


title: Architecture

text: Architecture is the process of designing structures andbuildings. It uses both art and engineering. Examples include houses, churches, hotels, office buildings, roads, viaducts, tunnels and bridges.


title: Architecture

text: Architecture is the profession of an architect. Usually, a person must study at an institution of higher education (university) to become an architect. There were architects long before there was higher education. They learnt by being an apprentice to an established architect.


title: Architecture

text: Architecture can do small designs, such as for a garage, or large designs, such as for a whole city. The capital cities of Brasília, and Canberra were designed. Architects often work with structural engineers to make structurally sound buildings.


title: Architecture

text: In the past, people built huts and wood houses to protect themselves from the weather. For safety, they were often close together. Great civilizations like the Ancient Egyptians built large temples and structures, like the Great Pyramids of Giza. The Ancient Greeks and Romans made what we now call "Classical Architecture". The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the arch from the Etruscans, who copied it from the Mesopotamians.


title: Architecture

text: Classical architecture was formal, and it always obeyed laws. It used symmetry, which really means balance, and it used proportion between shapes. The Golden Mean was a rule which said, (to put it simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times as long as the short side. There are many 'laws' in classical architecture, like how high the middle of an arched bridge needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from thousands of years of experience and they are often used today. However, today more notice is taken of specific facts, such as what wind speeds occur once or twice in a century. Several bridges have blown down because that was not properly taken into consideration.


title: Architecture

text: In some parts of the world, like India, the architecture is famous for carving the stone on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles occur in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, Mexico, and Central and South America.


title: Architecture

text: Architects in Western Europe in the Middle Ages made Romanesque architecture, then Gothic architecture. Gothic buildings have tall, pointed windows and arches. Many churches have Gothic architecture. Castles were also built at this time. In Eastern Europe, churches usually had domes. People added their own ideas and decoration to the Classical Architecture of the past. The Renaissance brought a return to classical ideas.


title: Architecture

text: In the late 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, people began to invent machines to make things quickly and cheaply. Many factories and mills were built during, or after this revolution. Decades later, in the Victorian era, architects like George Fowler Jones and Decimus Burton still followed the Gothic style to build new churches. Up to this point, buildings were limited in size and style by the strength of the wood and masonry used to construct them. Gothic cathedrals were among the largest buildings because the gothic arch when combined with buttresses allowed stone buildings to be built taller. For example, the cathedral in Ulm, Germany is over 500 feet tall. However, building with stone has its limits, and building too tall could result in collapse. This happened to the Beauvais Cathedral, which was never completed.


title: Architecture

text: Towards the end of the 19th Century with a second Industrial Revolution, steel became much cheaper. Architects began to use inventions like metal girders and reinforced concrete to build. An example is the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Buildings can now be built taller than ever before. We call them skyscrapers. This new technology has made us free from traditional limitations, and because of the new possibilities presented by these materials, many traditional methods of construction and ideas about style were reevaluated, replaced, or abandoned. Cheap, strong glass soon brought transparent exterior walls, especially for office buildings.


title: Architecture

text: Modernism is the name for the architectural style which developed because of these new building technologies, and its beginnings can been seen as early as 1890. Modernism can also refer to a specific group of architects and buildings from the early to late 20th century, and so may not be the proper term to use for many building built since then, which are sometimes called "post-modern".


title: Architecture

text: Many of the world's greatest structures were built by modern-day architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright; Sir Hugh Casson; Norman Foster; I. M. Pei; Adrian Smith; Edward Durell Stone; Frank Gehry; Fazlur Khan; Gottfried Böhm; and Bruce Graham.


title: Can't Help Falling in Love

text: "Can't Help Falling in Love" is a 1961 song recorded by American singer Elvis Presley for the album "Blue Hawaii" (1961). It was written by Hugo Peretti, Luigi Creatore, and George David Weiss. It was published by Gladys Music, Inc.


title: Can't Help Falling in Love

text: The song was originally written for a woman as "Can't Help Falling in Love with Him", which explains the first and third line ending on "in" and "sin" instead of words rhyming with "you".


title: Can't Help Falling in Love

text: In the United States, the song was at No. 2 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 behind Joey Dee and the Starliters' "Peppermint Twist" and went to No. 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart for six weeks. This song was also the last song he performed live, at his concert in Indianapolis in June 1977.


title: Can't Help Falling in Love

text: "Can't Help Falling in Love" was used in Presley's 1961 movie "Blue Hawaii". It is seen as one of the greatest songs by "Rolling Stone" in 2012. According to a 2020 survey, the song is the most popular choice for couples as the song for the first dance at their wedding.


title: Capsicum

text: Some of these plants are used as spices, vegetables, or drugs. The fruit of "Capsicum" plants have a variety of names. They are often called Chili pepper, red or green pepper, or just pepper in Britain and the US.


title: Capsicum

text: The large mild form is called "bell pepper" in British English and the US, "capsicum" in New Zealand English, Australian English and "paprika" in some other countries (although "paprika" can also refer to the powdered spice made from various capsicum fruit).


title: Capsicum

text: The fruit of "most" species of "Capsicum" contains capsaicin. It is a defence against herbivory. Capsaicin is a chemical that can produce a strong burning sensation in the mouth (and anus) of the unaccustomed eater. Most mammals find this unpleasant, but birds are unaffected. The plants developed the secretion of capsaicin to protect the fruit from being eaten by mammals. At the same time, the bright colors attract birds. These birds will spread the seeds.


title: Capsicum

text: The amount of capsaicin in peppers is highly variable and dependent on genetics. This means that almost all types of peppers have varied amounts of heat felt by those consuming them. The only pepper without capsaicin is the bell pepper. Chili peppers are of great importance in Native American medicine. Capsaicin is also used in modern Western medicine to stimulate blood circulation or to relieve pain.


title: Capsicum

text: Black pepper and Sichuan pepper cause similar burning sensations. These are caused by different substances though —piperine and hydroxy-alpha-sanshool, respectively.


title: Capsicum

text: "Capsicum" fruits and peppers can be eaten raw or cooked. Those used in cooking are generally varieties of the "C. annul" and "C. pubescens" species, though a few others are used as well. They are suitable for stuffing with fillings such as cheese, meat or rice.


title: Capsicum

text: They are also frequently used both chopped and raw in salads, or cooked in stir-fries or other mixed dishes. They can be sliced into strips and fried, roasted whole or in pieces, or chopped and incorporated into salsas or other sauces.


title: Capsicum

text: They can be preserved by drying or pickling. Dried peppers may be reconstituted whole, or processed into flakes or powders. Pickled or marinated peppers are frequently added to sandwiches or salads. Extracts can be made and incorporated into hot sauces.


title: Capsicum

text: Many varieties of the same species can be used in many different ways; for example, "C. annual" includes the "bell pepper" variety, which is sold in both its immature green state and its red, yellow or orange ripe state.


title: Capsicum

text: This same species has other varieties as well, such as the Anaheim chilly often used for stuffing, the dried Ancho chilly used to make chili powder, the mild-to-hot Jalapeño, and the smoked ripe Jalapeño, known as a Chipotle.


title: Capsicum

text: Most of the capsaicin in a pepper is found in the interior ribs that divide the chambers of the fruit, and to which the seeds are attached. At the stem end of the pod, glands secrete the capsaicin, which then spreads throughout, but is concentrated on the ribs and seeds. The amount varies very significantly by variety, and is measured in Scoville heat units (SHU), ranging from the mild bell pepper to the scorching Habanero chile.


title: Capsicum

text: In Australia, New Zealand, India, Singapore and Hong Kong, heatless species are called "capsicums" while hot ones are called "chilli/chillies" (double L). The term "bell peppers" is rarely used, usually in reference to C. annuum and other varieties which look like a "capsicum" or bell but are fairly hot.


title: Capsicum

text: In the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Canada, the heatless varieties are called "peppers", "sweet peppers" or "capsicums" (or "green peppers," "red peppers," etc.) while the hot ones are "chilli/chillies" (double L) or "chilli peppers".


title: Capsicum

text: In the United States and Canada, the common heatless species is referred to as "bell peppers," "sweet peppers," "red/green/etc peppers," or simply "peppers", while the hot species are collectively called "chile/chiles," "chili/chilies," or "chili/chile peppers" (one L only), "hot peppers", or named as a specific variety (e.g., banana pepper). In many midwestern regions of the United States the Sweet Bell Pepper is commonly called a mango. With the modern advent of fresh tropical fruit importers exposing a wider latitude of individuals to the tropical fruit variety of the Mango, this definition is becoming archaic. However many menus still call a stuffed Bell Pepper a "Mango".


title: Capsicum

text: The name "pepper" came into use because the plants were hot in the same sense as the condiment black pepper, "Piper nigrum". But there is no botanical relationship with this plant, nor with Sichuan Pepper.


title: Capsicum

text: In Spanish-speaking countries there are many different names for each variety and preparation. In Mexico the term "chile" is used. Several other countries, such as Chile, whose name is unrelated, Perú, and Argentina, use "ají". In Spain, heatless varieties are called "pimiento" and hot varieties "guindilla".


title: Capsicum

text: In Indian English, the word "capsicum" is used exclusively for bell pepper. All other varieties of chili peppers are called chili. In northern India and Pakistan, bell pepper is also commonly called "Shimla Mirch" in the native languages. Shimla incidentally is a popular hill-station in India (and "Mirch" means chili in native languages).


title: Capsicum

text: In Polish, the word "papryka" is used for capsiscum fruit and dry spice (the word "pieprz" is used for black, red, and green pepper, but not for capsisum fruit or spice).


title: Capsicum

text: Capsicum is excellent source of laxative (purgative) and pain relief. Capsaicin has also been studied for possible prostate cancer fighting effects.


title: Michael Madhusudan Dutt

text: Michael Madhusudan Dutt, or Michael Madhusudan Dutta, (25 January 1824 – 29 June 1873) was Bengali poet and dramatist. He was the first great poet of modern Bengali literature. He was educated at the Hindu College, Calcutta. In 1843, he became a Christian. He was born in Sagordari, a village in Keshobpur Upozila, Jessore District, East Bengal (now in Bangladesh). He was a pioneer of Bengali drama. His famous work "Meghnad Badh Kavya", is a tragic Novel, centring round the heroic figure of Indrajit, Ravan's son. It has nine cantos and is exceptional in Bengali literature both in terms of style and content. He also wrote poems about the sorrows and pains of love as spoken by women.


title: Michael Madhusudan Dutt

text: From an early age, Dutt wanted to be an Englishman in form and manner. In later life, he regretted his attraction to England and the Occident. He wrote lovingly of his homeland in his poems and sonnets from this period.


title: Michael Madhusudan Dutt

text: His early writings were in English, but they were unsuccessful. He turned, reluctantly at first, to Bengali. His main works, written mostly between 1858 and 1862, include prose drama, long narrative poems, and lyrics. His first play, "Sarmistha" (1858), was well received. His poetical works are "Tilottamasambhab" (1860), a narrative poem on the story of Sunda and Upasunda; "Meghnad Badh" (1861), his most important piece, an epic on the Rāmāyaṇa theme; "Brajangana" (1861), a cycle of lyrics on the "Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa" theme; and "Birangana" (1862), a set of 21 epistolary poems on the model of Ovid’s Heroides.


title: Michael Madhusudan Dutt

text: Dutt is widely said to be one of the greatest poets in Bengali literature. He is the father of the Bengali sonnet. He was the first to make what came to be called "amitrakshar chhanda" (blank verse). Dutt died in Kolkata, India on 29 June 1873.


title: Haunted house

text: A haunted house or ghosthouse is a house where supernatural events are believed to take place. Many haunted houses are believed to contain ghosts. They can also contain the spirits of dead people. The rumour that a house is haunted often starts after something violent or tragic happens in the house, such as a murder or suicide. Haunted houses are common in gothic fiction, and are generally seen as old castles or creaky, old, abandoned houses. A haunted house can be a type of attraction in amusements parks too. One scientific explanation of haunted houses is that poisonous gasses such as carbon monoxide from defective gas-burning appliances are what causes the hallucinations that people experience. Another possible cause is infrasound.


title: Haunted house

text: Many haunted houses have been investigated and found to contain high levels of carbon monoxide or other poisons, which can cause hallucinations. The carbon monoxide theory explains why haunted houses are mostly older houses, which are more likely to contain aging and defective appliances, and why more hauntings are reported in the colder months. Carbon monoxide poisoning explains many of the occurrences in haunted houses, such as feelings of being watched, hearing footsteps or voices, seeing "ghosts", headaches, dizziness, and sudden death or illness of people or pets, and also strange behavior in pets such as excessive barking or meowing. The carbon monoxide theory also explains why some ghosts don't show up on photographs or videos (photographs that do show "ghosts" are usually caused by dust, insects, fingers or camera strap in front of the lens, and multiple exposures).


title: Haunted house

text: Pesticides can cause the same types of hallucinations as carbon monoxide. Recreational drugs such as LSD and methamphetamine can cause hallucinations. Unpleasant hallucinations are known in the recreational drug community as a "bad trip". Drug users are usually, but not always, aware that they are experiencing hallucinations related to the drug, at least after they become sober again. Toxic mould, which can produce hallucinogens, has also been linked to haunted houses.


title: Haunted house

text: Sounds heard in a "haunted" house are often very normal sounds, for example footstep-like sounds can be caused by vermin such as squirrels or raccoons. Dead vermin can also cause unusual smells often associated with hauntings. Doors closing by themselves can be caused by wind. Moving shadow figures can be caused by the headlights of passing cars shining through a window. Many times normal sounds that come from outside can be mistaken for a sound inside the house. Sounds made by electronics, plumbing, refrigerators, and heating / air conditioning have also been mistaken for paranormal sounds.


title: Padmashali

text: Padmashali () or Padma Bramhana is a Hindu Bramhin in origin,and took up artisan tasks are predominantly found in South Indian States. Padmashali Bhargava Brahmins are Rugvedi Brahmins. The community members are traditionally weavers specialised in making clothes of all kinds. They engage as priests Brahmins for performing all rites and rituals and also perform services as temple Priests for other castes.


title: Padmashali

text: The term "Padmashali" is derived from two words "Padma" and "Shali", The Padma means lotus and Shali means weaver. They support their Sanskrit origin with various myths and "Puranas" such as "Kulapurana" and "Markandeya Purana".


title: Padmashali

text: The Padmashalis claim to be descendants from "Bhrigu Rishi" and "Markandeya Rishi", Markandeya's son "Bhavana Rishi" who were born one hundred and one son; they took to weaving and the first clothes they wore was out of the fibres of the lotus stem so they came to be known as "Padmashalis".


title: Padmashali

text: The Padmashalis divided into two groups based on "Sampradaya", being the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas and they worship both Shiva and Vishnu.


title: Padmashali

text: Although Padmashalis are related to Brahmins, they are considered as a backward (OBC) caste by the Indian government while forward caste in some states. The community is highly Sanskritised, with all men wearing the sacred thread and performing the similar rituals which north Indian Brahmins do, like North Indian Brahmin castes, their origin relates to sages as gothras.


title: Padmashali

text: The Padmashalis basically perform Brahmin rites and even today a group who are qualified as "agama shastra" "pandits" perform the "poojas" and vedic rites. They are identified as "Padma Brahmins".


title: Japanese dragon

text: Like other creatures called dragons, the Ryū is a big, fantastic animal that looks similar to a serpent, and is related to the Chinese "lóng" and the Korean "yong". Like all these Asian dragons, it is shown without wings, has legs with claws, and usually lives in the ocean, the clouds, or heavens. Japanese dragons do not fly as often as the Chinese one, which is the reason why they usually appear much more like serpents. The "ryū" in art has only three toes, instead of the "lóng's" five or the "yong's" four.


title: Japanese dragon

text: Japanese dragons usually live in the sea. This is because Japan is an island, and the sea is present in most of its geography.


title: Japanese dragon

text: "Ryū" originated from China and is one of the four creatures from heavens of Japanese mythology (the other three are the phoenix, turtle and tiger). It has often been the symbol of the Emperor or of a hero.


title: Japanese dragon

text: In Japanese mythology, one of the first dragons is the Yamata-no-Orochi, a very big serpent with eight heads and eight tails. The serpent ate girls, and it was killed by Susanoo after Susanoo tricked the creature into becoming drunk on sake.


title: Japanese dragon

text: Dragons in later Japanese folklore were often good, perhaps because of influence from Chinese culture. In Urashima Tarō, the main character rescues a turtle which turns out to be the son of Ryūjin, the dragon king of the ocean.


title: Sergio Corona

text: Sergio Corona Ortega (born October 7, 1928) is a Mexican television and movie actor and comedian of the Golden Age Of Mexican Cinema. He has appeared in over 50 telenovelas. Corona is known for his roles as Don Tomas Leon in the Mexican telenovela "Come dice el dicho" and as Don Boni in "Plaza Sésamo" (Spanish version of "Sesame Street"). He also appeared as a bellboy in the 1989 James Bond movie "License to Kill".


title: Gitanjali

text: Gitanjali is a book of poems written by Rabindranath Tagore. There are 157 poems in the book. All the poems are in the Bengali language. It has been translated into many languages by many writers. "Gitanjali" is a book of song offerings. Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize for Literature on November 14, 1913 for his book "Gitanjali'. 'It also contains the special poem known as the"mind is without fear".


title: Copenhagen

text: Copenhagen is the capital city of Denmark. It is also the largest city in Denmark. In 2014, 1,246,611 people lived in the urban area. Copenhagen is on the island of Zealand and the smaller island named Amager.


title: Copenhagen

text: Founded as a Viking fishing village. Copenhagen was built in the 12th century A.D. and got City rights in 1254. A few years later, it was destroyed nearly completely. In 1443, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark. In 1801, there were more than 100,000 inhabitants in Copenhagen for the first time. In the 1960s, more than 700,000 people lived in Copenhagen Municipality, and today there are 528,000 inhabitants in the municipality. Near the city centre there is the famous Freetown Christiania.


title: Transsexual

text: Transsexual people are people who change their appearance to more closely resemble that of the opposite sex. Transsexuals may be male or female. They typically take hormones and often undergo surgeries to support this process. They usually adopt a new name and may legally have their name changed.


title: Transsexual

text: People who go from male to female (MTF) are referred to as transsexual women. People who go from female to male (FTM) are referred to as transsexual men.


title: Transsexual

text: Transsexual women take female hormones. They may also take drugs that stop male hormones called androgens. Taking estrogen pills makes breasts grow. It does not make beards go away. It does not make voices higher. Transgender women may remove their facial hair so it does not grow back. This takes a long time and hurts. Some transsexual women with low voices have surgery to raise their voices. Other transsexual women try to make their voice sound higher and more female without surgery. Some transsexual women also get surgery on their genitals. This is called a vaginoplasty. This is done by making a vagina from the skin of their penis, which is turned inside out. Some transsexual women also have surgery to make their faces look more feminine. Some also have surgery to make their breasts larger.


title: Transsexual

text: Transsexual men take male hormones. This will make their voices lower. It will make a beard grow. It can also stop their menstruation. Some transsexual men look like any other man after hormones.


title: Transsexual

text: Some transsexual men have surgery. One surgery is removal of breasts (mastectomy). Some transsexual men also get surgery on their genitals. One surgery is removal of the uterus and ovaries (hysterectomy). Some may also get surgery on their outside genitals. One way takes their skin and tissue and makes it into a penis (phalloplasty). Another way takes the clitoris (which grows bigger with hormones) and puts it where the penis usually is (metoidioplasty). The place where urine comes out (urethra) can be run through the new penis. The phalloplasty looks more like a penis. A metoidioplasty has more sexual function, but it is 5 or 6 centimeters long. Some ways also make a scrotum from the labia. They may also have the vagina taken out or closed.


title: Transsexual

text: Very rarely, some people (called "detransitioners") who have changed sex decide this was a mistake and return to living as members of the sex in which they were born.


title: Buttercup

text: Buttercups are a large genus of flowering plants called Ranunculus. It has yellow, shiny petals, and grows wild in many places. It is poisonous to eat for humans and cattle, but when dry the poison is not active.


title: Buttercup

text: There are about 200 to 600 species in this one genus. They mostly have yellow or sometimes white flowers. Buttercups include a wide variety of flower types, grouped by a plant naming system in the genus "Ranunculus". Among them are the Meadow Buttercup ("Ranunculus acris"), Goldilocks Buttercup ("R. auricomus"), Creeping Buttercup ("R. repens"), Large White Buttercup ("R. platanifolius"), Celery-leaved Buttercup ("R. sceleratus"), Corn Buttercup ("R. arvensis"), Bulbous Buttercup ("R. bulbosus") and Glacial Buttercup ("R. glacialis").


title: Buttercup

text: Lesser Celandine ("R. ficaria"), Lesser Spearwort ("R. flammula"), and Greater Spearwort ("R. lingua") also belong to the buttercup family.


title: Buttercup

text: Plants of the commonly named buttercup family grow in many different variations but most can be identified by their yellow cupped flowers and free-growing habit. The plants often climb or sprawl, with leaves arranged in spirals. Some may contain leaves without stipules and flowers with many stamens.


title: Buttercup

text: Molecular investigation of the genus shows that "Ranunculus" is not monophyletic. Proposals are under way to split up the genus.


title: Buttercup

text: Highlights shining on the reflective petals of the buttercup can be seen in the images at left and above.


title: Buttercup

text: People sometimes hold a fresh buttercup flower under the chin of a friend or family member. If a yellow reflection from the flower's shiny petals can be seen under the chin, the person is said to "like butter". This custom is still taught to young children and shows how buttercup petals reflect light.


title: Buttercup

text: Some other plants and people are named buttercup, based on the name of the yellow wild flower. These include a type of pumpkin, and the girl's name Buttercup.


title: Buttercup

text: ""Build Me Up Buttercup"" was the name of a popular song by The Foundations during the 1960s. A song called ""Buttercup"" was released by Jack Stauber in 2017. A cartoon character from television series was also named Buttercup. Buttercups and their poisonous effect are used as a theme in the "PC game Undertale."


title: Buttercup

text: Michael Avenatti, the lawyer of adult movie star "Stormy Daniels" (real name: Stephanie Clifford) against US President Donald Trump's ex lawyer and "fixer" Michael Cohen used on 29 July 2018 the phrase "You better buckle up buttercup" in a tweet addressing "Donald Trump's" lawyer "Rudy Giuliani", which soon became the hashtag #BuckleUpButtercup.


title: Southeast Asia

text: Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia, is the southeastern part of Asia. There are ten countries in this region. All the countries in Southeast Asia are a part of ASEAN, except for East Timor. Some of the countries are mostly on the Asian mainland; they were formerly called Indochina. The others are only on islands. All of the countries in Southeast Asia are in the tropics except for the northernmost areas of Myanmar, which is in the subtropics. These are the countries in Southeast Asia:


title: Southeast Asia

text: The United Nations also includes the region of North-east India and Bangladesh traditionally, due to ethnicity similarities and culturally as part of Southeast Asia.


title: Slavery

text: Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave, with the owner being called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.


title: Slavery

text: There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery. There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents. Some societies had laws about slavery, or they had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.


title: Slavery

text: During the 20th century almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law. Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries.


title: Slavery

text: The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe. According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war. Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases slaves are not allowed rights.


title: Slavery

text: Slavery has existed for a long time. Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves. They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people. Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense. This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the "Code of Hammurabi" (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.


title: Slavery

text: In the Ancient Near East, captives obtained through warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.


title: Slavery

text: In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants. Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt.


title: Slavery

text: In many places, citizens were partly or fully protected from being enslaved, so most slaves were foreigners.


title: Slavery

text: Slaves were important in society and the economy of ancient Rome. They did simple manual labor and domestic services, but also could have complex jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often highly educated. Most slaves, like those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were brutal, and their lives short.


title: Slavery

text: Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, they could suffer corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (sex workers were often slaves), torture, and summary execution legally. Slave's words could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves would be too loyal to their masters reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained some legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves, and because of slave rebellions.


title: Slavery

text: Roman slaves could hold property which, even though it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Upper class slaves were allowed to earn their own money. With enough money they could buy their freedom.


title: Slavery

text: Both non-Muslims and Muslims in Southeast Asia during the 19th century bought Japanese girls who came by sea. Japanese slave girls were still owned by India based Portuguese (Lusitanian) families according to Francisco De Sousa, a Jesuit who wrote about in in 1698, long after the 1636 edict by Tokguawa Japan had expelled Portuguese people.


title: Slavery

text: Japanese children could be taken as slaves if debts were not repaid by their parents in medieval Japan. Japanese parents sold their daughters to Portuguese in Kyushu. Japanese children and women from the Bungo domain were sold as slaves to Europeans in Higo after Bungo was attacked in 1586 by the Satsuma domain.


title: Slavery

text: Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert. Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or workers by their owners. Many male slaves were castrated. It is estimated that as many as 6 out of every 10 boys bled to death during the process. But the high price of Eunuchs made it worthwhile. According to Ronald Segal, author of "Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora" (2002), "The calipha in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace”. Women and children taken as slaves were mainly used as servants and concubines. While the later Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men for labor, the Arab slave trade started with men and boys, but shifted over time to concentrate more on woman and young girls for sexual purposes. By the 1900s, Arab slave traders had taken between 10 and 20 million slaves out of Africa.


title: Slavery

text: For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans. Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.


title: Slavery

text: Between 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicolas V issued a series of papal bulls authorizing the Portuguese to take African slaves. At first slave traders raided coastal areas and carried black people off. But the mines and fields of the colonies needed more and more slaves. In the early 16th century Spain began to issue licenses and contracts to supply slaves. By the 1750s large slaving companies were established. Most of Europe at the time was involved in the slave trade.


title: Slavery

text: Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants. The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences. After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life. According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves. One-third of Southern families owned slaves. Slavery in United States was legally abolished by Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.


title: Slavery

text: Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well. The ways in which it is done have changed. Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt (for example, slaves have to work to pay off a debt). Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell them to the slave owners. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers, for no pay.


title: Slavery

text: One study says that there are 27 million people (but others say there could be as many as 200 million) in slavery today.


title: Slavery

text: Other terms that describe the recruitement of laborers, and that may have similarities to slavery are Blackbirding, Impressment and Shanghaiing.


title: Slavery

text: Some of the countries where there is still slavery are in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. In summer 2007, 570 people were found to be slaves for brick makers in China. They included 69 children. The Chinese government made a force of 35,000 police check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, and sent lots of kiln supervisors and officials to prison and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing a worker who was a slave.


title: Slavery

text: In Mauritania, it is thought that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are slaves, and that many of them are used as bonded labour. Slavery in Mauritania was made illegal in August 2007. In Niger, there is also much slavery. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are slaves, almost 8% of the population. Child slavery has commonly been used when making cash crops and mining. According to the United States Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 'the worst forms of child labour' in 2002.


title: Slavery

text: In November 2006, the International Labour Organization said that it would prosecute members of the junta that rules Myanmar (also called Burma) at the International Court of Justice for "Crimes against Humanity". This is because the military makes some citizens do forced labour. The International Labour Organisation says that it thinks that about 800,000 people are forced to work this way.


title: Slavery

text: Scholars of Islamic law have condemned the revival of the slave trade of non-Muslim women by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.


title: Slavery

text: An agitation called Abolitionism against slavery began in Christian countries in the 18th century. First they abolished the slave trade so more people wouldn't become slaves. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. Several other countries followed. In the United States, disagreement over slavery led to the American Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery.


title: Snooker

text: Snooker is a cue sport played by two players. It is popular in the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth and parts of Asia.


title: Snooker

text: It is played on a large (12 by 6 feet) table that is covered with a smooth green cloth called baize and has holes (called pockets) in each of the four corners and in the middle of each of the long side cushions.


title: Snooker

text: The players use long thin sticks called cues to strike a white ball (the cue ball). The cue ball must always be hit first when attempting a shot at the target ball.


title: Snooker

text: There are 21 target balls in total - 15 red balls (worth 1 point each) and 6 colours: a yellow (2 points), green (3 points), brown (4 points), blue (5 points), pink (6 points) and black ball (7 points).


title: Snooker

text: Each target ball must be aimed or 'potted' into one of the pockets in order. A red ball followed by a colour then a red ball again. This happens until only the coloured balls are left. The colours then have to be potted in the following order: yellow, green, brown, blue, pink and black.


title: Snooker

text: The player who scores more points wins the game or 'frame'. A match consists of an agreed number of frames.


title: Snooker

text: Big events in snooker are the World Snooker Championship, UK Championship and the Masters. Professional players play on the World Snooker Tour.


title: Snooker

text: The best-known snooker players are the seven-time world champion Ronnie O'Sullivan, seven-time world champion Stephen Hendry. Other former world champions are for example Joe Davis (fifteen wins), his brother Fred Davis, John Pulman (each eight wins) and six-time world champions Ray Reardon and Steve Davis.


title: Anthropology

text: The word anthropology has two roots: [ anthrop- ] and [ -ology ]. Anthrop- means “about human beings,” and -ology means “a type of science." Anthropology is a type of science about human beings. A person who studies anthropology is called an anthropologist.


title: Anthropology

text: Anthropology is a biological and historical social science that helps us learn how groups of people are the same, and how they are different in all parts of the world. Anthropologists do research in many places and study how people live now and how they may have lived in the past. They research in modern cities, small villages, tribes, and in the countryside.


title: Anthropology

text: Archaeology is the study of humans from the past. People who study archaeology are called archaeologists.


title: Anthropology

text: Archaeologists look at things that past people left behind to know how they lived. They look at tools, bones, and past houses to see how people in the past are not the same as people that live today.


title: Anthropology

text: They look at how humans live in nature and how their bodies change because of where they live. They also study how human beings and apes and monkeys are alike. Sometimes biological anthropologists study human and animal bones to learn about how past humans lived. They are also called physical anthropologists.


title: Anthropology

text: Linguistic anthropologists study sounds and how they go together to make words. Then they study what the words mean and how people use them. Linguistic anthropology also studies how language changes what people think and how people change language. No two people talk the same way, so linguistic anthropologists want to know why that happens.


title: Anthropology

text: It looks at how human beings understand the world around them and how they act with the people around them. Socio-cultural anthropologists study living people by going to their homes and learning about who those people are and what they do. They write about people in places all over the world to see why people are different. Some socio-cultural anthropologists study medicine in these places and some look at how babies grow up in other places.


title: Anthropology

text: Even though there are four main kinds of anthropology, there are a lot of different kinds of anthropology within the four main kinds. Here are some examples:


title: Anthropology

text: Like everything in life, anthropology has a set of rules that every anthropologist needs to follow. The rules try to make sure that no one gets hurt or mad when studying other people. Here are some of the rules:


title: Testicle

text: Testicles are parts that are found on the bodies of male creatures. Male mammals, including humans, have two testicles, supported in a sac of skin below the penis called the scrotum. Along with the penis, testicles are called reproductory organs or "sex organs". Only males have testicles; females have ovaries.


title: Testicle

text: Testicles are a type of organ called glands. Like other glands, testicles make "chemical substances", called hormones that keep the body working. Testicles also make sperm, which can join with ova to make new life.


title: Testicle

text: Most glands, like women's ovaries, are inside the body, but testicles are outside the main part of the body. This is because the testicles work better if they are cooler than the inside of the body. In cold weather, testicles pull up nearer to the body to keep warm.


title: Testicle

text: The testicles are firm, oval-shaped glands. Most testicles match in size, but some testicles are much larger or smaller than others. Normal sized testicles are between 14 cm³ to 35 cm³.


title: Testicle

text: Most men have one testicle that hangs lower than the other one. Scientists think this may be so that they do not hit against each other. It is usually, but not always, the left testicle that hangs lower.


title: Testicle

text: The testicles hang in the scrotum by the spermatic cord. They are outside the body because they need to be cooler than the temperature inside the body, in order to make sperm. If a man's testicles get cold, they are automatically pulled closer to the body. The "spermatic" cord is tightened by the cremasteric muscle. When this muscle "contracts" (pulls tighter), the cord gets shorter, which pulls the testicles closer to the body. If the testicles are too warm, the cremasteric muscle "relaxes" (gets longer.) This lowers the testicles to keep them cooler. This is how the testicles are kept at the right temperature. This is called the "cremasteric reflex". (A reflex is something your body "automatically" does without you thinking about it.)


title: Testicle

text: There are other uses for the "cremasteric reflex" apart from making the testicles the right temperature. Stress can also make the "cremasteric reflex" work. If a male human or mammal gets into a fight, then its testicles are in danger. They automatically pull up close to the body. The "cremasteric reflex" also happens during sexual intercourse.


title: Testicle

text: Testicles have two important jobs in the body. They are part of two of the body's systems, the endocrine system which keeps the body working, and the reproductive system which makes new life.


title: Testicle

text: Testicles are a type of organ called glands. (This makes them part of the body's "endocrine system".) The human body has many types of glands. The job of glands within a body is to make "chemical substances", and put them out into the body's system. A body has lots of different systems that keep it in good working order all the time, and that also provide for a body's special needs. Some of the body's special needs happen when a person gets angry, frightened or sick, or if the person wants to have sexual intercourse. At these times a body uses more of some types of "chemical substance", so the glands that make them work harder.


title: Testicle

text: Testicles make several types of chemical substances. They are not simple chemicals, but are very complicated and very important to life. Making these substances is controlled by the pituitary gland which is a small gland in the brain.


title: Testicle

text: One substance made by the testicles is a type of substance known as a hormone. It is the hormone testosterone. Testosterone is important in a male person's body, because it makes him grow into a man and feel like a man during puberty. (Women's bodies make some testosterone too, but they make more female hormone called estrogen.)


title: Testicle

text: As well as being chemical-producing glands, testicles are gonads. (This makes them part of the body's "reproductive system".) Apart from "hormones", the other important substances made by the testicles are spermatozoa, which are generally just called sperm. (The word "sperm" is plural, so you do not add an "s" and say "sperms".) The "sperm" are tiny living cells which can join with another cell, called an "ovum" (or egg) inside a female, to start a new human life. Scientists call making sperm "spermatogenesis". Boys begin making sperm when they start growing into men, at a time of life called puberty.


title: Testicle

text: Females do not have testicles. The glands in their bodies that do the same sort of jobs as testicles are called ovaries. They have two ovaries, but unlike testicles, ovaries are inside the body, on either side of the uterus. They release "ova" (or eggs) and "female hormones". Ovaries and testicles are sometimes called "gonads".


title: Testicle

text: Studying animals can help in understanding things about people. In mammals, testicles can be very big or very small in relation to the size of the animal itself. The size has to do with the amount of sperm that the male animal needs to make. Some types of male animal generally only have one sexual partner at a time and are called monogamous. Some types of animals generally live in a herd or flock where one male will have many female sexual partners. These males are called polygamous. More sperm is needed by "polygamous" males than by "monogamous" males. "Polygamous" males generally have larger testicles than "monogamous" males. The testicles grow larger to make more sperm.


title: Testicle

text: Most men's testicles are from 14 cm³ to 35 cm³. This is a measure of volume. Sometimes Doctors need to measure a man's testicles to see if there is a problem. Doctors can measure the volume of testicles in two ways:


title: Testicle

text: Most boys are born with two testicles in the scrotum. The testicles have formed inside the baby's body, but moved into the scrotum before the birth. Sometimes one or both the testicles are still inside when the baby is born. Sometimes an operation is needed to fix this.


title: Testicle

text: If a testicle is injured, it is extremely painful. Sometimes testicles get crushed. Sometimes it is necessary for a doctor to remove one or both the testicles. This operation is called an orchidectomy. If a man loses a testicle, a doctor can put a "testicular prosthesis" (false testicle) into the scrotum. It looks and feels like a testicle.


title: Testicle

text: If a male loses both his testicles it's called castration. Because the man cannot produce sperm or testosterone, it has a big effect on the man's life. Because he cannot make sperm, he cannot have children. And because he cannot make the male hormone testosterone, he becomes less like a male. He may lose some of his muscles, and put on weight. A man who has lost his testicles may take testosterone medicine so that he does not have these changes.


title: Testicle

text: Until the 1700s in Europe, and more recently in some countries, there was a custom to castrate young male slaves and boys. Young slaves were castrated so that they could be used as guards over the wives of rich men. It meant that the wives would not fall in love with their guards. Sometimes young boys who had beautiful singing voices were castrated before puberty. This meant that their voices would stay high all their lives. These singing men were called castrati.


title: Testicle

text: It is very common to castrate (remove the testicles from) male domestic animals. Male dogs and cats that are castrated do not fight so much, and do not stray around looking for females to mate with.


title: Testicle

text: Male horses are usually castrated so that they become more calm and safer to ride. A castrated male horse is called a gelding. A male horse that is not castrated is a stallion.


title: Testicle

text: Male animals that are used for meat are generally castrated because it makes them fatter and also makes them quieter to keep because they do not fight each other. Most male cattle are castrated.


title: Testicle

text: There are many slang words for testicles, like balls, nuts, bollocks, nads, crown jewels, testies, marbles, ding dangs, boy toys, nicnaks, plums,tattay (in Urdu) etc. Slang words are other names that are used for fun or to be "vulgar" (rude).


title: Z

text: Z is the last letter in the English alphabet. The small letter, z, is used as a lowercase consonant. Z is not used much. It is the most rarely used letter in the English language. The same letter of the Greek alphabet is named zeta.


title: Z

text: The letter is said as zed . The first way of saying it comes from the Greek "zeta". Even in American English, Z is given the nickname "ze" , because it comes from a late 17th century English speech.


title: Z

text: The name of the Semitic symbol was "zayin" and was the seventh letter. It might have meant "weapon". It could have helped form English and French's "z".


title: Z

text: The Greek form of Z was a close copy of the Phoenician symbol I. It stayed like this for a long time. The Greeks called it zeta, a new name made from the Greek letters "eta" (η) and "theta" (θ).


title: Z

text: In Old Latin, (written "s") became and the symbol for became useless. It was taken away from the alphabet by Appius Claudius Caecus, and a new letter, "G", was put in.


title: Z

text: In the 1st century BC, "Z" was put in the alphabet again at the end of the Latin alphabet. This was done to accurately represent the sound of the Greek zeta. The letter "Z" appeared only in Greek words, and is the only letter besides "Y" that the Romans took from Greek.


title: Alphabet

text: An alphabet (otherwise known as a word system) is a way to write words and other figures of speech. The basic symbols in an alphabet are called letters. In an alphabet, each letter is a symbol for a sound or related sounds. To make the alphabet work better, more signs assist the reader: punctuation marks, spaces, standard reading direction, and so on.


title: Alphabet

text: The word "alphabet" comes from "alpha" and "beta", which are the names of the first two letters in the Greek alphabet.


title: Alphabet

text: This article is written with the Roman alphabet (or Latin alphabet). It was first used in Ancient Rome to write Latin. Many languages use the Latin alphabet: it is the most used alphabet today.


title: Alphabet

text: It seems that the idea of an alphabet – a script based entirely upon sound – has been copied and adapted to suit many different languages. Although no alphabet fits its language perfectly, they are flexible enough to fit any language approximately. The alphabet was a unique invention.


title: Alphabet

text: The Roman alphabet, the Cyrillic, and a few others come from the ancient Greek alphabet, which dates back to about 1100 to 800. The Greek alphabet was probably developed from the Phoenician script, which appeared somewhat earlier, and had some similar letter-shapes.


title: Alphabet

text: The Phoenicians spoke a Semitic language, usually called Canaanite. The Semitic group of languages includes Arabic, Maltese, Hebrew and also Aramaic, the language spoken by Jesus. We do not know much about how the alphabetic idea arose, but the Phoenicians, a trading people, came up with letters which were adapted by the early Greeks to produce their alphabet. The one big difference is that the Phoenician script had no pure vowels. Arabic script has vowels which may, or may not, be shown by diacritics (small marks above or below the line). The oldest Qu'ran manuscripts had no diacritics. Israeli children to about the third grade use Hebrew texts with vowel 'dots' added.


title: Alphabet

text: No ancient script, alphabetic or not, had pure vowels before the Greeks. The Greek alphabet even has two vowels (Eta) and Epsilon) for 'e' and two (Omega and Omicron) for 'o', to distinguish between the long and short sounds. It appears that careful thought went into both the Phoenician invention and the Greek adaptation, but no details survive of either process.


title: Alphabet

text: Semitic scripts apparently derive from "Proto-Sinaitic", a script of which only 31 inscriptions (plus 17 doubtful) are known. It is thought by some researchers that the original source of this script was the Egyptian hieratic script, which by the late Middle Kingdom (about 1900) had added some alphabetic signs for representing the consonants of foreign names. Egyptian activity in Sinai was at its height at that time. A similar idea had been suggested many years previously.


title: Alphabet

text: Other writing systems do not use letters, but they do (at least in part) represent sounds. For example, many systems represent syllables. In the past such writing systems were used by many cultures, but today they are almost only used by languages people speak in Asia. A "syllabary" is a system of writing that is similar to an alphabet. A syllabary uses one symbol to indicate each syllable of a word, instead of one symbol for each letter of the word. For example, a syllabary would use one symbol to mean the syllable "ga", instead of two letters of the alphabet "g" and "a".


title: Alphabet

text: Originally, 1200 BC in the Shang dynasty, Chinese characters were mainly "pictographic", using pictures to show words or ideas. Now only 1% of Chinese characters are pictographic. 97% of modern characters are SP characters. These are a pair of symbols, one for meaning (semantics) and the other for pronunciation. In many cases the P and S parts are put together into one joint character. Chinese is not one spoken language, but many, but the same writing system is used for all. This writing system has been reformed a number of times.


title: Musician

text: A musician is a person who plays a musical instrument like a guitar or a piano or a person that sings.


title: Musician

text: A musician is also someone who writes music, even if they write it for other people to play. People who write music are called composers.


title: Adolescence

text: Adolescence is the time between being a child and a mature adult, that is the period of time during which a person gradually grows into an adult, but is emotionally not mature. Adolescence in the English-speaking world usually corresponds to the teenager years of 13-19 which are so named because of the end of the English words "thirteen" to "nineteen".


title: Adolescence

text: The ages when one is no longer a child, and when one becomes an adult, vary by culture. In many cultures they are marked by rites of passage. The word comes from the Latin verb "adolescere" meaning "to grow up." During this time, a person's body, emotions and academic standing change a lot. When adolescence starts, in America, children usually finish elementary school and enter secondary education, such as middle school or high school.


title: Adolescence

text: During this period of life, most children go through the physical stages of puberty, which can often begin before a person has reached the age of 13. Most cultures think of people as becoming adults at various ages of the teenage years. For example, Jewish tradition thinks that people are adults at age 13, and this change is celebrated in the Bar Mitzvah (for boys) and the Bat Mitzvah (for girls) ceremony. Usually, there is a formal age of majority when adolescents formally (under the law) become adults.


title: Tropical climate

text: A tropical climate is a type of climate typical in the tropics. It is a damp climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4 °F). Some tropical areas have rainfall throughout the year, usually in the afternoon. Others have a wet season and a dry season, for example because of monsoon. The usual Tropical climate is humid and wet. One famous area of tropical climate is the Amazon rainforest.


title: Tropical climate

text: Some tropical areas are dry, which makes them savannas. A few places near the equator, such as Mount Kilimanjaro, are high mountains and cold for that reason.


title: Respiratory system

text: The respiratory system, also called the gas exchange system, is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, goes out of the body. Oxygen, which the body needs, comes in. The lungs are the main organ to do this. In other words, how oxidation of organic compounds happens in cells and energy is released is called the respiratory system.


title: Respiratory system

text: The first step is breathing in air, or inhaling. Inhalation means bringing air rich in oxygen into the body. Exhalation means giving out air rich in carbon dioxide from the body. The second step is gas exchange in the lungs where oxygen is diffused into the blood and the carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood. The third step is cellular respiration, which makes the chemical energy that the cells in the body need, and carbon dioxide. Finally, the carbon dioxide from cellular respiration is breathed out of the body from the lungs.


title: Respiratory system

text: Breathing is the first step in respiration. For respiration to happen, the body needs a constant supply of oxygen, which is done by breathing. Inhalation is the breathing in of air. To inhale, the lungs expand, decreasing the air pressure in the lungs. This is caused by two actions. The diaphragm (a sheet of muscular tissue that separates the lungs from the abdomen) is pulled downward. Also the muscles between the ribs contract to expand the chest. Both of these actions expand the lungs. To fill the enlarged lungs, air from outside at higher pressure comes rushing into the area of low pressure in the lungs. Air first passes through the nose and mouth, then through the larynx (voice box), then down the trachea (windpipe), and into the lungs.


title: Respiratory system

text: The lungs are made of many tubes or branches. As air enters the lungs, it first goes through branches called the bronchi, then through smaller branches called bronchioles, and finally into the air sacs. Gas exchange occurs in the air sacs where oxygen is exchanged with carbon dioxide.


title: Respiratory system

text: The carbon dioxide in the air sacs now needs to be exhaled or breathed out. The diaphragm and the rib muscles relax, making the lungs smaller. As the air pressure in the lungs is greater when the lungs are smaller, the air is forced out. The air sacs are able to contract and expand because they are coated with a lubricant, surfactant, this lubricant helps the air sacs inflate while also preventing the collapse of the lungs during deflation. The exhaled air has a high concentration of carbon dioxide and a low concentration of oxygen. The maximum volume of air that can be breathed in and breathed out is called the vital capacity of the lungs and is up to five liters.


title: Respiratory system

text: The inhaled air goes down to the air sacs at the end of each bronchiole. The air sacs are called alveoli — they have a large surface area and are moist, thin, and close to a blood supply. The inhaled air has a much greater concentration of oxygen than carbon dioxide whilst the blood flowing to the lungs has more carbon dioxide than oxygen. This creates a concentration gradient between the air in the air sacs and the blood, meaning there is more oxygen in the air than the blood.


title: Respiratory system

text: As the membrane, oxygen can easily diffuse in and out. Oxygen at high concentration in the air sacs diffuses into the blood where oxygen concentration is low, and carbon dioxide at high concentration in the blood diffuses into the air sacs where carbon dioxide concentration is low. The oxygen in the blood enters the circulatory system and is used by the cells in the body. The carbon dioxide in the air sacs is exhaled out of the body.


title: 7 (number)

text: The number seven is a natural number that comes after six and before eight. In Roman numerals, it is VII.


title: Quarterback

text: A quarterback (QB) is a position in American and Canadian football. Quarterbacks are members of the offense, or attacking team. They line up directly behind the center, in the middle of the offensive team's line. A quarterback is usually the leader, and starts most plays. In addition, the quarterback gives commands to the other players before the start of a play. A quarterback will in most attacking plays throw the ball to a member of their team, ready to run to the end of the pitch. Quarterbacks may also run the ball themselves, as well as hand the ball to a runningback. These players are usually the faces of their respective teams. Some very notable players at this position in history are Tom Brady, Jim Kelly, and Peyton Manning.


title: Quarterback

text: If quarterbacks don't like the formation the defense is using, they may use an audible. An audible is a way for the quarterback to change the play at the line of scrimmage (where players line up to start a play). He changes what the play will be by shouting out things that his teammates will understand. An audible may be called if the quarterback sees how the defensive players are lined up and does not think that the play that has been called would be good against how the defense is lined up.


title: Laser

text: A laser is a machine that makes an amplified, single-color source of light. It uses special gases or crystals to make the light with only a single color. The gases are energized to make them emit light. Then mirrors are used to amplify (make stronger) the light. In many lasers all the light travels in one direction, so it stays as a narrow beam of Collimated light that does not get wider or weaker as most sources of light do.


title: Laser

text: When pointed, this narrow beam makes a single point of light. The energy of the light stays in that one narrow beam instead of spreading out like a flashlight (electric torch).


title: Laser

text: The word "laser" is an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". Both the device and its name were developed from the earlier Maser.


title: Laser

text: A laser creates light by special actions involving a material called an "optical gain medium". Energy is put into this material using an 'energy pump'. This can be electricity, another light source, or some other source of energy. The energy makes the material go into what is called an excited state. This means the electrons in the material have extra energy, and after a bit of time they will lose that energy. When they lose the energy they will release a photon (a particle of light). The type of optical gain medium used will change what color (wavelength) will be produced. Releasing photons is the "stimulated emission of radiation" part of laser.


title: Laser

text: Many things can radiate light, like a light bulb, but the light will not be organized in one direction and phase. By using an electric field to control how the light is created, this light will now be one kind, going in one direction. This is "coherent radiation".


title: Laser

text: At this point, the light is still weak. The mirrors on either side bounce the light back and forth, and this hits other parts of the optical gain medium, causing those parts to also release photons, generating more light ("light amplification"). When all of the optical gain medium is producing light, this is called saturation and creates a very strong beam of light at a very narrow wavelength, which we would call a laser beam.


title: Laser

text: The light moves through the medium between the two mirrors that reflect the light back and forth between them. One of the mirrors, however, only partially reflects the light, allowing some to escape. The escaping light makes up the laser beam.


title: Laser

text: This is a simple design; the type of optical gain medium used usually defines the type of laser. It can be a crystal, examples are ruby and a garnet crystal made of yttrium and aluminum with the rare earth metal mixed in. Gases can be used for laser by using helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, neon or others. Large, powerful lasers are usually gas lasers. A free-electron laser uses a beam of electrons and can be tuned to emit different colors. Finally, the smallest lasers use semiconductor diodes to produce the light. These are the most numerous kind, used in electronics.


title: Laser

text: Albert Einstein was the first to have the idea of stimulated emission that could produce a laser. From that point many years were spent to see if the idea worked. At first, people succeeded in making masers and later figured how to make shorter visible wavelengths. It was not until 1959 that the name laser was coined by Gordon Gould in a research paper. The first working laser was put together and operated by Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratories in 1960. Many people started working on lasers at this time, and the question of who would get the patent for the laser wasn't decided until 1987 (Gould won the rights).


title: Laser

text: Lasers have found many uses in everyday life as well as in industry. Lasers are found in CD and DVD players, where they read the code from the disk that stores a song or movie. A laser is often used to read the bar codes or SQR codes on things sold in a store, to identify a product and give its price. Lasers are used in medicine, particularly in LASIK eye surgery, where the laser is used to repair the shape of the cornea. It is used in chemistry with spectroscopy to identify materials, to find out what kind of gases, solids or liquids something is made of. Stronger lasers can be used to cut metal.


title: Laser

text: Lasers are used to measure the distance of the Moon from Earth by reflecting off reflectors left by the Apollo missions. By measuring the time it takes for the light to travel to the Moon and back again we can find out exactly how far away the moon is.


title: Laser

text: Laser pointers are used by people to point at a place on a map or diagram. For example, lecturers use them. Also, many people like to play with laser pointers. Some people have pointed them at aircraft. This is dangerous, and it is also illegal in many countries. People have been arrested and prosecuted for this crime.


title: Laser

text: Computers commonly use an optical computer mouse as an input device. Modern laser pointers are too big and powerful for this use, so most mice use small VCSEL's, or "Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers" for this purpose. These lasers are also used in DVD, CD-ROM drives, laser printer and holography.


title: Comparison of baseball and cricket

text: Baseball and Cricket are two similar sports. They are both considered bat-and-ball games and are played by both men and women. But they also have many differences. They have different rules, terms and organization. Their histories are both similar yet different.


title: Comparison of baseball and cricket

text: Baseball is often thought to have descended from cricket. They both can be traced back to England. They have common terms such as innings, umpires, runs and outs. So the connection seems very logical. Even some baseball historians think cricket is the ancestor of baseball. Both games do have a link, but it is not a parent-child link. It is more on the order of cousins.


title: Comparison of baseball and cricket

text: Both seem to have been brought to England by people from Flanders, but who settled in different parts of England. There each game developed separately. Cricket came from the southeast of England while baseball was played in western England. Baseball started as a children's game while Cricket was more often played by adults. Both games came to America with English immigrants. By the 1840s cricket had a following along the East Coast, particularly in Philadelphia and New York. About the same time Baseball began being organized into clubs. Up until the American Civil War cricket was more popular. After that war baseball became widely popular. Cricket is still played in places like Philadelphia.


title: Comparison of baseball and cricket

text: Both are bat and ball games. Both have batsman and bowlers, called batters and pitchers in baseball. Bowlers or pitchers throw the ball to the batsman or batter who hits the ball. Players in the field try to catch the ball. Both games at times use two umpires. Both games involve batters who run between or around things (such as each batsman's ground) to score runs (points), while the fielding team tries to get the ball to those things (bases), or things within the things (wickets), or fielders near them, to stop runs from being scored. Batters can hit the ball out of the field to score runs (home run or six runs). After enough batters are out, both teams change roles, and after enough opportunities for both teams to bat, the team with more runs wins.


title: Comparison of baseball and cricket

text: The bat in cricket is flat while the bat in baseball is round. Cricket has eleven players while baseball has nine. Cricket players hold the bat down, baseball players hold the bat up. The playing fields are different sizes and shapes. The balls, while similar in construction, are slightly different in weight. The leather cover in baseball is white while cricket balls can have a red or white leather cover.


title: Comparison of baseball and cricket

text: In cricket, when a batter is out, they can't bat again for the rest of their team's inning (turn to bat).


title: Edwardian period

text: The Edwardian era in the United Kingdom is the period which included the reign of King Edward VII (1901–1910). The "Edwardian era" usually includes some years before and after his reign, up to the First World War.


title: Edwardian period

text: King Edward VII was very different from Queen Victoria. Victoria had become almost a recluse after her husband died. On the other hand, Edward was an important leader. Edward and his fashionable friends followed the art and fashions of other European countries. Edward enjoyed travelling, and his visits to Paris improved relations between the two countries.


title: Edwardian period

text: The United Kingdom was a powerful nation in the nineteenth century. There was progress in British science and industry at this time. The British Empire was large. The Royal Navy was the most powerful navy in the world at that time.


title: Edwardian period

text: The prosperity of the Edwardian era was built on trade and manufacturing. These were the main industries at the time:


title: Edwardian period

text: The extent of this trade was big. Railways all over the world were built by the British. They were equipped with machinery made in Britain. Germany also became a powerful nation, and the United States was already becoming an industrial giant. By Edward VII's time. Both of these countries were as industrially advanced.


title: Edwardian period

text: Most British people in the "Edwardian era" were sure that British progress would continue. They were certain that the United Kingdom would continue to be very powerful. The era came to an unexpected end with the First World War. Economically and in human terms, this was a disaster for most of the European nations.


title: Edwardian period

text: There was a lot of inequality in society in the United Kingdom in the Edwardian era, as there always had been. Rich people and poor people had very different living standards at this time.


title: Information

text: The word "information" is used in many different ways. Originally, it comes from a word that meant to give a form to something. Information is something that people can learn, know about, or understand. For example, a newspaper contains information about the world. This article contains information about "Information".


title: Information

text: People who use computers often use the words "information" and "data" in the same way. There are special fields of study called "information science", "information technology" (IT), and data science.


title: Information

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, some people gave a new, specific meaning to "information". At that time, the first computer databases were built. In computer science, "data" often means a kind of information that has not been checked. That means "data" has not been changed or fixed, and you may not be able to trust it. With the new meaning, "information" means data that has been checked and passed tests for what it must be. A person can trust that "information" is correct.


title: Information

text: Information can only be correct and good enough to trust if there are very good and complete ways to check the data (data checking, validation or verification) and decide it is good enough (acceptance process). A person must know rules were used to check the data or trust the person who checked the data. If a person cannot tell that this was done, the information still seems to be data for that person, so that person must check the data again, in that general view about data.


title: Tom and Jerry

text: Tom and Jerry is an American slapstick comedy animated short series and media franchise. The original cartoons were created in 1940, written and directed by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera. It is named after its two main iconic characters: a blue-grey cat named Tom and a brown house mouse named Jerry. Each cartoon shows the two characters getting into comedic fights or chases, in which they often get hurt cartoon-style.


title: Tom and Jerry

text: A total of 114 "Tom and Jerry" shorts were produced by the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio from 1940–1958, starting with "Puss Gets the Boot". Seven of these cartoons won an Academy Award for Animated Short Film.


title: Tom and Jerry

text: "Tom and Jerry" still holds the record of the most awards in the Animated Short Film category, which is tied for first place with the Walt Disney musical production "Silly Symphonies".


title: Tom and Jerry

text: Later, Gene Deitch in Europe made 13 more cartoons for the series from 1961-1962. Then, Chuck Jones produced 34 more cartoons from 1963–1967. Finally, Hanna-Barbera worked with Warner Brothers Animation to make the last three "Tom and Jerry" cartoons: "The Mansion Cat" in 2001, "The Karate Guard" in 2005, and "A Fundraising Adventure" in 2014, making a total of 164 shorts and 863 episodes of the franchise, notable companies such as MGM, Hanna-Barbera Prouductions, Filmation, Warner Bros. Animation. Since then, the cartoon characters have made appearances in other media. notable animators like, Tom Ray, Iwao Takamoto, Jaime Diaz, Eddie Fitzgerald, Tom Minton, Charles M. Howell IV, Kent Butterworth, Cliff Voorhees, John Kricfalusi, Paul Sabella, Bill Proctor, Sandy Benenati, David Feiss, Butch Hartman, Scott Jeralds, Dan Haskett, etc. then the Tom and Jerry given rights by MGM in 1940 to 1990, Hanna-Barbera took over the franchise in 1974 to 2001, and now reinstated owned by Warner Bros. Entertainment in 2000 and Turner in 1986.


title: Tom and Jerry

text: The following lists are about the "Tom and Jerry" media were television shows and feature length films which were not made for the original cartoon series.


title: Wayback Machine

text: The Wayback Machine is a website that has web pages from the past. It is a time machine of the internet.


title: Unification of Germany

text: The Unification of Germany occurred in the 19th century. Until then, there had been many states in Central Europe. Some of them were very small, possibly no more than from one border to the other. Many Germans wanted a nation that would be united, powerful and influential. The leaders of Germany believed that they are part of the German Empire dynasty which led to the strategic battles and alliances which united Germany.


title: Unification of Germany

text: The unification took place on January 18, 1871. After the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the German nation in Versailles, France, at the Hall of Mirrors. The unification joined many independent German states, which became the German Empire. Otto von Bismarck, Prime Minister of Prussia, became Chancellor of the Empire.


title: Unification of Germany

text: The unification of Germany had begun many years earlier, during the Napoleonic Wars. At the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, which is also called the Battle of Nations, many of the German states joined Russia, Sweden and Austria to defeat Napoleon's army. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna ended the Napoleonic Wars. Austria remained the most politically powerful German state. Prussia emerged as Austria's political and diplomatic rival.


title: Unification of Germany

text: There were many problems in unifying the German states. Not all politicians wanted unification. Some feared that it would give Austria and Prussia too much power among the many states. There were also problems in deciding who would collect taxes and how much was be paid.


title: Unification of Germany

text: Before the creation of the modern German State, there were hundreds of small duchies and kingdoms. Many of these kingdoms were a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 800 AD, Pope Leo III made the Frankish King, Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Unification of Germany

text: In the 18th century the hundreds of rulers of parts of the Holy Roman Empire were practically independent; they seldom had to obey the Emperor, and often made war against each other or against the Emperor. During the Napoleonic Wars the empire was abolished. Napoleon made a new satellite state, the Confederation of the Rhine. He was soon defeated and the Congress of Vienna reorganized the German states into a new German Confederation. Bismarck's North German Confederation replaced that, until he converted it into the German Empire.


title: Johnny Depp

text: John Christopher "Johnny" Depp Jr. (born June 9, 1963) is an American actor, musician, philanthropist and producer.


title: Johnny Depp

text: Depp is the son of an engineer and a waiter. He is of Belgian (Flemish), Dutch, English, French, German, Irish, Northern Irish (Scotch-Irish), Scottish and Welsh descent. He's also known to have Native American background as his grandmother was Native American. He grew up with his brother Danny and his sisters Debbie and Christie. He spent a lot of time with his grandfather. His family went to Florida and in the next years, they had to change homes often. Johnny became worse at school and had his first experiences with drugs and sex at the age of 12. He was thrown out of school for smoking pot in the back of the school and started to make music in a band called "The Flame", and later on "The Kids".


title: Johnny Depp

text: His first movie was "Nightmare on Elm Street" in 1984, which was a success. Afterwards, he decided to go to an acting school in Los Angeles. He got a small part in the movie "Platoon" and shortly after this, he was offered a part in the television series "21 Jump Street".


title: Johnny Depp

text: He plays Jack Sparrow in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and Willy Wonka in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.


title: Johnny Depp

text: His ex-wife is Lori Allison. He was engaged to Sherilyn Fenn in the late 1980s. He had a four-year relationship with Winona Ryder in the mid-1990s. He has a daughter, Lily-Rose Depp (born 1999) and a son John (Jack) Christopher III (born 2002) by his former partner, French singer Vanessa Paradis.


title: Johnny Depp

text: He began a relationship with Amber Heard in 2012. The couple married in February 2015. They divorced in May 2016. Their divorce had a lot of media attention when Heard said that Depp had been abusive throughout their relationship, and Depp in turn said in 2018 that Heard had abused him, before unsuccessfully suing the publishers of British tabloid "The Sun" for English defamation. And she reclaimed him 100 million dollars.


title: Johnny Depp

text: In 2022, Depp sued Heard for defamation in the United States after she wrote an op-ed discussing being a public victim of domestic violence in 2018, describing himself as a victim of cancel culture. The trial began in Virginia on April 11, 2022 and the verdict was reached on June 1, 2022 which found Heard guilty for defamation, resulting in US$10.3 million awarded.


title: Giannis Antetokounmpo

text: Giannis Sina Ougko Antetokounmpo (born December 6, 1994) is a Greek professional basketball player for the Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Nearly , Antetokounmpo's combination of size, speed and ball-handling skills led to his nickname the "Greek Freak". He is the 2019 NBA Most Valuable Player.


title: Giannis Antetokounmpo

text: Born in Greece to Nigerian parents, Antetokounmpo began playing basketball for the youth teams of Filathlitikos in Athens. In 2011 he began playing for the club's senior team. He declared himself eligible for the NBA Draft in 2013 and was selected 15th overall by the Milwaukee Bucks.


title: Giannis Antetokounmpo

text: In 2016–17 he led the Bucks in all five major statistical categories and became the first player in NBA history to finish a regular season in the top 20 in total points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks (although totals are not the statistics used to determine league leaders, in which case the stat is not true; and several players have completed seasons with higher average ranks among the five statistics, such as Michael Jordan in 1987-88 and 1988-89). He received the Most Improved Player award in 2017. He has received three All-Star selections, and led the Eastern Conference in voting in 2019. He was named NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) in June 2019.


title: Crocodile

text: A crocodile is a large amphibious reptile. It lives mostly in large tropical rivers, where it is an ambush predator. One species, the Australian saltie, also travels in coastal salt water. In very dry climates, crocodiles may aestivate and sleep out the dry season.


title: Crocodile

text: The modern type of crocodile appeared first in the Eocene period. Its ancestors go much further back to the Upper Triassic. The name "crocodile" is also used for any member of the order "Crocodilia". They are basically Archosaurs, a group which also includes the dinosaurs. There are many species of crocodiles including the American, slender-snouted and Orinoco crocodile.


title: Crocodile

text: The crocodile can quickly snap its jaw shut with much power. However, crocodiles have little strength when opening their jaws, such that a person can hold the jaw shut with their hands.


title: Crocodile

text: Crocodiles range in size from African dwarf crocodiles that measure rarely over 5 feet (1.5 m) to saltwater crocodiles which can approach 23 feet (7 m).


title: Crocodile

text: Crocodiles live in rivers, lakes and dams in parts of America, Asia, Africa and Australia. Some of the crocodiles from Australia live in salt water. These saltwater crocodiles are normally bigger than the ones that live in fresh water. While crocodiles spend most of their time in water, they can come out and move around on the land.


title: Crocodile

text: Crocodiles cannot breathe underwater: they breathe air. This is usual for land animals which take to the water later in their evolution. When they are not active, they can hold their breath for a maximum of about two hours underwater before drowning. Normally, when underwater, they are active and can hold their breath for a maximum of 20 minutes to one hour.


title: Crocodile

text: The crocodile looks like it is a log, and hides beneath the surface of the water. When an animal comes down to the water to drink, the crocodile lunges out of the water, grabs the animal in its jaws, and pulls it underwater, where it drowns. After the animal is dead, the crocodile will grab a piece of meat in its jaws and tears it off with a spin around.


title: Crocodile

text: Their colors range from brown to grey or greenish-brown. Crocodile tongues are not free. They are held in place by a membrane that can not move. Crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues.


title: Crocodile

text: Although there is not much difference in their life-style, biologists put alligators in a separate family. Gharials are also in a separate family, and Caimans are a sub-family of alligators.


title: Crocodile

text: An obvious difference between an alligator and a crocodile is that one can not see the fourth tooth in the lower jaw of an alligator when the alligator's mouth is closed. The fourth tooth in the lower jaw of a crocodile sticks out when its mouth is closed.


title: Crocodile

text: Some ancient crocodiles walked on two legs like dinosaurs. The scientists found preserved footprints in South Korea. They found hind foot prints but no front foot prints or marks from a tail dragging behind.


title: Crocodile

text: They were able to tell that these ancient crocodiles walked on their hind legs with their front legs and tails off the ground. They used the whole foot, the way a human or bear does, not just the toes, the way a dinosaur, bird or dog does.


title: Crocodile

text: The order Crocodilia has 27 living species in nine genera. This does not include hybrid species or extinct prehistoric species. Modern molecular studies indicate that the nine genera can be grouped into three families.


title: Cell

text: In biology, the cell is the basic structure of organisms. All cells are made by the division of other cells.


title: Cell

text: The environment outside the cell is separated from the cytoplasm inside the cell by the cell membrane. Inside some cells, parts of the cell stay separate from other parts. These separate parts are called organelles (like small organs). They each do different things in the cell. Examples are the nucleus (where DNA is), and mitochondria (where chemical energy is converted).


title: Cell

text: Cell can be divided into different types depending on the structure of the nucleus and the physiological function. In 1949, a German scientist named Fott mentioned two types of cells called prokaryota and eukaryota. Later, in 1957, scientist Dougherty divided the cell into two types based on the structure of nucleus, namely, the prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic cell. It is understood that there are two basic kinds of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes, such as bacteria and archaea, are simple cells that have no cell nucleus. They do have bacterial microcompartments.


title: Cell

text: Eukaryotes are complex cells with many organelles and other structures in the cell. They are larger than prokaryote cells: they can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. Eukaryotes store their genetic information (DNA) on chromosomes in the cell nucleus. Organisms (living things) which are made up of multiple cells are eukaryotes.


title: Cell

text: Most cells are small, especially considering how large many animals and plants are. They need to be small in order to work as they should.


title: Cell

text: The only kinds of prokaryotic organisms are bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotic organisms evolved before eukaryotic organisms, so at one point the world consisted of nothing but prokaryotic organisms. There are also viruses, which are biological organisms. They "always" reproduce inside the cells of other organisms. They cause some important diseases. Viruses are made of RNA, or DNA, and protein, and they reproduce themselves inside the cells of bacteria or eukaryotes.


title: Cell

text: Multicellular organisms are made from many cells. They are complex organisms. This can be a small number of cells, or millions or trillions of cells. All plants and animals are multicellular organisms. The cells of a multicellular organism are not all the same. They have different shapes and sizes, and do different work in the organism. The cells are specialized. This means they do only some kinds of work. By themselves, they cannot do everything that the organism needs to live. They need other cells to do other work. They live together, but cannot live alone.


title: Cell

text: Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke (1635–1703). He used a compound microscope with two lenses to look at the structure of cork, and to look at leaves and some insects. He did this from about 1660, and reported it in his book "Micrographica" in 1665. He named cells after the Latin word "cella", meaning room. He did this because he thought cells looked like small rooms.


title: Cell

text: Many other naturalists and philosophers tried out the new instrument. The structure of plants was investigated by Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712) and Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694). Grew's major work was "The anatomy of plants" (1682). It is not clear who first saw animal cells, Malpighi, Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680) or Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723).


title: Cell

text: Leeuwenhoek's discoveries and drawings of 'little animalcules' opened up a whole new world for naturalists. Protozoa, and microorganisms generally were discovered, and the discoveries about them are still going on today. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg's book "Die Infusionsthierchen" summarised what was known in 1838. Lorenz Oken (1779–1851) in 1805 wrote that infusoria (microscopic forms) were the basis of all life.


title: Cell

text: The idea that cells were the basis of the larger forms of life came in the 18th century. Finding out who did the work has taken some time:


title: Cell

text: The body cells of metazoans divide by simple mitotic cell division. Sexual reproduction is ancestral in eukaryotes, and in metazoa it is carried out by specialised sex cells. They are produced by a process called meiosis.


title: Cell

text: Prokaryotic cells reproduce using binary fission, where the cell simply splits in half. For both mitosis and binary fission the cell must replicate (copy) all its genetic information (DNA) so that each new cell will have a copy.


title: Estonia

text: Estonia (), officially the Republic of Estonia () is a small country in the Baltic Region of Northern Europe. The capital city is Tallinn. Estonia's neighbors are Sweden, Finland, Russia and Latvia. Its population is 1,332,893.


title: Estonia

text: People have lived in Estonia since at least 9,000 BC. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the Pärnu River.


title: Estonia

text: Estonia became independent from Russia in 1920 after a brief War of Independence at the end of World War I. During World War II (1939–1945), Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union and Germany. It then became the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic and lost its independence.


title: Estonia

text: Estonia had its independence restored in 1991. It became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 29 March 2004. It joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.


title: Estonia

text: In January 2021, Estonia became the only country in the world led by women by having a female president (Kersti Kaljulaid) and female prime minister (Kaja Kallas). A few months later, Alar Karis replaced Kaljulaid as president.


title: Estonia

text: Estonia is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland with Finland on the other side, to the west by the Baltic Sea with Sweden on the other side, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia (338.6 km).


title: Estonia

text: Average elevation reaches only . The country's highest point is the Suur Munamägi in the southeast at .


title: Estonia

text: Estonia has many forests, almost 50% of the land is covered with forests. The most common tree species are pine, spruce and birch. Estonia has over 1,400 lakes and over 2,000 islands. The longest rivers are Võhandu (), Pärnu (), and Põltsamaa ().


title: Estonia

text: Mammals in Estonia include the grey wolf, lynx, brown bear, red fox, badger, wild boar, moose, red deer, roe deer, beaver, otter, grey seal, and ringed seal. The critically endangered European mink has been successfully reintroduced to the island of Hiiumaa. The rare Siberian flying squirrel is present in east Estonia.