title: Cape Verde

text: The economic resources of Cape Verde are largely dependent on agriculture and fishing. Agriculture frequently suffers the effects of droughts. The most important crops are coffee, bananas, sugar cane, tropical fruits, corn, beans, sweet potato, and cassava. The industrial sector is incipient but is based on the production of “aguardente” (spirits from sugar cane), clothing and footwear, paints and varnishes, tourism, fishing and canned fish, and salt extraction. Banana, canned fish, frozen fish, lobsters, salt, and clothes are the main exports. The national currency is the Cape Verdean escudo. Remittances from emigration are another important source of resources for the State of Cape Verde.


title: Cape Verde

text: In Cape Verde, the annual rate of population growth and mortality are low, compared to average rates of other middle-income countries. The average life expectancy is 66 years and 71 years respectively for men and women. The resident population in the country is estimated at 500,000 inhabitants. There are an estimated additional one million Cape Verdeans living abroad, mainly in the United States, Western Europe, and Africa. Cape Verde has a young population with an average age of 23 years.


title: Cape Verde

text: Cape Verdean culture is a unique mixture of European and African elements. Corn is the staple food of Cape Verde. The national or traditional dish is "cachupa", which is a stew of hominy (dried maize kernals), beans, and whatever meat or vegetables may be available. Other common foods include rice, beans, fish, potatoes and manioc. A traditional breakfast is a steamed cornbread, eaten with honey and milk or coffee. Grogue, or sugar cane liquor, is manufactured on the islands and is a popular drink, particularly among the men. Cape Verdean music incorporates Portuguese, Caribbean, and African influences. Popular genres include morna, funaná, batuque, coladeira, and cola san jon.


title: Cape Verde

text: In Cape Verde, other than private clinics, the government guarantees a public health system which comprises several healthcare centers and three central hospitals (Hospital Agostinho Neto, in Praia, Hospital Baptista de Sousa, in São Vicente, and Hospital Regional de Santiago Norte, in Assomada). The cost of public health is supported by the government, but users must pay a fee which varies in accordance with the capacity of the user to afford it.


title: Cape Verde

text: After independence, the different governments of Cape Verde invested massively in education and illiteracy has been reduced drastically. Today almost one hundred percent of school-age children attend school. Attendance to primary schooling, which comprises 6 years, is compulsory and free of any charge. Education is guaranteed by a network of public schools that span from nursery school to university. There are also several private schools in all levels of education.


title: Military alliance

text: A military alliance is an alliance that is made with the express purpose of military matters and promises the defense of all of its members.


title: Jennifer Lopez

text: Jennifer Lynn Affleck (née Lopez) (born July 24, 1969) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, dancer, fashion designer, business woman and television personality. She's most known for her performances in "Selena", "Maid in Manhattan", "Out of Sight" (co-starring George Clooney), "Monster-in-Law", "The Cell", and "An Unfinished Life" (with Robert Redford and Morgan Freeman). She also was a judge for the talent reality series "American Idol" in 2011 and from 2014 until the show's series finale in 2016.


title: Jennifer Lopez

text: She began her career as a "Fly Girl" dancer on the 1990s TV series, "In Living Color". Her first album "On the 6" was released in 1999. It contains the hit singles "If You Had My Love", "No Me Ames", "Waiting for Tonight", "Feelin' So Good" and "Let's Get Loud". She released "J.Lo" in 2001, her most successful album to date. "" and "This Is Me... Then" were released in 2002. The album "Brave" was released in 2007, followed by "Love?" in 2011. She has released one greatest hits album, "Dance Again... The Hits", in 2012. Her most recent album is "A.K.A.", which was released in 2014.


title: Jennifer Lopez

text: She has many records, including record for having a movie and album ("The Wedding Planner", and "J.Lo") both #1 on the same week.


title: Jennifer Lopez

text: On June 5, 2004, she married Marc Anthony. They have twin children, son Maximillian David Muñiz and daughter Emme Maribel Muñiz (born on February 22, 2008). The couple separated in July 2011 and divorced in June 2014.


title: Jennifer Lopez

text: From 2017 to 2021, Lopez has been in a relationship with former MLB star Alex Rodriguez. They were engaged in March 2019. They split in 2021.


title: Jennifer Lopez

text: After dating from 2002 to 2004, Lopez reconciled with and began dating American Actor Ben Affleck in April 2021. She publicly confirmed their relationship on her 52nd birthday later that July. Affleck and Lopez were married in Las Vegas at the Little White Wedding Chapel on July 16, 2022.


title: Wi-Fi

text: Wi-Fi is a way of connecting to a computer network using radio waves instead of wires. It was invented to connect computers that are near each other, and nowadays is much used for Internet connections.


title: Wi-Fi

text: The Wi-Fi Alliance says Wi-Fi is any "wireless local area network" (WLAN) that follows the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 specification. A Wi-Fi device can work with any Wi-Fi network anywhere in the world.


title: Wi-Fi

text: The word "Wi-Fi" is a play on words with hi-fi, and was invented to replace the name "IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum".


title: Wi-Fi

text: As of 2013, most wireless networks use one of two radio frequency bands. These are not the only two bands, but are the most used. One of the bands is at around 2.4 GHz, and the other is at 5 GHz. Both of these have benefits and drawbacks: The 2.4 GHz band is widely used, and devices are usually cheaper. Microwave ovens, DECT telephones and other wireless devices also use the 2.4 GHz band, and sometimes cause interference which slows transmissions. The 5 GHz band has more frequencies and usually less interference, but there are more rules for using it. In some places, the 5 GHz band may not be used outdoors. Because fewer devices use the 5 GHz band, devices that do are often more expensive.


title: Meiosis

text: Meiosis is a special type of cell division. Unlike mitosis, the way normal body cells divide, meiosis results in cells that only have half the usual number of chromosomes, one from each pair. For that reason, meiosis is often called "reduction division". In the long run, meiosis increases genetic variation, in a way which will be explained later.


title: Meiosis

text: Sexual reproduction takes place when a sperm fertilizes an egg. The eggs and sperm are special cells called gametes, or sex cells. Gametes are haploid; they have only half the number of chromosomes as a normal body cell (called a somatic cell). Fertilization restores the chromosomes in body cells to the diploid number.


title: Meiosis

text: The basic number of chromosomes in the body cells of a species is called the "somatic number" and is labelled "2n". In humans 2n = 46: we have 46 chromosomes. In the sex cells the chromosome number is "n" (humans: n = 23). So, in normal diploid organisms, chromosomes are present in two copies, one from each parent (23x2=46). The only exception are the sex chromosomes. In mammals, the female has two X chromosomes, and the male one X and one Y chromosome.


title: Meiosis

text: All eukaryotes that reproduce sexually use meiosis. This also includes many single-celled organisms. Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce by simple cell division.


title: Meiosis

text: The offspring gets a set of chromosomes from each parent so that, overall, half of its heredity comes from each parent. But the two sets of chromosomes are not identical with the parental chromosomes. This is because they are changed during the reduction division by a process called "crossing-over".


title: Meiosis

text: 2. To allow crossing-over to take place between each pair of parental chromosomes. Crossing-over changes which alleles sit on a particular chromosome.


title: Meiosis

text: Although the gametes have only one set of chromosomes, that set is a shuffled mixture of genetic material from both parents. Every single egg or sperm may have a different selection of alleles from the parental chromosomes.


title: Meiosis

text: As with shuffling a deck of cards, many different combinations of genes can be produced without a change (mutation) in any individual gene. However, mutations do occur, and they may add alleles which were not in the population before. At any rate, the shuffling increases the variety of the offspring, and the variety gives at least some of the offspring a better chance of surviving in difficult times. The shuffling of alleles which takes place in meiosis may be the reason why sexual reproduction exists at all.


title: Meiosis

text: Several quite large taxa (groups of organisms) use cyclical parthenogenesis. This is when several generations are born by virgin birth, and then a generation occurs with normal sexual reproduction. Examples include aphids, and cladocerans (small crustacea called "water fleas"). Aphids usually operate as follows: when the weather is good, and their plant hosts are at their best, they use parthenogenesis. At the end of the season, when the weather gets worse, they use sexual reproduction. This system of reproduction is called "apogamy".


title: Meiosis

text: In parthenogenesis, the eggs contain only the mother's genetic material, and they are not fertilized. The egg cells may be produced either by meiosis or mitosis. When meiosis occurs, crossing-over produces a genetic fingerprint which differs somewhat from the mother's. So, the parthenogenetic greenfly offspring are not identical, and do show some genetic variation: some chromosome segments differ because of meiosis. Mitosis would produce identical offspring.


title: Meiosis

text: A few eukaryote organisms have completely lost the ability for sexual reproduction, and so do not have meiosis. These include the Bdelloid rotifers, which only reproduce by parthenogenesis.


title: Meiosis

text: The function of the first division is to permit crossing over. Just like mitosis, meiosis includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.


title: Meiosis

text: The two cells prepare to divide again in a stage known as interkinesis or interphase II. Both of these cells will go through meiosis II.


title: Meiosis

text: In males, all four cells become sperm. In females, only one becomes a mature egg, while the remaining three become re-absorbed into the body.


title: Civil war

text: A civil war is a type of war that takes place between two or more groups in one country. While civil wars can take place for many reasons, there are two common reasons.


title: Civil war

text: The first is because the different groups disagree about who should be in charge, or how the country should be run. If two political parties disagree about the result of an election, this might lead to a war if the two sides cannot or would not come to an agreement.


title: Civil war

text: The second is because one group of people does not want to be part of the country anymore. This is known as a war of secession. Lots of people living in a certain area might decide that they want independence to make their own country. Very few national leaders would be happy to give up land that is part of that country, and a war could result.


title: Civil war

text: Sometimes the people who want to break away do not necessarily want to form a whole new country, but they might want more autonomy over their affairs. This happens sometimes when different ethnic groups belong to the same nation.


title: Civil war

text: Civil wars can go on for many years and be just as destructive and damaging as international wars. Civil wars tend to become complicated very quickly. A civil war might start between two sides, but groups might break up and the new, different sides could start fighting each other. Groups who were not involved at the beginning can easily be sucked in, as they fight to defend themselves against both sides. Civil wars with many different sides all fighting each other have occurred. Sometimes foreign countries help one side, or different countries help different sides. This can become a proxy war.


title: Coast

text: The coast also means the land next to the sea, which can also be called the shore, or sea-shore. However, coast is not used to describe where rivers or lakes meet the land - it is only used to describe the sea meeting the land.


title: Coast

text: If a house is near to the coast we say it is "on the coast". When we talk about a long part of the coast we call it "the coast-line".


title: Coast

text: Sometimes, 'coast' can be part of a place name or the description of a large area. For instance, the East Coast of the United States describes the all of the Eastern side of the United States that is next to the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Coast

text: In some countries like England or Australia the people sometimes use the word sea-side for the coast.


title: Coast

text: An example of a coast in Great Britain is the Holderness Coast near Bridlington. This is one of Europe's fast eroding coasts.


title: London Underground

text: The London Underground is a system of electric trains in London, UK. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the "Metropolitan Railway". After the opening the system was copied in many other cities, for example New York and Madrid. Even though it is called "the Underground" about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is a slang name for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground serves 270 stations and over 408 km of track. From 2006 to 2007 over 1 billion passengers used the underground.


title: London Underground

text: Underground train systems in other cities may be called "metros" (like the Tyne and Wear Metro in North East England) or "subways" (Glasgow Subway in Scotland and in most of North America). "Subway" is also used across Britain to refer to underground walkways.


title: London Underground

text: The Metropolitan Line was the first part of the Underground to be made. It was opened in 1863. It then ran between Paddington and Farringdon. It took 40,000 passengers per day. Later it was made longer. The District Line was built by a different company. In 1884, the Circle Line was finished. All these lines used steam engines at first.


title: London Underground

text: In 1890, a line using electric trains was opened. It was much deeper below ground than the other lines. Now it is part of the Northern Line. More lines like this were opened. People liked them, so in 1905 the lines that used steam engines were changed to use electric trains.


title: London Underground

text: Because the different lines were run by different companies, changing lines was difficult. Between 1900 and 1902, Charles Yerkes bought most of the companies and formed a company named Underground Electric Railways of London Company Ltd, short UERL.


title: London Underground

text: In 1933, a company was formed of all the bus, tram and underground companies, called London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). It planned to make the network longer, but the Second World War stopped this. In the war, some Underground stations were used as shelters against bombs.


title: London Underground

text: After the war more passengers used the underground. Minor changes were made: Victoria Line was opened in the 1960s, and currently the Piccadilly Line was extended to Heathrow Airport in 1977. The Jubilee Line was opened in 1979, and extended to Stratford 20 years later. Night Tube was introduced in 2016.


title: London Underground

text: The system uses two kinds of trains, a big type - called sub surface trains and a smaller type - deep level trains. The big ones are used for the rectangular tunnels (District Line, Metropolitan Line, Circle Line), the small ones for the round tunnels. Most lines have different trains, although they fit into one of the two categories.


title: London Underground

text: The Underground uses zones to collect fares. There are 9 zones. Zone 1 is the most central zone. The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park, outside Greater London. Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies.


title: London Underground

text: Paper tickets or the contactless Oyster card can be used for travel. The Oyster Card is a plastic card which stores credit (money and Travelcards) which the owner uses to pay for Underground travel. The user must "charge" (put money onto) their card at a ticket machine. They then touch the card on a yellow reader to pay for their journey. Since its introduction in 2002 it has become very popular with regular travelers, as the prices are much cheaper if you use an Oyster card.


title: London Underground

text: There are ticket offices, some open only in the rush-hour, and ticket machines, which can be used at any time. Some machines take coins only, other touch-screen machines take coins and English notes, and usually give change. These machines also take credit and debit cards: some newer machines accept cards only.


title: London Underground

text: The following tickets are available from London Underground and TfL ticket offices to use on the Underground:


title: London Underground

text: When most of the stations in the London Underground system were built, disabled and wheelchair access was not considered. While many above-ground stations have only a few steps to the platform, nearly all Underground stations have some of the systems's 410 escalators and 112 lifts (elevators). Newer stations include disabled access, and many older stations install disabled access when they are refurbished or rebuilt. Since 2004, maps inside the trains show which stations have step-free access from street level. Transport for London plan to have a network of over 100 fully accessible stations by 2020, which means that 75% of Tube journeys can be made with step-free access.


title: London Underground

text: The escalators in the London Underground system are some of the longest in Europe. They run 20 hours a day, 364 days a year and are used by 13,000 people per hour, with 95% of them running at one time.


title: London Underground

text: There have been relatively few accidents in the Underground's history. Most happen if people accidentally fall onto the tracks. In some stations there are pits in the middle of the track to stop people being injured if they fall onto the track. Newly rebuilt parts of the system, especially on the Jubilee line, have platform doors. These doors only open when a train stops and prevent people falling or jumping onto the tracks.


title: London Underground

text: The below-ground Jubilee Line extension (Westminster to North Greenwich) stations have sliding platform doors installed to prevent people falling off the platform onto the tracks, and discourage/prevent suicides.


title: London Underground

text: In the 1930s, 1970s and 1990s, the Underground was bombed many times by the IRA, and for this reason there have been no wastebins in or around stations until very recently, when clear plastic sacks were introduced in some parts of the system. On 7 July 2005, there were three attacks by radical Islamic terrorists on two Circle Line trains and on one Piccadilly Line.


title: London Underground

text: Smoking is not allowed in any part of the underground. It was banned after a fire in King's Cross Station in 1987.


title: London Underground

text: The commuters of London often complain about the Underground. Even newspapers, especially the Evening Standard, often criticise the system.


title: London Underground

text: Usually the complaints are about delays, overcrowding and the fares. Sometimes strikes of London Underground staff occur.


title: London Underground

text: London Underground fares are now the most expensive of any rail system around the world, including the luxurious Orient Express, and they continue to rise at very high levels. Concern has also been raised over the huge difference between oyster card fares and cash fares, with the criticism that the high cash fares will discourage tourists and day visitors to London from traveling around the city.


title: London Underground

text: Because the underground is a very old system, engineering work is often needed and often causes delays. There can be other reasons as well, for example signal failures or other breakdowns. Customers can claim a refund if their tube journey is delayed for more than 15 minutes due to problems within the control of Transport For London.


title: London Underground

text: Because many more commuters use the underground than planned, overcrowding often happens. This can cause stress and frustration with the underground system among commuters. According to a report by MPs, commuters face "a daily trauma" and are often forced to travel in "intolerable conditions".


title: London Underground

text: Because so many passengers travel on the London Underground network every day, strikes or industrial actions on the Underground network have a very high impact on London's traffic and can impact on London's economy. London Underground and the rail unions claim to be under high pressure from the working public, private businesses and government departments.


title: London Underground

text: Strike actions on the London Underground occur for a number of reasons, including health and safety, working conditions and pay levels. There were several such strikes in the late 1970s.


title: Investment

text: In finance, Investment or investing means that an asset is bought, or that money is put into a bank to get a future interest from it. Investment is total amount of money spent by a shareholder in buying shares of a company. In economic management sciences, investments means longer-term savings.


title: Investment

text: It is a term used in business management, finance and economics, related to saving or deferring consumption. Literally, the word means the "action of putting something in to somewhere else" (perhaps originally related to a person's garment or 'vestment').


title: Investment

text: There are two major uses of the term investment between the economics field and the finance field. Economists refer to a real investment (such as a machine or a house), while financial economists refer to a financial asset, such as money that is put into a bank or the market which may then be used to buy a real asset. Advisors, who tell people how to manage their investments, might say that even when an investment is losing money because of bad times, not to give up and withdraw it. Instead, wait for the situation to improve. This is a risk for each person to decide.


title: Investment

text: The investment decision (also known as "capital budgeting") is one of the fundamental decisions of business management.


title: Roma people

text: The Roma are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group found mainly in Europe. In English, they are often called Gypsies. Some Roma, but not all consider "Gypsy" to be a slur. The old word "Chingar" is now rarely used. The Roma are people that originally came via the Silk Road from the Indian subcontinent around the time of the Migration period and settled in Egypt.


title: Roma people

text: A DNA study by Indian and Estonian researchers shows that the Roma people's ancestors originate from Chandala (untouchables), Dalit and Shudra community of their ancestral homeland Gene flow from Turks into the Roma people population at the Ottoman Empire , happened through the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans and Byzantine Empire. Much DNA from the People of the Host Countrys where the roma live in flow also into the Romani people trough intermarriages


title: Roma people

text: Another gene study shows South Indian Tamil people DNA to Romani people, also the Y-DNA H in Roma community if from India. View Romani Men share the R1a1 Y-DNA Haplogroup, who show a Brahmin Ancestry. It is also claimed the Roma people came from Sindh. Also the J and R Y-DNA from Jats can be found in Roma people


title: Roma people

text: The newborns of the Romani people from different countries, as a Indian study shows, have the blue-greyish so called Mongolian spot. Another study show's that many Romani Men from the Zargari tribe in Iran at Qazvin Province are born without a foreskin or a very short foreskin, a rare condition called Aposthia.


title: Roma people

text: There are populations of Roma all over Europe, but the largest populations are in Eastern Europe and in the Balkans.


title: Roma people

text: There are various groups of Roma: the Roma of East European birth; the Sinti in Germany and the Manouches in France and Catalonia; the Kaló in Spain, Ciganos in Portugal and Gitans of southern France; the Romanichals of Britain; and the Romanlar in Turkey.


title: Roma people

text: The Romani language is now an official language in many European countries under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.


title: Roma people

text: The 18th-century idea on the Indian birth of the Roma is based on the likeness between Romani and the languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent. The theory is now supported by genetic evidence. The origins of the Roma were not known until 1763, when a theology student, Stefan Vali, met Indian medical students. He noticed that they were physically similar to the Roma he saw in Hungary. He also noticed that they used similar words.


title: Roma people

text: It is believed that the remnants from the Indo-Greeks , the Atsinganos (Untouchables) left the Indian subcontinent as traders about Indo-Roman trade via the Silk Road through Byzantine Empire to Egypt at the time of the Migration period , where they live for centuries. The Copts named them ⲣⲱⲙⲁ ("man or human", also "these people there") in Coptic. Around the 12th or the 13th centuries, the Roma reached the Balkans, in the wake of the Crusades. From there, they dispersed in Western Europe.


title: Roma people

text: The first arrivals were well accepted. European people thought they were Christian pilgrims. The local people of Europe were fascinated by their nomadic way of life and their new sciences. A Roma was often recruited as a musician, for Horse training and circus artists, a lion tamer, a Blacksmith, a town crier, a hawker, avgroundskeeper, a dishwasher, a cleaner, a lumberjack, a caretaker, a locksmith, and other low jobs. Roma were crossing Europe aboard large caravans, which contained their luggage.


title: Roma people

text: The Egyptians Act of 1530 expelled Roma people from England, and 10,000 expelled Roma people went to the Ottoman Empire and became Muslims. Their descendants have , call themself until today Egyptians.


title: Roma people

text: During World War II, Roma people suffered from the Nazis' persecution and ethnic cleansing policies. Statistics show that about 500,000 Roms died in Nazi concentration camps. The Xoraxane Roma from Bosnia, also named white sedentary muslim gypys was not deportated, because Muslims of Bosnia decleared they belong to us.


title: Roma people

text: Around the year 1000, an event in northern India, about the time of Muslim invaders, likely triggered their mass exodus. The precise event is still unknown, but the possible reasons include a conflict that resulted in the Roma's persecution, a natural disaster, or even recruitment into a mercenary military. The Roma journeyed towards the Caucasus and China, as well as through the Middle East and Greece towards the Balkans; they covered all corners of today's Central and Western Europe by the end of the 16th century. The Roma typically traveled in patriarchal extended families, consisting of up to hundreds of people. During colonial times, some European countries dealt with the Roma by shipping them overseas, mainly to various Caribbean islands and the present-day United States. In the 1860s, Roma from Britain arrived in the U.S., but the largest wave of Roma arrived in the early 1900s.


title: Roma people

text: The Romani began to leave India about 1,000 years ago. They probably left to escape the invasion of Afghan general Mahmud of Ghazni early in the 11th century. Mahmud's troops likely pushed the Romani out of northern India and into the area that is now Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran.


title: Roma people

text: The culture of roma people differs from country to country where there live in and also many differences from group to group. The different Religions also have a big influence of the difference of roma-culture. The Roma left a musical heritage. Guitars and violins are part of their traditions. The Roma influenced musical styles in Europe, such as the belly dance, flamenco, rumba, and jazz.


title: Roma people

text: On 8 April 1971, the Roma nationality was legally recognized in Europe. Since then, 8 April is the Roma national day.


title: Roma people

text: Most Romani people practise endogamy and arranged marriage's in very young age. Exogamy, marrying a Gadjo (non-Roma), is seldom. In some groups Cousin marriage is prohibited.


title: Roma people

text: "Didicoy" is a term used by Roma people for people who are of mixed Roma blood. The ancestry of these people is not completely Roma. Full blooded Roma and didicoy do not get along well with each other. The Romanichal (full blooded Roma people) often believe that their reputation for criminality is based on the actions of didicoys and other nomadic groups that are refered to as "Gypsies". Some families of mixed blood often call themselves "kyes".


title: Roma people

text: Often, the non-nomadic population of Roma people in the United Kingdom use the term Didicoy as slang for all Roma people. An example of an old Romani song about a mixed blooded Roma is the "Romano Rai".


title: Roma people

text: The Roma's religions are mostly Eastern Christianity, Catholicism, and Islam. Baptism by the Dasikane (Christian Roma) and male circumcision by the Xoraxane (Muslim Roma) are practiced. Their ancient religion was Hinduism and Buddhism.


title: Roma people

text: Some formally Christian and Muslim Roma have embraced the Noahidic faith. According to Jewish law, non-Jews do not have to convert, but are supposed to obey the Noahide commandments. Persons who submit to the commandments are called children of Noah (B'nei Noach) Noahids. In Hungary there are many former Christian Roma who adopted Buddhism, especially in Hungary. There are also some Christian Roma groups, who taken one of the several evangelicalism faith. Several Muslim Roma belong to one of a Sufism Tarika.


title: Roma people

text: The Old Dualist-Religion of the Roma people called "Romanipen" is a simple belive in "Devla-God and Beng-Satan ". There is no holy books but Priests called Rashai derived from Rishi, the Priests wife is called Rashani. Only Roma or partial roma may be members.


title: Roma people

text: Even though they have been recognized, they still suffer from discrimination and antiziganism. Some countries still apply discriminatory attitudes towards Roma, especially in workplaces and schools, where they are not accepted.


title: Roma people

text: Their squatting communities also irritate locals. The Romani created an association in 1978 to defend their rights.


title: Semi-trailer truck

text: A semi-trailer truck, also known as a semi, tractor-trailer, big rig, eighteen-wheeler, or (in the United Kingdom and Ireland) articulated lorry or artic is a vehicle that has a towing tractor and a semi-trailer that carries the freight. They use diesel fuel.


title: Semi-trailer truck

text: A semi-tractor has no body and does not carry any cargo on it. The front of a semi-trailer is put on it. Only the rear of the trailers have wheels, so the tractor pulls the trailer and carries the front part of the trailer's weight.


title: Semi-trailer truck

text: The tractor and driver cost as much as a truck, but the trailers don't cost very much. You can have more trailers than tractors and the tractors can change trailers easily. The tractor and driver do not have to wait to be loaded or unloaded, they can change trailers. They can also pull different kinds of trailers, any type that is needed at the time.


title: Semi-trailer truck

text: All countries have different laws for semi-trucks. The biggest difference between the EU, UK, and US is the length of the semi-truck. Most weigh about the same (US trucks weigh a little less than EU and UK trucks). Most are about the same width and height. In large countries truck s can be longer. They can have a larger cargo space. Longer semi-tractors drive better at faster speeds. Most US trucks are "convential" (bonneted in UK) with the engine under a hood in front of the cab. In the US shorter trucks weigh less. The weight has to be spread out over a long length. This is important on bridges. With long semi-trucks not as many trucks fit on the bridge and the weight of the axles are far apart. This length is important in the US.


title: Semi-trailer truck

text: In the UK and EU roads are smaller and turn more. Trucks have to be shorter. Most are cab-over-engine models (COE). The driver sits over the engine and the front of the cab is flat. Shorter trucks can weigh more. Trailers can have three axles under the load, and short semi-tractors with two axles. These have the same weight and number of axles as a long semi-truck. They take up less space and can turn better.


title: Semi-trailer truck

text: Different countries drive on different sides of the road. This is named for the side the driver sits on. The UK is the main right-hand drive (RHD) country. Most countries that were British colonies are RHD. The EU and most other countries are LHD. The US was British but is LHD. Canada (next to the US) is LHD. When you are building a truck LHD or RHD is not important. Australia builds US type Mack and International trucks with RHD.


title: Semi-trailer truck

text: Semi-trailers can be the same types as trucks. Because they don't cost as much as a truck they can also be special types. Shipping containers are large and heavy. In some countries special laws cover them. Skeleton frame trailers are built to carry them. Long semi-trailers are used for logs. In the UK and EU some logs are smaller. The trailers are 2 or 3 logs long. They have a crane to load them. In the US "lowboys" (the load is just above the road) carry large construction machines. Special trailers can be built for very big loads. Australia "road-trains" can pull 4 trailers.


title: Brooklyn

text: Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs of New York City. It also covers the same area as Kings County. Brooklyn is the second largest borough in land area.


title: Brooklyn

text: In the early 21st century, about 2.5 million live there. This is more than in any of the other four boroughs.


title: Brooklyn

text: Brooklyn is the west end of Long Island. The East River separates it from Manhattan in the north. Brooklyn's only land boundary is with Queens in the east. Jamaica Bay separates Brooklyn from Rockaway in the south. The Narrows separates Brooklyn from Staten Island in the west.


title: Brooklyn

text: Coney Island is the south end of Brooklyn. The Brooklyn Museum is near the middle of Brooklyn, near Prospect Park.


title: Brooklyn

text: Brooklyn is named after a Dutch town called "Breukelen". Dutch people were the first people from Europe to live in the area. When they got there, there were already some Native American people living there called the Lenape. The Dutch started the town in 1634 as part of the colony of New Netherland.


title: Brooklyn

text: During the 19th century Brooklyn expanded and filled Kings County. It remained a separate city before the people there voted to join New York City in 1898. Today, many parts of Brooklyn are home to people who are mostly from one culture or ethnicity. Other parts are mixed.


title: Brooklyn

text: The Brooklyn Bridge is old and famous. It goes over the East River and connects Downtown Brooklyn to Lower Manhattan. The longest bridge in New York, the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in Bay Ridge connects Brooklyn to Staten Island.


title: Walt Whitman

text: Walter "Walt" Whitman (May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist and journalist. He was an important American poet of the 19th century.


title: Walt Whitman

text: His most famous collection of poems is "Leaves of Grass", which was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person. Whitman kept adding to this book right up until he died of pneumonia, in 1892. It was controversial because readers thought it was obscene. It included some sexuality.


title: Walt Whitman

text: Whitman was either bisexual or homosexual. However, there is disagreement about whether Whitman had actual sexual experiences with men.


title: Walt Whitman

text: Whitman was deeply influenced by deism. He denied any one faith was more important than another, and embraced all religions equally.


title: Walt Whitman

text: Whitman first tried writing in many different popular genres. In 1850, he began writing "Leaves of Grass", a collection of poetry which he would continue working on until his death. Whitman wanted to write an epic that was clearly American, using free verse. At the end of June 1855, Whitman surprised his brothers with the first copies of "Leaves of Grass". His brother George "didn't think it worth reading".


title: Walt Whitman

text: Whitman paid for the publication of the first version of "Leaves of Grass" himself and had it printed at a local print shop. A total of 795 copies were printed. The first page was an image of Whitman, but he doesn't write his name until 500 lines into the body of the text. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote a kind five-page letter to Whitman and praised the book to friends. The first edition of "Leaves of Grass" was very popular, but was some people didn't like the "obscene" or offensive parts of the poetry.


title: Walt Whitman

text: In the months after the first edition of "Leaves of Grass", people became more upset about the sexual themes. Because of this, the publisher almost did not release the second edition. In 1856, 20 new poems were added. Different versions of "Leaves of Grass" continued to be published throughout the rest of Whitman's life. Many famous writers like Amos Bronson Alcott and Henry David Thoreau liked the work enough to visit Whitman.


title: Viking Age

text: The Viking Age was a period of time in Northern European and Scandinavian history from the eighth to eleventh centuries. Scandinavian Vikings, also called Norsemen, explored the oceans and rivers of Europe through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, and Anatolia. Some Vikings are believed to have settled at L'Anse aux Meadows, an archaeological site on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland, Canada, at a place they called Vinland.


title: Viking Age

text: In England the Viking Age began dramatically on June 8, 793, when Norsemen destroyed the abbey on Lindisfarne. Monks were killed in the abbey, thrown into the sea to drown, or carried away as slaves along with the church's wealth. The Viking devastation of Northumbria's Holy Island shocked and alerted the royal courts of Europe. "Never before has such an atrocity been seen," declared the Northumbrian scholar Alcuin of York. More than any other single event, the attack on Lindisfarne cast a shadow on the perception of the Vikings for the next 1100 years. In the 1890s scholars outside Scandinavia began to rethink the achievements, artistry, technological skills and seamanship of the Vikings.


title: Viking Age

text: Until Victoria's reign in Britain, Vikings were portrayed as violent and bloodthirsty. The stories from medieval England had always portrayed them as 'wolves among sheep'. During the nineteenth century, public opinions changed. The first challenges to the many anti-Viking images in Britain emerged in the 17th century. Some scholarly works on the Viking Age became available to readers in Britain. Archaeologists began to dig up Britain's Viking past. Linguists started to work on identifying Viking-Age origins for rural idioms and proverbs. The new dictionaries of the Old Norse language enabled the Victorians to study some of the Icelandic Sagas.


title: Viking Age

text: During the second half of the 18th century the Icelandic Sagas were still used as important historical sources, but the Viking Age was regarded as a barbaric and uncivilized period in the history of the Nordic countries. Until recently, what was known about the history of the Viking Age was based on the Icelandic Sagas, the history of the Danes written by Saxo Grammaticus, the Russian "Primary Chronicle" and "the War of the Irish with the Foreigners". Few scholars still accept these texts as reliable sources; historians nowadays rely more on archaeology and numismatics, which have helped people understand the period.


title: Viking Age

text: The Norsemen were explorers, colonizers and traders as well as plunderers. The Vikings from Norway explored the North Atlantic and settled Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Shetland and Orkney Islands, Caithness in Scotland, Greenland and (briefly) North America. The Vikings from Denmark raided ports and coastal towns along the coasts of Europe and Britain. The Vikings from Sweden pushed east, into areas that are now parts of Russia and Ukraine, establishing trade connections with the Middle East and beyond.


title: Viking Age

text: By the 9th century, a strong central authority was established in Jutland, and the Danes were looking beyond their own territory for land, trade and plunder. Norway had been settled over many centuries by Germanic peoples from Denmark and Sweden who made farming and fishing communities around its coasts and lakes. The mountains and fjords formed strong natural boundaries. The communities remained independent of each other, unlike the situation in Denmark which is lowland. By the year 800, there were 30 small kingdoms in Norway. The sea was the easiest way of communicating between these Norwegian kingdoms and the outside world. In the eighth century Scandinavians began to build war ships and send them on raids. The Viking longships were capable of travel on the open seas but also had a very shallow "draft", meaning they could sail into shallower bays and farther up rivers than other ships of their time. This led to the term "Viking", which came from the Old Norse word "vīk" (meaning inlet or bay). A person who went on raids was said to go "viking".


title: Viking Age

text: It is unknown what triggered the Vikings' expansion and conquests. This era was at the same time as the Medieval Warm Period (800 – 1300) and stopped with the start of the Little Ice Age (about 1250 – 1850). The lack of pack-ice during their time may have allowed the Norsemen to go "a-viking" or "raiding". It is believed that the heathen Norsemen suffered from unequal trade practices by Christian merchants who were given preference through a Christian network of traders. A two-tiered system of pricing existed among merchants who secretly traded with the Norse heathens. Viking raids occurred both separately and together with regular trading expeditions.


title: Viking Age

text: Historians also suggest that the Scandinavian population was too large for the peninsula and there were not enough crops to feed everyone. This led to a hunt for more land to feed the ever-growing Viking population. Internal conflicts, especially during the period of conquest and settlement that followed the early raids, caused the progressive centralisation of power into fewer hands. This meant that lower classes who did not want to be oppressed by greedy kings went in search of their own lands. Those who settled Iceland created Europe's first modern republic with a yearly assembly of elected officials called the "Althing".


title: Viking Age

text: The earliest date given for a Viking raid is 787 AD when, according to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", a group of men from Norway sailed to Portland, in Dorset. There, a royal official mistook them for merchants. They killed him when he tried to lead them to the king's manor to pay a trading tax on their goods. The beginning of the Viking Age in the British Isles is, however, often given as 793. It was recorded in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" that the Northmen raided the important island monastery of Lindisfarne:


title: Viking Age

text: ""AD. 793. This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island "(Lindisfarne)", by rapine and slaughter."" -"Anglo Saxon Chronicle"


title: Viking Age

text: In 794, according to the "Annals of Ulster", there was a serious attack on Lindisfarne's mother-house of Iona, which was followed in 795 by raids on the northern coast of Ireland. From bases there, the Norsemen attacked Iona again in 802, causing great slaughter amongst the "Céli Dé" Brethren, and burning the abbey to the ground.


title: Viking Age

text: The end of the Viking Age is traditionally marked in England by three major events: the failed invasion by Haraldr Harðráði, who was defeated by Saxon King Harold Godwinson in 1066 at the Battle of Stamford Bridge; in Ireland, the capture of Dublin by Strongbow and his Hiberno-Norman forces in 1171; and in Scotland by the defeat of King Hákon Hákonarson at the Battle of Largs in 1263. Harold Godwinson was subsequently defeated within a month by William, Duke of Normandy, who was another descendant of Vikings. Normandy had been acquired by "Normans" (Norsemen) in 911. Scotland took its present form when it regained territory from the Norse between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries.


title: Viking Age

text: Most Scandinavian historians and archaeologists give a different definition. Instead, the Viking age is said to have ended with the establishment of royal authority in the Scandinavian countries and the adoption of Christianity as the dominant religion. The date is usually put somewhere in the early 11th century in all three Scandinavian countries. The end of the Viking Age in Norway is marked by the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030. They proclaimed Norway as a Christian nation, and Norwegians could no longer be called Vikings.


title: Viking Age

text: The Kingdom of the Franks under Charlemagne was especially hard-hit by Viking raiders, who could sail down the Seine without much difficulty. Near the end of Charlemagne's reign and throughout the reigns of his sons and grandsons, a string of Viking raids began, leading to a Scandinavian conquest and settlement of the region now known as Normandy.


title: Viking Age

text: In 911, French King Charles the Simple made an agreement with the Viking warleader Rollo, a chieftain of either Norwegian or Danish origin. Charles gave Rollo the title of duke and granted him possession of Normandy. In return, Rollo swore fealty to Charles, converted to Christianity, and swore to defend the northern region of France against raids by other Viking groups. Several generations later, the Norman descendants of these Viking settlers identified themselves as French and brought the French language and their variant of French culture to England in 1066. With the Norman Conquest, they became the ruling aristocracy of Anglo-Saxon England, leading to the change from Old English to Middle English language.


title: Viking Age

text: At the start of the Viking age, the Vikings believed in the Norse religion. They believed in a of gods and goddesses, as well as "Valhalla", a heaven for warriors. The lower class of society would go to a place called "hel", similar to life on earth. According to Viking beliefs, Viking chieftains would please their war-gods by their bravery, and would become "worth-ship"; that is, the chieftain would earn a "burial at sea". They also performed land burials which often still included a ship, treasure, weapons, tools, clothing and even slaves and women buried alive with the dead chieftain, for his journey to Valhalla and adventure in the after-life. Poets composed sagas about the exploits of these chieftains, keeping their memories alive.


title: Viking Age

text: Freyr and his sister Freya were gods of "fertility", which means being able to grow. They made sure that people had many children and that the land produced plenty of crops. Some farmers even called their fields after Freyr, in the hope that this would ensure a good harvest. Toward the end of the Viking Age, more and more Scandinavians were converted to Christianity, often by force. The introduction of Christianity did not immediately end Viking voyages, but it may have been a factor that helped the Viking Age to an end.


title: Viking Age

text: Some of the most important trading ports during the period include both existing and ancient cities such as Jelling (Denmark), Ribe (Denmark), Roskilde (Denmark), Hedeby (Denmark, now Germany), Aarhus (Denmark), Vineta (Pomerania), Truso (Poland), Kaupang (Norway), Birka (Sweden), Bordeaux (France), Jorvik (England), Dublin (Ireland) and Aldeigjuborg (Russia).


title: Viking Age

text: In the late 19th century (1800s), Richard Wagner and other artists in the Romantic period made operas and other artwork about ancient Germanic culture. They liked the Vikings because they were not Greeks or Romans. They came up with the idea of Vikings wearing fur clothes and helmets with wings or horns on them and drinking out of hollowed-out animal horns. Some ancient Germans wore helmets with horns on them, but real Vikings did not. Wagner and his partners deliberately dressed the actors in the opera "Ring des Nibelungen" so they would look like ancient Germans and so the audience would feel like modern Germans came from medieval Vikings.


title: President of Russia

text: The President of Russia is the head of state and head of the executive of the central government of Russia and the commander in chief of the Russian Armed Forces.


title: President of Russia

text: The current president is Vladimir Putin. Boris Yeltsin was the first president of Russia, Vladimir Putin was second and fourth, and Dmitry Medvedev was the third. The President's duties are listed in the 1993 Russian Constitution. The president directs the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Federation.


title: President of Russia

text: The first inauguration took place on 10 July 1991 following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev having to resign sealed the fate of the Soviet Union. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the Russian Federation.


title: President of Russia

text: Inauguration of the President of Russia is done six years after the last inauguration (since 2000, this 7th of May).


title: President of Russia

text: In case of the President's death, resignation or removal from office, the Prime Minister serves as acting president until a replacement is appointed.


title: Cartoon

text: A cartoon is a kind of vector which is a few short lines followed by a series of drawns, sometime animated, in an unrealistic or semi-realistic style. The word "cartoon" has been used in several different ways in the world.


title: Cartoon

text: The oldest meaning is a drawing that is a full-sized design for a finished artwork. The cartoon might be a drawing for a painting that was going to be put onto a wall or ceiling in fresco. The cartoon would be pinned against the wall and its design marked onto the plastered of the wall. Cartoons were also made to design tapestry. The most famous cartoons are a set by Raphael which show the "Life of St Peter". The cartoons are in the Victoria & Albert Museum. The finished tapestries belong to the Vatican and were made for the Sistine Chapel.


title: Cartoon

text: In the 1700s, artists such as William Hogarth often made sets of humorous (funny) drawings that were about political subjects, such as poverty, elections, war and riots. The drawings were made into prints and were sold cheaply. These prints were not called cartoons at that time, but they led to the idea of modern political cartoons in newspapers.


title: Cartoon

text: Nowadays many newspapers publish a different political cartoon in the paper, every day. The word "cartoon" was first used in this way in 1843 in an English magazine called "Punch".


title: Cartoon

text: A political cartoon does not always show real people. Sometimes it may use a personification of a country or organization as a person, an animal, or a monster. For example, Britain might be shown as a woman holding a baby Australia in her arms. Russia might be shown as a baby bear or a dolphin. The United States might be shown as a Bald Eagle.


title: Cartoon

text: Political cartoons were often drawn to show several different stages of the same story. Many of Hogarth's famous political cartoons do this. From this came the idea of telling funny stories in a series of pictures. Comic strips are a type of "cartoon" that is published in newspapers, but they are usually just called "comic strips".


title: Cartoon

text: Comic books assemble many strips in a book. The book may tell a long story, longer than a newspaper would want to print, or several stories.


title: Cartoon

text: Comic strips posted on the internet are web comics. Some use animation and sound for special effects. Like comic books they may be large, and most offer a large collection of earlier strips for new readers, so longer stories can be told. Many webcomics are published (shown to people) by independent artists.


title: Cartoon

text: From the beginning of the movie industry, some artists began experimenting with making drawings that seemed to move. These moving drawings also became known as "cartoons". They often depict animals rather than humans. They were often just for fun, but sometimes, particularly during World War II, were used for political reasons, just like the cartoons in newspapers.


title: Cartoon

text: At first, movie cartoons were quite short. When a person bought a movie ticket, they would see a news program, two or three cartoons in black and white and a movie. Walt Disney then got the idea to tell a long story as a "cartoon". The first example made was "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" (1937). Movie cartoons soon became a popular type of entertainment. Modern movie cartoons are sometimes created using computer graphics, rather than hand-drawn cartoons. The popular stars of animated cartoons include Tom and Jerry, Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, and Goofy.


title: International Space Station

text: The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station, a very large satellite that people can live in for several months at a time. It was put together in Low Earth orbit up until 2011, but other bits have been added since then. The last part, a Bigelow module was added in 2016. The station is a joint project among several areas of the world: the United States, Russia, Europe, Japan, and Canada. Other nations such as Brazil, Italy, and China also work with the ISS through cooperation with other countries.


title: International Space Station

text: In the early 1980s, NASA planned Space Station Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. It never left the drawing board and, with the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War, it was cancelled. The end of the Space Race prompted the U.S. administration officials to start negotiations with international partners Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s in order to build a truly international space station. This project was first announced in 1993 and was called Space Station Alpha. It was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies: NASA's Space Station Freedom, Russia's Mir-2 (the successor to the Mir Space Station, the core of which is now Zvezda) and ESA's Columbus that was planned to be a stand-alone spacelab.


title: International Space Station

text: The ISS components was manufactured in various factories all over the world, and were all shipped into the Space Station Processing Facility at Kennedy Space Center for last stages of manufacturing, machine assembly and launch processing. The components are made from stainless steel, titanium, aluminum and copper.


title: International Space Station

text: The assembly of the International Space Station is a great event in space architecture. Russian modules launched and docked by their rockets. All other pieces were delivered by the Space Shuttle. The Bigelow Module was delivered with a Falcon 9. , they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. Many of the modules that launched on the Space Shuttle were tested on the ground at the Space Station Processing Facility to find and correct problems before launch.


title: International Space Station

text: The first section, the Zarya Functional Cargo Block, was put in orbit in November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket. Two further pieces (the Unity Module and Zvezda service module) were added before the first crew, Expedition 1, was sent. Expedition 1 docked to the ISS on 1 November 2000, and consisted of U.S. astronaut William Shepherd and two Russian cosmonauts, Yuri Gidzenko and Sergey Krikalev. Since then, it has continuously been home to astronauts and cosmonauts to the present day.


title: International Space Station

text: People living in the space station have to get used to all kinds of changes from life on Earth. It takes them only 90 minutes to orbit (go around) the earth, so the sun looks as if it is rising and setting 16 times a day. This can be confusing, especially when one is trying to decide when they should go to bed. The astronauts try to keep a 24-hour-schedule anyway. At bedtime, they have to sleep in sleeping bags that are stuck to the wall. They have to strap themselves inside so they will not float away while sleeping.


title: International Space Station

text: In orbit there is no G-Force (this is called free fall or "zero gravity"). To help prepare astronauts experience zero gravity, NASA trainers put the astronauts in water. Because water makes one float, this is a little like experiencing no gravity. However, in water they can push against the water and move around. In zero gravity, there is nothing to push against, so they just float in the air. Another way of training is going in a plane and making the plane fall to earth very quickly. This lets people experience zero gravity for a very short time. This training can make people quite sick at first.


title: International Space Station

text: In zero gravity, the astronauts do not use their legs very much, so they need to get lots of exercise to keep them from becoming too weak. Without gravity, astronauts can get big upper bodies and skinny legs. This is called chicken-leg syndrome. Astronauts must exercise hard, every day, to remain healthy.


title: International Space Station

text: Eating in space style is difficult. Water and other liquids do not flow down in space, so if any were spilled in the space station, it would float around everywhere. Liquids can ruin electronic equipment, so astronauts have to be very careful in space. They drink by sucking water out of a bag, or from a tube stuck to the wall. They cannot put their food on plates because it would just float right off, so they put it in pouches and eat from the pouches. The food they eat is usually dried, because any crumbs can ruin the equipment.Sometimes fresh fruits and vegetables are sent up to the astronauts, but it is very expensive and hard to send it, so they have to bring plenty of food with them.


title: International Space Station

text: In space, the "bathroom" should probably be called the "restroom" instead, because one really can not take baths there. Instead, astronauts use squirt guns to take a shower. One person squirts himself with a gun while other people stand outside with a water vacuum to get rid of all the water that floats out of the shower. This is quite hard, so astronauts usually just take a "sponge bath" with a wet cloth.Toilets can be another problem. Toilets are supposed to use gravity to work. When one flushes a toilet, gravity makes the water go down. Since the astronauts on the ISS do not feel any gravity, the toilet must be attached to the astronauts and gently suck away all their waste.


title: Colossus computer

text: Colossus was the world's first programmable electronic digital computer. British code breakers used Colossus for cryptanalysis during World War II.


title: Colossus computer

text: These messages were sent between the German High Command, and army field commanders. Reading these messages helped the Allies to win the war.


title: Colossus computer

text: Codebreaker Max Newman worked at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park. His problem was how to get a machine that would help turn German coded radio teleprinter messages into ordinary language. A group of Post Office telephone engineers led by Tommy Flowers worked out how to do this. Their design, which was called "Colossus" used many vacuum tubes (valves). The first machine, Mark 1, worked in December 1943 and solved its first problem in February 1944. Colossus Mark 2 was even better. It first worked on 1 June 1944, just before the Normandy Landings on D-Day. Ten Colossus computers were in use at the end of the war.


title: Colossus computer

text: British codebreakers called the teleprinter messages "Fish". The messages had been coded by an unknown German machine. They called the machine and its coded messages "Tunny". Colossus imitated the machine and read the coded message from a punched tape. It tried various possibilities of how two of the wheels had been set up. When Colossus found likely settings for two wheels, the codebreaker designed further programs for Colossus until likely settings of other wheels were found. Colossus did not perform all of the decoding process. It just found likely settings of the machine. The output from Colossus was then worked on by people who had a very good knowledge of the German language.


title: Colossus computer

text: After the war the British codebreakers found out that the code machine was the Lorenz SZ42. All the secret Colossus computers were taken to pieces, so that no one would find out about them. The designs were destroyed. For thirty years no one knew who made them. Between the early 1990s and 2007, a working copy of a Colossus computer was built. This can be seen at The National Museum of Computing at Bletchley Park in England.


title: Colossus computer

text: Regular radio transmissions of "Tunny" messages started in June 1941. The British codebreakers saw that it used a five-unit code like a teleprinter system. Their research also showed that the coding was being done by a rotor cipher machine with 12 wheels (rotors). For each new message sent, the wheels had first to be turned to new positions. The start position for the message was chosen by the operator who was sending the message. He told the operator who was receiving the message what the start positions were with 12 letters that were not coded. The total number of possible start positions of the 12 wheels was very large indeed.


title: Colossus computer

text: The coding machine added together the "plaintext" (the un-coded version of the message) and a stream of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation) called the "keystream" (a stream of seemingly random characters) that it generated to make the "ciphertext" (the coded version of the message). The ciphertext, which made no sense, was transmitted by radio. At the receiving end an identical machine removed the keystream to produce the plaintext of the message.


title: Colossus computer

text: If the German operators always worked correctly, no two messages would have the same start position of the wheels. However, mistakes were made. They helped the British codebreakers. On 30 August 1941 two versions of the same message, which was nearly 4,000 characters long, were sent with the same wheel start positions. This mistake was very useful to the research codebreakers. A codebreaker called John Tiltman was able to get the keystream from these messages.


title: Colossus computer

text: The codebreakers tried to work out the details of the machine from this information, but at first they failed. They were then joined by a young codebreaker called Bill Tutte who was given the job. After a lot of work he succeeded, and produced a logical description of the unseen machine. This work has been described as "the greatest intellectual achievement of world war II". Tutte worked out that the machine made each keystream character by combining the effects of two sets of five wheels. He used Greek letters to name the wheels. He called one set of five the χ ("chi") wheels, and the other set of five the ψ ("psi") wheels. He worked out that the χ wheels moved on one position for each new character coded. The ψ wheels, however, did not move regularly. They only moved on some of the time. Whether or not the ψ wheels moved on was controlled by two wheels that he called two the μ ("mu") or "motor wheels".


title: Colossus computer

text: Max Newman was a mathematician and codebreaker at Bletchley Park. He was given the job of working out how a machine could break "Tunny" messages. The machine would do a calculation for many possible start positions of the χ wheels. The start position that gave the largest count from this calculation was likely to be the right one. The first machine was called "Heath Robinson". This did not work very well. It had two punched paper tapes that had to work exactly together. One tape contained the ciphertext in a continuous loop. The second looped tape contained patterns made by the wheels of the coding machine. The tapes would often stretch or break when going at 2000 characters each second. Sometimes the tapes would not line up; then the counts were wrong.


title: Colossus computer

text: Tommy Flowers worked at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill in north-west London. He was asked to look at the Heath Robinson machine. He thought it was a weak machine. He designed an electronic machine to do the same job. It would make the patterns of the coding machine by electronics so that only one paper tape was needed. In February 1943 he showed Max Newman this design. The design needed 1,500 thermionic valves (vacuum tubes). Few people thought that so many valves could work without a lot failing. More Heath Robinson machines were ordered. Flowers, however, kept with the idea of an electronic machine. He got support from Gordon Radley, his boss at the Post Office Research Station. Tommy Flowers and his team started work on Colossus in February 1943.


title: Colossus computer

text: The tape with the message on it had to be read rapidly. Tommy Flowers tested the tape reader up to 9,700 letters/second () before the tape broke. He selected 5,000 characters per second as a good speed for regular work. This meant that the paper tape moved at or . The electronic circuits were driven by a signal made from reading the sprocket holes of the punched tape.


title: Colossus computer

text: The first Colossus worked at Dollis Hill in December 1943. Then they took Colossus apart and moved it to Bletchley Park. It got there on 18 January 1944. Harry Fensom and Don Horwood put it back together. Colossus read its first message on the 5th of February. After the first Colossus (Mark 1) there were nine Mark 2 machines. These each had 2,400 valves. They were easier to use. They could be programmed to work at five times the speed of the Mark 1. A Mark 2 Colossus first worked on 1 June 1944.


title: Colossus computer

text: At first Colossus was only used to find the starting wheel places used for a message (called "wheel setting"). Codebreakers worked out how to use the Mark 2 to help find the patterns of the cams on the wheels ("wheel breaking"). At the end of the war there were ten Colossus computers working at Bletchley Park. This meant that very many messages were decoded.


title: Colossus computer

text: Colossus used parts that were new back then. It used vacuum tubes, thyratrons and photomultipliers. It read from paper with light. It then did a special thing for every letter; the special thing could be changed. It counted how often this special thing was "true". Machines with many vacuum tubes were known to break a lot. They break most when turning on, so the Colossus machines were only turned off when a part broke.


title: Colossus computer

text: Colossus was the first of the electronic digital machines that could have a program. It could not change as much as later machines:


title: Colossus computer

text: It was not a Turing-complete computer, even though Alan Turing was at Bletchley Park. This idea had not yet been thought of, and most of the other early modern computing machines were not Turing-complete (like: the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the Harvard Mark I electro-mechanical relay machine, the Bell Labs relay machines by George Stibitz and others, or the first plans of Konrad Zuse). It took a long time for computers be used for many uses, instead of just a calculator only for working out one hard problem.


title: Colossus computer

text: What the Colossus computers were used for was very secret. The Colossus itself was highly secret even for many years after the War. This is why Colossus could not be included in the history of computing hardware for a long time. Nobody knew how important that Flowers and the other people who helped make it were.


title: Colossus computer

text: Not many people knew about this secret computer, so it had little direct effect on the new design of later computers; EDVAC was the early design which had the most effect on later computer design.


title: Colossus computer

text: Once Colossus was made, some people now knew that high-speed electronic (no moving parts like electrical relays) digital computing devices could be made and they did not break too much. Just this knowledge was enough to have a big effect on the designs of early computers in Britain and probably in the US. People that knew about Colossus were important in the early computer field in Britain. In 1972, Herman Goldstine wrote that:


title: Colossus computer

text: In writing that, Goldstine did not know of Colossus. He did not know what it left to projects of people who knew about it. People such as Alan Turing (with the Pilot ACE and ACE), and Max Newman and I. J. Good (with the Manchester Mark 1 and other early Manchester computers). Brian Randell later wrote that:


title: Colossus computer

text: Colossus plans and machinery were secret from the when they were made. They stayed so after the War, when Winston Churchill ordered the destruction of most of the Colossus machines into "parts no bigger than a man's hand"; Tommy Flowers himself burned the designs in a fireplace at Dollis Hill. Some parts, changed to look innocent, were taken to Newman's Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University. The Colossus Mark 1 was taken apart and the parts were sent back to the Post Office. Two Colossus computers, along with two copied Tunny machines, were kept. They were moved to GCHQ's new head office at Eastcote in April 1946. They moved again with GCHQ to Cheltenham between 1952 and 1954. One of the computers, known as "Colossus Blue", was taken apart in 1959; the other in 1960. In their later years, the computers were used for training. Before that, there had been attempts to change them (sometimes well) for other purposes. Jack Good was the first to use it after the war, getting NSA to use Colossus to do something for which they were planning to build a special purpose machine. Colossus was also used to perform letter counts on one-time pad tape to test for non-randomness.


title: Colossus computer

text: At this time the Colossus was still secret, long after any of its technical details were of any importance. This was due to the UK's intelligence agencies use of Enigma-like machines which they got other governments to buy. The agencies then broke the codes using different ways. Had the knowledge of the codebreaking machines been widely known, no one would have accepted these machines; rather, they would have developed their own methods for encryption, methods that the UK services might not have been able to break. The need for such secrets slowly went away as communications moved to digital transmission and all-digital encryption systems became common in the 1960s.


title: Colossus computer

text: Colonel Winterbotham's book "The Ultra Secret" came out in 1975. This broke the secrecy around the Colossus. After that, details about the computer began to become public in the late 1970s.


title: Colossus computer

text: A 500-page technical report on the Tunny cipher and its code breaking – entitled "General Report on Tunny" – was given by GCHQ to the national Public Record Office in October 2000; the complete technical report is online.


title: Colossus computer

text: A team led by Tony Sale built a working copy of a Colossus Mark 2. The plans and machines had been destroyed, but a surprising amount of other material was not destroyed. It was mostly in engineers' notebooks, much of it in the U.S. The optical tape reader might have been the biggest problem, but Dr. Arnold Lynch, its designer, was able to redesign it from his own first writings. The rebuilt Colossus is on show at The National Museum of Computing, in H Block Bletchley Park in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. This is where the Colossus No. 9 was used in the war.


title: Colossus computer

text: In November 2007, to mark both the end of the work and the start of fundraising (asking for money) they ran a competition. The money would help The National Museum of Computing with a Cipher Competition where the rebuilt Colossus competed with radio amateurs all around the world. The first to hear and decode three messages enciphered would win. They would be enciphered using the Lorenz SZ42 and transmitted from the radio station in the "Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum" computer museum in Germany. The competition was easily won by radio amateur Joachim Schüth. Schüth had gotten ready for the event. He made his own signal processing and code-breaking program using Ada. The Colossus team lost because they wanted to use World War II radios. They were a day late because of bad radio conditions. The winner's 1.4 GHz laptop, running his own program, took less than a minute to find the settings for all 12 wheels. The German codebreaker said: "My laptop worked on ciphertext at a speed of 1.2 million letters per second—240x faster than Colossus. If you compare the two computers, you could say Colossus had a speed of 5.8 MHz. That is very fast for a computer built in 1944."


title: Bye (sports)

text: A bye in sports and other competitive activities can have two different meanings. Both mean that a participant in a competition is not required to compete while most of the other participants are. Its main use is in tournament competitions. In single-elimination tournaments, when there are an odd number of participants, a bye allows one or more to play in a later round. Other types of eliminator tournaments may also include a bye for others reasons. An example would be as a reward for the best ranked team(s).


title: Bye (sports)

text: In round-robin tournaments where there are an odd number of competitors, usually one gets a bye in each round. However, over the whole tournament, each team plays the same number of games.


title: Bye (sports)

text: Similar to the round-robin context, in leagues where most teams play on the same days during regular-season play, a team that does not play on a given day is said to be on bye. In sports that are played weekly, especially gridiron football, a team that does not play at all during a given week is said to be on its bye week. For example, during the regular football Season in the NFL, each team gets a week off (bye week) during the regular season.


title: Hair

text: Humans and some other animals have lost much of their hair through evolution, and some other mammals, such as the elephant and the whale, have almost none at all.


title: Hair

text: Some animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have "hairs". However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles. The "hairs" found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes.


title: Hair

text: In humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from race to race. Asians and native North Americans have the least amount of body hair, while Caucasians tend to have the most.


title: Hair

text: Hair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. It is impossible to have a hair color that is not passed down genetically by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent. These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features.


title: Hair

text: Dyeing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs. This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older.


title: Hair

text: Two types of melanin pigment give hair its color: "eumelanin" and "pheomelanin". Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair.


title: Hair

text: The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.


title: Hair

text: One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child.


title: Hair

text: The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively.


title: Hair

text: The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics).


title: Hair

text: Hair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women. Body hair is limited in women, and thicker in men.


title: Hair

text: People have about 100,000 hairs on their head. About 100 fall out each day, but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia.


title: Hair

text: Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as "baldness". Doctors call it "male pattern baldness" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old.


title: Hair

text: People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure. Many unproven "cures" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness.


title: Hair

text: People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism (it is also good to do this in Islam, but not a requirement).


title: Brussels

text: In 2007, 145,917 people lived there. But the area around it, known as the Brussels-Capital Region, had 1,031,215 people (which makes it the largest city area in Belgium).


title: Brussels

text: The people of Brussels speak mainly French and Flemish (a type of Dutch). There are lots of other languages spoken as well, because the European Union offices are there and because many thousands of immigrants from all over the world live there.


title: Brussels

text: The city is at 50° 50 North, 04° 21 East. It has an oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Köppen climate classification).


title: Brussels

text: The vegetables Brussels sprouts are named after the city, and Brussels is also famous for its waffles and its chocolates.


title: Imperialism

text: Imperialism is a policy (way of governing) in which large or powerful countries seek to extend their authority beyond their own borders. The policy of imperialism aims at the creation of an empire.


title: Imperialism

text: Imperialist countries take control of other countries. They may use military force to do this. However, they may also avoid using military force. They may simply establish economic and/or political control over the other country.


title: Imperialism

text: Imperialist policies of countries or kingdoms have goals of taking over more land to create bigger empires.


title: Imperialism

text: The ruler of an empire gains natural resources such as agricultural and mining products. Human resources are also gained. Conquered peoples may be forced into slavery or into low-wage work. They may also be called into military service on behalf of the empire. Trade markets are also gained. The people under an imperial government may be forced to buy products from that government or from that government's industries.


title: Imperialism

text: Thus, a policy of imperialism can vastly enrich the imperialist country. This benefit can extend over a long period of time.


title: Imperialism

text: Imperialism has been practiced throughout recorded history. However, there is one historical period that is specifically known as the Age of Imperialism. This period extends from the early 18th century to the mid-20th century.


title: Imperialism

text: During the Age of Imperialism, modern and industrialized countries competed for control of pre-industrial parts of the world. In pre-industrial areas, natural and human resources were widely and cheaply available. The imperialist countries that acquired the largest empires during the Age of Imperialism are The United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.


title: Imperialism

text: Some writers use the term "imperialism" informally. They use the term to mean any type of domination of one country over another part of the world. Domination especially happened in Asia and Africa.


title: Online and offline

text: "Online" and "offline" are terms used in telecommunications. If a computer or a user is connected to the Internet, it is said to be "online". A website, for example, is online, because it is on the Internet.


title: Online and offline

text: If something is not online, it is said to be "offline". If a system is offline, it is in a disconnected state.


title: Online and offline

text: Online can also mean that something is set up correctly and ready to what it is supposed to do. For example:


title: Rhode Island

text: Rhode Island is the smallest state in the United States by area. The capital and largest city is Providence. It is called the "Ocean state" because of its bays and waterways. It was founded by Roger Williams for religious freedom. The Narragansett people lived there before Europeans came, but people like Roger Williams didn't respect them and used the land for their own reasons. The colonists fought a war against the native people and many of them were killed or ran away from the colonists.


title: Rhode Island

text: Rhode Island was one of the original Thirteen Colonies. It became very important to the economy because of the slave trade, and more slaves were taken to the thirteen colonies through Rhode Island than any of the others in the 18th century. Slavers would send ships from Newport to buy slaves from Africa and make money by trading goods with others involved in slavery. Rhode Island became a state (the last of the thirteen to agree to the new United States Constitution) in 1790.


title: Rhode Island

text: Rhode Island is bordered on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the west by Connecticut, and on the south by Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It shares a water border with New York. It is named for a large island in Rhode Island Sound. Rhode Island Some thought the island looked liked Rhodes, an island in Greece. Others didn´t.


title: Rhode Island

text: An executive order was signed by Governor Gina Raimondo on June 22, 2020 to remove "Providence Plantations" from the official state name due to its ties to slavery. Raimondo stated the change would go into effect "as soon as practicable." In November 2020, the official name was voted to be changed to "State of Rhode Island".


title: Above mean sea level

text: The term above mean sea level (AMSL) is the elevation or altitude used by engineers to determine the coverage area a station will be able to reach. It is also used in aviation, where most heights are recorded and reported in AMSL (see flight level), and in the atmospheric sciences.


title: Above mean sea level

text: A "mean sea level" is imaginary. It is not possible to know the average sea level for the entire planet. The sea level also changes over time when measured in the same place. The sea moves, high and low pressure zones affect the height, tides change the sea level, and local difference in gravity all affect the sea level. People can only pick a spot and calculate the mean sea level at that point and use it as a datum. For example, the British Ordnance Survey uses a datum based on the measurements of mean sea level at a gauge at Newlyn, Cornwall from 1915 to 1921 for their maps of Great Britain. This datum is actually about 80 cm different from the mean sea level reading on the other side of the country. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire earth. GPS and other satellite systems do this. In aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define mean sea level. Another alternative is to use a geoid based datum such as NAVD88.


title: Photoelectric effect

text: The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in physics. The effect is based on the idea that electromagnetic radiation is made of a series of particles called photons. When a photon hits an electron on a metal surface, the electron can be emitted. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons. The effect is also called the Hertz Effect, because it was discovered by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, but this name is not used often.


title: Photoelectric effect

text: The photoelectric effect has helped physicists understand the quantum nature of light and electrons. The concept of wave–particle duality was developed because of the photoelectric effect. Albert Einstein proposed the Laws of Photoelectric Effect and won the Nobel Prize For Physics 1921.


title: Photoelectric effect

text: Not every electromagnetic wave will cause the photoelectric effect, only radiation of a certain frequency or higher will cause the effect. The minimum frequency needed is called the "cutoff frequency" or "threshold frequency'. The cutoff frequency is used to find the work function, formula_1, which is the amount of energy holding the electron to the metal surface. The work function is a property of the metal and is not affected by the incoming radiation. If a frequency of light strikes the metal surface that is greater than the cutoff frequency, then the emitted electron will have some kinetic energy.


title: Photoelectric effect

text: The energy of a photon causing the photoelectric effect is found through formula_2, where formula_3 is Planck's constant, J·s, formula_4 is the frequency of the electromagnetic wave, formula_5 is the kinetic energy of the photoelectron and formula_1 is the work function for the metal. If the photon has a lot of energy, Compton scattering (~ thousands of eV) or pair production (~ millions of eV) may take place.


title: Photoelectric effect

text: The intensity of the light alone does not cause ejection of electrons. Only light of the cut off frequency or higher can do that. However, increasing the intensity of light will increase the number of electrons being emitted, as long as the frequency is above the cut off frequency.


title: Photoelectric effect

text: Heinrich Hertz made the first observation of the photoelectric effect in 1887. He reported that a spark jumped more readily between two charged spheres if light was shining on them. Further studies were done to learn about the effect observed by Hertz. In 1902, Philipp Lenard showed that the kinetic energy of a photoelectron does not depend on the light intensity. However, it was not until 1905 that Einstein proposed a theory that explained the effect fully. The theory says that electromagnetic radiation is a series of particles, called photons. The photons collide with the electrons on the surface and emit them. This theory ran against the belief that electromagnetic radiation was a wave. Thus, at first it was not recognised as correct. In 1916, Robert Millikan published the results of experiments using a vacuum photo-tube. His work showed that Einstein's photoelectric equation explained the behaviour very accurately. However, Millikan and other scientists were slower to accept Einstein's theory of light quanta. Maxwell's wave theory of electromagnetic radiation cannot explain the photoelectric effect and blackbody radiation. These are explained by quantum mechanics.


title: Siberian tiger

text: The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger ("Panthera tigris tigris") is the largest felid in the world. They live in eastern Russia's birch forests, and there are some in China and North Korea. It is estimated that there are around 400 to 500 Siberian tigers left in the wild.


title: Siberian tiger

text: In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes all the tiger populations in mainland Asia as P. t. tigris.


title: Siberian tiger

text: Siberian tigers are the largest of all tigers, as well as the largest of all the big cats. They can grow up to the length of 6–9 ft (1.8–2.7 meters), but some can be as long as . They usually weigh around 300–600 pounds, but can weigh as much as 700 pounds or more. To keep themselves from becoming cold in the winters, Siberian tigers have thicker fur coats than tigers which live in southern Asia. They also have a thick layer of fat which helps keep them warm. Like all other tigers, Siberian tigers have orange fur with black stripes. Siberian tigers have extra fur around their necks and paws which helps them keep warm. Siberian tigers have less orange in their coats, and have fewer stripes.


title: Siberian tiger

text: Siberian tigers are located in northeast China, the Russian Far East and parts of North Korea. This region is called the "Amur Region", which is named after the Amur River. This region is covered with mountainous areas and coniferous forests. In the summer, the temperature is between mild and hot. In the winter, it may be very cold, especially at higher altitudes.


title: Siberian tiger

text: Like other tigers, the Siberian tiger likes to live on its own. Each Siberian tiger has its own large amount of territory. Male tigers' territories will usually cross those of several females' territories, but will usually not cross the territories of other males. In their territories, Siberian tigers usually have a lair in a cave or another area.


title: Siberian tiger

text: Since Siberian tigers live in such cold regions, an adult needs to eat at least of food every day to survive, but adults can eat as much as 50 kilograms of meat. Siberian tigers are carnivores. Siberian tigers are apex predators. Siberian tigers feed mainly on wild boar, moose and deer. If regular prey is unavailable they will eat fish, rodents, rabbits, wolves, asian black bears, and even small brown bears. During normal conditions, around 50 percent of the tiger's diet will be of wild boar.


title: Siberian tiger

text: While hunting, a Siberian tiger can run faster than , but running at this speed takes a lot of energy, so the Siberian tiger will only run short distances. The Siberian tiger has good night vision and likes to hunt during the night, when it can more easily surprise its prey. It also has excellent hearing and sense of smell which it uses to find and attack prey.


title: Siberian tiger

text: Siberian tigers live alone and only come together in mating season. The mating season usually begins in December, and lasts through January. Females are pregnant for around three to three and a half months before giving birth to their cubs in early spring. Females usually give birth to around 3–4 cubs at a time. When born, the Siberian tiger cub is blind and toothless and is no larger than a normal house cat. It stays blind for around two weeks. The mother starts teaching the cubs how to hunt when the cubs are around 1 year old. The cubs then stay with their mother until they are 3–5 years old.


title: The Bahamas

text: The Bahamas (officially called Commonwealth of the Bahamas) are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. The country's capital, Nassau, is on New Providence Island.


title: The Bahamas

text: The Taino were the first people living there. In 1492, Christopher Columbus found the Americas by landing on another of the islands, San Salvador. The Eleutheran Adventurers soon came along, making a home in Eleuthera.


title: The Bahamas

text: The Bahamas are a popular place for people to visit for holidays, the 700 islands and cays attract many visitors from nearby America, as well as Europe and other countries.


title: The Bahamas

text: Lucayanss were the first people to arrive in the Bahamas. They moved into the southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century AD, having come there from South America. They came to be known as the Lucayan. About 30,000 Lucayan lived the Bahamas when Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492. Columbus' first landfall in the New World was on an island named San Salvador, which some scholars believe to be present-day San Salvador Island.


title: The Bahamas

text: The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to move to Hispaniola. They were used for forced labour. This and the exposure to foreign diseases led to most of the population of the Bahamas dying. Smallpox alone wiped out half of the population in what is now the Bahamas.


title: The Bahamas

text: In 1670, King Charles II rented out the islands to the Carolinas, along with rights of trading, tax, and governing the country. During this time, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates, including the infamous Blackbeard. To restore proper government, Britain made the Bahamas a crown colony in 1718. The first governor was Woodes Rogers.


title: The Bahamas

text: After the American War of Independence, the British resettled some 7,300 Loyalists and their slaves in the Bahamas from New York, Florida, and the Carolinas. The first group of loyalists left St. Augustine in East Florida in September 1783. These Loyalists established plantations on several islands. British Americans were outnumbered by the African-American slaves they brought with them, and ethnic Europeans remained a minority in the territory.


title: The Bahamas

text: Nearly 500,000 people live in the Bahamas. The ethnic groups of the population is: 82% African descent 15% European & Mixed descent 3% Asian and other.


title: The Bahamas

text: The official language of the Bahamas is English, but they also speak a local dialect called Bahamianese. The Bahamian dialect is based based on the West Country England accents along with South Hiberno English dialects with strong influences from West African languages.


title: The Bahamas

text: In 1864 the Governor of the Bahamas reported that there were 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 rocks in the colony.


title: The Bahamas

text: The closest island to the United States is Bimini. The southeasternmost island is Inagua. The largest island is Andros Island. Nassau, capital city of The Bahamas, is on the island of New Providence.


title: The Bahamas

text: All the islands are low and flat. The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia on Cat Island. It is high.


title: The Bahamas

text: The climate of The Bahamas is subtropical to tropical. The Gulf Stream can be very dangerous in the summer and autumn. This is when hurricanes pass near or through the islands. Hurricane Andrew hit the northern islands during the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season. Hurricane Floyd hit most of the islands during the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season.