title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Upon signing with Mercedes in , Hamilton was reunited with his childhood karting teammate, Nico Rosberg. The move was met with surprise by pundits and the public, with some describing the move to Mercedes, a team with no recent history of success, as a gamble. In his first season with the Silver Arrows, Hamilton secured a sole race victory, winning the , where he converted an unexpected pole position into a winning margin of over 11 seconds ahead of second-place finisher Kimi Räikkönen, alongside a number of podium finishes and pole positions, finishing fourth in the standings once again, the third time in five years.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Changes to regulations for the season, which mandated the use of turbo-hybrid engines, contributed to the start of a highly successful era for Hamilton. That year saw Mercedes win 16 of the 19 races that season, 11 of those secured by Hamilton as he prevailed in a season-long duel for the title against teammate Rosberg. Clinching his second drivers' title, and eclipsing the victory tally of all British drivers before him, Hamilton declared over team-radio after the final race in Abu Dhabi: "This is the greatest day of my life." New driver number regulations brought in for 2014 allowed drivers to pick a unique car number to use for their entire career, and so Hamilton elected to drive under his old karting No. 44 for the remainder of his career.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Before the start of the season, Hamilton announced he would not be exercising his option of switching his car number to 1, as was his prerogative as reigning World Champion, and would instead continue to race with his career No. 44. It was the first season since , when Alain Prost retired from the sport following his fourth and final World Drivers' Championship title in , that the field did not contain a car bearing the No. 1. Hamilton dominated the season, winning ten races finishing on the podium a record seventeen times as he matched his hero Ayrton Senna's three World Championships titles. The rivalry between him and Rosberg intensified, climaxing in a heated battle at the US Grand Prix where Hamilton won in an action-packed, wheel-to-wheel battle with his teammate to clinch the title with three races to spare. That year, Hamilton extended his contract with Mercedes for three additional years in a deal reportedly worth more than £100 million, making him one of the best-paid drivers in Formula One, as well as allowing Hamilton to retain his own image rights, which is considered unusual in the sport, and keep his championship-winning cars and trophies.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Despite recording more pole positions and race wins than any other driver in , Hamilton lost the drivers' title by five points to his teammate, Rosberg. The team's policy of letting the pair fight freely led to several acrimonious exchanges both on and off the track, culminating in Hamilton defying team-orders at the season finale in Abu Dhabi and deliberately slowing to back Rosberg into the chasing pack at the end of the race in an unsuccessful bid to encourage other drivers to overtake his teammate, which would have allowed him to win the title. Ultimately, a succession of poor starts from Hamilton early in the season and a crucial engine blowout in Malaysia meant Rosberg took the title, which he successfully secured before announcing his shock retirement from the sport immediately after beating his rival.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Following Rosberg's retirement, Ferrari's Sebastian Vettel became Hamilton's closest rival as the pair exchanged the championship lead throughout in a tense title fight. Hamilton registered 11 pole positions that season as he took the record for the all-time most pole positions, and his consistency (finishing every race in the points), as well as a lack of a serious challenge from his new teammate Valtteri Bottas, saw him record nine race victories and secure his fourth World Drivers' title as he overturned a points deficit to Vettel in the first half of the season, ultimately wrapping the title up in Mexico with two races to spare.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: The season was the first time that two four-time World Champions, Hamilton and Vettel, would be competing for a fifth title and was billed as the "Fight for Five" by journalists and fans. As with the season before, Ferrari and Vettel appeared to have the upper hand for much of the season, topping the standings until the half-way point. However, Vettel's season unravelled with a number of driver and mechanical errors, while Hamilton's run of six wins in seven in the latter half of the season saw Hamilton clinch the title in Mexico for a second year running as he set a new record for the most points scored in a season (408). During the season, Hamilton signed a two-year contract with Mercedes, reported to be worth up to £40 million per year, making him the best-paid Formula One driver in history.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Having signed a contract with Mercedes that lasted until 2020, it was confirmed Hamilton would defend his title in . Hamilton led the drivers' standings for the majority of the season, fending off title challenges from team-mate Bottas, the Honda-powered Red Bull of Verstappen and Ferrari's recently promoted Leclerc, to clinch his sixth drivers' crown at the 2019 United States Grand Prix with two races remaining. After scoring his sixth career grand slam in the final race of the season, Hamilton ended the season with 11 wins (matching his previous best in 2014 and 2018) and 17 podiums (matching the all-time record for a fourth time) as well as achieving 5 pole positions. His total of 413 points for the season was a new all-time record, seeing the Briton finish 87 points clear of second-placed Bottas.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Hamilton won his seventh drivers' title in , equalling the record set by Schumacher, in a season heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Over the shortened seventeen-race season, Hamilton took 11 wins (equalling his previous personal best, but in fewer races) including one in Portugal to break Schumacher's record of 91 wins. He also took 14 podiums and 10 pole positions. Hamilton missed the 2020 Sakhir Grand Prix after contracting COVID-19 and replaced to Mercedes test driver George Russell, originally planned replace to Stoffel Vandoorne or Jack Aitken, his first race absence since his debut in 2007. Hamilton clinched the title at the 2020 Turkish Grand Prix with three rounds to spare and ended the season 124 points clear of his team-mate, Bottas, who finished second in the standings. Amid Formula One's "We Race as One" campaign and growing global support for the Black Lives Matter movement, Hamilton took the knee ahead of every race he entered and wore t-shirts bearing the Black Lives Matter slogan. Hamilton and Bottas' W11 cars also sported a black livery as a statement of Mercedes' commitment to diversity.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Early on in the season, Hamilton and Red Bull's Max Verstappen emerged as title favourites. The pair frequently exchanged the championship lead throughout the season—often sparring (and occasionally coming together) on track—and entered the last race in Abu Dhabi level on points. In Abu Dhabi, Verstappen overtook Hamilton on the final lap of the race, denying Hamilton his eighth title. During the season, Hamilton became the first driver to surpass 100 pole positions and 100 race wins, respectively.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: The season finale was marred by controversy over race director Michael Masi's decision to instruct only the lapped cars separating Verstappen and Hamilton to un-lap themselves under the safety car, which eliminated any gap between the pair and allowed the Dutchman, running newly fitted soft tyres, to enter the final lap immediately behind Hamilton on his worn hard tyres. Four days after the race, the FIA announced that it would conduct an internal investigation into the incident. Masi was subsequently removed from his role as race director, with the FIA World Motor Sport Council report finding that "human error" resulted in the failure to follow Formula One Sporting Regulations concerning the withdrawal of the safety car, but also that the final standings "are valid, final and cannot now be changed." Notwithstanding the controversy in Abu Dhabi, BBC Sport's Andrew Benson described the season as "one of the most intense, hard-fought battles in sporting history", with Hamilton and Verstappen having "been head and shoulders—and a lot more—clear of every other driver on the grid."


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Hamilton is partnered by George Russell for , in place of the departing Bottas. The season saw significant changes in technical regulations which sought to utilise ground effect to generate downforce. During pre-season testing in Bahrain, Mercedes introduced its "zero sidepod" car design, which was radically different to that of its competitors. The Mercedes W13 suffered with extreme porpoising early in the season which limited the car's potential; at the Saudi Arabian Grand Prix, Hamilton deemed the car "undrivable".


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Hamilton is due to leave Mercedes at the end 2022 season would be return McLaren for the 2023 season, replacing Lando Norris.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: In his debut season, Hamilton took the record of Youngest World Drivers' Championship runner-up, at 22 years and 288 days, previously held by Kimi Räikkönen at 23 years and 360 days. In 2009, this record was taken by Sebastian Vettel, who was 22 years and 122 days when he secured runner-up position in the championship.


title: Lewis Hamilton

text: Hamilton is the first driver of black heritage to compete in Formula One (although Willy T. Ribbs tested an F1 car in 1986). He is the first driver of black heritage to win a major race at Indianapolis Motor Speedway in any discipline. In addition, he is the third youngest driver to achieve an F1 pole position, and the fourteenth F1 driver to achieve a podium finish on his debut.


title: Categorical imperative

text: The categorical imperative is an idea that the philosopher Immanuel Kant had about ethics. Kant said that an "imperative" is something that a person must do. For example: if a person wants to stop being thirsty, it is "imperative" that they have a drink. Kant said an imperative is "categorical," when it is true at all times, and in all situations.


title: Categorical imperative

text: Kant named the example of a thirsty person the Hypothetical Imperative. Kant used the "hypothetical" imperative to explain his ideas about the ethics of a "categorical "imperative. For example, it is not usually a moral choice when a person decides to drink water, no matter why they are drinking the water. If a person is very thirsty, then it is a hypothetical imperative that they drink the water.


title: Categorical imperative

text: Instead of the hypothetical imperative, Kant said that the moral choices are governed by a categorical imperative. The categorical imperative is something that a person must do, no matter what the circumstances. It is imperative to an ethical person that they make choices based on the categorical imperative. Another way of saying that, is that an ethical person follows a "universal law" regardless of their situation.


title: Categorical imperative

text: Kant explained his ideas about following the categorical imperative by introducing one more idea he called a "maxim." A maxim is another way of saying what we want to do and why we want to do it in one sentence. We can learn ethical maxims by applying the test of the categorical imperative. And he said we can live ethical lives if we use these maxims whenever we make decisions.


title: Categorical imperative

text: The categorical imperative, hypothetical imperative, and the maxim can all be seen in the example of the thirsty man. A man locked alone in a room for one night, and he brought nothing with him except a bottle of water. The man has had nothing to drink all day and is very thirsty. We can call this man, "Thirsty Man."


title: Categorical imperative

text: A hypothetical imperative might be that ""a thirsty man must drink water if he wants to stop being thirsty."" If Thirsty Man lived by a maxim based on this hypothetical imperative, it might be ""If I can, I will drink water whenever I am thirsty."" In this example, Thirsty Man is not making any obvious moral choice. Some philosophers would say that the Thirsty Man's maxim is a reasonable one. Based on Thirsty Man's maxim, he will soon drink the water. A few minutes later a second man is brought into the room. Both men are told that they will be in the room all night, and that no one else will be back to see them until morning.


title: Categorical imperative

text: Thirsty Man has not yet opened the water bottle. The new man has not had anything to drink for many days. The second man is clearly dying of dehydration. If he is not given water soon he will die. We can call this second man, "Dying Man." Thirsty Man now has a decision to make, will he share the water or drink it himself? Thirsty Man does not live by the maxim of "I will drink water when I am thirsty," because that maxim fails the test of being universally fulfilling the "categorical imperative."


title: Categorical imperative

text: Thirsty Man believes that the categorical imperative is the Golden Rule. To be an ethical person, Thirsty Man believes he must at all times treat others the way he would want them to treat him. From the categorical imperative of the Golden Rule, Thirsty Man has adopted a maxim of ""I will give anything I can to anyone I meet, if that person needs what I have much more than I need it."" Thirsty Man prepares to decide if he will drink the water that he wants to drink, or if he will give it to Dying Man. Thirsty Man tests both choices by comparing them to his maxim. He sees that it is "imperative " that he give the water to Dying Man. Thirsty Man gives the water to Dying Man. Dying Man drinks nearly the entire bottle, but then he chokes on the last sip. There is nothing Thirsty Man can do to stop the choking, and Dying Man dies. There are many philosophies of ethics, and many philosophers who have very different opinions. Some philosophers might say that it would have been ethical if Thirsty Man had kept the bottle for himself to drink. It was his bottle to begin with and he could do whatever he wanted with it. Other philosophers might say that Thirsty Man was ethically wrong to give the bottle to Dying Man because the water ended up choking the Dying Man to death.


title: Categorical imperative

text: Kant's idea of the categorical imperative would say that Thirsty Man made the right choice, for the right reasons, and he made those ethical decisions in a logical way.


title: Categorical imperative

text: An important part of Kant's idea is that the morality of a choice is based on why we make the choice (intention), and not based on what happens after we make it (consequence). Another important part of Kant's idea is that these ethical decisions are not rules or laws handed down to us (universal law or objectively true ethical statement). Kant thought that ethical decisions needed to be based in logic and reason (correct reasoning or deductive reasoning).


title: Categorical imperative

text: Kant elaborated on these ideas by saying that we should treat other persons as persons and not as tools who can help us in some way. He said we should do this based on the ethical duty that all persons have to each other, an ethical duty which could be called a universal law. Kant's ideas about this universal law and the categorical imperative are important basic components of the philosophy of Absolutism.


title: Superconductor

text: A superconductor is a substance that conducts electricity without resistance when it becomes colder than a "critical temperature." At this temperature, electrons can move freely through the material. Superconductors are different from ordinary conductors, such as copper. Ordinary conductors lose their resistance (get more conductive) slowly as they get colder. In contrast, superconductors lose their resistance all at once. This is an example of a phase transition. High magnetic fields destroy superconductivity and restore the normal conducting state. Some examples of superconductors are the metals mercury and lead, ceramics and organic carbon nanotubes.


title: Superconductor

text: Normally, a magnet moving by a conductor produces currents in the conductor by electromagnetic induction. But a superconductor actually pushes out magnetic fields entirely by inducing surface currents. Instead of letting the magnetic field pass through, the superconductor acts like a magnet pointing the opposite way, which repels the real magnet. This is called the Meissner effect, and it can be demonstrated by levitating a superconductor over magnets or vice versa.


title: Superconductor

text: Physicists explain superconductivity by describing what happens when temperatures get cold. The thermal energy in a solid or liquid shakes the atoms so they randomly vibrate, but this gets less as the temperature drops. Electrons carry the same negative electric charge which makes them repel each other. At higher temperatures each electron behaves as if it were a free particle. There is also however a very weak attraction between electrons when they are in a solid or liquid. At rather large distances ( many hundreds of nanometers apart) and low temperatures (near absolute zero), the attractive effect and lack of thermal energy allows pairs of electrons to hang together. This is called a cooper pair and it is a quasiparticle , that is it acts as if it were a new kind of particle in its own right even though it is made up of two fundamental electrons. Many overlapping cooper pairs can exist in the same nanometer sized space. Since paired electrons constitute a boson the motions of all of the cooper pairs within a single superconductor synchronise and they function as if they are a single entity. Small disturbances such as scattering of electrons are forbidden in this state and it moves as one showing no resistance to its motion. It is hence now a superconductor.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was the President of Iraq, from July 16, 1979 to April 9, 2003, when he was removed from his position during the War in Iraq led by the United States. During his time as president, he might have killed more than a million people through war and genocide, which he denied.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam Hussein was born in the village of Al-Awja, in the Tikrit in Iraq. He never knew his father, Hussein 'Abd al-Majid, who disappeared five months before Saddam was born. Shortly before Saddam was born, Saddam's twelve-year-old brother died of cancer, leaving his mother very depressed in the final months of the pregnancy. She tried to kill herself near the end of the pregnancy and did not want to care for Saddam when he was born. Saddam was sent to the family of an uncle, Khairallah Tulfah, until he was three.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: At 10, Saddam ran away from the family to return to live with his uncle, who was a devout Sunni Muslim, in Baghdad. According to Saddam, in 1957, at the age of 20, Saddam became part of the Ba'ath Party. The Ba'ath party is an Arab political party that supports socialism.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In 1958, Hussein was arrested for killing his brother-in-law because he was a communist activist. He spent six months in prison.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: A year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abdul Karim Qassim got rid of Faisal II of Iraq. The Baathists were against the new regime, and in 1959, Saddam was involved in the attempted murder of Prime Minister Qassim. Saddam was shot in the leg, but managed to get away to Syria. Later, he moved to Egypt. He was sentenced to death. In exile, he attended the University of Cairo law school.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Army officers, including some with the Ba'ath party, came to power in Iraq in a military coup in 1963. However, the new regime was kicked out quickly. Saddam returned to Iraq, but was imprisoned in 1964 when an anti-Ba'ath group led by Abdul Rahman Arif took power. He escaped from jail in 1967 and became one of the leading members of the party.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In 1976, Saddam was made a general in the Iraqi army. He quickly became the most important person of the regime. He slowly began to gain more power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party. As Iraq's weak, old President, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, became more unable to do the duties of his office, Saddam began to take on an more important role as the head of the Iraqi government. He soon became the creator of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown by the Islamic Revolution, giving way to an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini. The influence of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam grew in the region, particularly in countries with large Shi'ite populations, especially Iraq. Saddam was afraid that radical Islamic ideas were quickly spreading inside his country among most of the Shi'ite people. He worried that these ideas would go against his leadership.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: There had also been a rivalry between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s. Khomeini was exiled from Iran in 1964. He began living in Iraq, at the Shi'ite holy city of An Najaf. There, he became involved with Iraqi Shi'ites and gained many religious and political followers throughout the world. Under pressure from the Shah, who had agreed to a rapprochement between Iraq and Iran in 1975, Saddam agreed to kick Khomeini out in 1978. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini thought defeating Saddam's government may have been the second most important thing to do, only behind keeping his power in Iran.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: After Khomeini gained power, small battles between Iraq and revolutionary Iran happened for ten months. The two countries were fighting over who controlled the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which divides Iran and Iraq.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Iraq and Iran officially went to war with each other on September 22, 1980. Saddam used the disagreement over the waterway as an excuse to go to war with Iran. However, the war was more likely an attempt by Saddam - supported by both the United States and the Soviet Union - to have Iraq stop radical revolutions like the one in Iran from spreading any further.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around major ports as Iraq launched an attack on Iran's oil-rich, Arab-populated province of Khuzestan. After making some gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from human-wave attacks by Iran. By 1982, Iraq was looking to end the war.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: During the war, Iraq used chemical warfare against Iranian forces and Kurdish separatists. On March 16, 1988, Saddam ordered Iraqi troops to stop a Kurdish uprising. Iraq attacked the Kurdish town of Halabjah with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents, killing 5000 people, mostly women and children.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political help. The Iranians, hoping to bring down Saddam's non-religious government and start a Shi'ite rebellion in Iraq, refused a cease-fire until 1988.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The eight-year war ended in a tie. There were hundreds of thousands of casualties. Perhaps 1.7 million died on both sides. Both economies, previously healthy and growing, were left in ruins.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam was also stuck with a debt of roughly $75 billion. Borrowing money from the U.S. was making Iraq into its client state, embarrassing a strongman who had sought to define and dominate Arab nationalism. Saddam also borrowed a large amount of money from other Arab states during the 1980s to fight Iran. Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure, Saddam desperately sought out cash once again, this time for postwar reconstruction.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam was pressuring Kuwait to forgive its share of his debt, some $30 billion. (This would mean Iraq would not have to pay back Kuwait's $30 million.) Saddam argued that the struggle with Iran had been fought for the benefit of the other Persian Gulf Arab states as much as for Iraq. Because of this, he said, a share of Iraqi debt should be forgiven.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam had pushed oil-exporting countries to raise oil prices and cut back production. Not only did Kuwait refuse to do this; they also helped support OPEC's opposition to the production cuts that Saddam had requested. Kuwait was pumping large amounts of oil, and keeping prices low, when Iraq needed to sell high-priced oil from its wells to pay off a huge debt.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The fact that Kuwait had so much oil made the region even more tense. Even though Kuwait had fewer people, it had about as much oil in reserve as Iraq. Together, Iraq and Kuwait had 20 percent of the world's known oil reserves.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The Kuwaiti monarchy made Saddam even angrier by drilling oil out of Iraqi wells. At the time, Saddam's regime was not disliked by most of the world. Saddam complained about the drilling to the United States State Department. Although this had gone on for years, Saddam now needed oil money to get rid of a looming economic crisis. Saddam still had an experienced and well-equipped army, which he used to influence regional affairs. He later ordered troops to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: As Iraqi-Kuwaiti relations rapidly grew worse, Saddam was getting different information about how the United States would respond to an invasion. The United States had been working on starting a good relationship with Iraq for roughly a decade. The Reagan administration gave Saddam roughly $40 billion worth of arms in the 1980s to fight Iran, nearly all of it on credit. The U.S. also sent billions of dollars of food and arms to Saddam to keep him from forming a strong alliance with the Soviets.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The U.S. ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, met with Saddam in a meeting on July 25. Saddam said he wanted to keep talks going. U.S. officials tried to take a calm, relaxing tone with Iraq. They explained that neither President George H.W. Bush or Secretary of State James Baker wanted military force to be used. However, they also said that they would not take any position on the Iraqi-Kuwaiti dispute and did not want to become involved.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Later, Iraq and Kuwait met for a final negotiation session, which failed. Saddam then sent his troops into Kuwait.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, causing an international crisis. The invasion of Kuwait gave Iraq, with its own substantial oil fields, control of 20 percent of the Persian Gulf oil. The U.S. helped Saddam Hussein in the war with Iran, but with Iraq's take over of the oil-rich emirate of Kuwait in August of 1990, the United States led a United Nations force that drove Saddam from Kuwait in February 1991.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Because the United States and the Soviet Union were cooperating in the United Nations Security Council, the Security Council was able to pass resolutions. These resolutions gave Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam ignored the Security Council deadline. On January 16, 1991, coalition of U.S. and Security Council troops launched missile attacks on Iraq. The United States and a group of allies it had quickly gathered, including Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, made Saddam's army move from Kuwait in January 1991.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Israel, though Saddam attacked it with Iraqi missiles, did not fight back. It did not want to anger Arab states into leaving the coalition. But Saddam had focused attention on the Palestinian problem by promising to make his forces leave from Kuwait if Israel would leave the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and the Gaza Strip. Saddam's proposal further split the Arab world, pitting U.S. and Western-supported Arab states against the Palestinians.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: 175,000 Iraqis were taken prisoner and about 85,000 died. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to get rid of all poison gas and germ weapons, and to allow UN observers to inspect the sites.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: All of the different religions and the violence the war had created caused after-war rebellions. After the war, fighting between Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units was bad. This was a problem to Saddam's rule. Saddam acted by stopping all rebellions in their tracks, especially in the North.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Before the war ended, the United States had encouraged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam. However, when the Shi'ites, Kurds, and dissidents did rise up against Saddam, the United States did not support them.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Without United States support for these rebellions, Saddam survived them. He was then left completely in control of Iraq. The country's economy and army never recovered from the Gulf War. However, Saddam often claimed that Iraq had won the Gulf War, and the United States had lost. This made Saddam popular in many parts of the Arab world.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam liked to show himself as a strict Muslim. This was to calm down the religious parts of the society. He brought back some parts of Sharia law. This included the 2001 law that said homosexuality could be punished by the death penalty. The phrase "Allahu Akbar" (""God is great""), in Saddam's handwriting, was added to the Iraq national flag.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Relations between the United States and Iraq remained tense after the Gulf War. In 1993, the United States decided to attack Iraq, because it thought evidence showed Iraq had sponsored a plan to kill former President George H.W. Bush. On June 26, 1993, the United States launched a missile attack aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The United Nations placed a trade embargo on Iraq, blocking Iraqi oil exports. This caused hardship in Iraq and almost destroyed the Iraqi economy and state infrastructure. Only smuggling across the Syrian border, and humanitarian aid kept Iraq from crisis. Later, limited amounts of income from the United Nations oil-for-food program started flowing into Iraq. On December 9, 1996, the United Nations allowed Baghdad to begin selling limited amounts of oil for food and medicine.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: U.S. officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the Gulf War's cease-fire agreement, by developing weapons of mass destruction and other banned weapons, and by violating the UN-imposed sanctions and "no-fly zones." Isolated military strikes by U.S. and British forces continued on Iraq, the largest being Operation Desert Fox in 1998.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: After two years of intermittent activity, U.S. and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam's base of Tikriti tribesmen, family members, and other supporters was divided after the war and in the following years. This added to the regime's increasingly repressive and arbitrary nature. Domestic repression inside Iraq grew worse, and Saddam's sons, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein, became increasingly powerful and carried out a private reign of terror. They likely had a leading hand when, in August 1995, two of Saddam Hussein's sons-in-law, who held high positions in the Iraqi military, defected to Jordan. Both were killed after returning to Iraq the following February.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In 2003, the United States led an invasion of Iraq. The main reason for the invasion was President George W. Bush's claim that Saddam had weapons of mass destruction. Bush argued that this made Saddam a major threat to Western allies, such as oil-rich Saudi Arabia and Israel; to Western oil supplies from the Persian Gulf states; and to Middle East stability in general. The President before Bush, Bill Clinton (1993-2001), maintained sanctions and made occasional air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" or other restrictions, in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by his many political enemies. However, this never happened.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Things changed in the United States after the September 11, 2001 attacks. In his January 2002 State of the Union Address to the United States Congress, President Bush said that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea were an "axis of evil." Bush also argued that Iraq had supported Al-Qaeda, the terrorists who attacked the United States on September 11.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: As the war was looming on February 24, 2003, Saddam Hussein talked with CBS News anchor Dan Rather for more than three hours—his first interview with a U.S. reporter in over ten years. CBS aired the taped interview later that week.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks after the beginning of the U.S.-led invasion on March 20. The United States tried at least twice to kill Saddam with targeted air strikes, but both failed to hit their target. By the beginning of April, Coalition forces controlled much of Iraq. The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Army either crumbled or shifted to guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which showed him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to the Coalition on April 9, Saddam was nowhere to be found.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Even when Baghdad was taken over, and most of the fighting had stopped, people still did not know where Saddam was. For a few weeks, some people said they saw Saddam, and some videotapes of Saddam talking came out, but still nobody knows if they were true or not.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Although Saddam was placed at the top of the "most-wanted list," he could not be found, even when the other leaders of the Iraqi regime were arrested. His sons and political heirs, Uday and Qusay, were killed in July 2003 in a clash with U.S. forces after a tip from an Iraqi.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: On 14 December 2003, the Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA) of Iran first reported that Saddam Hussein had been arrested. These reports were soon confirmed by other members of the Governing Council, by U.S. military sources, and by British Prime Minister Tony Blair.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Shortly afterwards, the U.S. Civil Administrator in Iraq, Paul Bremer, held a press conference in Baghdad. He officially announced Saddam's capture by saying, "Ladies and gentlemen, we got him!" United States soldiers found Saddam around 8:30 PM Iraqi time on 13 December, in what was called Operation Red Dawn. Saddam was hiding in an underground "spider hole" at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr, near his hometown of Tikrit.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The first photos taken of Saddam after the soldiers found him did not look like the photos taken when he was President of Iraq. He had grown long hair and a long beard. Later on, he shaved his beard to confirm his identity. DNA tests proved that he really was Saddam Hussein. People who talked with him after the soldiers found him said he was healthy, and wanted to talk to people and do what they told him to do. Paul Bremer said that Saddam would have a trial, but that he did not know yet what kind of trial.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: The Iraqi Special Tribunal was in charge of Saddam Hussein's trial, and the trials of some people that helped him to be President of Iraq.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Critics viewed the trial as a show trial that did not meet international standards on the right to a fair trial. Amnesty International stated that the trial was "unfair". Human Rights Watch judged that Saddam's execution "follows a flawed trial and marks a significant step away from the rule of law in Iraq." Several months before the trial took place, Salem Chalabi, the former head of the Iraq Special Tribunal (which was established to try Hussein), accused interim Iraqi Prime Minister Iyad Allawi of pushing for a hasty show trial and execution, stating: "Show trials followed by speedy executions may help the interim government politically in the short term but will be counterproductive for the development of democracy and the rule of law in Iraq in the long term."


title: Saddam Hussein

text: He was put to death in 2006. The hanging was recorded by officials of the government. A witness also secretly recorded the hanging with a cell phone camera, which included sound. The recording showed Saddam being calm as he was prepared for his final moments. Witnesses and executioners could be heard teasing Saddam as the rope was placed on his head, and he was put on the trap door. He was in the middle of a prayer when the trap door beneath him opened, and he was killed. Later, pictures and live video of Saddam's taunting and execution, and of his dead corpse were shown on many Internet sites.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam was scheduled to die on Thursday night, 28 December 2006. Because of last-minute legal appeals in Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals, Saddam's execution came about 40 hours later. Saddam Hussein was hanged on 30 December 2006 at 6:05 AM, Iraqi time. Saddam refused to wear a hood. He was pronounced dead at 6:10 AM Baghdad time. Baghdad had curfews on those days, which required people to be off the streets by evening.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam had been married three times. His first marriage was to his first cousin, Sajida Talfah. She was the oldest daughter of Saddam's uncle, Khairallah Talfah. Together, Saddam and Sajida had two sons, Uday Saddam Hussein and Qusay Hussein, and three daughters, Rana, Raghad and Hala.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In early 1997, Sajida was put under house arrest, along with her daughters Raghad and Rana, because they were suspected of being involved in an attempted assassination on Uday on 12 December 1996. General Adnan Khairallah Tuffah, who was Sajida's brother and Saddam Hussein's boyhood friend, was allegedly executed because of his growing popularity.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam Hussein also married two other women. The second was Samira Shahbandar, whom he married in 1986 after forcing her husband to divorce her. She was said to have been his favorite wife. His third wife was Nidal al-Hamdani, the general manager of the Solar Energy Research Center in the Council of Scientific Research, whose husband apparently was also persuaded to divorce his wife.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In August 1995, Rana; her husband, Hussein Kamel al Majid; Raghad; her husband, Saddam Kamel Majid; and their children defected to Jordan. They returned to Iraq when they were promised that Saddam Hussein would pardon them. Within three days of their return in February 1996, both of the Majid brothers were executed.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: Saddam's daughter Hala is married to Jamal Mustafa, the deputy head of Iraq's Tribal Affairs Office. Neither has been known to be involved in politics. Another cousin was Ali Hassan al-Majid, also known in the United States as "Chemical Ali," who was accused of ordering the use of poison gas in 1988.


title: Saddam Hussein

text: In 2000, a romance book titled "Zabiba and the King" was released and later became a bestselling book. It was later revealed that Hussein was the author of the book.


title: Rolf Harris

text: Rolf Victor Harris (born 30 March 1930) is an Australian musician, singer-songwriter, composer, painter, actor, former television personality and former swimmer. He was in prison for sexually assaulting girls.


title: Rolf Harris

text: Harris was born on 30 March 1930 in Bassendean, Perth, Western Australia, to Agnes Margaret (née Robbins) and Cromwell ("Crom") Harris, who had both emigrated from Cardiff, Wales. He grew up in Wembley, Western Australia. He was named after Rolf Boldrewood, the pseudonym of an Australian writer whom his mother admired. After his later fame, Harris was often referred to as "the boy from Bassendean" within Australia. As a child he owned a dog called Buster Fleabags, about whom he later wrote a book (for the UK Quick Reads Initiative).


title: Rolf Harris

text: Harris attended Bassendean State School and Perth Modern School in Subiaco, later gaining a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Western Australia and a Diploma of Education from Claremont Teachers' College (now Edith Cowan University). While he was just 16, and still a student at Perth Modern School, his self-portrait in oils was one of the 80 works (out of 200 submitted) accepted to be hung in the Art Gallery of New South Wales as an entry in the 1947 Archibald Prize. He painted a portrait of the then Lieutenant Governor of Western Australia, Sir James Mitchell, for the 1948 Archibald Prize. He won the 1949 Claude Hotchin prize for oil colours with his landscape "On a May Morning, Guildford".


title: Rolf Harris

text: As an adolescent and young adult Harris was a champion swimmer. In 1946, he was the Australian Junior Backstroke Champion. He was also the Western Australian state champion over a variety of distances and strokes during the period from 1948 to 1952.


title: Rolf Harris

text: Harris began his television career on the BBC in 1953. He is best known for his art television shows such as "Rolfin bed", "Rolf's Cartoon Club" and "Animal Hospital". In 2005, he painted an official portrait of Queen Elizabeth II in his bed. His best known songs are "Tie Me Kangaroo Down, Sport" (1957) and "Jake the Peg" (1965). He also appeared on children's show The Wiggles on their It's a Wiggly Wiggly World! video in 2000 with his song "Tie Me Kangaroo Down, Sport" which was also once a major hit in Australia, the UK and the US.


title: Rolf Harris

text: In 2013, Harris was arrested under Operation Yewtree, which was set up to investigate complaints of sexual assault by television personality and paedophile Jimmy Savile, who died on 29 October 2011. Harris appeared on advertisements for British Paints which is an Australian brand of paint. He no longer appears on these adverts.


title: Rolf Harris

text: Later that year, Harris was charged with twelve counts of having indecent assaulted girls aged 7 to 19 during the 1960s and 1980s. After his computer was seized by police, he was also charged with four counts of making indecent images of a child during 2012. Harris was interviewed and cautioned by police on November 2012. His trial was due to begin in London on 30 April 2014 but was postponed to 6 May 2014. He says he is innocent, denying all wrongdoing. He has also refused to speak to the media and his defence lawyer has said that he will plead not guilty to all of the charges. While awaiting trial on 15 January 2014 when he appeared in a London court with his family, supporters and his security guards, it was decided that Harris would be bailed to stay at his home with his wife until the time when trial starts. He was not allowed to go near anyone under 18 or to contact any of the witnesses. He denied any wrongdoing. Harris' trial began at Southwark Crown Court on 6 May 2014. At the trial it was revealed that Harris was a 'Jekyll and Hyde' character, whose immense talent and public generosity to children and animals hid a darker side - he was sexually attracted to young girls. On 19 June 2014, the jury in the Rolf Harris trial retired to consider its verdict. On 30 June 2014, Harris was found guilty on all 12 counts of indecent assault making him the second person to be convicted under Operation Yewtree after Max Clifford. On 4 July 2014, Harris was sentenced to five years and nine months in prison and is currently incarcerated at HM Prison Wandsworth and later he will be transferred to HM Prison Littlehey. The sentence was later referred to the Attorney General for England and Wales Dominic Grieve after complaints it was too lenient. On 30 July 2014, the new Attorney General, Jeremy Wright, announced that he would not be referring the sentence to the court of appeal for review "as he did not think they would find it to be unduly lenient and increase it. The sentencing judge was bound by the maximum sentence in force at the time of the offending."


title: Rolf Harris

text: Harris was stripped of his BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award after his conviction. Alison Pink (now Steven George since a sex reassignment) who says that he was abused by Jimmy Savile while a woman said that he (then she) once witnessed Rolf Harris visiting Broadmoor Hospital with Savile and they turned up at a woman's ward just as patients were preparing to get undressed in the corridor.


title: Rolf Harris

text: When Harris was convicted his hometown of Bassendean in Perth voted to remove his artwork from their council chambers and to strip him off his status as a Freeman of the town. The Western Australian Department of Education confirmed that Perth Modern School would be removing all artwork by Rolf Harris from display following his criminal conviction.


title: Rolf Harris

text: Harris was taken Bullingdon Prison in Oxfordshire, but was taken later to HM Prison Stafford in Stafford, Staffordshire after he was targeted and spat at by fellow inmates.


title: Rolf Harris

text: On 1 August 2014, Harris had applied to appeal against his indecent assault conviction and his lawyers requested permission with the Court of Appeal but on 1 November 2014, Harris lost his first round of permission to appeal. On 1 December 2014, Harris dropped his bid to appeal the sentence, meaning that he will spend the next 2 and a half years in prison, and the next half will be a non-custodial.


title: Rolf Harris

text: In 2012, he got an Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) and on 23 February 2015, it was rescinded by the Governor-General of Australia.


title: Rolf Harris

text: In 2006, Harris was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). On 4 March 2015, it was taken away by the Queen.


title: Rolf Harris

text: Harris served his sentence at HM Prison Stafford. He was released on 19 May 2017, after serving three years of his sentence of five years and nine months.


title: Ant

text: Ants are a lot like wasps and bees. They all came from the same kind of animal a long time ago, but now they are different. There are about 22,000 different kinds of ants, but we have only documented 12,500. Every kind of ant has a thin middle, called a thorax, and two long rods on their heads called antennae.


title: Ant

text: Ants live in groups that can be big or small. Some kinds of ants live in small groups and eat other animals. Some ants work together in very big groups. These groups can have millions of ants in them that travel outside every day in a big area. Ants are small, but they are very strong. Some ants are strong enough to carry things that are as heavy as 10 times their own weight. Some ants are called workers. Workers dig tunnels and carry food back to the colony so that other ants and the queen ant can eat. The Queen ant is the mother of all the ants in the colony. She is the only non worker ant.


title: Ant

text: The groups that ants live in are called colonies. A colony has a female ant called a queen which lays eggs. Those eggs will grow into more ants. Big colonies of ants have different kinds of ants that grow from the eggs. These are called different castes of ants. Some are "workers" which do jobs like carrying and digging, and "soldiers" which fight other animals. Worker and soldier ants are females. Another type of ant are "drones" which are male ants.


title: Ant

text: Really big ant colonies are sometimes called "superorganisms". This means the ants work together so well that they are like little parts of one big animal. Ants cannot live by themselves for very long because they need to work with other ants.


title: Ant

text: Ants have colonies almost everywhere on planet Earth. Antarctica lacks ants because it's very cold and there's not much food. Small islands may not have ants.


title: Ant

text: The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees and wasps. Ants evolved from a lineage within the vespoid wasps.


title: Ant

text: Phylogenetic analysis suggests that ants arose in the Lower Cretaceous period about 110 to 130 million years ago, or even earlier. One estimate from DNA studies places the origin of ants at ≈140 million years ago (mya). Another study puts it in the Jurassic at 185 ± 36 mya (95% confidence limits).


title: Ant

text: After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago ants diversified. They became ecologically dominant about 60 million years ago.


title: Ant

text: In 1966 E.O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant ("Sphecomyrma freyi") from the Cretaceous period. The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to more than 80 million years ago, has features of both ants and wasps. "Sphecomyrma" was probably a ground forager but some suggest that primitive ants were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil.


title: Ant

text: During the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian super-continent (the northern hemisphere). They were scarce in comparison to other insects, representing about 1% of the insect population.


title: Ant

text: Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Cainozoic. By the Oligocene and Miocene ants had come to represent 20-40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, approximately one in ten genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene).


title: Ant

text: Termites, though sometimes called "white ants", are not ants and belong to the order Isoptera. Termites are actually more closely related to cockroaches and mantids. Termites are eusocial but differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction. The similar social structure is attributed to convergent evolution. Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps.


title: Ant

text: The life of an ant starts from an egg. If the egg is fertilised, the progeny will be female (diploid); if not, it will be male (haploid). Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larval stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult. The larva is fed and cared for by workers.


title: Ant

text: Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop. This is also how adults share food, stored in the 'social stomach', among themselves.


title: Ant

text: Larvae may also be given solid food brought back by foraging workers, and may even be taken to captured prey in some species. The larvae grow through a series of moults and enter the pupal stage.


title: Ant

text: The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers, is influenced in some species by the food the larvae get. Genetic influences, and the control of gene expression by the feeding are complex. The determination of caste is a major subject of research.


title: Ant

text: A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young. It then does digging and other nest work, and later, defends the nest and forages. These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called "temporal castes". An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging, making it an acceptable risk only for ants that are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes.


title: Ant

text: Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females can mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens (polygyny). The life history of "Harpegnathos saltator" is


title: Ant

text: The winged male ants, called "drones", emerge from pupae with the breeding females (although some species, like army ants, have wingless queens), and do nothing in life except eat and mate.


title: Ant

text: Most ants produce a new generation each year. During the species specific breeding period, new reproductives, winged males and females leave the colony in what is called a "nuptial flight". Typically, the males take flight before the females. Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge. Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow. Females of some species mate with just one male, but in some others they may mate with anywhere from one to ten or more different males. Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females store the sperm they obtain during their nuptial flight to selectively fertilise future eggs.


title: Ant

text: The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how new colonies start in most species. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, a process akin to swarming in honeybees.


title: Ant

text: A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species. Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through parthenogenesis, and one species, "Mycocepurus smithii" is known to be all-female.


title: Ant

text: Ant colonies can be long-lived. The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years. Males, however, are more transitory, and survive only a few weeks. Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times longer than solitary insects of a similar size.


title: Ant

text: Ants are active all year long in the tropics but, in cooler regions, survive the winter in a state of dormancy or inactivity. The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.


title: Ant

text: It may seem strange that ants have uses, but there are some. Some people use ants for food, medicine and rituals. Some species of ants are used for pest control (they eat pests that destroy food for humans). They can damage crops and enter buildings, though. Some species, like the red imported fire ant, live in places where they came to by complete accident.


title: Tar

text: Tar is a sticky black liquid made of thick oil. It is a natural substance, oozing out of the ground in places like the La Brea tar pits. Usually it is made by heating coal inside a chemical apparatus.


title: Tar

text: Most tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production, but it can also be produced from petroleum, peat or wood. The "destructive distillation" of a ton of coal can produce 700 kg of coke, 100 litres of liquor ammonia, 50 litres of coal tar and 400 m of coal gas.


title: Tar

text: It used to be one of the products of gasworks. Tar made from coal or petroleum is considered toxic. It causes cancer because of its high benzene content. In low concentrations, however, tar is used as a medicine on the skin.


title: Tar

text: Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens, used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood. They were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole, to allow the tar to come out. The wood is split to dimensions of a finger and stacked densely, and finally covered tight with dirt and moss to stop air entering. On top of this, a fire is stacked and lit. After a few hours, the tar starts to pour out, and continues to do so for a few days.


title: Tar

text: Tar is used in treatment of the skin disease psoriasis, where coal tar is the most effective. Tar is a general disinfectant. Petroleum tar was also used in ancient Egyptian mummification circa 1000 BC.


title: Tar

text: Tar was a vital component of the first sealed, or "tarmac", roads. The streets of Baghdad were the first to be paved with tar from the 8th century AD. It was also used as seal for roofing shingles and to seal the hulls of ships and boats. For millennia wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have negated the need for tar. Wood tar is still used to seal traditional wooden boats and the roofs of historical shingle-roofed churches, as well painting exterior walls of log buildings.


title: Tar

text: Mixing tar with linseed oil varnish produces tar paint. Tar paint can be used to protect wood from weather. Tar paint can also be toned with various pigments, producing translucent colours and preserving the wood texture.


title: Tiberius

text: Tiberius (Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus, 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD) was the second Roman Emperor. He ruled from 14 to 37 AD. He was the step-son of Caesar Augustus.


title: Tiberius

text: Tiberius was one of Ancient Rome's greatest generals, whose campaigns protected the northern frontier. He reigned for 22 years, and the first part of his imperial work was excellent. Later, he came to be remembered as a dark, reclusive, and somber ruler. After the death of his son Drusus in 23, the quality of his rule declined and ended in terror.


title: Tiberius

text: In 26, Tiberius moved from Rome to the Isle of Capri, and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefect Sejanus. Sejanus became the effective ruler of Rome, and plotted against Tiberius, murdering people who opposed him. When alerted, Tiberius counter-plotted to remove Sejanus from his official positions, and eventually executed him. More executions followed of people who had committed crimes under Sejanus' rule.


title: Tiberius

text: Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers as of 6 BC, but soon went into retirement in Rhodes. He was reported as wanting no further role in politics. After the early deaths of Augustus' young grandchildren-turned-sons, Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his own brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus. This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.


title: Tiberius

text: In the same year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of "imperium" with that of Augustus. Tiberius duly assumed the titles of Augustus when the old man's long reign came to an end in AD 14.


title: Tiberius

text: Problems soon arose. The northern legions had not been paid, and rebelled. Germanicus and Tiberius's son, Drusus, were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line. Germanicus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory, stating that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus. Germanicus's forces smashed across the Rhine and quickly occupied all of the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe. So Germanicus dealt a significant blow to Rome's enemies, and quelled an uprising of troops, actions that increased his fame with the Roman people.


title: Tiberius

text: After being recalled from Germania, Germanicus celebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17, the first full triumph that the city had seen since Augustus's own in 29 BC. As a result, in AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire, just as both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before, and was clearly the successor to Tiberius. But tragedy struck once again, as Germanicus died after a year, apparently poisoned.


title: Tiberius

text: Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD 15. The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus. Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city, and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether. Finally, with Tiberius's withdrawal to Capri in AD 26, Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome.


title: Tiberius

text: Sejanus's position was not quite that of successor. The presence of Livia (the third wife and advisor of Augustus) seems to have checked his power for a time. Her death in AD 29 changed all that. Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators in Rome. Germanicus's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances.


title: Tiberius

text: In response, Tiberius manoeuvered cleverly. He knew an immediate condemnation of Sejanus might not succeed. Since he and Sejanus were then joint Consuls, Tiberius resigned his post of Consul, which forced Sejanus to do likewise. This removed much of Sejanus' legal powers and protection. Then, in AD 31, Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate, where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution. Macro was appointed Praetorian Prefect, with the specific job of removing Sejanus. Sejanus was tried, and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week.


title: Tiberius

text: More treason trials followed. Tacitus writes that Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the start of his reign, but now, towards the end of his life, he seemed to do so without compunction. However, Tacitus' portrayal of a tyrannical, vengeful emperor has been challenged by several modern historians. The prominent ancient historian Edward Togo Salmon notes in his work, "A history of the Roman world from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138":


title: Tiberius

text: The last years of Tiberius were notable for his complete absence from Rome, and his inactivity as Emperor. He was now an old man in his 70s, and left decisions to the officials in Rome. He did nothing to prevent the rise of his grandnephew Caligula, who was now popular with the people (as the only surviving son of germanicus) and who had the support of the Prefect Macro.


title: Tiberius

text: In 35, Tiberius would make both caligula and his own grandson Gemellus joint heirs, before dying two years later, in his 78th year. Some speculate Macro and Caligula hastened the old emperor’s death. Regardless, Caligula would succeed Tiberius as emperor.


title: Alan Shepard

text: Alan Shepard (November 18, 1923 - July 21, 1998) was an American astronaut. He was the first American to travel into space. He was born in East Derry, New Hampshire. He received a Bachelor of Science at Naval Academy in 1944, graduated at Naval Testpilot School in 1951 and he earned a Master of Arts at the Naval War College in 1957.


title: Alan Shepard

text: On May 5, 1961, Shepard flew into space in the Mercury spacecraft. This was powered by a Redstone rocket.


title: Alan Shepard

text: He made another space flight as spacecraft commander (person in charge) of Apollo 14. This was the third trip to land astronauts on the moon. The trip lasted from January 31 - February 9, 1971. At the age of 47, he was the oldest person to ever walk on the Moon.


title: Alan Shepard

text: Shepard suffered with leukemia in 1996 and died on July 21, 1998 in Pebble Beach, California. His wife died from a heart attack on August 25, 1998.


title: Jeanne Calment

text: Jeanne Louise Calment (21 February 1875 – 4 August 1997) was a French supercentenarian and at the time of her death at age 122 years, 164 days the verified oldest person in history as well as the only person who has surpassed 120 years of age, although her claimed age is possibly disputed.


title: Jeanne Calment

text: On 17 October 1995, Calment reached 120 years and 238 days to become the "oldest person ever" according to Guinness World Records, surpassing Shigechiyo Izumi of Japan, whose claim (120 years 237 days old at the time of his death on 21 February 1986, Calment's 111th birthday) has since been discounted. Calment also holds the record for being the oldest living person for the longest period of time, by far – with nearly nine years and seven months, counting from the death of Florence Knapp on 11 January 1988, to her own death on 4 August 1997.


title: Jeanne Calment

text: She was the last remaining undisputed person born in the 1870s. On 12 July 1995, Tane Ikai of Japan died, and Calment became the last living link from the 1870s. Following Calment's death on 4 August 1997 at 10:45 CET, then 116-year-old Marie-Louise Meilleur became the oldest living recognized person.


title: Jeanne Calment

text: She was active during her life, lived on her own until she was almost 110, and talked a lot until months before her death. Calment still rode her bike at the age of 100 in 1975. Once, she fell off and developed a brief period of amnesia. She recovered sometime later. In 1888, when she was 13, Calment met Vincent van Gogh while he visited her uncle's shop to buy canvas.


title: Jeanne Calment

text: During her later years in the 1990s, she could not hear very well. In 1995 at the age of 120 years, she became the subject of her own documentary, "120 Years with Jeanne Calment". She died in Arles.


title: Jeanne Calment

text: A study by Russian researcher Nikolay Zak has disputed Jeanne Calment's claimed age with a hypothesis that Jeanne's daughter Yvonne, born 1898 and claimed to have died of pneumonia in 1934, usurped Jeanne's identity upon Jeanne's death in 1934. In that scenario, Jeanne Calment would have died already in 1934 and Yvonne Calment in 1997, claiming to be her mother and aged 122 but in fact she was aged 99. However, to prove if the hypothesis is true, a DNA/blood test is required.


title: Jeanne Calment

text: The oldest undisputed person in history is Japanese woman Kane Tanaka, who lived to age 119 years, 107 days.


title: Helium

text: Helium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, and atomic weight of about 4.002602. There are 9 isotopes of helium, only two of which are stable. These are He and He. He is by far the most common isotope.


title: Helium

text: Helium is called a noble gas, because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new compounds. It has the lowest boiling point of all the elements. It is the second most common element in the universe, after hydrogen, and has no color or smell. However, helium has a red-orange glow when placed in an electric field. Helium does not usually react with anything else. Astronomers detected the presence of helium in 1868, when its spectrum was identified in light from the Sun. This was before its discovery on Earth.


title: Helium

text: Helium is used to fill balloons and airships because its density is lighter than air. It does not burn, so is safe for that kind of use. It is also used in some kinds of light bulbs. People can breathe in helium: it makes their voices sound higher than it normally does. This is a joke, but is dangerous as if they breathe in too much, hypoxia can injure or kill them as they are not breathing normal air. Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to vocal cords.


title: Helium

text: Helium is created through the process of nuclear fusion in the Sun, and in similar stars. During this process, two hydrogen atoms are fused together to form one helium atom. On Earth it is made by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements like thorium and uranium, although there are other examples. The alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei.


title: Helium

text: Helium was discovered by the French astronomer pierre Janssen on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was thought to be sodium. On the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, also observed it and found that it was caused by a new element. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element helium, from the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος ("helios").


title: Helium

text: Helium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon. It is the second least reactive of all elements. It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas.


title: Helium

text: Helium is used as a shielding gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in making titanium and zirconium, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert. Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding.


title: Helium

text: Helium is mixed with oxygen and other gases for deep underwater diving because it does not cause nitrogen narcosis.


title: Helium

text: Helium is also used to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is used to remove the fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment before the rocket launches. It is used to cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles before the rocket launches.


title: Helium

text: Helium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some nuclear reactors that are cooled down by gas. Helium is also used in some hard disk drives. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics.


title: Helium

text: Helium has become rare on Earth. If it gets free into the air it leaves the planet. Unlike hydrogen, which reacts with oxygen to form water, helium is not reactive. It stays as a gas. For many years after the 1925 Helium Act, the USA collected helium in a National Helium Reserve. American helium comes from wells in the Great Plains area. At present, more helium is supplied by Qatar than by the USA.


title: Helium

text: Several research organisations have released statements on the scarcity and conservation of helium. These organisations released policy recommendations as early as 1995 and as late as 2016 urging the United States government to store and conserve helium because of the natural limits to the helium supply and the unique nature of the element. For researchers, helium is irreplaceable because it is essential for producing very low temperatures. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging.


title: Birmingham

text: Birmingham ( ) is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. It is the second-largest metropolitan area and city in the United Kingdom. About 1.1 million people live in Birmingham. Around 4.3 million people live in its metropolitan area. Many people call it the "second city" of the United Kingdom.


title: Birmingham

text: Many industries were developed in Birmingham during the 18th and 19th centuries. These included making weapons and food.


title: Birmingham

text: Birmingham manufacturing industry played a big role in the war effort in World War I and World War II. The WWII spitfire aeroplane was made in Birmingham. In 2000, a statue of stylised spitfires was erected next to the old factory site. The factory now makes Jaguar cars.


title: Birmingham

text: Birmingham had a large car making industry. It has declined since the 1980s. It remains the home town for Jaguar and Land Rover cars.


title: Birmingham

text: Birmingham was an important stagine-post in the Victorian industrial canal system. Today it is the northern terminus of the Grand Union Canal to London. Heavy goods (as coal surely is) are most economically moved on water. No other form of transport is so efficient.


title: Birmingham

text: The M40 motorway connects to London via Oxford. The M6 motorway also connects Birmingham to London (via the M1) and to the north-west of England and Scotland. Junction 6 of the M6 is also one of Birmingham's landmarks, and probably the most notable motorway junction in the UK, Spaghetti Junction, officially called the Gravelly Hill Interchange. Other motorways are:


title: Birmingham

text: Birmingham, unlike London and Manchester, does not have a single orbital motorway. Instead, three motorways form a box which surrounds most of the city. These are:


title: Yasser Arafat

text: Yasser Arafat (24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004) is best known as the first leader of the Palestinian people. He was Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004. In 1993, he also became president of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA).


title: Yasser Arafat

text: Arafat was born in Jerusalem, Gaza or Cairo. He studied civil engineering at Cairo University. He worked as an engineer in Kuwait.


title: Yasser Arafat

text: In 1994, Yasser Arafat was the first of the three recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize. The others were Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres. They got the prize for their peace efforts in the Middle East when Palestinian National Authority was formed.


title: Yasser Arafat

text: The views of him are somewhat divided. Some people see him as a hero, who fought for the cause of the Palestinian people. Others see him as a terrorist, who promoted the use of violence to reach his goals. Still others think he was a charismatic leader, but he made too many concessions to the Israeli government.


title: Yasser Arafat

text: Yasser died in Paris from a cerebral hemorrhage. The next day he was buried at his compound, with a hasty funeral in Ramallah on November 12. He was reburied on November 13, about 3:30 am. He was buried in a special casket, with the hope of being reburied in Jerusalem one day when an independent State of Palestine with East Jerusalem as its capital would be established.


title: Gainsharing

text: Gainsharing is a system of management used by a business to increase profitability by motivating employees to improve their performance through involvement and participation. As their performance improves, employees share financially in the gain (improvement). Gainsharing’s goal is to improve performance and eliminate waste (time, energy, and materials) by motivating employees to work smarter as a team rather than just working harder.


title: Gainsharing

text: Gainsharing should not be confused with profit sharing. There are many differences between Gainsharing and profit sharing. Gainsharing is also called Gain sharing, Gainshare, and Gain share. It could also be called "savings sharing." In other words, a company shares with employees the savings from improved performance.


title: Gainsharing

text: There are two important parts of a Gainsharing system. One is a bonus calculation. The second is a structured system for employee involvement. Because of these two parts, Gainsharing is best seen as an "organizational development" tool. It is not just a bonus or "incentive plan." In order to get a better understanding of this concept one needs to look back at Gainsharing's history.


title: Gainsharing

text: One of the first Gainsharing plans dates back to the 1930s. In the 1930s a labor leader and MIT Lecturer Joe Scanlon, preached that “the worker” had much more to offer than just a "pair of hands" (manual labor). Scanlon believed that the person closest to the problem often has the best and simplest solution. Also, if the worker is involved in the solution he will make the solution work.


title: Gainsharing

text: In an effort to help a troubled company, Scanlon and the company owner asked employees for their ideas and suggestions to help reduce waste and lower cost. Many improvements were made. The company became more successful. Joe was asked to save other companies who had barely survived the depression. He eventually became the acting director of the Steelworkers Research Department and used his skills in creating joint labor/management improvement committees to help the war effort for WWII.


title: Gainsharing

text: After the war Joe became a lecturer at MIT and went on to develop a system for organizational development and gainsharing that became known as the Scanlon Plan.


title: Gainsharing

text: As the Scanlon Plan developed a method to measure (calculate) gains (improvements) was created. The monetary gains were then shared with all employees. This calculation represents the bonus (monetary incentive) element of Gainsharing. This concept addresses the principle of equity. "It is fair to share." Everyone in a company makes a contribution to the organization's success. Why limit bonuses to the select few? People typically take pride in their work and have a strong desire to be respected for what they do. By sharing the company is communicating an important message to the work force: "We all contribute. That contribution is respected. Let's share in the financial benefits."


title: Gainsharing

text: Today, companies use Gainsharing to measure both the performance and reward employees when it improves. Companies use a pre-determined calculation (formula) to share the savings with all employees. The goals of a company’s Gainsharing plan depend on its cost structure and long-term competitive strategy and are tailored to fit the industry (manufacturing, service, or corporate). Information regarding the measures, formula, and gains (savings) is regularly and openly shared with all employees. Since the monetary gains are shared with employees, people develop more of a sense of ownership for their work and the company. People have a better understanding of how they influence the company's success.


title: Gainsharing

text: It should be noted that in a Gainsharing plan, the company's current performance is compared to its historic performance (baseline period). The savings above the baseline period determine the gain or loss. This is a very important point. Since gains are measured in relationship to a historical period, employees and the company must improve in order to make a gain. Performance thresholds must be corrected periodically for the effects of capital investment in new equipment as well as for the continuous improvement needed to meet ever higher customer demands.


title: Gainsharing

text: When people do their work differently they must change. However, as everyone one knows, it is difficult for people to change. On the other hand, do people like money? Most people would say, "Yes." Therefore, Gainsharing can be a very powerful tool. Gainsharing promotes the need for continuous improvement and eliminates employees' sense of entitlement.


title: Gainsharing

text: A very important part of a successful Gainsharing plan is the employee involvement element of Gainsharing. In order to foster a culture of positive change, a successful Gainsharing plan needs to incorporate a structure system of employee involvement. It is common for Gainsharing plans to have a "team-based" suggestion system in place.


title: Gainsharing

text: How does a team-based suggestion system work? First, teams are formed in order to gather suggestions from employees on ways to improve, (in other words, suggestions on how to work "smarter"). To avoid unnecessary bureaucracy, most companies ask managers/supervisors to lead departmental teams whose goals mesh with the overall objectives of a company’s Gainsharing plan. The teams are permanent groups. The teams meet on a regular basis to discuss the ideas and suggestions. They make decisions on approving or declining the ideas. Also the teams are given limited spending authority to approve and implement the suggestions. Suggestions that are approved by a team, but are beyond their spending authority, are advanced to a higher level in the organization for final approval. Unlike a traditional suggestion system, a team-based system does not provide individual monetary rewards. This is because everyone works together and shares in the gain together. Gainsharing is not an individual incentive plan.


title: Gainsharing

text: In terms of the calculation, a Gainsharing plan may have from one to six key performance measures. The most effective Gainsharing plans have relatively few performance goals because employee understanding of them is necessary for success. Examples of measures include productivity, quality, waste, spending, and customer service which are all factors employees can control. The gains (savings) from each measure are calculated separately. Then gains and losses from each measure are added to determine the total gain. A portion of the total gain goes to the company and a portion is shared with all employees. Generally, from 10% to 50% of the gain is shared with employees. The percent of the gain shared with employees depends on employee controllability and importance of the measure to the organization. The pool is distributed to all participants, typically on a monthly or quarterly frequency. The frequency of payouts depends on the employee line-of-sight (employees’ ability to identify what they do today to earn a payout at the end of the Gainsharing period). Companies with unskilled and semi-skilled employees typically have plans calling for payouts at shorter intervals than those with highly skilled workers.


title: Gainsharing

text: It is very important to note that the development and implementation of a Gainsharing plan involves employees and that its goals are within employee control. An employee committee called the "Design Team" helps to make policy decisions on issues such as the plan's measures, employee eligibility, frequency of payout, and method of communication. Next the design team gets upper management approval before implementation. After approval, the Design Team is responsible for conducting meetings with all employees to communicate the details of the plan. Follow-up training should also take place.


title: Gainsharing

text: Companies with successful Gainsharing plans view Gainsharing as much more than a bonus or incentive system. Instead, they see the system as an important part of their business strategy and a method to drive organization change. When properly designed and implemented, Gainsharing gradually grows into a company's core communications and compensation program. Gainsharing can be a powerful tool if installed and managed by a company that truly believes in its people.


title: Human body

text: The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by death. You need your muscles and your joints to move.


title: Human body

text: Some people study the human body. They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other animals' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be extinct animals like other hominids. (Hominids are primates that are close to humans. Neanderthals and "Homo erectus" were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its environment. Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.


title: Human body

text: The human body is like other animals. The skeleton, muscles and other parts are very much like those of other primates. Our body is also like other mammals, and somewhat like other vertebrates. DNA differences follow a similar pattern. The human genome is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to chimpanzee.


title: Mons pubis

text: In human anatomy, and in mammals in general, the mons pubis (pubic mound, also known simply as the mons, and known specifically in females as the mons Venus or mons veneris), is a part of the body where the fatty tissue is found over the pubic symphysis of the pubic bones. The mons pubis is part of the vulva. The vulva is the part of the body where reproductive organs are located on the outside of the body.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The Indian independence movement was a movement from 1857 until 15 August 1947, when India got its independence from the British Raj.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Vasco da Gama of Portugal had discovered a sea route to India. He had reached Kozhikode (Calicut, Kerala) in 1498. After this, many Europeans started coming to India for trading. They made their offices and forts in various parts of India. The British East India Company became the major force in India. The company's troops led by Robert Clive defeated the rulers of Bengal in 1757. This battle became famous as the Battle of Plassey. That was the beginning of British rule, known as the British Raj, in India. In 1764, the Battle of Buxar was won by the English forces. After "this", the British got control over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The Parliament of the United Kingdom passed many laws to help the British East India Company. The , , and the Charter Act of 1813 were designed to help trade with India.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Before the First War of Independence (1857), Indians in different parts of India had revolted against the British. Many such of the revolts and armed struggles had taken place in this Some examples include:


title: Indian independence movement

text: India's First War of Independence (by this name later a book was published by V.D Savarkar) was a revolt of Indian soldiers and people (rulers and peasants) against British rule. Historians had used the terms like the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny to describe this event. The rebellion by Indian troops of the British Raj started in May 1857 and continued until December 1858. Many reasons had combined to result in this rebellion.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The British rulers continued to forcibly take regions ruled by Indians and made these regions part of the British Raj. They did not give any respect to old royal houses of India like the Mughals and the Peshwa. They also made the Indian soldiers of their army use a special type of cartridge (immediate cause of the rebel). The soldiers had to open the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their guns. The cartridges supposedly used cow and pig fat. For Hindus the cow is a sacred animal and they do not eat beef. Similarly, Muslims do not eat pork. Thus, the use of these cartridges made soldiers of both the religions turn against the British. Although the British tried to replace the cartridges, the feelings against them stayed.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Rebellion broke out when a soldier called Mangal Pandey attacked a British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General Hearsey ordered another Indian soldier to arrest Mangal Pandey but he refused. Later the British arrested Mangal Pandey and the other Indian soldier. The British killed both by hanging them.


title: Indian independence movement

text: At the beginning the British were slow to respond. Then they took very quick action with heavy forces. They brought their regiments from the Crimean War to India. They also redirected many regiments that were going to China from India. The British forces reached Delhi, and they surrounded the city from 1st July 1857 until 31st August 1857. Street-to-street fights broke out between the British troops and the Indians. Ultimately, they took control of Delhi. The massacre at Kanpur (July 1857) and the siege of Lucknow (June to November 1857) were also important. The last important battle was at Gwalior in June 1858 in which the Rani of Jhansi was killed. With this, the British had practically suppressed the rebellion. However, some guerrilla fighting in many places continued until early in 1859 and Tantia Tope was captured and executed until April 1859.


title: Indian independence movement

text: India's First War of Independence was a major event in the history of modern India. The Parliament of the United Kingdom withdrew the right of the British East India Company to rule India in November 1858. The United Kingdom started ruling India directly through its representative called the Viceroy of India(earlier governor-general of India). It made India a part of the British Empire. They promised "the Princes, Chiefs, and People of India," equal treatment under the British law.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The British sent Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal Emperor, out of India, and kept him in Rangoon (now called Yangon in Burmese), Burma where he died in 1862. The Mughal dynasty, which had ruled India for about four hundred years, ended with his death.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The British also took many steps to employ Indian higher castes and rulers into the government. They stopped taking the lands of the remaining princes and rulers of India. They stopped interference in religious matters. They started employing Indians in the civil services but at lower levels. They increased the number of British soldiers, and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The period following India's First War of Independence was an important period in the Indian independence movement. Many leaders emerged at the national and provincial levels, and the Indians became more aware of their rights. Social movements also helped in shaping people's outlook, tried for social changes, and tried to remove bad social practices and evils like illiteracy and caste system. During this period, many social and religious leaders worked to inspire the Indian society. They included men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna , Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji. They spread the message of self-confidence, removing of social evils, and making India free from domination of foreign power. Lokmanya Tilak was one such leader who was not very modest in his views. The British arrested him. In the court he declared: "Swaraj (independence) is my birthright". This concept of Swaraj later became a main policy and philosophy of India's independence movement in the following decades until India became independent.


title: Indian independence movement

text: In 1885, at the suggestion of Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay. They founded the Indian National Congress. The delegates represented educated Indians in professions such as law, teaching, and journalism. A few years before, Dadabhai Naoroji had already formed the East India Association. It merged with the Indian National Congress to form a bigger party.


title: Indian independence movement

text: To begin with, the Indian National Congress was not a very active political party. It met annually and gave some suggestions to the rulers of the British Raj. The suggestions generally related to civil rights and opportunities for Indians in the government jobs. Despite its claim to represent all Indians, it represented only the educated and higher class of the society. But, it failed to attract all Muslims. Many Muslims had become distrustful of Hindu reformers who raised their voice against matters like religious conversion and killing of cows for their meat. For Hindus, the cow is a sacred animal not to be killed. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a separate movement for Muslims, and founded in 1875 a college in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh state, India. Later, this college became Aligarh University in 1921. The objective of the college was to give modern education to India's Muslims. By 1900, the Indian National Congress had become a national party, but did not represent all groups of Indian society, particularly the Muslims.


title: Indian independence movement

text: In 1905, Lord Curzon (George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston), the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899-1905) of India divided Bengal province into two provinces: Eastern Bengal & Assam, with its capital at Dhaka, and West Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta (Kolkata). At that time Calcutta was the capital city of the British Raj. The people became very angry at that partition (division), and created the phrase "divide and rule" for the policy followed by the British Empire. The leading intellectual figures of India at that time expressed their unhappiness at this partition. For example, Rabindranath Tagore, the most famous Indian poet (originally from Bengal) composed a poem against this partition.


title: Indian independence movement

text: During the First World War, Indians gave support to the United Kingdom. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers went to many parts of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East to fight. Many Indians, including the princes and rich people of India, contributed money and materials to the war funds of the United Kingdom. However, many Indian soldiers died in foreign lands. In India, flu called Spanish flu spread like an epidemic killing many people. The tax rates increased in India, and prices also increased. The Indians became restless.


title: Indian independence movement

text: In August 1917, Edwin Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State for India, announced in the British Parliament about many steps to give more rights to Indians. A new law named the Government of India Act of 1919 gave many rights to the Indians in the provincial government. These rights related to farming, local government, health, education, and public works. The British administrators kept matters like taxation, finance, and law and order under their control.


title: Indian independence movement

text: In 1919 the British made a new law named the Rowlatt Act. Under this law, the government got many powers, including the ability to arrest people and keep them in prisons without a trial. They also obtained the power to stop newspapers from reporting and printing news. The people called this act the Black Act. Indians protested against this law in many places.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission, which had been appointed to investigate "seditious conspiracy." The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Black Act, vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work ("hartal") was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The agitation reached a peak in Amritsar (Punjab, India). In Amritsar, on 13th April 1919, about 10,000 Indians had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh. They had no idea of the law that they couldn't gather. The British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire at the civilians without any warning. The troops fired 1,650 times. Some historians estimate that the troops killed 379 and injured about 1,137 people. This incident came to be known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. With this killing of innocent people, the British lost the trust of the Indian people.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Congress forced Britishers to investigate massacre of jallianwala later, a tehkikat committee was made by congress.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi) had received his education at London. He was a barrister (lawyer). In 1893, he went to South Africa. After Gandhi was thrown off a train because he was a colored person sitting in a first-class seat, he took that emotion and used it to begin to fight the injustices that many people of color faced at the time. He became successful and the government of South Africa removed most of such rules and restrictions. Gandhi led the Salt March, an act of protest.


title: Indian independence movement

text: When Gandhi returned to India in 1915, few people knew him. Under the leadership of Gandhi, Indians began to use a different method to get freedom over the next few years.


title: Indian independence movement

text: In December 1929, the Indian National Congress Party agreed to start a movement for complete independence from British rule. The Party decided to start a movement named to disobey the British rule. It became the civil disobedience movement. They decided to observe 26th January 1930 as the complete Independence Day (this is the reason why India celebrate republic day on 26 January). Many other political parties and revolutionaries came together to support this movement.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Gandhi started this movement, leading 72 people on a 400 kilometer route from Ahmedabad to Dandi (both in the Indian state of Gujarat), on the coast of the Arabian Sea. There they made salt from the seawater and broke a law of British India prohibiting making salt without paying taxes, so this event is referred to as the Salt March. Thus the civil disobedience movement began, and it soon spread throughout India. Indians started to break unfair laws in a peaceful manner in protest against the British rule.The effect of civil disobedience movement in Kerala was at Payannur and Beypore.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Many Indians did not believe in such peaceful protests, claiming that the British would not give independence to Indians so easily. They believed in armed struggle was necessary to oust the British from India. In some way, this had continued for years after the partition of Bengal in 1905. Many revolutionaries and leaders emerged from time to time. Bhagat Singh was one of them.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The rulers of the British Raj made a new law to govern India, named the Government of India Act 1935. This law aimed at constitutional process to govern India. It had three major aims: to establish a federal system with many provinces, to give self-ruling position (autonomy) to the provinces, and to give the Muslim minority protection through giving them some separate electorates. In such separate electorates only Muslims could stand for elections. In February 1937, elections took place for the provincial assemblies. The members of the Indian National Congress won in five provinces, and held upper position in two more provinces. The Muslim League's performance in the election was not good.