title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" is closely related to the "Escherichia" genus and are found worldwide in cold- and warm-blooded animals (including humans), and in the environment. They cause illnesses like typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever, and foodborne illness.


title: Salmonella

text: "Salmonella" is also extremely dangerous, and like most diseases, weaker humans like the old and young could easily die from it. "Salmonella" can only be killed in food by cooking at high temperatures. This is called denaturation.


title: Endorphins

text: Endorphins are natural chemicals in the body that fight pain. Endorphins are released when a person gets hurt, but also during exercise, laughter or sex. In addition to blocking pain, endorphins can make people happy.


title: Endorphins

text: Endorphins resemble drugs like morphine, so when scientists first discovered these chemicals in the 1970s, they called them "endogenous morphine". Since then, scientists have identified and named five different types of endorphins, all of which occur naturally in the body. Endorphins can also be found in most animals.


title: Endorphins

text: They are produced by the central nervous system and the pituitary gland. Their name has two parts: "endo-" and "-orphin"; these are short forms of the words "endogenous" and "morphine". They mean "a morphine-like substance from within the body". Endorphins are three compounds which bind to receptors. The main function of endorphins is to inhibit the communication of pain signals. They may also produce a feeling of euphoria very similar to that produced by other opioids.


title: Endorphins

text: Four types of endorphins are created in the human body. They are named "alpha" (α), "beta" (β), "gamma" (γ) and "sigma" (σ) endorphins. The four types have different numbers and types of amino acids in their molecules; they have between 16 and 31 amino acids in each molecule.


title: Endorphins

text: Beta-endorphins (β-endorphins) are the most powerful endorphins in the body. They are usually in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. More endorphins are released in the pituitary gland during times of pain or stress. Exercise increases the endorphin release too. For the same reason, exercise results in a better mood.


title: Endorphins

text: Met-enkephalin and leu-enkephalin are in the brain stem and spinal cord; they are the pain killers of the spinal cord. Both of them have 16- 31 amino acids in their structure; the first four are similar, but the last one is different.


title: Endorphins

text: All of the endorphins bind to the opioid receptors in the brain. Many of the analgesic (pain killer) drugs have a similar action in the brain. The main difference between the natural endorphins and the analgesic drugs is that natural endorphins are cleared from the blood very quickly. Endorphins are also involved in the release of sex hormones in the pituitary gland. Also, scientists think that acupuncture results in the release of more endorphins. Endorphins may have a role in obesity, diabetes and psychiatric diseases too.


title: Endorphins

text: The term 'endorphin rush' is sometimes used in normal speech to refer to a feeling of wellness caused by exercise, danger or stress. However, it is not a medical term, and it is not proven that higher endorphin production after exercise really has a role in the wellness feeling.


title: Endorphins

text: Another term which is commonly used is 'runner's high'. It refers to the feeling being "high" (full of energy and wellness) after exercise. It is commonly said that the "high" is a result of the release of bigger amounts of endorphins in the body during the exercise. However, some scientists think this feeling is caused by the challenge, and is not related to endorphin release.


title: Endorphins

text: For example, in some studies a drug was given to people which blocked the effect of endorphins. These people still felt the runner's high; it means this feeling is not caused by the release of endorphins in the blood. Another study was performed in 2004, which showed this feeling is related to a different body chemical named "anandamide". is not an endorphine but is an endocannabinoid, similar to one of the chemicals in marijuana and chocolate.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts are the dominant fish of the present day. They arose in the Mesozoic era, and include 20,000 living species. The oldest teleost fossils date back to the late Triassic. They evolved from fish like bowfins in the clade Holostei. During the Mesozoic and Cainozoic they diversified. 96 percent of all known fish species are teleosts.


title: Teleost

text: They are, in order of evolution, vertebrates, jawed fish (Gnathostomata), bony fish (Osteichthyes) and ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii).


title: Teleost

text: To account for their success, teleosts must have advantages over earlier fish. In general, teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than earlier bony fishes. Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness. Teleost bones are constructed from a scaffolding of struts, which makes them strong without adding weight.


title: Teleost

text: Teleosts have a movable jaw and changes in the jaw muscles. These changes make it possible for them to protrude their jaws outwards from the mouth. This adaptation improves their ability to grab fast-moving prey.


title: Teleost

text: The date of origin of the teleosts is a difficult problem. Two kinds of evidence are available. There is evidence from the fossil record that the first teleost comes from the late Triassic period.


title: Teleost

text: This date is somewhat later than molecular divergence time estimates (molecular clock). A recent paper finds that fossil dates and molecular clock dates are similar to each other. These researchers state:


title: Colossal squid

text: The colossal squid, "Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni", is the biggest squid in the world, 9–10 metres (30–33 feet) long.


title: Colossal squid

text: The colossal squid is bigger than a giant squid. Its body is reddish brown and it lives up to 2000m below the surface of the Southern Ocean. It is the main food eaten by sperm whales. The colossal squid has ammonium chloride in its body, so it tastes bad for humans.


title: Colossal squid

text: It is believed to feed on prey such as chaetognatha, large fish like the Patagonian toothfish and other squid in the deep ocean using bioluminescence.


title: Colossal squid

text: The colossal squid is thought to have a slow metabolic rate, requiring only around 30 g of prey daily. Estimates of its energetic demands suggest that it is a slow-moving ambush predator, using its large eyes primarily for predator detection rather than active hunting.


title: Colossal squid

text: The eye is 27 cm (10.63 in) wide, with a lens 12 cm across. This is the largest eye of any known animal. These measurements are of the partly collapsed specimen: when living the eye was probably 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in) across.


title: Colossal squid

text: The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa is displaying this specimen in an exhibition which opened in 2008. A website on the squid specimen is also available.


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll is an 1865 childrens’ story written by Charles Dodgson and illustrated by John Tenniel. Dodgson used Lewis Carroll as a pen name when writing poetry and fiction.


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: The story is more well known as Alice in Wonderland and is the basis for many adaptations in films, art and music.


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: One of the very commonly used phrases today - “down the rabbit hole” - comes from the beginning of the story. Alice is a young girl who, while falling asleep outside on a golden afternoon, sees a white rabbit and follows it into a rabbit hole. When she falls down the rabbit hole, she begins her fantastical adventures in Wonderland.


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: Her adventures include distortions of time and proportion. Throughout the story she shrinks and grows repeatedly as she meets characters of all kinds and sizes, including the iconic Caterpillar who asks “Who are you?” and Cheshire Cat who asks her “Where do you want to go?”


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: The story starts with Alice sitting with her sister beside a lake. Suddenly, a white rabbit runs by. Alice runs after him. She finds his rabbit hole. She falls through the hole. She meets many characters underground and has some amazing adventures. She grows larger or smaller by eating different things like cakes and mushrooms. At the end, she enters a lovely garden. The Knave of Hearts is charged with stealing some tarts. A trial is held. Alice thinks the trial is ridiculous. She says so. Everyone is offended. There is a great commotion. Alice suddenly wakes up. She is back where she started, sitting with her sister beside the lake.


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: The story was told on a summer outing to three little girls. One of them was named Alice Liddell. Alice asked Dodgson to write the story down. Dodgson accepted the task. It took two years.


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: The story was first called "Alice's Adventures Under Ground". When Dodgson prepared the "Alice" story for publication, he added more events, such as the Mad Hatters's Tea Party, new characters, such as the Cheshire Cat, and changed the title to "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland".


title: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland

text: The story was so popular that Dodgson, (under the pen name Lewis Carroll), wrote a sequel called "Through the Looking-Glass". The Alice stories, often known as "Alice in Wonderland", are popular in music, movies and plays.


title: Nico Rosberg

text: Nico Rosberg (born 27 June 1985 in Wiesbaden, West Germany) is a racing driver for the Mercedes GP Formula One team. He races under the German flag in Formula One. Earlier in his career, he competed for Finland. He holds dual nationality of these two countries. Nico is the son of Finnish Formula One World Champion Keke Rosberg.


title: Nico Rosberg

text: Rosberg won the 2005 GP2 Series for the ART team. Before that, he raced in Formula Three Euroseries for his father's team. Rosberg joined the Mercedes team for the season. Ahead 2016 Singapore Grand Prix, Rosberg annocuned his retirements after 2016 season. He replaced to Valtteri Bottas sign Mercedes, He replaced from Lewis Hamilton in qualifying session on 2017 Jerez Grand Prix after Hamilton's injured due to crash during FP3 sessions.


title: Siberian Husky

text: The Siberian Husky is a medium-sized working dog .It is quick and graceful. They have a compact and furry body, pointed ears, and a bushy tail. The husky is a sled dog. It is used for carrying a light load over great distances. Huskies show a balance of power, speed and endurance. Male huskies are usually thicker in appearance than female huskies.


title: Siberian Husky

text: The personality of the Siberian Husky is friendly and gentle. They are also alert and outgoing. They do not act possessive like a guard dog. They are curious, but they are not usually aggressive with other dogs. A husky's intelligence, and friendly behavior make them a favorable companion.


title: Siberian Husky

text: Siberians gained in popularity with the story of the "Great Race of Mercy," the 1925 serum run to Nome. This made dogs Balto and Togo famous. Several purebred Siberian Huskies played the part of the "half-wolf" companion in the television series "Due South".


title: Short circuit

text: A short circuit is a problem in an electrical circuit where two or more wires that are not supposed to come in contact with each other touch. A short circuit can result in a very high current flowing through the circuit. The high current can destroy components, melt insulation and start a fire. If there is enough voltage, it can also cause an explosion called arc flash. Circuit breakers and fuses are devices that detect short circuits and (usually) shut the power off before any damage can be done.


title: Short circuit

text: A "short circuit" also happens when there is a bypass of electrical current. As electricity is "lazy", when there is a bypass without a "load" (e.g. Bulb), it will travel that route of least electrical impedance.


title: Rogério Ceni

text: Rogério Mücke Ceni (born 22 January 1973) better known as Rogério Ceni, is a retired Brazilian football player. He was a goalkeeper. He played for the football team São Paulo from 1990 to 2015. Ceni had been the holder of his position since 1997. He retired in December 2015.


title: Utopia

text: Sir Thomas More invented the word for his 1516 book "Utopia". The book was about a fictional island in the Atlantic Ocean. The word has been used to describe both a perfect society, and societies in literature. A related idea is dystopia.


title: Utopia

text: There have been many utopias based on politics, economics, religion, ecology. Some of these have been propagated in books and pamphlets, some as actual communities. In practice, attempts to create utopias seem doomed, as good intentions run against problems. Most of the literary utopias are actually satires of existing societies.


title: Utopia

text: Utopia is Greek for "no place", related words include eutopia, meaning "good place" in Greek, paradise, Shangra La and Xanadu.


title: Great hurricane of 1780

text: The Great Hurricane of 1780 was the deadliest Atlantic hurricane ever recorded. It killed more than 27,500 people when it passed through the Caribbean. There is not much known about the storm, because it happened before people took official records of hurricanes.


title: Great hurricane of 1780

text: The hurricane hit Barbados with winds possibly over 200 mph (320 km/h). It then moved past Martinique, Saint Lucia, and Saint Eustatius. Thousands of deaths were reported on each island. In the middle of the American Revolution, the storm caused heavy losses to British and French fleets.


title: Great hurricane of 1780

text: The hurricane later passed near Puerto Rico and tracked over the eastern portion of the Dominican Republic. It eventually turned to the northeast, and was last seen on October 20 to the southeast of Newfoundland.


title: Great hurricane of 1780

text: The hurricane was part of the very bad 1780 Atlantic hurricane season, with two other deadly storms during the same month. The Great Hurricane killed more than twice as many people as Hurricane Mitch did (Hurricane Mitch was the second deadliest hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean).


title: Kaunas

text: Kaunas, also known by several other names, is the second biggest city in Lithuania and used to be a temporary capital. Kaunas is found at the point where the two biggest Lithuanian rivers, the Nemunas and the Neris, meet. It is also near the Kaunas Lagoon, the largest body of water in Lithuania.


title: Kaunas

text: In 1361, Kaunas was first mentioned in annals of the Teutonic Knights. The knights were preparing to attack Kaunas Castle.


title: Sewer

text: Sewers are underground pipes that take away dirty water and human waste from homes, offices and many other places. The sewers lead to sewage treatment plants that remove the harmful and unwanted parts, returning clean water to the environment. Many rules and regulations exist for how clean the final discharge (effluent) must be.


title: Sewer

text: Cleaning crews use special trucks and tools to help keep the sewers clear of grease, tree roots, and other blockages. More rural areas may have septic systems where sewers do not yet exist. In many urban areas, street gutters to carry rainwater are combined with sewers.


title: Robert Brian Wilson

text: Robert Brian Wilson (born March 8, 1962) is an American actor, singer, and voice artist. He is best known for portraying Billy Chapman in "Silent Night, Deadly Night" (1984).


title: Tina Turner

text: Tina Turner (born Anna Mae Bullock; November 26, 1939) is an American-born Swiss singer-songwriter, actress, dancer and entertainer. Her success, dominance, popularity and consistent contributions to the rock music genre got her the title, "The Queen of Rock & Roll". She is known worldwide for her overpowering and energetic stage presence, powerful vocals, ground-breaking concerts as well as for her long, well-proportioned legs that are considered the most famous in show business.


title: Tina Turner

text: She was listed on Rolling Stone's list "The Immortals – The Greatest Artists of All Time". Turner is a Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee, and she is also represented in the Grammy Hall of Fame by two of her recordings: "River Deep - Mountain High" (1999) and "Proud Mary" (2003). Turner has won eight Grammy Awards. She is a Buddhist.


title: Tina Turner

text: In 2013, three weeks after her wedding to Erwin Bach, she suffered a stroke and had to learn to walk again.


title: Tina Turner

text: In 2016, she was diagnosed with intestinal cancer. Turner used homeopathic remedies to treat her high blood pressure but caused kidney failure. Her chances of receiving a kidney were low, and she was urged to start dialysis. Turner wanted to commit assisted suicide, but her husband donated his kidney in April 2017.


title: Kinetic theory

text: Kinetic theory or "kinetic theory of gases" attempts to explain overall properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory basically states that pressure is not caused by molecules pushing each other away, like earlier scientists thought. Instead, pressure is caused by the molecules colliding with each other and their container. Kinetic theory is also known as "kinetic-molecular theory" or "collision theory".


title: Overfishing

text: Overfishing is catching too much fish. It is a type of overexploitation where fish stocks are reduced to low levels. It is a good example of what is good for the short term is not good for the long term. Also, what is good for some fishermen is not good for all of them (tragedy of the commons). The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in a 2018 report that 33.1% of world fish stocks are subject to overfishing.


title: Overfishing

text: So much fish is caught that there are too few adults of certain species left. With cod, for example, the greatest production of eggs is from large females. But these are caught, the average size of spawning females goes down. Eventually this gets so that the production of eggs is significantly reduced. The artificial selection of large fish has gradually reduced the size of mature females.


title: Overfishing

text: The Northwest Atlantic cod has been regarded as heavily overfished throughout its range, resulting in a crash in the fishery in the United States and Canada during the early 1990s. Sometimes, the fishing industry can ruin itself by overfishing. The collapse of the herring industry in Monterey, California is a good example.


title: Overfishing

text: Examples of overfishing can be found in places like the North Sea, the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and the East China Sea.


title: Endosymbiosis

text: Endosymbiosis occurs when a symbiont lives inside the body or the cells of another organism. It is a very widespread phenomenon in living things.


title: Endosymbiosis

text: Endosymbiont theory is the idea that eukaryote cells arose in evolution by the fusion of previously free-living protists (prokaryotes). The theory was first suggested by the Russian botanist Konstantin Mereshkovsky in 1905. The nature of lichens had been worked out; mitochondria and chloroplasts had been seen in cells, and their similarity to bacteria noted. The theory was initially dismissed, but was re-examined when more was known about cell biology, by Lynn Margulis


title: Endosymbiosis

text: The eukaryote cell is the type of cell all animals and plants are made of. Some cell organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, contain DNA. In each case, this DNA is thought to be the remnant of the genome of a once independent bacterium. The theory is that the eukaryote cell evolved by the fusion of several bacteria or archaean organisms. Together, the new cells survived, prospered and evolved into new and complex forms of life. The origin of other organelles in the eukaryotic cell is still under review: the cell nucleus, its membrane, chromosomes and centromeres; the Golgi body; the flagella or cilia; the intracellular membranes. Some of these may also have had a symbiotic origin.


title: Endosymbiosis

text: There is evidence that symbiosis happened between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria. Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes.


title: Hittites

text: The Hittites were an ancient people from Anatolia who spoke an Indo-European language. They established a kingdom centered at Hattusha in north-central Anatolia from the 18th century BC.


title: Hittites

text: At its peak, the Hittite Empire covered most of modern Turkey and Syria. This was under the reigns of Suppiluliuma I (~1350–1322) and Mursili II (~1321–1295 BC). They had up-and-down relationships with Ancient Egypt to the south, and the Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia. They were a party to the first known peace treaty, which was made with Ramesses II of Egypt by Hattusili III in 1258 BC.


title: Hittites

text: After 1180 BC, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC.


title: Hittites

text: The Hittite Kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of Suppiluliuma I (~1350–1322). The kingdom of Mitanni, wracked by civil war, was unable to withstand the Hittite onslaught. Suppiluliuma swiftly attacked the Mitanni heartland, capturing and plundering the Mitanni capital of Washshuganni. He then turned west, recrossed the Euphrates and captured all the Syrian kingdoms which were vassals to the Mitanni, including Aleppo, Mukish, Niya, Qatna, Upi (Upina), and Kadesh. Other kingdoms such as Ugarit and Amurru (an Egyptian vassal) voluntarily became vassal states of the Hittites.


title: Hittites

text: When hostilities flared up once more with Mitanni, Tulipinu, Suppiluliuma's son and viceroy at Aleppo invaded Carchemish but was unable to take the city. Suppiluliuma met with his son and then invaded Syria himself, laying siege to the city of Carchemish. Suppiluliuma broke the siege on the eighth day, installing his son Piyassili as viceroy of the kingdom. With his sons as viceroys of Aleppo and Carchemish, Suppiluliuma had cemented his rule over Syria and brought the empire of Mitanni to an end. The Mitanni King was assassinated soon after.


title: Hittites

text: When Tutankhamun, the Egyptian Pharaoh died,his widow asked to marry one of Suppiluliuma's sons. He agreed, and sent his son Zannanza to Egypt to marry the queen. However, Zannanza was assassinated en route to Egypt. Suppiluliuma was furious and blamed the new Egyptian Pharaoh Ay for his son's death. A Hittite army under crown prince Arnuwanda invaded Egyptian territory from Syria, pillaging and taking many prisoners. These prisoners brought with them a plague which ravaged the Hittite Kingdom continuing well into Mursili's reign and may have killed Suppiluliuma himself.


title: Hittites

text: Mursili II was young and inexperienced, but he proved to be a strong king. In the first years of his reign he carried out punitive campaigns against several kingdoms. In Syria the Nuhashshi king Tette rebelled and was joined by Egyptian troops. Troubles in Syria continued when Mursili's brothers Tulipinu and Piyassili both died. The loss of his Syrian viceroys led to rebellion and even the invasion of Carchemish by Assyria. Leaving his generals to deal with Syria and Haysa, Mursili invaded Carchemish and drove out the Assyrians. Later in his reign Mursili II campaigned against the Kaska once again retaking the Hittite holy city of Niniveh. He also decisively defeating the King of Tummanna.


title: Eric Cantona

text: Eric Daniel Pierre Cantona (born 24 May 1966 in Marseille) is a French football player turned actor. He was one of Manchester United's greatest players. Cantona has more than 140 appearances with Manchester United. He ended his professional footballing career with the team. Cantona had earlier played for Leeds United before moving to Manchester United in 1992. He has also played for France national team from 1987 to 1994. He retired from football in 1997 and became a film actor.


title: New Economic Policy

text: New Economic Policy (NEP) was an economic policy introduced by Lenin after the failed methods of War communism. These New Economic Policies were to revive the Russian economy. The new policy was a combination of private enterprise and state socialism. This is because the people did not believe in War communism.


title: Nas

text: Nasir Jones (born September 14, 1973), better known as Nas, is an American rapper, songwriter, and entrepreneur. He is best known for his first album, "Illmatic", which was released in 1994. It has been widely critically praised. Nas has been nominated for twelve Grammy Awards.


title: High-level programming language

text: In computer science, a high-level programming language is a programming language that does not require knowledge of computer hardware. The advantage with high-level programming languages is that programmers only need to understand the syntax (i.e. the type of structure of the code) of the programming language and don't have to understand computer hardware to program well. Low-level programming languages require knowledge of both the syntax and the hardware they are programming for.


title: New Economic Policy

text: The New Economic Policies meant that Russia returned to a partly capitalist society. This sorted out the problems of mass starvation and Famine which War communism had caused.


title: Nas

text: Nas was born on September 14, 1973 in Brooklyn, New York. His father, Olu Dara, is a musician who plays the trumpet. When Nas was young, his family moved to Queens, New York.


title: High-level programming language

text: What determines a programming language as "high-level" depends on how much the programming language relies on hardware knowledge. Programming languages that require less knowledge about computer hardware are called "high-level" programming languages. It doesn't matter whether a programming language is considered easy to learn or not.


title: New Economic Policy

text: Lenin did not want Russia to stay in this way, he only introduced them to be supported again by the Russian people, and to revive the economy. In 1928 Joseph Stalin abolished the NEP.


title: Nas

text: On June 15, 1994, Nas's ex-fiancée Carmen Bryan gave birth to their daughter, Destiny. Nas was married to Kelis from 2005 until they divorced in 2010. She is the mother of his son.


title: High-level programming language

text: Rather than dealing with functions of computer hardware, high-level programming languages deal with more abstract concepts. High-level programming languages focus more on what the program will output. An interpreter is required to translate high-level programming language for low-level programming languages to tell the hardware what to do.


title: Nas

text: Nas started making music when he was a teenager. He recorded his first music with a producer called Large Professor, but did not yet publish it. Nas' first published song was "Live at the Barbeque" in 1991. He was a guest artist on this song, which was by the group Main Source. In 1992, Nas released his first single, a song called "Halftime". This song was first published as part of a movie's soundtrack.


title: High-level programming language

text: High-level programming languages can use variables, arrays, conditional statements, subroutines, loops, and among other functions to help produce the output. High-level programming languages are generally easier to do than low-level programming languages. The syntax used to make a program generally has clearer language than lower-level programming languages.


title: Nas

text: Nas released his first album, called "Illmatic", in 1994. The album got very good reviews. People especially liked Nas' songwriting skills on the album. Because it was so well liked, "Illmatic" is often called a classic. Today, many people still say that "Illmatic" is one of the best hip-hop albums ever. Nas released his second album in 1996. He called the album "It Was Written". On this album, Nas tried to make songs that a bigger audience would like. He also made expensive music videos to promote the album.


title: Nas

text: Nas also joined a hip hop group called The Firm. The other members of the group were Foxy Brown, AZ, and Nature. The Firm first appeared as a group on "It Was Written". In 1997, The Firm released an album together. The Firm's album sold many copies, but sold less than the group had hoped it would. After this album, The Firm stopped making music as a group. Nas instead started making his third album by himself. He planned to call this album "I Am... The Autobiography", and wanted it to be a double album. People leaked many of the songs from this album onto the Internet before it came out. Because of this, Nas decided to record new songs for the album. He also changed the title to "I Am...". This album came out in 1999. Nas also released another album, called "Nastradamus", in 1999. "Nastradamus" was originally meant to have the leaked songs from "I Am...", but Nas changed his mind and decided to record new songs for it. People did not like "I Am..." or "Nastradamus" as much as Nas' earlier albums. After they came out, people were worried that Nas was losing his skills as a musician.


title: Nas

text: In the late 1990s, Nas began fighting with rapper Jay-Z. In 2001, Jay-Z wrote a song called "Takeover" that insulted Nas. Nas replied by writing a song called "Ether" that insulted Jay-Z in return. "Ether" appeared on Nas' fifth album, "Stillmatic", which he released in 2001. "Stillmatic" was mostly well liked. Its good reception helped to boost Nas' career after his last two albums had received bad reviews. Nas' next album was "The Lost Tapes", an album made of songs he had written earlier but never published. "The Lost Tapes" got good reviews. Some critics said it was his best album since "Illmatic".


title: Nas

text: Nas released several more albums in the 2000s. In 2002, he released "God's Son". This album sold many copies, causing it to go platinum. It also included the song "I Can", which became Nas' biggest hit song. After this, Nas' next album was a double album called "Street's Disciple". The album got good reviews, but sold fewer copies than his earlier albums.


title: Nas

text: Nas and Jay-Z ended their fight in 2005. To show that they had made up, Nas made a surprise appearance at a Jay-Z concert in 2005. The two musicians performed Jay-Z's song "Dead Presidents" together. At this time, Jay-Z was the president of the record label Def Jam Recordings. Nas signed a contract with Def Jam in January 2006. On the Def Jam label, Nas released his next album in 2006. This album was called "Hip Hop Is Dead". The album reached No. 1 on the "Billboard" 200 chart. It was Nas' first number-one album since "I Am...", and his third ever. In 2007, Nas announced that he wanted to call his next album "Nigger". Because the title was a racial slur, many people were unhappy with this announcement. Nas was criticized by famous progressives like Jesse Jackson, and also by the conservative news channel Fox News. Because of the controversy, Nas decided to release the album without any title at all.


title: Nas

text: In 2010, Nas released an album with Damian Marley called "Distant Relatives". It entered the "Billboard" 200 at number five. Three singles were released from the album. In 2012 Nas released his eleventh album "Life Is Good". He wrote it after he divorced Kelis. The album got good reviews.


title: Nas

text: In 2014, a documentary called "Nas: Time Is Illmatic" was released. The movie celebrated the 20th anniversary of "Illmatic". Nas also performed songs from "Illmatic" at the Kennedy Center. In 2017, Nas did more work in film and TV. He wrote a song for the TV show "The Getdown" and appeared in a documentary called "The American Epic Sessions".


title: Nas

text: Nas' next album was called "Nasir". It was released in 2018. Kanye West produced all of "Nasir". The album got mixed reviews. In 2019, Nas released "The Lost Tapes 2". He had originally planned to release this album soon after "The Lost Tapes". However, the album was delayed several times. In 2020, Nas released an album called "King's Disease". This album won a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album. Nas had been nominated for many Grammy Awards, but this was the first time he won. Nas then released an album called "King's Disease II" in 2021.


title: Place of articulation

text: In phonetics (the study of sounds in human speech), the place of articulation of a sound is where in the mouth the sound is made (articulated). There are at least 13 different places of articulation. They are split into four big types.


title: Place of articulation

text: Dental sounds are made by the tip of the tongue touching the back of the teeth. The dental sounds in English are [] and [].


title: Place of articulation

text: Alveolar sounds are made by the tip of the tongue touching the ridge behind the teeth. The alveolar sounds in English are [], [], [], [], [], and [].


title: Place of articulation

text: Retroflex sounds are made by pressing the tongue flat against the front part of roof of the mouth. There are no retroflex sounds in English.


title: Place of articulation

text: Palatal sounds are made by the body of the tongue and the middle part of the roof of the mouth. The only palatal sound in English is []. Some say that it is part of the next group (dorsal).


title: Place of articulation

text: Velar sounds are made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. There are three velar sounds in most dialects of English: [], [], and [].


title: Place of articulation

text: Uvular sounds are made with the back of the tongue and the uvula. There are no uvular sounds in English.


title: Catalysis

text: Catalysis is the change in speed (rate) of a chemical reaction due to the help of a catalyst. Unlike other chemicals which take part in the reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in many chemical reactions. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts that slow the reaction are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons.


title: Catalysis

text: A catalyst is something which changes the rate of a chemical reaction. An example is when manganese oxide (MnO) is added to hydrogen peroxide (HO), and the hydrogen peroxide starts to break up into water and oxygen. Catalysts are either of natural or synthetic origin. Catalysts are useful because they leave no residue in the solution they have sped up. A catalyst can also be used in a reaction again and again as it is not used up. There are many catalysts in our body which play an important part in many biochemical reactions. These are called enzymes. Most catalysts work by lowering the 'activation energy' of a reaction. This allows less energy to be used, thus speeding up the reaction. The opposite of a catalyst is an "inhibitor". Inhibitors slow down reactions. Some of them are found in snake venom and are dangerous for our nervous system or heart.


title: Tarbosaurus

text: Tarbosaurus was a large carnivorous theropod dinosaur from Asia, especially Mongolia and China. It was a tyrannosaurid dinosaur which flourished between 70 and 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period.


title: Tarbosaurus

text: "Tarbosaurus" lived in a humid floodplain criss-crossed by river channels. In this environment, it was a predator at the top of the food chain, probably preying on other large dinosaurs like the hadrosaur "Saurolophus" or the sauropod "Nemegtosaurus".


title: Tarbosaurus

text: Tarbosaurus is known from dozens of specimens, with several complete skulls and skeletons. These remains have allowed scientific studies on its phylogeny, skull mechanics, and brain structure.


title: Tarbosaurus

text: Like its close North American relative Tyrannosaurus rex, it had a large head and powerful jaws, but was not top heavy. Its huge skull was comparatively light, with large air pockets. Many of its bones were hollow, making them strong but light, so they did not add excessive weight to this large predator.


title: Tarbosaurus

text: Its skull was similar to that of "Tyrannosaurus", but more rigid. Also, because its skull was not so broad at the back, it did not have binocular vision like "Tyrannosaurus".


title: Tarbosaurus

text: In the lower jaw, a ridge on the outer surface of the angular bone articulated with the rear of the dentary bone, creating a locking mechanism unique to "Tarbosaurus" and "Alioramus". Other tyrannosaurids lacked this ridge and had more flexibility in the lower jaw.


title: Tarbosaurus

text: Its forlimbs were small with two fingers, as with its larger relative. The small, two-fingered, front limb is absolutely distinctive of tyrannosaurids.


title: Tarbosaurus

text: The three-toed hind limbs were long and thick, supporting the body in a bipedal posture. The long, heavy tail served as a counterweight to the head and torso and put the center of gravity over the hips.


title: Tarbosaurus

text: Some scientists think the more rigid skull of "Tarbosaurus" was an adaptation to hunting the massive sauropods found in Asia, which did not exist in most of North America during the later Cretaceous.


title: Boyhood Productions

text: Boyhood Productions is a productions based in Kolkata. The show has produced three popular shows that air on Star Jalsha. They are Pratidaan, Jiban Jyoti, Bijoyini and Ke Apon Ke Por. The producers of Boyhood Productions are Gurjit Singh, Surinder Singh, and Sushanta Das.


title: Alto

text: The word alto can mean: someone who sings lower than a soprano. Usually females with lower voices are called contraltos. A male alto is a man who sings in a special way called falsetto. In England male altos sing in church and cathedral choirs. In some countries like Germany it is tradition to have boy altos in cathedral choirs. These will probably be boys whose voices will soon be breaking and are starting to get lower.


title: Alto

text: One of the most famous contraltos was Kathleen Ferrier. There are not so many female singers who call themselves contraltos these days. It has become more fashionable to be a mezzo-soprano. It is partly because it has become fashionable to use men for the alto parts in music by Bach and other Baroque composers, like it would have been performed in those days.


title: Alto

text: Operatic roles which need a contralto include Lucretia in Britten's "Rape of Lucretia" and Erda in Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen.


title: Alto

text: The word "alto" can also mean: the second line down in 4 part choir music. In old music the alto line was written in a special clef called the “alto clef”, which is the same as the “viola clef” (a C clef in which the middle line is middle C).


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: The Shire is a fictional location is part of the legendarium created by the British author J. R. R. Tolkien and appears in their novels "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings".


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: It is a region in the northwest of Middle-earth, one of the continents of the fictional world of Arda where elapses the most part of J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium. It is, in turn, within the great region of Eriador, where previously existed the kingdom of Arnor. Is inhabited only by hobbits, a race similar to the men and characterized by their short stature. Founded in the middle of the Third Age, their known history is small and with little significants events because the peaceful nature of its inhabitants, with the exception of the events that took place during the War of the Ring.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: Even if is not mentioned as such in the novel The Hobbit, J. R. R. Tolkien already was then an idea of what was the Shire, was created "officially" during the composition of the first chapter of The Lord of the Rings and inspired principally in the neighborhood of Sarehole, Birmingham, where the author lived during his childhood.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: Hobbits sometimes call it Sûza (which means "Shire") or Sûzat ("the Shire"), terms that have their origin in the Rohirric, the language of Rohan with which they came in contact before colonizing the Shire. On the other hand, in the Elvish language Sindarin they call it "i Drann". It is also called ""Four frames"", the name refers to their territorial division.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: According to Tolkien, the Shire measured 40 leagues (193 km, 120 miles) from the Far Downs in the west to the Brandywine Bridge in the east, and 50 leagues (241 km, 150 miles) from the northern moors to the marshes in the south, This is confirmed in an essay by Tolkien on translating The Lord of the Rings, where he describes the Shire as having an area of 18,000 square miles (47,000 km²).


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: The original territory of the Shire was bounded on the east by the Baranduin River, on the north by uplands rising to the old centre of Arnor, on the west by the White Downs, and on the south by marshland south of the River Shirebourne. After the original settlement, hobbits also expanded to the east into Buckland between the Baranduin and the Old Forest, and (much later) to the west into the Westmarch between the White Downs and the Tower Hills.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: The Shire was originally divided into four Farthings. The outlying lands of Buckland and the Westmarch were formally added after the War of the Ring when they were officially granted by King Elessar. Within the Farthings there are some smaller unofficial clan homelands: the Tooks nearly all live in or near Tuckborough in Tookland, for instance. A Hobbit surname often indicates where the family came from: Samwise Gamgee's last name derives from Gamwich, where the family originated. Buckland was named for the Oldbucks (later called the Brandybucks).


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: The Shire was densely populated, with many towns and few cities, but still had large areas of forests and wetlands. It is described as a "small land", but beautiful and fruitful, beloved by its inhabitants. Their location gives it a natural fertility and therefore the hobbits have an extensive farming system, being able to find many supplies such as cereals, fruits, wood and pipe-weed (one of the favorite pleasures of the hobbits). However, its economy is almost self-sufficient and hobbits typically consume all the products of their crops, or reserve them for gifts.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: The climate in the Shire was primarily temperate maritime or ocean, depending on the area. In general, temperatures are slightly warmer in the south than in the north and seasonal changes of temperature are lightly more pronounced (hotter summers and colder winters) in the extreme east than the extreme west. The rainfalls are moderate throughout the whole year and especially in the Northframe, Can snow during the occasional visits of polar air from the north.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: Climate studying and modeling based on local topography and geography by climatologists at the University of Bristol, UK, have found that the Shire holds an annual average temperature of 44 °F (6.7 °C) and an annual yearly precipitation average of 24 inches (61 cm), similar to that of Lincolnshire or Leicestershire, England, or Dunedin, New Zealand.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: The Shire is populated only by hobbits. By the time of the War of the Ring, most of the whole hobbit race was there, except those who lived in Bree-land to the east.


title: Shire (Middle-earth)

text: The original three tribes of hobbits (Harfoots, Fallohides, Stoors) united and mixed in the Shire. Only in the east part of the Shire there is a bigger Stoorish influence, which can be seen in that those hobbits sometimes grow beards.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Nathaniel Adams Coles, professionally known as Nat King Cole, (March 17, 1919 - February 15, 1965) was an American jazz musician, singer and songwriter. He was born in the southern city of Montgomery, Alabama. His father was a Christian minister. Millions of Nat King Cole’s recordings were sold while he was alive. He died of lung cancer in February, 1965, when he was forty-five years old. People around the world still enjoy listening to the music of one of America’s greatest performers of popular and jazz music.


title: Nat King Cole

text: When Cole was four years old, his parents moved the family to North Chicago, Illinois. His younger brother was Freddy Cole. He learned to play the piano when he was very young. His mother was the only piano teacher he ever had. He gave his first public performance when he was four. By the time he was twelve, Cole was playing piano at his father’s church. His father was pastor of the First Baptist church in North Chicago, Illinois for 29 years.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Cole played piano in New York City and Los Angeles, California when he was a young man. In 1937, he formed a group that played jazz music. Oscar Moore played the guitar and Wesley Prince played the bass. The trio reportedly did not need a drummer because Cole’s piano playing kept the beat so well. They named the group, The King Cole Trio. At the same time, Cole also changed his name into Nat King Cole. The trio soon became very popular. Nat sang some songs, but mostly played the piano.


title: Nat King Cole

text: By the middle 1940s, Nat King Cole was beginning to be known as a popular singer as well as a jazz piano player. He was one of the first musicians to record with new Capitol Records.


title: Nat King Cole

text: The first song he recorded for Capitol was “Straighten Up and Fly Right.” He wrote the song. The words were based on his father’s teachings. The song became one of the biggest hits of 1943. It sold more than 500,000 copies.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Nat recorded hundreds of songs. Some of the most popular include “Sweet Lorraine,” “Nature Boy,” “Those Lazy-Hazy-Crazy Days of Summer,” “When I Fall in Love,” and “Mona Lisa.” In 1950, the American film industry gave him an award for his recording of “Mona Lisa.” That song made him famous as a singer.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Nat King Cole also acted in movies. The best known one is "Saint Louis Blues". He played the part of the jazz composer W.C. Handy. He also appeared in a movie about himself called "The Nat King Cole Story".


title: Nat King Cole

text: He received many awards during his life. He also received many more after his death. One was a 1990 Grammy Award for lifetime achievement.


title: Nat King Cole

text: By 1956, Nat King Cole was known internationally. He signed an agreement to perform at the Sands Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Cole often performed in places that only admitted white people. Black leaders did not like this about him. Cole said he tried to take legal action against those places but often failed.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Cole earned more money and moved to California. He bought a house in an area where white people lived. At that time, many white Americans did not want to live near blacks. White home owners nearby protested the purchase of a house by a black family. Cole and his family refused to leave and lived in the house without problems.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Cole was the first black man to have his own television program. His program began on NBC Television in 1956. NBC agreed to support "The Nat King Cole Show" for a while. It hoped American companies would pay to sell their products on the program. However, major companies were not willing to advertise on a program that had a black performer. They believed that white people in the southern part of the United States would not buy their products. Many Americans watched the show, but NBC stopped production after a year.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Nat King Cole was married two times. In 1936, he married a dancer, Nadine Robinson. Their marriage failed. In 1948, he married Maria Ellington. They had three children. They also adopted and raised two other children.


title: Nat King Cole

text: Nat’s daughter, Natalie followed her father as a singer. She recorded many songs after her father died. In 1991, Natalie Cole recorded an album called "Unforgettable". It contains 22 of Nat King Cole’s songs, including the song “Unforgettable.” Modern technology made it possible to mix her voice with a recording of her father singing the same song.


title: Susan B. Anthony

text: Susan Brownell Anthony (February 15, 1820 - March 13, 1906) was an American women's rights leader. At 17, she became a schoolteacher, but soon became involved in activism regarding slavery and drinking. By the 1850s, she was working closely with Elizabeth Cady Stanton for women's rights, including the vote. She edited a newspaper called "The Revolution" for several years. In 1872, she was arrested for trying to vote. For many years, she was the leader of the National Women's Suffrage Association, which wanted women to have the right to vote. The 19th Amendment (change to the U.S. Constitution) was passed in 1920, 14 years after Anthony's death on March 13, 1906. Anthony later became the first woman on a U.S. coin. This coin was a dollar coin.


title: Robert Wagner

text: Robert John Wagner, Jr. (born February 10, 1930 in Detroit, Michigan, U.S.), is an American actor. His paternal grandparents were from Germany.


title: Robert Wagner

text: His career began in 1950 as an extra in the movie "The Happy Years". Then he got a role in the war films "Halls of Montezuma" (1951), and "The Frogmen" (1951), with Richard Widmark, "What Price Glory?" (1952) with James Cagney and directed by John Ford.


title: Robert Wagner

text: Then would have outstanding performances in movies as Prince Valiant (1954) directed by Henry Hathaway and the Western, "Broken Lance" (1954) with Spencer Tracy and directed by Edward Dmytryk.


title: Robert Wagner

text: In 1955 he obtained his first starred in the Western "White Feather" (1955), followed by Film-Noir A Kiss Before Dying (1956) and war film Between Heaven and Hell (1956) directed by Richard Fleischer.


title: Robert Wagner

text: Wagner played the legendary gunslinger Jesse James in the movie The True Story of Jesse James (1957) directed by Nicholas Ray


title: Robert Wagner

text: His works in the 1960's include The Longest Day (1962), The War Lover (1962) with Steve McQueen, The Pink Panther (1963) with Peter Sellers, and "Banning" (1967)


title: Robert Wagner

text: In 1974 Wagner, plays of role of Bigelow, one of the people trapped in burning building in "The Towering Inferno", with Steve McQueen and Paul Newman and directed by John Guillermin.


title: Robert Wagner

text: Another of his works in the 70s was in the war movie directed by Jack Smight, Midway (1976) as Lieutenant Commander Ernest L. Blake


title: Robert Wagner

text: In the 1980 he gets a few roles in movies like "Curse of the Pink Panther" (1983) directed by Blake Edwards, and I Am the Cheese (1983).


title: Robert Wagner

text: The 1990s were very good for him getting the role of Number Two in Austin Powers (1997) with Mike Myers.


title: Robert Wagner

text: Wagner returned to play the characters in Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999), and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002).


title: Robert Wagner

text: In the last decade, Wagner has worked in movies El padrino (2004), Hoot (2006), Man in the Chair (2007) with Christopher Plummer, The Wild Stallion (2009).


title: Robert Wagner

text: Robert Wagner starred in three successful series for American television. One of them was "It Takes a Thief", Alexander Mundy a spy performing dangerous missions for the government of the United States. I also work in the series Fred Astaire as Alistair Mundy.


title: Robert Wagner

text: Wagner starred in the series for 66 episodes between 1968 and 1970. and was nominated for an Emmy and Golden Globe Awards in 1970


title: Robert Wagner

text: In 1975 Wagner stars with Eddie Albert, the series of detectives created by Glen A. Larson, Switch (1975 - 1978). he plays detective Pete T. Ryan.


title: Robert Wagner

text: His television series "Hart to Hart" (1979-1984), was most successful of all, Wagner is Jonathan Hart who with his wife Jennifer Hart, Stefanie Powers, two detectives who solved the most difficult criminal cases in high society.


title: Robert Wagner

text: Made several television movies including Hart to Hart, Hart to Hart Returns (1993), Hart to Hart: Home Is Where the Hart Is (1994), Hart to Hart: Crimes of the Hart (1994), Hart to Hart: Old Friends Never Die (1994), Hart to Hart: Two Harts in 3/4 Time (1995), Hart to Hart: Harts in High Season (1996) and Hart to Hart: Till Death Do Us Hart (1996).


title: Jake Sullivan

text: He was the senior policy advisor to Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential election campaign and Deputy Chief of Staff at the Department of State. Sullivan is the Montgomery Fellow at Dartmouth College and a senior fellow and Master in Public Policy faculty member at the Carsey School of Public Policy.


title: Jake Sullivan

text: On November 23, 2020, President-elect Joe Biden announced that he wanted Sullivan to be his National Security Advisor.


title: Justin Gabriel

text: Phillip Paul Lloyd (born March 3, 1981) is a South African professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) where he wrestled under the ring name Justin Gabriel. He is currently wrestling for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) and Global Force Wrestling (GFW) under the ring name PJ Black.


title: Justin Gabriel

text: Lloyd was the first South African wrestler to compete in the WWE. While performing in Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW), he was a one-time FCW Florida Heavyweight Champion and a one-time FCW Florida Tag Team Champion with Kris Logan. He is a former member of The Nexus and The Corre. His finishing move is the 450° splash.


title: Justin Gabriel

text: Gabriel had his last televised WWE match on the January 14, 2015 episode of "Main Event" in a loss to Rusev. On January 24, 2015, it was reported by the Wrestling Observer Newsletter that Gabriel had quit WWE, which was a day before the 2015 Royal Rumble which he was scheduled to appear in before he was replaced in the match. The next day, WWE confirmed his release.


title: Justin Gabriel

text: On August 12, Black was a part of an angle, where GFW invaded Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). He would go on to defeat Lashley, Chris Mordetzky, Eric Young and Robbie E in a King of the Mountain match and win the vacant TNA King of the Mountain Championship. On August 19, Black faced off against EC3 for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Warangal

text: Warangal is a city in Telangana, India. It is the headquarters of Warangal district in Telengana. Warangal is the second largest city after Hyderabad by both area as well as population. 811,844 people live in Warangal.


title: Warangal

text: Warangal is one of 12 heritage cities in the country chosen for Scheme HRIDAY – Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana by Government of India. It is also selected as a smart city in the "fast-track competition", so it may get additional investment to improve the urban infrastructure and industrial opportunities under Smart Cities Mission.


title: Warangal

text: Warangal was the capital of the Kakatiya dynasty from 1195 CE until that ruling family was defeated by the Delhi Sultanate in 1323. The city was then renamed as Sultanpur. After the Telangana movement, Telangana state was formed on 2 June 2014, Warangal became part of Telangana State. Bhadrakali Lake and Waddepally Lake are the two famous lakes are the major sources of drinking water.


title: William Bulger

text: William Michael Bulger (born February 2, 1934) is an American Democratic politician, lawyer, and educator. He was the President of the Massachusetts Senate from 1978 through 1996, which is the longest in history. He then became president of the University of Massachusetts.


title: William Bulger

text: His brother was convicted mob boss James "Whitey" Bulger, who led the Winter Hill Gang. In 2003 he refused to testify in a congressional hearing about communications he had with his then-fugitive brother. Because of that, he was forced to resign from the presidency of the University of Massachusetts.


title: East Coast hip hop

text: East Coast hip hop is a type of hip hop music that comes from the East Coast of the United States. It originated in New York during the 1970s. East Coast hip hop only became a distinct subgenre after artists from other regions of the United States emerged with different styles.


title: Dino Zoff

text: Dino Zoff (; born 28 February 1942) is a former Italian football player. He has played for Italy national team. He is regarded as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time.


title: Overijssel

text: Overijssel (Latin: "Transisalania") is a province of the Netherlands. It is in the central eastern part of the country. The province's name in both Dutch and Latin means "Lands across river IJssel". The capital city of Overijssel is Zwolle. Its biggest city is Enschede. About 1,166,000 people are living in Overijssel (2021).


title: Overijssel

text: Overijssel has Germany to the east. The Achterhoek region of Gelderland lies to the south, the Veluwe region of Gelderland and Flevoland are to the west, and Friesland and the former moors of Drenthe to the north. Overijssel is made of three regions: Kop van Overijssel in the northwest, Salland in the centre of the province, and Twente in the east. Besides the capital Zwolle, the major cities are Almelo, Deventer, Enschede, and Hengelo.


title: Overijssel

text: To the southeast, the land is mostly sandy. There are small rivers and brooks cutting through it. Examples for such rivers are Regge and Dinkel. In the northwest, the geology is mostly made of sediments from the "Overijsselse Vecht" and clay. The northern parts were once covered by "veen" (bogs) which separated the dryer and more arable south from Drenthe. These bogs have been exploited as fuel to a large degree. Only small patches survive today ("Engbertsdijksvenen" near Tubbergen, "Witteveen" (near Haaksbergen, and the Aamsveen (near Enschede). The extreme northwest is dominated by a system of lakes formed by former peat-mining, the Weerribben, which is a valuable wetland.


title: Overijssel

text: The highest point in Overijssel is the summit of the Tankenberg, a hill in the municipality of Losser. It is 89 metres (295 ft). The lowest point is in the Mastenbroek Polder near Kampen at 2 metres (6 ft) below sea level.


title: Overijssel

text: Overijssel was formerly known as Oversticht. In 1336, it was made part of Guelders. It was given to the Bishopric of Utrecht in 1347. Utrecht was known as "het Sticht". The Bishops gave the Oversticht to the Emperor Charles V in 1528, who styled himself "Lord of Overijssel". With this, he gave the province its modern name. The people joined with the other Dutch and rebelled against Charles' heir Philip II. Overijssel became governed by the most powerful mayors and lords in the province.


title: Overijssel

text: After a brief occupation by the forces of the Bishop of Münster (1672–1674), Overijssel received a new form of government. This granted the stadtholders more power. Widespread resistance against the bigger power throughout the provinces lead to the Batavian Republic in 1795. A centralist government arose and the Netherlands was organised into a series of "départements", based on those used by revolutionary France. At first organised into its own "département", it was merged with Drenthe in 1798 to form Ouden Ijssel, which was renamed Overijssel in 1801.


title: Overijssel

text: The French annexed the Batavian Republic in 1810, and Overijssel was organised into the new French département of Bouches-de-l'Yssel. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, the kingdom of the Netherlands and the former province of Overijssel were recreated. Overijssel was briefly occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II from May 1940, until its liberation in April 1945. The Noordoostpolder, which had been laid dry in 1942, was part of Overijssel from 1962 until 1986, when it became part of the newly created province of Flevoland.


title: Crystal structure

text: In crystallography, the crystal structure is how the atoms (or ions or molecules) are arranged in a crystalline material. Crystals occur naturally from the way the chemical bonds of the atoms connect. Symmetric repeating patterns occur in 3-D space in the crystal.


title: Crystal structure

text: The crystal structure and symmetry cause many physical properties, such as cleavage (how the crystal splits) how it conducts electricity, and its optical properties..


title: Crystal structure

text: The crystal structure of a chemical is the shape of the crystal at the molecular level. There are several shapes of crystals. Sodium chloride is cubic. Copper sulfate is triclinic. Most things, even metals, have crystal structures. Some crystals fit more atoms in them than others, and these crystals usually weigh more.


title: Crystal structure

text: Each type of crystal structure has a unit cell, which is a small pattern of points that repeats through the whole crystal. For example, in a primitive cubic crystal, the unit cell is the eight corners of a cube. When many unit cells are next to each other, you get a crystal.


The Model 1857 12-Pounder Napoleon Field Gun, officially called the “light 12-pounder gun” by the United States Army, was the most popular smoothbore cannon used during the American Civil War. The cannon was named after French president and emperor, Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte.


title: Model 1857 12-Pounder Napoleon Field Gun

text: The French "Canon obusier de campagne de 12 cm, modèle 1853", also known as the "Canon de l’Empereur", was a type of canon-obusier (shell cannon) or gun-howitzer developed in 1853 by the French army. It could fire ball, shell, canister or grapeshot which allowed it to replace all the earlier French cannons. It was of a cast bronze smoothbore design and could double as a howitzer. It was light enough to be pulled by a team of horses. At the same time it had enough firepower to destroy fortifications at a distance of a half-mile (805 meters). When it entered the service of Emperor Napoléon III it was named after him.


text: In 1857 the design was adopted by the U.S. Army as the light 12-pounder M1857. The Union made 1,156 units while the Confederacy made 501. Because they did not have the manufacturing capacity of the North, Confederates attempted to capture as many Union-made Napoleon 12-pounders as they could. The Confederate army also developed their own version. In 1863, General Robert E. Lee was so impressed by the M1857 that he had all six-pounders in the Army of Northern Virginia gathered up and sent to Richmond to be melted down and re-cast into 12-pounders. The Confederates kept producing 12-pounder Napoleons until the Union army captured the Ducktown copper mines near Chattanooga, Tennessee. This reduced Confederates bronze production. After that Confederate 1857s were cast of iron.


text: When first model 1857s were cast in Northern foundries they had two handles or "dolphins". After 1861 the dolphins were eliminated, the barrel was shortened from the French version, and it was made lighter. Like most cannons in use at the time, they were muzzleloading weapons. The Model 1857 12-pounder Napoleon with its bronze barrel made up 40% of the cannons on both sides. The U.S. version of the Napoleon could hit a target up to away. However they were most accurate at closer ranges of about . It used a charge of of black powder. The M1857 Napoleon fired a cannonball or canister shot at a speed of 1,440 feet per second (or 439 meters per second). The barrel had a bore of in diameter and was long. The barrel alone weighed . With its gun carriage it weighed and was pulled by a team of six horses. The average gun crew was six men.


title: Trustworthiness

text: Trustworthiness or honesty is mainly a moral value. A trustworthy person is someone in whom we can place our trust and be sure that the trust will not be betrayed. Examples could be


title: Trustworthiness

text: The first example is moral. It depends on what we know about the person, their family and upbringing.


title: Trustworthiness

text: The second example is technical. We would need to know what kind of jobs the person had done before and, perhaps, what kind of training he had.


title: Trustworthiness

text: In order for one to trust another,their worth and integrity must be proven over time. That applies especially to the first (moral) case.


title: Trustworthiness

text: Trustworthiness in technical matters may be identified by attributes such as reliability, dependability and qualifications.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia, is more commonly known as Vlad "Țepeș" (the Impaler) . He was born in Segesvár, Transylvania, - then under the control of the Kingdom of Hungary - in 1431. He was the Prince of Wallachia and ruled there three times, in 1448, 1456–1462 and 1476.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of his cruelty. These legends gave Bram Stoker the idea for his main character in the popular "Dracula" novel.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Wallachia was placed between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The Turks were fighting against the Kingdom of Hungary and this made Wallachia a battle ground between Turks and Hungarians. The rulers of Wallachia were chosen by the Romanian aristocrats, called boyars. The ruler was often from a noble house, sometimes an illegitimate prince born outside of marriage. The country rulers were struggling with each other, and this was resulting in instability, family disputes and murders.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad the Impaler was born in 1431. His father was Vlad II Dracul. His mother is unknown. Vlad II was married to princess Cneajna of Moldavia. He had several mistresses. Vlad III was raised by Cneajna with the help of her household. He had two brothers, Mircea born c. 1430 and Radu born 1435. He also had a half-brother, Vlad the Monk born around 1425-1430.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad II went to the court of Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund of Luxemburg as a young man. Sigismund was supporting Vlad II for the throne of Wallachia, and made Vlad II knight 1431 of the Order of the Dragon ("Societas Draconis" in Latin).


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: The oldest brother, probably named Mircea, was sent by Vlad II to fight the war against the Turks in 1444. This war called the Battle of Varna was lost. Mircea and his father died in 1447.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad's half-brother. Vlad the Monk was waiting in Transylvania for a chance to rule Wallachia. Vlad the Monk was a monk until he became prince of Wallachia in 1482.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Radu, known as Radu III the Fair or Radu the Handsome, the youngest brother, was also Vlad’s most important rival as he continuously tried to replace Vlad on the throne.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: From his first marriage, Vlad the Impaler (or Vlad III) had a son, later prince of Wallachia, as Mihnea the Evil. His first wife, whose name we do not know, died during the war 1462. Vlad III the Impaler was fighting against the Turks. The legend says that the Turkish army surrounded Vlad's castle, the Poienari Castle, led by his brother Radu the Handsome. Vlad's wife threw herself off the tower into the Argeş River below the castle. According to legend she remarked that she "would rather have her body be eaten by the fish of the Argeş than be captured by the Turks."


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad had another two sons with his second wife Ilona Szilágyi a fraternal cousin of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. Some historians strongly believe they may have also had a daughter named Maria Zaleska (Princess Zaleska).


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad was very likely born in the city of Sighişoara in Transylvania, then a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, during the winter of 1431. Sighişoara was a military fortress at that time. He was born as the second son to his father Vlad Dracul. He had an older brother, Mircea, and a younger brother, Radu the Handsome. Although his native country was Wallachia, the family lived in exile in Transylvania because his father had been chased away by pro-Ottoman boyars.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad's father was pressured by the (Turkish) Ottoman sultan. He gave a promise to be the vassal of the Sultan and gave up his two younger sons as hostages so that he would keep his promise.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad suffered much at the hands of the Ottomans, and was locked up in an underground prison; however, his younger brother, Radu, caught the eye of the sultan's son. Radu was released and converted to Islam, and he was allowed into the Ottoman royal court.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: These years had a great influence on Vlad. They shaped Vlad's character. He was often whipped and beaten by the Turks for being stubborn and rude. He developed a well-known hatred for Radu and for Mehmed, who would later become the sultan.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad's father and Vlad's older brother, Mircea, were dead at this point. The Turks invaded Wallachia and the Sultan put Vlad III on the throne as his puppet ruler. His rule at this time was short; Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and chased him away the same year. Vlad fled to Moldavia and was put under the protection of his uncle, Bogdan II.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Bogdan was assassinated. Vlad took a chance and fled to Hungary. Impressed by Vlad's knowledge of the Ottoman Empire, Hunyadi pardoned him and took him in as an adviser. Later, Hunyadi made him the Kingdom of Hungary's candidate for the throne of Wallachia.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: In 1456, Hungary invaded Serbia to chase away the Turks, and at the same time Vlad III invaded Wallachia. Both invasions were successful. Hunyadi suddenly died of the plague. Vlad became prince of Wallachia.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad was spending most of his time at the court of the city of Târgovişte. He made laws, met foreign ambassadors, judged in trials. He reinforced some castles and probably enjoyed hunting with his friends.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: The constant state of war since the death of his grandfather, Mircea the Elder, in 1418, led to increased crime levels and less agricultural production. Trade had almost disappeared in Wallachia.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad wanted to eliminate all threats to his power, mainly the rival nobility groups, such as the boyars. This was done mainly by killing them and reducing the their economic role. The Wallachian nobility had connections with the Saxon merchants. The Saxons lived in the free towns of Transylvania, making trade flourish. Vlad cut their towns trade privileges with Wallachia, and started war against them.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad gave key positions in the Prince’s Council to people of lower rank who were loyal to him. Vlad preferred to knight men from the free peasants.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad III was always on guard against the Dăneşti clan. Some of his attacks into Transylvania may have been efforts to kill or capture Dăneşti princes. Several members of the Dăneşti clan died at Vlad's hands. Rumors say that thousands of citizens of the free towns that sheltered his rivals were impaled by Vlad. One captured Dăneşti prince was forced to read his own funeral speech while he kneeled at an open grave before his execution.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: There was a war between the Ottoman Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom. Following family traditions, Vlad decided to side with the Hungarians. To the end of the 1450s there was once again talk about a war against the Turks, in which the king of Hungary, Matthias Corvinus would play the main role. Knowing this, Vlad stopped paying money to the Ottomans in 1459, and at around 1460, he made a new alliance with Corvinus. The Turks did not like this and tried to remove him from power but they failed. In the winter of 1461 Vlad attacked and devastated the area between Serbia and the Black Sea, leaving over 20,000 people dead.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: In response to this, the Sultan Mehmed II headed towards Wallachia with an army of 60,000 men in the spring of 1462. With his army of 20,000-30,000 men Vlad was not able to stop the Turks from entering Wallachia. The Turks occupied the capital Târgovişte (June 4, 1462) and chased Vlad away. Vlad was hiding and made small attacks on the Turks. On the night of June 16 Vlad and some of his men entered the main Turkish camp, wearing Turkish clothing, and attempted to kill Mehmed. Later the Turkish army retired and left Vlad’s brother, Radu the Handsome, as the new ruler prince.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad was living in exile because he was afraid of the boyars of Wallachia. Vlad escaped to Hungary but he was put in prison there. The exact time of Vlad's captivity is not known for sure. Apparently his imprisonment was not too dangerous. He was able to gradually win his way back into the favor of King Matthias. He was able to meet and marry a member of the royal family (the cousin of King Matthias). However, some do not believe that it was likely to happen that a prisoner was permitted to marry into the royal family.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: He had two sons with his new wife. Vlad also became a member of the Roman Catholic Church. Diplomatic letters and writings from Buda during this time show that Vlad's actual period of imprisonment was short.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: The openly pro-Turkish policy of Vlad's brother, Radu was probably a cause in Vlad's good treatment while in prison. It is interesting to note that the Russian texts, normally very favorable to Vlad Ţepeş, tells that even in captivity he could not give up his favorite games; he often captured birds and mice which he tortured and mutilated, and some were impaled on tiny spears.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: The years before his final release in 1474 (when he began making plans for the reconquest of Wallachia), Vlad lived with his new wife in a house in the Hungarian capital. His sons were about ten years old when he reconquered Wallachia in 1476.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Around 1475 Vlad and Stefan Báthory of Transylvania invaded Wallachia with a mixed force of Transylvanians, some dissatisfied Wallachian boyars, and Moldavians sent by Prince Stephen III of Moldavia, Vlad's cousin. Vlad's brother, Radu the Handsome, died a couple of years earlier and had been replaced on the Wallachian throne by another Turkish candidate, Prince Basarab the Elder, a member of the Dăneşti clan. When Vlad's army arrived, Prince Basarabs army fled, some to the Turks, others in the mountains. After placing Vlad Ţepeş on the throne, Stephen Báthory and his forces returned to Transylvania, leaving Vlad in a very weak position. Vlad had little time to get support before a large Turkish army entered Wallachia to put back Prince Basarab on the throne. Vlad's cruelties over the years made the boyars to believe that they had a better chance to survive under Prince Basarab. Even the peasants, tired of the cruelty of Vlad, abandoned him. Vlad had to meet the Turks with the small forces at his disposal, which were made up of less than four thousand men.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: There are several variants of Vlad III the Impaler's death. Some sources say he was killed in battle against the Turks near Bucharest in December of 1476. Others say he was killed by disloyal Wallachian boyars in the war against the Turks, or during a hunt. Others believe Vlad was killed in the war, surrounded by the bodies of his loyal Moldavian bodyguards. Still other reports claim that Vlad was accidentally killed by one of his own men. Vlad's body was decapitated by the Turks and his head was sent to Istanbul preserved in honey. The sultan had it displayed on a stake as proof that "Kazıklı Bey" was dead. The exact place of his grave is unknown.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Tales and legends about Vlad stayed a part of folklore among the Romanian peasants. By constant retelling they have become confused and created an ideal picture of a big national hero. Among the Romanian peasants, Vlad Ţepeş was sometimes remembered as a prince who defended his country.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: But sometimes he is remembered as a very cruel and often capricious ruler. There are several events that are common to all tales.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: One tale is about foreign ambassadors whom Vlad Ţepeş was meeting at Târgovişte. All versions agree that Vlad, in response to some real or imagined insult, (perhaps because they refused to remove the hats in Vlad's presence), had their hats nailed to their heads.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: "He was not very tall, but very stocky and strong, with a cruel and terrible appearance, a long straight nose, distended nostrils, a thin and reddish face in which the large wide-open green eyes were enframed by bushy black eyebrows, which made them appear threatening. His face and chin were shaven but for a moustache. The swollen temples increased the bulk of his head. A bull's neck supported the head, from which black curly locks were falling to his wide-shouldered person."


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: His famous portrait was rediscovered in the late 1800s, in the gallery of horrors at Innsbruck's Ambras Castle.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad III Ţepeş has been described as very cruel. The old Romanian word for dragon is Dracul, which in modern Romanian means "devil". In Old Romanian, it means "dragon". Dracul was the name given to his father, Vlad II, by other members of the Order of the Dragon. Impalement was Ţepeş's preferred method of torture and execution. His method of torture was a horse attached to each of the victim's legs while sharpened stake was forced into the body. Vlad often had the stakes arranged in patterns. The most common pattern was a ring outside of a city that was his target. The height of the spear indicated the rank of the victim. The corpses were often left there for months.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: One tale says 10,000 were impaled in the Transylvanian city of Sibiu (where Vlad the Impaler had once lived) in 1460. Another tale says that on Saint Bartholomew's Day (in August), Vlad the Impaler had 30,000 people of the free Transylvanian city of Braşov impaled. One of the most famous woodcuts of the period shows Vlad the Impaler feasting amongst a forest of stakes outside Braşov, while a nearby executioner cuts apart other victims. Impalement was not his only method of torture. Other methods include nails in heads, cutting off limbs, strangulation, burning, cutting off noses and ears, mutilation of sexual organs (especially in the case of women), scalping, skinning, exposure to the elements or to animals, and boiling alive.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: His victims included women, children, peasants, great lords, ambassadors from foreign powers and merchants. However, the vast majority of his European victims came from the merchants and boyars of Transylvania and Wallachia. Most of the merchants there were German-speaking Saxons who were seen as bad people because they were not Romanian. He saw the boyars as people who were not loyal (Vlad's own father and older brother were murdered by boyars).


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Almost as soon as he came to power, he gave a party for his boyars and their families to celebrate Easter. These nobles were part of the conspiracy around his father's death. Vlad, to avenge his father's death, had all the assembled nobles arrested. The older boyars were impaled on the spot. The younger nobles and their families were marched north from Târgovişte to the ruins of the Poienari Castle in the mountains above the Argeş River. The boyars and their families were forced to work for months rebuilding the old castle. According to the reports, they worked until the clothes fell off their bodies, and then were forced to continue working naked. Very few survived the building of Vlad's castle.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Vlad Ţepeş is also believed to have tortured and impaled some of the Turkish forces. It was reported that an invading Ottoman army turned back when they saw thousands of rotting corpses impaled on the banks of the river Danube. In 1462, Mehmed II returned to Constantinople after being sickened by the sight of 20,000 impaled corpses outside of Vlad's capital of Târgovişte. Many of the victims were Turkish prisoners of war.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Much of the information we have about Vlad III Ţepeş comes from texts published in the Holy Roman Empire in German texts from 1488 and books written in Russian. These were entertainment in a society where the printing press was new. The texts were reprinted over the thirty years following Vlad's death. The German texts said Vlad Ţepeş was a person who terrorized the land and killed innocents. The Russian texts said his actions were justified, because Vlad helped them. The texts agree on some details.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: According to the texts, he was particularly cruel against women and wanted his people to work hard. Merchants who cheated their customers were likely to be killed because of that.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: The fictional vampire in the novel "Dracula" by Bram Stoker was inspired by the legends of this Wallachian prince. The cruel person of the Impaler was a suitable character for Stoker's purposes possibly combined with Oscar Wilde, a poet whom dated Stoker's wife and was outed as homosexual near the making of Stoker's famous novel. The events of Vlad's life happened in a region of the world that was still medieval in Stoker's time.


title: Vlad the Impaler

text: Although there were vampire tales originating elsewhere, the vampire, as he became known in Europe, largely originated in Southern Slavic and Greek folklore. The vampire tale is virtually absent in Romanian culture. Vampirism became part of the popular culture in Europe beginning in the late 17th century. Philosophers in the West began to study the phenomenon. It was during this period that Dom Augustine Calmet wrote a famous text on vampirism in Hungary. It was also during this period that authors and playwrights first began to explore the vampire legend. Stoker's novel was a work in a long series of works that were inspired by the reports coming from the Balkans.


title: AKM

text: The AKM is a Soviet assault rifle that was designed by Mikhail Kalashnikov in the 1950s and adopted in 1959 by the Soviet army to replace the AK-47. The difference between the AK-47 and the AKM is that the AK-47 is short and the AKM is long and the other difference is that the AK-47 has a regular muzzle and the AKM has a sharp muzzle.


title: Tommy Chong

text: Thomas B. Kin "Tommy" Chong (born May 24, 1938) is a Canadian-American actor, comedian, director, musician, and writer.


title: Tommy Chong

text: He is well known for his marijuana-themed Cheech & Chong comedy movies with Cheech Marin, as well as playing the character Leo on Fox's "That '70s Show".


title: Tommy Chong

text: Chong was born on May 24, 1938 in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. He was raised in Calgary, Alberta. Chong studied at Crescent Heights High School.


title: Tommy Chong

text: Chong first married Maxine Sneed, from 1960 until their divorce in 1970. They had two daughters, Robbi and Rae Dawn. His second marriage was to Shelby Fiddis in 1975. They had three children.


title: Tommy Chong

text: He announced on June 9, 2012, that he has prostate cancer. He described the cancer "as a slow stage one [that I've] had for a long time." He said that he was drug-free for about three years, during which time he began having prostate-related problems.


title: Tommy Chong

text: On July 15, 2012 Chong tweeted that the hemp oil he has been using to treat his cancer is working and that "he is 99% cancer free". However, on June 16, 2015, Chong stated he has rectal cancer and was "using cannabis like crazy" in order to endure the treatment. In 2019, Chong announced that he is "cancer-free".


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Toxic exposure means that a toxin (poison) touched or got into a person's body. That person has been exposed to the toxin.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: After a person is exposed to a toxin, many different things about that person, the toxin, and the exposure affect "toxicity". Toxicity is how the person reacts to the toxin, including what symptoms they may have.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: A person can get exposed to a toxin accidentally or on purpose. People can also use toxins as weapons to try to kill other people (for example, during chemical or biological warfare).


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Anything can be a toxin if enough of it gets into a person's body. For example, even water can be toxic. If a person drinks enough water (usually more than 6 gallons in one day), they can get water toxicity (also called "water poisoning" or "water intoxication"). This causes the body's cells to swell up with extra water. Swelling in the brain's cells can cause brain damage or death. Water, in normal amounts, helps keep us alive; but if a person is exposed to enough of it, it becomes a toxin, and it can kill the person.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: An acute exposure happens only one time. Chronic exposure happens many times, over a long period of time.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines these types of exposure this way:


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Toxins can get into the body in four different ways. These are called "routes of exposure." The route of exposure is one of the many things that affects toxicity.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Toxins can get into the body through inhalation (the person breathes in the toxin). If a toxin is a gas, inhalation is usually the way it gets into the body.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: When a toxin is inhaled, it may injure the airways and the lungs. Also, some toxins can go from the lungs into the bloodstream. The bloodstream then delivers blood - with the toxin in it - to all of the organs in the body. The toxin can then damage those organs.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Inhalation is one of the easiest and fastest ways for toxins to get into the body. The lining of the respiratory tract absorbs toxins into the bloodstream very quickly.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: An example of a commonly inhaled toxin is cigarette smoke. There are over 100 toxins in cigarette smoke, including formaldehyde, arsenic, and hydrogen cyanide. Smoking is also an example of "chronic" toxic exposure. The exposure is chronic because the smoker is breathing in toxins many times, over a long period of time.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Another inhaled toxin that causes "acute" exposure is smoke from house fires. There are many toxins in this kind of smoke, including carbon monoxide and cyanide. Firefighters or people who were trapped in fires can get cyanide poisoning or carbon monoxide poisoning from breathing in these toxins. This is an example of an acute exposure, because the smoke was not breathed in for more than 24 hours.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: If a toxin gets in a person's eyes or on their skin, it can get taken up into the bloodstream. This is called absorption. Absorption through the skin is the most common route of toxic exposure.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: The skin is able to keep some toxins from getting into the body. However, if a person has a cut or wound on their skin, any toxin will be able to get into the body through that wound. Also, the toxin will be taken up into the bloodstream more quickly, because it does not have to get absorbed through the skin.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Exposure by absorption often happens in workplaces where people work with toxins. For example, if a person who works at a gas station spills gasoline on himself, the body will quickly absorb the gasoline into the bloodstream. Some chemical weapons like sarin, a nerve gas, can also be absorbed through the skin and the eyes, along with being inhaled.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Ingestion means that a person swallowed the toxin. Some chemicals cannot get into the bloodstream from the gastrointestinal tract. However, others are absorbed through the lining of the intestinal tract into the bloodstream.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Ingestion of toxins is very common in developing countries, where many people do not have safe drinking water. There are many different toxins that can be carried in water. They can be chemicals, like lead. They can also be biological toxins, like the bacteria that causes cholera, and the viruses that cause Hepatitis A and polio. People ingest these toxins by drinking the contaminated water, or eating food made with the water. The World Health Organization says that about 502,000 people die every year because of toxins in water and the diseases they cause.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Food poisoning is also caused by ingestion of toxins, like "E. coli" bacteria, which can live in foods like meat and poultry.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: An injected toxin gets into the body when something carrying the toxin breaks the skin. Injections can go into a vein, a muscle, or just under the skin. Toxins that are injected into a vein have the fastest effects, because the toxin is being put right into the bloodstream.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Some snakes, scorpions, and spiders carry venom. If they bite or sting a person, they are injecting that toxin into the person's body.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: An example of a toxin which is often injected on purpose is Botulinum. This is a very deadly toxin that causes botulism, but it is also sold under the name "Botox." Many people choose to get Botulinum toxin injected into their faces to get rid of wrinkles. The toxin paralyzes some of the muscles in the face, usually for three to 12 months, and makes the face look smoother.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Some toxins can get into the body through more than one route of exposure. For example, if water is polluted, a person can get exposed to the toxins in the water by drinking it (ingestion) and by showering or swimming in it (absorption).


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Once a person has been exposed to a toxin, there are many things that affect toxicity. This article talks about only a few.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: The route of exposure also affects toxicity. For example, if it is injected, snake venom can be life-threatening. However, if it is ingested, snake venom is usually not harmful. The effects of this toxin are very different depending on the route of exposure.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Toxins sometimes affect different people in different ways. This is partly caused by differences in people's bodies. A person's age, gender, genes, hormones, nutrition, and the strength of their immune system all affect toxicity. For example, infants, young children, and the elderly are more likely to get sick from lower concentrations of toxins, which might not make a healthy adult sick.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Some health problems can affect toxicity. For example, inhaling toxins is especially dangerous for people who already have lung diseases, like emphysema. If the lungs are already damaged, breathing in toxins is likely to cause even more damage, and puts the person at risk for respiratory failure.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Also, once a toxin gets into the bloodstream, the body immediately starts trying to get rid of it through excretion. The main organs involved with excretion are the kidneys, liver, and lungs. If a person has damage to any of these organs (like kidney failure or cirrhosis of the liver), they will be unable to get rid of the toxin as fast as a healthy person will. The chemical will stay in their body longer, and have more toxic effects.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Many things about the type of toxin a person was exposed to affect toxicity. Two examples are solubility and pH.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: A toxin's solubility is its ability to mix into a liquid. If a toxin is not water-soluble (it cannot dissolve in water), it cannot absorb into the bloodstream. (Plasma, the liquid part of blood, is made mostly of water.) If a person ingests a toxin that cannot dissolve into the watery plasma, the toxin will not absorb into the bloodstream through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. It will pass out of the body through the gastrointestinal tract.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: However, many toxins are water-soluble and will get absorbed into the bloodstream. For example, the "Vibrio cholerae" bacteria is water-soluble. If a person ingests water or food that has this toxin in it, they can get cholera.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: Other toxins are "lipid-soluble" (they dissolve in fats). Instead of getting absorbed into the bloodstream, these toxins get stored in the body's fat. When the person's body burns fat to make energy, these toxins are let out and can poison the person. Examples of fat-soluble toxins include lead, DDT, and mercury.


title: Exposure (toxicology)

text: The toxin's pH is also important. For example, if a toxin is a strong acid or a strong base, it can cause severe chemical burns to the eyes and skin. Toxins that have a more neutral pH can still hurt the body by being absorbed into the bloodstream, but they will not burn the eyes and skin. For example, if a person swims or bathes in water contaminated with cholera toxin, the toxin can still get absorbed through his eyes or skin. However, the water will not burn the eyes or skin.


title: Terbium

text: Terbium is a chemical element that has the symbol Tb on the periodic table. It has the atomic number 65 which means it has 65 protons in an atom. Its compounds fluoresce green in ultraviolet light. The metal can burned in air to form an oxide.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: Joseph Mallord William Turner (Covent Garden, London, 23 April 1775 – Chelsea, London, 19 December 1851) was an English painter and artist. He was one of the greatest artists of landscape painting, with a great mastery of light and colour.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: His father was a maker of wigs. His mother was ill with mental problems, and the young Turner was sent to live with his uncle in Brentford, West London, where he first started to paint.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: Turner became a student at the Royal Academy of Art school in London when he was 14 years old. He was accepted into the academy a year later. He had a watercolour painting in 1790 in the academy's important art show. He had only been studying for a year. In 1802, at the age of only 28, he was elected a member of the Royal Academy, and later became its Professor of Perspective.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: In 1802, Turner travelled around Europe, visiting France and Switzerland. He also went to the Louvre in Paris. During his life, he often travelled across Europe, visiting Venice in Italy several times. As his personal style developed, he began to produce paintings that were generalised or exaggerated in form and colour, rather than realistic or detailed. These caused much argument as to their artistic value, but nowadays are his best loved works. On his death, he left 300 oils and 20,000 watercolours to the British nation. Some of his watercolours are the most abstract or generalised of his paintings.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: Turner never married, although he had two children with his mistress Sarah Danby. For much of his life, he lived with his father, who helped him in his studio until he died in 1829.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: In his early career, Turner was influenced by the painters Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin, who painted "historical" landscapes.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: Turner became interested in natural catastrophes, and natural phenomena such as sunlight, storm, rain, and fog. He was fascinated by the violent power of the sea. His paintings revolve around the light of the sun, shown in infinite variety. His work showed some of the ideas of the impressionists decades before they arrived on the scene. Monet, in particular, studied Turner's methods.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: His most famous paintings include "The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last berth to be broken up". Often called just "The Fighting Temeraire", this is a picture of a famous warship that was used in the Battle of Trafalgar. Other pictures include "Rain, Steam and Speed", which shows a steam train crossing a bridge, and "Snowstorm" which shows a steamship in a snowstorm trying to get into a harbour. In order to get the right feeling into this painting, he had himself tied to a ship's mast during a storm, so that he could see what it was like. Some of his most famous paintings show the roughness of nature, with bleak landscapes and violent storms.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: But also there is beauty and a sense of calmness in pictures such as Crossing the Brook, a stunning scenic view of the Tamar Valley and River from New Bridge near Gunnislake in Cornwall, painted in 1815, a view which can still be admired today.


title: J. M. W. Turner

text: As he grew older, Turner's behaviour became a bit odd, and he became depressed quite often. He died in Chelsea on 19 September 1851, and was buried next to the painter Joshua Reynolds in St Paul's Cathedral.