title: Nurse

text: Nursing is a profession, like a doctor, but training for a nurse is different in how long a person must train and what kind of training they need. In some places, nurses may train for three to five years or more before they get a license as a nurse.


title: Nurse

text: Nurses work in many places. Nurses work in hospitals, in doctor's offices, and in the community, and they even visit people at home if they can not get out.


title: Nurse

text: Sometimes people decide to become nurses rather than doctors, because the nurses will be able to help patients directly, by talking to them, doing things they need, carefully watching that nothing goes wrong, and then seeing them as they get better.


title: Nurse

text: Like doctors, nurses can choose what work they do. Some nurses train and work to help during surgery. Some nurses train to help people understand health problems like nutrition (what to eat), and disease (what can make people sick). Nurses can do many different jobs to help people.


title: Nurse

text: Nurses are in demand because there are not enough nurses to handle hospital needs. Because of this shortage nurses will sometimes travel to another location to work for a few months in what is called travel nursing.


title: Nurse

text: Registered Nurse in some countries like U.S is a term for an officially registered nurse. In hospitals where nurses wear uniforms with caps, an R.N. is recognizable by the fact that the cap has two black stripes.


title: Nurse

text: Nursing in Australia is done by "Registered Nurses" or "Enrolled Nurses". Both must complete education past high school. An Enrolled Nurse must complete a course of study between 12 and 18 months. Registered Nurses need to complete a Bachelor's degree.


title: Nurse

text: Titles have changed because men as well as women can be nurses. It was, in most countries, a wholly female occupation. The titles were designed for females and have now been revised to be genderless. The exception to this is midwife, a term still used because it seems natural that a nurse helping a mother through childbirth should be a female. There are some males acting as midwives. The supervisory body for UK nursing is the Nursing and Midwifery Council.


title: Nurse

text: Some medical and surgical groups operate as teams. This means that senior surgeons always operate with the same group of people, so reducing the risk of mistakes, and allowing juniors to learn and understand the individual cases.


title: Nurse

text: Also, moving around as a team allows specialist groups to serve more than one hospital. This is particularly useful when the amount of work in a speciality does not permit having a full team on site in each hospital.


title: Netherlands

text: The Netherlands is a country that is part (of a constituent country) of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Most of it is in Western Europe, but there are also some parts in the Caribbean. More than 17 million people live there. To the north and west of the European part of the Netherlands is the North Sea, and to the east is Germany, and to the south is Belgium. The Netherlands is one of the countries that started the European Union. People who live in the Netherlands are called "Dutch". The language of the Netherlands is also called Dutch. The official capital of the Netherlands is Amsterdam. However, the government is in The Hague.


title: Netherlands

text: "The Netherlands" means "the low lands". The land only rises, on average, 1 meter above sea level. One third of the land is below sea level. The Netherlands is also - incorrectly - referred to as Holland. Holland is a very rich area (two provinces) in the western part of the Netherlands, thus causing people to be mistaken. Most people who do not live in the western part of the Netherlands do not like it when people call the country Holland. The name "Holland" originates from the old Dutch words "Holt land" which means "wood lands". Holt eventually changed into hout, the current dutch word for wood.


title: Netherlands

text: At the end of the Middle Ages the dukes of Burgundy, a country that is now part of France, united seventeen areas. Those areas were called the Netherlands. When the daughter of a duke married Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1477, the Netherlands became part of Spain. In the 16th century many Dutch people became Protestant. The king of Spain did not like it, he wanted all Dutch to be Roman Catholic. Of course the Dutch people did not like this, and after violent excesses by the Spanish they started a war against Spain in 1568, also for reasons of taxation. The war lasted until 1648, therefore it is called the Eighty Years' War. An important leader of the Dutch in this war was Willem van Oranje (William of Orange) also called William the Silent.


title: Netherlands

text: In 1648 the Netherlands and Spain signed peace. The Dutch people were allowed to keep all the areas they conquered. The part of the Netherlands that was not conquered by the Dutch stayed part of Spain. Later this part became the country Belgium.


title: Netherlands

text: When the Netherlands became independent, it was a very special country. That time almost all countries in Europe were ruled by a king, but the Netherlands was a republic. The Netherlands was made up of seven provinces, that were ruled by the big cities. The cities were ruled by the municipality which consisted of rich civilians. Together those provinces were ruled by a stadtholder, a very powerful man, but compared to the kings of other European countries he had much less power.


title: Netherlands

text: In the 17th century the Netherlands was the richest and one of the most powerful countries in the world. Therefore, the Dutch call the 17th century the Golden Age. Their Dutch Empire had colonies around the world. One important colony was the East Indies, which is now called Indonesia. They also had colonies in the Caribbean, like the other European empires. They also started New Netherland, which is now called New York. The Netherlands often fought wars against other European countries, especially the Anglo-Dutch Wars against England. Michiel de Ruyter, a Dutch admiral, became a Dutch hero when he defeated the English navy close to London.


title: Netherlands

text: In the 18th century the Netherlands became poorer. Many people blamed this on the government leaders, the stadtholders. Many thought they had too much power and wanted them to get away. In 1789 the French people deposed (got rid of) their king. French armies attacked other countries to depose their leaders too. In 1795 they attacked the Netherlands. Stadtholder William V had to flee to England. The Netherlands were renamed to Batavian Republic and became a democracy. But the French were not content (satisfied) with the Dutch ruler, so in 1806 the French emperor Napoleon made his brother Louis Bonaparte king of the Netherlands. Louis became popular in the Netherlands, but the emperor was again not content with him, so in 1810 the Netherlands became a part of France.


title: Netherlands

text: In 1815 Napoleon was defeated, and the Netherlands became independent again. The rulers of European countries thought it was a good idea to make the Netherlands stronger, to make them able to resist another French invasion. Therefore, Belgium and Luxembourg were added to the Netherlands. William I, the son of stadtholder William V, became king. Some Belgians disliked their Dutch king. In 1830 they revolted. William sent an army. He was much more powerful than the Belgians but after ten days the French sent an army to support them. In 1831 the Belgians chose their own king and Belgium became an independent country.


title: Netherlands

text: Some people again thought the Dutch king had too much power. They wanted to give him less power and vote for the government themselves. In 1848 there were violent revolts against the kings of many European countries. The Dutch king was afraid the same would happen in the Netherlands. Therefore, he allowed Johan Rudolf Thorbecke to write a constitution. From then on people were allowed to vote. At first only rich men were allowed to vote. From 1919 on all adults were allowed to vote.


title: Netherlands

text: In World War I, the Netherlands did not fight and were not invaded. The Dutch wanted to stay neutral in World War II as well, but in 1940 the country was invaded and occupied by Germany. Like in other countries they had occupied, the German authorities started to kill Jews. Anne Frank was a Jewish girl who lived in the Netherlands. Her family hid from the Nazis and she wrote a diary. She died in a Nazi concentration camp and her diary became famous.


title: Netherlands

text: In 1944 the American, Canadian, Polish and British armies liberated the south of the Netherlands from Nazi Occupation. They wanted to cross the Rhine river in Operation Market Garden to liberate the rest of the country, but they were defeated. It took until May 1945 before the entire country was liberated. During the five years of Nazi occupation, 250,000 people had died in the Netherlands.


title: Netherlands

text: Shortly after the war, Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch sent soldiers to fight in Indonesia. After other countries, including the United States, told the Dutch to leave Indonesia, they finally did so in 1949.


title: Netherlands

text: After the war the Netherlands became one of the richest countries in the world. In 2004 the United Nations said that the Netherlands was the 5th best country to live in.


title: Netherlands

text: The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. That means the country has a king, but the real power is in the hands of a parliament, chosen by the Dutch people. All Dutch people at least 18 years old or older are allowed to vote. The Dutch parliament consists of two chambers: the Second Chamber (Dutch: "Tweede Kamer", this is the House of Representatives, elected every four years), and the First Chamber (Dutch: "Eerste Kamer", this is the Senate, elected by provincial politicians every four years). After the Second Chamber elections, parties that have had a majority of the votes create a cabinet. The cabinet consists of a prime minister and several other ministers and deputy ministers. Current government is the liberal-Christian democratic Fourth Rutte cabinet, consisting of VVD, D66, CDA, and CU politicians. Prime Minister is Mark Rutte (VVD).


title: Netherlands

text: The latest general elections were held on March 17, 2021. Winners were liberal parties like VVD (also the biggest party), D66 (second biggest party) and Volt, and populist parties like FVD and JA21. Losers were left parties like SP and GL, Christian democratic party CDA, populist party PVV, and senior citizen party 50+.


title: Netherlands

text: The Netherlands is known for tolerance in politics. The Netherlands is the only country where soft drugs are not entirely considered illegal. Furthermore, the Netherlands is one of the few countries that allow same-sex marriages, euthanasia and prostitution to a certain extent.


title: Netherlands

text: These provinces are all located in the part of the Netherlands that is in Europe. The country also includes three special municipalities in the Caribbean: Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius. They are not part of any province, but together are known as the Caribbean Netherlands. The Netherlands (both the European part and the Caribbean Netherlands), together with Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten, also in the Caribbean, form a sovereign state called the Kingdom of the Netherlands.


title: Netherlands

text: When the Kingdom was formed in 1954, the territories in the Caribbean became part of the Netherlands Antilles. At that time it also included Suriname in South America, which became an independent country in 1975. Aruba left the Antilles in 1986, and Curaçao and Sint Maarten did the same in 2010. The rest of the islands then became the Caribbean Netherlands which is part of the Netherlands proper.


title: Netherlands

text: The Netherlands has 344 municipalities (2022) and also three special municipalities in the so-called Caribbean Netherlands.


title: Netherlands

text: Cities aren't actually a subdivision of the Netherlands. Cities are also municipalities or they make part of municipalities.


title: Netherlands

text: In fact a large part of the Netherlands (the province Flevoland) was created by the sand that came from the many rivers flowing through it. Notable Dutch rivers are the Rhine, the Maas, the IJssel and the Scelt. A large part of the Netherlands is below sea level. This is because the Dutch have made many lakes and parts of the sea dry, creating polders. Therefore, there is a saying "God created the earth, but the Dutch created the Netherlands." This makes the Netherlands very flat. In the very south-east of the Netherlands, in Limburg, there are some hills. Therefore, this region is a tourist-attraction for many Dutch people. The highest point in the European portion of the Netherlands, the Vaalserberg, is 323 metres above sea level. The highest point in both the Netherlands proper and the Kingdom of the Netherlands is Mount Scenery, on the Caribbean island of Saba, at 887 metres.


title: Netherlands

text: The Netherlands is a small flat country; about 300 kilometers from north to south, and about 170 kilometers from east to west. It has an oceanic climate ("Cfb" in the Köppen climate classification).


title: Netherlands

text: The Netherlands is a small country, but many people live there. It is one of the most densely populated countries of the world.


title: Netherlands

text: Most people in the Netherlands speak Dutch. In Friesland, about 200,000 people speak Frisian. Frisian is the language with the most similarities to English. Some Dutch people speak dialects. The Saxon dialects spoken in the northeastern part of the Netherlands are somewhat similar to Low German.


title: Netherlands

text: According to a survey done in 2006, 25% of the Dutch people are Christian and 3% believe in another organised religion, like Judaism, Islam or Hinduism. Twenty-six percent are 'unbounded spiritual' (have their own beliefs and are not tied to a religion). The other 44% are not religious.


title: Netherlands

text: Nederlandse Spoorwegen () or NS is the main passenger railway operator in the Netherlands. The rail infrastructure is maintained by network manager ProRail, which was split from NS in 2003. Freight services, formerly operated by NS Cargo, merged with the DB Schenker group in 2000.


title: Netherlands

text: NS runs 4,800 scheduled trains daily. In addition, NS provides international rail services from the Netherlands to other European destinations and carries out concessions on a number of foreign rail markets through its subsidiary Abellio such as Abellio Greater Anglia, Merseyrail and ScotRail.


title: Netherlands

text: Arriva is another passenger railway operator in the Netherlands. It is a subsidiary of the German company Deutsche Bahn. Their local headquarters is based at Heerenveen. They have been active since 1998.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was an Italian trader, explorer, and navigator. He was born in Genoa, Italy, in the year 1451. "Christopher Columbus" is the English version of Columbus's name. His real name in Spanish was Cristoforo Colombo.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: In 1492 Columbus landed on an island of the Bahamaa, the first European to do so. His initial goal was to find a quicker route to Asia from Europe. He is credited with the discovery of the New World because his voyage started the era of European colonialism in the Americas. This was an important moment in European history. While Leif Erikson was the first European to land on the soils of America it was not well documented and did not lead to the later contact between Europe and the New World. The effects was the bringing over of livestock, disease, crops and slaves.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: When the Spanish learned that Columbus had found a New World, many other people, called conquistadors, went there too. This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Columbus was not the first European person to have discovered America. At the time of his voyage, Europeans did not know that the Americas existed. However, Leif Erikson, around 1000 AD had landed in present-day Canada. This discovery had no impact on European history and was not well documented. Columbus discovered America in the sense that he was the first person to create repeated exploration and contact with the New World. Another point is that Native Americans had been living there for thousands of years before he arrived. However, Native Americans did not record or contribute to the European record of history for obvious reasons. Columbus, therefore, "discovered" America in context of European history.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Many people in Western Europe wanted to find a shorter way to get to Asia. Columbus thought he could get to Asia by sailing west. He did not know about the Western Hemisphere, so he did not realize it would block him from getting to Asia.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: However, Columbus did not have enough money to pay for this voyage on his own. After defeating the Emirate of Granada, the rulers of Spain, Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile, agreed to pay for the voyage. He promised to bring back gold and spices for them.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: In August 1492, Columbus and his sailors left Spain in three ships: the "Santa María" (the Holy Mary), the "Pinta" (the Painted), and the "Santa Clara" (nicknamed the "Niña": the Little Girl).


title: Christopher Columbus

text: The three ships were very small. Historians think that the largest ship, the "Santa María", was only about long, and about 16 to 19 feet (4.8 to 5.8 metres) wide.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: On October 12, 1492, after sailing for about four months, Columbus landed on a small island in the Bahamas. The natives called it Guanahani; Columbus renamed it San Salvador ("Holy Savior"). He met Arawek and Taíno Native Americans who lived on the island. They were friendly and peaceful towards Columbus and his crew. Not knowing where he was, and thinking that he had reached Asia, the "Indies," he called them "Indians." He claimed their land as Spain's.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Columbus then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola. On Hispaniola, Columbus built a fort. This was one of the first European military bases in the Western Hemisphere. He called it Navidad (Spanish for "Christmas"). He left thirty-nine crew members there, and ordered them to find and store the gold.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Columbus noticed that some of the Arawaks had gold earrings. He took some of them as prisoners and ordered them to lead him to the gold. However, they could not.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: On September 24, 1493, Columbus left Spain with enough ships, supplies, and men to invade and make Spanish colonies in the New World. He had 17 ships and 1,200 men. These men included soldiers and farmers. There were also priests, whose job was to convert the natives to Christianity.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: On this voyage, Columbus explored some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. He also sailed around most of Hispaniola and explored the sides of Jamaica and Cuba he had not seen on his first voyage.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Then he went back to the Navidad fort. He found the fort burned down. Eleven of the 37 soldiers Columbus left at the fort were buried there. The rest had disappeared. Historians think this happened because of disease and fights with the Arawak people.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: While Columbus was away from Navidad exploring Jamaica and Cuba, his soldiers stopped working on building a new fort and farms. They made the Arawaks give them food. They also stole things from the Arawaks and raped Arawak women. This made the Arawaks decide to fight back against the Spaniards. However, Spain had many weapons that the Arawaks had never seen, including steel swords, pikes, crossbows, dogs, and horses. This made it much easier for Spain to win fights against the Arawaks.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Columbus also took revenge against the Arawaks for killing his soldiers at Navidad. He made every native older than 14 give him a certain amount of gold every three months. If a person did not do this, Columbus's men would cut off their hands, and they would bleed to death. Columbus also led his soldiers to many different villages in Hispaniola to take them over and make them pay him gold also. If they could not pay the gold, people would be made into slaves or killed.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: There was not much gold on the parts of the island Columbus took over. To avoid getting their hands cut off, many Arawaks tried to run away from Columbus and his men. However, Columbus's soldiers used dogs to hunt them down and kill them. Bartolomé de las Casas said that the Spanish killed two out of every three native people in the area (though he may have been exaggerating).


title: Christopher Columbus

text: In February 1495, Columbus started the transatlantic slave trade. He and his soldiers captured about 1,500 Taíno. Only 500 could fit on Columbus's ships, so Columbus told his men they could take any of the rest as slaves. They took 600 and let 400 go. Of the 500 natives that Columbus shipped to Spain as slaves, about 200 died on the trip. Half of the rest were very sick when they arrived. This was the first time people had ever been shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Michele da Cuneo, a friend of Columbus's, helped capture natives as slaves. In a letter, da Cuneo later wrote that Columbus gave him a captured native woman to rape:


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Columbus went on another voyage in 1498. King John II of Portugal had said there was a continent to the south-west of the Cape Verde islands. On his third voyage, Columbus wanted to find this continent. Before the voyage, Queen Isabella reminded Columbus that he should treat all of the native people well and make them into Christians.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: On this voyage, Columbus sent three ships straight to the West Indies (the Caribbean). He led another three ships: first to two Portuguese islands, then to the Canary Islands, then Cape Verde. From Cape Verde, they sailed to the northern coast of South America and landed in Trinidad. He also explored part of South America and the islands now called Tobago and Grenada.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: On August 19, 1498, Columbus returned to Hispaniola. He found that many of the Spanish settlers there were unhappy. They thought there would be more gold in the New World. Some of them had rebelled while he was gone. Columbus had five of the rebellion's leaders hanged. He also tried to make the rest of the settlers happy by giving them land in Hispaniola. However, the settlers kept sending complaints to Spain. In 1499, Queen Isabella sent a man named Francisco de Bobadilla to Hispaniola. She gave him the power to do whatever he thought he should do. When he arrived in 1500, the first thing he did was to have Columbus arrested and sent back to Spain in chains.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: When he was trying to make Spanish settlers happy, Columbus started the "Encomienda" system in Hispaniola. Under this system, Columbus would give a piece of land in Hispaniola to an individual Spanish settler. Sometimes, he would give away a whole native village. Any natives that lived in that area had to work for that Spanish settler. Natives had lived on this land for centuries. Columbus was giving their land away, "and" then forcing them to work on that land.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: On August 23, 1500 Columbus was arrested in Hispañola, now called Santo Domingo, for cruelty to natives and Spaniards. He was sent to Spain in chains in October 1500. He was released on December 25, 1500, and taken to court. Columbus had important friends, and the King restored his freedom. He was not made governor again, but eventually he was allowed to lead another voyage.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Columbus's relatives said that Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy. Today, no historian can say for sure where Columbus was born. Most experts think the best evidence says he was born in Genoa. However, other historians think Columbus was born somewhere else, like Spain or Portugal. Some think he was originally a Jew who converted to Christianity.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: In 1477, Columbus married Felipa Moniz Perestrelo. She was from a semi-noble family with connections to sailing. She died around 1479 or 1480 while giving birth to their son, Diego.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: In 1485, while in Córdoba, Spain, Columbus met Beatriz Enríquez de Trasierra. They lived together for a while. They had one child named Fernando.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Columbus had a few different goals for his journeys to the New World. First, he believed he could find a shorter and easier route to Asia, which made things Europe did not. He believed he could find a shorter route to China. Other people had called this belief absurd. Columbus wanted to prove these people wrong.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: Second, Columbus wanted to find gold. Gold was the main kind of money used in Columbus's times. In his letter to Spain's King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Columbus wrote: “Gold is most excellent; gold is treasure, and [the person] who [has] it does all he wishes to in this world." This means that someone with gold can do anything he wants to do. Many historians believe that Columbus wanted to become a powerful person and in order to become powerful, he needed to find gold.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: When the Spanish learned about the New World, many conquistadors, or conquerors, went there. This led to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: The Spanish conquistadors first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico. They grabbed as much gold as they could. The Spanish also brought priests and forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: In the United States, Columbus Day is a holiday that celebrates Columbus's arrival in the New World on October 12, 1492.


title: Christopher Columbus

text: The World's Columbian Exposition, which happened in 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, was held to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus visiting the Americas.


title: Butterfly

text: A butterfly is a usually day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera. They are grouped together in the suborder Rhopalocera. Butterflies are closely related to moths, from which they evolved. The earliest discovered fossil moth dates to 200 million years ago.


title: Butterfly

text: The life of butterflies is closely connected to flowering plants, which their larvae (caterpillars) feed on, and their adults feed and lay their eggs on. They have a long-lasting history of co-evolution with flowering plants. Many of the details of plant anatomy are related to their pollinators, and vice versa. The other notable features of butterflies are their extraordinary range of colours and patterns, and their wings. These are discussed below.


title: Butterfly

text: Angiosperms (flowering plants) evolved in the Lower Cretaceous, but did not become common until the Upper Cretaceous. Butterflies were the last major group of insects to appear on the planet. They evolved from moths in the latest Cretaceous or the earliest Cainozoic. The earliest known butterfly fossils date to the mid Eocene epoch, between 40 and 50 million years ago.


title: Butterfly

text: Like moths, butterflies have four wings covered with tiny scales. When a butterfly is not flying, its wings are usually folded over its back. The wings are patterned and are often brightly coloured. There are many different kinds of butterflies. The males and females of each kind are often slightly different from each other. Butterfly watching is a popular hobby. Some people also keep collections of dead butterflies that they have caught.


title: Butterfly

text: Like all insects with complete metamorphosis, a butterfly's life goes through four distinct stages. It begins as an egg, which hatches into a larva (a caterpillar). After some time, the larva turns into a chrysalis. While it is in the chrysalis stage, it changes to become an adult butterfly. To complete the cycle, adults mate and the females lay the eggs.


title: Butterfly

text: Butterflies are any of the species belonging to the superfamilies Papilionoidea and Hedyloidea. Butterflies, along with the moths and the skippers, make up the insect order Lepidoptera. Butterflies are nearly worldwide in their distribution.


title: Butterfly

text: The main predators of butterflies are birds, just as the main predators of the crepuscular moths are bats. Also monkeys and tree-dwelling reptiles are predators, and some insects and spiders. All reptiles and monkeys have good colour vision, so that butterfly coloration works just as well on them as it does on birds.


title: Butterfly

text: The extraordinary colours and patterns on the wings and body can only be understood in terms of their function. Some of the most obvious functions of colour are:


title: Butterfly

text: The details vary from group to group, and from species to species. The caterpillars also have colours with similar functions. The poisonous substances which make some butterflies noxious to eat are got from the plants eaten by their caterpillars.


title: Butterfly

text: Like most insects, butterflies have three main body parts. These parts are the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The body is protected by the exoskeleton. The body is made up of sections, known as segments. In between the segments there are flexible areas that allow the butterfly to move. All three parts of the body are covered in very small scales. The scales give the butterfly its colour.


title: Butterfly

text: Butterflies have a very characteristic flying style. They usually do not fly in straight lines. Their style is well described by the children's version of their name: 'flutter-by'. The way they fly presumably makes them harder for birds to catch.


title: Butterfly

text: Some species are capable of strong, long flights (see monarch butterfly migration) and others never leave the woods they were born in. They can survive bird pecks on the wings. Late in the season damage to their wings can often be seen, though they continue flying quite well.


title: Butterfly

text: When they are alive, it is often difficult to see they have four wings. The wings on each side are linked by a row of little hooks. So in practice they fly as if they had one large wing on each side.


title: Butterfly

text: The eyes of a butterfly are large. Like other adult insects, the eye is made up of many small lenses or "optical units". these are compound eyes. Butterflies do not see as many colours as humans, but they can see ultraviolet light.


title: Butterfly

text: The mouth of an adult butterfly does not have jaws. It has a kind of mouth that sucks liquids. This mouth is made of two hollow tubes. The tubes are locked together in the middle. When the butterfly is not drinking, the tubes are coiled up. It can uncoil them when it wants to drink. Like all insects, the adult phase is about reproduction. The main eating phase is done by the larvae, which usually eat plant food.


title: Butterfly

text: The antennae of a butterfly are used for smell and balance. The antenna in most butterflies is clubbed at the end. In some butterflies (like the skippers), there is a hook at the end of the antenna, instead of a club.


title: Butterfly

text: The thorax is the second part of the body. It is made up of three segments. The legs and wings are connected to the thorax.


title: Butterfly

text: The legs of a butterfly are made for walking, holding onto things, and tasting. There are three pairs of legs. There are four main parts of the leg. They are the trochanter, the femur, the tibia, and the foot. At the end of each foot, there is a pair of claws. Butterflies in the family Nymphalidae have very short front legs. They keep there front legs close to their bodies. This makes it look like they only have two pairs of legs. In some species, there is a movable body part on the tibia that is used to clean the antennae.


title: Butterfly

text: A butterfly has two pairs of wings. Each wing has hollow tubes called veins. The colors and patterns of butterflies are made by tiny scales. The scales overlap each other. They are connected to the wing. If a butterfly is handled, the tiny scales may rub off.


title: Butterfly

text: The abdomen is the third part of the body. It is made up of ten segments. The abdomen is much softer than the head and the thorax. At the end of the abdomen are the reproductive organs. In the male, there is a pair of claspers. They are used to hold on to the female during mating. In the female, there is a tube to lay eggs (the ovipositor).


title: Butterfly

text: Butterflies go through complete metamorphosis. This means that there are four parts in a butterfly's life. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar (sometimes called the larva). The third part is the chrysalis (sometimes called the pupa). The fourth part is the adult (sometimes called the imago).


title: Butterfly

text: A female butterfly will lay her eggs on or near the food plant of the caterpillar (the food plant is the plant that the caterpillar feeds on). The female will choose a place to lay her eggs using smell, taste, touch, and sight. Most species will lay just one egg on the food plant. Others will lay groups of five to over 100 eggs on the food plant. Most species will lay their eggs on the leaves of the food plant. Others will lay them on the flowers, stems, bark, or fruit of the food plant.


title: Butterfly

text: The eggs come in many different shapes and colours. They may be round or oval, and flattened. In some species, the egg shell is ribbed. The most common colours in butterfly eggs are yellow and green. The eggs will turn dark just before hatching. Also, some butterflies take a day to come out of eggs, while others could take months.


title: Butterfly

text: Butterfly caterpillars can vary in size, colour, and shape. They may have spines, bristles, or soft body extensions. All caterpillars have 13 body segments. The first three segments make up the thorax. The thorax has three pairs of legs. These legs are called true legs. The other 10 segments make up the abdomen. The abdomen has five pairs of soft legs called prolegs. The prolegs have tiny hooks at the end of each of the foot. They are used to hold on to things. The hooks are called crochets.


title: Butterfly

text: A caterpillar's skin does not grow. As the caterpillar grows inside its skin, the skin becomes too tight. In order for the caterpillar to grow bigger, it sheds its too-tight skin. After the old skin is shed, there is a new, larger skin. This is known as moulting. A caterpillar will moult four to five times before turning into a pupa. Each stage between moults is called an "instar".


title: Butterfly

text: All caterpillars can make silk. The silk is made from the salivary glands. Silk starts out as a liquid in the salivary glands. The caterpillar draws out the silk into a small thread. The silk hardens as soon as it is exposed to the air. Caterpillars use silk to make nests or cocoons.


title: Butterfly

text: Most caterpillars feed on leaves of plants or trees. Most species of caterpillars will feed only on a small number of certain kinds of plants. If the caterpillar's food plant is not found, it may starve to death.


title: Butterfly

text: Some species of caterpillars (in the family Lycaenidae) are tended by ants. The caterpillars have special glands that make a sweet liquid called honeydew. The ants like the honeydew. In return for the honeydew, the ants protect the caterpillars from predators. The caterpillars also have special body parts that make sounds. The caterpillar will make sounds with the body parts and "call" the ants when the caterpillar is being attacked by predators. The ants hear the sounds and come to protect the caterpillar.


title: Butterfly

text: Caterpillars in the subfamily Miletinae eat insects in the order Hemiptera. This includes aphids, mealybugs, leafhoppers and treehoppers.


title: Butterfly

text: Caterpillars in the family Papilionidae have a special organ. This organ is called an osmeterium. It is a bad-smelling gland that is shaped like a snake's tongue. It is kept behind the inside of the head. When a predator tries to eat the caterpillar, the caterpillar releases the osmeterium. This usually scares the predators away.


title: Butterfly

text: The pupa (plural, pupae) is formed after the last moult. The caterpillar will find a special place to pupate (pupate means to turn into a pupa). The digestive tract is emptied. The caterpillar sheds its skin. The pupa is now exposed. The caterpillar's tissues are broken down and rebuilt into the butterfly's tissues.


title: Butterfly

text: The pupa cannot move. It is attached to an object by tiny hooks on the end of the abdomen. These hooks make up what is called the cremaster. There are many tiny holes on the pupa. They allow respiratory gases to move in and out of the pupa.


title: Butterfly

text: Many pupae are easy for predators to attack. Some caterpillars (in the family Hesperiidae and the subfamilies Parnassiinae and Satyrinae) make shelters out of silk and leaves to protect themselves when they become pupae. These shelters are called cocoons. Most butterfly pupae do not have cocoons to protect themselves. Instead, the pupae have brown or green colours to camouflage themselves among leaves and branches. Pupae that do not have cocoons are called chrysalids or chrysalises.


title: Butterfly

text: Some butterflies may be in trouble because of habitat loss. Because of the destruction of forests and grasslands, some types of butterflies have nowhere to feed and lay eggs. To help, some people plant a butterfly garden with flowers having lots of nectar for butterflies to feed on. Some people also keep plants that butterflies lay eggs on, and enjoy watching the caterpillars hatch out and feed on the plant. Chemical sprays that are used to keep pests away from garden plants, also kill butterflies.


title: Bird nest

text: A bird nest is a place where a bird lays its eggs. There are all kinds of nests, including cup nests, holes in the ground, and piles of twigs and leaves. The word can be used as a noun or a verb, as in – a bird "nests" in a "nest". They are in all kinds of sizes: some can be as big and heavy as a car, like an old eagle's nest, while some can be tiny as a thimble, like the nest of a Bee Hummingbird.


title: Bird nest

text: Usually, the female builds the nest, and the male helps her. In some species, though, the male does nothing, and in others, the male builds the nest and the female does nothing.


title: Bird nest

text: Many birds "glue" their nests together with materials like spider webs, silk, mud, and even their own saliva (spit). Most nest builders like to put soft things "inside" their nest. Some birds even put herbs and spices in their nest. Scientists think these herbs help fight off bacteria in a way they can't completely understand yet.


title: Bird nest

text: The "cup nest" is probably the most common bird nest. Its name tells you that a cup nest is shaped like a cup or bowl. Many songbirds built cup nests. These nests can be built in the branches of a tree, like in the crack where one branch joins another: however, some can simply stick the nest right onto the branch of a tree. They use lots of materials that act like sticky glue – mud, rotten wood, dung, spider webs, and caterpillar silk. They sometimes even use their own saliva mixed with food to keep the nest firmly stuck on the branch.


title: Bird nest

text: Cup nesters use all kinds of materials to build a nest: twigs (tiny branches), grass, leaves, moss; and they use all sorts of materials to keep it from falling apart. Most cup nesters use rough, scratchy material for the outside (this gives protection and camouflages the rest), and put soft, cozy material like moss, fur, feathers, and cotton on the inside.


title: Bird nest

text: Many cup nesters enjoy nesting very close to the ground in low bushes – sometimes they will even nest in potted plants on a porch. Some of them actually just build their nests on the ground. Sparrows, cardinals, and many other song birds (called "passerines"), like to nest near the ground, far away from owls, hawks, and Blue Jays that may eat their babies.


title: Bird nest

text: There are several types of cup nests. A suspended cup nest is attached to the branch at the top and sides but then drops like a bag down below. It really looks more like a vase than a cup. The bird is almost hidden when she warms her eggs. The mother bird can sit down on the branch above the nest and bend down to feed her baby birds. Orioles are very famous for building amazingly long bags that hang far below the branch.


title: Bird nest

text: The smallest cup nests are made by hummingbirds. They can be as tiny as a thimble, like the Bee Hummingbird's nest. That tiny nest holds eggs that are as tiny as peas. The "largest" cup nest is probably the stork's. His nest can be nine feet deep and six feet wide. The stork's nest is so big that smaller birds actually make nests in its cracks, holes, and branches.


title: Bird nest

text: "Adherent nests" adhere (stick) to buildings, trees, cliffs, or other vertical structures. Swallows can build an almost perfectly round nest out of mud. Some species make cup-shaped nests, while others make jug-like nests with little holes in the sides. They put little balls of mud in their mouth and mix it with their saliva, making a special clay. As it dries, it becomes hard.


title: Bird nest

text: Bird saliva is very good for making glue: in fact, some species of swiftlets make their whole nest out of simply saliva. The male regurgitates (throws up) a long, thin strand of saliva from glands under its tongue. This saliva is used to be made into a half-cup nest which sticks to a cave wall (swiftlets like to build their nests in caves and grottos) and dries quickly. This saliva nest is thought to be a delicacy (something "really" yummy to eat) in China, and it is very expensive. They put it into a soup called Bird's Nest Soup.


title: Bird nest

text: "Platform nests" are built mostly by raptors (birds that eat prey, like eagles and hawks). They are usually huge and very, very high up - on the sides of cliffs, maybe, or high up in a big tree. It takes months and months making these nests, adding branch by branch. They often return to the same nest year after year and continue to build it. It is because of this that platform nests get "so big": a Bald Eagle's nest, for example, can weigh as much as a ton (about the same weight as a small car). It is so heavy it can sometimes hurt the tree it is built in.


title: Bird nest

text: A few water birds (like grebes and loons) build platform nests right on the water, where they can float. The nests don't move, though, because they are anchored to plants that are attached to the bottom of the body of water. These birds build nests on water because they don't walk well on land, so they find a shallow (not deep) part of the water to build their nests. Then, they do not "walk" to their nests - they "swim" to it. When the babies are ready, they simply jump into the water and begin their aquatic (water) life.


title: Bird nest

text: "Earth-hole nests" are nests that are inside the earth. They are burrows (tunnels) on the ground or in the sides of cliffs. They like using abandoned rabbit holes, too. The Burrowing Owl only uses already dug holes for its nest.


title: Bird nest

text: Puffins, for instance, dig a tunnel that is usually two to three feet long. At the end they make a nest of feathers and grass and lay their eggs. They are able to do this because of their sharp bill and claws. A puffin can work for hours to make its tunnel. Kingfishers, too, dig or burrow their holes. They can burrow up to six feet into the side of a cliff and lay their eggs in that place.


title: Bird nest

text: Many birds nest right on the ground. After carving out a little hole, ground and mound nesters line the nest with grass or other materials. Geese even pick feathers from their breasts and make a nice downy bed for their eggs. Most ducks, geese, and quail like the ground for nesting. Penguins nest on the ground, too, pushing rocks around the nest to keep it from washing away with flood waters. Usually, males make ground nests.


title: Bird nest

text: The Trumpeter Swan makes a big mound nest, and flamingos make mounds, too. Flamingos make their mounds completely out of mud. They can be up to 18 inches high and 12 to 20 inches in width.


title: Bird nest

text: These nests are barely a nest at all – just a small depression in the ground or a pile of dead leaves to lay eggs on. These scrape-nesting birds usually have eggs that match the color of dead leaves or rocks. This is needed because these eggs are in danger of being eaten by animals like rats, raccoons, snakes, and others that eat eggs.


title: Bird nest

text: Many scrape nesters actually try to distract creatures that might be dangerous by pretending they have a broken wing. This makes a predator chase the mother bird, and leave the eggs.


title: Napoleon

text: Napoleon Bonaparte () was a French politician and army leader who ruled France from 1799 to 1814 and for a short period (the "Hundred Days") in 1815. He became Emperor of the French and King of Italy as Napoleon I. He had power over most of Europe at the height of his power, and his actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century.


title: Napoleon

text: Bonaparte was born in Corsica into a noble family in august on the 15th 1769. He learned the Corsican language first before learning French. He moved to mainland France and trained to become an army officer. He became an important army leader during the First French Republic, helping to stop the countries that wanted to end the French Revolution. In 1799, he overthrew the government and took control of France for himself (a "coup d'état"). At first his title was Consul. Five years later, he was made Emperor of France. In the first ten years of the nineteenth century, the French Empire under Napoleon waged the Napoleonic Wars. Every European great power joined in these wars. After a number of victories, France became very important in continental Europe. He increased his power by making many alliances. He also made other European countries into French client states by letting his friends and family members rule them.


title: Napoleon

text: The French invasion of Russia in 1812 became Napoleon's first big defeat. His army was badly damaged and never fully recovered. In 1813, another Coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig. The year after that, they attacked France and won. The Coalition exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba. Less than a year later, he escaped Elba and briefly returned to be the Emperor of France. However, he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon spent the last six years of his life exiled to the island of Saint Helena, which was controlled by the British, and died at the age of 51. A doctor said he died of stomach cancer. Some scientists think he was poisoned, though others disagree.


title: Napoleon

text: Napoleon is remembered as a brilliant army leader, and his campaigns are studied at military schools all over the world. People have many different views on whether he was a good or bad ruler. He brought many ideas of liberalism and the French Revolution to the countries he conquered, such as the Napoleonic code, freedom of religion and making education and government more modern. His enemies remembered him as a tyrant and some historians criticise him for causing many wars .


title: Napoleon

text: Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Casa Buonaparte in the town of Ajaccio, Corsica, on the 15th of August 1769. This was one year after the island was given to France by the Republic of Genoa. He was the second of eight children. He was named "Napoleone di Buonaparte". He took his first name from an uncle who had been killed fighting the French. However, he later used the more French-sounding "Napoléon Bonaparte".


title: Napoleon

text: The Corsican Buonapartes were from lower Italian nobility. They had come to Corsica in the 16th century. His father "Nobile" Carlo Buonaparte became Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1777. The greatest influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino. Her firm education controlled a wild child. He had an older brother, Joseph. He also had younger siblings Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jérôme. Napoleon was baptized as a Catholic just before his second birthday, on 21 July 1770 at Ajaccio Cathedral.


title: Napoleon

text: Napoleon was able to enter the military academy at Brienne in 1779. He was nine years old when he entered the academy. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and graduated a year later as a second lieutenant of artillery. Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight years in Corsica. There he played an active part in political and military matters. He came into conflict with the Corsican nationalist Pasquale Paoli, and his family was forced to flee to Marseille in 1793.


title: Napoleon

text: The French Revolution caused much fighting and disorder in France. At times, Napoleon was connected to those in power. Other times, he was in jail. In the French Revolutionary Wars he helped the Republic against royalists who supported the former king of France. In September 1793, he assumed command of an artillery brigade at the siege of Toulon, where royalist leaders had welcomed a British fleet and troops. The British were driven out on December 17, 1793, and Bonaparte was rewarded with promotion to brigadier general and assigned to the French army in Italy in February 1794.


title: Napoleon

text: General Napoleon Bonaparte was later appointed by the republic to repel the royalists on October 5, 1795 (13 Vendémiaire Year IV in French Republican Calendar). More than a 1400 royalists died and the rest fled. He had cleared the streets with "a whiff of grapeshot" according to the 19th-century historian Thomas Carlyle. He was then promoted to major general and marked his name on the French Revolution.


title: Napoleon

text: The defeat of the Royalist rebellions ended the threat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory. On March 9, 1796, Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais, a widow older than he was and a very unlikely wife to the future ruler.


title: Napoleon

text: The campaign in Italy is the first time Napoleon led France to war. Late in March 1796, Bonaparte began a series of operations to divide and defeat the Austrian and Sardinian armies in Italy. He defeated the Sardinians in April 21, bringing Savoy and Nice into France. Then, in a series of brilliant battles, he won Lombardy from the Austrians. Mantua, the last Lombard stronghold fell in February 1797.


title: Napoleon

text: In May 1798, General Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt. The French needed to threaten British India and the French Directory was concerned that Napoleon would take control of France. The French Army under Napoleon won an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Pyramids. Barely 300 French soldiers died, while thousands of Mamluks (an old power in the Middle East) were killed. But his army was weakened by bubonic plague and poor supplies because the Navy was defeated at the Battle of the Nile. The Egyptian campaign was a military failure but a cultural success. The Rosetta Stone was found by French engineer Captain Pierre-François Bouchard, and French scholar Jean-François Champollion was able to read the words in the stone. Napoleon went back to France because of a change in the French government. Some believe that Napoleon should not have left his soldiers in Egypt. Napoleon helped lead the Brumaire coup d'état of November 1799.


title: Napoleon

text: Bonaparte returned to Paris in October 1799. France's situation had been improved by a series of victories but the Republic was bankrupt, and the ineffective Directory was unpopular with the French population. He was approached by one of the Directors, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, for his support in a coup to overthrow the constitutional government. The leaders of the plot included his brother Lucien Bonaparte (the speaker of the Council of Five Hundred), Roger Ducos, another Director, Joseph Fouché, and Charles Maurice Talleyrand. Other deputies realised they faced an attempted coup. Faced with their protests, Bonaparte led troops to seize control and disperse them, which left a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sièyes, and Ducos as the three provisional Consuls to administer the government.


title: Napoleon

text: Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, but he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte. Napoleon drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII, and secured his own election as First Consul. This made Bonaparte the most powerful person in France, and he took up residence at the Tuileries.


title: Napoleon

text: In 1800, Napoleon ensured his power by crossing the Alps and defeating the Austrians at Marengo. He then negotiated a general European peace that established the Rhine River as the eastern border of France. He also concluded an agreement with the pope (the Concordat of 1801), which contributed to French domestic tranquility by ending the quarrel with the Roman Catholic Church that had arisen during the French Revolution.


title: Napoleon

text: In France the administration was reorganized, the court system was simplified, and all schools were put under centralized control. French law was standardized in the Napoleonic Code, or civil code, and six other codes. They guaranteed the rights and liberties won in the Revolution, including equality before the law and freedom of religion.


title: Napoleon

text: In February 1804, a British-financial plot against Bonaparte was uncovered by the former police minister Joseph Fouche. It gave Napoleon a reason to start a hereditary dynasty. On December 2, 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself "Emperor of the French". The people of France did not see him as the monarch of the old regime because of his holding a Roman Empire title. He invited Pope Pius VII to see his coronation at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. During the ceremony, Napoleon I took the crown from the pope's hand and placed it on his own head. This had been agreed on between Napoleon and the Pope. At Milan Cathedral on May 26 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.


title: Napoleon

text: To restore prosperity, Napoleon modernized finance. He regulated the economy to control prices, encouraged new industry, and built roads and canals. To ensure well-trained officials and military officers, he promoted a system of public schools under firm government control. He also repealed some social reforms of the revolution. He made peace with the Catholic Church in the Concordat of 1801. The Concordat kept the Church under state control but recognized religious freedom for Catholics.


title: Napoleon

text: Napoleon I won support across class lines. He encouraged the émigré population to return, provided they gave an oath of loyalty. Peasants were relieved when he recognized their right to lands they had bought during the revolution. Napoleon's chief opposition came from royalists and republicans.


title: Napoleon

text: Among Napoleon's most lasting reforms was a new law code, popularly called the Napoleonic Code. It embodied Enlightenment principles such as equality of all citizens before the law, religious toleration, and advancement based on virtue. But the Napoleonic Code undid some reforms of the French Revolution. Women, for example, lost most of their newly gained rights under the new code. The law considered women minors who could not exercise the rights of citizenship. Male heads of households regained full authority over their wives and children. Again, Napoleon valued order and authority over individual rights.


title: Napoleon

text: Emperor Napoleon abandoned plans to invade England and turned his armies against the Austro-Russian forces, defeating them at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. In 1806 Napoleon destroyed the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstädt and the Russian army at Friedland. He crowned his elder brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Naples and Sicily in 1806 and converted the Dutch Republic into the kingdom of Holland for his brother Louis. Napoleon also established the Confederation of the Rhine (most of the German states) of which he was protector.


title: Napoleon

text: To legitimize his rule, he divorced his wife Joséphine and married Marie Louise, duchess of Parma and daughter of the Emperor Francis I of Austria. Soon she delivered a son and heir to the Bonaparte Dynasty. He was named Napoléon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte or Napoleon II and crowned King of Rome from his birth.


title: Napoleon

text: At Tilsit in July 1807, Napoleon made an ally of Russian tsar Alexander Romanov and greatly reduced the size of Prussia. He also added new states to the empire: the kingdom of Westphalia, under his youngest brother Jerome, the duchy of Warsaw, and other states.


title: Napoleon

text: The Congress of Erfurt sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance and the leaders had a friendly personal relationship after their first meeting at Tilsit in 1807. However, on June 23, 1812, Napoleon went to war with Russia. The French invasion of Russia defeated many Russian cities and villages, but by the time they reached Moscow it was winter. Due to the Russian army's scorched earth tactics, the French found little food for themselves and their horses. Napoleon's army was unable to defeat the Russians. The Russians began to attack. Napoleon and his army had to go back to France. The French suffered greatly in during Napoleon's retreat. Most of his soldiers never returned to France. His army was reduced to 70,000 soldiers and 40,000 stragglers, against more than three times as many Allied troops. Finally at the 1813 Battle of the Nations he was defeated by the Allies: Sweden, Russia, Austria, and Prussia.


title: Napoleon

text: Napoleon had no choice but to abdicate in favor of his son. However, the Allies refused to accept this. Napoleon abdicated without conditions on April 11, 1814. Before his official abdication, Napoleon attempted suicide with a pill but it did not work. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau the victors exiled him to Elba, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediterranean. The Allies allowed Napoleon to keep an imperial title "Emperor of Elba" and an allowance of 2 million francs a year. Napoleon even requested a 21 gun salute as emperor of the island of Elba. Many delegates feared that Elba was too close to Europe to keep such a dangerous force.


title: Napoleon

text: Separated from his son and wife, who had come under Austrian control, cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic Ocean, Napoleon escaped from Elba on February 26 1815. He made a surprise march on March 1, 1815 to Paris. His former troops joined him and Louis XVIII fled to exile. He again became ruler of France for a length of 100 days. Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the British under Duke of Wellington and Prussians on June 18 1815, which was his last battle. Napoleon was again captured and taken to his second exile on the island of Saint Helena on the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Napoleon

text: Napoleon was sent to the island of Saint Helena, off the coast of Africa. He died on May 5 1821 of stomach cancer. Napoleon kept himself up to date of the events through The Times and hoped for release in the event that Holland became Prime Minister. There were other plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity including one from Texas, where exiled soldiers from the Grande Armée wanted a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. There was even a plan to rescue him with a primitive submarine. For Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. The news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood also appealed to more domestic British sensibilities.


title: Napoleon

text: French people remain proud of Napoleon's glory days. The Napoleonic Code reflects the modern French Constitution. Weapons and other kinds of military technology remained largely static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th century operational mobility underwent significant change. Napoleon's biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare. His popularity would later help his nephew Louis-Napoléon to become ruler of France more than 30 years later.


title: Napoleon

text: On the world stage, Napoleon's conquest spread the ideas of the revolution. He failed to make Europe into a French Empire. Instead, he sparked nationalist feeling across Europe. He was also known as “The Leader Of France”.


title: Napoleon

text: Historians have many different views on Napoleon. Some historians say that he caused wars that killed many people in Europe, and therefore he was a bad ruler. Vincent Cronin disagrees with the view, saying that most of the Napoleonic Wars were started by Napoleon's enemies. Others argue that Napoleon made the mistake of trying to conquer too much land and that if he had stopped in 1808, his enemies might have left him alone. Other historians have said that he was a good ruler. They usually focus on the changes he brought to France and the countries he conquered. Andrew Roberts lists the greatest ideas that Napoleon brought to France and other countries as the Napoleonic code, freedom of religion, better civil services, better education, more equality, support for science and art and others.


title: Renaissance man

text: The term Renaissance man or polymath is used for a very clever man who is good at many different things. It is named after the Renaissance period of history (from the 14th century to the 16th or 17th century in Europe). Two of the best-known people from this time were Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Leonardo was a famous painter but he was also a scientist, philosopher, engineer, and mathematician. Michelangelo was an extraordinary sculptor, painter, architect and poet. They are known as two of the highest examples of what a Renaissance man is.


title: Renaissance man

text: But the term "Renaissance man" is also often used for extraordinary people not from the Renaissance period. It can be used for anyone who is very clever at many different things, no matter when that person lived. Albert Schweitzer was a 20th century "Renaissance man" who was a theologian, musician, philosopher and doctor. Benjamin Franklin was a "Renaissance man" who lived in the 18th century and was an author and printer, politician, scientist, inventor and soldier.


title: Renaissance man

text: () was the original concept of the Renaissance man. It was an ideal of the Italian Renaissance. One example is the saying by Leone Battista Alberti that "a man can do all things if he will". Many Renaissance men from this time are still famous today:


title: Software

text: Computer software, also called software, is a set of instructions and documentation that tells a computer what to do or how to perform a task. Software includes all different programs on a computer, such as applications and the operating system. Applications are programs that are designed to perform a specific operation, such as a game or a word processor. The operating system (e.g. Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, Android and various Linux distributions) is a type of software that is used as a platform for running the applications, and controls all user interface tools including display and the keyboard.


title: Software

text: The word software was first used in the late 1960s to emphasize on its difference from computer hardware, which can be physically observed by the user. Software is a set of instructions that the computer follows. Before compact discs (CDs) or development of the Internet age, software was used on various computer data storage media tools like paper punch cards, magnetic discs or magnetic tapes.


title: Software

text: The word firmware is sometimes used to describe a style of software that is made specifically for a particular type of computer or an electronic device and is usually stored on a Flash memory or ROM chip in the computer. Firmware usually refers to a piece of software that directly controls a piece of hardware. The firmware for a CD drive or the firmware for a modem are examples of firmware implementation.


title: Software

text: Today, software has become an important part of our lives. software is used everywhere. software engineers are responsible for producing fault-free software which has literally become an essential part of our daily lives. Changeability and conformity are two of the main properties of software design. There are also different processing models for designing software including Build and Fix, Waterfall and Agile software processing design methods.


title: Software

text: The different types of software can be put into categories based on common function, type, or field of use. There are three broad classifications:


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: Ram Nath Kovind (born 1 October 1945) is an Indian politician. Kovind became the 14th President of India upon winning the 2017 presidential election in July 2017. He was the second president to have been a Dalit leader and member of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). He was Governor of Bihar from 2015 to 2017. He served as Member of Parliament from 1994 through 2006. Ram Nath Kovind is also prez candidate of NDA.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: In June 2017, he won the nomination of the Bharatiya Janata Party for President of India in the 2017 Indian presidential election. After winning the nomination, he resigned from his post as Governor of Bihar, and President of India Pranab Mukherjee accepted his resignation on 20 June 2017. According to polling after voting was closed on 17 July 2017, Kovind was expected to win the presidency with a voting outcome of 99%. Kovind was declared as the winner after the counting of votes held on 20 July 2017.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: Kovind was born into a scheduled caste (Koli community), (Hindu Family), in Parakh Kanpur, Dehat District, Uttar Pradesh, india, to maiikulal kori and kalawati.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: His father Maikulal Kori was a local vadiya, who operated a grocery store. His mother was Kalawati who died at a very young age of Kovind,


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: Kovind grew up in humble circumstances in a small agrarian village where his father farmed and ran a small grocery store. His mother died when he was a young child. After earning degrees in commerce and law from Kanpur University, he moved to Delhi in order to take the civil services examination. Although he passed, Kovind chose to begin practicing law and was admitted to the bar in 1971.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: He joined the Bharatiya Janata Party in 1991. He was President of the BJP Dalit Morcha between 1998 and 2002 and President of the All-India Koli Samaj. He also served as national spokesperson of the party. He donated his ancestral home in Derapur to the RSS. He contested from Ghatampur and Bhognipur (both in UP) assembly constituencies on the BJP ticket but lost both elections.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: He was elected and became a Rajya Sabha MP from the state of Uttar Pradesh in April 1994. He served a total of twelve years, two consecutive terms, until March 2006. As a member of parliament, he visited Thailand, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Germany, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom and the United States on study tours.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: On 8 August 2015, the President of India appointed Kovind as Governor of Bihar. On 16 August 2015, the acting Chief Justice of Patna High Court, Iqbal Ahmad Ansari, administered the oath to Kovind as the 36th Governor of Bihar.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: As Governor, he was praised for constituting a judicial commission to investigate irregularities in promotion of undeserving teachers, mis-management of funds and appointment of undeserving candidates in universities.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: Kovind resigned as Governor on 20 June 2017 to peruse his campaign for President of India in the 2017 presidential election.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: Kovind was nominated for the President of India for the Bharatiya Janata Party in June 2017 which led to his resignation as Governor of Bihar. His opponent was former Lok Sabha Speaker Meira Kumar for the Indian National Congress.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: After voting ended on 17 July 2017. Kovind was declared as the winner after the counting of votes held on 20 July 2017.


title: Ram Nath Kovind

text: Kovind secured roughly two-thirds of the votes from the electoral college of elected members of federal, state and union territory legislatures and was elected to a five-year term as President.


title: Roman numerals

text: Roman numerals are a numeral system that was used by ancient Rome. Numbers in this system use letters from the Latin alphabet. Currently, it uses seven symbols:


title: Roman numerals

text: The Europeans still used Roman numerals even after the fall of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century, the Europeans replaced Roman numerals with Arabic numerals. However, people still use Roman numerals to this day.


title: Roman numerals

text: One place in which they are sometimes seen is on clock faces (the front of a clock). For example, on the clock of Big Ben, the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:


title: Roman numerals

text: The and can be read as "one less than 5" (4) and "one less than 10" (9). On many clocks that use Roman numerals, however, 4 is written as .


title: Roman numerals

text: Instead of writing the same letter four times, a rule for subtraction is used. The letter is written once, then the next largest Roman numeral is written. When a lower number (such as ) appears before a higher one (such as ), the lower number is subtracted from the higher one. For example, 4 is not written as , but instead as , because is (5) minus (1). The same is done for 9 - it is not written as , but instead as , because is (10) minus (1).


title: Roman numerals

text: It is very easy to write a number as a Roman numeral. Simply subtract the largest possible Roman numeral as many times as possible from the number. This system will result in a valid Roman numeral, but will not take the subtraction rule into account.


title: Roman numerals

text: In general, the values for 5, 50, and 500 are not subtracted. Here is the same number using the subtraction rule:


title: Roman numerals

text: The number zero does not have its own Roman numeral. At about 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the abbreviation (short form) of "nihil" (the Latin word for "nothing").


title: Roman numerals

text: The Romans also used fractions. The most common base for fractions was 1/12, which in Latin is called "uncia" (ounce).


title: Roman numerals

text: A number of numeral systems are developed for large numbers that cannot be shown with , , , , , and .


title: Roman numerals

text: One of the systems is the "apostrophus", in which D is written as IƆ (500) and M is written as CIƆ (1,000). In this system, an extra Ɔ means 500, and multiple extra Ɔs are used to mean 5,000, 50,000 etc.


title: Roman numerals

text: Another system is the "vinculum", in which V, X, L, C, D and M are multiplied by 1,000 by adding an overline.


title: Planet

text: A planet is a large object such as Venus or Earth that orbits a star. Planets are smaller than stars, and they do not make light. Jupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System.


title: Planet

text: Planets are shaped like a slightly squashed ball (called a spheroid). Objects that orbit planets are called satellites. A star and everything which orbits it are called a star system.


title: Planet

text: There are eight planets in the Solar System. Pluto used to be called a planet, but in August 2006, the International Astronomical Union decided it was a dwarf planet instead. There are four more known dwarf planets in the Solar System, Ceres, Makemake, Eris and Haumea.


title: Planet

text: The name "planet" is from the Greek word "πλανήτης" ("planetes"), meaning "wanderers", or "things that move". Until the 1990s, people only knew the planets in the Solar System.


title: Planet

text: 4,905 extrasolar planets (exoplanets) have been discovered in 3,629 planetary systems (January 2022 data). The count includes 808 multi-planetary systems. Known exoplanets range in size from gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter down to just over the size of the Moon. About 100 of these planets are roughly the size as Earth. Nine of these orbit in the habitable zone of their star.


title: Planet

text: The planets are made of elements that are very different from the Sun (which is mostly hydrogen). The Sun is mostly made up of hydrogen, with some helium. Its energy comes from converting hydrogen to helium. In contrast, the planets are mostly made up of larger atoms and molecules which "could not have come from the Sun". The materials of planets must have come from another source or sources. Those sources were atoms made in earlier supernovae explosions near the Sun's path as it moved through its part of the Milky Way. The material captured by the Sun's gravity formed the planets. The same thing happened in other planetary systems in the galaxy.


title: Planet

text: The gas giants are made up of hydrogen gas like the Sun, plus (at their centres) metallic elements like the terrestrial planets.


title: Planet

text: The planets in the Solar System have names of Greek or Roman gods, except for Earth, because people did not think Earth was a planet in old times. However, Earth is occasionally referred by the name of a Roman god: "Terra". Other languages, for example Chinese, use different names. Moons also have names of gods and people from classical mythology. The names of the moons of Uranus are from the plays written by Shakespeare.


title: Planet

text: There are planets, and smaller objects that also go around the Sun. Some examples of smaller objects are asteroids, comets, and trans-Neptunian objects.


title: Argentina

text: Argentina (officially the Argentine Republic) is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world.


title: Argentina

text: Spanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia.


title: Argentina

text: In eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, Tucumán, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, and Bahía Blanca.


title: Argentina

text: Argentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: "Islas Malvinas") and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe. They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality.


title: Argentina

text: The name Argentina comes from the Latin "argentum" (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order).


title: Argentina

text: The oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the Guaraní developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef.


title: Argentina

text: Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent.


title: Argentina

text: Argentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by José de San Martín in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the "infamous decade" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s.


title: Argentina

text: In 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was Jorge Rafael Videla. Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980.


title: Argentina

text: One of his successors was another general turned dictator, Leopoldo Galtieri. By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War. Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually democracy was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with "crimes against humanity" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president.


title: Argentina

text: In the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in Latin America, though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the "southern cone" of South America and a member of the G20 developing nations.


title: Argentina

text: Argentina is a federal republic. The people of Argentina vote for a President to rule them and Senators and Deputies to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is Alberto Fernández since December 2019.


title: Argentina

text: Argentina is divided into 23 provinces ("provincias"; singular: "provincia"), and 1 city (commonly known as "capital federal"):


title: Argentina

text: Argentina is almost 3,700 km long from north to south, and 1,400 km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the Pampas in the central part of the country, Patagonia in the southern part down to Tierra del Fuego; and the Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point in the province of Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the Americas' highest mountain.


title: Argentina

text: The most important rivers include the River Plate, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the Paraná. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team.


title: Argentina

text: The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy, Germany, Ireland, France, other Europeans countries and Mestizo representing more than 90% of the total population of the country. More than 300,000 Roma gypsies live in Argentina. Since the 1990s, Romanian, Brazilian and Colombian gypsies arrived in Argentina.


title: Argentina

text: Football or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is Pato. Argentina has a number of highly ranked Polo players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites.


title: Argentina

text: Argentina is a Christian country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well.


title: Argentina

text: Medicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well.


title: Mammal

text: The class Mammalia (from Latin , 'breast') are a group of vertebrate animals. They have fur or hair and a very precise kind of temperature regulation.


title: Mammal

text: With the exception of the monotremes, all mammals bear live young. Unlike other vertebrates, they are the only animals that produce milk for the young through their mammary glands. Parental care of the young is universal among mammals, sometimes for extended periods.


title: Mammal

text: Mammals became the dominant land animals after non-bird dinosaurs were eliminated. Recent work helped to explain their success: epigenetics seems to have started in early mammals.


title: Mammal

text: Most marsupial and eutherian mammals have a reproductive cycle known as the oestrous cycle (U.S: estrous cycle). Females are sexually active only during the oestrous stage, when they are 'on heat' for a few days each month. If an ovum is not fertilized, the endometrium (uterus lining) is resorbed. Oestrus cycles may occur once or twice a year, or many times a year. Each group of mammals has its own frequency.


title: Mammal

text: Humans and primates, are quite different. They have a menstrual cycle. In this case, females are sexually receptive at any time, but only fertile when an ovum is released from an ovary. In this case, the endometrium (if not needed for an fertilised egg) is discarded. The endometrium is shed, and takes with it a certain amount of blood. In this system, eggs are released from the ovaries mostly in the middle of the cycle, away from the menstrual period. This ovulation is 'concealed', meaning, it is not obvious when it occurs. This process, so it is thought, tends to keep the male and female together, which is unusual in mammals with the oestrous cycle.


title: Mammal

text: One diagnostic feature of mammals is the lower jaw. Unlike earlier forms, it is a single bone, the dentary. This is one feature which can be seen in fossils, or at least those which are complete enough to have the lower jaw. Another diagnostic feature is the ear ossicles. Mammals have three little bones in their inner ear. These ear ossicles are bones which were, long ago, part of the lower jaw in early proto-mammals.


title: Mammal

text: There are quite a number of other features in the skull and limbs, so that it is usually possible to identify and describe a mammal from its skeleton alone, or even a partial skeleton.


title: Mammal

text: Another diagnostic feature is the neocortex of the brain, which no other vertebrate has. This is involved in the kind of flexible behavior and learning typical of mammals. Reptiles and birds have much of their behavior controlled by "inherited behavior chains", which roughly translates as "instincts". Almost all animals can do some learning, but mammals do far more than other vertebrates. Their behavior is much more flexible than lizards, for example, and that is made possible by their neocortex.


title: Mammal

text: Other things in the life of mammals seem to be connected with this flexibility and learning. Play is a kind of early learning period in which, according to one theory, mammals develop skills which they will need in life. All mammalian young play, and this is very obvious in the more intelligent mammals (primates, cats).


title: Mammal

text: The emotions of mammals are very noticeable, and rather similar to ours. It is possible, and quite common, for humans to have a friendly relationship with another mammal. It is quite impossible for a human to have any kind of relationship with a snake or a gecko (for example). This is because the reptile simply does not have the same basic emotions as a human.


title: Mammal

text: There are about 50 characters which are typical of mammals: some of the most important are discussed above. A few more examples will make it clear that mammals are very different from reptiles and birds:


title: Mammal

text: In the language of cladistics, the 50 unique characters are apomorphies which prove that mammals are a clade descended from a common ancestor.


title: Mammal

text: The vast majority of mammal species give birth to live young, these are the placental mammals, most of which are classified as Eutheria and a small number are classified as marsupials.


title: Mammal

text: There are only five species (the monotreme mammals) that lay eggs, the duck-billed platypus "Ornithorhynchus", and four species of spiny anteater "Echidna". The monotremes are confined to Australia and New Guinea, and are the sole survivors of an earlier group of mammals.


title: Mammal

text: By number of species, mammals (with 5488 species), are not the most successful vertebrates. Birds, with about 10,000 species have nearly twice as many, and reptiles have just as many as birds. Fish have even more species. There are 27,000 species of fish, of which nearly 26,000 are bony fish.


title: Mammal

text: Despite this, many zoologists do regard mammals as a successful group of animals. One reason is that they are successful in all habitats on Earth. In the air, in the water, in forests, in the colder regions of the world, and above all on grasslands, where they are outstandingly successful.


title: Mammal

text: In the air, the bats (Chiroptera) are the mammalian order with the most species. They 'own' the nighttime, since birds are largely diurnal (daytime) animals. Bats are hugely successful, mostly as nighttime predators of insects.


title: Mammal

text: Seagoing mammals, the Cetacea and the pinnipeds, are very successful and significant predators. This includes the whales, seals, walrus, dolphins and others.


title: Mammal

text: The terrestrial mammals are fewer in number of species than lizards, but they are huge in individual numbers, and far more important in the life of the terrestrial biomes. Their ability to move from place to place and adapt has made them a most effective group. Many mammals live in cold places. These mammals have thick hair or blubber to keep them warm. Others may live in rainforests. On land the rodents (rats, mice) are hugely successful, more common in numbers than any other mammals. Large mammals on land have been hunted to extinction in some parts of the world, but the ones which remain are now better protected.


title: Mammal

text: Last, but certainly not least, are the primates. Their natural habitat, with few exceptions, are the forests. Most live in the trees, with hands that grasp, good colour vision, and intelligence. In the Pliocene period some moved out onto the savannas as grassland replaced forests. Mankind is the result of this shift into the savannas.


title: Mammal

text: This sort of classification is not traditional, but it does reflect our knowledge of palaeontology and evolution.


title: Mammal

text: A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks. It is based on living animals. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al. 2000.


title: Mammal

text: Because two quite different dates are given in the taxobox, an explanation is needed. Rowe defines mammals as "the taxon originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant (living) Monotremata and Theria". That puts the emphasis heavily on living mammals, where, as Rowe points out, the database of characters is extensive.


title: Mammal

text: Kemp explains the problem with that approach: "If the definition of a mammal is based rigorously upon possession of all the characters of living mammals, then some fossil forms that are extremely mammalian in anatomy... are excluded".


title: Mammal

text: "An altogether different perspective on defining Mammalia is based on traditional palaeobiological practice. An arbitrary decision is made about which characters to select as defining characters... Characters deemed appropriate are those reflecting the... fundamental mammalian biology. The essence of mammalian life is to be found in their endothermic temperature physiology, greatly enlarged brain, dentition capable of chewing food, highly agile, energetic locomotion, and so on. The organisms that achieved this grade of overall organisation are deemed to be Mammalia... Around the end of the Triassic period, about 205 mya, a number of fossils are found of very small animals that have [most] of the skeletal characters of modern mammals".


title: Golf

text: Golf is a game played in an open field where the golfer plays his golf ball into a hole by using different types of clubs (golf instruments). The book "Rules of Golf" reads "The Game of Golf consists in playing a ball from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules."


title: Golf

text: In golf, a golfer plays a number of holes in a given order. 18 holes played in an order controlled by the golf course design, normally make up a game. On a nine-hole course, two nine-hole rounds make up a normal game.


title: Golf

text: Each hole starts from the teeing area. Golfers put the ball on a small stand called a tee and swing a club at it to try and hit it as straight and far as possible. Once each golfer in the group has done this, the person whose ball landed farthest from the hole hits his again, followed by everyone else, one person at a time, until everyone is on the green. The green is the area near the hole where the grass is cut very short.


title: Golf

text: Once on the green the players will try to "putt" the ball into the hole. Putting is similar to a regular swing except it is not as hard and the player does not want the ball to go in the air. Once each player has put their ball into the hole, the group moves on to the next hole.


title: Golf

text: Each time a player swings at his ball, it is considered a "stroke". Each hole is a certain number of strokes that golfers are expected to need to get their ball into the hole. This is known as the "par". If a player gets his ball in the hole in less than the par he gets a "birdie". If it takes him one more shot then the par it is known as a bogey. Most holes have a par between 3 and 5.


title: Golf

text: The two common forms of playing golf are match play and stroke play. In match play, two golfers (or two teams) play holes one at a time. The golfer with the lower number of strokes (number of times the golfer used to get his ball in the hole) wins that hole. If the two have the same number of strokes, the hole is "halved" (drawn). The golfer that has the greatest number of holes wins. In "stroke play", the golfer (or team) with the smallest number of strokes all together wins. There are different forms of these rules, some given in the "Rules of Golf" making them "official".


title: Golf

text: The four different types of clubs used in golf are woods, irons, putters and wedges. Woods are used to hit the ball very far, usually off the tee (but also on the fairway). The name of woods is different every number, for example, No.1 wood is called "driver", No.2 is "brassey", No.3 is "spoon" and so on. There are many types of irons, which can be used to hit varying distances. They are numbered 1-9 with a 1 iron hitting the ball farther than a 9. The 1 iron is no longer common in the game. Even the 2 iron is getting uncommon. Putters are used when on the green. The rules do not let the golfer use over 14 clubs in a game.


title: Golf

text: Golfers call the four (or five) biggest tournaments in professional golf "majors", and they play them at nearly the same time every year. The four majors are:


title: Nationalism

text: Nationalism is the idea of promoting the interests of a particular nation. Mostly it includes interests of masses for the sovereignty of their own country or homeland. Nationalists think that the best way to make this happen and avoid control or oppression by others is for each group to have their own nation. Some nationalists think this is the best way to save small and weak groups threatened by the mixing of ethnic groups. The other definition of nationalism is the 'identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations. Nationalism may refer to a state of the mind in respect of socio political phenomenon arising from its consciousness shared by people (national) of a particular country or territory.


title: Nationalism

text: Many early socialists were also nationalists. The earliest forms of nationalism had lots of socialist features. In this period, political thinkers who thought that ethnic groups should not be oppressed by other ethnic groups thought also that 'normal folk', the backbone of society, like workers and peasants, should not be oppressed by higher social classes like rich people. They also thought that it is wrong for somebody to live in great welfare that is made of the hard work of others, or the oppression of others. The ideology is that the social classes should work together and have a common goal that aims for the good of everyone. These goals can be called "national interest".


title: Nationalism

text: National interest is ideal and not always easy to find. There are different ways to reach national interest, for example politics.


title: Nationalism

text: Nationalists started to support normal people, especially peasants, who were seen as uncorrupted, gallant, and fair, unlike high classes. For example, normal folks often had more original and local ethnic culture than the high classes, whose culture was seen more rootless. National Romanticism was based much on the ideal of uncorrupt folk.


title: Nationalism

text: Socialism and nationalism grew together. But they have also been placed in opposition in some theories. The most known opposition between these ideologies was with the Soviet Union. The Soviet propaganda made nationalism an insult word that was linked with opposed ideologies like capitalism, liberalism, imperialism or fascism. Still, even in the Soviet Union and other communist or socialist countries, there was nationalism in great measure (even if it was not called with that name).


title: Nationalism

text: The most capitalist countries like United States were patriotic rather than nationalist. The Nordic countries, which were among the most pure nation-states (countries that follow nationalist principle), were not very capitalist or rightist; they were built on the social democratic idea, which is left. Only after Nordic countries became more multicultural did their politics become more rightist.


title: Nationalism

text: Today nationalism does not have a common stand on those fields of politics that are outside of its basic goals, like left-right politics. However nationalism can be a part of bigger political ideology or agenda that can be leftist or rightist or something outside that classification.


title: Nationalism

text: Nationalism is still usually connected to goals that resist strong hierarchy between social class different people in society. Nationalist people are usually more or less against the strongest forms of capitalism, which they think gives too much power to rich people and big companies.


title: Nationalism

text: Nationalism had an important role in ending the colonial rule. Nationalism spread to colonies and made their people desire independence. Nationalism also made the people in metropolitan states (countries that colonized others) accept more the desire of other people to rule themselves. However nationalists think that the end of colonization of Africa was not done well. They think that there would not be so many conflicts in Africa if African nations had built in a nationalist way (so that every ethnic group is its own nation).


title: Nationalism

text: After the imperialists left their African colonies, the new nations were built with borders that were not the same as the ethnic borders. New nations became nations with many ethnic groups, which do not want to or cannot live peacefully in the same society with the others.


title: Fish

text: Fish (plural: fish or fishes) are a group of animals with bones which live in water and respire (get oxygen) from their gills.


title: Fish

text: Fish used to be a class of vertebrates. Now the term covers five classes of animals that live in the water:


title: Fish

text: There are more fish than four-limbed animals: there are over 33,000 described species of fish. Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm).


title: Fish

text: There are many different kinds of fish. They live in fresh water in lakes and rivers, and in salt water in the oceans. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the whale shark, which can be almost 15 meters long and weigh 15 tons. Almost all fish live in the water. A group of fish called the lungfish have developed lungs because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They burrow into mud and aestivate until the water returns.


title: Fish

text: The English word "fish" does not fit neatly into cladistics, which is the scientific way to put living things into groups. So scientists call it a paraphyletic word. This means that the animals called "fish" in English do not fit into just one phylum. Some fish are more closely related to land animals than they are to other fish. For example, lobe-finned fish were the first animals with bones to come live on land, and all land animals are their descendants. Lobe-finned fish are more closely related to humans than to ray-finned fish.