title: Benedict Arnold

text: During these actions, Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress. He had established decent relationships with George Washington, commander of the army, as well as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates, both of whom had command of the army's Northern Department during 1775 and 1776. However, a dispute with Moses Hazen, commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment, boiled over into a court martial of Hazen at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776. Only action by Gates, then his superior at Ticonderoga, prevented his own arrest on counter charges leveled by Hazen. He had also had disagreements with John Brown and James Easton, two lower-level officers with political connections that resulted in ongoing suggestions of wrongdoing on his part. Brown was particularly vicious, publishing a handbill that claimed of Arnold, "Money is this man's God, and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country".


title: Benedict Arnold

text: General Washington told Arnold to defend Rhode Island after the British captured Newport in December 1776. At that time, the militia did not have enough weapons and supplies to attack the British. Arnold was near his home, so he visited his children, and he spent much of the winter in Boston, where he tried to convince a woman named Betsy Deblois to marry him. She said no. In February 1777, he learned that Congress had not promoted him to major general. He tried to resign, or quit, but Washington did not let him. But Washington did write to members of Congress about the promotions. He wrote that "two or three other very good officers" might quit if Congress kept promoting people for political reasons instead of based on who could fight and lead the best.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold decided to go to Philadelphia to talk about his future. On the way, he heard a British force was marching toward a place in Danbury, Connecticut where the Continental army had put its supplies. Arnold, David Wooster, and Connecticut militia General Gold Selleck Silliman led the militia to stop them. This was the Battle of Ridgefield. Arnold he led a small group of soldiers to stop or slow down the British as they returned to the Atlantic Ocean. Arnold was again wounded in his left leg.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Then Arnold went on to Philadelphia, where he talked with members of Congress about his rank. Because of his good leadership at Ridgefield and because Wooster had died, Congress promoted Arnold to major general, although he did not outrank people who had been promoted before him. Arnold was not happy about this, and he tried to quit the army again. He wrote out a letter of resignation on July 11. But that day, people in Philadelphia learned that the British had captured Fort Ticonderoga. Again, Washington told Arnold he could not quit. Washington ordered Arnold to go north and help defend it.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold arrived in Schuyler's camp at Fort Edward, New York on July 24. On August 13, Schuyler sent Arnold with 900 soldiers to help soldiers at Fort Stanwix. There, Arnold used a trick win. Arnold had a Native American messenger go into the camp of British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger. The messenger said that Arnold's army was much larger and closer than it truly was. St. Leger's Native American soldiers abandoned him, so St. Leger and the rest of his soldiers had to leave too.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold then went back to the Hudson, where General Gates led the American army. They had gone to a camp south of Stillwater. Arnold fought very well in the Battles of Saratoga, even though he argued with General Gates and Gates told him he could no longer lead in the field. During the second battle, Arnold, against Gates' orders, went to the battlefield and led attacks on the British defenses. He was again severely wounded in the left leg late in the fighting. Arnold himself said it would have been better had it been in the chest instead of the leg. Burgoyne surrendered ten days after the second battle, on October 17, 1777. Because of Arnold's bravery at Saratoga, Congress restored his command seniority, meaning he outranked people who had been promoted to the same rank before him. However, Arnold believed they did so because they felt sorry that he had been injured. What he really wanted was an apology for not promoting him sooner.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold spent several months trying to heal from his injuries. Instead of cutting off his left leg, he had it set in a cast. It healed, but it was shorter than the right leg. He returned to the army at Valley Forge in May 1778. Many of the men who fought with him at Saratoga clapped when they saw him. There he took part in the first recorded Oath of Allegiance along with many other soldiers, as a sign of loyalty to the United States.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: After the British withdrew from Philadelphia in June 1778 Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city. Even before the Americans reoccupied Philadelphia, Arnold began planning to make money from the change in power there. He did many business deals designed to earn money from war-related supply movements and from his rank as a general. Powerful local men sometimes stopped Arnold's plans. Together, these people found enough evidence to publicly accuse Arnold of making money improperly. Arnold demanded a court martial so he could publicly prove he did nothing wrong. He wrote to Washington in May 1779, "Having become a cripple in the service of my country, I little expected to meet [such] ungrateful returns."


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold spent a lot of money in Philadelphia. He went to many social events, such as balls. During the summer of 1778, Arnold met Peggy Shippen, the 18-year-old daughter of Judge Edward Shippen, a Loyalist sympathizer who had done business with the British while they occupied the city. When the British had ruled Philadelphia, Major John André had also wanted to marry Peggy. Peggy and Arnold married on April 8, 1779. Peggy and her friends had learned how to write letters to the men they liked even when there were armies in between, even though the military did not want people to talk to the enemy. Joseph Stansbury, a Philadelphia merchant, helped Peggy and her friends send some of their messages.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Sometime early in May 1779, Arnold met with Stansbury. Stansbury, whose testimony before a British commission apparently erroneously placed the date in June, said that, after meeting with Arnold, "I went secretly to New York with a tender of [Arnold's] services to Sir Henry Clinton." Ignoring instructions from Arnold not to involve anyone else in the plot, Stansbury crossed the British lines and went to see Jonathan Odell in New York. Odell was a Loyalist working with William Franklin, the last Colonial Governor of New Jersey and the son of Benjamin Franklin. On 9 May Franklin introduced Stansbury to Major André, who had just been named the British spy chief. This was the beginning of a secret correspondence between Arnold and André, sometimes using his wife Peggy as a willing intermediary, that culminated over a year later with Arnold's change of sides.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: André spoke to General Clinton, who gave him broad authority to pursue Arnold's offer. André then drafted instructions to Stansbury and Arnold. This first letter opened a discussion on the types of assistance and intelligence Arnold might provide, and included instructions for how to communicate in the future. Letters would be passed through the women's circle that Peggy Arnold was a part of, but only Peggy would be aware that some letters contained instructions written in both code "and" invisible ink that were to be passed on to André, using Stansbury as the courier.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: By July 1779, Arnold was providing the British with troop locations and strengths, as well as the locations of supply depots, all the while negotiating over compensation. At first, he asked for indemnification of his losses and £10,000, an amount the Continental Congress had given Charles Lee for his services in the Continental Army. General Clinton, who was pursuing a campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley, was interested in plans and information on the defenses of West Point and other defenses on the Hudson River. He also began to insist on a face-to-face meeting, and suggested to Arnold that he pursue another high-level command. By October 1779, the negotiations had ground to a halt. Furthermore, Patriot mobs were scouring Philadelphia for Loyalists, and Arnold and the Shippen family were being threatened. Arnold was rebuffed by Congress and by local authorities in requests for security details for himself and his in-laws.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: The court martial to consider the charges against Arnold began meeting on 1 June 1779, but was delayed until December 1779 by General Clinton's capture of Stony Point, New York, throwing the army into a flurry of activity to react. In spite of the fact that a number of members of the panel of judges were men ill-disposed to Arnold over actions and disputes earlier in the war, Arnold was cleared of all but two minor charges on 26 January 1780. Arnold worked over the next few months to publicize this fact; however, in early April, just one week after Washington congratulated Arnold on the 19 May birth of his son, Edward Shippen Arnold, Washington published a formal rebuke of Arnold's behavior.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Shortly after Washington's rebuke, a Congressional inquiry into his expenditures concluded that Arnold had failed to fully account for his expenditures incurred during the Quebec invasion, and that he owed the Congress some £1,000, largely because he was unable to document them. A significant number of these documents were lost during the retreat from Quebec; angry and frustrated, Arnold resigned his military command of Philadelphia in late April.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Early in April, Philip Schuyler had approached Arnold with the possibility of giving him the command at West Point. Discussions between Schuyler and Washington on the subject had not borne fruit by early June. Arnold reopened the secret channels with the British, informing them of Schuyler's proposals and including Schuyler's assessment of conditions and West Point. He also provided information on a proposed French-American invasion of Quebec that was to go up the Connecticut River. (Arnold did not know that this proposed invasion was a ruse intended to divert British resources.) On 16 June Arnold inspected West Point while on his way home to Connecticut to take care of personal business, and sent a highly detailed report through the secret channel. When he reached Connecticut Arnold arranged to sell his home there, and began transferring assets to London through intermediaries in New York. By early July he was back in Philadelphia, where he wrote another secret message to Clinton on 7 July which implied that his appointment to West Point was assured and that he might even provide a "drawing of the works ... by which you might take [West Point] without loss".


title: Benedict Arnold

text: General Clinton and Major André, who returned victorious from the Siege of Charleston on 18 June were immediately caught up in this news. Clinton, concerned that Washington's army and the French fleet would join in Rhode Island, again fixed on West Point as a strategic point to capture. André, who had spies and informers keeping track of Arnold, verified his movements. Excited by the prospects, Clinton informed his superiors of his intelligence coups, but failed to respond to Arnold's 7 July letter.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold next wrote a series of letters to Clinton, even before he might have expected a response to the 7 July letter. In a letter of 11 July, he complained that the British did not appear to trust him, and threatened to break off negotiations unless progress was made. On 12 July he wrote again, making explicit the offer to surrender West Point, although his price (in addition to indemnification for his losses) rose to £20,000, with a £1,000 down payment to be delivered with the response. These letters were delivered not by Stansbury but by Samuel Wallis, another Philadelphia businessman who spied for the British.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: On 3 August 1780, Arnold obtained command of West Point. On 15 August he received a coded letter from André with Clinton's final offer: £20,000, and no indemnification for his losses. Due to difficulties in getting the messages across the lines, neither side knew for some days that the other was in agreement to that offer. Arnold's letters continued to detail Washington's troop movements and provide information about French reinforcements that were being organized. On 25 August Peggy finally delivered to him Clinton's agreement to the terms.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Washington, in assigning Arnold to the command at West Point, also gave him authority over the entire American-controlled Hudson River, from Albany down to the British lines outside New York City. While en route to West Point, Arnold renewed an acquaintance with Joshua Hett Smith, someone Arnold knew had done spy work for both sides, and who owned a house near the western bank of the Hudson just south of West Point.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Once he established himself at West Point, Arnold began systematically weakening its defenses and military strength. Needed repairs on the chain across the Hudson were never ordered. Troops were liberally distributed within Arnold's command area (but only minimally at West Point itself), or furnished to Washington on request. He also peppered Washington with complaints about the lack of supplies, writing, "Everything is wanting". At the same time, he tried to drain West Point's supplies, so that a siege would be more likely to succeed. His subordinates, some of whom were long-time associates, grumbled about unnecessary distribution of supplies, and eventually concluded that Arnold was selling some of the supplies on the black market for personal gain.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: On August 30, Arnold sent a letter accepting Clinton's terms and proposing a meeting to André through yet another intermediary: William Heron, a member of the Connecticut Assembly he thought he could trust. Heron, in a comic twist, went into New York unaware of the significance of the letter, and offered his own services to the British as a spy. He then took the letter back to Connecticut, where, suspicious of Arnold's actions, he delivered it to the head of the Connecticut militia. General Parsons, seeing a letter written as a coded business discussion, laid it aside. Four days later, Arnold sent a ciphered letter with similar content into New York through the services of a prisoner-of-war's wife. Eventually, a meeting was set for 11 September near Dobb's Ferry. This meeting was thwarted when British gunboats in the river, not having been informed of his impending arrival, fired on his boat.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold and André finally met on 21 September at Joshua Hett Smith's house. On the morning of 22 September James Livingston, the colonel in charge of the outpost at Verplanck's Point, fired on HMS "Vulture", the ship that was intended to carry André back to New York. This action damaged the ship and she had to retreat downriver, forcing André to return to New York overland. Arnold wrote out passes for André so that he would be able to pass through the lines, and also gave him plans for West Point. On Saturday, 23 September André was captured, near Tarrytown, by three Westchester patriots named John Paulding, Isaac Van Wart and David Williams; the papers exposing the plot to capture West Point were found and sent to Washington, and Arnold's treachery came to light after Washington examined them. Meanwhile, André convinced the unsuspecting commanding officer to whom he was delivered, Colonel John Jameson, to send him back to Arnold at West Point. However, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, a member of Washington's secret service, insisted Jameson order the prisoner intercepted and brought back. Jameson reluctantly recalled the lieutenant delivering André into Arnold's custody, but then sent the same lieutenant as a messenger to notify Arnold of André's arrest.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold learned of André's capture the following morning, 24 September, when he received Jameson's message that André was in his custody and that the papers André was carrying had been sent to General Washington. Arnold received Jameson's letter while waiting for Washington, with whom he had planned to have breakfast. He made all haste to the shore and ordered bargemen to row him downriver to where the "Vulture" was anchored, which then took him to New York. From the ship Arnold wrote a letter to Washington, requesting that Peggy be given safe passage to her family in Philadelphia, a request Washington granted. When presented with evidence of Arnold's betrayal, it is reported that Washington was calm. He did, however, investigate the extent of the betrayal, and suggested in negotiations with General Clinton over the fate of Major André that he was willing to exchange André for Arnold. This suggestion Clinton refused; after a military tribunal, André was hanged at Tappan, New York on 2 October. Washington also infiltrated men into New York in an attempt to kidnap Arnold; this plan, which very nearly succeeded, failed when Arnold changed living quarters prior to sailing for Virginia in December.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold attempted to justify his actions in an open letter titled "To the Inhabitants of America", published in newspapers in October 1780. In the letter to Washington requesting safe passage for Peggy, he wrote that "Love to my country actuates my present conduct, however it may appear inconsistent to the world, who very seldom judge right of any man's actions."


title: Benedict Arnold

text: The British gave Arnold a brigadier general's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds, but only paid him £6,315 plus an annual pension of £360 because his plot failed. In December 1780, under orders from Clinton, Arnold led a force of 1,600 troops into Virginia, where he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia, destroying supply houses, foundries, and mills. This activity brought Virginia's militia out, and Arnold eventually retreated to Portsmouth to either be evacuated or reinforced. The pursuing American army included the Marquis de Lafayette, who was under orders from Washington to summarily hang Arnold if he was captured. Reinforcements led by William Phillips (who served under Burgoyne at Saratoga) arrived in late March, and Phillips led further raids across Virginia, including a defeat of Baron von Steuben at Petersburg, until his death of fever on 12 May 1781. Arnold commanded the army only until 20 May when Lord Cornwallis arrived with the southern army and took over. One colonel wrote to Clinton of Arnold, "there are many officers who must wish some other general in command". Cornwallis ignored advice proffered by Arnold to locate a permanent base away from the coast that might have averted his later surrender at Yorktown.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: On his return to New York in June, Arnold made a variety of proposals for continuing to attack essentially economic targets in order to force the Americans to end the war. Clinton, however, was not interested in most of Arnold's aggressive ideas, but finally relented and authorized Arnold to raid the port of New London, Connecticut. On 4 September not long after the birth of his and Peggy's second son, Arnold's force of over 1,700 men raided and burned New London and captured Fort Griswold, causing damage estimated at $500,000. British casualties were high—nearly one quarter of the force was killed or wounded, a rate at which Clinton claimed he could ill afford more such victories.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Even before Cornwallis's surrender in October, Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord Germain his thoughts on the war in person. When word of the surrender reached New York, Arnold renewed the request, which Clinton then granted. On 8 December 1781, Arnold and his family left New York for England. In London he aligned himself with the Tories, advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans. In the House of Commons, Edmund Burke expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold "at the head of a part of a British army" lest "the sentiments of true honor, which every British officer [holds] dearer than life, should be afflicted." To Arnold's detriment the anti-war Whigs had gotten the upper hand in Parliament, and Germain was forced to resign, with the government of Lord North falling not long after.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold then applied to accompany General Carleton, who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander-in-chief; this request went nowhere. Other attempts to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company over the next few years all failed, and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non-wartime service. His reputation also came under criticism in the British press, especially when compared to that of Major André, who was celebrated for his patriotism. One particularly harsh critic said that he was a "mean mercenary, who, having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder, quits it when convicted of that charge." In turning him down for an East India Company posting, George Johnstone wrote, "Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct, the generality do not think so. While this is the case, no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company."


title: Benedict Arnold

text: In 1785 Arnold and his son Richard moved to Saint John, New Brunswick, where they speculated in land, and established a business doing trade with the West Indies. Arnold purchased large tracts of land in the Maugerville area, and acquired city lots in Saint John and Fredericton. Delivery of his first ship, the "Lord Sheffield", was accompanied by accusations from the builder that Arnold had cheated him; Arnold claimed that he had merely deducted the contractually agreed amount when the ship was delivered late. After her first voyage, Arnold returned to London in 1786 to bring his family to Saint John. While there he disentangled himself from a lawsuit over an unpaid debt that Peggy had been fighting while he was away, paying £900 to settle a £12,000 loan he had taken while living in Philadelphia. The family moved to Saint John in 1787, where Arnold created an uproar with a series of bad business deals and petty lawsuits. Following the most serious, a slander suit he won against a former business partner, townspeople burned him in effigy in front of his house as Peggy and the children watched. The family left Saint John to return to London in December 1791.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: In July 1792 he fought a bloodless duel with the James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale after the Earl impugned his honor in the House of Lords. With the outbreak of the French Revolution Arnold outfitted a privateer, while continuing to do business in the West Indies, even though the hostilities increased the risk. He was imprisoned by French authorities on Guadeloupe amid accusations of spying for the British, and narrowly eluded hanging by escaping to the blockading British fleet after bribing his guards. He helped organize militia forces on British-held islands, receiving praise from the landowners for his efforts on their behalf. This work, which he hoped would earn him wider respect and a new command, instead earned him and his sons a land grant of in Upper Canada, near present-day Renfrew, Ontario.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: In January 1801 Arnold's health began to decline. Gout, which he had suffered since 1775, attacked his unwounded leg to the point where he was unable to go to sea; the other ached constantly, and he walked only with a cane. His doctors diagnosed him as having dropsy, and a visit to the countryside only temporarily improved his condition. He died after four days of delirium, on 14 June 1801, at the age of 60. Legend has it that when he was on his deathbed he said, "Let me die in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever having put on another," but this may be apocryphal. Arnold was buried at St. Mary's Church, Battersea in London, England. As a result of a clerical error in the parish records, his remains were removed to an unmarked mass grave during church renovations a century later. His funeral procession had "seven mourning coaches and four state carriages"; the funeral was without military honors.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: He left a small estate, reduced in size by his debts, which Peggy undertook to clear. Among his bequests were considerable gifts to one John Sage, who turned out to be an illegitimate son conceived during his time in New Brunswick.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Arnold's contributions to American independence are largely underrepresented in popular culture, while his name became synonymous with traitor in the 19th century. The demonization of Arnold began immediately after his betrayal became public. Biblical themes were often invoked; Benjamin Franklin wrote that "Judas Iscariot sold only one man, Arnold three million", and Alexander Scammel described Arnold's actions as "black as hell".


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Early biographers attempted to describe Arnold's entire life in terms of treacherous or morally questionable behavior. The first major biography of Arnold, "The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold", published in 1832 by historian Jared Sparks, was particularly harsh in showing how Arnold's treacherous character was allegedly formed out of childhood experiences. George Canning Hill, who authored a series of moralistic biographies in the mid-19th century, began his 1865 biography of Arnold "Benedict, the Traitor, was born ...". Social historian Brian Carso notes that as the 19th century progressed, the story of Arnold's betrayal took on near-mythic proportions as a part of the national creation story, and was again invoked as sectional conflicts leading up the American Civil War increased. Washington Irving used it as part of an argument against dismemberment of the union in his 1857 "Life of George Washington", pointing out that only the unity of New England and the southern states that led to independence was made possible in part by holding West Point. Jefferson Davis and other southern secessionist leaders were unfavorably compared to Arnold, implicitly and explicitly likening the idea of secession to treason. "Harper's Weekly" published an article in 1861 describing Confederate leaders as "a few men directing this colossal treason, by whose side Benedict Arnold shines white as a saint."


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Fictional invocations of Arnold's name also carried strongly negative overtones. A moralistic children's tale entitled "The Cruel Boy" was widely circulated in the 19th century. It described a boy who stole eggs from birds' nests, pulled wings off insects, and engaged in other sorts of wanton cruelty, who then grew up to become a traitor to his country. The boy is not identified until the end of the story, when his place of birth is given as Norwich, Connecticut, and his name is given as Benedict Arnold. However, not all depictions of Arnold were strongly negative. Some theatrical treatments of the 19th century explored his duplicity, seeking to understand rather than demonize it.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: The connection between Arnold and treason continued into the 20th and 21st centuries. On an episode of The Brady Bunch, "Everyone Can't Be George Washington", after Peter is assigned the role of Arnold in the school play, everyone hates him. In a recent reference, Dan Gilbert, owner of the National Basketball Association's Cleveland Cavaliers, subtly invoked Arnold in 2010. Upset over the manner in which LeBron James announced his departure from the team, Gilbert's company lowered the price of posters bearing James's likeness to $17.41, referring to the year of Arnold's birth.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: Novelistic treatments of the American Revolutionary war sometimes feature Arnold as a character. But one notable treatment, depicting Arnold very much in a positive light, is Kenneth Roberts' Arundel novels, which cover many of the campaigns in which he participated:


title: Benedict Arnold

text: On the battlefield at Saratoga, now preserved in Saratoga National Historical Park, stands a monument in memorial to Arnold, but there is no mention of his name on the engraving. Donated by Civil War General John Watts DePeyster, the inscription on the Boot Monument reads: "In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General." The victory monument at Saratoga has four niches, three of which are occupied by statues of Generals Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan. The fourth niche is empty.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: On the grounds of the United States Military Academy at West Point there are plaques commemorating all of the generals that served in the Revolution. One plaque bears only a rank, "major general" and a date, "born 1740", and no name.


title: Benedict Arnold

text: The house at 62 Gloucester Place where Arnold lived in central London still stands, bearing a plaque that describes Arnold as an "American Patriot". The church where Arnold was buried, St. Mary's Church, Battersea, England, has a commemorative stained-glass window which was added between 1976 and 1982. The faculty club at the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, has a Benedict Arnold Room, in which framed original letters written by Arnold hang on the walls.


title: Prince Edward Island

text: Prince Edward Island (PEI; ) is a province of Canada. It is the smallest of Canada's ten provinces. Most of the people on Prince Edward Island speak English. Prince Edward Island was named for the son of King George lll of Britain, and it joined the Dominion of Canada in 1873.


title: Prince Edward Island

text: This province is long and 4 to 60 kilometers (2.5 to 37 miles) wide. The capital, and also the largest city, is Charlottetown.


title: Prince Edward Island

text: Prince Edward Island is known for being the location for novels written by Lucy Maud Montgomery including "Anne of Green Gables". It is also important for being the "Birthplace of Confederation", because the Charlottetown Conference in 1864 was in Prince Edward Island.


title: Prince Edward Island

text: The government of Prince Edward Island is a parliamentary government, with a constitutial monarchy. The monarch (king or queen) right now is Queen Elizabeth II, who is also the monarch for the rest of Canada. The person who represents the Queen is called the Lieutenant Governor.


title: Maghreb

text: The Maghreb ( ) is the western part of the Arab world. It is in North Africa. The term is generally applied to all of Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, but in older Arabic usage meant only the area of the three countries between the high ranges of the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). Historically, some writers also included Muslim ruled regions in Spain, Portugal, Sicily and Malta in the definition. Malta, in particular, still speaks a language based on its own Maghrebi Arabic variety: Maltese.


title: Screwdriver

text: A screwdriver is a tool used to turn (or "drive") screws into something. It has an axial shaft with a tip of a certain shape that fits into the head of a screw. On the other end of the screwdriver is a cylindrical handle to be held by a person's hand. As the handle is rotated, it creates a torque that turns the tip via the screwdriver's shaft. There are many different sizes and kinds of screwdrivers. A screwdriver is usually identified by the shape of its tip. The tip is shaped in a certain way to match the groove cut into the head of a screw. A screwdriver is, therefore, a mechanism to apply torque to a screw and turn it in tight spaces.


title: Screwdriver

text: Screwdrivers come in a large variety of shapes and sizes to match those of screws. If a screwdriver that is not the right size and type for the screw is used, it is likely that the screw will be damaged in the process of tightening it. Many screwdriver designs have a handle that can be used with different tips. The shaft and the tip can be removed from the handle, and a different one can be attached instead. The shaft and the tip are together called a "bit" (as with a drill bit). This allows a set of one handle and several heads to be used for a variety of screw sizes and types.


title: Screwdriver

text: Most screwdrivers are operated manually, but there are some that use an electric or other motor to rotate the bit. They are used to drive screws quickly into various materials. There are different types of driver bits that let a drill drive different types of screws. The bit can be removed and swapped with another bit of a different shape. Many types of drills are able to be used as power screwdrivers. The best have a control over how much torque force is used, which allows the screws to be tightened to a specific level.


title: Rao Sahab

text: In the early 8th century, The Yadava king, Charu Rao, moved from Mathura to the area of Ahirwal. He created the Ahiral state with Rewari as the capital. Many people from the caste in this area founded Jagirs. Rewari was one of them. People and other Kings called these Jagirdars Rao Sahab.


title: Dubnium

text: Dubnium is a chemical element. It has the symbol Db and it has the atomic number 105. It is a very radioactive element that does not exist in nature. It has to be made in a lab. It is a transuranium element created by bombarding californium-249 with nitrogen-15 nuclei. The isotope that has the longest half-life only has a half life of 32 hours. Dubnium is a transactinide element.


title: Dubnium

text: The Soviet Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) had said they first discovered the element in 1968, followed by the American Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1970. Both teams shared their names for the new element and used them without formal approval. The long-standing argument was settled in 1993 by an official investigation of the discovery claims by the Transfermium Working Group, formed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, resulting in credit for the discovery being officially shared between both teams. The element was then named "dubnium" in 1997 after the town of Dubna, the site of the JINR.


title: Dubnium

text: There are no current uses for Dubnium seeing as its too radioactive and ts short half life makes it almost impossible to work with.


title: Dubnium

text: Hypothesized research says that dubnium is a member of group 5 in the 6d series of transition metals, placing it under vanadium, niobium, and tantalum. Dubnium should share most properties, such as its valence electron configuration and having a mainly +5 oxidation state, with the other group 5 elements, with a few exceptions due to relativistic effects. Limited research of dubnium chemistry has confirmed this. Solution chemistry experiments have shown that dubnium often behaves more like niobium rather than tantalum, breaking periodic trends.


title: Protectorate

text: A protectorate is a state that is protected by another, larger and stronger country based on an agreement between the protectorate and the protecting country. These were very common in the 19th century, especially in Africa and South Asia, when European countries would give protection to small states or places there. Often they also made an international trade agreement which restricted the trade of other foreign states.


title: Protectorate

text: The British Empire had many protectorates around the world. The first was The Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England in the 1660s, Bahrain was also a British protectorate until it gained independence. Later, Kuwait was a British protectorate from 1899 to 1961 and is now independent. Sikkim was a protectorate of India until 1975 and now is a state of India. Bhutan is also a protected state of India.


title: Yggdrasil

text: Yggdrasil (Old Norse: "Yggdrasill") is the name of the immense cosmic tree that serves as the connection between the Nine Worlds in Norse mythology. Known as the World Tree, Yggdrasil was said to lie at the very center of the universe, supported by three roots which extend far away into varying locations. Various creatures dwell within Yggdrasil. Upon the onset of Ragnarök, Yggdrasil will shudder and groan, ultimately crumbling as the universe meets its end.


title: Yggdrasil

text: Yggdrasil's roots extend into three locations: Urðarbrunnr (Old Norse: “Well of Urðr”), Hvergelmir (Old Norse: “bubbling" or "boiling spring"), and Mímisbrunnr (Old Norse: “Well of Mímir"). As seen in the Poetic Edda poem, Grímnismál (Old Norse: "Sayings of Grímnir"), various creatures dwell within the World Tree, including:


title: Yggdrasil

text: Níðhöggr (Old Norse: "Níðhǫggr" - “Malice striker”), a massive dragon/serpent-like being that gnaws at its root(s), an unnamed eagle, and the hawk Veðrfölnir (Old Norse: “wind bleached” or “wind-witherer”), who sits between its eyes, along with the four stags Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Duraþrór.


title: Yggdrasil

text: The Three Norns (Old Norse: "Nornir") - Urðr (Old Norse: “fate”), Verðandi (Old Norse: possibly “happening” or “present”), and Skuld (Old Norse: possibly “debt” or “future”) - attend to Yggdrasil, weaving the fates of both gods and men.


title: Endive

text: Endive ("Chicorium endivia") is a leafy plant of the family Asteraceae. The plants are either annual, or they live for two years. Originally, these plants grew in the countries around the Mediterranean. There are many varieties, but they can be split into two groups


title: Endive

text: Since Antiquity, these plants have been used to make salads. Sometimes they are cooked, and prepared similar to spinach or chard.


title: Africa (Toto song)

text: "Africa" is a song recorded by the American rock band Toto in 1981. The song was for their fourth studio album "Toto IV," and released as the album's third single on September 30, 1982, through Columbia Records.


title: Africa (Toto song)

text: The song was written by band members David Paich and Jeff Porcaro. The soft rock song lyrically talks about the themes of love and location.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: Peter Seamus O'Toole (2 August 1932 – 14 December 2013) was a British stage and movie actor. He was known for his stage plays that were mostly based on that of William Shakespeare.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole's career lasted almost 60 years. He became famous for his role as T. E. Lawrence in "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962). He received his first Academy Award nomination for that role. He received seven more Academy Award nominations – for "Becket" (1964), "The Lion in Winter" (1968), "Goodbye, Mr. Chips" (1969), "The Ruling Class" (1972), "The Stunt Man" (1980), "My Favorite Year" (1982), and "Venus" (2006). O'Toole holds the record for the most Academy Award nominations by an actor without a win.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole won four Golden Globes, a BAFTA Award, and an Emmy Award. He also received an honorary Academy Award in 2003.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole was born on 2 August 1932 in Leeds, West Riding of Yorkshire, England. His mother was Constance Jane Eliot (née Ferguson), a Scottish nurse. His father was Patrick Joseph O'Toole, an Irish footballer. O'Toole studied to become an actor at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art from 1952 until 1954.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole's career began in 1954 on stage. His movie career began in 1960 in the movie "Kidnapped" as Robin MacGregor. His became famous when he played T. E. Lawrence in "Lawrence of Arabia". He became one of the most famous actors during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1972 O'Toole played both Miguel de Cervantes and Don Quixote in "Man of La Mancha".


title: Peter O'Toole

text: In 1980, he received good reviews for playing the director in the behind-the-scenes movie "The Stunt Man". He received mixed reviews as John Tanner in "Man and Superman" and as Henry Higgins in "Pygmalion". He won a Laurence Olivier Award for his performance in "Jeffrey Bernard is Unwell" (1989).


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole played King Priam in the 2004 movie "Troy". His last worldwide movie role was as food critic Anton Ego in the 2007 Disney-Pixar movie "Ratatouille". On 10 July 2012 O'Toole released a statement that he would be retiring.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: He was offered a knighthood but rejected it in objection to Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's policies.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole was nominated for eight Academy Awards. He holds the record of having the most nominations for an Academy Award without winning. He won four Golden Globes, a BAFTA Award, and an Emmy Award. In 2003 O'Toole received an honorary Academy Award.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole was married to Siân Phillips from 1959 until they divorced in 1979. O'Toole had three children; two daughters with Phillips (Kate and Patricia) and a son by his girlfriend Karen Brown (Lorcan Patrick O'Toole). O'Toole lived in London, England. He was lifelong friends with Irish actor Richard Harris until Harris' death in 2002.


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole recovered from stomach cancer in the 1970s. He also had stomach cancer for the last eighteen months of his life. He died of the disease in the Wellington Hospital in London, aged 81. President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins lead a tribute to O'Toole. Higgins called O'Toole "a friend".


title: Peter O'Toole

text: O'Toole's funeral was held on 20 December 2013 at his London home. Rock star Sting and ex-wife Siân attended his funeral. His remains were later cremated. O'Toole's remains ware being planned to be taken back to his birthplace of Connemara, Ireland. His daughter Kate said, "We're bringing him home. It's what he would have wanted." At the mean time, O'Toole's ashes are kept in a safe in the Irish presidential mansion.


title: Research and development

text: Research and development (R&D) refers to a wide range of activities by businesses, governments and academic institutions designed to gather knowledge and test new ideas. This often leads to the development of new products or new ways of doing things. R&D generally has three main activities. These are: basic research, applied research and development. Basic research is aimed at getting new knowledge with no immediate use or purpose in mind. Applied research is just the opposite. It is research for a definite purpose or product. Development has more to do with adding features to a product. Often, development is a process of eliminating all but the best idea to arrive at the best solution. Basic and applied research costs are often written off as expenses while the costs of development are added to the cost of the product. R&D often results in owning intellectual property such as patents. In Europe, R&D is called research and technical/technological development (RTD).


title: Mr. Bean (video game)

text: Mr. Bean (the Nintendo Wii version is known as Mr. Bean's Wacky World) is a 2007 platforming video game based on an animated series of the same name. Developed by Beyond Reality Games and published by Blast! Entertainment for the PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS, Nintendo Wii, and Microsoft Windows in Europe and Australia, and Red Wagon Games in North America only for the Nintendo Wii.


title: Doll

text: A doll is a child's toy that looks like a baby or other human being. Dolls have been around since the beginning of human civilization, and have been made from many different types of materials, like stone, clay, wood, bone, cloth and paper, to porcelain, china, rubber and plastic.


title: Doll

text: While dolls are usually for children, they are also collected by adults, for remembering things from the past, their beauty, their historical importance or their financial value (being worth money). In ancient times, dolls were used as symbols of a deity (god), and played an important role in religious ceremonies and rituals.


title: Doll

text: Lifelike or anatomically correct dolls are used by health professionals, medical schools, and social workers to train doctors and nurses in different health procedures or to find out about cases of sexual abuse of children. Artists sometimes use jointed mannequins or ball-jointed dolls in drawing the human body. Action figures are types of dolls that represent superheroes and military people are particularly popular among boys. There are baby dolls, paper dolls, rag dolls, talking dolls, fashion dolls and many others.


title: Angular velocity

text: In physics, the angular velocity specifies the angular speed at which an object is rotating along with the direction in which it is rotating.


title: Angular velocity

text: It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of angular velocity is radians per second. But it may be measured in other units as well (such as degrees per second, degrees per hour, etc.). When it is measured in cycles or rotations per unit time (e.g. revolutions per minute), it is often called the rotational velocity and its magnitude the rotational speed. Angular velocity is usually represented by the symbol omega (Ω or ω). The direction of the angular velocity vector is perpendicular to the plane of rotation, in a direction which is usually specified by the right hand rule.


title: Merrick Garland

text: Merrick Brian Garland (born November 13, 1952) is an American federal judge and politician. Garland is the 86th and current United States Attorney General during the Joe Biden administration since 2021. He was the chief judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit from 2013 to 2020. He was on that court from 1997 until 2021 after being nominated by President Bill Clinton.


title: Merrick Garland

text: In 2016, Garland was nominated by President Barack Obama to the Supreme Court to replace Antonin Scalia following his death. However, in a Republican-controlled senate, a confirmation hearing was never held and his nomination expired on January 3, 2017.


title: Merrick Garland

text: In January 2021, President-elect Joe Biden nominated Garland to be the United States Attorney General in his cabinet. He was confirmed by the United States Senate and sworn-in in March 2021.


title: Merrick Garland

text: Garland was born in Chicago, Illinois. He graduated from Harvard College and from Harvard Law School.


title: Merrick Garland

text: Garland practiced corporate litigation at Arnold & Porter and worked as a federal prosecutor in the U.S. Department of Justice, where he played a leading role in the investigation and prosecution of the Oklahoma City bombers.


title: Merrick Garland

text: In 1995, Garland was appointed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and (following a delay in Senate confirmation) took the bench in 1997. In 2009 and 2010, Garland was considered by President Barack Obama for two openings on the Supreme Court.


title: Merrick Garland

text: On March 16, 2016, Obama nominated Garland to serve as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, to fill the vacancy created by the death of Antonin Scalia.


title: Merrick Garland

text: Garland has more federal judicial experience than any Supreme Court nominee in history. He is the oldest Supreme Court nominee since Lewis F. Powell, Jr. in 1971.


title: Merrick Garland

text: After Republicans refused to give Garland a confirmation hearing, Garland's nomination was expired in January 2017 shortly before the inauguration of Donald Trump. Trump said he will announce his Justice nominee for the Supreme Court on January 31, 2017.


title: Merrick Garland

text: On January 6, 2021, then President-elect Joe Biden said that we would nominate Garland to be the United States Attorney General during his administration.


title: Merrick Garland

text: On March 1, the Senate Judiciary Committee voted 15-7 to advance Garland's nomination to a full Senate vote. On March 10, the Senate confirmed Garland by a vote of 70-30 to become the next Attorney General.


title: Alma mater

text: Alma mater is the singular form of the Latin word for "nourishing mother". It was used in ancient Rome as a title for the mother goddess, and in Medieval Christianity for the Virgin Mary. In current days, it is most often used to refer to the university or college a person went to. However, it may also refer to the song or hymn of a college or university.


title: Alma mater

text: The term alma mater can be traced back to eleventh-century Europe. The first known use of the term in reference to university was in 1088. The University of Bologna coined their motto “Alma Mater Studiorum,” (translated: “nourishing mother of studies”).


title: Siemens

text: Siemens AG () is a company which has its headquarters in Berlin and Munich, Germany. It is the largest electronics company in Europe.


title: Siemens

text: Siemens is a technology company with activities in industry, energy and healthcare. It is organised into six main parts: Industry, Energy, Healthcare, Equity Investments, Siemens IT Solutions, and Services and Siemens Financial Services (SFS).


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: The Three Mile Island accident occurred on March 28th, 1979 at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant in Pennsylvania. It was "the single most important event in the fifty-year history of nuclear power regulation in the United States". Many people have seen the event as a turning point for the nuclear power industry in the United States.


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: The Three Mile Island power station is near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The accident resulted in a partial core meltdown in Unit 2 of the nuclear power plant. Unit 2's pressurized water reactor was of 900 MWe capacity.


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: The chain of events that led to the crisis at the TMI plant included several minor equipment failures that operator errors drastically compounded, resulting in a major accident. The Three Mile Island accident is largely seen as a failure of crisis management. According to one reviewer of the book:


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: Reactor operators were not trained to deal with accident conditions, and the NRC had not established effective communication with utilities. Moreover, once the accident occurred, the lines of authority proved to be ill defined. The public received conflicting reports that caused needless panic and evacuations. It was these systemic weaknesses in the regulatory system that allowed gifted people to make the mistakes they did.


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: Large portions of the TMI-2 reactor core melted, though the fact that a partial meltdown had occurred did not become clear until 1985. The greatest source of concern during the TMI crisis was a hydrogen bubble that formed in the top of the pressure vessel which held the core:


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: Although opinions differed, some reactor experts feared that over time the hydrogen bubble might become flammable or, less likely, explosive by combining with free oxygen in the vessel. If the bubble burned or exploded, it could rupture the pressure vessel and force the damaged reactor core into the containment building. The loss of the vessel would not make a breach of containment inevitable, but it would increase the risk of a disastrous release of radiation.


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: In the end, the Three Mile Island accident, though it "caused a grave crisis, did not produce a public health disaster". In the face of a core meltdown, the pressure vessel held and there was no breach of the plant's containment structure. Only "tiny amounts of the most dangerous forms of volatile radiation escaped to the atmosphere". The TMI-2 cleanup took 11 years and cost about US$1 billion.


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: J. Samuel Walker suggests that the TMI accident incited widespread criticism of nuclear power technology, the nuclear industry, and the NRC. Critics faulted the industry and the NRC for their poor performance both before and after the accident. The international attention garnered by the crisis redoubled the determination of, and enhanced the credibility of, the anti-nuclear movement. Arguably, the United States nuclear industry has never recovered.


title: Three Mile Island accident

text: Walker reports that studies looking for long-term radiation effects resulting from the accident have reached conflicting conclusions, but it seems that any increase in cancers is slight enough to have occurred by chance.


title: Filter

text: A filter is a device used to remove unwanted parts from something. For example, removing solid particles from a liquid. Filter can also mean the act of filtering: it can be used as a verb. The different branches of science and technology often mean a particular kind of device when "filter" is mentioned.


title: Filter

text: The simplest filter is the kind called filter paper. Liquids can pass through the paper. Solid particles are stopped.


title: Filter

text: More advanced filters are possible. Two that are often used to make water more pure are activated carbon and zeolites.


title: Filter

text: The most usual thing meant by filter in electrical science is a wave filter. One common kind lets through some frequencies and stops all others. This is a band pass filter. For instance, in a radio it can select the radio station the listener wants to hear. The frequency of that station is passed, but all others are rejected.


title: Filter

text: There are digital filters which can be used to filter things besides frequencies. A common use is to improve the quality of pictures. For instance, there are filters which can make the edges of objects look more clear.


title: Filter

text: Optical filters act on light. They change it certain ways. This can be used for photographic filters.


title: Filter

text: Filters can be made from mechanical components. They will do very similar things to electric filters. Most especially, mechanical filters can be wave filters. That is, they can block some frequencies and pass others. Because of this, electric filters are sometimes made by first making a mechanical filter. The electric wave is turned into a mechanical movement, then passed through the filter, then turned back in to an electric wave. This kind of filter is often made from quartz crystals.


title: Filter

text: A device which changes electrical signals into mechanical signals is called a transducer. A device which changes mechanical signals into electrical signals is also a transducer, but one of a different kind.


title: Eyeglasses

text: Eyeglasses (U.S),glasses or spectacles ( also more rarely cheaters) are pieces of glass or clear plastic, called lenses, that are held in front of a person's eyes by a frame made of metal or plastic. They can be used for many reasons. These include safety. fashion and to correct a person's vision.


title: Eyeglasses

text: "Corrective" lenses let some people see or read better if they have problems seeing. If the someone is long-sighted (the light is focusses past the retina), they use a different type of glasses than someone who is short-sighted. Lenses can also correct Astigmatism. Contact lenses also help people see better. Corrective lenses usually are made by opticians following eyeglass prescription from an optometrist. It's also possible to get adjustable focus glasses where one can change the lens power.


title: Eyeglasses

text: R"eading glasses that are sold over the counter" may help those with presbyopia who only need to wear glasses occasionally. They typically come in lens powers from +0.25 to +4.


title: Eyeglasses

text: Glasses can also protect the eyes. Goggles and safety glasses are strong and protect the eyes from flying objects. Sunglasses (with dark tinted lenses) keep too much sunlight from getting in people's eyes. Some glasses are tinted for special applications, fashion and light sensitivity conditions. Some eyeglasses, often with yellow lenses, block blue light from a computer, game, tablet, smart phone or TV.


title: Eyeglasses

text: Eyeglasses are made in many different styles. These may be worn for fashion or function. These styles include:


title: Serbia and Montenegro

text: Serbia and Montenegro (Serbian: Србија и Црна Гора, Srbija I Crna Gora, abbreviated as "SCG") was the name of the state union of Serbia and Montenegro. They used to be two separate Yugoslav republics. In 2006, they became their own countries.


title: Serbia and Montenegro

text: It was on the west-central Balkan Peninsula, next Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia on the western sides, Hungary to the north, Romania and Bulgaria to the east, North Macedonia to the south and Albania to the southwest, with just over 200 km of coast on the Adriatic.


title: Serbia and Montenegro

text: Serbia and Montenegro worked together in only some political areas. The states had separate economic policies and currencies (money). Although both the states now had more freedom to do as they are pleased than they did as Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro were still a Sovereign State united under one government.


title: Serbia and Montenegro

text: The people of Montenegro still wanted independence though, on 21 May 2006 they held a vote to ask the Montenegrins whether they still wanted to stay in the union. The independence vote was won by 55.5%. On 3 June 2006 Montenegro declared independence; followed by Serbia's deceleration of independence two days later on 5 June 2006 .


The Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol (often called CIWA or CIWA-Ar (an updated version)), is a scale used to measure alcohol withdrawal symptoms. The scale lists ten common symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. Based on how bad a person's symptoms are, each of these is assigned a number. All ten numbers are added up to make one final score. The highest possible score is 67. Higher scores are a sign of more severe alcohol withdrawal:


title: Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol

text: The CIWA is used not just to measure how bad withdrawal symptoms are, but also to guide decisions about what treatments to give, like when to give benzodiazepines.


text: The CIWA scale is validated, which means it is proven to measure what it means to measure - alcohol withdrawal symptoms. It also has high inter-rater reliability. This means that if more than one medical professional used the CIWA on the same patient, they would get very similar results. Validation and inter-rater reliability are signs of good, accurate tests.


title: Nadine Dorries

text: Nadine Vanessa Dorries (; born 21 May 1957) is a British Conservative politician. She was the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Health and Social Care from 2019 to 2021 and Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport from 2021 to 2022. She is the Member of Parliament (MP) for Mid Bedfordshire since 2005.


title: Nadine Dorries

text: On 10 March 2020 she became the first British MP to test positive for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).


title: Nadine Dorries

text: In 2012, she lost the Conservative whip after she took part in the reality TV programme "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!" without telling the chief whip. It was returned in 2013 and she was re-admitted to the parliamentary party.


title: Sylvester Stallone filmography

text: This is a list of filmography of all of Sylvester ″Sly″ Stallone's most prominent onscreen acting action roles as well as directing, screenwriting, producing and voice acting roles. Also, included in this list are some of Stallone's special cameo appearances and exclusive extra.


title: Sylvester Stallone filmography

text: American actor, filmmaker, singer, character actor, voice actor, director, movie producer, film producer, and screen writer, Sylvester Sly Stallone has appeared in over seventy-eight films.


title: Conference

text: A conference is an event where people get together to discuss things. For example, scientists usually present their findings at conferences. Many other types of people other than scientists attend conferences also. Business people sometimes come together to talk about things. International business conferences are very common because it allows individuals to showcase their knowledge to the world. Using modern media, like the Internet, or the telephone people can talk to each other that are not in the same place. This is then called a conference call. Very often, digital video cameras can be used to transmit images, as well as sound.


title: Kraftwerk

text: Kraftwerk is a electronic band from Germany that became famous in the late 1970s and 1980s for making electronic music. They used synthesizers and sequencers to make the rhythms and melodies in the song.


title: Kraftwerk

text: Kraftwerk made electronic music many years before other bands knew it would be popular. They paved the way for the MIDI and digital styles of music to become popular in the 1990s. Many of the sounds from songs such as "Computer Love", "The Robots", and "Trans Europe Express" can be heard sampled by a variety of bands on their current releases. Recently, some of Kraftwerk's original recording equipment was sold on eBay for astonishing amounts. Kraftwerk continues to have a faithful following. The band's name is German for power station.


title: Zheng He

text: Zheng He or Ma He (Chinese 郑和; 1371–1433) was an explorer, diplomat, and admiral from China. He lived during the Ming Dynasty. Zheng He was the leader of a very large fleet of ships that traveled all over the Indian Ocean and Southwest Asia. Zheng He was an eunuch of China's Imperial Court. The fleet that Zheng He commanded had 317 ships that were very large. 28,000 Chinese soldiers were on board these ships.


title: Zheng He

text: Zheng He was born in Kunyang, a village in Yunnan. He was born with the name Ma He (Chinese 马三宝). He and his family were Muslim. At the time, Yunnan was ruled by Mongols. In 1381, however, a Ming army invaded and took control of the area.


title: Zheng He

text: Ma He was taken as a prisoner by the Ming armies. He was about 10 years old. He was castrated and then taken away to serve the Prince, Zhu Di (the future emperor). Ma He became a servant at the Imperial Court. The name Zheng He was given to him by the Prince. He also came to be called "Sanbao", a reference to the Three Jewels of Buddhism.


title: Zheng He

text: From 1405 to 1433, Zheng He went on seven journeys to the Indian Ocean, or what the Chinese people called the "Western Ocean". He was the leader of a large fleet of ships and a big army.


title: Zheng He

text: In his first three journeys he visited the countries of Southeast Asia, India and Sri Lanka. In his fourth to seventh journeys he went as far as the east African coast. In his journeys he gave the countries he visited gifts of silk, porcelain, gunpowder and other goods. He got lots of unusual gifts as well, including giraffes and zebras.


title: Zheng He

text: Zheng He had his first journey from 1405–1407, but it is not known why the journey was made. He travelled from the mouth of the Yangtze River to Vietnam, as well as the south of India. His fleet was made up of 317 ships, more than 27,000 men, and the cargo included porcelain, silk, and lacquerware. He used a treasure fleet which is known as the largest wooden ships ever built, being long, and about wide. On his first voyage, he defeated a famous pirate in the Strait of Malacca.


title: Zheng He

text: For the next 28 years, Zheng He traveled on six more voyages. From 1407–1409, he visited Calicut, Thailand and Java. From 1409–1411, he saw Ayutthaya, Malaya, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. From 1413–1415, he went to Sri Lanka, Bengal, India, Hormuz, Arabia and Aden. On his fifth journey, from 1417–1419, he visited the Ryukyu Islands, Brunei, and east Africa. Then from 1421–1422, he expanded on his fifth journey. His final journey, from 1433–1435, he revisited many of the previous places and brought back gifts from many rulers.


title: Zheng He

text: Zheng He visited over 30 countries, and is believed to have died in 1433 on the journey home during the final treasure fleet voyage. After Zheng He died at sea in 1433, his treasure fleet quickly faded, even though his voyages had been a success. Less than 100 years after his death, all of the ships from China were destroyed.


title: Burgess Meredith

text: Oliver Burgess Meredith (November 16, 1907 – September 9, 1997), or Burgess Meredith, was an American movie, television, stage, radio, voice actor, and director. He was known for his roles as The Penguin in the 1960s television version of "Batman" and as Mickey Goldmill some of the "Rocky" movies. He won two Saturn Awards (in 1978 and in 1981), Tony Awards, and many Emmy Awards.


title: Burgess Meredith

text: Meredith was born on November 16, 1907 in Cleveland, Ohio. He studied at Hoosac School and at Amherst College. Meredith was married to Helen Derby from 1933 until they divorced in 1935. He was married to Margaret Perry from 1936 until they divorced in 1938. He was married to Paulette Goddard from 1944 until they divorced in 1949. He was married to Kaja Sundsten from 1950 until his death. Meredith had cyclothymia. He died on September 9, 1997 in Malibu, California from Alzheimer's disease and melanoma, aged 89.


title: Green Party of the United States

text: The Green Party of the United States (GPUS) is a left-wing political party in the United States. The Green Party nominated Dr. Jill Stein as its candidate for President of the United States in 2012, and again in 2016. The party focuses on issues such as social justice and environmentalism. It is the fourth largest party, following the Libertarian Party.


title: Manchester code

text: The Manchester code is a binary encoding which also encodes the clock signal. This is very useful, because an external clock signal is no longer needed. A sequence of bits modulates the phase of the signal. This is a form of Phase shift keying, often shortened to PSK.


title: Manchester code

text: Otherwise put, the information about the signal is in its signal flanks, that is when the signal changes.


title: Manchester code

text: To rule out ambiguities, Manchester codes use a "preamble". A preamble is a fixed sequence that is known beforehand.


title: Manchester code

text: One of the advantages of Manchester code is that the DC component of the signal carries no information. This makes it possible that standards that usually do not carry power can transmit this information. One of the drawbacks of the encoding is that it needs more bandwidth than other encodings, such as NRZ.


title: Church of England

text: The Church of England is the leading Christian church in England. It is the church established by law: its formal head is the English monarch (Charles III). It is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. Its headquarters are at Church House, Westminster, in London.


title: Church of England

text: The Church of England became independent under King Henry VIII in 1534. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, but asked the Pope to annul the marriage (say that it was a mistake and that Henry and Catherine were never really married). He wanted to annul the marriage because he wanted a male heir to his throne and Catherine could not produce one. When the annulment was refused, Henry VIII used his position as King to break the Church away from the Roman Catholic Church. This established the independence of the Church of England, sometimes called the Anglican (English) Church. Methodism broke away from the church in the 18th century. The Oxford Movement brought some Catholic beliefs and practices back into the church in the 19th century.


title: Church of England

text: Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant forms of worship were adopted. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer started more changes. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy but influenced by Protestant principles.


title: Reform

text: “Reform” means changes. The UK government frequently uses the term "reform" to describe changes to public services, such as the National Health Service. But these changes are not accepted by all people as useful.


title: Reform

text: A note about grammar: when used to describe something which is "physically" formed again, such as re-casting it in a mold/mould, or a band that gets back together, the proper term is re-form (with a hyphen), not "reform".


title: Sinai Peninsula

text: The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai ( "Sīnā"), is a triangular peninsula in Egypt. It is about in area. It is between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south. It is the only part of Egyptian territory located in Asia. This is because the Sinai is known as a land bridge between the two continents of Africa and Asia. There are approximately 500,000 people living there. Egyptians refer to it as the "Land of Fayrouz", based on the Ancient Egyptian "Dumafkat".


title: Sinai Peninsula

text: There have been several battles in the region. The Sinai has been under the rule by Egyptian governments, including the Ayyubids, the Mamluks, the Muhammad Ali Dynasty, and the modern Egyptian republic. It was also controlled by the Ottoman Empire, and the United Kingdom from 1882 to 1956. Israel invaded and took over Sinai during the 1956 Suez Crisis (known in Egypt as the Tripartite Aggression) and during the 1967 Six Day War. On October 6, 1973, Egypt began the October War to allow the Sinai to be a free nation.


title: Sinai Peninsula

text: In 1982, after the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty of 1979, Israel left Sinai. Since Israel's departure, the region became a tourist destination. This was because of its natural setting, their coral reefs, and biblical history. Mount Sinai is a sacred place in Abrahamic religion.


title: Sesame Street

text: Sesame Street is an American children's television series with many Muppets (puppet characters) and non-Muppet characters (human characters). There are also many animated characters. The show deals with issues like music, song, alphabet, numbers, and teaching children basics in learning, as well as more serious issues like death, divorce, HIV/AIDS, autism, and foster care. Part of the profits, go to an international project for children's schools.


title: Sesame Street

text: The show has been on TV since November 10, 1969. Jim Henson made the Muppets and a lot of writers and puppeteers worked together to make the show. The Muppets were used afterwards in a different show called "The Muppet Show". "Sesame Street" has been on TV in 120 countries all over the world. More than 4000 episodes have been made over 50 seasons. One unique feature of the show is that the episode number appears at the start of each episode.


title: Sesame Street

text: For most of its history, "Sesame Street" had been shown on PBS. In 2015, new episodes began airing on HBO in January 2016, but those episodes would be shown on PBS nine months later. In 2020, Sesame Street aired on HBO for the last time. After five seasons on HBO Max, the show returns to PBS as its first-run program, for the newer episodes, starting with the 51st season.


title: Sesame Street

text: Other muppets for "Sesame Street" include a girl fairy named Abby Cadabby, Murray, his lamb named Ovajita, Juila, and the Two-Headed Monster. Not only Muppets play in the show but also a diverse cast of human characters who live with the Muppets.


title: Sesame Street

text: In the seasons 30-33 (1998-2002) ending credits, in the seasons 27 (1995-1996)-33 (2002) purple television static background, the Sesame Workshop text logo got white and without a house of boredom in seasons 31 (2000)-33 (2002), because the Children's Television Workshop text logo got white and without a semicircle in seasons 30 (1998-1999)-31 (2000).


title: Sesame Street

text: In the 1999 VHS version of the movie "The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland", it was a car variant in the 1997-2000 CTW logo.


title: Bipasha Basu

text: Bipasha Basu (born 7 January 1979) is an Indian movie actress who appears in Hindi language movies. She has also worked in Telugu, Tamil and Bengali language movies. She was a successful model before appearing in movies.


title: Bipasha Basu

text: Basu's first movie as an actress was "Ajnabee" (2001). Her first successful movie was "Raaz" (2002). She was chosen for Filmfare Best Actress Award for Raaz. She then appeared in commercial successes like "No Entry" (2005), "Phir Hera Pheri" (2006) and "Race" (2008). "Dhoom 2" (2007) is her biggest commercial success so far. Her work in "Apaharan" (2005), "Corporate" (2006) and "Bachna Ae Haseeno" (2008) was praised by movie critics. This led to her becaming a leading actress in the Hindi movie Industry.


title: Bipasha Basu

text: Basu is also known for her dances like "Phoonk De" in "No Smoking" (2007) and "Beedi" in "Omkara" (2006). She has completed filming her first international movie, "Singularity". Basu married boyfriend of two years TV Actor Karan Singh Grover in a private Bengali ceremony on 30 April 2016.


title: Bipasha Basu

text: Basu was born to a Bengali Hindu family in New Delhi. She lived in Pampoosh Enclave, Nehru Place and studied at Apeejay High School. She was 8 when her family moved to Kolkata. She continued studying in Kolkata at Bhavan's Gangabux Kanoria Vidyamandir.


title: Bipasha Basu

text: Basu studied commerce at Bhawanipur Education Society College after 12th standard. She had planned to become a doctor before taking commerce. She did modelling shows in her college as a hobby. In 1996, she won the Godrej Cinthol Supermodel Contest and went to New York to became a successful model.


title: Bipasha Basu

text: Vinod Khanna was one of the judges at the supermodel contest in which Basu participated. He wanted to introduce her with his son Akshaye Khanna in "Himalay Putra". Basu felt she was too young and refused the offer. Later, Anjala Zaveri agreed to the role. Another judge Jaya Bacchan wanted to introduce Basu with her son Abhishek Bacchan in "Akhari Mughal". However, "Akhari Mughal" was never made.


title: Bipasha Basu

text: In 2001, Basu finally appeared in her first movie "Ajnabee" (2001). The movie was directed by Abbas-Mustan. It failed commercially and received negative reviews from critics.


title: Romeo Santos

text: Anthony "Romeo" Santos (born July 21, 1981) is an American singer. Romeo was the lead singer of the Bachata group Aventura. As part of Aventura, Romeo became an important figure for making Bachata music popular. His songs were on the top of the "Billboard" Hot Latin Tracks charts and the top of music charts in Europe. In 2002, the band's song "Obsesión" was at number one in Italy for 16 weeks.


title: Romeo Santos

text: Romeo was born in The Bronx, New York. His father is Dominican while his mother is Puerto Rican. When he was 12 years old, Romeo was a member of the church choir. On May 9, 2011, Romeo released his lead single "You" from his first album. The song debuted at number one on the Hot Latin Tracks and Tropical Songs chart. The second single, "Promise" a duet with Usher, reached number one on both charts as well.


title: Malaparamba

text: Malaparamba lies in the outskirts of Kozhikode City. It is the start of the suburban region of Kozhikode towards the northern region. The area spans over both sides of the Wayanad Road or National highway 766.


title: Malaparamba

text: Malaparamba lies to the north of the Malaparamba Junction, where and intersect. Kozhikode city lies towards the south of the Junction.


title: Malaparamba

text: It is 17.38 km. away from the Calicut International Airport. The distance to the is 7.8 km. from Malaparamba. The bus routes that pass through here are "Medical College-Malaparamba" route and "Vellimadukunnu-Malaparamba-City" route.


title: Malaparamba

text: Malaparamba is primarily a residential area. There are 4 main residential pockets are "Malaparamba Housing Colony (KSHB Colony), BSNL colony, Deshodharani Colony and Nanma Colony". Each colony houses over a 100 families.


title: Malaparamba

text: The small region is surrounded by small and micro enterprises that are owned by single individuals or family-owned businesses. There are multiple shops and varied facilities available in Malaparamba, varying from boutiques to electronic spare parts, and marts to small restaurants.<br>


title: Malaparamba

text: Malaparamba Government School is an aided upper primary school managed by the Government. It lies on the east side of National Highway 766.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine I (27 February 272 – 22 May 337 AD) was a Roman emperor from 306 until he died. He was emperor for longer than any other emperor since Augustus, the first emperor. He was the first ruler of the Roman Empire to be a Christian. He made the old city Byzantium into a new, larger city: Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). The city's name means "City of Constantine" in Greek. He was the son of the emperor Constantius I, and members of their Constantinian dynasty controlled the empire until 364.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Six years after Constantine said that he was emperor, he was fighting for control of Rome with Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, a bridge over the Tiber River. When he saw a cross in the sky with the words , he changed his deity from Apollo to Jesus and won the battle or war.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine (; ) was born in Naissus (Niš, Serbia). He was born on 27 February. The "Calendar of Philocalus" and the works of the Latin writer Polemius Silvius both say Constantine was born in 272 or 273. The Latin historian Eutropius wrote the same information. However, the Greek historian and bishop Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Constantine was born around the year 285.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine's father was Constantius, who later became Roman emperor. Constantine's mother was Helena. She was not from the nobility. The Greek historian Procopius wrote that Helena had come from Drepanon, a city in Bithynia. The Latin theologian Ambrose wrote that Helena was a . Helena and Constantius may not have married, and Helena may have been Constantius's concubine.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine was a military tribune in the Roman army by 293, the year his father became "caesar" (a junior Roman emperor) on 23 March.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantius and the other "caesar" Galerius each became "augustus" (a more senior Roman emperor) on 1 May 305. On that day, the emperors Diocletian and Maximian retired. Maximinus Daza and Valerius Severus each became "caesar".


title: Constantine the Great

text: The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that Constantius I died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum (York, England). There, on the same day, the army of Constantius made Constantine "augustus". (Later, around August 306, the "augustus" Galerius agreed that Constantine was "caesar", but not that he was "augustus".) Roman Egypt accepted Constantine was an emperor.


title: Constantine the Great

text: In autumn 306 or early the next year, Constantine made a military campaign against the Franks. Constantine said that he was Roman consul for the first time in 307. However, the Roman provinces that other emperors controlled did not accept that Constantine was consul. Constantine may have been in Roman Britain again in 307.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Maximian and Constantine may have met at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany) in 307, possibly in late summer. Maximian made Constantine "augustus". Constantine married Maximian's daughter Fausta. (This could have been in late summer, September, or as late as 25 December. Historians are not in agreement about the date.) At the start of his reign, only the lands that Constantine controlled accepted Constantine as "augustus". Then, the lands that Maximian's son Maxentius controlled also accepted that Constantine was an "augustus".


title: Constantine the Great

text: In 308 Constantine fought a war against the Bructeri. In November 308, the emperors Diocletian, Maximian, and Galerius met at Carnutum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) and agreed that Constantine was a "caesar". Constantine himself continued to say that he was an "augustus". The Latin writer Lactantius wrote that in 309, Constantine got the title in . The Roman provinces that Galerius controlled said that Constantine was Roman consul for the first time in 309, but the provinces Constantine and Maxentius controlled did not accept this.


title: Constantine the Great

text: In 310, probably on the 1 May, Galerius made Maximinus Daza "augustus". From this time, the whole empire started to agree that Constantine was an "augustus" as well. In summer 310, Constantine again fought a military campaign against the Franks. A war between Constantine and Maximian began. Maximian was at Massilia (Marseille, France) when Constantine took control of the city, probably in around July 310. Then Maximian died, probably by suicide.


title: Constantine the Great

text: On 25 July 310, it was Constantine's fifth anniversary festival as emperor (his ). At that time, Constantine gave himself the name in . Constantine said that his father Constantius had been part of the family of the emperor Claudius Gothicus. This was fiction.


title: Constantine the Great

text: On 30 April 311, the "augustus" Galerius made a edict. The Edict of Serdica mostly ended the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire. At the start of May, Galerius died. Constantine was Roman consul for the second time in 312.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine was consul for the third time in 313. Constantine fought a civil war with Maxentius. The "Calendar of Philocalus" says that the Battle of the Milvian Bridge happened on the 28 October 313. In this battle, Constantine's army overcame the army of Maxentius. Maxentius died in the battle. The Latin writer Lactantius wrote about these events. After the battle, Constantine went across the Tiber River and took control of Rome itself. The "Calendar of Philocalus" says that Constantine went into the city on 29 October, and that there was a festival for two days.


title: Constantine the Great

text: After 18 January 313, Constantine was in Mediolanum (Milan, Italy). There Constantine met his co-emperor, Licinius, in January or February. Either in autumn 313 or during the first half of 314, Constantine travelled to Britain. On 1 August 314 in the city of Arelate (Arles, France), the Council of Arles started (a meeting of bishops. Constantine was consul for the fourth time in 315. In the first half of 315, Constantine probably had success in a military campaign he fought against the Goths and Sarmatians.


title: Constantine the Great

text: The "Calendar of Philocalus" says that Constantine came again to Rome in July 315. There was a ceremony (an ) when Constantine came to the city. The "Calendar" says that there was a festival for two days. Constantine got the . On 25 July 315, it was Constantine's tenth anniversary as emperor (his ).


title: Constantine the Great

text: On 27 September 315 Constantine went away from Rome. There was another ceremony (a ) when Constantine went out of the city. At some time, Constantine fought a civil war with his co-emperor Licinius. The "Calendar of Philocalus" says that Constantine's army overcame Licinius's army at the Battle of Cibalae on 8 October 314, but historians are not in agreement about the date. It may have been in 316. After this civil war, Constantine and Licinius made peace. This was either at the end of 314 or in January 317. As part of the agreement, Constantine got from Licinius the Roman provinces next to the Danube. (Licinius kept Thracia however.)


title: Constantine the Great

text: The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say Constantine and Licinius chose co-emperors on 1 March 317. Constantine and his co-emperor made their three sons their junior co-emperors (their ). Crispus and Constantine II (Constantine's sons) and Licinius II (Licinius's son) were each made "caesar" at Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria). Constantine was Roman consul for the fifth time in 319. He was consul for the sixth time in 320. On the 25 July 320, it was Constantine's fifteenth anniversary as emperor (his ).


title: Constantine the Great

text: In 321, it was the fifth anniversary of Crispus, Constantine II, and Licinius II as emperors (each "caesar"'s ). In summer 322, Constantine won a military victory against the Sarmatians. At the start of 323, Constantine fought a war against the Goths.


title: Constantine the Great

text: In 324, Constantine and Crispus fought another war against their co-emperor Licinius. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that Constantine's army overcame the army of Licinius in a battle near Hadrianopolis (Edirne, European Turkey) on 3 July 324. Constantine's armies again overcame Licinius's soldiers at the Battle of Chrysopolis. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that this battle was on the 18 September 324. Licinius and Licinius II both retired from being emperors. On 8 November that year, Constantine made his son Constantius II "caesar". At that time, all Constantine's co-emperors were Constantine's own children (the "" Crispus, Constantine II, and Constantius II).


title: Constantine the Great

text: On 20 May 324 at Nicaea (İznik, Turkey) the Council of Nicaea started. This meeting of bishops ended on 19 July 325. The Greek historian Socrates Scholasticus wrote about these events. The "Chronicle" of the Latin theologian Jerome and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say that on 25 July 325, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey).


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine was Roman consul for the seventh time in 326. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that in around March 326, Constantine executed his oldest son, the "caesar" Crispus. The "Calendar of Philocalus" says that on 18 July 326 (or the 21 July) Constantine again came to Rome. When he came to the city there was another ceremony. Jerome wrote that on 25 July 326, it was Constantine's twentieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) in Rome. (326 was the second year in which Constantine had a festival for the same twentieth anniversary.) Jerome's "Chronicle" and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say that Constantine set up the city of Helenopolis on 7 January 327. Constantine was consul for the eighth time in 329. The year was the last time Constantine was consul. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that on 11 May 330, Constantine was in Byzantium. On that day, Constantine dedicated again the city. After that, Byzantium had the name Constantinople (; ).


title: Constantine the Great

text: The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that on 25 December 333, Constantine made his youngest son, Constans, his "caesar". They were probably at Constantinople then. In 333 or 334, Calocaerus started a rebellion in Cyprus. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" says that the Romans forced the Sarmatians out of the Banat area around the Danube in 334.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Around 335, Shapur II's armies attacked Armenia, as part of the Roman–Persian Wars. Shapur's Sasanian Empire sent Narses to invade Armenia, but the attack did not have success and Narses died. The "Consularia Constantinopolitana" and the "Chronicon Paschale" both say that on 25 July 335, it was Constantine's thirtieth anniversary festival as emperor (his ) at Constantinople. Eusebius of Caesarea gave a speech at the festival.


title: Constantine the Great

text: On the 18 September 335, Constantine made Dalmatius "caesar". Constantine probably made Hannibalianus "King of Kings and of the Pontic people" () on the same day. Eusebius of Caesarea's "Life of Constantine" says that a Persian embassy from the Sasanian Empire came to Constantine at Constantinople not long after the festival of Easter. Constantine had been at Constantinople on Easter (3 April 337).


title: Constantine the Great

text: Eusebius of Caesarea's "Life of Constantine" says that Constantine died at Ancyrona, near Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). He died on 22 May 337.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor. His rule changed the Christian Church greatly. In February 313, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan where they made the Edict of Milan. The edict said that Christians could believe what they wanted. This stopped people from punishing Christians, who had often been martyred, or killed for their faith. It also returned the property which had been taken away from them. In 311, Galerius had made a similar edict, though it did not return any property to them. In pagan Rome before this, it had been against the law to practise Christianity, and Christians had often been tortured or killed. Constantine protected them. He went on to organize the whole Christian Church at the First Council of Nicea, even though he himself did not get baptized until near the end of his life.


title: Constantine the Great

text: Constantine did not support Christianity alone. After winning the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, he built the Arch of Constantine) to celebrate, but the arch was decorated with pictures of sacrifices to gods like Apollo, Diana, or Hercules. It had no Christian symbolism. In 321, Constantine said that Christians and non-Christians should all join the "day of the sun" (the eastern sun-worship which Aurelian had helped him introduce). His coins also had symbols of the sun-cult until 324. Even after pagan gods disappeared from the coins, Christians symbols never appeared on the coin, either. Even when Constantine dedicated the new city of Constantinople, he was wearing the Apollonian sun-rayed Diadem.


title: Weathering

text: Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and their minerals through direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, or living things. It is a natural process.


title: Weathering

text: Weathering occurs in one place with little or no movement, and should not be confused with erosion which is when rocks and minerals are moved to another place by ice, water, wind or gravity.


title: Weathering

text: Mechanical or physical weathering is when the rocks and minerals are broken down but the Chemical composition remains the same. Mechanical weathering physically breaks up rock.


title: Weathering

text: The wind blowing over your skin removes body heat.local winds are the winds that blow over short distances.


title: Weathering

text: Rain is another force that works slowly. The force of raindrops on some rocks make them wear down. Rain also can make a chemical change in some rocks, because it is usually slightly acidic. The water mixes with the minerals in the rock to break it down.


title: Weathering

text: Changing temperature can make a rock crack. Every day when the sun shines on the rock, its surface is heated. Heat causes the surface to expand (get bigger) a little. The inside of the rock, though, does not heat up as fast as the outside of the rock. The inside of the rock stays cooler. At night, the surface cools down and contracts. The expanding and contracting makes some places on the surface weak, and a crack is made.


title: Weathering

text: Also, if water gets into a crack in a rock and the temperature goes below the freezing point, the water will freeze and expand. After some time, the rock may be weak enough to break into pieces.


title: Weathering

text: Ice, which can be miles thick, grinds the surface of the rock below it. The particles are carried with the ice, and if a glacier ends up in the sea, so does all the material carried with it.


title: Weathering

text: Lava or magma can cause weathering when molten rock touches older rock. It causes the older rock to change form to a different crystal structure.


title: Weathering

text: The carbon dioxide cycle is the most important for weathering. CO is put into the atmosphere mostly by volcanoes, and it is taken out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis, and by one other process.


title: Weathering

text: When rain hits rock it does so with mechanical energy and dilute acid. The acid dissolves many types of minerals and rocks though, of course, very slowly. When a mineral like feldspar is dissolved, it lets sodium ions into the sea; chlorine ions come from other minerals. The sea tastes salty because of the elements which have been dissolved out of rocks.


title: Frangipani

text: Plumeria (common name Frangipani) is a small genus of 7-8 species that grow in tropical and subtropical Americas. The genus consists of mainly deciduous shrubs and trees. "P. rubra" (Common Frangipani, Red Frangipani), that grows in Mexico, Central America, and Venezuela, produces flowers ranging from white, yellow to pink. From Mexico and Central America, "Plumeria" has spread to all tropical areas of the world, especially Hawaii, where it grows so abundantly that many people think that it is native there.


title: Frangipani

text: "Plumeria" is related to the Oleander, "Nerium Oleander", and both possess poisonous, milky sap, rather similar to that of "Euphorbia".


title: Bangladesh Liberation War

text: The Bangladesh Liberation War ( "Muktijuddho") was a revolutionary war for the independence of Bangladesh in 1971. The war was between East Pakistan (later with the help of India) and West Pakistan and lasted nine months.


title: Bangladesh Liberation War

text: There were large-scale atrocities in the war. Ten million refugees left the country,and 30 million people left their homes.


title: Bangladesh Liberation War

text: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's party won the Pakistan elections of 1970 and the military junta that ruled the country decided he must not be Prime Minister. The resulting war started on 26 March 1971 and finished on 16 December. A category 3 cyclone also happened during the war.


title: Bangladesh Liberation War

text: Ghulam Azam and Motiur Rahman Nizami were convicted for war crimes. Azam died before a final hearing. Nizami was executed for his crimes in May 2016.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: The sebaceous glands are microscopic (tiny) glands in the skin which produce an oily/waxy substance, called sebum, to lubricate (oil) the skin and hair. In people, these glands are found in greatest amounts on the face and scalp, joined near the top inside hair follicles or sweat pores. However, they are in all skin areas except the palms and soles (undersides) of the feet.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: There are different kinds of these glands and sebum. In the eyelids, meibomian sebaceous glands emit a special kind of sebum into tears. There are several related medical conditions, including: acne, sebaceous cysts, hyperplasia, sebaceous adenoma and sebaceous gland carcinoma (see section below: "Diseases").


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Washing skin or hair with plain detergent can cut the amount of sebum in oily skin. Also, water temperature over can keep sebum melted during a wash.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: As a branched kind of acinar gland, the sebaceous glands are found in people all over the skin except in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are often found in hair-covered areas, where they are connected near the top of hair follicles ("see image at top"). The glands deposit sebum on each hair, and bring it to the skin surface along the hair shaft. The structure consisting of hair, hair follicle, arrector pili muscle, and sebaceous gland is known as a pilosebaceous unit.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands are also found in non-haired areas (glabrous skin) of the eyelids, nose, penis, labia minora, and nipples. Here, the sebum travels along ducts which end inside "sweat pores" near the surface of the skin.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: At the rim of the eyelids, meibomian glands are a specialized form of sebaceous gland. They secrete a form of sebum (known as meibum) onto the eye, which slows the drying of tears.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebaceous glands produce the oily, waxy substance called "sebum" (Latin, meaning "fat" or "tallow") that is made of fat (lipids), wax, and the leftover dead fat-producing cells. In the glands, sebum is produced within specialized cells and is released as these cells burst; sebaceous glands are thus classified as holocrine glands.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Sebum has no odor, but its bacterial breakdown can produce a bad odor. Sebum is the cause of some people experiencing "oily" hair,


title: Sebaceous gland

text: as in hot weather or if not washed for several days. Earwax is partly composed of sebum. Sebum can be washed using plain detergent, to dissolve the waxy material in the skin. Also, water for washing should be over to keep the sebum molten.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: Excess sebum has been linked to eating red meats, fried and oily foods and some other type of foods but different research shows multiple theories about it.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: It is commonly believed that sebum acts to save skin from drying or to waterproof hair and skin. But some scientists have contended that "low levels of sebaceous gland activity are not correlated with dry skin", and it may serve little or no purpose in modern humans.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: The sebaceous glands of a human fetus "in utero" secrete a substance called Vernix caseosa, a "waxy" or "cheesy" white substance covering the skin of newborn babies.


title: Sebaceous gland

text: The activity of the sebaceous glands increases during puberty because of heightened levels of androgens. In males, sebaceous glands begin to appear predominantly on the penis, on the shaft and around the rim of the penile head during and after puberty. This is however normal, not to be confused with an STD.