title: Hole (band)

text: Hole began in summer 1989 in Los Angeles, California. Courtney Love put an advertisement in a magazine called "The Recycler" and said she wanted to start a band. In the ad, she said her favorite bands were Big Black, Sonic Youth and Fleetwood Mac. Eric Erlandson phoned Love when he saw the advertisement and the band began rehearsing in August. Love became the singer and second guitarist and Erlandson became the lead guitarist. Love and Erlandson got Love's friend Lisa Roberts to become the bassist for Hole and found a drummer called Caroline Rue at another punk rock show. The band had two other guitar players, Mike Geisbrecht and Errol Stewart, but both of them left the band soon after. The band played their first show in September at Raji's, a small club in Hollywood, and played three more shows in California in 1989.


title: Hole (band)

text: After a lot of shows on the West Coast, Hole signed to the indie record label Sympathy for the Record Industry in 1990. In April 1990, Hole released their first single, "Retard Girl." The single was not popular but was played on the radio in the United States and the United Kingdom: on KROQ-FM in Los Angeles and BBC Radio 1 in London. During a tour in March 1991, the band released a second single, "Dicknail", on Sub Pop, the grunge label in Seattle, Washington and then released their first album "Pretty on the Inside" in August. The album was produced by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth and Sonic Youth's early music influenced the album. Hole switched record labels again and they chose to be on Caroline Records. "Pretty on the Inside" and was very successful in the United Kingdom. In the UK Albums Chart, it went to number 59 and the single "Teenage Whore" went to number 1 on the UK Indie Chart. During the tour of Europe to support the album's release, Courtney Love started a relationship with Kurt Cobain of Nirvana. In February 1992, the couple got married in Hawaii. Just before they got married, Jill Emery and Caroline Rue left the band because they wanted to play different styles of music. Hole then signed a major label recording contract with DGC and Geffen Records. The record deal was worth over $3 million.


title: Hole (band)

text: In 1993, Hole released a new single "Beautiful Son." Patty Schemel was the new drummer for the band and played on all of the songs. Before the band went on tour, they got Kristen Pfaff as a new bassist. The band then took a small break in July to work on new songs for their next album.


title: Hole (band)

text: In 1993, Hole moved to Carnation, Washington to write songs for their next album. In October, the band went to Marietta, Georgia and began recording the album. The recording was finished in a month and was produced by Paul Q. Kolderie and Sean Slade. The album was called "Live Through This" and was released on April 12, 1994. Four days before it was released, Courtney Love's husband was found dead in Seattle. He had killed himself and all of the band members did not want to go on tour. In June, Kristen Pfaff died after a drug overdose and the band had to cancel more shows. Hole got Melissa Auf der Maur as a new bassist before the tour for "Live Through This".


title: Hole (band)

text: "Live Through This" was very popular. The music critics gave the album very good ratings and the album went to number 52 on the "Billboard" music chart and number 13 in the UK Albums Chart. It also went onto the charts in Australia, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden. "Miss World", "Doll Parts", "Violet" and "Softer, Softest" were released as singles and were played a lot on American modern rock radio. The music videos for the songs were played a lot on MTV as well. The album went platinum in Australia, Canada and the United States, and sold over two million copies around the world. The tours for the album were very dramatic—Courtney Love smashed guitars onstage and people at concerts threw gun shells onstage, reminding her about the death of her husband.


title: Hole (band)

text: Hole's band members went to work on different projects in 1996. Love began acting again and got a lead role in "The People vs. Larry Flynt" and the other members worked with other musicians. In 1998, Hole released "Celebrity Skin". The album had a different sound to the band's two other albums and was influenced by powerpop music. During the album's recording sessions, Patty Schemel was replaced by a different drummer and later left the band. She was replaced by Samantha Maloney for the "Celebrity Skin" tour.


title: Hole (band)

text: "Celebrity Skin" was successful and the title song reached number 1 on the "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks chart, making it Hole's most popular single. The album went to number 9 on the "Billboard" 200 and number 11 on the UK Albums Chart. Music critics called the album "sprung, flung and fun, high-impact, rock-fueled pop." Two mores singles were taken from "Celebrity Skin", "Malibu" and "Awful", and both went into the charts. The album has sold more than 1.4 million copies in the United States and has gone platinum in the U.S and Canada, and double platinum in Australia.


title: Hole (band)

text: In October 1999, Melissa Auf der Maur left Hole and went on be a touring bassist for The Smashing Pumpkins. Samantha Maloney quit to become a tour drummer for Mötley Crüe soon after. Love and Erlandson were the only members left in the band. The band's last release was a single for the 1999 film "Any Given Sunday" called "Be a Man." It was released as a single in March 2000 but failed to make it into the charts. Hole tried to record a fourth album but broke up in May 2002. Talking about the break-up, Love said "Eric has been an important part of my family for over ten years and he'll continue to be a part of my life" and Erlandson said "we're incredibly proud of the music we've made together, but it seems like time for both of us to move on."


title: Hole (band)

text: Music magazine "NME" announced in June 2009 that Courtney Love was reforming Hole with new members. Love said that Melissa Auf der Maur would come back as a bassist and Micko Larkin was the band's new guitarist. A small tour of Europe was planned with shows in London, Milan and Amsterdam but Auf der Maur said that she was not involved in the reunion. Original guitarist Eric Erlandson also said that no reunion could happen because he and Love had a contract when the band broke up in 2002. Love and Erlandson tried to settle the dispute but did not come to an agreement.


title: Hole (band)

text: Even though there were legal problems, Hole released "Nobody's Daughter" in April 2010. The album included two new members, bassist Shawn Dailey and drummer Stu Fisher, and had three singles singles—"Skinny Little Bitch", "Pacific Coast Highway" and "Letter to God." Music critics did not give the album good reviews and it did not sell well. It reached number 15 on the "Billboard" 200 chart but quickly fell off the chart. The band went on a worldwide tour after the release of "Nobody's Daughter". A music video for "Samantha", a song from the album, was released in May 2011.


title: Hole (band)

text: Love, Erlandson, Auf der Maur and Patty Schemel went to the premiere of Schemel's film "Hit So Hard: The Life and Near-Death Story of Patty Schemel" at the Museum of Modern Art in New York on March 28, 2011. After the film, Schemel said she wanted Hole to record again but Love said "if it's not moving forward, I don't want to do it." The four members reunited again at the Public Assembly in New York on April 13, 2012. The band performed two songs—"Miss World" and "Over the Edge"—and was the first time the four members were together live since 1995.


title: Hole (band)

text: In a Twitter post for her clothing line, Never the Bride, on November 29, 2010, Courtney Love announced that Hole had broken up. She said "from now on [the band is called Courtney]" and "Hole is dead." During an interview with "Rolling Stone", Love said she was continuing as a solo artist and was releasing a new single, "This is War", in February 2013.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: Ronald Joseph Radke (born December 15, 1983) is an American singer. He was the founder and singer in the band Escape the Fate from 2004 to 2008. As of december 2008, he is the founder and singer in the band Falling in Reverse.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: Ronald Joseph Radke was born on December 15, 1983 at Saint Rose Hospital, Las Vegas, Nevada. He has Native American ancestry. His mother left him at a very young age, but later in life he was able to meet her. She was working as a dog groomer at this point. She ended up leaving him again due to her troubles with addiction. He was raised by his father who also had a drug problem but later became a born again Christian, and sober. Around this time his father also became the president of a motorcycle club.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: Radke grew up very poor. Focusing was a struggle for him during school. He often wore girls' jeans with his friend Mich because his favorite skateboarders wore similar clothes. Ronald has stated that he got them mostly from girls' houses.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: He learned to skateboard, and he can still ride to this day. In high school, he was bullied by the kids for his unique style of wearing tight clothes and very small shirts. Despite this he also got along with some of his classmates because of his interest in rapping. Radke dropped out of high school twice.


title: Ronnie Radke

text: Radke started forming bands during his high school years. His first band was called 3.0. The logo of this band was made in Microsoft Paint and resembled the Ninja Turtles logo. His second band, named Lefty (with Robert Ortiz), competed in the high school talent contest. While on stage, Radke's microphone fell and Max Green (who was in a band called Almost Heroes at the time) picked it up for him and they almost instantly became friends. Together, they formed a band called True Story. Their interest shifted out of the pop punk scene and got into bands like Trice. Radke started playing piano and guitar. He played left-handed guitar, but still played a normal right-handed guitar when he played Blink 182 songs. At age 21, Radke along with Max Green founded the band Escape the Fate. He made two albums with the band and two EPs. The more popular was "Dying Is Your Latest Fashion",it was released September 26, 2006. In late 2008 Radke left Escape the Fate. Radke then founded the band Falling in Reverse and continues to make music. N


title: Taíno

text: The Taínos were an indigenous people that lived in the Americas before Columbus arrived there. They came from the Caribbean coast of South America. Around 1200 CE, they moved northward to the island chain of the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles.


title: Taíno

text: When Christopher Columbus came to the Americas, the Taínos were living in the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico), and some islands of the northern Lesser Antilles. Their culture was different from the culture of the Arawak people (another indigenous group of South America). They were the first people that the Spanish met in the Americas.


title: Taíno

text: The name Taíno was given by Columbus. When he met some native men, they said "Taíno, Taíno", meaning "We are good, noble". Columbus thought that taíno was the name of the people.


title: Taíno

text: Rouse divides the Taínos into three main groups. One is the Classic Taíno, from Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Another is the Western Taíno or sub-Taíno, from Jamaica, Cuba (except for the western tip of the island) and the Bahamas. The third is the Eastern Taíno, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat.


title: Taíno

text: The Taínos of the Bahamas were known as the '"Lucayan". (At that time, the Bahamas were called the "Lucayas"). Lucayos were Taínos, but their culture was less developed. Archeologists call them "sub-Taínos".


title: Taíno

text: The Taínos' ancestors went from the center of the Amazon Basin to the Orinoco Valley. From there, they went through Guyana and Venezuela and got to the Caribbean islands.


title: Taíno

text: Taíno society was divided into two classes. There were the "naborias" (common people) and the "nitaínos" (nobles). Both classes were governed by chiefs known as "caciques". The caciques could be either male or female. There were also "bohiques" (medicine men).


title: Taíno

text: The Taínos lived in villages called "yucayeques". The villages in the Bahamas were the smallest. The Taínos built large round houses called bohio, where several families lived. The cacique and his family lived in a rectangular house called caneye. People slept on cotton hammocks ("hamacas").


title: Taíno

text: The Taínos often played a ball game called "batos". "Batey" was also the name of the place where they played and had dances. The cacique sat on a chair of wood called "duho", or "dujo".


title: Germanic languages

text: The Germanic languages are a group of Indo-European languages. They came from one language, Proto-Germanic, which was first spoken in Scandinavia in the Iron Age. Today, the Germanic languages are spoken by around 515 million people as a first language. English is the most spoken Germanic language, with 360-400 million native speakers.


title: Germanic languages

text: The Germanic languages are the East Germanic languages (all extinct), the North Germanic languages, and the West Germanic languages.


title: Germanic languages

text: When Proto-Germanic split from Proto-Indo-European, one of the main changes in the sounds in the language was Grimm’s law.


title: Monarchy of the United Kingdom

text: The Monarchy of the United Kingdom is the head of state of United Kingdom and formal head of Church of England. The current monarch is Charles III who has reigned since 2022. The king is currently the head of the U.K and 15 other nations known as the Commonwealth realms.


title: Monarchy of the United Kingdom

text: The royal household changed its name to Saxe-Coburg-Gotha after Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, but Victoria stayed part of the House of Hanover. With monarchs it started in 1901. The name was changed in 1917 by George V.


title: Monarchy of the United Kingdom

text: In 1917 King George V changed the royal house's name to Windsor because the United Kingdom was at war with Germany and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is a German name.


title: Monarchy of the United Kingdom

text: In 1922 Ireland was split into the future Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland stayed part of the United Kingdom. However, the name was not changed until 5 years later and George V continued to be King of Ireland until he died ("of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India").


title: Henry IV of France

text: Henry IV (13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), "Henri-Quatre", was King of France from 1589 to 1610 and King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610. He was part of the Capetian dynasty and the first king of the Bourbon family in France.


title: Henry IV of France

text: Henry IV was born in Pau. He was the son of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne of Navarre. He was baptised in a Catholic ceremony, but as he grew up, his mother led him to become a Protestant. On 18 August 1572, Henry married Margaret of Valois. She was the sister of Charles IX. He became the King of Navarre in the same year.


title: Henry IV of France

text: Since 1562, there had been a a series of wars in France which were mostly fought between Catholics and Protestants, and sometimes with more than one groups of Catholics fighting each other. In 1584, Henry became the heir to the throne of France. Most people in France were Catholics, and many of them did not want a Protestant king. This led to the War of the Three Henrys between Henry of Navarre, the existing Catholic king Henry III and Catholic League leader Henry, Duke of Guise. Although both Henry III and Guise were Catholics, they did not get on with each other. Guise was murdered in 1588 and Henry III was murdered the following year.


title: Henry IV of France

text: Henry of Navarre could now be crowned King of France, but he still faced opposition from the Catholic League. After four years of fighting, he decided to convert to being Catholic. He supposedly said "Paris is well worth a Mass." After this, the opposition to Henry died down. In 1598, Henry made the Edict of Nantes. This law allowed people in France to be Protestant, even though most people were Catholic. In Europe at the time, a policy like this was unusual. Most countries forced people to be either Catholic or Protestant. However, the Edict did not make the Protestants fully equal.


title: Henry IV of France

text: Henry's children were Louis XIII and Henrietta Maria of France, who married Charles I and became the Queen of England. He was a friend of Michel of Montaigne.


title: Henry IV of France

text: During his reign, he built the Grande Galerie onto the Louvre. Two landmarks in Paris were started during his reign: the Pont Neuf and the Place des Vosges.


title: Henry IV of France

text: At first, many people in France did not want Henry to be king, because he was a Protestant. Although this mostly ended once he joined the Catholic Church, some Catholics called him a liar, while some Protestants called him a traitor. It was only after his death that he became known as "Good King Henry" (in French, "le bon roi Henri") and one of France's most popular kings. During the early years of the French Revolution, Henry IV was celebrated as an example of what a king should be. He was also celebrated during the Bourbon Restoration.


title: Henry IV of France

text: Henry IV is remembered for being the king who ended the French Wars of Religion, and for his policy of allowing more than one church in his country, which was unusual in those days. He was also known for trying to make sure that poor people had enough to eat. He once said he wished that there could be "a chicken in every pot on a Sunday."


title: Henry IV of France

text: In 2010 scientists found part of his embalmed head and used forensic tests to prove that it was his. It had been stolen from the tombs of the French kings and queens in Saint Denis in 1793 at the time of the French Revolution.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The Brooklyn Bridge is one of the oldest suspension bridges in the United States. It is long. The bridge goes over the East River. It connects the New York City boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn. It is one of the leading landmarks of New York City.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The bridge was built from 1869 to 1883. It was the first fixed crossing of the East River. It was designed by John Roebling. The construction was directed by his son Washington Roebling and Washington's wife, Emily. When it was finished, it was the tallest structure in North America.


title: Brooklyn Bridge

text: The bridge is an official landmark. It has been a National Historic Landmark since 1964. It became a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.


title: Autofellatio

text: Only men who have enough flexibility, penis size or both can perform autofellatio. Autofellatio is a niche in pornography. In some animals, like the Cape ground squirrel, scientists have seen these animals doing autofellatio and also manual masturbation.


title: Clay

text: Clay is a fine-grained silicate mineral made when rocks break down. Wet clay is soft and can be shaped to make pottery, bricks and other things. When it is shaped and then fired in a kiln to make it hard, it becomes pottery.


title: Clay

text: Clay often contains some water because the water molecules stick to the tiny grains. There may also be some organic materials in the clay.


title: Clay

text: There are 35 recognized clay mineral species on Earth, they make muds stick together ('cohesive'), or able to flow ('plastic'). The thixotropy of clay sometimes causes landslides.


title: Clay

text: Quartz, feldspars, iron oxides, and carbonates can weather to sizes of a typical clay mineral. The formation of clay is well understood. It can come from soil, volcanic ash, and glaciation. Ancient mudrocks are another source, because they weather and disintegrate easily.


title: Clay

text: Clay is by far the smallest particles recognized in mudrocks. A clay particle is about 1/1000th the width of a sand grain. This means a clay particle will travel 1000 times further at constant water velocity, thus requiring quieter conditions for settlement. Where the grains are more than a few millimeters wide, the material is called silt, not clay.


title: Akihito

text: Akihito became emperor after the death of his father in 1989, who was Emperor Shōwa. The current emperor's official reign name is "Heisei" (establishing peace).


title: Akihito

text: The Japanese government announced in December 2017 that Akihito would abdicate on 30 April 2019. He then did so in a brief ceremony on that date.


title: Akihito

text: Akihito directly addressed his subjects in a television broadcast after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. This was the first time any emperor used television in this way.


title: Age of Discovery

text: The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century that continued into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners.


title: Age of Discovery

text: They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans met people and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, , Juan Ponce de León, Juan Sebastian Elcano, Bartholomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Blaeu and Captain James Cook.


title: Age of Discovery

text: Henry the Navigator started by paying Portuguese sailors to explore the west coast of Africa. In 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco discovered the Madeira Islands. Later in the 15th century, Vasco da Gama reached the southwestern tip of Africa and established the city of Cape Town, a Portuguese colony. This opened the way to the Indian Ocean. In the next two centuries, the Portuguese created a great trading empire on coasts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The Portuguese Empire eventually weakened after the Dutch East India Company rose as the major power in Indian Ocean trade.


title: Age of Discovery

text: In a hurry to compete with Portugal for a colonial empire, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to the opposite route of the Portuguese. Instead of going south along the west coast of Africa, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. He believed that he came to Asia. Later, some Spanish sailors found out that this land was a different continent than Asia. It is now called the Americas.


title: Age of Discovery

text: In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores gained the whole of what later became Latin America, except some British and French colonies in northeastern South America, and Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. The Spanish concentrated on conquest, unlike the Portuguese who focused on trading. They eventually developed a vast colonial empire, in contrast to the Portuguese who ruled a few islands and coastal cities along the Indian Ocean. When Spain and Portugal were united under King Philip II of Spain , their combined empire was the largest on earth.


title: Age of Discovery

text: In 1522 the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan returned to Spain. The survivors were the first ever to sail all the way around the world.


title: Age of Discovery

text: In the 17th century, political and religious wars with Britain, France, and the Netherlands weakened the Iberian Peninsula. These three nations emerged as the main winners of the wars and became major powers like Spain and Portugal. In the next two centuries, the world became a battlefield of the three nations. Britain and France held land in North America, in India and other distant places. The Dutch colonized smaller parts of the Americas, took the former Portuguese trading centers around the Indian Ocean, and conquered Indonesia. These three new great powers also had influence all around the world.


title: Age of Discovery

text: Eventually, the result was a series of wars that were fought both in Europe and overseas, with Britain emerging victorious. The British took the former land of French Canada and India in the 18th century. They seized power in the Indian Ocean and defeated the Dutch navy. By 1763, the British Empire had become the second global empire after Spain. However, in 1776, thirteen colonies of British America declared independence. With help from the French, Dutch and Spanish, they defeated Britain in the American Revolution.


title: Age of Discovery

text: In 1778, Captain James Cook of Britain sailed across the South Pacific Ocean looking for a mysterious continent in the Southern Hemisphere. He landed on two large islands. Then he sailed west and found a bigger piece of land. The first, was modern New Zealand; the second was Australia. Captain Cook claimed these lands for Britain. He then explored the Pacific world for another year and died in a fight with the Hawaiians.


title: Age of Discovery

text: Many slaves brought from Africa were brought to the Americas which was claimed to be found by Christopher Columbus himself. In conclusion, the Portuguese were weakened after the Dutch rose in the Indian Ocean trade route. Spain gained almost all of Latin America and a massive amount of silver.


title: Age of Discovery

text: When Christopher Columbus tried to find a new trade route to Asia, he thought that he could travel around the world. Instead, he had found a New World. Vikings had briefly visited Vinland around 1000 A.D.


title: Acryl

text: Acryl is a name for a number of chemical compounds that have an acrylic group, or of polymers of these compounds. Especially esters of acrylic acid are used to help make certain dyes and paints or as adhesives.


title: Acryl

text: In organic chemistry, the acryloyl group is the functional group with structure HC=CH–C(=O)–; it is the acyl group derived from acrylic acid. The preferred IUPAC name for the group is prop-2-enoyl. It is also (less correctly) known as acrylyl or simply acryl. Compounds containing an acryloyl group can be referred to as "acrylic compounds".


title: Acryl

text: An acrylic compound is typically an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound: it contains a carbon–carbon double bond and a carbon–oxygen double bond, separated by a carbon–carbon single bond. It has therefore the properties characteristic for both functional groups :


title: Acryl

text: In addition, since both double bonds are separated by a single C–C bond, the double bonds are conjugated.


title: Chemical cell

text: A chemical cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Most batteries are chemical cells. A chemical reaction takes place inside the battery and causes electric current to flow.


title: Chemical cell

text: A battery that is not rechargeable will give electricity until the chemicals in it are used up. Then it is no longer useful. It can be rightly called 'use and throw'.


title: Chemical cell

text: A rechargeable battery can be "recharged" by passing electric current backwards through the battery; it can then be used again to produce more electricity. It was Gaston Plante, a French scientist who invented these rechargeable batteries in 1859.


title: Chemical cell

text: Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from very small ones used in toys and cameras, to those used in cars or even larger ones. Submarines require very large batteries.


title: Chemical cell

text: An extremely important class of oxidation and reduction reactions are used to provide useful electrical energy in batteries. A simple electrochemical cell can be made from copper and zinc metals with solutions of their sulphates. In the process of the reaction, electrons can be transferred from the zinc to the copper through an electrically conducting path as a useful electric current.


title: Chemical cell

text: An electrochemical cell can be created by placing metallic electrodes into an electrolyte where a chemical reaction either uses or generates an electric current. Electrochemical cells which generate an electric current are called voltaic cells or galvanic cells, and common batteries consist of one or more such cells. In other electrochemical cells an externally supplied electric current is used to drive a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously. Such cells are called electrolytic cells.


title: Chemical cell

text: An electrochemical cell which causes external electric current flow can be created using any two different metals since metals differ in their tendency to lose electrons. Zinc more readily loses electrons than copper, so placing zinc and copper metal in solutions of their salts can cause electrons to flow through an external wire which leads from the zinc to the copper. As a zinc atom provides the electrons, it becomes a positive ion and goes into aqueous solution, decreasing the mass of the zinc electrode. On the copper side, the two electrons received allow it to convert a copper ion from solution into an uncharged copper atom which deposits on the copper electrode, increasing its mass. The two reactions are typically written


title: Chemical cell

text: The letters in parentheses are just reminders that the zinc goes from a solid (s) into a water solution (aq) and vice versa for the copper. It is typical in the language of electrochemistry to refer to these two processes as "half-reactions" which occur at the two electrodes.


title: Chemical cell

text: In order for the voltaic cell to continue to produce an external electric current, there must be a movement of the sulfate ions in solution from the right to the left to balance the electron flow in the external circuit. The metal ions themselves must be prevented from moving between the electrodes, so some kind of porous membrane or other mechanism must provide for the selective movement of the negative ions in the electrolyte from the right to the left.


title: Chemical cell

text: Energy is required to force the electrons to move from the zinc to the copper electrode, and the amount of energy per unit charge available from the voltaic cell is called the electromotive force (emf) of the cell. Energy per unit charge is expressed in volts (1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb).


title: Chemical cell

text: Clearly, to get energy from the cell, you must get more energy released from the oxidation of the zinc than it takes to reduce the copper. The cell can yield a finite amount of energy from this process, the process being limited by the amount of material available either in the electrolyte or in the metal electrodes. For example, if there were one mole of the sulfate ions SO on the copper side, then the process is limited to transferring two moles of electrons through the external circuit. The amount of electric charge contained in a mole of electrons is called the Faraday constant, and is equal to Avogadro's number times the electron charge:Faraday constant = F = Ne = 6.022 x 10 x 1.602 x 10 = 96,485 Coulombs/moleThe energy yield from a voltaic cell is given by the cell voltage times the number of moles of electrons transferred times the Faraday constant.


title: Chemical cell

text: The cell emf E may be predicted from the standard electrode potentials for the two metals. For the zinc/copper cell under the standard conditions, the calculated cell potential is 1.1 volts.


title: Chemical cell

text: A simple cell typically has plates of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in dilute sulphuric acid. The zinc dissolves and bubbles of hydrogen appear on the copper plate. These hydrogen bubbles interfere with the passage of current so a simple cell can only be used for a short time. To provide a steady current, a depolarizer (an oxidizing agent) is needed to oxidize the hydrogen. In the Daniel cell, the depolarizer is copper sulphate, which exchanges the hydrogen for copper. In the Leclanche battery, the depolarizer is manganese dioxide, which oxidizes the hydrogen to water.


title: Chemical cell

text: English chemist John Frederick Daniell developed a voltaic cell in 1836 which used zinc and copper and solutions of their ions.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: Rubik's Cube is a puzzle cube, and the world's biggest selling toy of all time with over 300,000,000 (300 million) sold. It was invented in 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. In a classic Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces is covered by nine stickers, each of one of six solid colours: white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow. In currently sold models, white is opposite yellow, blue is opposite green, orange is opposite red, and some might replace blue with black or purple.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: The standard Rubik's Cube is 3x3x3. 3 blocks across, 3 blocks down, and 3 blocks deep. Cubes can be made in 2x2, 4x4, or larger versions. the largest cube is 33 x 33, which is also 3d printed.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: Cuboids are cubes with uneven sides. Some options are the 3x2x2 or 3x5 or 4x3. Some cuboids can "shapeshift" or "jumble". That means the cube goes out of its original shape. To solve a shapeshifting cube it must return to the original shape before it is considered solved.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: A Rubik's Cube is a cube split into a number of smaller cubes with different colored faces attached to a rotating piece of metal in the middle. Total, there are 26 small cubes. The Rubik's Cube have six sides with 9 little cubes attached to it and each side has one color. Red, yellow, blue, orange, white and green are the most common colors.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: The cubes can be rotated and twisted along rows and faces. The aim of the puzzle is to make each face of the cube have the same color. Solving a Rubik's Cube requires logic and thinking. There are many different ways to learn how to solve a Rubik's cube.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: There are many methods that people use to solve a Rubik's Cube. The most simple and easiest one is called the Beginner Method. In this method first the white cross is solved. Then the white layer is solved, followed by the middle layer. Finally, the yellow cross is solved, then the yellow corners. Today the most common method is called CFOP, also called the Fridrich Method, named after the popularizer Jessica Fridrich. It starts with the white cross, then F2L (First 2 Layers) followed by OLL (Orientation of the Last Layer) and PLL (Permutation of the Last Layer). Other methods include Petrus, ZZ, Roux, Keyhole and others.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: The record for one Rubik's Cube solve is 3.47 seconds by Yusheng Du at the Wuhu Open 2018 (in China). The record for an average of 5 solves is 4.86 seconds. Two people have set this record: Max Park at the Marshall Cubing September 2022 competition in San Jose, California, and Tymon Kolasiński at the Cube4fun in Warsaw 2022 competition in Warsaw.


title: Rubik's Cube

text: According to Guinness World Records, the fastest time a robot has solved a Rubik's Cube is 0.637 seconds. This was done by the robot "Sub1 Reloaded", created by Albert Beer. However, a faster time of 0.38 seconds was claimed by a robot built at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.


title: Franz Joseph I of Austria

text: Emperor Franz Joseph I or Emperor Francis Joseph I (, , ) (Slovene : Franc Jozef Karel) (Croatian : Franjo Josip Karlo) (Czech : Frantisek Josef Karel) (Romanian : Francisc Iosif Carol) (August 18, 1830 – November 21, 1916) of the Habsburg Dynasty was Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary, King of Bohemia from 1848 until 1916 and also served as President of the German Confederation from 1850-1866.


title: Franz Joseph I of Austria

text: His nephew Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria would have been his successor but he was assassinated. Wars during the reign of Franz Joseph included the Second Italian War Of Independence (1859), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), the Third Italian War Of Independence (1866) and the 1899-1901 Boxer Rebellion. He died during World War 1. Charles I of Austria became emperor in 1916 and reigned from 1916-1918.


title: Franz Joseph I of Austria

text: Franz Joseph's 68-year reign is the third-longest in the history of continental Europe (after those of Louis XIV of France and Ioannes II, Prince of Liechtenstein).


title: Bandleader

text: A bandleader is the leader of a group of musicians. Bandleaders often lead large groups that play genres like big band, jazz, blues, rhythm and blues and rock and roll. The bandleader directs the other musicians in the group. Bandleaders often perform in their groups as well. Sometimes bands are named after their bandleaders.


title: Lithosphere

text: The lithosphere is the solid shell of the planet "Earth". This means the crust, plus the part of the upper mantle which behaves elastically over long time scales.


title: Lithosphere

text: Under the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, the weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. This part can flow.


title: Lithosphere

text: The lithosphere provides a conductive lid on top of the convecting mantle: it reduces heat transport through the Earth. A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: λίθος [lithos] for "rocky", and σφαίρα [sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid,[1] outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite which is defined by its rigid mechanical properties. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and that portion of the upper mantle which behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater. The outermost shell of a rocky planet, the crust, is defined on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy.


title: Lithosphere

text: Oceanic lithosphere thickens as it ages and moves away from the mid-ocean ridge. This thickening occurs by conductive cooling, which converts hot asthenosphere into lithospheric mantle, and causes the oceanic lithosphere to become increasingly dense with age. Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few tens of millions of years, but after this becomes increasingly dense than asthenosphere.


title: Lithosphere

text: When a continental plate comes together with an oceanic plate, at a subduction zones, the oceanic lithosphere always sinks beneath the continental.


title: Lithosphere

text: New oceanic lithosphere is constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic lithosphere is about 200 million years old, while parts of the continental lithosphere are billions of years old.


title: Lithosphere

text: Another distinguishing characteristic of the lithosphere is its flow properties. Under the influence of the low-intensity, long-term stresses that drive tectonic motion, the lithosphere is like a rigid shell. It changes mainly by breaking ("brittle failure"). The asthenosphere (the layer of the mantle below the lithosphere) is heat-softened and adjusts by plastic changes ("deformation").


title: Lithosphere

text: Oceanic lithosphere is made up of mostly basalt and gabbro. Continental lithosphere is made up of granite and gneiss.


title: Pacific Islands

text: Pacific Islands are islands that are in the Pacific Ocean. There are about 20,000 or 30,000 of them. These islands are sometimes called Oceania. The Pacific Islands are in three groups. These groups are Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. People who live on these islands are called Pacific Islanders. These islands can be made by volcanoes or made on coral reefs. The islands made by volcanoes are bigger, and more people can live on them. The islands made on coral reefs are smaller, and fewer people can live on them. One of Oceania's biggest economic advantages are tourism. As many vacationers come to see the wildlife and the beautiful beaches that span the islands. Major countries and territories include Samoa, Hawaii (U.S), Federal States of Micronesia and French Polynesia.


title: Pacific Islands

text: Island countries in the Pacific Ocean, such as Malaysia, Philippines, East Timor, Japan, Taiwan and most of Indonesia are not considered Pacific Islands since they do not lie in any of the three Oceanic regions. People inhabiting those islands, therefore are not Pacific Islanders.


title: Cathode ray

text: A cathode ray is a stream of electrons that are seen in vacuum tubes. It is called a "cathode ray" because the electrons are being emitted from the negative charged element in the vacuum tube called the cathode. A cathode ray tube aims the ray at a point on its screen. They were first observed in 1869 by German physicist Johann Hittorf, and were named in 1876 by Eugen Goldstein "Kathodenstrahlen", or cathode rays.


title: Cathode ray

text: Electrons were discovered as the constituents of cathode rays in 1897 by British physicist J. J. Thomson. He showed the rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was later called the "electron". Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) use a focused beam of electrons deflected by electric or magnetic fields to create the image in a classic television set.


title: Mind control

text: Mind control (also known as brainwashing, coercive persuasion or thought control) refers to the way some people have tried to control the beliefs and behaviours of others.


title: Mind control

text: It is a process where a group or individual uses methods to persuade other to change their basic beliefs and values. A group or individual may use unethical methods to persuade others to believe and do what the manipulator(s) want. It often harms the person being manipulated.


title: Mind control

text: The term has been applied to any tactic, psychological or otherwise, which undermines (damages) an individual's control over their own thinking, behaviour, emotions or decision making.


title: Mind control

text: Theories of brainwashing and of mind control were originally developed to explain how totalitarian regimes appeared to succeed systematically in indoctrinating prisoners of war through propaganda and torture techniques.


title: Mind control

text: Some authors have pointed out that the ideas of mind control can be found in all stages of human history.


title: Mind control

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" records the earliest known use of "brainwashing" in an article Edward Hunter in "Miami News" published on 7 October 1950. During the Korean War, Hunter, who worked at the time both as a journalist before becoming a U.S. intelligence agent, wrote a series of books and articles on the theme of Chinese brainwashing.


title: Mind control

text: The Chinese term ("xǐ năo", literally "wash brain") was originally used to describe methodologies of coercive persuasion used under the Maoist regime in China. The methods aimed to change people's mindset so they became "right-thinking" members of the new Chinese social system.


title: Mind control

text: Hunter and those who picked up the Chinese term used it to explain why, unlike in earlier wars, a relatively high percentage of American GIs defected to the enemy side after becoming prisoners-of-war. British radio operator Robert W. Ford and British Army Colonel James Carne also claimed that the Chinese subjected them to brainwashing techniques during their war-era imprisonment. The most prominent case in the U.S. was that of Frank Schwable, a prisoner in the war. While in custody, he confessed to having taken part in germ warfare.


title: Mind control

text: After the Korean War, mind control theories shifted in focus from politics to religion. From the 1960s an increasing number of youths started to come into contact with new religious movements (NRM). Some who converted suddenly adopted beliefs and behaviors that differed greatly from those of their families and friends; in some cases they neglected or broke contact with their loved ones. Those against cults explained these sudden and seemingly dramatic religious conversions as due to mind control. The media was quick to follow suit, and social scientists sympathetic to the anti-cult movement, who were usually psychologists, developed more sophisticated models of brainwashing. While some psychologists were receptive to these theories, sociologists were for the most part skeptical of their ability to explain conversion to NRMs.


title: Grenada

text: Grenada ( ; Grenadian Creole French: "Gwenad") is an island nation in the Caribbean Sea that received its independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. Its capital is St. George's.


title: Grenada

text: The island was invaded by the American military in 1983 because of Cuba's presence there. In 2004, a hurricane named Ivan destroyed most of the island's resources.


title: Romanticism

text: Romanticism (or Romantic movement) is a movement, or style of art, literature and music in the late 18th and early 19th century in Europe.


title: Romanticism

text: The movement said that feelings, imagination, nature, human life, freedom of expression, individualism and old folk traditions, such as legends and fairy tales, were important. It was a reaction to the aristocratic social and political ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution.


title: Romanticism

text: The movement showed most strongly in arts like music, and literature. However, it also had an important influence on historiography, education, and natural history.


title: Romanticism

text: Romanticism in Britain was notable as the country was an early adopter of industrialization and science, and included such figures as:


title: Romanticism

text: During the same period as Britain, there was a notable romantistic movement in Germany. Important motifs in German Romanticism are traveling, nature, and Germanic myths. Involved were such figures as:


title: M6 motorway

text: The M6 is the longest motorway in the United Kingdom. It is also one of the busiest motorways in the country. It is often referred to as "The Backbone of Britain".


title: M6 motorway

text: The M6 is part of the unsigned E-road E24 from the M1 to the M6 Toll near Birmingham. The E5 joins the M6 Toll from the M42 and then uses the M6 to its north end at Carlisle. Then it continues to become the M74. The motorway is 230 miles (370km) long. This is 37 miles longer than the M1 motorway.


title: M6 motorway

text: The first section of the motorway was the Preston by-pass, opened on 5 December 1958. It was built by a company called Tarmac Construction. It was the first motorway in the United Kingdom. It was opened by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. The motorway was later extended in both directions.


title: M6 motorway

text: Junction 6 in Birmingham has the name Spaghetti Junction. This is because it looks very complex from the sky.


title: M6 motorway

text: On the high ground between Shap and Tebay, the north and south-bound carriages split apart. Strangely, at this point a local road runs between the two carriageways without a link to the motorway.


title: M6 motorway

text: The section of the M6 which runs over Shap Fell in Cumbria is 1050 ft (320 m) above sea level. This is one of the highest points on any motorway in the UK. The West Coast Main Line railway follows the same course. It runs alongside the M6 for much of its length.


title: M6 motorway

text: The motorway starts at the M1 in Rugby. It passes through Birmingham and Spaghetti Junction. The motorway continues to the north, passing Liverpool and Manchester. It goes around Preston and up to Lancaster. It then follows through a valley past the Lake District and Penrith. It finishes at Carlisle.


title: M6 motorway

text: At the end of the M6 motorway at Carlisle, there is a 6-mile stretch of the A74 which links England to Scotland. This is called the "Cumberland Gap". This was caused by an argument between the British Parliament and the Scottish Parliament, which left neither the M6 or the A74(M) being built. After a lot of controversy, building started on the remaining six miles. When it is completed, there will be a complete motorway going from London to Glasgow.


title: M6 motorway

text: The M6 Toll is a toll road which was opened in 2003. It starts at Junction 11A and runs around Birmingham to Junction 3A. It is the first toll road to be built in the United Kingdom. It was opened on 9 December 2003. It is reported to save 45 minutes from the average journey.


title: Bias

text: Bias means that a person prefers an idea and possibly does not give equal chance to a different idea. Bias can be influenced by a number of factors, such as popularity (for example, a newspaper might be biased towards a particular political party due to their employees sharing the same political beliefs as that party).


title: Bias

text: Bias in an article or editorial would show one point of view, using selected facts and quotes to support that point of view. Facts or opinions that do not support the point of view in a biased article would be excluded. For example, an article biased toward riding a motorcycle would show facts about the good gas mileage, fun, and agility. An article biased against motorcycle riding would show facts about risk of injury and noise, and ignore positive facts about motorcycles.


title: Bias

text: An article biased against guns would show only facts and information that support the author's position. They would list suicides, accidental shootings and other facts showing guns in a negative way. An article biased for guns should show only information that supports the author's position. The positively biased article would discuss 'lives saved' by guns, numbers of crimes prevented by civilian gun use, and other facts and data that put gun ownership and guns in a good light.


title: Bias

text: Bias in writing can also be shown by using bad or slang words to refer to groups of people or things. "Broads" rather than "women"; "murdercycles" rather than "motorcycles". Words or phrasing that make wide assumptions about races or groups of people also indicates bias. "All Chinese people are good at math".


title: Bias

text: Bias also means mistakes in measurements. For example, a person may measure the height of another person wearing shoes. The shoes make the height more than the same person without shoes. If the extra height of the shoes (extra bias) was not explained, someone might think that the person had been measured without shoes on. Data with extra parts not explained is called biased data.


title: Computer architecture

text: In computer engineering, computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It is the technical drawings and functional description of all design requirements (especially speeds and interconnections), it is how to design and implement various parts of a computer — focusing largely on the way by which the central processing unit (CPU) operates internally and how it accesses addresses in memory.


title: Computer architecture

text: It can be defined as the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals.


title: Computer architecture

text: Once both ISA and microarchitecture has been specified, the actual computing system needs to be designed into hardware. This design process is called "implementation". Implementation is usually a hardware engineering design process.


title: Computer architecture

text: For CPUs, the entire implementation process is often called CPU design; it can also be a family of related CPU designs, such as RISC and CISC.


title: Sovereignty

text: Sovereignty is the right of a government to have complete control over its area. The idea that this right comes from doing good things for the people under control of the government is as old as Ancient Greece if not older.


title: Sovereignty

text: The exact meaning of Sovereignty has changed some in the past. The present meaning of Sovereignty is said to come from the Peace of Westphalia, an agreement between the rulers of Europe in 1648 which said:


title: Sovereignty

text: Ancient Rome was first the Roman Republic, but then when Octavian made the Roman Empire the Emperor of Rome said that he was "Sovereign". The meaning of this was that he could make any law he wanted, and he did not have to do what the law said himself.


title: Sovereignty

text: In the time of the Middle Ages many kings and rulers had to do what other leaders said, such as the leader of the Catholic Church, the Pope. Because of this, the idea of "Sovereignty" was not much used.


title: Sovereignty

text: In the time of the Protestant Reformation, in the 16th century, governments were breaking away from religious leaders. Also many wars were fought between different rulers inside areas that are now sovereign countries. The English Civil War is one example of a war fought in this time between leaders inside one country.


title: Sovereignty

text: The Peace of Westphalia was made in 1648 and the idea of "Sovereignty" came back. Governments were now separate from outside leaders and only one government or ruler inside a country could make laws. The divine right of kings became more widespread.


title: Sovereignty

text: The English thinker Thomas Hobbes wrote a book in 1651 that said rulers and governments are "Sovereign" because they are good for the safety of the people. The idea that people could change rulers if they were not safe was new with Hobbes.


title: Sovereignty

text: Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote a book in 1763 that said the choice of the people is the only thing sovereignty comes from.


title: Sovereignty

text: Both Rousseau and Hobbes advanced a "Social Contract" in which people consent to a government's sovereignty just by living in the country and that people give up at least some of their liberty for security


title: Sovereignty

text: In 1789 the French Revolution made an important country's government ruled by the choices of the people for the first time after the Middle Ages (some cities and small countries were democracies in the Middle Ages). There were many problems and France went back to the old way soon after, but would be ready for Democracy in 1870's. In England, many people got to vote after The Reform Act in 1832. The United States broke away from England in 1776-1783, but was not an important country at that time.


title: Sovereignty

text: "Sovereignty" when talking about relations between countries mostly means the rights a Sovereign state has over its territory.


title: Sovereignty

text: Sometimes there is discussion about when a government loses Sovereignty because it is doing bad things for its people. In this case justice may mean other countries need to intrude on the sovereignty of the government.


title: Sovereignty

text: "Sovereignty" when talking about relations between groups inside one country usually means which group has the Legitimacy to rule. This may not be certain. Sometimes the group who is most able to rule (because of a strong military) is not Legitimate.


title: 5.56mm NATO

text: The 5.56×45mm NATO round, pronounced "five-five-six", is an intermediate cartridge and the main bullet type used by guns made for NATO militaries. It was first used in the Vietnam War as the main bullet used by the US military.


title: 5.56mm NATO

text: Early in the Vietnam War, the main gun used by American soldiers was the M14. Many soldiers complained that the 7.62mm NATO round used by the M14 was too heavy and that the gun kicked back too hard to shoot accurately when shooting in full-automatic fire. To solve this problem, the US military decided replace the M14 and the 7.62mm NATO by creating a new assault rifle that would shoot lighter bullets with less kickback. That gun would be the M16A1, the first standard issue gun to fire the 5.56mm NATO bullet.


title: 5.56mm NATO

text: Even though the M16A1 had many design flaws that would cause the gun to jam, the 5.56 bullet performed well in battle. The 5.56 did so well that the Soviet Union made its own intermediate cartridge, the 5.45 x 39mm, to compete with NATO.


title: 5.56mm NATO

text: Guns that use the 5.56 include the M16, the M4 carbine, the AR-15, the FAMAS, the G36, the SCAR-L, and the Mini-14.


title: Fraternities and sororities

text: Fraternities and sororities are social groups for college students, though sometimes high schools have them too. They exist mostly in the United States and Europe. The words "frater" and "soror" are Latin for "brother" and "sister" and used to show closeness between members. They also denote whether the group is for men or women. Sororities are only for women. Fraternities are only for men. But there are some fraternities for women.


title: Fraternities and sororities

text: Fraternities and sororities often have groups at many different schools. Each fraternity or sorority is given two or three Greek letters to call themselves, for example, ΑΦ (Alpha Phi) or ΑΧΩ (Alpha Chi Omega). To tell the difference between groups at different schools, called chapters, each chapter is given another set of Greek letters. For example, a man in the Kappa Sigma fraternity who goes to the University of Louisiana at Lafayette is part of the fraternity's EX (Epsilon Chi) chapter. Chapters sometimes have houses on or near the campus of the college the members attend that members can live in.


title: Fraternities and sororities

text: Fraternities and sororities are often exclusive, meaning people who want to join need to be invited to do so. This is done during a process called "rushing". During a rush, people who want to join a chapter will talk to current members. If the member think the person rushing is a good fit for the group, they will get an invitation, called a "bid", to join the chapter. If the person rushing accepts, they become a "pledge".


title: Fraternities and sororities

text: The pledging period is a time when the pledge is not yet a full member, and may leave or be refused membership at any time. Sometimes, members of the chapter will put the pledge through trials. Sometimes they are tests on the history of the fraternity they are trying to join, wearing a badge with the fraternity's letters on it at all times, or performing public service. Sometimes the trials are cruel, dangerous or humiliating. If the trials are cruel, it is called "hazing". Hazing is illegal in 44 states.


title: Fraternities and sororities

text: After the pledging period, the pledge becomes a full member of the chapter and fraternity or sorority.


title: Viktor Tsoi

text: Viktor Robertovich Tsoi (; 21 June 1962 – 15 August 1990) was a Soviet singer and songwriter. He co-founded Kino, one of the most popular bands in Russia at its time.


title: Viktor Tsoi

text: Tsoi was born and raised in Leningrad. He started writing songs when he was a teenager. He made lots of music - ten albums in total. After Kino was in the 1987 Soviet film "Assa", it became very popular. This lead to Tsoi having a leading role in the Kazakh new wave art film "The Needle".


title: Viktor Tsoi

text: In 1990, after their large concert at the Luzhniki Stadium. Tsoi moved to Latvia with another member of Kino, Yuri Kasparyan to work on Kino's next album. Two months after the concert in the Luzhniki Stadium, Tsoi died in a car crash. Tsoi and his music are still widely popular.


title: Victoria Paris

text: Victoria Paris (November 22, 1960 – August 10, 2021) was an American pornographic actress and model. She was born in Great Falls, Montana. Paris began her career in 1989 and retired in 2002. She was a nude model for "Hustler" magazine, "High Society" and "Penthouse" in 1988.


title: Constructed language

text: An artificial or constructed language (sometimes called a conlang) is a language that has been made by a person or small group, instead of being formed naturally as part of a culture. Some constructed languages are designed for use in human communication (like the common Esperanto). Others are created for use in fiction, linguistic experiments, secret codes, or simply because the maker likes to play language games.


title: Constructed language

text: Constructed languages can be split into a priori languages, which are made from scratch, and a posteriori languages, which borrow words and grammar from existing languages.


title: Honey bee

text: A honey bee (or honeybee) is any bee that is a member of the genus Apis. They are all eusocial flying insects which live in colonies of various sizes. They are only a small fraction of the 20,000 known species of bee.


title: Honey bee

text: They produce and store honey and make perennial, colonial nests from wax. in contrast to the stingless honey bees.


title: Honey bee

text: Honey bees are the only living members of the tribe Apini, all in the genus "Apis". There are only seven species of honey bee, with a total of 44 subspecies. Historically, from six to eleven species have been recognized.


title: Honey bee

text: Some other types of bees produce and store honey, but only members of the genus "Apis" are true honey bees. The study of honey bees is known as <nowiki>"melittology"</nowiki>.


title: Honey bee

text: The first "Apis" bees appear in the European fossil record at the Eocene–Oligocene boundary (34 million years ago). This shows that the bees were present in Europe by that time. Few fossil deposits are known from South Asia, the suspected region of honey bee origin.


title: Honey bee

text: No "Apis" species existed in the New World during human times before the introduction of "A. mellifera" by Europeans. Only one fossil species is known, a single 14-million-year-old specimen from Nevada.


title: Honey bee

text: The close relatives of modern honey bees – bumblebees and stingless bees – are also social, but with smaller numbers in their families.


title: Honey bee

text: All honey bees (and perhaps all bees) use scent as a way to co-ordinate their activities. Nasonov's gland produces a pheromone used to get worker bees together. The pheromone can attract workers to a settled swarm and draw bees who have lost their way back to the hive.


title: Schengen Area

text: The Schengen Area is an area that includes 26 European countries. All of those countries have signed the Schengen Agreement in Schengen, Luxembourg in 1985.


title: Schengen Area

text: The Schengen area removes passport control between its member countries. This means travelers who go from one Schengen country to another do not clear immigration checks anymore. Passengers go through immigration checks if they enter or exit the Schengen Area.


title: Schengen Area

text: The current members of the Schengen Area are Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Because Switzerland is not part of the European Economic Area, customs control in Switzerland still exists.


title: Schengen Area

text: At this moment, 400 million people live in the area. The territory covers 4,312,099 square kilometres.


title: Schengen Area

text: On 14 June 1985 the Schengen Agreement was signed. This happened on the boat "Princess Marie-Astrid" in the middle of the river Moselle. On that place, the borders of France, Germany and Luxembourg meet. Five countries signed the Agreement: Belgium, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands and West Germany. It was signed, but that didn't mean it was already implemented.


title: Schengen Area

text: In 26 March 1995, all European Union members (except the United Kingdom and Ireland) signed the Agreement. Norway and Iceland also signed the Agreement.


title: Schengen Area

text: On 1 May 2004, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the EU. They signed the Schengen agreement on that same day. They implemented the Schengen Agreement on 21 December 2007.


title: Schengen Area

text: Switzerland joined the Schengen Area on 12 December 2008. Liechtenstein joined it on 19 December 2011.


title: Schengen Area

text: Twenty-six countries belong to the Schengen Area. All these countries are members of the European Union, except Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.


title: Schengen Area

text: Some nationalities need visas to visit the Schengen Area. They only need one Schengen visa for all countries. But they must apply at the embassy of their main destination. The main destination is where a traveller wants to spend the longest time. The visa officer can issue a visa for only one trip or many trips. The officer also decides how long the visa is valid for. The traveller needs to exit before the Schengen visa expires.


title: Eukaryote

text: An eukaryote is an organism with complex cells, or a single cell with complex structures. In these cells the genetic material is organized into chromosomes in the cell nucleus.


title: Eukaryote

text: Animals, plants, algae and fungi are all eukaryotes. There are also eukaryotes amongst single-celled protists. In contrast, simpler organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, do not have nuclei and other complex cell structures. Such organisms are called prokaryotes.


title: Eukaryote

text: Eukaryotes evolved in the Proterozoic eon. The oldest known probable eukaryote is "Grypania", a coiled, unbranched filament up to 30 mm long. The oldest "Grypania" fossils come from an iron mine near Negaunee, Michigan. The fossils were originally dated as 2100 million years ago, but later research showed the date as about 1874 million years ago. "Grypania" lasted into the Mesoproterozoic era.


title: Eukaryote

text: Another ancient group is the acritarchs, believed to be the cysts or reproductive stages of algal plankton. They are found 1400 million years ago, in the Mesoproterozoic era.


title: Eukaryote

text: The classification of the Eukaryota is under active discussion, and several taxonomies have been proposed. Modern versions disagree about the number of kingdoms. It carrys DNA as well as it is an organism.


title: Eukaryote

text: Eukaryotic cells are usually much bigger than prokaryotes. They can be up to 10 times bigger. Eukaryote cells have many different internal membranes and structures, called organelles. They also have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules and microfilaments. Those parts are very important in the cell's shape. Eukaryotic DNA is put in bundles called chromosomes, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during cell division. Most eukaryotes have some sort of sexual reproduction through fertilisation, which prokaryotes do not use.


title: Eukaryote

text: Prokaryotes do not have sexes, but they can pass DNA to other bacteria. Their cell division is asexual. Bacterial conjugation is when bacteria move a genetic element (often a plasmid or transposon) from one to another.


title: Eukaryote

text: Eukaryotes have sets of linear chromosomes located in the nucleus and the number of chromosomes is usually typical for each species.


title: Eukaryote

text: In eukaryotic cells, there are many things with membranes around them. All of them together are called the endomembrane system. Simple bags, called vesicles or vacuoles, are sometimes made by budding off other membranes, just like how children make bubbles with their toys. Many cells take in food and other things using something called endocytosis. In endocytosis, the membrane closest to the outside bends inwards and then pinches off to make a vesicle. Many other organelles that have membranes probably started off as vesicles.


title: Eukaryote

text: The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes membrane that has holes in it so things can go in and out. The nuclear envelope has things sticking out of it that look like tubes and sheets. These are called the endoplasmic reticulum which is often shortened to ER. The ER is works with moving proteins around and allowing them to mature.


title: Eukaryote

text: The ER has two parts, the rough ER and the smooth ER. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it. The proteins made by the ribosomes attached to the rough ER go to the inside the rough ER, called the lumen. After that, they usually go into vesicles, which grow and pinch off from the smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, the vesicles with proteins inside fuse with piles of flattened vesicles called the Golgi bodies, where the proteins inside are changed again.


title: Eukaryote

text: Vesicles are sometimes changed so they can do one thing very well. This is called specialization, or differentiation. For example, lysosomes have enzymes inside them that break down the food the comes from food vacuoles, and peroxisomes have enzymes that break down peroxide, a poison, so it is not poisonous anymore.


title: Eukaryote

text: Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which are vacuoles that can fuse or pinch off from the outer membrane. Contractile vesicles are often used to get and get rid of unneeded water. Extrusomes shoot out stuff that make predators go away or catch food. In multicellular organisms, hormones are often made in vesicles. In the complicated plants, most of the inside of a plant cell is taken up by a central vacuole. That central vacuole is the main thing that keeps osmotic pressure so the cell can hold its shape.


title: Eukaryote

text: Because the cell organelles of eukaryotes have different (polyphyletic) origins, the question arises as to whether the group is a unified clade or not. It is certain that the protists are not. Cell organelles are specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'. The first such events took place between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria. Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes.


title: Eukaryote

text: Recent research shows that "the known repertoire of ‘eukaryote-specific’ proteins in Archaea [indicate] that the archaeal host cell already contained many key components that govern eukaryotic cellular complexity".


title: Eukaryote

text: "Protista" is a group of different single-celled organisms. More accurate taxonomies have been proposed, but scientists are still discussing them. For this reason, Protista is still useful for talking about these organisms. One modern scheme for the classification of the Eukarya is as follows:


title: Eukaryote

text: However, in 2005, doubts were expressed as to whether some of these supergroups were monophyletic, particularly the Chromalveolata, and a review in 2006 noted the lack of evidence for several of the supposed six supergroups.


title: Eukaryote

text: The Eukarya may only be unified in the sense that the cells are a community derived from bacteria and archaea; opinions vary. Like the Protista, the Eukarya may be a polyphyletic assembly, though a useful one. However, as mentioned above, all branches of the Eukarya have sexual reproduction. That, and the general organisation of the nucleus, are the defining features. These two points are the main evidence for monophyletic origin.


title: G-string

text: A G-string or thong is a narrow piece of cloth or leather, or plastic that passes between the buttocks. It is attached to a band around the hips. It can be worn as a swimwear or underwear by both men and women. The difference between a G-string and a thong is that a G-string has less material between the legs. This makes it look like a string. Variants of the thong or G-string include the "V-string" and the "T-string".


title: G-string

text: The G-string or thong is probably the earliest form of clothing known to mankind. It originated in the warmer climates of sub-Saharan Africa where clothing was first worn almost 75,000 years ago. Many tribal peoples, like some of the Khoisan people of southern Africa, wore thongs for many centuries. These early pieces of clothes were made to fit the male genitalia.


title: G-string

text: The G-string was first developed for men by primitive peoples. However, in modern days, Western thongs are usually worn by females. They first became popular in South America in the 1970s. In Brazil, it was originally a style of swimsuit that had a rear area that became so narrow, that it would disappear between the buttocks.


title: G-string

text: The origin of the term "G-string" is not fully known. The term was first written about by Americans in the late 1800s. They described the loincloth of Philippine natives. Others say the term came from the G-string on an instrument. The origin of the word "thong" is from the Old English "thwong", which is a flexible leather cord.


title: Moscow Metro

text: The Moscow Metro is a metro system which reaches nearly every part of the city of Moscow in Russia. It is one of the most heavily used metro systems in the world. It is also famous for its stations, which are heavily decorated with paintings.


title: Moscow Metro

text: In total the metro is 314 kilometres long and has 214 stations (including 1 temporarily closed). During the day about 7.2 million passengers use the metro. As in many subway systems every line has its own colour, name and number. In total there are 14 lines.


title: Moscow Metro

text: The metro runs from 5:30 AM to 1:00 AM. In peak hours trains run every 90 seconds, in the rest of the day every 3–4 minutes and in the evening every 6–10 minutes. The metro does not publish a timetable, because the trains run at short intervals. Part of Filevskaya line (4) has a timetable because there are two lines there - new line to Mezhdunarodnaya and old line to Fili.


title: Moscow Metro

text: The first stations were opened 1935, May 15th. There were routes from Sokolniki to Park kultury and to Smolenskaya.


title: Moscow Metro

text: First the Moscow metro had name after Lazar Kaganovich who was the had of Moscow Committee of All-Union communist party. In 1957 he was exiled from the party, and the Moscow metro became be named after V. I. Lenin.


title: Moscow Metro

text: During the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union some stations were used as shelters against bombs.


title: Moscow Metro

text: The Moscow Metro has 16 lines, consisting of 14 normal lines and one light line and one U-railway. Here is a short overview of the lines:


title: Moscow Metro

text: The moscow metro uses magnetic cards for tickets with a certain number of rides: 1,2,5,10,20 and 60. These tickets were first sold in 1993 as a test. All other tickets are Transport Cards (Smartcards). There are two kinds of smartcards, 'unlimited' and 'social'. Both kinds of cards can be used for 30, 90 or 1 year. Social cards are free for senior citizens and reduced for students.


title: Moscow Metro

text: The metro has a gauge of 1520 mm, like most Russian railways. It gets the electricity from a third rail. The metro is run on a voltage of 825V AC. The average distance between stations is 1800 m. The shortest is 300m between the stations Alexandrovskiy Sad and Arbatskaya. The longest distance between stations is 6627 m between Krylatskoe and Strogino. The long distance helps trains travelling faster and more efficient.


title: Moscow Metro

text: Most platforms are at least 155 m long. They can take trains which have 8 cars. The only exceptions are some stations on Filyovskaya Line which can only take 6-car trains. These stations are:


title: Moscow Metro

text: Trains on lines 2, 6, 7 and 9 have eight cars, on lines 3, 8, 10 seven cars and on lines 4, 5 and 11 six cars.


title: Moscow Metro

text: Line 12 is different from all other lines. Its platforms are much shorter than the normal platforms. They are only 96 m longs. It has newer trains than the other line.


title: Moscow Metro

text: The metro has 214 stations. 71 of them are deep under the ground, 87 are just under the ground. There are also 10 stations above the ground and 3 on bridges.


title: Moscow Metro

text: On trains to the city there is a male announcer, on trains from the city there is a female announcer. (The boss calls you to work, the wife calls you home).


title: Moscow Metro

text: One of the stations - Vorobievy Gory is situated at the bridge and has a great view at the Moscow river. Also this station is the longest at Moscow.


title: Moscow Metro

text: Although this has not been officially said, many independent studies say that there is a second, deeper metro system designed for emergency evacuation of important city personnel in case of attack. It is believed that it consists of a single track and connects the Kremlin, chief HQ (Genshtab), Lubyanka (FSB Headquarters) and the Ministry of Defence, as well as numerous other secret installations. There are also entrances to the system from several civilian buildings such as the Russian State Library, Moscow State University (MSU) and at least two stations of the regular metro.[citation needed] It is speculated that these would allow for the evacuation of a small number of randomly chosen civilians, in addition to most of the elite military personnel. The only known junction between the secret system and normal Metro is behind the station Sportivnaya of the Sokolnicheskaya Line.


title: Thessaloniki

text: Thessaloniki is the second-largest city in Greece after Athens. There were 325,182 people at the census of 2011. Including the suburbs, there were 1,110,312 people. It is in the region of Macedonia in northern Greece. It is the capital of the Thessaloniki prefecture and it is the capital of the periphery of central Macedonia. It is the largest city in the geographical region of Macedonia. It has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa" in the Köppen climate classification). The average rainfall is relatively low, due to the rain shadow from the Pindos mountains. Unlike in Athens, there are frequent frosts and snow every winter.


title: Thessaloniki

text: Thessaloniki was established by King Cassander of Macedon, friend of Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. He named the city after the sister of Alexander the Great, princess Thessalonike, which in Greek means "victory over Thessaly".


title: Thessaloniki

text: From late antiquity to the late Middle Ages (330AD-1430AD) it was the second most important city of Byzantine Empire. Then Thessaloniki faced many invasions from enemies such as the Avaroi, Bulgars and others. In the year 1204, the crusaders conquered Thessaloniki and created the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Later it was liberated by Byzantines and then sold to the Republic of Venice but the year 1430, it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire.


title: Thessaloniki

text: Thessaloniki was a part of Ottoman Empire for approximately 500 years and in 1912 it became part of Greece when Greece acquired Macedonia following the Balkan Wars. Many famous people have lived or were born here, such as the Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero, many saints like Cyril and Methodius, who invented the Cyrillic alphabet, and Saint Demetrius, who is the patron saint of the city, and many politicians, such as the founder of modern-day Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Most of the city was completely destroyed in a large fire in 1917 and was rebuilt in the 1920s. Thessaloniki was place to both the Salonica and Macedonian fronts during World War 1, this fronts were made of French, Serbian, English, Italian, and a Russian division. This fronts were key in 1918 to the Entente victory over both Bulgaria and Austria. It was later occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second World War, during the Greek Invasion.


title: Thessaloniki

text: Thessaloniki has many sights. The most famous sight in Thessaloniki is the white tower. The White tower was a part of Thessaloniki's ancient walls that were built many times through the ages. Thessaloniki was the second-most well-fortified city in the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople (Istanbul). The walls can still be seen above the city today and despite the many earthquakes, they are still standing. The city was home to a Roman imperial palace and mausoleum. The palace ruins can be seen today but the mausoleum together with a Roman arch can be still seen standing today. Very important sights of Thessaloniki are the medieval churches such as Agios Dimitrios, Agios Georgios and Agia Sofia. Agios Dimitrios it the largest and oldest Basilica in Greece. Thessaloniki's Christian monuments are part of the UNESCO World Heritage initiative. The city also has many Ottoman monuments, such as the Bey Hammam and the old district of the city near the walls, with its distinctly Turkish architecture. Many museums are in the city and some of them are: Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki, Museum of the Macedonian Struggle, Jewish Museum, Ethnological Museum of Macedonia and others.


title: Thessaloniki

text: Thessaloniki is known throughout Greece and the countries nearby as a city with a great nightlife even in winter, when most famous Greek tourist destinations are closed. It is also widely considered the Greek city of love due to its many romantic streets and alleys.


title: Genocide

text: Genocide is the crime of killing many people who are all part of one ethnic or religious group, or some sort of similar group, and trying to destroy that group. Genocide is done usually by a group, such as a government, or military group, not by one person or a small number of people. Usually, the motivation for genocide is based on political reason.


title: Genocide

text: The word genocide was made up by Raphael Lemkin, a Polish Jew, in 1944, from the words "genos" (Greek for family, tribe or race) and "-cide" (from the Latin "occidere", to kill). It was first used to the Nazi Holocaust, when many groups, including Jews and others, were killed.


title: Genocide

text: Ustashe of Croatia are another example of genocidial horror. About a million of Serbs were killed in WWII in Ustashe concentration camps especially in Jasenovac. Another example of genocide was when about a million of the Tutsi group of people of Rwanda were killed along with Hutus who were against the genocide in 1994.


title: Genocide

text: In 1933 Lemkin made a speech to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the "Crime of Barbarity" as a crime against international law. The purpose of the crime, which later evolved into the idea of genocide, was based mostly on the experience of Assyrians massacred in Iraq on 11 August 1933. The event in Iraq reminded him of earlier similar events of the Armenian Genocide during World War I.


title: Genocide

text: Today, any genocide is prohibited by the Genocide Convention and actor or inciter of genocide is judged by the International Criminal Court.


title: Genocide

text: Today most people see the following events as genocide. Note that the events listed are just examples.


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: Venus of Willendorf or Woman of Willendorf, is an 11.1 cm (4.4 inches) high statuette of a woman or woman-like thing. Someone carved it in prehistoric times, perhaps 30,000 years ago. Archaeologist Josef Szombathy found it in 1908 near Willendorf. The statuette is made of a kind of limestone caled oolite. There is no oolite near Willendorf, so scientists thing someone carried the stone a very long way. The statue is colored with red ochre.Willendorf is a village in Lower Austria near the city of Krems.


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: A study from 1990 said the statue was made between 24,000 and 22,000 BCE. Scientists think someone in the Gravettian culture carved it using flint tools. A study from 2022 said that the oolite in the statue matched oolite from northern Italy, which means someone must have carried the stone over or around the Alps and Danube river.


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: The Venus does not look like a real woman. Her private parts, breasts, and large belly are much bigger for her height than they would be on a real woman. Archaeologists think the stone had something to do with fertility. Her tiny arms are folded over her breasts, and she has no face. Her head has what might be coils of braids, eyes, or a headdress. Because she does not have a face, some archaeologists and philosophers say the Venus is a "universal mother."


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: Some scientists think that the coils of the venus’ hair were meant to represent the cycles of a woman’s period or ovulation.


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: Some modern analysts don't think the nickname "Venus" is a good choice because the statue is so fat: "The ironic identification of these figurines as 'Venus' pleasantly satisfied certain assumptions at the time about the primitive, about women, and about taste," Christopher Witcombe has noticed. But professionals don't want to call her an Earth Mother goddess of paleolithic Old Europe. Some say her fatness means she is a high status woman because, in hunter-gatherer societies, only rich women would be fat. That means she could refer to of security and success.


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: The statue's feet do not allow it to stand on its own. Due to this it has been speculated that it was meant to be held, rather than simply looked at.


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: Catherine McCoid and LeRoy McDermott think that the figurines were made by women as carvings of themselves. Most scientists agree that the head, seen from a profile view, while having no distinct facial features, appears to be looking down. When a woman looks down at her own body, the foreshortening effect makes her own breasts and belly look big.


title: Venus of Willendorf

text: Since 1908, archaeologists have found many more statuettes of fat women, like the Venus, so they are called Venus figurines too.


title: IPv4 address shortage

text: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) has roughly 4 billion IP addresses. This is a problem because there are more than 4 billion Internet-connected computers in the world. This has led to a shortage of IPv4 addresses.


title: IPv4 address shortage

text: The long term solution is to switch to Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). IPv6 has trillions of trillions of addresses, enough to give every computer in the world a unique IP address. Unfortunately, IPv6 is mostly incompatible with IPv4, and implementing it often requires replacing equipment such as routers. Not all ISPs currently offer IPv6. There are several backward compatibility protocols such as Protocol 41 and Teredo that allow a computer with only an IPv4 address to obtain an IPv6 address.


title: IPv4 address shortage

text: Network Address Translation (NAT) splits a single public IPv4 address into multiple private IPv4 addresses. It is considered a short term solution because it does not usually allow incoming connections without manual configuration of port forwarding.


title: IPv4 address shortage

text: Carrier-grade Network Address Translation (CGN or CGNAT) is Network Address Translation done by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). It is a short-term solution to provide IPv4 access where the ISP has more customers than public IP addresses. In this setup, multiple customers share a single public IPv4 address. CGN has the major drawback that it does not allow incoming connections at all, because the address translator does not know which customer an incoming connection was intended for. This makes it impossible or very difficult to host services such as websites or file servers. It also causes problems with some online games, online security cameras, and BitTorrent. Most land-line ISPs don't use CGN yet, but mobile providers often do. The address block 100.64.0.0/10 is reserved for CGN, although many ISPs improperly use 10.0.0.0/8 instead. ISPs that use CGN usually offer a public IPv4 address to customers that request one. They may offer this for free, charge a one-time fee, or charge a monthly or yearly fee. In the future they might not offer public IPv4 addresses or might charge a large fee for them, due to supply and demand.


title: IPv4 address shortage

text: Another proposal was to assign the class E IPv4 addresses, which are 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.254, for use on the public Internet. These addresses are currently reserved for "future" or "experimental" use. This would only add about 268 million addresses to the IPv4 Internet - not enough to prevent running out of addresses. Another issue with this approach is that most operating systems (including Windows), routers, servers, and other equipment block these addresses, as they assume that they are invalid. Using these addresses would require updating every computer, router, and server to recognize them as valid - effort which would better be spent on deploying IPv6.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic is chemical element 33 on the periodic table. Its symbol is As. Its atomic number is 33 and its atomic mass is 74.92. It is in the pnictogen group on the periodic table.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic is found in three allotropes. Gray arsenic is the most common. It is a brittle, somewhat soft metalloid that is a little shiny. It has a density of 5.73g/cm. It is a semiconductor. Yellow arsenic is unstable and rare. It is the most toxic allotrope. It is a soft and waxy nonmetal, similar to white phosphorus. It turns into gray arsenic in light. Its density is 1.97g/cm, much lighter than gray arsenic. It is created when arsenic vapor (made by heating arsenic very hot) is cooled very fast by something like liquid nitrogen. Black arsenic is similar to red phosphorus. It is a brittle, black, and shiny nonmetal. It does not conduct electricity. Since gray arsenic is the most common, it is usually referred to as arsenic.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic is found as one stable (nonradioactive) isotope, As. There are about 33 radioactive isotopes found. The longest lasting one is As, which has a half life of about 80 days.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic is a relatively chemically inert element, similar to copper in reactivity. It burns in air to make garlic-smelling arsenic trioxide. Arsenic, as well as some of its compounds, do not have a liquid state; they sublime. Arsenic reacts with fluorine to make arsenic pentafluoride. It reacts with the rest of the halogens to make the arsenic trihalides. Arsenic does not dissolve in hydrochloric acid. It dissolves in concentrated nitric acid to make arsenic acid and in dilute nitric acid to make arsenious acid. It reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to make arsenic trioxide. Arsenic burns with a pale lavender flame.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic forms chemical compounds in three oxidation states: -3, +3, and +5. -3 compounds are reducing agents. They are the main form of arsenic in the ground (as arsenides). Arsine is a colorless, highly toxic gas with a garlic odor. The +3 state is the most common. They are weak oxidizing agents. Arsenic trioxide is a white solid. It dissolves in water to make a solution of arsenious acid. The arsenic trichlorides are low melting covalent solids. The +5 state is common, too. They are strong oxidizing agents. Arsenic pentafluoride, a colorless and highly reactive gas, is the only stable arsenic pentahalide. Arsenic pentoxide dissolves in water to make arsenic acid, which can make arsenate salts.


title: Arsenic

text: -3 compounds are reducing agents. They are found as arsenides and arsine. The metal arsenides have properties between an alloy and a salt.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic is found sometimes as an element in the ground, but is normally found in minerals. Some arsenic minerals have a metal and sulfur along with arsenic. Arsenopyrite is iron arsenic sulfide. It is the same as pyrite with arsenic added. Other arsenic minerals have a metal and arsenic. Erythrite, a cobalt arsenide mineral, is an example. Other arsenic minerals are simple. Realgar and orpiment (arsenic sulfides), simple arsenic minerals, are ores of arsenic.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic is found as a less toxic variety in fish and mushrooms. Some people think that humans need very small amounts of arsenic to be healthy. Some bacteria can use arsenic instead of phosphorus for some things; they are called arsenic bacteria.


title: Arsenic

text: Most arsenic is made from the waste products after other metals are processed. Only China actually mines arsenic.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic is made from arsenopyrite by heating it. This makes arsenic trioxide which sublimes (along with sulfur dioxide), while the iron oxide stays behind. The arsenic trioxide is condensed, while the sulfur dioxide does not condense. The arsenic trioxide can be reduced with carbon. Another way is to heat the arsenopyrite without air. Then gray arsenic is made. Realgar can be heated to make arsenic trioxide as well.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic was known since antiquity. It was alloyed with bronze to make the bronze harder. Some people used arsenic as make-up, although it was toxic. Arsenic was well known as a poison. Since people used it to kill royalty and it was hard to detect, it was called the "Poison of Kings" and the "King of Poisons". An arsenic compound could have been the first organometallic compound (a metal bonded to an organic compound).


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic compounds were used as a preservative for wood. Once people saw how toxic arsenic was, they stopped using it to preserve wood. Some feed for animals had arsenic in it to prevent disease. Lead arsenate was used as an insecticide in orchards but damaged the brains of those who put the insecticide on the trees.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic was used in medicines in the 1700s, 1800s, and 1900s. Arsenic trioxide was used to treat cancer. Very tiny doses of arsenic compounds can act as stimulants. Some arsenic compounds are used as poison gases.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic as an element is used in alloys. The lead in lead acid batteries has some arsenic in it to make it stronger. Some semiconductors have arsenic in them.


title: Arsenic

text: Copper arsenate was used as a coloring for sweets. Paris green, a green pigment having arsenic in it, made many people sick. Some bullets have arsenic in them. Arsenic is sometimes added to brass to prevent the zinc from coming out. Arsenic was used in optical glass but was taken out because it was toxic.


title: Arsenic

text: Arsenic and its compounds are highly toxic. They are carcinogens. Water near arsenic mines is normally contaminated with arsenic. Wood that was preserved with arsenic compounds can leach arsenic into the soil. Emissions from coke ovens have arsenic in them.


title: Baku

text: Baku (; , from the medieval "Bâd-kube", meaning "wind-pounded city", a compound word of "bād", "wind", and "kube", which is rooted in the verb کوبیدن "kubidan", "to pound", thus meaning a place where the wind would be strong and pounding, and ancient city names "Baraca"/) is the capital) is the capital and the largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. It is on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula. Baku is located below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and also the largest city in the world located below sea level. Modern Baku has three parts: the Old Town (İçəri Şəhər), the boomtown and the Soviet-built town. About 3 million people live in the metropolitan area. There are large numbers of refugees and internally displaced persons.


title: Baku

text: Baku is hosted the 57th Eurovision Song Contest in May 2012. They also bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics. The city's three main football clubs are Neftchi Baku, FC Baku and Inter Baku. Baku is one of world's leading chess centres.


title: Rock–paper–scissors

text: Rock, paper, scissors (RPS) is a two-person hand game. It is often used as a selection method in a similar way to coin flipping or drawing straws to randomly select a person for some purpose. However, unlike truly random selections, it can be played with skill if the game extends over many sessions, as a player can often recognize and exploit the non-random behavior of an opponent.


title: Rock–paper–scissors

text: Sportsmen often use RPS (both officially and unofficially, in place of a coin toss) to decide on opening plays. Similarly, uncertain calls, or even the whole game in case of rain, may be so decided. It is also often used as a method for creating appropriately non-biased random results in live action role-playing games, as it requires no equipment. It is also used in some gambling sites as a form of novelty betting.


title: Rock–paper–scissors

text: The exact name of the game can vary, with the three components appearing in a different order, or with "stone" in place of "rock". Non-English speakers may know the game by their local words for "rock, paper, scissors", although it is also known as Janken or Yakyuken in Japan, Kawi Bawi Bo in Korea, Pierre-Papier-Ciseaux in France, Ca-Chi-Pun in Chile, and in South Africa as Ching-Chong-Cha, the words used in the 'count'.


title: Rock–paper–scissors

text: The players both count aloud to three, or speak the name of the game (e.g. "Rock! Paper! Scissors!" or "Reaux! Sham! Beaux!"), each time raising one hand in a fist and swinging it down on the count. On the third count, or on a further beat after the third count (saying "shoot"), the players change their hands into one of three gestures, which they then "throw" by extending it towards their opponent.


title: Rock–paper–scissors

text: The objective is to select a gesture which defeats that of the opponent. Gestures are resolved as follows:


title: Rock–paper–scissors

text: In some variations of the game, the winner of each round "uses" the weapon on the opponent's weapon, to demonstrate that they have won.


title: Rock–paper–scissors

text: RPS is frequently played in a "best two out of three" match, and tournament players often prepare sequences of three gestures ahead of time.


title: Robert Clive

text: Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive of Plassey, KB (29 September 1725 – 22 November 1774), also known as Clive of India, was a British soldier who established British control in Southern India and Bengal. Together with Warren Hastings he was one of the key figures in the creation of British India.