title: History of Japan

text: Japan also faced some problems. In 1995, a big earthquake took place in Kobe. Another earthquake took place on 23rd October 2004 in Niigata Prefecture, and a very destructive tsunami damaged the north east coast in March 2011, causing a nuclear accident in Fukushima Prefecture.


title: History of Japan

text: On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe was assassinated while giving a speech in Nara at aged 67.


title: Corporation

text: A corporation is a group of persons that sit together to make and run a business. This business is considered an entirely different human and not related to the group which manages it.


title: Corporation

text: Because it is recognized by governments as a separate person entirely, the corporation must pay it's own taxes and conform to state and federal law. This difference of persons and corporation gives it special powers. A corporation's special powers are determined by the law of the country in which the corporation is set up.


title: Corporation

text: Investors(people who own a small part of the company) and entrepreneurs(The people who founded the company and it's ideas) often form joint stock companies. Therefore, the term "corporation" often means such "business corporations". Corporations may also be formed for local government (municipal corporation), political, religious, and charitable purposes (not-for-profit corporation), or government programs (government-owned corporation). Condominiums are a common kind of non-profit corporation.


title: Corporation

text: In common speech, the word "corporation" refers usually to limited responsibility corporation. That is a business firm where each of the partners invest a sum of money in as the capital of the corporation. They receive shares for the sum they have invested. If the company becomes bankrupt, the business partners are responsible for only the name value of their shares of the company's debts. The partners do not use their personal money to pay for the debt.


title: Lois Griffin

text: Lois Griffin is a character in the television comedy "Family Guy". She is the wife of Peter Griffin. They have three children. They are an American family and Lois has a New Yorker accent. Alex Borstein does her voice.


title: Doha

text: Doha (Arabic: الدوحة;, Ad-Dawḥah or Ad-Dōḥah) is the capital city of Qatar. It has a population of 400,051 (2005), and is at 25.3° N 51.5333° E, on the Persian Gulf. The city has an airport called Doha International Airport. Doha also has major oil and fishing industries. Doha has an area devoted to research and education called Education City. Doha was the host of the 2006 Asian Games, a major Asian sporting event. Doha's leader is a sheikh named Sheikh Tamim. The official language of Doha is English and Arabic. The biggest mall in Qatar is Qatar mall.


title: Doha

text: Doha has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and short, warm winters. The average high temperatures between May and September surpass 38 °C (100 °F) and often approach 45 °C (113 °F). Humidity is usually the lowest in May and June. Dewpoints can surpass 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer. Throughout the summer, the city averages almost no precipitation, and less than 20 mm (0.79 in) during other months. Rainfall is scarce, at a total of 75 mm (2.95 in) per year, falling on isolated days mostly between October to March. The winter's days are relativity warm while the sun is up and cool during the night. The temperature rarely drops below 7 °C (45 °F).


title: Doha

text: Doha is bordered by Saudi Arabia on its south. On its north, it is bordered by the Persian Gulf. The nearest oversea country is Bahrain.


title: Rawalpindi District

text: Rawalpindi District () is a district in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The city of Rawalpindi is the capital. The district is divided into seven tehsils, these are:


title: Rawalpindi District

text: In 1901 Punjab Census, the Sikhs numbered 26,363, Hindus 57,325, and the Muslims being 466,918 83%. But between 1901 and 1931, there was a large number of Hindus converting to Sikhism. By 1947, there would have been more than 100,000 Sikhs In this district, and also the population growing.


title: William Ewart Gladstone

text: William Ewart Gladstone (29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British Victorian politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom for the Liberal Party in four terms between 1868 and 1894.


title: William Ewart Gladstone

text: His career lasted more than 60 years. He served as Liberal Prime Minister four times. This was more than any other person (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894). Gladstone was 84 years old when he resigned for the last time. This made him Britain's oldest ever Prime Minister. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer four times (1853–1855, 1859–1866, 1873–1874 and 1880–1882).


title: Bill Nye

text: William Sanford Nye (born November 27, 1955), often known as Bill Nye the Science Guy, is an American actor, comedian, engineer, and educator. He is most known for hosting the children’s TV show "Bill Nye the Science Guy". Nye is also the CEO of The Planetary Society. Nye was born in Washington, D.C. and went to school at Cornell University. Early in his life, Nye worked as an engineer for Boeing in Seattle. He also was a member of the Seattle comedy troupe "Almost Live!". He hosted "Bill Nye the Science Guy" from 1993 to 1997. Since then, he has hosted several TV shows and specials concerned with science and the environment. He also designed the sundial on the Mars Rover. Nye currently lives in the San Fernando Valley.


title: PayPal

text: PayPal is a website that allows the transfer of money among people via web services and email. The money can be deposited into a bank account. PayPal was owned by eBay, from 2002 to 2015. It can be used in more than 200 countries.


title: Lombardy

text: Lombardy ( ; Italian: "Lombardia" ]; Lombard: "Lombardia", ], ]) is a region in the northern part of Italy. It is the most populated region of the country, and has almost 9.4 million people. The capital is Milan. Lombardy has provinces within it.


title: Lombardy

text: To the north of Lombardy is the country of Switzerland (Canton Ticino and Grigioni). To the west is the region of Piedmont. To the east are the regions of Veneto and Trentino - Alto Adige. To the south is the region of Emilia-Romagna.


title: Lombardy

text: In the Italian language, Lombardy is called "Lombardia". This name comes from an old German word: "Langbardland" and means "country of the Lombards".


title: Lombardy

text: In the north of Lombardy there are very high mountains, (40% of the territory is mountains) the highest mountains are almost 4.000 meters in the Bernina Range.


title: Lombardy

text: In the south of the region flows the Po river, which is the longest river in Italy. The most important rivers are the Adda river, the Mincio and the Ticino river, all of them end in the Po river.


title: Lombardy

text: There are also a lot of lakes, the largest are the lake Maggiore, the Lake of Varese, the lake Como, and the lake Garda.


title: Patriotism

text: Patriotism means loyalty of a person to his/her own nation or the leaders of the nation. A patriot is a person who is on the side of his/her own nation or its leaders. Patriotism is different from nationalism.


title: Patriotism

text: Also, contrary to a nationalist, patriots do not favor imperialism, while nationalists tend to but don’t always favor imperialism. An example of a nationalist favoring imperialism would be Adolf Hitler.


title: Patriotism

text: The English term "patriot" is first known from the Elizabethan era, via Middle French from Late Latin (6th century) patriota "countryman", ultimately from Greek πατριώτης (patriōtēs) "countryman", from πατρίς (patris), "fatherland". The abstract noun patriotism appears in the early 18th century..


title: Inertia

text: Inertia is the resistance of the object to any change in its motion, including a change in direction. An object will stay still or keep moving at the same speed and in a straight line, unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force.


title: Inertia

text: For example, a rubber ball will not start bouncing around unless someone picks it up and throws it. Basically, if an object is not moving, it will not start moving unless something else acts upon it. The same idea can be applied to motion: an object in motion will stay in motion unless some outside, opposing force acts upon it. Inertia is also called Sir Isaac Newton's First Law of Motion. The First Law of Motion says that:


title: Inertia

text: "Every body perseveres in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight ahead, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by forces impressed." [Cohen & Whitman 1999 translation]


title: Inertia

text: "Every object stays at rest or stays moving at the same speed unless something makes it change."Johannes Kepler gave inertia its name in "Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae" (published in three parts from 1617 to 1621)


title: Inertia

text: Albert Einstein developed the idea of Special Relativity based on Galileo's statement that it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against.


title: Jack Russell Terrier

text: The Jack Russell Terrier is a small dog with a white coat that can be smooth or rough-coated. Some have a broken coat that is also called "wire-haired".


title: Jack Russell Terrier

text: The Jack Russell terrier were originally bred in England by the Reverend John Russell from about 1819. The Jack Russell is sturdier than the standard terrier. It is a fast runner, has a great nose and can hunt the fox even when it goes underground. It can also be used as a work dog.


title: Jack Russell Terrier

text: As with other domesticated animals, there are numerous variations. Differences in naming were caused by the different regulations of different kennel clubs. Some dog clubs make a difference between what they call "Parson Jack Russell Terriers", which are over 12" (inches) at the shoulders, and "Jack Russell Terriers" which are under 12" in height. Other clubs do not. They are broadly the same type of dog. It is easy to change the height of dogs by selective breeding, and the reason working dogs come in different sizes is to make them better at a particular job. Taller terriers were used for hunting foxes, and smaller terriers were used for hunting rabbits and rodents.


title: The Young Ones

text: The Young Ones is a British sitcom, first seen in 1974, on BBC2. Its anarchic sense of humour, in the 1970s, made the actors famous in the UK. Soon after that, it was shown to Americans on MTV, being one of the first shows on the new channel that was not mostly about music.


title: The Young Ones

text: The programme was about four college students sharing a house: violent punk rocker Vyvyan (Adrian Edmondson), the stuck-up anarchist Rick (Rik Mayall), the suffering hippy Neil (Nigel Planer), and the mysterious Mike (Christopher Ryan). It also starred Alexei Sayle, who played their landlord, Jerzei Balowski, and other members of the Balowski family.


title: The Young Ones

text: Although the series was set in North London, many outdoors scenes were filmed in Bristol. All four characters went to the fictional "Scumbag College", but they were never shown in a classroom, and were hardly ever seen studying.


title: The Young Ones

text: The series' beginnings were in London's comedy clubs in the early 1970s. Most of the cast became popular at The Comedy Store. Alexei Sayle was the main act, drawing attention as the manic, aggressive Master of ceremonies. Adrian Edmondson and Rik Mayall worked as a double act, 20th Century Coyote, and later became The Dangerous Brothers. Nigel Planer was in a double act with Peter Richardson called "The Outer Limits."


title: The Young Ones

text: As The Comedy Store became popular, Sayle, 20th Century Coyote and The Outer Limits, with French and Saunders and Arnold Brown, set up their own club called The Comic Strip in nearby Soho. The Comic Strip became one of the most popular comedy clubs in London, and one person who liked it a lot was Jeremy Isaacs of Channel 4. Peter Richardson then made a deal for six half-hour shows on Channel 4, using the group as comedy actors instead of stand-up performers.


title: The Young Ones

text: The first of this series, "The Comic Strip Presents...", was on Channel 4 on 2 November 1974. After this, the BBC made a deal with Edmondson, Mayall, Richardson, Planer and Sayle to star in another sitcom in the same style. Paul Jackson was put in as a producer.


title: The Young Ones

text: The series was written by Mayall with his girlfriend Lise Mayer, and with Ben Elton (who went to Manchester University with Mayall and Edmondson). Richardson was first going to play Mike, but clashed with Jackson. He was replaced by Christopher Ryan, the only member of the group who was not a stand-up comedian.


title: The Young Ones

text: The series was centered around the unclean house where the students lived during their time at Scumbag College.


title: The Young Ones

text: When it was first on television, the show got attention for violent slapstick. Though new to mainstream audiences, Mayall and Edmondson had been using it in 20th Century Coyote for some time. The show also had some very strange parts, such as puppets playing talking animals or objects. Confusion was added with pieces in the middle that were not part of the main plot.


title: The Young Ones

text: Episodes in the second series sometimes had "flash frames" (three frames, lasting 1/8 of a second), but these were cut out of some repeats. They were included to make fun of the British and American public's fear of subliminal messages in television and music. The images included the words "Carry On Cowboy" (the name of a 1965 film), a rusty dripping tap, a leaping frog, a dove in flight, a skier, and a hand making pottery.


title: The Young Ones

text: The episodes ran 35 minutes, and many episodes were cut when repeated on the BBC or satellite channels.


title: The Young Ones

text: The series' theme song featured the cast singing Cliff Richard and The Shadows UK #1 song "The Young Ones". Throughout the series there were many references to Richard, as Mayall's character was a fan.


title: The Young Ones

text: The theme song over the end credits was written by Peter Brewis, who also created incidental music on many episodes.


title: The Young Ones

text: In 1984, after the second season, Planer (in character as Neil) reached No. 2 in the UK charts with a version of Traffic's "Hole In My Shoe". It went with "Neil's Heavy Concept Album", a loose collection of songs and spoken comedy with appearances by "Young Ones" actors Dawn French and Stephen Fry.


title: The Young Ones

text: In 1986, the cast sang "Living Doll" with Cliff Richard and Hank Marvin for Comic Relief. The song, a reworking of his 1959 hit, reached the top of the UK Charts.


title: The Young Ones

text: Most episodes had a musical guest performing in the house or street. By including the groups, the show could be called variety rather than light entertainment by the BBC and was given a bigger budget than a sitcom. This also helped get several British bands to be more popular with American viewers, such as Dexys Midnight Runners, Motörhead, and Madness. This last group was in two episodes.


title: The Young Ones

text: Some of these performances were cut from the DVD for copyright reasons. Some musical acts were also cut out for similar reasons on some satellite reruns.


title: The Young Ones

text: Played by Nigel Planer, Neil Pye, the hippy, is a clinically depressed, suicidal pacifist, vegetarian and environmentalist working towards a Peace Studies degree. He is victimised by other housemates (especially Rick and Vyvyan) and forced to do the housework, including shopping, cleaning and cooking. He is never acknowledged for it (unless it goes wrong).


title: The Young Ones

text: Neil is pessimistic and believes everyone and everything hates him, which is mostly true, though he does have some friends, two hippys, one also named Neil and one named Warlock. He does not like technology except for videos, and he speaks out for Vegetable Rights and Peace. He is also an insomniac, believing that "sleep gives you cancer".


title: The Young Ones

text: Neil wants the others to feel sorry for him, or just acknowledge his presence. To get attention, he tries anything from repeatedly banging himself on the head with a frying pan to attempting suicide. He claims "the most interesting thing that ever happens to me is sneezing".


title: The Young Ones

text: In the second series, his parents - who appear in the episode "Sick" - are revealed to be upper middle class. They are conservative Tories who look down on Neil.


title: The Young Ones

text: Played by Rik Mayall, Rick is an anarchist who is studying sociology and/or domestic sciences (depending on the episode). Rick writes poetry and calls himself "The People's Poet".


title: The Young Ones

text: Rick is a hypocritical, tantrum-throwing attention-seeker who loves Cliff Richard. Rick tries to impress the others with what he thinks is his wit, talent and humour, but is really none of these. He insults and often physically assaults Neil. He fights and bickers with Vyvyan, and attempts to impress Mike.


title: The Young Ones

text: Rick is a vegetarian, and says he wishes everyone to love each other like brothers. However, he rarely does anything that can be called brotherly love.


title: The Young Ones

text: Rick is unlikeable, and so selfish that he believes he is the "most popular member of the flat" even though his housemates really hate him. Vyvyan describes Rick's name as being spelled "with a silent P". Although the other members dislike and ignore Rick, he is heard to say that they "really are terrific friends".


title: The Young Ones

text: Believing himself the 'People's Poet' or the "spokesperson for a generation", Rick exaggerates or lies about his political activism and working class background, and in the last episode "Summer Holiday", it is suggested he really comes from an upper class, Conservative background.


title: The Young Ones

text: While he sees himself as an anarchist, he likes the ideas of Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky and states his interest in them in several episodes. However, he claims to dislike Margaret Thatcher, as is noted by his efforts threatening to blow up England with a bomb in the episode "Bomb" if she does not do something "to help the kids, by this afternoon." This is also noticed in "The Young Ones Book," first published by Sphere Books, where negative references are made to Thatcher and the Conservative Party.


title: The Young Ones

text: Played by Adrian Edmondson, Vyvyan is an orange-haired, mohican punk rocker and medical student. He is extremely violent and regularly attacks Neil and Rick with pieces of wood, cricket bats and other large objects. He never hurts Mike, whom he respects. He hates Rick more than he does Neil, taking every chance to insult and attack him. For example, when Rick, Mike and Neil meet his mother at a bar in the episode "Boring", he calls both Neil and Mike his friends, but not Rick, whom he calls "a complete bastard." Although Rick and Vyvyan hate each other, this makes them all but inseparable; the two spend more time together than apart, or with the other housemates.


title: The Young Ones

text: Vyvyan owns a yellow Ford Anglia, with red flames painted along the sides, and a Glaswegian hamster named Special Patrol Group ("SPG" for short) which he is very fond of, even though SPG is also often subjected to Vyvyan's extreme violence. His mother is a barmaid and former shoplifter, who before "Boring" had not seen Vyvyan in ten years and has no idea who his father is.


title: The Young Ones

text: Vyvyan has inhuman strength on occasion (moving entire walls with his bare hands, lifting Neil above his head in a fight with Rick, biting through a brick and even re-attaching his own head after it was cut off), surviving a pick-axe through the head, and he eats just about anything; televisions, dead rats, cornflakes, or cornflakes with ketchup.


title: The Young Ones

text: Although he is a homicidal maniac, Vyvyan can be friendly and creative; in one episode ("Flood"), he made his own potion to change a person into an axe-wielding homicidal maniac. He has more friends than the others but "he doesn't like any of them." He often causes damage such as wiring the doorbell to a bomb, and adding a 289 CID Ford V-8 engine to the vacuum cleaner, which proceeds to suck up the carpet, the floorboards and a friend of Neil's. Vyvyan also seems to be the only member of the group with a driving licence.


title: The Young Ones

text: Played by Christopher Ryan, Mike was the oddest of the four. He is the assumed leader of the group, despite being rather shorter than the others, and does not involve himself in the battles between the other three. He makes puns, which are either deliberately cheap or humorous.


title: The Young Ones

text: He often uses deep-sounding phrases that confuse the others (for example, when asked by Rick if he stole his apple, Mike replies "Well, if you're gonna sin you might as well be original."). Mike is supposedly the ladies' man of the bunch, and brags about his prowess with women, although he is eventually forced to admit his virginity to the others in "Nasty." Though he is a virgin, as are the rest of the housemates, he always tries to get a date with the opposite sex, being quite forward and unsuccessful.


title: The Young Ones

text: A con artist, he always has some kind of plan to make quick money, such as renting out Rick's bedroom as a roller disco, and trying to auction off the unexploded atom bomb that fell into the house. Mike attends Scumbag College only in name, as he has blackmailed his tutor and the Dean of the school for grants, and apparently passing grades. In "Summer Holiday" he says "I think I'll ask for one of those Ph.D.s next year."


title: The Young Ones

text: While Mike often does things at the expense of his housemates, he usually does not show the sort of open hostility that the others do, and seems to cause them trouble only when it benefits him. He has, however, managed to nail his own legs to a table, and accidentally knocked Neil out during a game of cricket. We only see violence done to him once or twice (at the end of the "Living Doll" video, when Vyvyan knocks him unconscious with a hammer and in "Summer Holiday", when Neil transforms into the Incredible Hulk, who picks up Mike and throws him to the ground, however it turns out it was only Neil's imagination).


title: The Young Ones

text: Throughout the two series, Alexei Sayle regularly appeared as many different characters, putting his own material into the programme in ways that copied his stand up comedy routines. His main role was that of the flat's landlord Jerzy (Jeremy) Balowski, appearing in "Demolition", "Flood" and "Summer Holiday". The rest of the time, he played various male members of "The Balowski Family", including nephew Alexei Balowski (a protest singer), son Reggie Balowski (an international arms dealer), brother Billy Balowski (a lunatic who believed he was a taxi driver), cousin Tommy Balowski (a drunk), escaped convict Brian Damage Balowski, and a medieval jester "Jester Balowski" (with Helen Lederer as his sidekick).


title: The Young Ones

text: In the second series, Sayle's characters also included a train driver, a Mussolini look-alike (by day the head of the local police force, by night an entrant in the Eurovision Song Contest), and "Harry the Bastard" (manager of the local Rumbelows store, disguised as a South African vampire).


title: The Young Ones

text: Mike is the natural "leader" of the house. Always trying to make himself appear more important and exciting than he really is, he does appear to have done some of the things he claims to have done (such as getting Bambi the "Babycham" commercial in "Bambi"). He gets little hostility from the other members of the house. If there is any good or friendly relationship in the house it is between Mike and Vyvyan. Vyvyan accepts Mike's role as the house leader, whereas Mike sometimes uses Vyvyan's muscles and willingness to act forcibly, to enforce his own authority.


title: The Young Ones

text: Neil is the second least liked of the four, although he is the only one who does any kind of household chores and is therefore needed by the other three.


title: The Young Ones

text: Rick is the least liked. Rick thinks very highly of himself. He tells poor jokes and stories (but finds them hilarious himself), is a wanna-be anarchist (although deep-down he is quite conservative) and frequently acts like a child when he does not get his way. He generally takes out his frustration (when trying to impress the others) on Neil, since Neil never sticks up for himself and is ignored by the others. However, the one time when Neil looked as if he was going to retaliate, Rick fled. Most of his anger comes up in his endless battles with Vyvyan, which he always loses.


title: The Young Ones

text: In the final episode, the four students steal a red AEC Routemaster after robbing a bank, only to drive it over a cliff, and it explodes into flames at the bottom of a quarry.


title: The Young Ones

text: The end of the series was not the last appearance of "The Young Ones". For the British charity television appeal Comic Relief, the four recorded a song and video for Cliff Richard's "Living Doll", along with Richard and Shadows guitarist Hank B. Marvin. (Alexei Sayle was not involved, but had already achieved chart success in 1984 with "'Ullo John, Gotta New Motor?".) At the 1986 Comic Relief stage show, they performed the song live.


title: The Young Ones

text: Mayall, Planer and Edmondson reunited in 1986 for the Elton-written "Filthy Rich & Catflap". The series had many of the same characteristics as "The Young Ones" as did Mayall and Edmondson's next sitcom "Bottom". Ryan, for his part, was regularly recruited to play roles on associated series (such as "Happy Families", "Bottom" and "Absolutely Fabulous").


title: The Young Ones

text: DVD releases have been somewhat basic: only the U.S. "Every Stoopid Episode" edition featured documentaries, and no extra footage was included. Musical references proved difficult to clear, so "The Sound of Silence" and "Subterranean Homesick Blues" were cut from the U.S. editions.


title: The Young Ones

text: A new DVD release of all episodes ("Extra Stoopid Edition") came out in November of 2007, with new documentaries and two commentary tracks. This edition restores "The Sound of Silence" and "Subterranean Homesick Blues," but is missing other scenes.


title: Holocene

text: The Holocene is the present geological epoch. It started around 11,000 years ago after the last ice age. We are now in a relatively warm climate in Earth's history.


title: Holocene

text: The Holocene climatic optimum (HCO) was a warm period from about 9,000 to 5,000 years BP. The interesting thing about this is, despite recent global warming, we are still below this warm period (see diagram).


title: Holocene

text: The Holocene marks the end of the previous series of ice ages in the Pleistocene. About 11,700 years ago the temperatures rose quickly from the previous level.


title: Holocene

text: During the early Holocene, there were many extinctions amongst larger mammals. This is because of human hunting and climate change.


title: Holocene

text: At this time the Bering bridge connecting Russia and Alaska melted. Also the land bridge between China and Japan melted (starting the Jōmon period), as well as many land bridges between islands in Southeast Asia.


title: Triassic

text: The Triassic is the first geological period in the Mesozoic era and the seventh period of the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted 50.6 million years. The period began 251.9 million years ago, and ended 201.3 million years ago.


title: Triassic

text: The period before the Triassic was the Permian period, the last period in the Palaeozoic era. The Jurassic period came after the Triassic.


title: Triassic

text: Many new groups arose during the Triassic period, including the first dinosaurs, the first mammals, the first pterodactyls, the first ichthyosaurs and the first plesiosaurs.


title: Triassic

text: Great extinction events happened at both the beginning and end of the Triassic period. The Triassic began after the great extinction at the end of the Palaeozoic era, the Permian/Triassic extinction event.


title: Triassic

text: Nobody really knows the exact cause of the Permian/Triassic extinction, and experts have different theories.


title: Triassic

text: The Triassic had several more extinction events, whose causes are also unknown. The most significant of these took place at the end of the Triassic, which was one of the 'big five' Phanerozoic marine extinctions.


title: Triassic

text: The name 'Triassic' comes from the three rock strata that formed during the Triassic period ("tri" means "three"). Three layers of rock strata formed during this period:


title: Triassic

text: During the Triassic period, there were no separate continents as there are today. Almost all the Earth's land mass was together in a single supercontinent called Pangaea ("all the land"). Pangaea was centred more or less on the equator. and surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa. Later the Tethys Ocean developed.


title: Triassic

text: The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic – especially late in the period – but had not yet separated again into different continents. In contrast to the present Earth with its distribution of continents, Pangaea was centred on the Equator. Probably, apart from some volcanic island chains, there was an unbroken sea stretching round the world: the "Panthalassa".


title: Triassic

text: Being a super-continental land mass, Pangaea had a limited shoreline. Because of this, Triassic marine deposits fossils from Triassic ocean life are rare in most of the world. In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west. However, they are common in Western Europe, where the Triassic was first studied.


title: Triassic

text: The first part of the Triassic had much less variety than the Permian, and showed signs of a deteriorated environment. This situation lasted for about five million years, then steadily improved. Into the vacant ecological niches, new forms evolved, replacing old with new. This rapid adaptive radiation happened to the reptiles on land, the fish in the seas, and a number of other groups, like the insects. Communities with complex ecology took 30 million years to re-establish.


title: Triassic

text: The group of bony fish known as the teleosts first appeared during the Triassic period. The group now includes over 80% of all fish and 95% of all bony fish. The only other common group of fish are the Chondrichthyes (the sharks and rays). The rays also appeared during the Triassic.


title: Triassic

text: Many reptile groups first appeared during the Triassic period, possibly because so many niches were vacant at the time. Some of these new groups died out in the End–Triassic extinction event, but those that survived ruled the Earth for the rest of the Mesozoic. Examples include:


title: Triassic

text: This was a major change, because in the middle Triassic period, the Synapsids (mammals' ancestors) were still dominant.


title: Triassic

text: Also, amongst the Synapsids (which used to be called mammal-like reptiles), the Dicynodonts died out during the end-Triassic extinction.


title: Triassic

text: The Triassic was a period of great change in tetrapods: many new and important groups appeared, but many others became extinct. Of all the periods in the Mesozoic era, there are the least number of fossils from the Triassic period. This makes it difficult for scientists to explain these events.


title: Water (molecule)

text: Water (HO, HOH) covers 70-75% of the Earth's surface in its liquid and solid (ice) states, and is present in the atmosphere as a vapor. It is the most abundant molecule on the Earth's surface.


title: Water (molecule)

text: At room temperature, it is a nearly colorless, flavorless, and odorless liquid. Many substances dissolve in water and it is commonly seen as "the universal solvent"; because of this, water in nature and in use is rarely clean, and may have some properties different than those in the laboratory. But there are many compounds that are essentially, if not completely, insoluble in water. Water is the only common, pure substance found naturally in all three states of matter—for other substances, see Chemical properties.


title: Water (molecule)

text: Generally, the volume of a liquid increases when heated, however the volume of water "decreases" when heated within the temperature range of 0°C to 4°C. Its volume increases only when heated above 4°C. Such behavior is one of a number of water's anomalous properties.


title: Water (molecule)

text: This property of volume decrease allows fish and other aquatic animals to survive in a body of water when ice has frozen on the surface. In cold climates, when the temperature of a body of water reaches at 4°C, the layers of water near the top in contact with cold air continue to lose heat energy and their temperature falls below 4°C. On cooling below 4°C, these layers rise rather than sink, as water has maximum density at 4°C. Thus the layer of water with a temperature of 4°C remains at the bottom, while layers of water 3°C, 2°C, 1°C and 0°C are formed above. Because ice is poor conductor of heat, it does not allow heat energy transfer from the liquid water beneath the layers of ice, which prevents the liquid water from freezing. Hence, aquatic creatures survive in such places.


title: Drummer

text: A drummer is a person who plays the drums as a job or as a hobby. This can be someone who plays drums in the military, in a band or as a session musician. A session musician is someone who plays an instrument in a band when no one else is available. A drummer keeps the beat so their role is a hard and important job. Without a drummer, the band would find it hard to keep in time.


title: Stingy Jack

text: Stingy Jack is a character in Irish folklore. He was a poor, dirty man who was often drunk. He outsmarted the devil at least three times.


title: Stingy Jack

text: He invited the devil to have a drink with him. Jack did not want to pay for the drink. He persuaded the devil to change himself into a coin. The devil did so, and Jack put the coin in his pocket. There was a silver cross in his pocket that made it impossible for the devil to return to his original shape. Jack eventually allowed the devil to resume his shape, but only after he promised not to bother Jack for a whole year and to not try to claim his soul when he died.


title: Stingy Jack

text: On another occasion, Jack persuaded the devil to climb an apple tree to gather apples. Jack quickly carved crosses into the trunk of the tree, making it impossible for the devil to come down. Jack allowed the devil to come down, but only after he promised not to bother Jack for ten years and not to claim his soul when he died.


title: Stingy Jack

text: On the third occasion, Jack died before the ten-year time limit. God did not want Jack in Heaven, so he was sent to Hell. The devil could not claim his soul, so Jack was sent back into the world. The devil gave him a glowing coal to light his way in the darkness. Jack put the coal into a hollowed-out turnip. He is said to still walk the earth with his lantern, and can be seen around All Saints Day November 1.


title: Stingy Jack

text: Jack became known as "Jack of the lantern". This name was shortened to "Jack-o'-lantern". In the United States, his lantern became a pumpkin rather than a turnip. Pumpkins were common in the U.S. and easier to carve. The story of Jack is little known, perhaps because he was an unsuitable role model for entertaining children.


title: Play-Doh

text: Play-Doh is a children's modeling compound made of wheat flour, water, salt, boric acid, and mineral oil. It was first made in Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S., as a wallpaper cleaner in the 1930s. Children began using it as a modeling compound. It was changed and marketed to schools in the middle 1950s. Play-Doh was used at an educational convention in 1956. Important department stores opened retail accounts. Advertisements on many children's television shows in 1957 brought more sales. Play-Doh has much spinoff merchandise, such as The Fun Factory. In 2003, the Toy Industry Association named Play-Doh in its "Century of Toys List".


title: Play-Doh

text: The non-toxic, non-staining, reusable modeling compound that came to be known as "Play-Doh" was a stretchy, putty-like substance made by Noah McVicker of Cincinnati-based soap manufacturer Kutol Products. It was made at the request of Kroger Grocery, who wanted a product that could clean coal residue from wallpaper. Following World War II, with the change from coal-based home heating to natural gas and the resulting decrease in coal soot, and the introduction of washable vinyl-based wallpaper, the market for wallpaper cleaning putty decreased quite a lot.


title: Play-Doh

text: McVicker's nephew, Joe McVicker, joined Kutol to save the company from bankruptcy. Joe McVicker was the brother-in-law of nursery school teacher Kay Zufall, who had seen a newspaper article about making art projects with the wallpaper cleaning putty. Her students enjoyed it, and she persuaded Noah McVicker and Joe McVicker to manufacture it as a child’s toy. Zufall and her husband came up with the name Play-Doh; Joe McVicker and his uncle Noah had wanted to call it "Rainbow Modeling Compound".


title: Coulomb's law

text: Coulomb's law is a function developed in the 1780s by physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. It explains how strong the force will be between two electrostatic charges. Electrostatic means electric charges without any motion.


title: Coulomb's law

text: Let's think of two electric charges existing in an empty space. If the two charges are opposite, (+) and (-) charges for example, they will attract each other. And if two charges are both the same, both (+) or both (-) for example, they will push each other. This is similar to how magnets act, as N and S attract each other, and as N and N, S and S push each other.


title: Coulomb's law

text: This is because electric charges make an electric field. If two fields exist in the same space at the same time, then the two fields exert (~ put) force on each other. The force they make on each other is called 'Coulomb's force' or the electrostatic force. Coulomb's law explains how big the force will be.


title: Coulomb's law

text: formula_4 and formula_5 are the scales of each electric charge. formula_6 is the distance between the two electric charges. And formula_7 has a certain value. It does not change relative to formula_4, formula_5 or formula_6. While formula_11 remains constant, when multiples of formula_4 and formula_5 become bigger, the electrostatic force will also get bigger. When the distance formula_6 becomes bigger, the electrostatic force will become smaller by the ratio of formula_3.


title: Coulomb's law

text: formula_18N m C (or m F). This constant is called Coulomb's force constant or the electrostatic force constant.


title: Coulomb's law

text: The relation between the force of pushing or pulling (F) and the distance between the particles (formula_6) follows the Inverse-square Law. Inverse-square law means that when the distance formula_6 grows bigger, the force gets weaker by the ratio formula_3. Gravitation, Electromagnetic radiation, and sound loudness also follow this law.


title: Charles Martinet

text: Charles Andre Martinet (born September 17, 1955) is an American actor and voice actor. He is best known as being the voice of Mario in the "Mario" series of video games since 1995. He also voices Luigi, Wario, Waluigi, Toadsworth, Baby Mario, Baby Luigi, and others. He was born in San Jose, California.


title: Charles Martinet

text: Working for Nintendo since 1994, Martinet started voicing Mario at video game trade shows in which attendees would walk up to a TV screen displaying a 3-D Mario head that moved around the screen and talked. This system was called "Mario in Real-Time" or "MIRT". Martinet could see the attendees by means of a hidden camera setup, and a facial motion capture rig recorded his mouth movements in order to synchronize Martinet's mouth movement with the on-screen Mario mouth movement. This digital puppetry, with Martinet's comic performance, was a novelty at the time.


title: Charles Martinet

text: Martinet was told by his friend that there was going to be an audition at a trade show in which you "talk to people as a plumber". He went to the audition at the last minute as the casting directors were already putting away their equipment. Charles Martinet walked in and asked, "Can I please read for this?". The directors let him audition and told him, "You're an Italian plumber from Brooklyn". At first Martinet planned to talk like a stereotypical Italian American with a deep, raspy voice (which is how Mario sounded in the Super "Mario Bros. Super Show", "Super Mario Bros. 3" and "Super Mario World"cartoons). He then thought to himself that it would be too harsh for children to hear, so he made it more soft-hearted and friendly, resulting in what Mario's voice is today. Martinet has also stated that he kept on talking with his Mario voice until the audition tape ran out.


title: Charles Martinet

text: Martinet's video game voice over debut was as Mario in the 1995 Windows release of Interplay's game "Mario's FUNdamentals". However, most were first exposed to Mario's voice in the landmark 1996 game "Super Mario 64". He has voiced Mario, Luigi, Wario, Waluigi, Toadsworth, Metal Mario, Shadow Mario, Donkey Kong, MC Ballyhoo, Mini-Mario Toy, Baby Mario, Baby Luigi and Baby Wario in most games wherein these characters speak. He also voiced the enemiesWart, Mouser, Tryclyde, and Clawgrip in "Super Mario Advance". His voice work appears in the English and Japanese-language versions of the games, although his work is always in English (regardless of the Italian references whenever he voices Mario and related characters).


title: Charles Martinet

text: Martinet provided voiceover acting for the boxers and the announcer in the Super NES title "Super Punch-Out!!". He voiced the character Vigoro in Sega's Dreamcastand Nintendo GameCube role-playing video game, "Skies of Arcadia". He did the voice of Homunculus in the Konami PlayStation 2, Xbox and Windows game "Shadow of Destiny", and provided voices for "Reader Rabbit" and "The ClueFinders" games.


title: Charles Martinet

text: In addition to videogame voice overs, Martinet has worked as a voice actor in commercials, cartoons, and promotions. At the E3 trade show in 2005, Charles (as an"Animal Crossing" character) could be found roaming the virtual village featured in the playable demo of "Animal Crossing: Wild World". Martinet did Mario's voice as the voice announcer for "Pac-Man Vs." on the Nintendo GameCube.


title: Charles Martinet

text: Other than the Mario series, Charles has also done work for the video game "Cel Damage" as the voice of Fowl Mouth, as well as the primary voice work in several educational game series such as LeapFrog. He also voiced the dragon Paarthurnax in the 2011 video game "The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim", and narrated the cutscenes and menus for the 2013 video game "Bit.Trip Presents Runner2: Future Legend of Rhythm Alien".


title: Ouagadougou

text: Ouagadougou (, is the capital of Burkina Faso. It is also the country's biggest city. In Ouagadougou, people mainly make clothing and food. Ouagadougou's mayor is chosen every five years. Ouagadougou is near the equator. It is always warm. In Ouagadougou, people speak French. Ouagadougou is one of the poorest cities in Africa. Almost 70% of its people can not read or write but the city has ten universities.


title: Mossad

text: Its full name is Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations ( "HaMossad leModi'in uleTafkidim Meyuchadim", "al-Mūssād li'l-Istikhbārāt wa'l-Mahāmm al-Khāṣṣa"). "Mossad" is a Hebrew word for institute or institution. Its main job is to gather information and perform operations to keep Israel safe from terrorist groups.


title: Mossad

text: The Mossad gathers intelligence information and performs covert operations, which include paramilitary activities.


title: Mossad

text: It is one of the main entities in the Israeli Intelligence Community, along with Aman (military intelligence) and Shin Bet (internal security), but its director reports directly to the Prime Minister.


title: Post-impressionism

text: Post-impressionism (or Post-Impressionism) is a term used to describe the development of French art after Manet (1832–1883).


title: Post-impressionism

text: The British artist and art critic Roger Fry used the term in 1910, and it is now a standard art term. Fry organized the 1910 exhibition "Manet and the Post-Impressionists".


title: Post-impressionism

text: The post-impressionists were artists of the late 19th century who saw the work of the French Impressionist painters and were influenced by them. Their art styles grew out of the style called Impressionism. The word "Post-" means "after", so "post-impressionist" painting came after "impressionist" painting. These artists developed impressionism but rejected its limitations. They continued using the real-life subject matter, with vivid colours, often with thick paint. However, they added other ideas. Using geometric forms, to distorting form for effect, and using unnatural colours are some of their ways. The critic Rewald said "the term 'post-impressionism' is not a very precise one, though a very convenient one".


title: Post-impressionism

text: The main post-impressionist painters were Paul Cezanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, Georges Seurat, Henri Toulouse-Lautrec and Henri Rousseau ('Le Douanier'). Picasso and Braque were certainly post-impressionists, but we describe them as Cubists.


title: Post-impressionism

text: The post-impressionist painters lived in France and knew each other, but they did not work together as a group, in the way that some of the impressionists did. They painted in ways that were different from each other. The post-impressionists led the way for other artists to experiment and develop all the different styles of Modern art in the 20th century.


title: Post-impressionism

text: The Post-Impressionist painters all experimented in different ways with the ideas of the Impressionists. Most of the important art movements (styles) of the twentieth century developed out of their work. Even though the Post-Impressionist painters were not well known in their lifetimes, they became so famous that in the 21st century their paintings sell for millions of dollars.


title: Envelope

text: An envelope is a form of packing. Envelopes are used for sending letters or documents using regular postal mail. Envelopes are usually made of paper or hardened paper.


title: Envelope

text: An envelope may be small enough to make you need to fold the paper going into it, or it can be as large as the paper so that you do not need to fold it. A large envelope is called a "manila envelope", usually colored a color in between yellow and orange, and is used to send several pages of papers when a regular envelope would be too small. Another reason a manila envelope would be used would be to send important papers (e.g. birth certificates) that are better left unfolded.


title: Abdul Hamid II

text: Abdul Hamid II (21 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He was the last sultan to have complete control over the Empire. He witnessed many revolutions and wars. Abdulhamid II ruled from 1876 to 1909, until he was deposed by a group of people calling themselves the "Young Turks".


title: Abdul Hamid II

text: He modernized the Empire during his reign, by for example building many railways, schools and hospitals. He also seeked to unify the Muslims in the Empire under Pan-Islamism as opposed to others wanting to unify the Empire under Ottomanism.


title: Abdul Hamid II

text: His reign ended as Young Turks revolted against him, effectively deposing him and putting their favored sultan, Mehmed V.


title: Caracas

text: Caracas is the capital city of Venezuela. Santiago de Leòn de Losada founded the city in 1567. It is where Simon Bolivar was born. The city has nearly 6 million people, who live in the metropolitan area. Caracas is the center of the economical activity of the country and also hosts the main government offices of Venezuela.


title: Caracas

text: After WW2 the city has experienced a huge growth, thanks to the oil revenues of the country. Nearly half a million Europeans immigrated to the city in the 1950s ( that had in those years only one million inhabitants) and so Caracas developed a typical western-European look in the new modern areas.


title: Caracas

text: All the best teams of the sports done in Venezuela are concentrated in the metropolitan area of Caracas. Between those teams we have:


title: Fault (geology)

text: A fault is a fracture, or break, in the Earth's crust (lithosphere). Some faults are active. Here, sections of rock move past each other. This sometimes makes earthquakes.


title: Fault (geology)

text: Faulting occurs when shear stress on a rock overcomes the forces which hold it together. The fracture itself is called a "fault plane". When it is exposed at the Earth's surface, it may form a cliff or steep slope called a "fault scarp".


title: Fault (geology)

text: The angle between the fault plane and an imaginary horizontal plane is called the "dip angle" of the fault. Faults may dip shallowly or steeply.


title: February Revolution

text: The February Revolution (, ) of 1917 was a revolution that ended the monarchy in the Russian Empire. A provisional government replaced the Tsar, Nicholas II. This was the beginning of the Russian Revolution. The February Revolution was caused by problems left over from World War I. These included economic and other hardships that caused tension among the people..


title: February Revolution

text: Industrialization had already spread from Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) and other cities in August 1917. When Russia lost the Crimean War to England and France in 1856, it became obvious that Russia needed economic and social change to keep up with other countries. Large reforms followed, including the abolition of serfdom in 1861, judicial reform in 1864, and the establishment of national government groups, called Semstwos, in 1864. This strategy was designed to encourage industrial growth.


title: February Revolution

text: Russia had an economic crisis during the Crimean War. The country did not have enough new weapons or new machines. After the war, the Tsar, Russia's emperor, tried to change this. He increased Russia's ability to make things in factories. This cost the Russian people a lot of money.


title: February Revolution

text: Most of the economic, social, and cultural change was in cities. To get ready to develop more modern industry, new laws were made to increase the power of regional leaders. Cultural modernization included development of new styles in literature and art. A new group of people who focused on art and literature sought further reforms.


title: February Revolution

text: The Russian national economy was still mostly based on farming and most people were peasants. Because the number of people grew faster than the area's ability to grow food, there were serious food shortages.


title: February Revolution

text: Agrarian social protest was usually spontaneous but did not last long. The farmers always went back to their farms. This happened in the hot autumn of the year 1905, and again in the late summer of 1917. Rural areas remained calm after World War I began in 1914. Because the large majority of the soldiers came from villages, few people were left to fight against the authorities.


title: February Revolution

text: With all that the question remained, why farmers revolted against their own landlords but never joined to work together carefully. Only this new connection, between the farmers in the rural regions and the inhabitants of the cities, lent a revolutionary quality to the agrarian social protest.


title: February Revolution

text: The war brought Russia losses of more than a million dead. The war had begun, as in all European states, with high national morale. However, defeat in the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive in 1915 led to other defeats. The legitimacy of the autocratic Romanovs was weakened further by the fact that Nicholas II had personally taken command of the armed forces and thus each further retreat and defeat would damage the reputation of the regime.


title: February Revolution

text: The workers and farmers, like other Russians, were unhappy. They no longer supported the Tsar. In September 1915, the Tsar sent the parliament home. Tensions increased and endangered the internal peace of the realm.


title: February Revolution

text: In 1915, Tsar Nicholas II took over command of the troops during the First World War. But he did not do a good job, and the army lost battles in embarrassing ways. Nicholas II did not get along well with the elected Duma. Nicholas II ignored the advice of his former Minister of Finance Sergei Juljewitsch Witte, who recommended comprehensive reforms. The frequent defeats combined with food shortages and the catastrophic supply situation to cause the revolution. The increasing anger of the population showed up in the Duma, which was dominated by representatives of the middle class and the aristocracy. In the Duma of 1915, the progressive block was the strongest parliamentary opposition.


title: February Revolution

text: In February 1917, army units stopped fighting revolutionaries in the capital and joined them instead. They took control of the capital and prevented the Tsar from returning. He eventually agreed to give up the throne.


title: Welfare state

text: A welfare state is where the government has a duty to provide some level of basic support for welfare of its citizens, including Social Security. In politics, conservatives are against welfare states.


title: Welfare state

text: The government provides scholarship to people who do not have as much as most other people in terms of education. The state may also give homes to people who do not have them particularly who find it difficult to make ends meet due to lack of education. The state has a system in place to monitor the progress of above such aids. To make this happen there have to be economical reformation, and the state and organisations who believe that the future is now come together to achieve this. The state also will aid in tax audits initially to put such a measure in place. The taxes vary and the pyramid information will be available for such a complex socio-political structure.A Welfare State could also be paid for if the government borrows money from people, mainly by selling bonds. It is run by the government which helps the poor and the needy out.


title: Welfare state

text: Scholarship scheme at varying levels would be introduced to the school and university pupils so a healthy yet connected growth of youth happens. Thus a seamless transition happens in a way the future generations stand as self sustaining individuals and contribute back to the state welfare through sense of giving back and also giving forward to their next generation. Double profit in an investment made for the betterment.


title: Welfare state

text: The most known welfare states are Nordic countries. The United Kingdom, Canada, and France are some other examples of welfare states.


title: Group 6 element

text: Group 6, numbered by IUPAC style, is a group of elements in the periodic table. Its members are chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and seaborgium (Sg). These are all transition metals and chromium, molybdenum and tungsten are refractory metals.


title: Galician language

text: Galician (Galician: ) is a modern language that is spoken in Galicia, a region of Spain in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Galician is closely related to Portuguese because they split from the same language, which is now called Galician-Portuguese or Medieval Galician. Some even say that Galician and Portuguese are two dialects of the same language but with different accents. However, most scholars say that the differences are now so great since both languages separated in the Middle Ages that they are now truly different languages. Galician is also very similar to the Leonese language.


title: Galician language

text: Galician is a Romance language that evolved from Vulgar Latin, the Latin of common people in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The area is now Galicia, the western parts of Asturias and Castile-Leon and the Norte region in northern Portugal.


title: Galician language

text: Galician comes from Galician-Portuguese, spoken during the Middle Ages in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia. Today, Galician is spoken only in Galicia and by some people in North America, South America and Western Europe. In Jalisco, Mexico, Galician still leaves traces in the accent and words.


title: Galician language

text: Some people say Galician and Portuguese are really two dialects of the same language because there are not a lot of differences between them, but they are officially two separate languages. Most scholars say they that have become so different over hundreds of years that they are now two different languages.


title: Galician language

text: People who speak Portuguese in northern Portugal, which is close to Galicia, and people who speak Galician in Galicia, say that they can understand a lot each other, but that is less true in the south of Portugal.


title: Galician language

text: During the Enlightenment, Benito Jeronimo Feijoo already raised that question. He considered Galician and Portuguese the same language originating in Latin, and constituting a linguistic unity, and not dialects of Castilian-Spanish.


title: Electron microscope

text: An electron microscope is a scientific instrument which uses a beam of electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. In an optical microscope, the wavelength of light limits the maximum magnification that is possible. As electrons have a smaller wavelength, they can achieve a higher magnification, and can see very small objects - typically around 1,000 times smaller than those seen in an optical microscope. The outline of objects, as revealed by the flow of electrons, is changed into a picture using visible light for people to see. Electron microscopes were invented in Germany in the 1930s.


title: Electron microscope

text: A beam of electrons is sent towards the specimen - some electrons are reflected, while some pass through. Those that pass through are detected and used to form an image of the specimen at a magnification of about 500,000 times. This microscope is more powerful than a light microscope.


title: Electron microscope

text: Similar to a Transmission Electron Microscope, but the reflected electrons are detected. By measuring the reflected electrons, some information about the surface of the specimen can be gathered.


title: Electron microscope

text: A narrow beam of electrons is moved across the specimen and a picture is built up piece by piece by detecting how the electrons are reflected or absorbed as it moves.


title: Electron microscope

text: It combines the high magnification of TEM with the better surface detail of SEM. It can be used to perform complex analysis on the specimen, which cannot be done using TEM alone.


title: Horizontal

text: Horizontal is a direction perpendicular to the vertical. That is, it goes in all directions except up and down. The term comes from the horizon.


title: Madame de Montespan

text: Françoise de Rochechouart, Marquise of Montespan (5 October 1640 – 27 May 1707) was better known as Madame de Montespan. She was the most celebrated mistress of King Louis XIV of France. She had seven children with him.


title: Madame de Montespan

text: She had spent several years in fashonable Parisians salons. There she was quickly seen as an intelligent, witty and very attractive woman. She eventually gave herself the nickname Athénaïs in honour of the ancient Greek goddess Athena. As a result of this, she is also referred to as "Athénaïs de Montespan". She lived at the same time as Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland, the mistress of Charles II of England. Several of her decendants married, which makes her an ancestress of several royal houses in Europe, including those of Spain, Italy, Bulgaria and Portugal. She was also responsible for the creation of the now destroyed "Trianon de Porcelaine" as well as the larger and grander Château de Clagny. The latter building has often been likened to the Palace of Versailles, just on a smaller scale. She was also called "the real queen of France" in her lifetime due to her strong influence over the king and royal court.


title: Madame de Montespan

text: The second daughter of Gabriel de Rochechouart, Duke of Mortemart and Diane de Grandseigne, she was a member of the House of Rochechouart, itself one of the most well regarded noble families in France. Her mother was a lady-in-waiting to Anne of Austria and as a young girl, she often travelled with her mother between the family estates and the court at the Louvre in Paris. At the age of twelve, she began her formal education at the Convent of St Mary at Saintes, From a young age she was styled as "Mademoiselle de Tonnay-Charente" or "Mademoiselle de Mortemart".


title: Madame de Montespan

text: Despite being in love with Louis de La Trémoille, on 28 January 1663, Françoise married Louis Henri de Pardaillan, Marquis of Montespan, who was one year younger than her. Also, from a prominent noble family, the marriage was considered a good social match. The couple had two children.


title: Madame de Montespan

text: At the age of twenty, Athénaïs became a maid-of-honour to the king's sister-in-law, Princess Henrietta of England, who was known at court by the traditional honorific of Madame. Later, because of the relationship between her mother and the queen dowager, Anne of Austria, Athénaïs was appointed to be a lady-in-waiting to the king's wife, Queen Marie Thérèse. By 1666 Athénaïs was trying to gain the favour of Louise de La Vallière, the mistress of king Louis.


title: Madame de Montespan

text: Eventually it became common knowledge that Louis and Athénaïs were having a sexual relationship. Their first illegitimate child was a daughter who was named after the couple ; Louise Françoise de Bourbon (1669-1672) but who died young. As the children born to the couple increased, a house in Paris was bought on the Rue Vaugirard where the children could be bought up by their nanny Madame Scarron (future Madame de Maintenon) and secret wife of Louis). Thanks to the constant requests of Athénaïs in 1673, the couple's three living illegitimate children were legitimated by Louis XIV and given the royal surname of "de Bourbon". Their mother's name, however, was not mentioned. Despite having successfully seen her children with Louis legitimised, the arguments between Louis and Athénaïs became more and more frequent as well as ferocious, but the couple would invariably work things out. However, The ""Affaire des Poisons"" (Affair of the poisons), which erupted in September 1677. This was a national scandal, and it was thought that Athénaïs had been using certain poisons on Louis to ensure her influence on him would remain strong. Throughout her time as mistress of Louis, her influence on female fashion at court also remained considerable.


title: Madame de Montespan

text: The last years of Madame de Montespan's life were given up to a very severe penance. Real sorrow over her death was felt by her three youngest children. She died on 27 May 1707 at the age of sixty-five while taking the waters at Bourbon-l'Archambault in order to try to heal an illness. The king refused to let her children to wear mourning for her.


title: Christmas Island

text: The Territory of Christmas Island is a small island that belongs to Australia. It is in the Indian Ocean, 2600 kms northwest of Perth in Western Australia and 500 km south of Jakarta, Indonesia.


title: Christmas Island

text: About 1,600 people live on Christmas Island, mostly in a number of "settlement areas" on the north of the island:


title: Christmas Island

text: Christmas Island is far from other islands. That is why many of the plants and animals are only found on that Island. Much of it is undisturbed by humans.


title: Christmas Island

text: Captain William Mynors of the British East India Company ship, the "Royal Mary", gave the island its name because they arrived on Christmas Day, 25 December 1643.


title: Christmas Island

text: The earliest recorded visit was in March 1688 by William Dampier of the British ship "Cygnet". Dampier was blown away from the direction he wanted to go, and he got lost. After 28 days he arrived on Christmas Island. Two of his crewmen were the first recorded people to set foot on Christmas Island.


title: Christmas Island

text: There were several visits and explorations of the island, but it was only when valuable phosphate of lime was discovered that the island was "annexed to" (claimed by) the British Crown on 6 June 1888.


title: Christmas Island

text: Soon afterwards, a small settlement was started in Flying Fish Cove by G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the Keeling Islands (some 900 kilometres to the south west) to collect timber and supplies for the growing industry on Cocos.


title: Christmas Island

text: The island was ruled jointly by the British Phosphate Commissioners and District Officers from the United Kingdom Colonial Office through the Straits Settlements, and later the Crown Colony of Singapore.


title: Christmas Island

text: Japan invaded and occupied the island in 1942, as the Indian garrison mutinied, and they interned the residents (made them stay where they were) until the end of World War II in 1945.


title: Christmas Island

text: Australia asked the United Kingdom to allow them to rule the island; in 1957, the Australian government paid the government of Singapore £2.9 million in compensation. This amount of money was decided by guessing how much the phosphate given up by Singapore was worth.


title: Christmas Island

text: The first Australian Official Representative arrived in 1958 and was replaced by an Administrator in 1968. Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands together are called the Australian Indian Ocean Territories and since 1997 share one Administrator who lives on Christmas Island.


title: Christmas Island

text: Since the late 1980s boatloads of refugees have gone to Christmas Island, mostly from Indonesia. During 2001, Christmas Island received a large number of asylum seekers travelling by boat, most of them from the Middle East and intending to apply for asylum in Australia. The Norwegian cargo vessel MV "Tampa" rescued people from a sinking Indonesian fishing-boat "Palapa". The ship had 420 asylum seekers from Afghanistan, 13 from Sri Lanka, and five from Indonesia. The captain of the ship asked to let the refugees leave the ship at Christmas Island. The Australian SAS boarded and took control. The asylum seekers were sent to Nauru. Another boatload of asylum seekers was taken from Christmas Island to Papua New Guinea. It was said that many of the adult asylum seekers threw their children into the water in protest at being turned away. This was later proved to be untrue. Many of the refugees were accepted by New Zealand.


title: Christmas Island

text: The Australian Parliament later passed a law to ban people who arrive on Christmas Island from being able automatically to claim refugee status. This allows the Australian navy to move them to other countries (Papua New Guinea's Manus Island, and Nauru). In 2005, the Department of Immigration began to build an "Immigration Reception and Processing Centre", completed in 2007 at the cost of $210 million. It has 800 beds.


title: Christmas Island

text: Christmas Island is a non-self governing territory of Australia. The Queen of Australia is represented by an administrator appointed by the Governor-General. Neil Lucas was appointed administrator on 28 January 2006.


title: Christmas Island

text: Federal government services are provided through the Department of Transport and Regional Services and the Christmas Island Administration.


title: Christmas Island

text: The Western Australian Government and other contractors provide state government services, but because Christmas Island is a territory the Commonwealth (federal) Australian Government pay the costs.


title: Christmas Island

text: The local government is the Shire of Christmas Island. This council has 9 members, half the members are elected every two years.


title: Christmas Island

text: Christmas Island residents who are Australian citizens also vote in Commonwealth elections for the Northern Territory's Lingiari constituency of the House of Representatives. They are represented in the Senate by Northern Territory Senators.


title: Christmas Island

text: In early 1986 the Christmas Island Assembly held a design competition for an island flag; the winning design was adopted as the informal flag of the territory for more than ten years, and in 2002 it was made the official flag of Christmas Island.


title: Christmas Island

text: The annual red crab mass migration (around 100 million animals) to the sea to spawn has been called one of the wonders of the natural world and takes place each year around November; after the start of the wet season and in synchronisation with the cycle of the moon.


title: Christmas Island

text: The Christmas Island National Park covers 63% of the island. This means that for the visitor interested in plants and animals there is a great deal to see. There is also lots of amazing marine life in the sea.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Warriors is a series of fantasy fiction books written by Erin Hunter (a fake name that consists of five people: Victoria Holmes, Kate Cary, Cherith Baldry, Tui T. Sutherland, and Dan Jolley). The series is about the adventures of wild cats as they try to survive in their forest homes. The cats call themselves warriors. The series is made up of six mini-series with six books in each series. The first of these, called "Warriors: The Prophecies Begin", was released in 2003, starting with the book "Into the Wild". The authors were not planning to write another mini-series, but they eventually began the second mini-series. The second mini-series is titled "Warriors: The New Prophecy" and was published in 2005. The first book was called "Midnight". The first book of the third mini-series "Warriors: Power of Three", is titled "The Sight", and it was released on 24 April 2007. The fourth series, "Warriors: Omen of the Stars", began with "The Fourth Apprentice" on 24 November 2009"." The fifth series, "Warriors: Dawn of the Clans" began with "The Sun Trail" on 5 March 2013. The sixth series, "Warriors: A Vision of Shadows" began with "The Apprentice's Quest" on 25 March 2016. The sixth mini-series, "Warriors: The Broken Code" began on 9 April 2019 with "Lost Stars". The eighth mini-series, "Warriors: A Starless Clan", began with "River" on 5 April 2022.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Seven field guides were also released. They give more information about the cats and their history. Fourteen "Super Edition" books have been released, with two more announced to be released in 2022 and 2023. These books are about double the length of the normal books. Fifteen manga books have been released, with another to be released in 2022. These are graphic novels that tell short stories not seen in the main books.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The series focuses on five groups of cats that live in Clans, and their lives. They live by a set of rules called the warrior code. Each mini-series focuses on different characters.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The first mini-series centers around Rusty, a kittypet (housecat) who joins ThunderClan, and eventually becomes leader of it. The second mini-series focuses on the cats finding a new home after their old home was destroyed by Twolegs (humans). The third mini-series focuses on three cats who were born with special powers. The fourth mini-series focuses on two sisters, who work together to fight the ghosts of evil cats. The fifth mini-series shows how the Clans were created. The sixth mini-series focuses on the Clans trying to bring a new Clan to live with them, while fighting an evil group of rogues (stray cats). The seventh mini-series focuses on the Clans trying to defeat an evil ghost who has possessed ThunderClan's leader.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The cats live in five groups called Clans: ThunderClan, RiverClan, WindClan, ShadowClan, and SkyClan. When Clan cats die, they go to StarClan (Heaven) or the Dark Forest/Place of No Stars (Hell). The first mini-series, the first two books of the second mini-series, and the fifth mini-series are set in a forest that the authors have said was based on the New Forest area of England. The rest of the second mini-series and the third, fourth, sixth, seventh, and eighth mini-series are set in a different forest that surrounds a lake.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The first mini-series is about the young kitten Rusty, who is later renamed Firestar. He rises to become the leader of ThunderClan.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The second mini-series is about three ThunderClan cats - Brambleclaw, Squirrelflight, and Leafpool - who must save the Clans by finding a new home for them.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The third mini-series is about three ThunderClan cats - Jayfeather, Hollyleaf, and Lionblaze - who are born with special powers. In this series, it is revealed that the ghosts of the Clan cats' former enemies are planning on taking revenge.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The fourth mini-series is about Jayfeather, Lionblaze, Dovewing, and Ivypool. They must unite the Clans so that they can defeat the evil ghosts of the Clans' former enemies.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The fifth mini-series is about how the five Clans were created. It centers around many cats, but mostly Gray Wing, Shadowstar, Windstar, Thunderstar, Shadowstar, and Skystar.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The sixth mini-series shows how Alderheart and Twigbranch of ThunderClan and Violetshine of ShadowClan brought a new Clan, SkyClan, to live with the other four Clans. It also reveals how the Clans defeated an evil group of rogues who want to destroy the Clans.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The seventh mini-series centers around Bristlefrost of ThunderClan, Shadowsight of ShadowClan, and Rootspring of SkyClan as they try to defeat an evil ghost cat who has possessed the ThunderClan leader, and blocked communication with StarClan.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: The eighth mini-series centers around Frostpaw of RiverClan, Nightheart of ThunderClan, and Sunbeam of ShadowClan. The Clans are making changes to the rules they live by, and some cats don't like these changes, while other cats do.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Crookedstar's promise to a mysterious cat leaves him with all the power he could dream of, but no one to share it with.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Yellowfang's ability to feel the pain of other cats has to be kept a secret to her Clan, and at a high price.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Bramblestar questions his place as leader of ThunderClan as a large storm almost destroys their home.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Dovewing is pregnant with Tigerheart's kits. She travels far away to find a safe place to give birth. Tigerheart has to find them and bring them back home.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Squirrelflight fights for the protection of a peaceful group of female cats known as The Sisters, while worrying that she'll leave no legacy when she dies.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Long ago, Graystripe promised never to leave his Clan, but as trouble happens in ThunderClan, he realizes he has to leave it if he wants to save it.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: Blackfoot was one of the evil Tigerstar's closest friends, and he struggles to find his place as the new leader of ShadowClan.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: "Secrets of the Clans" has a list of healing plants, a tour of the camps of all four forest Clans, maps, stories, Clan folktales, Clan histories, prophecies, and a cat language to human language glossary.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: "Code of the Clans" explains the reasons behind all the rules of the warrior code using 15 short stories.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: This series shows how former ThunderClan cat Ravenpaw and his friend fight to take back their home from a group of evil cats who have stolen it from them.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: This single manga shows how a small kitten named Tiny became the evil leader of BloodClan named Scourge.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: This single manga shows how former WindClan deputy Mudclaw feels after being replaced by a warrior called Onewhisker.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: This single manga shows what happened to former ShadowClan warriors when they were banished from their Clan by their evil leader.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: A play called "After" "Sunset: We Need to Talk" first premiered on April 28, 2007 at the Secret Garden bookstore in Seattle, Washington. It was written by Victoria Holmes for a tour. It shows a meeting between Leafpool of ThunderClan and Crowfeather of WindClan after the events of "Sunset". The script was released to the public on www.warriorcats.com, the official site for the "Warriors" series.


title: Warriors (book series)

text: In 2009, another play called "Brightspirit's Mercy" was released. This play is about the ThunderClan cat Jayfeather helping the other Clans, even though it is against the warrior code. This play was also released at www.warriorcats.com. It was written in memory of a "Warriors" fan and her parents, who all died in a tornado.


title: Dheeran Chinnamalai

text: Dheeran Chinnamalai ( born as Theerthagiri Sarkkarai Uttama Kāminda Mandraadiyaar (Surname of Payiran Kulam Gotra of ) on April 17, 1756) was a Kongu chieftain and Palayakkarar from Tamil Nadu who rose up in revolt against the British East India Company in the Kongu Nadu, Southern India. He was born in Melapalayam, near Erode in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu.


title: Dheeran Chinnamalai

text: He was one of the main leaders in the Polygar Wars and commanded a vast army, notably during the Second Polygar War that took place in 1801–1802. A thousand-strong army under him took French Military training in modern warfare alongside Tipu's Mysore forces to fight against the British East India company. They helped Tipu Sultan in his war against the British and were instrumental in victories at Chitheswaram, Mazahavalli and Srirangapatna.


title: Baritone

text: A baritone is a man with a voice range between that of a tenor (high male voice) and bass (low male voice), typically ranging from the second F below middle C to the F above middle C. It is the most common male voice type.


title: Baritone

text: Famous baritone roles in opera include: Papageno in Mozart's "The Magic Flute" and Figaro in Rossini's "The Barber of Seville".


title: Baritone

text: Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau is often thought of as the greatest baritone of the later 20th century. He was famous as a Lieder singer as well as on the concert stage and in opera.


title: Baritone

text: Some musical instruments are also called "baritone" because they create similar frequencies to a baritone singer.


title: Dafli

text: A Dafli or Daf is a handheld bass producing device, which can be thought of similar to a drum or Tabla. There is not much learning involved unlike other musical instruments and one can soon learn to produce a musical pattern on it. They are often used in rural folk fares, religious festivals, or Bhajans. Some people earn their livelihood by playing such musical instruments.


title: Bougainvillea

text: Bougainvillea is a genus of flowering plants.it is often grown as gardening plant in warm climate. Bougainvilleas first came from South America. They are climbing plants grown for decoration in tropical countries, and in the southern United States.it is Grenada's national flower. Farther north, the plants are grown in greenhouses. The bougainvillea is named for the French navigator Louis-Autoine de Bougainville.


title: Bougainvillea

text: Bougainvillea, a tropical vine known for the beauty of the large, colorful bracts (modified leaves) which surround its flowers. The flowers are small and plain. The bracts may be magenta, purple, yellow, or crimson, and are one inch (2.5 cm) or more long. One common type of bougainvillea has a climbing stem that sometimes reaches a length of 100 feet (30 m).it's has a nickname the "paper flower " due to it's to thin and papery bracts.


title: Velociraptor

text: It was a slender, lightly built carnivore. It was about two meters long (nearly seven feet) and 0.62 meters tall at the hip, which is bigger than the size of the common chimpanzee.


title: Velociraptor

text: "Velociraptor" had one sickle-shaped claw on its foot which measured 6.5 centimeters along its length, and a smaller one on each hand. "Velociraptor" was warm blooded and had feathers.


title: Velociraptor

text: Fossils of "Velociraptor" were first found in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia in 1922. In 1988, scientists from China found "Velociraptor" skeletons in northern China.


title: Velociraptor

text: A famous "Velociraptor", discovered in 1971, was found attacking a "Protoceratops" in a fossil from Mongolia.


title: Velociraptor

text: In September 2007 researchers found quill knobs on the forearm of a "Velociraptor" found in Mongolia. These bumps on bird wing bones show where feathers anchor, and their presence on "Velociraptor" indicate it also had feathers.


title: Velociraptor

text: Turner and colleagues interpreted the presence of feathers on "Velociraptor" as evidence that the ancestors of dromaeosaurids could fly, making "Velociraptor" and other large members of this family secondarily flightless. This idea has since been discarded; the unmodified forearms count against it. Therefore, the feathers in the ancestors of "Velociraptor" had another function. The feathers of the flightless "Velociraptor" may have been used for display, for covering their nests while brooding.


title: Velociraptor

text: The majority view is that dinosaur feathers were primarily adaptations for temperature regulation, and that other uses came later. "Velociraptor" was not able to fly.


title: Velociraptor

text: Films such as "Jurassic Park" and some of "The Land Before Time" films helped make "Velociraptor" popular. However, the raptors in Jurassic Park were far larger than the real thing. They were the size of "Utahraptor", a really large member of the same clade. The films also exaggerate its probable intelligence.


title: E-book

text: An electronic book (also called an e-book, ebook or digital book) is a book in digital form. E-books can be read on computers or other electronic devices such as e-book readers. E-book readers, such as the Amazon Kindle, the Kobo eReader and the are devices which are dedicated to showing e-books.


title: E-book

text: The first e-book might have been the Index Thonisticus, prepared by Roberto Busa in the late 1940s. However, this is sometimes not called an ebook because the digital text was (at least at first) meant to develop an index and concordance, rather than as a published edition in its own rights.


title: E-book

text: Despite the extensive earlier history, it is commonly reported that the inventor of the e-book is Michael S. Hart. In 1971, Hart was given extensive computer time by the operators of the Xerox Sigma V mainframe at the University of Illinois. Seeking a worthy use of this resource, he created his first electronic document by typing the United States Declaration of Independence into a computer.


title: E-book

text: One early e-book was the desktop prototype for a proposed notebook computer, the Dynabook, in the 1970s at PARC: a general-purpose portable personal computer capable of displaying books for reading.


title: E-book

text: In 1992, Sony launched the Data Discman, an electronic book reader that could read e-books that were stored on CDs. One of the electronic publications that could be played on the Data Discman was called The Library of the Future.


title: E-book

text: Early e-books were generally written for specialty areas and a limited audience, meant to be read only by small and devoted interest groups. The scope of the subject matter of these e-books included technical manuals for hardware, manufacturing techniques and other subjects. In the 1990s, the general availability of the Internet made transferring electronic files much easier, including e-books.


title: E-book

text: The current eBook standard is the file. There are other proprietary formats like .MOBI, AZW, IBA and PDF.


title: Steric effects

text: Steric effects are the effects seen in molecules that come from the fact that atoms occupy space. When atoms are put close to each other, this costs energy. The electrons near the atoms want to stay away from each other. This can change the way molecules want to react. It can also change the shape (or conformation) of the molecule. The amount of space that a group of atoms takes is called the "steric bulk".


title: Steric effects

text: An example of steric effects is steric hindrance. This is when a large group in a molecule makes reactions not work. For example, an S2 reaction does not happen on carbon atoms that have three substituents. Steric hindrance however can also be a positive thing. Sometimes, chemists would like a reaction to happen in one place rather than another one. A bulky group can block a position. It can also change the shape such that only one diastereomer from a reaction is made.


title: Steric effects

text: Steric effects are usually smaller than electronic effects. These affect the molecule's shape and reactivity as well, but they come from the way electrons are placed in bonds.


title: Epidemiology

text: Epidemiology is the study of factors that influence the health and illness of populations. The three levels of causation of health problems include individual behavioral level, individual biological level, and political-economic ecological level.


title: Epidemiology

text: Epidemiologists aim to understand the causes of health problems by looking at the relationship between agents, hosts, and environmental factors that affects health. Using these information, they also design public health interventions to solve various health problems among populations. They regularly evaluate the health of populations, tries to identify which populations have greater risk from specific causes of diseases, and evaluates the effectiveness of the intervention programs or methods that they create. In essence, epidemiology provides the foundation of public health and preventative medicine practices.


title: Epidemiology

text: There are two types of epidemiology: descriptive and analytic. Descriptive epidemiology aims to describe the distribution of people who gets sick (versus those who don't) with regards to time, place, and person (TPP). TPP can also be thought of as answering the questions of when, who, and what respectively; in other words it investigates when a health issue or disease first emerged in a population, who in the population are getting sick, and where the disease/health condition seems to have first originated and spread from. Analytic epidemiology then uses the data provided by TPP to make and test hypothesis which aim to determine the cause of an outbreak or disease cluster among a population. Epidemiologist evaluate morbidity (people who are sick or injured) and mortality (people who are killed) to understand the burden of disease among populations.


title: Epidemiology

text: A key aspect of epidemiology is surveillance studies, which provides the numerical data and statistics that epidemiologists use. Surveillance studies are done systematically to monitor the health of populations and helps with identifying any new health problems or disease that may develop, as well as evaluating the effectiveness of existing health intervention measures in place. These studies also rely on TPP to collect data and presents it in simple graphs and tables which are easy to summarize and understand. These studies are especially important in helping guide policy making decisions and helping epidemiologists understand which interventions work and which don't. It is also important for donors as they rely on surveillance data to analyze the usefulness of their investments and whether it is being used effectively or not.


title: Epidemiology

text: Epidemiology means "the study of what is upon the people". The word derived from the Greek terms "epi" = upon, among; "demos" = people, district; "logos" = study, word, discourse. It applies only to human populations. But the term is used in studies of zoological populations 'epizoology', and plant populations.


title: Epidemiology

text: Hippocrates was the first who has looked at the relationships between disease and environmental influences. He drew the distinction between 'epidemic' and 'endemic': diseases that are 'visited upon' a population (epidemic) as contrasted with those that 'live within' a population (endemic).


title: Epidemiology

text: The Persian physician Avicenna in the 1020s, discovered the contagious nature of tuberculosis and sexually transmitted disease. He noted the distribution of disease through water and soil. Avicenna said that bodily secretion is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before being infected. He introduced the method of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious disease.


title: Epidemiology

text: The Black Death (bubonic plague) reached Al Andalus in the 14th century. Ibn Khatima thought infectious diseases were caused by "minute bodies" which enter the human body and cause disease. Another Andalusian-Arabian physician, Ibn al-Khatib (1313–1374) in his treatise "On the Plague" stated how infectious disease can be transmitted through bodily contact and "through garments, vessels and earrings". Girolamo Fracastoro from Verona suggested these very small, unseeable, particles that cause disease were alive. They were able to spread by air, and multiply. They could be destroyed by fire. He refuted Galen's miasma theory (poison gas in sick people). In 1543, Fracastoro's book "De contagione et contagiosis morbis" suggested personal and environmental hygiene to prevent disease. The development of a sufficiently powerful microscope by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1675 provided visual evidence of living particles consistent with a germ theory of disease.


title: Epidemiology

text: In 1662 John Graunt analysed the mortality rolls in London before the Great Plague. This gave statistical evidence for and against various theories of disease. Dr. John Snow investigated the causes of the 19th Century Cholera epidemics. He noticed the significantly higher death rates in two areas supplied by Southwark Water Company. He showed the Broad Street pump was the origin of the Soho epidemic, a classic example of epidemiology He used chlorine in an attempt to clean the water and had the pump handle removed. This stopped the outbreak. It was a major event in the history of public health, and the founding event of the science of epidemiology.


title: Epidemiology

text: The term 'epidemiology' was first used in 1802 by the Spanish physician Villalba. The term is used now for the description and causation of epidemic diseases, and of disease in general. It can be used for many non-disease health-related conditions, such as high blood pressure and obesity.


title: Epidemiology

text: In 1847 Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis brought down infant mortality at a Vienna hospital by disinfection. Unfortunately, disinfection did not become widely practiced until British surgeon Joseph Lister 'discovered' antiseptics in 1865 after Louis Pasteur's work. In the early 20th century, mathematical methods were introduced into epidemiology by Ronald Ross and others. In 1954 came the results of a study led by Richard Doll. This gave very strong statistical support to the suspicion that tobacco smoking was linked to lung cancer.


title: Epidemiology

text: There are several very key terms that epidemiologists use when discussing population health and disease outbreaks. The following, although not a comprehensive list, provides some of the key concepts that are important to understand when discussing epidemiology.


title: Epidemiology

text: It is important to note that an endemic disease or cluster can become an epidemic. An example of this would be with malaria; although malaria is endemic to certain regions in South America, Africa, and South Asia, during certain years or times it can become an epidemic with higher number of cases then usual present in the population. In addition, it is also possible for epidemic or outbreak to progress and become a full-fledged pandemic.


title: Epidemiology

text: Rates refers to the number of cases occurring during a specific period of time and depends on the population size at that time. Calculating disease rates helps epidemiologists to compare health issues among different populations. The general calculation for determining disease rate is to divide the number of cases or health condition by the number of population at risk during a specific period of time, and multiplying that by 100. However, disease rates can also be differentiated into two different types: prevalence rate and incidence rate.


title: Epidemiology

text: Prevalence rate refers to the number of both old and new cases in a population during a specific time period, which is divided by the total number of cases in the population. Prevalence rates are useful when dealing with investigations relating to chronic diseases, which last for more than 3 months. On the other hand, incidence rate refers to the number of new health related conditions or cases which is divided by the population at risk. Incidence rates are important in studies involving acute diseases, where symptoms of a disease peak and subside within days or weeks and generally lasts less than 3 months.


title: Epidemiology

text: Experimental studies are ones where the epidemiologist can control and manipulate different variables throughout the experiment. It usually involves a placebo treatment/group. This type of study is used when epidemiologists are trying to determine the cause of a health issue/disease or evaluating the effectiveness of a cure or interventions.


title: Epidemiology

text: Observational studies include descriptive and analytical studies; descriptive studies investigates epidemiological cases with regards to TPP while analytical study investigates hypothesis regarding relationships between health issues and risk factors. While descriptive studies (TPP) answers questions of when, who, and where, analytical studies tries to answer the question of how a population is affected by a disease and why they are affected. Overall, observational studies do not manipulate any variables and often uses comparison groups for analysis; this type of study is often done in an attempt to discover the links between exposure to certain risk factors and health outcomes. Some examples of observational studies include cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies.


title: Epidemiology

text: Investigating an outbreak is a very involved multi-step process which ranges from first establishing the existence of an outbreak to communicating the findings of the investigation with the scientific community as well as the general population. The following is a rough sequence of the process of these investigations.


title: Epidemiology

text: Epidemiology is a multidisciplinary subject. Members in this field mostly includes public health care workers and scientists from related fields such as chemists, biologists, geneticists, and anthropologists. People in epidemiology may work in hospital and research settings, as well as for federal organizations such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). One particular unit that may be of interest for those pursuing epidemiology is with with Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS), a subgroup within the CDC specializing in epidemiology. Epidemic Intelligence Service officers are field workers who investigate outbreaks in the US and other countries. Their work aids in understanding causes of outbreaks and quickly stopping spread of diseases from one place to another; notably, they have contributed to helping during various pandemics in the past, such as with smallpox, polio, and Ebola.


title: Epidemiology

text: One particular field that has had an impact in epidemiology is anthropology. In the past, cultural anthropologists have been a very helpful resource in bridging the gap between different countries/cultures and the epidemiological investigators. They have helped and continues to help with the development and implementation of preventative/control measures in countries in a manner that will not conflict with societal beliefs or values, which may get in the way of treatment or stopping the spread of an outbreak.