title: Oscar Wilde

text: This response was, however, counterproductive in a legal sense as it only served to reinforce the charges of homosexual behaviour. The trial ended with the jury unable to reach a verdict. Wilde's counsel, Sir Edward Clark, was finally able to agree bail. The Reverend Stewart Headlam put up most of the £5,000 bail, having disagreed with Wilde's treatment by the press and the courts. Wilde was freed from Holloway and, shunning attention, went into hiding at the house of Ernest and Ada Leverson, two of his firm friends. Edward Carson approached Frank Lockwood (QC) and asked "Can we not let up on the fellow now?" Lockwood answered that he would like to do so, but feared that the case had become too politicised to be dropped.


title: Oscar Wilde

text: At the final trial, Wilde and Alfred Taylor were convicted of gross indecency and sentenced to two years' hard labour. The judge described the sentence as "totally inadequate for a case such as this", although it was the maximum sentence allowed for the charge under the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885. Wilde's response "And I? May I say nothing, my Lord?" was drowned out in cries of "Shame" in the courtroom.


title: Edward VII

text: Edward VII (9 November 1841 – 6 May 1910) was the king of the United Kingdom from 1901 to 1910, which is called the Edwardian period. He was the first British monarch whose royal house was called the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. (King Edward's son, George V, changed the name to Windsor in 1917 and this name is in use today.)


title: Edward VII

text: Edward was born Albert Edward and was the oldest son of Queen Victoria and her husband, Prince Albert. He was Prince of Wales and heir apparent for longer than any other person up until that time. His mother was queen for 63 years and Edward was 59 years old when he became king. In his younger years as Prince of Wales, he was known as a playboy and popularized many trends in fashion. He married Alexandra of Denmark, but he had many mistresses.


title: Edward VII

text: Edward VII was the father of George V and grandfather of Edward VIII and George VI. He is also the great-grandfather of the late queen, Elizabeth II and great great grandfather to Charles III. There are a number of statues of Edward VII around the British Isles and Commonwealth realms.


title: Edward VII

text: Edward was given a grand state funeral with the largest gathering of royalty taken place anywhere in the 20th century. It included Wilhelm II, the "Kaiser" of the German Empire (who would later be at war with Britain) and Nicholas II, the "Tsar" of the Russian Empire, as well as many others. For the first time in royal history, Edward lay in state for the people to pay their last respects, a reflection of his immense popularity.


title: Edward VII

text: Edward was king for only nine years but made a lasting impression. He became increasingly popular with his people and was credited as a peacemaker for his work in maintaining world stability at a time when war seemed to be looming. He died at the age of 68 in 1910. Four years later, the peace he worked so hard to keep was broken with the start of World War I (1914–1918).


title: Electrical outlet

text: An electrical outlet or receptacle, frequently called a wall outlet, is a socket that connects an electrical device to an electricity supply. In buildings, electrical outlets are usually installed in the wall, although they can also be installed in the floor. Occasionally, they are found in the ceiling for powering devices such as garage door openers or neon signs in storefront windows. Different countries often have different outlet types and voltages. Adapters are available to convert between the different types.


title: Drawing

text: Drawing is a way of making a picture. Drawings are created by making lines on a surface. Long lines make up the shapes and small lines make the textures. Drawings can be images of real-life or abstract images.


title: Drawing

text: Drawing paper is a special material sometimes used for drawing, however many just use paper. Pencils or pens are most commonly used for drawing. However, chalk, charcoal, and many others writing utensils are used.


title: Admiral

text: Admiral is the highest rank in a navy. The term is used internationally by many countries. It derives originally from the Arabic word "emīr" (= commander), and came to English by way of Old French and Latin.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: In mathematics (particularly in differential calculus), the derivative is a way to show instantaneous rate of change: that is, the amount by which a function is changing at one given point. For functions that act on the real numbers, it is the slope of the tangent line at a point on a graph. The derivative is often written as formula_1 ("dy over dx" or "dy upon dx", meaning the difference in y divided by the difference in x). The "d" is not a variable, and therefore cannot be cancelled out. Another common notation is formula_2—the derivative of function formula_3 at point formula_4, usually read as "formula_3 prime of formula_4".


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: The derivative of y with respect to x is defined as the change in y over the change in x, as the distance between formula_7 and formula_8 becomes infinitely small (infinitesimal). In mathematical terms,


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: That is, as the distance between the two x points (h) becomes closer to zero, the slope of the line between them comes closer to resembling a tangent line.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: Derivatives of linear functions (functions of the form formula_10 with no quadratic or higher terms) are constant. That is, the derivative in one spot on the graph will remain the same on another.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: When the dependent variable formula_11 directly takes formula_4's value (formula_13), the slope of the line is 1 in all places, so formula_14 regardless of where the position is.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: When formula_11 modifies formula_4's number by adding or subtracting a constant value, the slope is still 1, because the change in formula_4 and formula_11 do not change if the graph is shifted up or down. That is, the slope is still 1 throughout the entire graph and its derivative is also 1.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: Power functions (in the form of formula_19) behave differently from linear functions, because their exponent and slope vary.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: Power functions, in general, follow the rule that formula_20. That is, if we give "a" the number 6, then formula_21


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: Another example, which is less obvious, is the function formula_22. This is essentially the same, because 1/x can be simplified to use exponents:


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: An exponential function is of the form formula_28, where formula_29 and formula_30 are constants and formula_31 is a function of formula_4. The difference between an exponential and a polynomial is that in a polynomial formula_4 is raised to some power, whereas in an exponential formula_34 is in the power.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: The logarithm of 5 is a constant, so its derivative is 0. The derivative of formula_45 is formula_46. So,


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: The cosine function is the derivative of the sine function, while the derivative of cosine is negative sine (provided that x is measured in radians):


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: Derivatives can be broken up into smaller parts where they are manageable (as they have only one of the above function characteristics). For example, formula_53 can be broken up as:


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: A function's derivative can be used to search for the maxima and minima of the function, by searching for places where its slope is zero.


title: Derivative (mathematics)

text: Derivatives are used in Newton's method, which helps one find the zeros (roots) of a function..One can also use derivatives to determine the concavity of a function, and whether the function is increasing or decreasing.


title: Finnish language

text: Finnish () is a Uralic language. It is one of the two official languages of Finland. It is also an official minority language in Sweden. Finnish is one of the four national languages of Europe that is not an Indo-European language. The other two are Estonian and Hungarian, which are also Uralic languages, and Basque.


title: Finnish language

text: The Finnish grammar and most Finnish words are very different from those in other European languages, because Finnish is not an Indo-European language. The two other national languages that are Uralic languages as Finnish are Estonian and Hungarian. Estonians and Finns usually may understand each other, but their languages are very different. Even though Finnish and Hungarian are related languages, they do not look or sound similar. The Finnish and Hungarian languages separated a long time ago, and each language developed its own vocabulary. People who can speak Finnish cannot understand Hungarian without extra study, and Hungarians cannot understand Finnish. However, there are some basic words that are very similar, for example: 'hand' (Finnish 'käsi' vs. Hungarian 'kéz') 'to go' (Finnish 'mennä' vs. Hungarian 'menni'), 'fish' (Finnish 'kala' vs. Hungarian 'hal').


title: Finnish language

text: Finnish is a synthetic and an agglutinative language. This means that words in Finnish have a stem called "body", and other parts inside them which make up the meaning. Finnish is similar in this respect to the Japanese language, Turkish language, and Latin language. In Finnish, there are 17 cases/word types (sanatyypit). You can think of a "case" as an ending added to a word that helps describe its purpose in the sentence. Verbs have 5 tempora (present tense, past tense, perfect, pluperfect and future tense). In addition, verbs have two participle (active and passive) cases. Gerunds, which are nouns made from verbs (for example: reading - to read) also exist in Finnish (lukeminen - lukea), are abundant in Finnish.


title: Finnish language

text: Finnish is a complex, self-morphing language. It has been ranked as a highly difficult language for native speakers of English by the U.S. Department of State. The difficulty is due not only to the grammatical structure of the language, but also pronunciation and intonation as compared to English.


title: Finnish language

text: Finnish is pronounced the way it is spelled. The pronunciation of some letters is similar to English. However:


title: Finnish language

text: English speakers often exhale when saying letters like "k", "p", and "t". They don't do this in Finnish, and to "swallow the sound", as the old saying goes, takes a lot of practice.


title: Game theory

text: Game theory is the study of how and why people make decisions. (Specifically, it is "the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers".) It helps people understand parts of science and politics. An alternative term suggested "as a more descriptive name for the discipline" is interactive decision theory.


title: Game theory

text: In the Cold War period, the strategic decisions of the United States and the Soviet Union were sometimes viewed as an exercise in game theory. In that case the "players" being studied were the United States and the Soviet Union.


title: Game theory

text: Game theory is not just about games, but how and why businesses make decisions, and just about any decision based on valuing likely outcomes. In game theory, all of these situations are "games" since the people involved make choices based on how they value the possible outcomes of the choices. This is true even of cases where the decisions of a single person only affect that one person.


title: Game theory

text: One example is the prisoner's dilemma. It gives an example where co-operation may not be the "best choice" in game theory.


title: Game theory

text: Suppose two people are arrested for a crime, and the police are uncertain which person committed the crime, and which person abetted the crime. Each is given a choice: If each remains silent, they are both soon released. If one betrays the other, the betrayer goes free, and the other is imprisoned for a long time. If each betrays the other, they both are held for a shorter time.


title: Game theory

text: If you are a prisoner in this situation and you only care about yourself, the way to get the smallest sentence is to betray the other prisoner. No matter what, you get a shorter sentence when you betray than when you do not. Imagine a situation where you are one of the prisoners, if the other prisoner stays silent and does not betray, then betraying means you do not go to jail at all instead of going to jail for 6 months. If the other prisoner betrays, then betraying lets you go to jail for 2 years instead of 10 years. In short, "betrayal" is the best strategy, and is called the "dominant strategy."


title: Game theory

text: The prisoner's dilemma does not have same result if some of the details are different. If the prisoners (or countries) can talk with each other and plan for the future, they might both decide to cooperate (not betray) because they hope that will make the other country help them in the future. In game theory, this is called a "repeated game." If the players are altruistic (if they care about each other), they might be okay with going to jail so they can help the other person.


title: Game theory

text: Game theory has also been used in philosophy. Responding to two papers by W.V.O. Quine from 1960 and 1967, used game theory to develop a philosophical account of convention {norm}. With this, he provided the first analysis of common knowledge and used it to analyze play in coordination games. In addition, he first suggested that it is possible to understand meaning in terms of signaling games. This suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis. Edna Ullmann-Margalit (1977) and Bicchieri (2006) developed theories of social norms. They define them as Nash equilibria which arise from transforming a mixed-motive game into a coordination game.


title: Game theory

text: Game theory has also challenged philosophers to think in terms of interactive Epistemology: what it means for a collective to have common beliefs or knowledge, and what are the consequences of this knowledge for the social outcomes resulting from agents' interactions. Philosophers who have worked in this area include Bicchieri (1989, 1993), Skyrms (1990), and Stalnaker (1999).


title: Game theory

text: Using the ethics part of philosophy pursues Thomas Hobbes' project of deriving morality from self-interest. Since games like the Prisoner's dilemma present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important part of this project. This general strategy is a component of the general Social contract view in Political philosophy (for examples, see and ).


title: Game theory

text: Other authors have attempted to use evolutionary game theory to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors. These authors look at several games including the prisoner's dilemma, Stag hunt, and the Nash bargaining game as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality (see, e.g., and ).


title: 5 (number)

text: The number five is a number that comes after four and before the number six. In Roman numerals, it is V.


title: 5 (number)

text: Five is the third prime number, after two and three, and before seven. The number five is also an odd number.


title: 5 (number)

text: It is not known for certain who and how the shape of the number five was created, but most people think it was made by the Brahmin Indians.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943) was fought during the Second World War between Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler and the Soviet Union led by Joseph Stalin . They were fighting for control of the city of Stalingrad. Germany got support from Italy,Hungary,Croatia and Romania . The battle was fought between 23 August 1942 and 2 February 1943. It was one of the most important battles of the war because it marked the end of Germany's advances. Hitler even blamed his defeat partly on Stalingrad. The Battle of Stalingrad has often been recorded as an example of how brutal a war can be. It is reported that, due to limited supplies, soldiers and civilians had to resort to eating rats, mice, and even cannibalism.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Stalingrad, now Volgograd, was a city on the Volga River. It was an important industrial city, and the Volga was an important transport route. Hitler also wanted to capture Stalingrad because it was named after Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, thus it would embarrass him.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In June 1942, Adolf Hitler launched an attack in southern Russia. By the end of July the German army had reached Stalingrad. With bombs and fire the German Luftwaffe turned the city into ruins. However, the rubble made hiding places from which Russian snipers could attack the Germans. Hitler and Stalin sent in large numbers of soldiers. They both ordered that anyone who retreated would be shot on the spot for treason.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched an attack which surrounded the Stalingrad area. Hitler ordered the army to stay there. The German air force tried to supply them by air. By February 1943, the German forces in Stalingrad had no ammunition and food. Rather than freeze, they surrendered, knowing the Soviets were usually cruel to their prisoners.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The battle lasted five months, one week, and three days. 1.6 million people dead or wounded in battle were reported. There were more Russian deaths than German, but it was a victory for the Russians. They had killed so many Germans that Hitler's overall plan to conquer the Soviet Union, started with Operation Barbarossa, was seriously weakened. Also, the Germans failed to get control of Russian oil fields.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: About one quarter of the German Sixth Army's soldiers were Eastern European volunteers called HIWIs. The Battle of Stalingrad was the largest and deadliest battle in the history of warfare.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: By the spring of 1942, the German Operation Barbarossa did not defeat the Soviet Union. The war was still going well for the Germans: the U-boat offensive in the Atlantic had been very successful and Rommel had just captured Tobruk.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In the east, they had captured land including Leningrad in the north and Rostov-on-Don in the south. There were a number of places where Soviet attacks had pushed the Germans back (to the northwest of Moscow and south of Kharkov) but this did not threaten the Germans. Hitler was confident that he could beat the Red Army after the winter of 1941. Even though Army Group Centre had heavy losses near Moscow the previous winter, 65% of its infantry had not fought and had been rested and given new equipment. Army Groups North and South had also not had a hard time over the winter. Stalin was expecting German summer attacks to again be directed against Moscow.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Germans decided that their summer campaign in 1942 would be directed at the southern parts of the Soviet Union. The Germans wanted to destroy Stalingrad's industries. The Germans also wanted to block the Volga River. The river was a route between the Caspian Sea and northern Russia. Capturing the river would make it hard for the Soviets to use the river to transport goods.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The German operations were initially very successful. On July 23, 1942, Hitler changed the goals for the 1942 attack. He made occupying Stalingrad one of the goals. The city was important, because it was named after Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union. The Germans thought that if they captured Stalingrad, it would help the northern and western parts of the German armies to attack Baku. The Germans wanted to capture Baku because it had a lot of oil.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Soviets were aware of the German plan to attack. The Soviets ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to fight.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On the 23 of August the 6th Army reached the edge of Stalingrad. They were following the 62nd and 64th Armies, which had gone back into the city. Kleist later said after the war:


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Soviets had enough warning of the German attack to move all the city's grain, cattle, and railway cars across the Volga. But most civilian residents stayed in the city. The city lacked food even before the German attack. The "Luftwaffe" air attacks made the Soviets unable to use the River Volga to bring supplies into the city. Between 25 and 31 July, 32 Soviet ships were sunk in the River Volga.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by "Luftflotte 4". A 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped. Much of the city turned to rubble. Some factories continued to produce goods.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Stalin moved troops to the east bank of the Volga. All the regular ferries were destroyed by the Luftwaffe. The Luftwaffe also attacked troop barges. Many civilians were moved out of the city across the Volga. Stalin prevented most civilians from leaving the city because he thought that this would make the Soviet armies fight harder. Civilians, including women and children, were told to dig trenches. Massive German bombing on 23 August caused a firestorm. It killed thousands and turned Stalingrad into rubble and ruins. Between 23 and 26 August, 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded from the bombing.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Soviet Air Force, the "Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily" (VVS), was destroyed by the Luftwaffe. The Soviets lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 August. They brought in another 100 aircraft in August. The Soviets continued to bring new planes into Stalingrad in late September, but they were destroyed by the Germans.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The city was briefly defended by the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment, an all-women's regiment that was actually able to halt an entire German division due to their massive firepower. The Germans eventually swarmed and killed them, but were shocked to discover that this whole time they were being held back by young women that seemed fresh out of high school. In the battle, the NKVD organized "Workers' militias" who were often sent into battle without rifles.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: By the end of August, Army Group South (B) had reached the Volga. By 1 September, the Soviets could only supply their forces in Stalingrad by crossing the Volga under constant bombing by artillery and aircraft.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 5 September, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized an attack against XIV Panzer Corps. The "Luftwaffe" helped stop the attack by attacking Soviet artillery and soldiers. The Soviets had to pull back. Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had sent into battle, 30 were lost to air attack.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Soviets were always being attacked by the "Luftwaffe". On 18 September, the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army attacked VIII Army Corps . "VIII. Fliegerkorps" sent Stuka dive-bombers to prevent the Soviets from advancing. The Soviet attack was stopped. The Stukas destroyed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks that were destroyed that morning. German Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In the wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, which included the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, used houses and factories to hide in.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Fighting in city was very violent. Stalin's Order No. 227 of 27 July 1942 decreed that all commanders who retreated without being told to do so would have to go to a military tribunal. "Not a step back!" was the slogan. The Germans attacking Stalingrad had many dead and wounded.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: After three months of slow advance, the Wermacht finally reached the river banks. The Germans captured 90% of the ruined city and split the Soviet forces into two parts. Ice on the Volga river made it impossible for the Soviets to bring in supplies by boat.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: German troops were not ready for fighting during the winter of 1942. The Stavka did a number of attacks between November 19, 1942 and February 2, 1943. These operations started the Winter Campaign of 1942-1943 (19 November 1942 – 3 March 1943), which involved 15 armies.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In autumn, the Soviet generals Georgy Zhukov and Aleksandr Vasilevsky gathered their soldiers in the north and south of the city. The northern side was defended by Hungarian, and Romanian troops. The Don river had never been defended well by the German side. The Soviet plan was to attack and surround the German forces in the Stalingrad region.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 19 November 1942, the Red Army launched Operation Uranus. The attacking Soviet units under the command of Gen. Nikolay Vatutin consisted of three armies. This included a total of 18 infantry divisions, eight tank brigades, two motorized brigades, six cavalry divisions and one anti-tank brigade. The Soviets pushed past the Romanian Third Army. The response by the "Wehrmacht" was disorganized. Bad weather prevented air attacks against the Soviets.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 20 November, a second Soviet offensive (two armies) was launched to the south of Stalingrad against the Romanian 4th Army Corps. The Romanians were overrun by large numbers of tanks. The Soviet forces moved west and made a ring around Stalingrad.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: About 265,000 German, Romanian, Italian soldiers, the 369th (Croatian) Reinforced Infantry Regiment, and other troops including 40,000 Soviet volunteers fighting for the Germans. were surrounded. There were 210,000 Germans on 19 November 1942. There were also around 10,000 Soviet civilians and several thousand Soviet soldiers the Germans had taken captive during the battle. Not all of the 6th Army was trapped; 50,000 were not surrounded. Of the 210,000 Germans surrounded, 10,000 remained to fight, 105,000 surrendered, 35,000 left by air and the remaining 60,000 died.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Red Army formed two defensive groups. Field Marshal Erich von Manstein told Hitler not to order the 6th Army to break out. Manstein thought that he could break through the Soviet troops and free the 6th Army. After 1945, Manstein says he told Hitler that the 6th Army must break out. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg said that Manstein lied.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Manstein was told to attack Stalingrad in Operation Winter Storm ("Unternehmen Wintergewitter"). He thought that this attack could work if the 6th Army was supplied through the air.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Adolf Hitler had said on 30 September 1942 that the German army would never leave the city. At a meeting shortly after the Soviets formed a ring around the Germans, the German army chiefs wanted to try to escape to the west of the Don. Hitler thought that the Luftwaffe could supply the 6th Army with an "air bridge". This would allow the Germans in the city to fight while a new force was assembled. A similar plan had been used a year earlier at the Demyansk Pocket.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The director of "Luftflotte" 4, Wolfram von Richthofen, tried to get this decision stopped. The forces under 6th Army were almost twice as large as a regular German army unit, plus there was also a corps of the 4th Panzer Army trapped in the city. The maximum they could deliver a day was far less than the minimum needed.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: To add to the limited number of Junkers Ju 52 planes the Germans used other planes like the Heinkel He 177 . General Richthofen told Manstein on 27 November that the Luftwaffe could not supply 300 tons a day by air. Manstein now saw the problems of a supply by air. The next day he made a report which said that the supply by air would be impossible. He said the Sixth Army should try to escape. He said that giving up Stalingrad would be a difficult loss, but that it would keep the Sixth Army intact. Hitler said that the Sixth Army would have to stay at Stalingrad and that the air force would supply it until the Germans could attack the Soviets.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The "Luftwaffe" was able to deliver an average of of supplies per day. The most successful day, 19 December, delivered of supplies in 154 flights. In the early parts of the operation, more fuel was shipped than food and ammunition because the Germans thought they could escape from the city. Transport airplanes also flew out sick or wounded men from the city. The German attack did not reach the 6th Army. The air supply operation continued. The 6th Army slowly starved. 160 German transport aircraft were destroyed and 328 were heavily damaged. Some 266 Junkers Ju 52s were destroyed.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Soviet forces grouped together around Stalingrad. Violent fighting to attack the Germans began. Operation Winter Storm ("Operation Wintergewitter"), the German attempt to rescue the trapped army from the south, was at first successful. By 19 December, the German Army had pushed to within 48 km (30 mi) of Sixth Army's positions. Some German officers asked Paulus go against Hitler's orders and try to escape out of the Stalingrad. Paulus refused. On 23 December, Manstein's forces had to defend themselves from new Soviet attacks.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 16 December, the Soviets launched Operation Little Saturn. It attempted to make a hole through the Axis army (mainly Italians) on the Don and capture Rostov. The Germans set up a defence of small units. 15 Soviet divisions—supported by at least 100 tanks—attacked the Italian Cosseria and Ravenna Divisions. The Soviets never got close to Rostov because of the Italian defence.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The German attempt to break through to Stalingrad was stopped and Army Group A was told to come back from the Caucasus.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The 6th Army could no longer hope to escape. The 6th Army did not have enough fuel. As well, the German soldiers have found it very hard to break through the Soviet lines on foot in the cold winter conditions.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Germans retreated from the suburbs of Stalingrad to the city itself. The loss of the two airfields, at Pitomnik on 16 January 1943 and Gumrak on the night of 21/22 January, meant an end to air supplies and to the flying out the wounded. The third and last runway was at the Stalingradskaja flight school, which had the last landings and takeoffs on the night of 22–23 January. After that, there were no landings except for air drops of ammunition and food.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition. They continued to fight because they thought the Soviets would execute any Germans who surrendered. A Soviet group (Major Aleksandr Smyslov, Captain Nikolay Dyatlenko and a trumpeter) carried an offer to Paulus: if he surrendered within 24 hours, he would receive a guarantee of safety for all prisoners, medical care for the sick and wounded, prisoners allowed to keep their personal belongings, food rations, and be sent to any country they wanted after the war. Paulus was ordered not to surrender by Hitler, so he did not respond.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 30 January 1943, the 10th anniversary of Hitler coming to power, Goebbels said "The heroic struggle of our soldiers on the Volga should be a warning for everybody..." Also on that day Hitler promoted Paulus to "Generalfeldmarschall". Since no German Field Marshal had ever been taken prisoner, Hitler assumed that Paulus would fight on or kill himself.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The next day, the southern group in Stalingrad was defeated by the Soviets. Soviet forces reached the entrance to the German headquarters. General Schmidt surrendered the headquarters. Paulus said he had not surrendered and refused to order the remaining German forces to surrender.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Four Soviet armies attacked the remaining northern group. On 2 February, General Strecker surrendered. Around 91,000 tired, ill, wounded, and starving prisoners were taken, including 3,000 Romanians (the survivors of the 20th Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division and "Col. Voicu" Detachment). The prisoners included 22 generals. Hitler was angry and said that Paulus should have killed himself, but instead "he prefers to go to Moscow." Paulus was Roman Catholic and therefore did not.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The German public was not officially told of the loss until the end of January 1943, though positive media reports had stopped in the weeks before the announcement. Stalingrad marked the first time that the Nazi government publicly admitted a failure in its war effort. It was a major defeat where German losses were almost equal to those of the Soviets. Prior losses of the Soviet Union were generally three times as high as the German ones. On 31 January, German state radio played the Adagio movement from Anton Bruckner's Seventh Symphony, followed by the announcement of the defeat at Stalingrad.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 18 February, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels gave the "Sportpalast" speech in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a total war.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Out of the nearly 110,000 German prisoners captured in Stalingrad, only about 6,000 ever returned. They were sent to prisoner camps and later to labour camps all over the Soviet Union. Some 35,000 were eventually sent on transports, of which 17,000 did not survive. Some were kept in the city to help rebuild.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Some senior officers were taken to Moscow and used for propaganda purposes. Some of them joined the National Committee for a Free Germany. Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements that were broadcast to German troops. Paulus testified for the prosecution during the Nuremberg Trials. He remained in the Soviet Union until 1952, then moved to Dresden in East Germany. General Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept. It was not until 1955 that the last of the 5-6,000 survivors were repatriated (to West Germany).


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: During the defence of Stalingrad, the Red Army used six armies (8th, 28th, 51st, 57th, 62nd and 64th Armies) in and around the city. An additional nine armies in the final attack on the Germans. The nine armies used for the final attack were the 24th Army, 65th Army, 66th Army and 16th Air Army from the north as part of the Don Front offensive and 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank, 21st Army, 2nd Air Army and 17th Air Army from the south as part of the Soviet Southwestern Front.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Counting how many people were killed and wounded in the battle of Stalingrad is hard. One way is to only count the fighting within the city and suburbs. Another way of counting is to count all the fighting on the southern part of the Soviet-German front from the spring of 1942 to the winter of 1943. Different scholars have made different estimates depending on how widely you consider the battle.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Axis had from 500,000 to 850,000 casualties (killed, wounded, captured) among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies and only 5-6,000 returned to Germany by 1955. The remainder of the POWs died in Soviet captivity.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: On 2 February 1943, the fighting of Axis troops in Stalingrad stopped. Out of the 91,000 prisoners taken by the Soviets, 3,000 were Romanian.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The Red Army had a total of 1,129,619 total casualties; 478,741 men killed or missing and 650,878 wounded. These numbers are for the whole Don region; in the city itself 750,000 were killed, captured, or wounded.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Anywhere from 25,000 to 40,000 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs during a single week of aerial bombing by "Luftflotte" 4 as the German 4th Panzer and 6th Armies got close to the city; the total number of civilians killed in the regions outside the city is unknown.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In all, the battle resulted in an estimated total of 1.7-2 million Axis and Soviet casualties, making it possibly the bloodiest battle in all of human history.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In the original 1942 plan, the occupation of Stalingrad had not been a goal. Based on the military successes of the Germans in the first month of the attacks, Hitler decided to expand the military goals. Hitler thought that the Soviet forces across the Don river were weak. The new goals included Stalingrad and even capturing the Volga.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Once the Armies began to fight in the for the city, both sides began to feel that it was very important to win. The Germans sent a lot of troops into the city. This meant that their side did not control the Don river and the Soviet bridges. The German side made steady progress in the fighting and eventually held about 90% of the city.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The German focus on the city made them not think of the weakness of their defenses along the Don and the massive buildup of Soviet forces on their sides. After the Soviet breakthrough, the Germans were very disorganized. The 6th Army was eventually reorganized in time for the Battle of Kursk, but was made up mostly of new soldiers and was never as strong as it had once been.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Germany failed at Stalingrad because they expanded the goals in the second half of July. After one month of success, the Germans started believing they could win the battle. Hitler ordered too many goals and he did not think Soviet reserves were as strong as they were. To the south of Stalingrad, Army Group A was trying to capture the oilfields. Then its goals were expanded to include the whole of the Black Sea coast.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Stalingrad was a turning point in the war. It also showed the discipline and determination of both the German "Wehrmacht" and the Soviet Red Army. The Soviets first defended Stalingrad against a strong German attack. Newly arrived Soviet soldiers often died in less than a day. Soviet officers often died in three days.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Historians have talked about how much terror there was in the Red Army. Beevor noted the bravery of the Soviet soldiers. Richard Overy says that some people think that in the "summer of 1942 the Soviet army fought because it was forced to fight,” but he says this is not true A historian talked to Soviet veterans about terror on the Eastern Front. Many soldiers said they were relieved at the order not to retreat. Infantryman Lev Lvovich’s said he felt better.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: For the heroism of the Soviet defenders of Stalingrad, the city was awarded the title Hero City in 1945. Twenty-four years after the battle, in October 1967, a monument, The Motherland Calls, was built on Mamayev Kurgan, the hill overlooking the city. The hill actually used to be much larger, but had been flattened due to constant artillery fire. The statue forms part of a war memorial that includes ruined walls from the battle. The Grain Silo, as well as Pavlov's House can still be visited.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Many women fought on the Soviet side, or were under fire. At the beginning of the battle there were 75,000 women and girls from the Stalingrad area who had finished military or medical training, and all of whom were to serve in the battle. Women staffed a great many of the anti-aircraft batteries that fought not only the Luftwaffe but German tanks. Soviet nurses not only treated wounded men under fire but brought wounded soldiers back to the hospitals under enemy fire. Many of the Soviet wireless and telephone operators were women who often suffered heavy injuries and deaths. Though women were not usually trained as infantry, many Soviet women fought as machine gunners, mortar operators, and scouts. Women were also snipers at Stalingrad. Three air regiments at Stalingrad were entirely female. At least three women won the title Hero of the Soviet Union while driving tanks at Stalingrad.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The German Army showed a lot of discipline after being surrounded. Many German soldiers starved or froze to death. Yet, discipline was continued until the very end. General Friedrich Paulus obeyed Hitler's orders and did not attempt to escape out of the city. German ammunition, supplies, and food became scarce. Generals from both sides suffered from massive stress because of the battle and also because of the fact that they had to report to the most brutal leader in their nation's history. Many generals suffered health problems because of their stress.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Paulus followed his orders and fought to the very end. He asked for permission to surrender, but it was denied. Hitler promoted him to the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall". No German field marshal had ever surrendered, and the implication was clear. Hitler believed that Paulus would either fight to the last man or commit suicide. Paulus was taken prisoner.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: After his capture, Paulus told the Soviets that he had not surrendered. He refused to issue an order for the Germans to surrender.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The events of the battle for Stalingrad have been shown in several movies of German, Russian, British and American origin.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In the novel "The Book Thief", one character was presumed to have died or been captured in The Battle of Stalingrad.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: In the 2011 video game , the game shows famous locations of the battle, such as Pavlov's House, the Red October Factory and Mamayev Kurgan, among others.


title: Battle of Stalingrad

text: The 2013 game, Company of Heroes 2, showed the battle in certain missions. It was criticized by Russian players for being untrue and on August 7 sales in Russia were stopped.


title: Beyoncé

text: Beyoncé Giselle Knowles-Carter (born September 4, 1981) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, actress, dancer and model. She was the lead singer of the all-girl R&B group Destiny's Child. She released her first album "Dangerously in Love" in 2003 when Destiny's Child were on a break. Since then, she has released five more albums, which have all produced hit singles. She is married to rapper Jay-Z and has a three children, daughter Blue Ivy Carter and twins, Rumi and Sir Carter. Knowles has sold over 250 million records worldwide as a solo artist, and as the lead singer of the world's best-selling female group of all time, selling over 100 million records worldwide.


title: Beyoncé

text: Beyoncé Giselle Knowles was born at Park Plaza Hospital in Houston, Texas. Her mother is Tina Knowles (née Beyincé; currently Lawson) with her Creole descent, which means she has some African and French roots. Her father is Mathew Knowles, who is African American. Knowles went to several performing arts schools, and took part in singing and dancing competitions as a child. Her younger sister, Solange, is also a musician.


title: Beyoncé

text: Knowles became very famous in the late 1990s. She became the lead singer of the R&B girl group Destiny's Child. The group became the world's best-selling girl group of all time, selling over 85 million records worldwide.


title: Beyoncé

text: Destiny's Child took a break from recording music. Knowles released her solo debut album, "Dangerously in Love", in 2003. Two singles from the album—"Crazy in Love" and "Baby Boy"—reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The album became one of the most successful albums of that year. "Dangerously in Love" was given five Grammy Awards. After Destiny's Child split, Knowles released her second album. "B'Day" was released in 2006, and its singles "Déjà Vu", "Irreplaceable" and "Beautiful Liar" reached the top ten in the United States. Her third album "I Am... Sasha Fierce" was released in 2008. "If I Were a Boy", "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", "Halo" and "Sweet Dreams" became hit singles for Knowles. "Singles Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" became another number-one single on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The album earned six Grammys in 2010, the most Grammys won by a woman in one night. Only Adele would do this again at the 2012 Grammys.


title: Beyoncé

text: Her next album, "4" (2011), became her fourth number one album on the "Billboard" 200 chart. She became the third artist in history to have her first four albums debut at number one. Beyoncé released her fifth album "Beyoncé" on iTunes on December 13, 2013. The public did not know about the album before it was released. The album has fourteen songs and 17 videos. It has been given good reviews. It entered the "Billboard" 200 at number one. This made her the first female artist in the history of the chart to have her first five albums enter the chart at the top. Knowles performed "Drunk in Love" with JAY-Z at the 2014 Grammy Awards. She was nominated for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Part II (On the Run)" with JAY-Z.


title: Beyoncé

text: In February 2016, Beyoncé was a guest performer at Super Bowl 50. She performed "Formation", the lead single from her sixth studio album, "Lemonade". The performance was controversial, as it had elements of the #BlackLivesMatter movement along with influences from the Black Panthers. She announced The Formation World Tour in a commercial after the Super Bowl performance.


title: Beyoncé

text: In April 2016, an hour-long film, "Lemonade", was shown on HBO. After the film aired, the "Lemonade" album was released. The album became her best-reviewed of her career. It entered the charts at number one in the US and Canada. "Lemonade" features the singles "Formation", "Sorry", and "Hold Up". It won the Grammy Award for Best Urban Contemporary Album in 2017, while the music video for "Formation" won the award for Best Music Video.


title: Beyoncé

text: In 2017, Beyoncé released the promotional single "Die with You". She later contributed to the remix of "Mi Gente" by J Balvin and Willy William. This caused the song to jump to number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100. On December 1, 2017, an acoustic duet between Beyoncé and Ed Sheeran of Sheeran's song "Perfect" was released and was at the top of the iTunes charts in 32 countries. The song became Beyoncé's sixth US number-one as a solo artist and her tenth number-one song in the US including songs with Destiny's Child.


title: Beyoncé

text: Knowles was featured on a remix of rapper Megan Thee Stallion's song "Savage"; it became Knowles’ seventh number-one song in the US.


title: Beyoncé

text: On June 20, 2022, Knowles released "Break My Soul", the lead single from her seventh studio album, "Renaissance". The album was released July 29, 2022.


title: Beyoncé

text: Knowles has a three-and-a-half octave mezzo-soprano vocal range. Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that her voice is "velvety yet tart, with an insistent flutter and reserves of soul belting". Jody Rosen notes that the hip hop era highly influenced Knowles' unique rhythmic vocal style, but also finds her quite traditionalist in her use of balladry, gospel and falsetto.


title: Beyoncé

text: Her first role in a movie was for the musical "" (2001). Her first major movie was "Austin Powers in Goldmember" (2002). The movie "Dreamgirls" (2006) was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards. Her other movies "Cadillac Records" (2008) and "Obsessed" (2009) did not do so well.


title: Beyoncé

text: In 2013, Knowles became H&M's new swimwear model since she gave birth to her daughter, Blue Ivy in just a year ago.


title: Beyoncé

text: In 2010, Knowles was ranked first on "Forbes" list of the "100 Most Powerful and Influential Musicians in the World", and second on its list of the "100 Most Powerful and Influential Celebrities in the World". In 2012, she was named "World's Most Beautiful Woman" by "People" magazine.


title: Beyoncé

text: Many of Knowles' recordings and movies were given many nominations, with many winning them. These include 24 Grammy Awards, 24 [MTV Video Music Awards], three [American Music Awards], a Billboard Millennium Award, and a star on the [Hollywood Walk of Fame] with Destiny's Child. In 2009, "[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]" named her the Top Radio Songs Artist of the 2000s decade. They also ranked her 4th for Artist of the Decade. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), named Knowles as the Top Certified Artist of the 2000s. In the US, she has sold over 17 million copies as of May 2014. She has sold more than 30.4 million digital singles as of January 2012. Worldwide, she has sold 245 million records. This makes her one of the best-selling music artists of all time. Knowles appeared on [VH1]'s 2010 list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". They ranked her third on their "100 Greatest Women in Music" list in 2012.


title: Beyoncé

text: In April 4, 2008, Knowles married American rapper Jay-Z. On January 7, 2012, she gave birth to their first daughter, Blue Ivy Carter vía natural birth in Lennox Hill Hospital, New York.


title: Beyoncé

text: Knowles is a feminist. In the February 2013 issue of GQ magazine she said, "You know, equality is a myth, and for some reason, everyone accepts the fact that women don’t make as much money as men do. I don’t understand that. Why do we have to take a backseat? I truly believe that women should be financially independent from their men. And let’s face it, money gives men the power to run the show. It gives men the power to define value. They define what’s sexy. And men define what’s feminine. It’s ridiculous."


title: Beyoncé

text: In December 2013, she and her husband Jay-Z are longtime vegan. She wrote the foreword to the book "The 22-Day Revolution" by trainer Marco Borges, which was released in April 2015.


title: Beyoncé

text: On February 1, 2017, Knowles announced via Instagram that she was expecting twins. The twins were born on June 13, 2017 via cesarean section. Their names are Rumi and Sir Carter.


title: Tanning bed

text: A tanning bed is a device that emits ultraviolet radiation to give people a tan (make their skin darker). Like the sun, a tanning bed can also cause a sunburn if the person stays in too long. There are many kinds of tanning beds, but most look like the one in the photo.


title: Tanning bed

text: Tanning beds became popular in Europe and America because of the work of Friedrich Wolff around 1979. He patented his design and charged others to use his ideas. His company, "Wolff Systems" does not build the tanning beds, they research and design for the tanning lamp. Some of the early adopters of the Wolff technology include ETS, Inc., SCA, Sun Industries, Inc., Montego Bay, Sunal. Later, Friedrich sold Wolff Systems to his brother Jorg Wolff, who was the founder of Cosmedico, Ltd., another pioneer in the tanning industry.


title: Tanning bed

text: Tanning beds use a special fluorescent lamps (16 to 32 per tanning bed) that creates visible light and ultraviolet light. Like all fluorescent lights, they use a ballast system to limit the electricity going to each lamp, which is most often 100 watts per lamp. The tanning beds use a special acrylic, or clear shield over the lamps. Most clear plastics will block ultraviolet, but this special type of plastic lets most of the ultraviolet light pass through. Most tanning beds also have a cooling fan system, to cool the electronics inside the tanning bed and keep it from getting too hot. All tanning beds have a timer, a device to limit the amount of time the person is exposed to the ultraviolet light. After a few minutes, the timer makes the bed turn off.


title: Tanning bed

text: Like the sun, tanning beds help the body to produce vitamin D due to the exposure to the UV (ultraviolet light). Both the sun and tanning beds can damage your skin if you stay exposed for too long. Getting too much UV, or many sunburns can cause skin cancer, including melanoma, which can be deadly. There is a lot of controversy due to the risks. Most countries have many laws and rules that regulate tanning beds.


title: Tablet computer

text: A tablet computer (sometimes called a tablet) is a type of computer that can be carried easily. Unlike a laptop it has no physical keyboard or trackpad, though users sometimes add those things. Users control a tablet mostly by using its touchscreen with multi-touch technology similar to a smartphone. The screen can be anywhere from (sometimes called a phablet) to in size, but many have a screen size of about diagonal.


title: Tablet computer

text: Almost all tablet computers can access the Internet using Wi-Fi, and many can use mobile phone networks like 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G. Like smartphones, many tablets have sensors such as a camera and a microphone. Other features tablets have are high definition, anti-glare (with less reflection) displays, a Bluetooth radio (to connect to printers and other devices), flash memory, and cloud storage services to back up information on the tablet and synchronize data.


title: Tablet computer

text: Science fiction started putting tablets in stories after the middle 20th century. Some companies started making real tablets late in the century. The release of the Apple iPad in 2010 got much attention, and other companies made and sold more.


title: Tablet computer

text: Compared to laptop computers, tablets are lighter, more portable, have longer battery life, make less heat, and do not need a mouse or keyboard to be connected. Typing is usually done on the touch screen with a "virtual" keyboard which appears on the screen. Many tablets let the user to get reminders even when the tablet is powered off or on standby


title: Tablet computer

text: One bad thing is that the "virtual" keyboards are sometimes slow and easy to make typos on. Some tablets can connect to computer keyboards and computer mice to let the user use them in ways similar to a PC. Tablets often have limited storage compared to a laptop.


title: Tablet computer

text: The majority run a mobile operating system and may not support as many file formats and different types of software as laptops, but they may work with the same kinds of mobile apps that smartphones use. These weaknesses sometimes result in a tablet being used mainly to consume media made by someone else who used a full-service computer.


title: Indus River

text: The Indus River is the greatest river on the western side of the south Asian subcontinent. It is one of the seven sacred rivers for The Brahmans of Vedic period. It was the birthplace of the early Indus Valley civilization. It flows through China (Western Tibet), India and Pakistan. It is one of the main rivers of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.


title: Indus River

text: The river is 3180 km long. It is Pakistan's longest river. The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2 (450,000 sq mi). Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3 (50 cu mi), making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. It discharges about 6,600 cubic meters per second.


title: Indus River

text: The word "Indus" and the cognate word "Hindu" are derived from "Sapta Sindhu" (Sanskrit for "seven rivers") for the region is ancient. The Ancient Greeks used the word "Indós"; "Hinduš" was Old Persian; "Sindhu" in Sanskrit. Latest languages on the sub-continent use either "Sindh" (modern Sindhi) or "Sindhu" (ancient Sanskrit) or very similar words. The river's region's name came to be the name of the country India.


title: Indus River

text: Over 47% of the total area of the Indus drainage basin is in Pakistan and Pakistan-administered Kashmir. India has about 39%, Tibet has 8% and Afghanistan has 6 % of the Indus basin catchment area.


title: Indus River

text: The Indus water system of rivers comprises the main Indus and its major tributaries: the Kabul River and Kurram River on the right bank, and the Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas River and the Sutlej on the left. The first two join the Indus soon after it leaves the mountains, and the others lower down in the plains. The whole of the Beas and the head reaches of the Ravi and Sutlej are in the Republic of India, while those of the Chenab and Jhelum lie mostly in the disputed Kashmir state.


title: Indus River

text: The entire basin covers an area of about 384,000 square miles of open land, of which 204,000 lie in Pakistan. In addition, there are about 29,000 square miles which lie outside the Indus basin but are dependent on the Indus river system for their water requirements and irrigation supplies.


title: Indus River

text: Without the Indus waters, agriculture in Pakistan would be very uncertain, because there is not much rain. Even now when Pakistan is being rapidly industrialised, it needs its water resources, because much of its industry uses agriculture produce for its raw materials. Almost all of the basin in Pakistan receives an overall rainfull of less than 15 inches, 60% of its area receiving less than 10 inches, while, 16% receives less than 5 inches. The rainfull is not evenly distributed throughout the year but is concentrated during the monsoons.


title: Indus River

text: Rising in western Tibet, the Indus runs at first across a high plateau, then the ground falls away and the river, dropping rapidly, gathering momentum and rushing north-west, collects the waters from innumerable glacier-fed streams, and runs north-west between the world's greatest mountain ranges, the Karakoram and the Himalayas. In Kashmir it crosses the United Nations cease-fire line and, in Baltistan District, enters Azad Kashmir. From here on it is Pakistan's river; Pakistan's first town on the upper Indus, Skardu, at 7,500 feet above sea-level, stands on a bluff near the junction of the Indus and one of its great right-bank tributaries, the Shigar. The majority of the people live in Skardu town; others inhabit small and scattered villages along the Indus and Shigar valleys, or tiny hamlets high on the surrounding mountains.


title: Chinese zodiac

text: The Chinese zodiac is a mathematical cycle of 12 animals. Each animal represents one year. People are associated with the zodiac animal for the year that they are born. The 12 animals in order are: Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig. Although it is called the Chinese zodiac, this system is also used in several other countries in Asia such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.


title: Chinese zodiac

text: Some Chinese people believe that each zodiac animal has a personality, and people born in the same year may have similar personalities.


title: Chinese zodiac

text: In the old days, China and Japan used a 12-hour system to tell the time of day and night (unlike the 24 hour system used today). The 12 hour system divides the day of 24 hours into 12 hours, each of which has a sign of the zodiac:


title: Chinese zodiac

text: The Chinese and Japanese would call the different directions (North, Northeast, Northwest, East, South, Southeast, Southwest, West), based on the names of the zodiac animals.


title: Samsung

text: Samsung Group is a South Korean multinational conglomerate headquartered in Samsung Town, Seoul. It comprises numerous affiliated businesses, most of them united under the "Samsung" brand, and is the largest South Korean "chaebol" (business conglomerate). Samsung is a large worldwide company based in Seoul. "Samsung" means "three stars" in Korean.


title: Samsung

text: Samsung was founded by Lee Byung-chul in 1938 as a trading company. Over the next three decades, the group diversified into areas including food processing, textiles, insurance, securities, and retail. Samsung entered the electronics industry in the late 1960s and the construction and shipbuilding industries in the mid-1970s; these areas would drive its subsequent growth. Following Lee's death in 1987, Samsung was separated into four business groups – Samsung Group, Shinsegae Group, CJ Group and Hansol Group. Since 1990, Samsung has increasingly globalised its activities and electronics; in particular, its mobile phones and semiconductors have become its most important source of income.


title: Samsung

text: Notable Samsung industrial affiliates include Samsung Electronics (the world's 2nd largest information technology company measured by 2015 revenues, and 5th in market value), Samsung Heavy Industries (the world's 2nd largest shipbuilder measured by 2010 revenues), and Samsung Engineering and Samsung C&T (respectively the world's 13th and 36th largest construction companies). Other notable subsidiaries include Samsung Life Insurance (the world's 14th largest life insurance company), Samsung Everland (operator of Everland Resort, the oldest theme park in South Korea) and Cheil Worldwide (the world's 15th largest advertising agency measured by 2012 revenues).


title: Samsung

text: Samsung has a powerful influence on South Korea's economic development, politics, media and culture and has been a major driving force behind the "Miracle on the Han River". Its affiliate companies produce around a fifth of South Korea's total exports. Samsung's revenue was equal to 17% of South Korea's $1,082 billion GDP.


title: Samsung

text: Samsung has many different businesses. It makes mobile phones, cameras and other electronics. 'Samsung Electronics' who sell Samsung Galaxy products. Samsung is the best known South Korean brand in the world.


title: Samsung

text: According to Samsung's founder, the meaning of the Korean hanja word "Samsung" () is "tri-star" or "two stars". The word "two" represents something "big, numerous and powerful".


title: Somnath temple

text: The Somnath temple is an important pilgrimage and tourist spot in Gujarat, India. It is located in Prabhas Patan near Veraval in Saurashtra on the western coast of Gujrat and is believed to be the first among the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva. It was reconstructed in the Chalukya style of Hindu temple architecture and was completed in May 1951. The reconstruction was started under the orders of the Indian Home Minister, Vallabhbhai Patel and completed after his death.


title: Ghost

text: In folklore, a ghost is thought to be the spirit of a dead person or they are referred to as the supernatural by others. Scientists say that there are no real ghosts, but many people believe that there are. There are a huge amount of stories about ghosts in books and movies. Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by someone or who was already dead. The ghost may stay on Earth because he or she has unfinished problems or is still trying to say goodbye to people who they missed. Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular locality, for example an abandoned house or a place that existed hundreds of years ago.


title: Ghost

text: Sometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had during life or to say goodbye to loved ones, that was not solved before he or she died. The ghost stays on Earth trying to fix the problem. If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave. Many people say they have seen or heard ghosts. People who try to talk to ghosts as their job are called mediums.


title: Ghost

text: There can be bad ghosts and there can also be good ones. There have never been any ghosts that have actually hurt or killed people, although people tell stories about it.


title: Ghost

text: Many people believe they have seen ghosts. Others believe they have felt ghosts near them. Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of cold and a light or a misty cloud, but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people. Sometimes ghosts are said to come in human form. Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly. Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who have problems. People or animals that can sense ghosts cannot feel them touching them as they are the spirit of a person, or a personified force.


title: Ghost

text: Ghosts are said to form right after people die, or even centuries later. Many people make up stories or urban legends. Many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special technology such as heat sensors. They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts. They often investigate cases where a person has seen one or visit a place of sighting.


title: Ghost

text: Stories of ghosts can be found all over the world. Chinese philosopher Confucius said "Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them."


title: Ghost

text: The most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death. The Koran discusses spirits known as "jinn". In Europe there is the recurring fear of "returning" or "revenant" deceased who may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian "gjenganger", the Romanian "strigoi", the Serbian "vampir", the Greek "vrykolakas" among others.


title: Fashion

text: Fashion is the form of clothing, accessories, and furniture. It can be used by everyone. It is related to culture, For example, we have warm clothes in the Swedish fashion and we have thin clothes in the African fashion.


title: Medellín

text: Medellín (pronounced or , Spanish: or ) is the capital city in the Metropolitan Area of Medellín of the Antioquia Department, Colombia. It was founded in 1616 by Francisco Herrera Campuzano. As of 2014, the municipality of Medellín had a population of about 2.45 million inhabitants. This makes it the second most populated city in Colombia after Bogotá, which is the capital city of Colombia. Medellín also is the core of the Valle de Aburrá ("Aburrá Valley") metropolitan area. This is the second largest metropolitan area in Colombia, with more than 3.8 million inhabitants, and a leading and productive industrial and urban center.


title: Medellín

text: The city's major problem is unemployment. Many other Colombian cities also have this problem. People from Antioquia and especially from Medellín are called Paisas although the Paisas are people from the departments of Antioquia, Risaralda, Caldas and Quindío.


title: Operation Sea Lion

text: Operation Sea Lion () was the plan to invade the United Kingdom by Nazi Germany during World War II. The plan began in 1940. However, Germany first had to control the sky and sea of the English Channel before a land invasion. With the German Navy weakened during the German invasion of Norway and the German Air Force defeated in the Battle of Britain, the operation was put off on 17 September 1940 and so never happened.


title: Pet

text: A pet is a domesticated animal that lives with people, but is not forced to work and is not eaten, in most instances. In most cases, a pet is kept to entertain people or for companionship. Some pets such as dogs and cats are placed in an animal shelter if there is no one willing to take care of them. If no one adopts it or the pet is too old/sick, the pet may be euthanized.


title: Pet

text: Dogs, cats, fish, rodents, lagomorphs, ferrets, birds, certain reptiles and amphibians, and a wide variety of arthropods such as tarantulas and hermit crabs are the most common pets in North America. Horses, elephants, oxen, and donkeys are usually made to work, so they are not usually called pets. Some dogs also do work for people, and it was once common for some birds (like falcons and carrier pigeons) to work for humans.


title: Pet

text: Rodents are also very popular pets. The most common are guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters (especially Syrian and dwarf hamsters), mice and rats.


title: Whang-od

text: Whang-od Oggay (born 17 February 1917) is a Filipina tattoo artist from Buscalan, Tinglayan, Kalinga, Philippines.


title: Whang-od

text: She is thought as the last "mambabatok" (traditional Kalinga tattooist) from the Butbut people in Buscalan Kalinga and the oldest tattoo artist in the Philippines. She has been tattooing headhunters and women of the indigenous people of Butbut in Buscalan Kalinga for more than 80 years, but the Butbut warriors who used to earn tattoos through protecting villages or killing enemies no longer exist.


title: Keyboard instrument

text: A keyboard instrument is an instrument that is played by pressing the keys of a keyboard. In a keyboard, the notes are arranged with naturals (usually white notes) forming the main body of the keyboard, and sharps and flats (usually black notes) placed in cuttings into the upper half of the naturals.


title: Keyboard instrument

text: In the 17th and 18th centuries, the word "Clavier" was used in Germany to mean any kind of keyboard instrument. Often, the naturals were black and the sharps and flats were white (see picture of harpsichord), but the layout was exactly the same.


title: Keyboard instrument

text: The development of electronic instruments in the 20th century has brought about many different types of electronic keyboard instruments. These include the ondes Martenot and the synthesizer.


title: Keyboard instrument

text: Nowadays, people often talk about a "keyboard" meaning an electronic keyboard (e.g. “He plays the keyboard”). The plural form of the word is "keyboards".


title: Keyboard instrument

text: Arrangers are mainly aimed at performers. Arrangers are mainly identified by their automatic accompaniment styles. They are used widely by musicians who perform by their own, more like a one-man band. Arrangers offer extensive libraries containing prerecorded accompaniment tracks in nearly every music style imaginable. The instrument can support their singing with onboard effects, vocal harmony, and lyric display while providing MIDI and/or audio file playback. Music played by the keyboardist can often be recorded and saved into a memory bank. Arrangers also help in writing songs and can provide realistic drum styles that match with the tempo and style the musician developed.


title: Keyboard instrument

text: A keyboard workstation is a keyboard that is used to change the features of a variety of sounds on a keyboard. Workstation allows one to create new voices using filters, effects and modulations. It also allows for mixing sounds.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: The Emperor of Japan is the head of state of Japan, The monarch is the symbol of the Japanese nation and the unity of its people.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: In the Japanese constitutional monarchy, the emperor does not have any political power. In world politics, he is the only current emperor.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: The current emperor is his Majesty emperor Naruhito. He has been on the Chrysanthemum Throne since his father Akihito abdicated in 2019.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: The amount of power belonging to the emperor of Japan has changed a lot throughout Japanese history. The Emperor of Japan has sometimes been a cleric with mostly symbolic powers and sometimes an actual ruler. Some believe that the emperor is descended from gods.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: Since the mid-1800s, the Imperial Palace has been located on the former site of Edo Castle （江戸城）in the heart of Tokyo. Earlier emperors lived in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: The earliest monarch listed as an emperor who is believed by historians to have existed in history was Emperor Ojin.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: The imperial dynasty that rules Japan today began as a local kingship in Central Japan in the 500s. It slowly increased its power over its neighbors. This led to a more centralized state made up of almost all of the central areas of what is now Japan. The remote areas were outside its borders.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: While the emperor does serve as head of state, many people question if the emperor is a true monarch in a political sense. Efforts in the 1950s by conservative powers to change the constitution to actually name the emperor as head of state were rejected. Regardless, the emperor does do all the diplomatic functions of a head of state and is recognized as one by foreign powers.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: Succession is now controlled by laws passed by the Japanese Diet. The current law does not let females take the throne. A change to this law was considered until Princess Kiko gave birth to a son.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: Until the birth of a son to Prince Akishino on September 6, 2006, there was a potential succession problem. No male child had been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965. Following the birth of Princess Aiko, some felt they needed to change the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi created a group of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study the problem.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: On October 25, 2005 they recommended changing the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On January 20, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi made an announcement that they would change the law to allow women to ascend the throne. However, after finding out that Princess Kiko was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi decided to wait. Her son, Prince Hisahito, is the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: Naming the emperors of Japan is difficult because of differences between Japan and the Western world. The Japanese use "{name} tennō" (for the past emperors) or "Kinjō Heika" (今上陛下） for the current one). Problems occur because emperors are named "{name} tennō" after their death.


title: Emperor of Japan

text: Some Japanese once thought it was rude to call a person of noble rank by their given names. This belief is not commonly followed today, but still used for the imperial family. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to simply as "Tennō Heika" (天皇陛下, lit. "His Majesty the Emperor") or formally as Kinjō Heika (今上陛下).


title: Emperor of Japan

text: For example, the previous emperor is usually called Hirohito in English, but after his death he was renamed "Shōwa Tennō" and is now only called by this name in Japanese. However, when he was in power, he was never called Hirohito or "Shōwa Tennō" in Japanese. Rather, he was simply called "Tennō Heika" (meaning "His Majesty the Emperor").


title: Pi (letter)

text: Pi (uppercase/lowercase Π π), is the letter of the Greek alphabet, used to represent the "p" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 80. Letters that came from it include the Roman P and Cyrillic П.


title: Pi (letter)

text: In mathematics, the uppercase pi is used for the Pi product operator (for example. formula_1), similar to the way summation is used. The lowercase pi is used as the mathematical constant pi, also known as Archimedes's constant.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: The Russo-Japanese War was a war between the Japanese Empire and the Russian Empire. It started in 1904 and ended in 1905. The Japanese won the war, and the Russians lost.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: The war happened because the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire disagreed over who should get parts of Manchuria and Korea. It was fought mostly on the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea. The politics of the two countries in the war were very complicated, but both wanted to gain land and economic benefits.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: The Chinese Empire of the Qing Dynasty was large but weak, and it was Qing land and possessions they fought over. For example Korea was under Qing rule, but was seized by Japan. The Russians wanted a 'warm-water port' on the Pacific Ocean for their navy and trade. The harbour at Vladivostok freezes over in the winter, but Port Arthur (now part of Dalian on the Liaodong Peninsula in China) can be used all the time. Russia had already rented the port from the Qing and had got their permission to build a Trans-Siberian railway from St Petersburg to Port Arthur.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: Russia wanted a warm-water Pacific Ocean port for trade and its navy. Japan wanted to expand her empire into Korea and China. Japan thought that when Russia completed its railway in 1906, it would be able to beat Japan in a war by being able to supply large numbers of troops there.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: To avoid war, Japan wanted to compromise with Russia even if it got the better deal. Japan wanted more of Korea and China than it thought Russia would offer. Japan decided to attack before the railway was ready to help Russia fight a war.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: The war started with a Japanese surprise attack on Port Arthur and continued with Japanese victories in Manchuria and elsewhere. The last major battle was at Tsushima Strait and destroyed the Russian Navy.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: United States President Theodore Roosevelt helped Russia and Japan make peace after the war. He won a Nobel Prize for this. Russia had to give up all influence in the Far East. The Russian people were very angry at the government and at czar Nicholas II for not continuing the war because everyone was sure that Russia could have won. This is true because Japan was completely broke and she would have suffered an economic crisis after just a few more months of fighting. Russia's army was also much stronger than Japan's and had very large reserves to replace the soldiers she lost. Japan had no more men with military training to replace her losses and no money to give new men training.


title: Russo-Japanese War

text: The Japanese got Port Arthur and the Russian railway in Manchuria. Five years later, in 1910, Japan took over Korea. Japan would continue to grow its empire in Asia until World War II. The Russian defeat was one of the reasons for the Russian Army's great improvement after 1904, which helped start the European arms race that was a cause of World War I. The war also contributed to the Russian Revolution and to the Russian Civil War in 1917. Vladimir Lenin, who helped start the revolution, wanted Russia to lose the war since that showed that the tsar was losing power.


title: Google Chrome

text: Google Chrome is a freeware web browser made by Google. It builds on parts from other open source software, including WebKit and Mozilla Firefox.


title: Google Chrome

text: The name comes from the graphical user interface frame, or "chrome", of web browsers. The open source project behind Google Chrome is known as "Chromium."


title: Google Chrome

text: The first version was a beta for Microsoft Windows was released on 2 September 2008. macOS and Linux versions were released in December 2009.


title: Google Chrome

text: The release announcement was going to be made on 3 September 2008, and a comic by Scott McCloud was to be sent to journalists and bloggers explaining the features of and reasons for the new browser. Copies that were for Europe were shipped early and German blogger Philipp Lenssen of Google Blogoscoped made a scanned copy of the 38-page comic available on his website after receiving it on 1 September 2008. Google then made the comic available on Google Books and their website and referenced it on its official blog along with an explanation for the early release. As of September 2, 2008, Google has a link to Google Chrome on their main page.


title: Google Chrome

text: The main user interface includes back, forward, refresh, bookmark, go and cancel options similar to Safari browser, while the settings location looks like Internet Explorer 7/8. The minimize, maximize and close window buttons are based on Windows Vista


title: Pranab Mukherjee

text: Pranab Mukherjee (11 December 1935 – 31 August 2020) was an Indian politician. He was the 13th President of India serving from 2012 through 2017. He was a member of the Indian National Congress.


title: Pranab Mukherjee

text: Mukherjee became President on 25 July 2012. He succeeded Pratibha Patil (served 2007–12), India’s first woman president. Before Mukherjee became President, he had served as Foreign, Defence, Commerce and Finance Minister at different times in his political career. Mukherjee also served as a member of both Lok Sabha (twice) and Rajya Sabha (five times).


title: Pranab Mukherjee

text: In 2017, Mukherjee decided not to run for re-election and to retire from politics after leaving the presidency due to "health complications relating to old age". He was replaced by Ram Nath Kovind on 25 July 2017.


title: Pranab Mukherjee

text: Mukherjee was born in the village of Mirati in Birbhum District of West Bengal. Mukherjee’s father, Kamada Kinkar Mukherjee, was deeply involved in India’s struggle for independence from Great Britain in the first half of the 20th century. Pranab was educated at the Suri Vidyasagar College (then affiliated with the University of Calcutta), and he later earned an advanced degree in history and political science as well as a law degree from the university. He was married to Suvra Mukherjee from 1957 until her death in 18 August 2015(aged 74).


title: Pranab Mukherjee

text: In early August 2020, Mukherjee was hospitalized in an army hospital after falling in his shower in New Delhi. On 10 August, he was diagnosed with COVID-19. He died on 31 August 2020 from sepsis and a lung infection caused by COVID-19, aged 84.


title: Fuckin' in the Bushes

text: "Fuckin' in the Bushes" is the first track on British band Oasis' fourth studio album, "Standing on the Shoulder of Giants".


title: Fuckin' in the Bushes

text: The song was frequently used as the first song in Oasis' concerts, such as on their "Don't Believe the Truth" Tour, played on a tape. It contains samples taken from Murray Lerner's movie "Message to Love - Isle of Wight 1970". It is featured during the climactic scene of the movie "Snatch," and it was played when Oasis received their award for Outstanding Contribution to Music.


title: Fuckin' in the Bushes

text: On March 27th 2021 Campbell Hatton (son of Ricky) used the song as his entrance song for his debut fight in Gibraltar.


title: Ammonium sulfide

text: Ammonium sulfide, also known as the "stink bomb" is made up of a solution of ammonium sulfide in water, sealed inside a glass ampoule (a small bottle-like container used to store a liquid securely). When the ampoule is broken, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gases are released from the solution. These chemicals have a very strong and bad smell.


title: Ammonium sulfide

text: Ammonium sulfide is a very toxic chemical. It is also explosive and very flammable(meaning it can light on fire easily). It is added to cigarettes .


title: Lisbon

text: Lisbon () is the capital city of Portugal. It is the largest city of Portugal. The city has a population of about half million people. In Lisbon's urban area live around 2.8 million people, being the 10th-most populous urban area in the European Union.


title: Lisbon

text: Lisbon is placed on the right bank (western) of the Tagus River, near the outfall. It has a pleasant climate and has about 220 days of sunshine each year. There are many beautiful beaches close to the city. There are also many seafood restaurants, historical sites and monuments, being one of the oldest cities in the world.


title: Lisbon

text: The Lisbon Metro connects the city centre to different districts, it also reaches some suburbs around the Lisbon metropolitan area, like Amadora and Loures.


title: Lisbon

text: Trams are a traditional public transport in Lisbon. It was first introduced in 1901, many of the electric trams were originally imported from the US, and were called "americanos". Trams in Lisbon are coloured yellow and is one of the tourist icons of the city, and their size is great for steep hills and narrow streets of the central city.


title: Botswana

text: Botswana (officially called the Republic of Botswana) is a country in southern Africa. The capital of Botswana is Gaborone.


title: Botswana

text: The first people in Botswana's territory were the Khoe and San people. Botswana was first formed as the Bechuanaland Protectorate by the British Empire in 1885.


title: Botswana

text: The countries that border Botswana are Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Namibia. It is also possible to travel from Botswana directly into Zambia by crossing the Zambezi River by ferry.


title: Botswana

text: The two most important geographical features in Botswana are the Okavango Delta and the Kalahari Desert.


title: Botswana

text: People from Botswana are called "Batswana". The population of Botswana is about 2.2 million. This is only 2.7 persons per km², a small number for a country of this size. This is because most of the country is desert and very dry.


title: Botswana

text: Botswana has two official languages: Setswana and English. Setswana is the national language (also called "Tswana").


title: Botswana

text: Botswana is a democracy. The people vote for their political leaders. Those leaders vote for the president. In 2008 Ian Khama became the fourth president of Botswana.


title: Botswana

text: President Khama won elections in 2009 and 2014. The current President of Botswana is Dr. Eric K. Mokgweetsi who took over from Dr. Ian Khama Seretse Khama in 2018.


title: Botswana

text: The economy of Botswana has been growing very fast since it became an independent country in 1966. The people of Botswana have had the world's fastest growth in standard of living since that time.


title: Botswana

text: Botswana's economy comes mostly from mining. This includes diamonds, metals (including copper) and minerals (including salt). Botswana is the highest producer of diamonds by value in the world. In 1999, Botswana produced over 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of diamonds from the three Debswana mines. That is about 25% of worldwide production.


title: Botswana

text: Tourism is also important to the country. Many people come to Botswana each year to see its wildlife.


title: Botswana

text: The currency of Botswana is called the "pula" (which means rain). It is made up of 100 "thebe" (which means shield). In 2017, one US dollar was about 10.32 pulas.


title: Botswana

text: The "No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency" books by Alexander McCall Smith are set in Botswana. The HBO television series based on the books was filmed in Botswana.


title: Quango

text: Quango is an acronym used especially in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Quangos are arms-length bodies funded by government departments but not run by them. They are given power and paid for by government departments.


title: Quango

text: They were invented because most government departments do two rather different jobs. One is to make policy about how the country should be run, as indicated by laws passed in Parliament. This is called administration. Their other task is to run or operate the policies in action. Examples would be: to run the prison system, to collect taxes, to guard the country's borders, and so on. Quangos were invented to do the second type of task. They are supposed to do some practical job better than a government department could. Of course, if they fail, the fault is theirs, rather than the government department's.


title: Quango

text: The term 'quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization' was created in 1967 by the Carnegie Foundation's Alan Pifer. He wrote an essay on independence and accountability in public-funded bodies. This term was shortened to 'quango' by Anthony Barker, a Briton, during a follow-up conference.


title: Quango

text: Many quangos were created from the 1980s onwards. The UK government's definition in 1997 of a non-departmental public body or quango was:


title: Quango

text: According to the Tax Payers Alliance, in the year 2006-07, tax payers funded 1,162 Quangos at a cost of nearly £64bn; equivalent to £2,550 per household. About a thousand still remain.


title: Quango

text: In 2010 the British Government said it had earmarked (chosen) nearly 200 quangos for closure, and 120 more for merging. This was part of its Whitehall efficiency programme. In August 2012, the government said that 106 quangos had lost their public status since then. Some were axed, some were sold off, and some had their work done elsewhere.


title: Quango

text: Since Scotland was given devolved self-government in 1999, their government has also set up a number of quangos.


title: Quango

text: The Republic of Ireland in 2006 had more than 800 quangos, 482 at national and 350 at local level, with a total of 5,784 individual appointees and a combined annual budget of €13 billion.


title: Quango

text: Depending upon one's point of view, the separation of a quango from government might allow its functions to be more commercially exercised. Or else it might allow an elected minister to evade responsibility for spending public money. Quangos have been criticised as undemocratic, expensive and letting government grow too big.


title: Quango

text: "The Times" has accused quangos of bureaucratic waste and excess. In 2005 Dan Lewis, author of "The Essential Guide to Quangos", claimed that many quangos were useless and duplicated the work of others. In August 2008 a report by the right-leaning pressure group the Taxpayers' Alliance, claimed that £15 billion was being wasted by the regional development agencies, quangos set up to encourage economic development in their regions.


title: Apollo 17

text: Apollo 17 was the last flight to send people to the moon. It was done by NASA, the American space group.


title: Apollo 17

text: It went up to space on December 7, 1972, carrying three astronauts: Eugene Cernan, Harrison Schmitt and Ronald Evans. On December 11, 1972, Cernan and Schmitt became the last humans to land on the moon, while Evans stayed in orbit around the Moon.


title: Apollo 17

text: About 500,000 people viewed the flight of Apollo 17. A Saturn V rocket took flight from the Kennedy Space Center in America.


title: Apollo 17

text: About two hours after leaving Earth the section with the people in it went away from the main rocket. The section with the people in it had two parts, the Apollo Command Module called "America" and the Apollo Lunar Module called "Challenger". "America" was the moon control space ship and "Eagle" was the moon-landing space ship. 3 days later the team entered Lunar Orbit (orbit around the moon). A day later the "Challenger" went away from "America". The "Challenger" landed safely on the moon with Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt inside.


title: Kidney

text: The kidneys are two organs in the abdomen of vertebrates which are shaped like beans. They regulate the amount of water and salts in the blood. They make urine so it can be removed from the body.


title: Kidney

text: The adjective which is used for kidneys is "renal". For example, "renal failure" is when the kidneys are sick and do not work.


title: Kidney

text: The prefix "nephro-" is also used in words to mean "kidneys". For example, a "nephrologist" is a specialist who studies kidneys.


title: Kidney

text: Erythropoetin is made by the kidneys if there is less oxygen in the kidney. Erythropoetin signals the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. This means there will be more oxygen carried in the blood.


title: Kidney

text: Renin is made by the kidney if there is low blood pressure, low volume of blood, or too low salts in the blood. Renin makes the blood vessels smaller and tells the adrenal gland to make aldosterone (which tells the kidneys to save salts). It also makes a person feel thirsty. All of this makes the blood pressure go up.


title: Kidney

text: The kidney's most important work is keeping homeostasis. Homeostasis means that the body keeps a stable environment inside itself. The body needs to have the consistent and proper amount of water, salt, and acid in the blood. The kidney keeps these things constant.


title: Kidney

text: If there is too much water, the kidney puts more water in the urine. If there is not enough water, the kidney uses less water in the urine. This is why people make less urine when they are dehydrated.


title: Kidney

text: There are many types of kidney diseases. A kidney disease makes the kidneys unable to work perfectly but they do work in part. People can have mild kidney failure and have no symptoms. As long as it does not become worse, people may not even know they have it. "Severe" kidney failure means "very" bad failure. The kidneys do not work very much at all. People with severe kidney failure "always" have symptoms. They need special care from doctors.


title: Kidney

text: If a person's kidneys do not work properly, they are very sick. If they have severe kidney failure, they cannot live unless they have a replacement for their kidneys.


title: Kidney

text: Dialysis is when doctors use a machine and medicines to do the work of the kidneys. There are two kinds of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.


title: Kidney

text: Peritoneal dialysis is when doctors put a plastic tube into the person's abdomen. Every day the person fills the abdomen with fluid. The extra salts, waste, and water that the body does not need goes into the fluid. Then the fluid comes out and takes the wastes with it. This does part of the job that kidneys do.


title: Kidney

text: Hemodialysis is when doctors take blood from a person, clean the blood with a special kind of filter, called a" haemodialyser," and put it back in the person. When the blood is cleaned; water, salts and wastes are taken out of it. This must be done 2–4 times every week (usually 3 times.) It takes 2–4 hours to do this each time.


title: Kidney

text: Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are not perfect. They do some of the work of the kidney, but it is not as good as a real kidney. So people who need dialysis are not as healthy. They must take medicines. For example, in kidney failure, the kidneys do not make any erythropoetin. Doctors have to give people erythropoetin so they make enough red blood cells.


title: Kidney

text: A better way to do the kidneys' work is to give the person another kidney. This is called a kidney transplant. Kidney transplants are the most common type of organ transplant. It is the most common because we have two kidneys, but only need one kidney to live. People who are alive can donate a kidney to another person.


title: Kidney

text: Even transplanted kidneys are not the same as kidneys people were born with. A person who gets a renal transplant must take strong medicines to stop their body from attacking the new kidney. Sometimes, after years, the transplanted kidney stops working. But sometimes a patient can get a new transplanted kidney after the first one stops working.


title: Kidney

text: It was widely believed in Europe that the conscience was actually located in the kidneys. This idea was taken from the Hebrew Bible. In modern times, medical scientists have shown kidneys do not have this kind of psychological role.


title: Ajanta Caves

text: Ajanta Caves are about 30 caves located in the Indian state of Maharashtra. With Ellora Caves, they are among the most-visited sites in India. The Ajanta Caves have been made an UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983. They are located in a valley, about from the town of Ajanta, in the norwest of the state. Buddhist monks lived in the valley, from 2nd century BCE to about the 7th century CE. They used some of the caves to make temples. All the caves are located near a river, which only has water during and shortly after Monsoon season. Most of the caves were also used for living in them. Four are designed to be temples only. The most important caves also contain paintings.


title: Ajanta Caves

text: The nearest train station is about away, at Jalgaon. Most often, tours operate from the city of Aurangabad, which is about to the south. The tours often include both cave systems.


title: Higgs boson

text: The Higgs boson (or Higgs particle) is a particle in the Standard Model of physics. In the 1960s Peter Higgs was the first person to suggest that this particle might exist. On 14 March 2013, scientists at CERN confirmed for the first time that they had found a Higgs particle.


title: Higgs boson

text: The Higgs particle is one of the 17 particles in the Standard Model, the model of physics which describes all known basic particles. The Higgs particle is a boson. Bosons are thought to be particles which are responsible for all physical forces. Other known bosons are the photon, the W and Z bosons, and the gluon. Scientists do not yet know how to combine gravity with the Standard Model.


title: Higgs boson

text: The Higgs field is a fundamental field of crucial importance to particle physics theory. Unlike other known fields such as the electromagnetic field, the Higgs field takes the same non-zero value almost everywhere. The question of the Higgs field's existence was the last unverified part of the Standard Model of particle physics and, according to some, was "the central problem in particle physics".


title: Higgs boson

text: It is difficult to detect the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson is very massive compared to other particles, so it does not last very long. There are usually no Higgs bosons around because it takes so much energy to make one. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN was built mainly for this reason. It speeds up two bunches of particles to almost light speed (travelling in opposite directions), before setting them on a path to collide with each other.


title: Higgs boson

text: Each collision produces a flurry of new particles which are detected by detectors around the point where they collide. There is still only a very small chance, one in 10 billion, of a Higgs boson appearing and being detected. To find the few collisions with evidence of the Higgs boson, the LHC smashes together trillions of particles, and supercomputers sift through a massive amount of data.