title: Tipu Sultan

text: Ghazi Khan, a high officer in the military of Hyder Ali and a great warrior himself, tutored Tipu Sultan. This military education made Tipu a great soldier and a general.Tipu sultan died in 4th Anglo Mysore war


title: Tipu Sultan

text: After Hyder Ali died in the year 1782, Tipu became the new ruler of Mysore. He had already fought in two victories wars – the First Anglo Mysore and the Second Anglo Mysore War, under the leadership of his father. He knew that British forces were a great threat to his kingdom. He therefore focused more on military advances especially Mysorean rockets which were successfully used by his father in the Second Anglo Mysore War against the British.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Mysorean missiles were iron cased rockets fitted with swords in them. These rockets used to travel long, covering various kilometres up in the air before launching down – attacking the enemies with swords. Although there were missiles in the Europe, Mysorean Missiles became famous due to their coverage and destructive capacity. Hyder Ali’s Mysore rockets, undoubtedly, were very advanced missiles than what the British had seen. Tipu Sultan had written a Military Manual Fathul Mujahidin in which he explained the operation of these Mysore Rockets. This was mainly due to the strong iron tubes which were used for holding the rocket propellant. They enabled greater thrust and extended distance up to 2 km.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: In the year 1801, several of the Mysore rockets were sent to England in the Royal Arsenal lab for R&D by Col. (Later Sir) William Congreve. Roughly, 4 years later in the year 1805, Royal Arsenal came up with their first Congreve rocket only due to the Technology devised by Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. These Congreve Rockets helped the British troops in the Napoleonic Wars and also in the War of 1812. Not to forget, the Battle of Baltimore in the year 1814 was won mainly due to these rockets.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Bangalore Fort though built by Kempe Gowda of Vijaynagar Empire in the 16th century, was renovated and made into a stone fort by Hyder Ali in 1761. At one point in time when the British bombed the fort, Tipu Sultan repaired it completely. However, the fort was captured by the British after the third Anglo Mysore War. Currently, Delhi Gate and remnants of bastions are the only two parts remaining of this once so powerful fort.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Within the Bangalore fort, there is a palace made of wood famously known as Tipu Sultan’s Summer Palace. Though started during the period of Hyder Ali, its building ended during the reign of Tipu Sultan. An example of Indo-Islamic architecture, the walls of the palace are embellished by pretty flower motifs. Currently, the fort is a tourist place in Bangalore near the Kalasipalyam Bus Stand.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Tipu Sultan in his tenure also finished the construction of Lal Bagh Botanical Garden in the Bangalore area which was started by his father Haider Ali. The garden has a large collection of tropical plants as well as a lake and an aquarium. Located in South Bangalore, it is one of the major hot spot of Bangalore. The garden is made in the Mughal style and comprises several plants and trees from various nations.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Srirangapatnam, the island fortress was the capital of Mysore during the 19th century. It was so well organized with good trade routes that British feared terrible consequences. In addition, the ruler of Mysore had an army as effective as that of British. This led to four consecutive wars. Although the first two were won by the Ruler of Mysore, the third had dire consequences – Tipu’s two sons aged 8 and 10 were detained by the British forces. Finally, in the fourth, the British first besieged the fortress and then took it by storm. Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, was killed in the battle for Srirangapatnam.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: The term orange may refer to a number of citrus trees that produces fruit for people to eat. Oranges are a very good source of Vitamin C. Orange juice is an important part of many people's breakfast. The "sweet orange", which is the kind that are most often eaten today, grew first in South and East Asia but now grows in lots of parts of the world.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: Oranges are round orange-coloured fruit that grow on a tree which can reach 10 metres (33 ft) high. Orange trees have dark green shiny leaves and small white flowers with five petals. The flowers smell very sweet which attracts many bees.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: An orange has a tough shiny orange skin that holds acid in outside layer. Inside, the fruit is divided into "segments", which have thin tough skins that hold together many little sections with juice inside. There are usually ten segments in an orange, but sometimes there are more or less. Inside each segment of most types of orange there are seeds called "pips". Orange trees can be grown from pips, but some types of orange trees can only be grown from "cuttings" (a piece cut off a tree and made to grow roots). The segments and the skin are separated by white stringy fibrous material called "pith". In most types of oranges, the skin can be peeled off the pith, and the segments can be pulled apart with the fingers to be eaten. In some oranges it is hard to take the skin off. Orange skin is often called "orange peel".


title: Orange (fruit)

text: Oranges are an important food source in many parts of the world for several reasons. They are a commonly available source of vitamin C. They last longer than many other fruits when they are stored. They are easy to transport because each orange comes in its own tough skin which acts as a container. They can be piled into heaps or carried in bags, lunchboxes and shipping containers without being easily damaged.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: The colour orange takes its name from the fruit. The word "orange" is unusual because it is one of only a few English words that do not rhyme with anything.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: The orange is particularly used in Asia for wide variety of purposes including cosmetic as well as medicinal. Doctors prescribe oranges for people who suffer from diabetes.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: Sweet orange trees were brought to Italy, Spain and Portugal from India in the fifteenth century (1400's). Before that time only sour oranges were grown in Italy. The name is from a Tamil word, via Persian and Arabic. From Europe, orange trees were taken to the United States, South America, Africa and Australia, which all grow oranges for sale.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: There are several different types of sweet oranges. One of the most common types is called the "Valencia" orange, which comes from Spain and is also grown in Africa and Australia. It is one of the most important "commercial" oranges. (This means that it is grown for sale in shops.)


title: Orange (fruit)

text: One type of sweet orange is called the "blood orange" or "sanguine orange" (sanguine means blood red). These oranges often have red marks on the skin, and some parts of the inside look as if they have blood in them. Some blood oranges make juice that is ruby red.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: In the 1850s, in Brazil, a tree growing in a monastery garden was making very odd fruit. Inside each orange skin there was a large orange with no seeds. At the bottom of the orange were smaller sections that looked like a smaller squashed orange inside the same skin, which was really the bigger orange's twin. The little orange made a strange bump at the bottom of the orange skin, that looked just like a human navel or belly button. These oranges were named "Navel Oranges". They tasted very sweet, they had no seeds and they peeled quite easily. This made them a very good orange to grow commercially. But they could not grow from seed. They could only grow from plant cuttings. Nowadays, thousands of these orange trees have been planted from cuttings. "Navel Oranges" are grown in California and exported to many countries of the world. Every navel orange in the world has the same genetic make up as the oranges on that tree in the monastery in Brazil.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: Mandarins, small flattened oranges with skins that come off easily, are believed to have come from China. Now there are several varieties. These include tangerines, which are redder than most mandarins, and clementines, which are large, smooth and plump. Mandarins of all sorts are very useful lunchbox fruit, because they are easy to peel and eat, but do not get squashed easily.


title: Orange (fruit)

text: Nowadays, many people of the world eat an orange or drink orange juice every day, because oranges are one of the best and cheapest sources of Vitamin C. Human bodies, unlike many other animals, do not manufacture Vitamin C, so a human needs vitamin C in their diet regularly. (Vitamin C helps the body to grow, to heal wounds and fight infection.) Oranges are also a very good source of dietary fibre. But they do not contain high amounts of minerals. If a person eats an orange and a banana together, then they have had a very nourishing snack that supplies both vitamins and minerals. Oranges are sweet and juicy.


title: Liberty

text: Liberty means the condition in which an individual has the ability to act following his or her own will and alternatively, achieve their potential, within the context of other words like political freedom. It is a term that has contested meanings.


title: Liberty

text: Communism and socialism claim to have something defined as liberty for them because of their social equality ideals. Libertarians and classical liberals think communism is against Liberty because communism is most of the times against the individual basic rights (life, freedom and property).


title: Liberty

text: Classical liberalism conceptions of liberty conceive mainly of the freedom of the individual from outside compulsion in terms of freedom from restraint and social liberalist perspective, on the other hand, highlights the need for social and economic equality, as in the power and resources to fulfill one's potential. As such, a social connects liberty (i.e. freedom) to the equal distribution of political power (i.e. democracy) in the sense of positive liberty. They argue that liberty without equality means the domination of the most powerful. Thus, freedom and democracy are seen as connected and ultimately, antagonistic.


title: Liberty

text: John Stuart Mill, in his work, "On Liberty", was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as not being forced to do something. Mill also sought to define the "nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual” and as such, he describes an inherent and continuous antagonism between liberty and authority and thus, the prevailing question becomes "how to make the fitting adjustment between individual independence and social control".


title: 2 Girls 1 Cup

text: 2 Girls 1 Cup is the title of the trailer for Hungry Bitches, a scat-pornographic viral video produced by MFX Media. The trailer features two women defecating into a cup, taking turns eating feces, and vomiting into each other's mouths. "Lovers Theme" from Hervé Roy's Romantic Themes album released by Tele Music in 1992 plays throughout the video.


title: 2 Girls 1 Cup

text: This one-minute video is a viral video that became a well-known Internet meme among bloggers and message boards for its viewers reaction to the content. Around mid-October 2007, video sites such as YouTube were flooded with videos that show others' reactions to watching the video for the first time.


title: 2 Girls 1 Cup

text: The video came from a Brazilian, Marco Fiorito, who talks of himself as a "compulsive fetishist". Fiorito first produced foot fetish videos but soon moved on to coprophagia. The movie was made by MFX-Video, one of several businesses owned by Fiorito. Fiorito says his movies are legal in Brazil, but authorities in the United States have branded some of his movies as dirty and filed charges against Danilo Croce, a Brazilian lawyer living in Florida, listed as an officer of a company shipping Fiorito's movies in the United States. Croce accepted a plea bargain and was sentenced to 3 years of unsupervised probation and forfeiture of $98,000. Fiorito said he did not know his movies were illegal in the United States and that his movies often contained chocolate instead of feces to appease some of his actors who were willing to appear in scat movies but not actually eat fecal matter.


title: 2 Girls 1 Cup

text: The first few seconds of the 2 Girls 1 Cup video contain the text "MFX 1209" (the product code for "Hungry Bitches") and the URL mfxvideos.com. The website is Fiorito's MFX-Video. This causes some in the media to incorrectly believe the video is one of the many Croce had to surrender to the Department of Justice but was somehow leaked in the process.


title: 2 Girls 1 Cup

text: 2 Girls 1 Cup's spread because of the reactions it causes. Hundreds of videos exist on YouTube of users showing the original video to their friends and recording their reactions. Even Joe Rogan, host of "Fear Factor", a show known for the nasty things its players eat, had to turn away in a reaction video posted to his blog. A reaction video starring Kermit the Frog proved very popular on the Digg. In January 2008, "Slate" magazine wrote about the reaction video with a slideshow about the reactions.


title: 2 Girls 1 Cup

text: Violet Blue, an author, stated this website as becoming "the new 'tubgirl' and goatse all in one nasty moment of choco-poo-love" in a "San Francisco Chronicle" article.


title: Nephew and niece

text: A nephew is the son of someone's brother or sister. A niece is the daughter of the person's brother or sister. To the nephew or niece, the person is their uncle or aunt. The relationship of aunt/uncle to niece/nephew is an example of second-degree relatives, meaning that their coefficient of relationship is 25%. In some cultures and families, it is common to call the child of one's cousin a "niece" or "nephew". In old English, the son of one's sister was called a "sister-son".


title: Nephew and niece

text: A sororal or fraternal relative is one who is related through their sister or brother. For example a sororal niece is the subject's sister's child. An in-law is a relationship that is not by blood, but instead by marriage. The in-law shares the in-law relationships of the spouses relatives. For niece or nephew in-law could be the child of a spouse.


title: Spain

text: Spain is a country in Southern Europe. It is in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain has borders with France, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar. Ceuta and Melilla border with Morocco in North Africa. In Spain's northeast side are the Pyrenees mountains.


title: Spain

text: The people of Spain are called Spaniards. They speak Castilian or Spanish (in Spanish, "Castellano", from "Castilla", or "Español"). They speak other languages in some parts of the country. They are Catalan, Basque, and Asturian, Galician, Leonese, Aragonese, Aranese Occitan and even Portuguese. The religion of about 56% of the population in Spain is Roman Catholic.


title: Spain

text: Since 1975, Spain has had a constitutional monarchy. The King of Spain is Felipe VI; he only does what the constitution allows him to. The parliament is called "Las Cortes Generales," and has two bodies: "El Congreso" (The Congress) and "El Senado" (The Senate) and it is chosen by the Spanish people by voting. The Prime minister is Pedro Sánchez. The government and the king's palace are in Madrid, the capital of Spain.


title: Spain

text: Spain has more than five hundred thousand square kilometres of land. It is smaller than France, but it is bigger than Germany. Almost fifty million people live in Spain. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (this means that they can decide upon some affairs themselves). Each community has its own government.


title: Spain

text: Spain was a predominant Colonial Empire and had colonies throughout South America, Asia, Oceania and Africa with a large hold of European lands.


title: Spain

text: People have lived in Spain since the Stone Age. Later, the Roman Empire controlled Spain for about five hundred years; then as the Roman Empire broke up, groups of Germanic people including Visigoths moved in and took control.


title: Spain

text: In 711, many parts of the Iberian Peninsula became under the control of the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate. They called the land Al-Andalus; it was the farthest western point of Islamic civilization. In 756, the Umayyads were defeated by the Abbasid in the east. The Umayyads ruled the Caliphate of Córdoba, which fell apart in the early 11th century. Muslim rulers sometimes fought each other when they were not fighting the Christians. Muslim Spain was focused on learning. The greatest library system outside Baghdad.


title: Spain

text: At first the Muslims ruled most of Spain but the reconquista slowly forced them out over seven centuries.


title: Spain

text: The Kingdom of León, the most important in the early Spanish Middle Ages, was started in 910. This Kingdom developed the first democratic parliament (Cortes de Llión) in Europe in 1188. After 1301, León had the same King as the Kingdom of Castile in personal union. The various kingdoms remained independent territories until 1833, when Spain was divided into regions and provinces.


title: Spain

text: In 1492, the Christians took the last part of Spain that still belonged to the Moors, Granada. Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrendered to King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile on 2 January 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella then ruled all of Spain.


title: Spain

text: Before this, there were a number of Christian countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when Ferdinand II of Aragon married the queen Isabella of Castile. The King ruled as much as the Queen.


title: Spain

text: In the same year, 1492, they sent Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic Ocean. Columbus found the islands of the Caribbean Sea.


title: Spain

text: When other Europeans explored, like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, they found out that there were two continents there - North America and South America. Spanish conquistadores took over very large parts of those two continents. This empire did not make Spain a rich country, for most of the money had to be spent in wars in Italy and elsewhere. Some of these wars were fought against other European countries who were trying to take over parts of the Americas.


title: Spain

text: Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or taken to other countries. Jews had also been expelled from Spain. Some Jews remained but they had to become Christians. Among the few old things kept and respected in Spain were in music: harmony and stringed instruments. The buildings that had been built by the Moors were kept, and many Muslim religious buildings (mosques) were turned into churches. Some Jewish religious buildings were also turned into churches. Many Arab words became part of the Spanish Language


title: Spain

text: The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella was Charles. When his grandfather died he inherited Castille and Aragon. He also inherited many territories at the death of his other grandfather, Maximilian I of Austria. Charles received from Maximilian the Austria state and the territories of Burgundy. He was named Charles I in Spain, but he was elected as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and was called Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. This made the empire bigger than ever. However, it was not a single country, but a personal union of many independent countries with a single King. At first many Spaniards did not want Charles as their king, so they fought against him. However, he won.


title: Spain

text: In the 18th century some of the parts of that large empire became their own countries, or were taken over by new countries, such as the United States of America.


title: Spain

text: Spain (and other European countries) was invaded by Napoleon of France. Britain sent troops to defend the peninsula, since it was so weak. Most of the Spanish Empire became independent in the following decades.


title: Spain

text: There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made Alfonso XIII leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, in the Spanish Civil War (although those on the side of the Republic were largely socialist or anarchist), or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a nationalist dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.


title: Spain

text: Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a monarchy again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of Juan of Bourbon who had been forced to leave the country, to be king and Adolfo Suárez to become its first Prime Minister. But the king and Suárez did not rule as a dictator; instead, they chose to set up a democracy.


title: Spain

text: On 23 February 1981 a group of people who had supported the now dead General Franco tried to take control of the democratic Spanish Parliament by force, they entered the building and fired guns in the air. It was seen live on Spanish television and there was widespread fear that this might be the start of another civil war. However, Juan Carlos I, quickly appeared on television and broadcast to the nation that they should remain calm. The persons responsible for the attempt to take over the country were arrested.


title: Spain

text: Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is the eighth largest economy in the world and is an important part of the European Union.


title: Spain

text: On 2 June 2014, Juan Carlos I announced that he would abdicate in favour of his son, Felipe VI. The date of abdication and handover to Felipe occurred on 19 June 2014. He and his wife kept their titles.


title: Spain

text: Ancient religions in Spain were mostly pagan. Today, however, at least 68 percent of Spain is Roman Catholic. Spanish mystic Teresa of Ávila is an important figure within Catholicism. 27 percent of Spaniards are irreligious. 2 percent are from other religions, this include Baha'i Buddhists, Jain, Muslim,Unitarian Universalism and Zoroastrianism.


title: Spain

text: The middle of Spain is a high, dry, flat land called La Meseta. In La Meseta it can be very hot in the summer and cold or very cold in the winter. Spain also has many mountain ranges. The Mount Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands), the highest mountain of Spain and the islands of the Atlantic (it is the third largest volcano in the world from its base). In the north there is a range of mountains called "Los Picos de Europa" (The European Peaks). Here it is very cold in winter with a lot of snow but with gentle warm summers.


title: Spain

text: In the south-east of the country is a range of mountains called "La Sierra Nevada" (The Snowy Mountains). This range of mountains contains the highest mountain in mainland Spain, Mulacen, at 2952 metres. La Sierra Nevada is very popular in winter for winter sports, especially skiing. Snow remains on its peaks throughout the year. The south coast, has a warm and temperate climate, not very hot or very cold. Since Spain is in the south of Europe, it is very sunny. Many people from Northern Europe take their vacations in Spain, enjoying its beaches and cities.


title: Spain

text: Spain has a border with Portugal in the west and borders with France and Andorra in the North. In the south, it borders Gibraltar, a British territory. The Spanish territories of Ceuta and Melilla are in North Africa and border onto Morocco.


title: Spain

text: Spain is divided into Autonomous Communities, which means that they have their own regional governments. They are Andalucía (capital city Seville), Aragon (capital city Zaragoza), Asturias (capital city Oviedo), Balearic Islands (capital city Palma de Mallorca), Basque Country (capital city Vitoria), Canary Islands (capital cities Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas), Cantabria (capital city Santander), Castilla-La Mancha (capital city Toledo), Castile and Leon (capital city Valladolid), Catalonia (capital city Barcelona), Extremadura (capital city Merida), Galicia (capital city Santiago de Compostela), La Rioja (capital city Logrono), Madrid Community (capital city Madrid), Murcia Community (capital city Murcia), Navarra (capital city Pamplona) and the Valencia Community (capital city Valencia).


title: Spain

text: While Spanish is the most spoken language in the country, other languages like Catalan, Basque or Galician are also spoken in a few territories.


title: Bear (gay slang)

text: Bear is a gay slang term. It describes a hairier and/or heavy-setgay or bisexual man. A bear typically projects an image of rugged masculinity. Some bears present a very masculine, over-the-top image of a ruggedly masculine man. Bears also exhibit masculine behavior comparable to romanticized brotherhood, often engaging in masculine hobbies such as outdoor activity, sports, and gaming with others from their community in a romanticized fashion. There are many different labels for different kinds of bears, based upon amount of fat, muscle, hair, masculinity, and age, though higher amounts of each of these qualifications are what more commonly define the bear community (Also called the International Bear Brotherhood).


title: Bear (gay slang)

text: Feminine traits and typical traits of more common gay men aren't often seen as attractive to bears, as they are less definitive of the group, which has lead to discrimination in the past. Bears often form clubs modeled on biker clubs. Clubs are formed for bears to hang out with their own kind. These clubs may have bylaws, membership requirements, and charities the clubs support. They may host bear-related events such as "Mr. Bear" male beauty contests.


title: Bear (gay slang)

text: Some of the more common labels for bears are Cubs, Otters, Chasers, Muscle-Bears, and Chubs. A younger (or younger looking) version of a bear is called a cub. Cubs are often younger or less mature or masculine-looking. The term is sometimes used to imply the passive partner in a relationship. An "otter" is a slimmer or less hairy bear regardless of age, and a Chaser is a member of the bear community who is attracted to any kind of bear without being one themselves.


title: Bear (gay slang)

text: Bears have scrapped within their communities from time to time. Discrimination has been had between the types of bears more commonly at earlier dates. Some bears and "muscle bears" have not welcomed Chubs, bears who favor and exhibit mostly fat as a bear, at their events. Because of what bears and members of the bear community are most often attracted too, exclusion of those kinds of people has often occurred. Fat (or lack of it) has become an issue. Many men in the Bear Community regard their overweight condition as a form of self-acceptance and sign of coming of age, overlapping with the Gay Gainer community in this regard. The majority of bears are white because of prior Gaelic views of the bear animal and masculinity, and because of genetics. Hairiness is regarded as a standard of physical attractiveness that genetically favors white men aesthetically, socially, and sexually.


title: Bear (gay slang)

text: Although typically excluded from the mainstream gay media, there are several publications that exist for the bear community. Although most are more beefcake and porn-focused, there are some, such as "Bear World Magazine", which focus on the bear lifestyle, covering a range of topics and celebrating the bear community as a whole. There is also a genre of manga called Bara or Gei Komi which focuses on the gay romance of bigger and more masculine men, though Bara has never been translated into anime.


title: Organelle

text: Organelles usually have a plasma membrane around them. Most of the cell's organelles are in the cytoplasm.


title: Organelle

text: The name "organelle" comes from the idea that these structures are to cells what an organ is to the body.


title: Organelle

text: There are many types of organelles in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes were once thought not to have organelles, but some examples have now been found.


title: Organelle

text: They are not organised like eukaryote organelles, and are not bounded by plasma membranes. They are called bacterial microcompartments.


title: Organelle

text: The term is now widely used to refer to cell structures surrounded by single or double plasma membranes. However, the older definition of a 'subcellular functional unit' still exists. So, the term is sometimes used for structures which are not membrane-bound.


title: Organelle

text: The plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer with some proteins embedded in it. It keeps the ions and molecules of the organelle from merging with the surroundings.


title: Organelle

text: Mitochondria and chloroplasts have double-membranes and their DNA. These are believed to come from incompletely digested or invading [[prokaryotes]. which were adopted as a part of the invaded cell. This idea is supported in the [[Endosymbiosis|endosymbiotic theory]].


title: Organelle

text: [[Prokaryote]]s are not so complex as eukaryotes. They were once thought to have no internal structures inside the [[Lipid bilayer|lipid membranes]].


title: Organelle

text: However, recent research has shown that at least some prokaryotes have [[Bacterial microcompartment|microcompartment]]s such as [[carboxysome]]s. These subcellular compartments are 100–200 nm in diameter and are enclosed by a shell of proteins. Even more striking is the description of membrane-bound magnetosomes in bacteria. as well as the nucleus-like structures of the "Planctomycetes" that are surrounded by [[Lipid bilayer|lipid membranes]].


title: Plant

text: Plants are one of five big groups (kingdoms) of living things. They are autotrophic eukaryotes, which means they have complex cells, and make their own food. Usually they cannot move (not counting growth).


title: Plant

text: Plants include familiar types such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant (living) species of plants. Fungi and non-green algae are not classified as plants.


title: Plant

text: Most plants grow in the ground, with stems in the air and roots below the surface. Some float on water. The root part absorbs water and some nutrients the plant needs to live and grow. These climb the stem and reach the leaves. The evaporation of water from pores in the leaves pulls water through the plant. This is called transpiration.


title: Plant

text: A plant needs sunlight, carbon dioxide, minerals and water to make food by photosynthesis. A green substance in plants called chlorophyll traps the energy from the Sun needed to make food. Chlorophyll is mostly found in leaves, inside plastids, which are inside the leaf cells. The leaf can be thought of as a food factory. Leaves of plants vary in shape and size, but they are always the plant organ best suited to capture solar energy. Once the food is made in the leaf, it is transported to the other parts of the plant such as stems and roots.


title: Plant

text: The word "plant" can also mean the action of putting something in the ground. For example, farmers plant seeds in the field.


title: Plant

text: At least some plant cells contain photosynthetic organelles (plastids) which enable them to make food for themselves. With sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, the plastids make sugars, the basic molecules needed by the plant. Free oxygen (O) is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis.


title: Plant

text: Later, in the cell cytoplasm, the sugars may be turned into amino acids for proteins, nucleotides for DNA and RNA, and carbohydrates such as starch. This process needs certain minerals: nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, iron and magnesium.


title: Plant

text: The roots of plants perform two main functions. First, they anchor the plant to the ground. Second, they absorb water and various nutrients dissolved in water from the soil. Plants use the water to make food. The water also provides the plant with support. Plants that lack water become very limp and their stems cannot support their leaves. Plants which specialise in desert areas are called xerophytes or phreatophytes, depending on the type of root growth.


title: Plant

text: Water is transported from the roots to the rest of the plant through special vessels in the plant. When the water reaches the leaves, some of it evaporates into the air. Many plants need the help of fungi to make their roots work properly. This plant/fungi symbiosis is called mycorrhiza. Rhizobia bacteria in root nodules help some plants get nitrogen.


title: Plant

text: Flowers are the reproductive organ only of "flowering" plants (Angiosperms). The petals of a flower are often brightly colored and scented to attract insects and other pollinators. The stamen is the male part of the plant. It is composed of the "filament" (a stalk) that holds the anther, which produces the pollen. Pollen is needed for plants to produce seeds. The carpel is the female part of the flower. The top part of the carpel contains the stigma. The style is the neck of the carpel. The ovary is the swollen area at the bottom of the carpel. The ovary produces the seeds. The sepal is a leaf that protects a flower as a bud.


title: Plant

text: How pollen moves from one flower to another flower is called pollination. This transfer can happen in different ways. Insects such as bees are attracted to bright, scented flowers. When bees go into the flower to gather nectar, the spiky pollen sticks to their back legs. The sticky stigma on another flower catches the pollen when the bee lands or flies nearby it.


title: Plant

text: Some flowers use the wind to carry pollen. Their dangling stamens produce lots of pollen that is light enough to be carried by the wind. Their flowers are usually small and not highly coloured. The stigmas of these flowers are feathery and hang outside the flower to catch the pollen as it falls.


title: Plant

text: A plant produces many spores or seeds. Lower plants such as moss and ferns produce spores. The seed plants are the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. If all the seeds fell to the ground besides the plant, the area might become overcrowded. There might not be enough water and minerals for all the seeds. Seeds usually have some way to get to new places. Some seeds can be dispersed by the wind or by water. Seeds inside juicy fruits are dispersed after being eaten. Sometimes, seeds stick to animals and are dispersed that way.


title: Plant

text: By the Silurian, fossils of whole plants are preserved, including the lycophyte "Baragwanathia". From the Devonian, detailed fossils of rhyniophytes have been found. Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue. The Devonian period also saw the evolution of the first tree in the fossil record, "Wattezia". This fern-like tree had a trunk with fronds, and produced spores.


title: Plant

text: The coal measures are a major source of Palaeozoic plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time. The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; coal itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal. In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow the stumps of "Lepidodendron" trees are found in their original growth positions.


title: Italy

text: Italy ( ]) is a country in Southern Europe. It is a member of the European Union. Its official name is Repubblica Italiana. The Italian flag is green, white and red. Italy is a democratic republic.


title: Italy

text: Italy is a founding member of the European Union. In 2022, Italy's president is Sergio Mattarella. Its prime minister is Giorgia Meloni. Italy is also a member of the G7, as it has the eighth largest gross domestic product in the world.


title: Italy

text: Italy has become famous for its wine and its food. Some foods are different between regions. Famous dishes include various types of pasta, pizza, and grapes. Olives are also often used.


title: Italy

text: The country's capital, Rome, is one of the most famous cities in the world. It was the capital of the Roman Empire. Other famous cities in Italy include Venice, Naples, Turin, Genoa, Florence, Palermo, and Milan.


title: Italy

text: Italy is a peninsula. It is surrounded by the sea on all of its sides except its north side. Northern Italy is separated from France, Switzerland, and Austria by the Alps, a chain of mountains. Mont Blanc ("Monte Bianco" in Italian or "white mountain" in English), the highest mountain in Western Europe, is in this chain. The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the Apennines (), which are in central and southern Italy.


title: Italy

text: The Po River is the longest river in Italy. It flows through 5 cities: Turin, Piacenza, Cremona, and Ferrara. The Tiber River runs through the city of Rome.


title: Italy

text: Northern Italy has some of the biggest lakes in the country, such as Lake Garda, Lake Como, Lake Maggiore and Lake Iseo. Because it is surrounded by the sea, Italy has a very long coast, which brings tourists from all over the world. Tourists also come to see Italy's historical places.


title: Italy

text: The country has a number of islands, the biggest of which are Sicily and Sardinia, which can be reached by ship or aircraft. Italy has a border at sea with Libya to the south.


title: Italy

text: The capital of Italy is Rome. This is where the Roman Empire started. Other large cities in Italy include Milan, Naples, Turin, Florence, Palermo, and Venice.


title: Italy

text: Two enclaves (separate countries) are located within Italy. They are San Marino, which is surrounded by Northern Italy, and the Vatican City, which is surrounded by the city of Rome.


title: Italy

text: People from Italy are called Italians. Even if an Italian were to leave Italy, it is possible that their descendants could also claim Italian citizenship. This is because of Italian nationality law relying mostly on "ius sanguinis," or "right of blood" in Latin. Almost all Italians are Christians. Most of these are Roman Catholics. Roman Catholicism


title: Italy

text: The population of Italy is about 60 million people. Almost 3 million of them live in Rome, and 1.5 million in Milan. As of December 2015, over 5 million foreigners were living in Italy, which is 8.3% of the total population.


title: Italy

text: The official language of Italy is Italian. German, Slovenian, French, and a few others are also recognized. People also speak dialects of Italian such as Sicilian and Sardinian. There are many different dialects spoken in Italy. They vary between regions and sometimes between provinces.


title: Italy

text: Italy is home to more World Heritage Sites than any other country in the world. These sites are culturally important and valued according to UNESCO. About 60% of the works of art of the world are in Italy. Italy is also a big wine producer. In 2005, it made over 5 million tonnes of wine.


title: Italy

text: Italy has a modern social welfare system. The labor market is very strong. Many foreigners, especially from Romania, work in Italy where the wages are much higher.


title: Italy

text: Italy's modern society has been built up through loans. Now the country has a very high debt of 1.9 trillion euros or 120% of the country's total GDP.


title: Italy

text: Most people in Italy are Roman Catholics, but the Catholic Church is no longer officially the state religion. 87.8% of the people said they were Roman Catholic.


title: Italy

text: Only about a third said they were active members (36.8%). There are also other Christian groups in Italy, with more than 700,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians. 180,000 of them belong to the Greek Orthodox Church.


title: Italy

text: 550,000 are Pentecostals and Evangelicals (0.8%). 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.4%), 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 20,000 Baptists, 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists.


title: Italy

text: The country's oldest religious minority is the Jewish community. It has about 45,000 people. It is no longer the largest non-Christian group.


title: Italy

text: About 825,000 Muslims live in Italy. Most of them immigrated. (1.41% of the total population) Only 50,000 are Italian citizens. In addition, there are 50,000 Buddhists 70,000 Sikh and 70,000 Hindus in Italy.


title: Italy

text: There are 20 regions. Five of them have a special status, called "autonomous". This means that they can make certain local laws more easily. These regions are marked with an asterisk (*) below.


title: Italy

text: The head of state is Sergio Mattarella. He became President of the Italian Republic in February 2015. The first president was Enrico De Nicola.


title: Italy

text: The head of government is Giorgia Meloni. She became Prime Minister on October 22, 2022, the first woman in that role. She succeeded Mario Draghi. Draghi's cabinet, fell after support for his coalition fell.


title: Italy

text: Italy was one of the first members of the European Union. In 2002 along with 11 other European countries, it changed to using the euro as its official currency. Before this, the Italian lira had been used since 1861.


title: Italy

text: Anyone who wants to be President of Italy must have Italian citizenship, be at least 50 years old, and must be able to uphold political and civil rights.


title: Italy

text: The capital of Italy is Rome. Rome was founded in 753 BC. It was a separate state well known as Roman Kingdom firstly, Roman Republic and Roman Empire later. It conquered various neighbors including the Etruscan civilization in the north and the states in the south known as Magna Graecia.


title: Italy

text: Before 1861, Italy was not a state. The area included a group of separate states that were ruled by other countries (such as Austria, France, and Spain). In the 1850s, the Earl of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour was the head of government of the "State of Sardinia". He talked to the Austrians in Lombardy and Veneto and said they should create a Northern Italian state. This happened, but other Central and Southern Italian states also joined Piedmont to create a bigger state.


title: Italy

text: In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi took control of Sicily, creating the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Victor Emmanuel II was made the king. In 1861, Latium and Veneto were still not part of Italy, because they were ruled by the Pope and Austrian Empire.


title: Italy

text: Veneto was made part of Italy in 1866 after a war with Austria. Italian soldiers won Latium in 1870. That was when they took away the Pope's power. The Pope, who was angry, said that he was a prisoner to keep Catholic people from being active in politics. That was the year of Italian unification.


title: Italy

text: Italy participated in World War I. It was an ally of Great Britain, France, and Russia against the Central Powers. Almost all of Italy's fighting was on the Eastern border, near Austria. After the "Caporetto defeat", Italy thought they would lose the war. But, in 1918, the Central Powers surrendered. Italy gained the Trentino-South Tyrol, which once was owned by Austria.


title: Italy

text: In 1922, a new Italian government started. It was ruled by Benito Mussolini, the leader of Fascism in Italy. He became head of government and dictator, calling himself "Il Duce" (which means "leader" in Italian). He became friends with German dictator Adolf Hitler. Germany, Japan, and Italy became the Axis Powers. In 1940, they entered World War II together against France, Great Britain, and later the Soviet Union. During the war, Italy controlled most of the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Italy

text: On July 25, 1943, Mussolini was removed by the Great Council of Fascism. On September 8, 1943, Badoglio said that the war as an ally of Germany was ended. Italy started fighting as an ally of France and the UK, but Italian soldiers did not know whom to shoot. In Northern Italy, a movement called Resistenza started to fight against the German invaders. On April 25, 1945, much of Italy became free, while Mussolini tried to make a small Northern Italian fascist state called the Republic of Salò. The fascist state failed and Mussolini tried to flee to Switzerland and escape to Francoist Spain, but he was captured by Italian partisans. On 28 April 1945 Mussolini was executed by a partisan.


title: Italy

text: The state became a on June 2, 1946. For the first time, women were able to vote. Italian people ended the Savoia dynasty and adopted a republic government.


title: Italy

text: In February 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty with the Allies. They lost all the colonies and some territorial areas (Istria and parts of Dalmatia).


title: Italy

text: Since then Italy has joined NATO and the European Community (as a founding member). It is one of the seven biggest industrial economies in the world.


title: Italy

text: The railway network in Italy totals . It is the 17th longest in the world. High speed trains include -class trains which travel at speeds of up to .


title: History

text: History is the study of past events. People know what happened in the past by looking at things "from" the past including sources (like books, newspapers, scripts and letters), buildings and artifacts (like pottery, tools, coins and human or animal remains.) Libraries, archives, and museums collect and keep these things for people to study history. A person who studies history is called a historian. A person who studies pre-history and history through things left behind by ancient cultures is called an archaeologist. A person who studies mankind and society is called an anthropologist. The study of the sources and methods "used to study and write" history is called historiography.


title: History

text: People can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened at some point in the past. This is called oral history. For example, when people who had been slaves and American Civil War survivors got old, some historians recorded them talking about their lives, so that history would not be lost.


title: History

text: In old times people in different parts of the world kept separate histories because they did not meet each other very often. Some groups of people never met each other. The rulers of Medieval Europe, Ancient Rome and Ancient China each thought that they ruled the only important parts of the world and that other parts were "barbarian". But they were still connected, even if they didn't realize it.


title: History

text: Current events, modern economic history, modern social history and modern intellectual history take very different views of the way history has affected the way that we think today.


title: Socialism

text: Socialism is an economic and political system where the workers or the government own the buildings and tools that make goods and services like farms and factories. This can be achieved through decentralized and direct worker-ownership, or through centralized state-ownership of the means of production. This is different from Capitalism, where the means of production are privately owned by capital holders. It is often confused with communism; all communism is socialism, but not all socialism is communism (see Forms of socialism).


title: Socialism

text: There are many kinds of socialism. In all types, at least in principle, "the state or workers own the means of production". The major differences between the different varieties are the role of the free market (market planning), how the means of production are controlled, the role of management of workers, and the government's role in the economy.


title: Socialism

text: One kind of socialism is "collectivization." In this system, money and goods are shared more equally among the people, with the government in control. In theory, this system results in the gap between classes getting smaller, with the state helping the nation's poorest people, while the richest agree to higher taxes and economic restrictions.


title: Socialism

text: Socialists with more radical views believe that socialism will evolve into what they see as a more advanced system: communism, with no state, money, hierarchy or social classes whatsoever. In Marxist theory, socialism is a temporary social state between capitalism and communism, although some socialists have no intention of transitioning to communism.


title: Socialism

text: Many label these economic theories into one as "communism" when they mean the Marxist and Leninist ideas and beliefs of Russia's Bolshevik party. Marx believed that capitalism followed the economic and political system of feudalism. He also believed that capitalism would unfairly treat many people and that those people would eventually revolt and switch to socialism. He also thought that socialism could be another bridge on a path to communism. However, many people incorrectly use the term "Communist" to refer to a socialist state as a pejorative insult. Others call this 'State Socialism,' to distinguish it from the communist goal that does not need a state or any form of government. To non-communists, the word 'socialism' is now used mostly for attempts to come close to this goal in a capitalist state.


title: Socialism

text: Democratic socialism is the belief that both the economy and society should be run democratically (as opposed to authoritarianism)—to meet public needs, not to make profits for a few. To achieve a more just society, many structures of our government and economy must be radically transformed through greater economic and social democracy so that ordinary people can participate in the many decisions that affect their lives.


title: Socialism

text: Social democracy is a form of capitalism (although often misclassified as socialism) that attempts to mix parts of socialism with capitalism. It is not a form of socialism, but shares some ideas with it. In this system, despite there still being private property, the government generates tax revenue, typically from the wealthiest in the society and corporations, and distributes it to the poor, or even everyone in the society, via in the form of social programs. These programs range from single-payer healthcare, to other welfare programs such as expanding SNAP benefits. While the intentions of social democracy and socialism can be similar or shared, social democracy keeps the capitalist system intact, and tries to reforms it. Achieving socialism would mean completely getting rid of the capitalist system. Social democracy is often confused with democratic socialism due to the similar names and having the same short-term goals. The biggest difference is social democrats want to stop reforming capitalism when they think their reforms are good enough, but democratic socialists will not stop until capitalism is gone. Some examples of social democracies are the Scandinavian countries.


title: Socialism

text: In social democracies, some services and industries are subsidized (given subsidy money to help them run), partly controlled by the government, or both. For example, education, health care, housing, utility companies and public transportation are some industries that might be owned/supported by the government in a social democracy. For the most part, people working in these industries are paid by the government, with money paid by the people as taxes. A strong Welfare system is key to social democracy.


title: Socialism

text: Utopian socialism is the first form of modern socialism. Unlike other forms of socialism, utopian socialism doesn't include belief in the necessity of class struggle.


title: Socialism

text: Many people and countries see socialism differently. The Socialist International is an organization dedicated to the cause of promoting socialist ideals, and has ties with many socialist parties, especially Social Democratic parties.


title: Socialism

text: The followers of a Welshman, Robert Owen, began calling themselves socialists in 1841. Owen is seen as a founder of the Co-operative Movement in Britain. He said that workers should own the companies they worked for. The workers would then share the profits among themselves. He set up a new model factory in New Lanark, Scotland.


title: Socialism

text: Karl Marx is the most well-known creator of the theory of socialism, and of communism. He wrote a book about capitalism, socialism, and communism, called "A critique of the social economy". Friedrich Engels co-wrote the book, and paid for much of Marx's work and research.


title: Socialism

text: Many socialist political parties were formed during the 19th century and early part of the 20th century. During the decolonization movement in the 20th century, many armies fighting for independence planned to establish socialist countries.


title: Central Time Zone

text: The Central Time Zone subtracts six hours from UTC during standard time (UTC−6) and five hours during daylight saving time (UTC−5).


title: Central Time Zone

text: This time zone is called Central Standard Time (CST) during standard time (Winter). It is called Central Daylight Time (CDT) during daylight saving time (Summer). In the United States and Canada, this time zone is often just called Central Time (CT).


title: Central Time Zone

text: The largest city in the Central Time Zone is Mexico City. In the United States, the largest city is Chicago, and the largest metropolitan area is the Chicago metropolitan area.


title: Central Time Zone

text: In Canada, this time zone includes all of Manitoba, nearly all of Saskatchewan, a little part of western Ontario, and part of Nunavut (most of the Kivalliq Region and part of the Qikiqtaaluk Region).


title: Central Time Zone

text: It also includes parts of Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Texas.


title: Central Time Zone

text: Most of Mexico belongs to the Central Time Zone. The six northwestern states are not part of the time zone.


title: Central Time Zone

text: Central Time Zone includes the Central American countries of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. In South America, this zone includes the Ecuadorian province of Galápagos. In Oceania, the Chilean Easter Island also belongs to this time zone.


title: Central Time Zone

text: Daylight saving time occurs from the second Sunday of March to the first Sunday of November. During daylight saving, Central Time Zone is only 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time (UTC−5). Most of the locations in Central Time Zone observe daylight saving time. A few places do not. These include Saskatchewan, Central America and Galápagos. They stay on standard time all year.


title: Teacher

text: A teacher is a person who helps people to learn. A teacher often works in a classroom. There are many different kinds of teachers. Some teachers teach young children in kindergarten or primary schools. Others teach older children in middle, junior high and high schools. Some teachers teach adults in colleges and universities. Some teachers are called professors.


title: Teacher

text: There are different ways of teaching. Different teachers use a variety of methods to teach. Teachers explain new knowledge, write on a blackboard or whiteboard, sit behind their desks on chairs, help students with their work and mark students' work. They may also use a computer to write tests, assignments or report cards for the class.


title: London

text: London is the capital of England and the United Kingdom (UK). It is also the city with the highest population in the UK.


title: London

text: On the Thames, London has been a central city since it was founded by the Romans two millennia ago as Londinium. The Romans bridged the river Thames and built a road network to connect Londinium with the rest of the country.


title: London

text: London's original city centre, the City of London is England's smallest city. In 2011 had 7,375 inhabitants on an area of 2.9 km². The term "London" is used for the urban region which developed around this city centre. This area forms the region of London, the Greater London administrative unit led by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.


title: London

text: London is one of the world's most important political, economic and cultural centres. London was the capital of the British Empire and so for almost three centuries the centre of power for large parts of the world.


title: London

text: The city has about 9.1 million inhabitants (2018). If one counts the entire metropolitan area of London (London Metropolitan Area), it has about 15 million people. The city is the largest in Europe by population. The climate is moderate.


title: London

text: The Romans built the city of "Londinium" along the River Thames in AD 43. The name "Londinium" (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub.


title: London

text: After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. The Anglo-Saxon people of Sub-Roman Britain were mainly agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe dwindled. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England again until the 12th century. For a long time after the Romans, England was not unified, and so had no capital.


title: London

text: The 17th century saw Londoners suffer from the plague and the fire of London. The century starts with the famous Gunpowder Plot.


title: London

text: In the 17th century the Stuart kings ruled: James I and Charles I. Charles Stuart was defeated by Cromwell, so the century was remarkable in that respect. Cromwell marks the beginning of the modern system whereby Parliament is more important than the monarch. The war between Cromwell and Charles was bitterly fought. London was the key city, and Oxford was also important.


title: London

text: The century also had two great disasters: the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London. The control of London by Cromwell and Parliament was one of the decisive factors in the civil war. Cromwell's victory was followed by his death in 1658, and the country for a time moved back to royal rule under Charles II.


title: London

text: The Great Fire of London broke out at the beginning of September 1666. Unfortunately there were warehouses full of timber, pitch, tallow, wine and tar. These caught fire and, in the end, all the riverfront buildings were destroyed. The fire eventually destroyed about 60% of the city, (mainly the City of London, rather than the large city we have today). Old St Paul's Cathedral was destroyed. Some fires burnt more widely, up to present-day Southwark and even Highgate (which are not in the city, but are in London).


title: London

text: Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), the Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament, and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives).


title: London

text: After the railways were built, London grew much larger. Greater London has 33 boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor.


title: London

text: In stages, London has several times increased in size by statute in Parliament. The main motive for this has been taxation, and the increase in houses in what was once countryside. Since taxation was paid to the counties surrounding London, there was a motive for absorbing the countryside into London. This happened in several stages.


title: London

text: Outside London, local taxes are paid to the County Councils; inside London they are paid to the Greater London Council. One county has been lost entirely (Middlesex) and all the others have lost land and revenue. The London Boroughs and the GLA (Greater London Authority) both raise taxes, and the representatives are elected. There is a London Plan which sets out the priorities. The number of local authorities which raise local taxes and spend it is 33: 32 London boroughs and the City of London.


title: London

text: London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.


title: London

text: London's largest industry is finance. This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies The Bank of England is in the City of London and is the second oldest bank in the world.


title: London

text: Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003. Tourists spend about £15 billion per year.


title: London

text: London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.


title: London

text: For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars. Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London.


title: London

text: The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, underground (metro) and five main airports.


title: London

text: The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times. Their terminals at King's Cross, St. Pancras, Paddington, Waterloo and Charing Cross are still used as terminals.


title: London

text: There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). There is the London end of the LondonBirmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century. The most used airport is Heathrow Airport, although it is actually outside the city.


title: London

text: The London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the "Metropolitan Railway". Later, the system was copied in other cities, for example Paris, New York, Moscow and Madrid. Even though it is called the London Underground about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is the name used for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has got 274 stations and over 408 km of track. Over one billion passengers used the underground each year.


title: London

text: With the need for more rail capacity in London, the Elizabeth Line (also known as "Crossrail") opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London, with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.


title: London

text: There is a black taxi system regulated by the Metropolitan Police, and various other private enterprise hire car companies. Efforts are being made to make roads safer for cyclists.


title: London

text: London has an oceanic, or temperate climate. It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy. The Köppen climate classification: "Cfb")


title: London

text: London has regular, light rain throughout the year. July is the warmest month, with an average temperature at Greenwich of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average of 2.4 °C to 7.9 °C. The average annual precipitation is fairly low at 583.6 mm, and February is normally the driest month. Drought is sometimes possible, especially during longer heatwaves in summer. Snow is uncommon but usually falls at least once each winter and heavy snow is rarer and does not happen every winter. While snow is uncommon in central London itself, there is more snow in the outer areas; this is because the "urban heat island" the big city generates makes the city about 5 °C warmer than surrounding areas in winter.


title: London

text: Temperature extremes in London range from at Heathrow Airport on 19 July 2022 down to at Northolt on 1 January 1962.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan is a country in South Asia. It is next to India, Iran, Afghanistan, and China. It is officially called the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. It has a long coastline along the Arabian Sea in the south. Pakistan has the fifth largest population (207.77 million) in the world. Pakistan has a total land area of (including the Pakistani controlled territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit Baltistan). This makes Pakistan the 34th largest country in the world. Pakistan has the seventh largest army in the world. The capital of Pakistan is Islamabad. Before 1960, it was Karachi, which is now the country's largest city.


title: Pakistan

text: The name Pakistan ( or ;  ) means "Land of (the) Spiritually Pure" in both Urdu and Persian languages. Many South-central Asian states and regions end with the element -"stan," such as "Afghanistan," "Pakistan," "Balochistan," "Kurdistan," and "Turkistan." This -"stan" is formed from the Iranian root *STA "to stand, stay," and means "place (where one stays), home, country". Iranian peoples have been the main inhabitants of the various land regions of the Ancient Persian Empires now owned by the states for over a thousand years. The names are compounds of -"stan" and the name of the peoples living there. Pakistan is a bit different; its name was coined on 28 January 1933 as ' by Choudhary Rahmat Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who published it in his paper "Now or Never". by using the suffix -"istan" from "Baloch"istan preceded by the first letters of "P"unjab, "A"fghania, "K"ashmir and "S"indh. The name is actually an acronym that stands for the "thirty million Muslim brethren who lived in Pakistan—by which we mean the Five Northern units of India viz: Punjab, (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind, and Baluchistan"'". The letter "i" was incorporated to ease pronunciation and forms the linguistically correct and meaningful name.


title: Pakistan

text: The lyrics of the national anthem of Pakistan was written by Hafeez Jalandhary, composed by Ahmed Ghulam Ali Chagla and was adopted as the country's national anthem on 13 August 1954. The music had actually been composed nearly three years before the lyrics were written to fit the tune.


title: Pakistan

text: The flag is a green field with a white crescent moon and five-rayed star at its centre, and a vertical white stripe at the hoist side. Though the green colour is mandated only as 'dark green', its official and most consistent representation is Pakistan green, which is shaded distinctively darker.


title: Pakistan

text: The flag was designed by Syed Amir uddin Kedwaii and was based on the original flag of the Muslim League. It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on August 11, 1947, just days before independence. The white colour on the flag represents the minorities and the green the Muslim majority. The crescent on the flag represents progress while the five-rayed star represents light and knowledge.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan has a federal parliamentary system. The head of state is an indirectly-elected ceremonial President. The Electoral college of the country, (composed of the Senate, the National Assembly, and the four Provincial Assemblies) chooses a leadership representing the President of Pakistan for a five-year term. The president is also the Commander in Chief of the Joint Armed Forces. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is also indirectly elected.


title: Pakistan

text: The President's appointment and term are constitutionally independent of the Prime Minister’s term. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the National Assembly or of a coalition in the National Assembly.


title: Pakistan

text: The Prime Minister is the head of government. Pakistan's legislature is made of a 100-member Senate (upper house) and a 342-member National Assembly (lower house). The Chief Justice of Pakistan is the chief judge who oversees the judicature's court system at all levels of command.


title: Pakistan

text: On 17 August 2018 Ex-cricketer Imran Khan was elected as the New Prime Minister of Naya Pakistan. Because In 2018, Imran Khan (the chairman of PTI) Won the 2018 Pakistan general election with 116 general seats and so became the current 22nd Prime Minister of Pakistan in election of National Assembly of Pakistan for Prime Minister by getting 176 votes against Shehbaz Sharif (the chairman of PMLN) who got 96 votes. Pakistan is also headed by a "President", the Prime Minister Acts as the Leader of Pakistan.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan is officially a federal republic, but during a long period in its history it changed to a democratic state and a military dictatorship. Military dictators include Ayub Khan in the 1960s, General Zia-ul-Haq in the 1980s.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan's two largest political parties are the Pakistan People's Party and the government party Pakistan Muslim League (N).Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf has also gained popularity in the past years.


title: Pakistan

text: On 27 December 2007, the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, Benazir Bhutto, was assassinated. The reason is yet to be determined.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan is made up of four provinces, two territories and two special areas. Both special areas are in Kashmir. The provinces and territories are divided into 26 divisions with now 147 districts directly divided from the provinces. Each district is divided into several tehsils and each tehsil is divided into several union councils. There are around 596 tehsils and over 6,000 union councils in Pakistan.


title: Pakistan

text: Among the four provinces, Punjab has the most people but Balochistan is the largest province by area.


title: Pakistan

text: India, Pakistan and China separately control parts of the Kashmir region. India and Pakistan's parts are divided by a Line of Control. The Pakistan–China border is internationally recognized. Trade is common between the 2 countries.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan has a semi-industrialized economy. The growth poles of the Pakistani economy are situated along the Indus River. Diversified economies of Karachi and Punjab's urban centres, coexist with less developed areas in other parts of the country. Despite being a very poor country in 1947, Pakistan's economic growth rate has been better than the global average during the following four decades, but incautious policies led to a slowdown in the late 1990s.


title: Pakistan

text: Recently, large economic reforms have resulted in a stronger economic outlook and sped up growth especially in the manufacturing and financial services sectors. Since the 1990s, there has been great improvement in the foreign exchange market position and rapid growth in hard currency reserves.


title: Pakistan

text: The 2005 estimate of foreign debt was close to US$40 billion. However, this decreased with help from the International Monetary Fund and significant debt-relief from the United States. Pakistan's gross domestic product, as measured by purchasing power parity, is estimated to be $475 billion while its per capita income stands at $1,842. The poverty rate in Pakistan is estimated to be between 23% and 38%.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan became Independent in 1947 from the United Kingdom which was known as the British Raj. The first organised people in Ancient Pakistan lived 9000 years ago. These people were the ones who made up the Indus Valley Civilization, which is one of the oldest civilizations on Earth. After that, the Vedic period came. This also included parts of north-western Republic of India. Until 1971, Pakistan also included an area in the North-east India region. This is now called Bangladesh. It lost that area after a war with the Indian Army and the joint militant group of Indo-Bangladeshi alliance of Mitro Bahini of West Bengal. During recent times Pakistan has been in the centre of world politics. This is first because of its support to guerillas in Afghanistan, following a Soviet invasion 1979, and later during the 1990s because of its cooperation with and support for the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. However, since 2000 Pakistan has supported the West in their war against fundamentalist terrorism, including the removal of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan is a member of the Commonwealth. However, after the war in East Pakistan the country was excluded (between 1972-1989). It was also a member between 1999 and 2007, it was excluded in 2007 for a time but again became a member in 2008.


title: Pakistan

text: There are many earthquakes in the area. The earthquake in 2005 with its earthquake center in Kashmir is the strongest recorded so far. Over 100,000 people were killed or wounded on 8 October 2005.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan covers , roughly similar to the combined land areas of France and the UK. Its eastern regions are located on the Indian plate and the western and northern regions on the Iranian plateau and Eurasian landplate. Apart from the Arabian Sea coastline, Pakistan's land borders total — with Afghanistan to the northwest, with China to the northeast, with India to the south and east, and with Iran to the southwest.


title: Pakistan

text: The northern and western highlands of Pakistan contain the towering Karakoram and Pamir mountain ranges, which include some of the world's highest peaks, including K2 and Nanga Parbat . The Balochistan Plateau lies to the west, and the Thar Desert and an expanse of alluvial plains, the Punjab and Sindh, lie to the east. The Indus River and its tributaries flow through the country from the disputed territory of Occupied Kashmir to the Arabian Sea.


title: Pakistan

text: Pakistan has four seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November. The beginning and length of these seasons vary somewhat according to location. Rainfall can change radically from year to year, and consecutive patterns of flooding and drought are also not uncommon.


title: Pakistan

text: Urdu is replacing English as the national language of the country. English is still spoken among the Pakistani elite and in most government ministries. Many people also speak Saraiki, Punjabi, Hindko, Pashto, Sindhi, Balochi, Brahui and Khowar.


title: Pakistan

text: Most (95-97%) of the people are Muslim. Most of the Muslims in Pakistan are Sunni Muslims (>90%) and some are Shia Muslims (5%). However a few minority groups exist. Pakistan also has some Christian, Hindu, Sikh, Zoroastrians and animist minority groups in the northern parts of the country.


title: Pakistan

text: After the end British India, Hinduism had much less importance in the newly created state of Pakistan, but has played an important role in its culture and politics as well as the history of its regions. In fact, Pakistan has the 5th largest population of Hindus, after Sri Lanka.


title: Pakistan

text: The word "Hindu" comes from the Sindhu (Indus River) of Pakistan. The Sindhu is one of the holy rivers of Hinduism. Thus, in many ways, the land which is today's heavily Muslim Pakistan has played an important part in the origin of Hinduism. There are about 3 million Hindus living in Pakistan.


title: Pakistan

text: Poverty in Pakistan is a growing concern because of population growth in the country. Although the middle-class has grown in Pakistan, nearly one-quarter of the population is classified poor as of October 2006.


title: Pakistan

text: The national sport of Pakistan is field hockey, although cricket is the most popular game across the country. The national cricket team has won the Cricket World Cup once (in 1992), were runners-up once (in 1999), and co-hosted the games twice (in 1987 and 1996). Pakistan were runners-up in the inaugural 2007 ICC World Twenty20 held in South Africa and were the champions at the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 held in England. The team also won two Asia Cups in 2000 and 2012. Lately however, Pakistani cricket has suffered heavily due to teams refusing to tour Pakistan after militants attacked the touring Sri Lankan team in March 2009, after which no international cricket was played until May 2015, when the Zimbabwean team agreed to tour. However, now, with increased security, the Sri Lankan cricket team came for a tour as recently as 2019.


title: Pakistan

text: In addition to sports like field hockey, cricket, squash rackets, football and others, Pakistanis are also very keen on equestrianism of various types,and equestrian sports such as Polo and the traditional Tent pegging are played by many. Other traditional rural sports include two types of Wrestling, Kabbadi and a martial art called Gatka.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles (L.A.), officially the City of Los Angeles, is a city in Southern California, in the United States. There are 3,847,400 people living in the city, and over 18 million people in the L.A. region. The city has an area of . Los Angeles is the city with the second biggest population in the United States after New York, overtaking Chicago in the 1970s. It is also the biggest city of California. Due to being built on a fault line, which runs through the downtown, it has few skyscrapers and tall structures and is one of the most spread out cities in the world. Greater Los Angeles is home to many movie stars and many of the biggest rock bands in the history of the United States. Los Angeles is surrounded by East Los Angeles, Huntington Park, Maywood, Walnut Park, Commerce, Bell, Glendale, South Pasadena, Monterey Park, South Gate, Cudahy, West Hollywood, Alhambra, Bell Gardena and Westmont.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles has Spanish and Mexican influences due to being a former colony of Mexico and Spain. Los Angeles is a diverse city with many ethnic groups such as Mexican, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Salvadoran, Iranian and Armenian. Mexican and Spanish architecture can be seen in Los Angeles.


title: Los Angeles

text: Many celebrities live in Los Angeles. Los Angeles is known to be the entertainment capital of the world. Many movies, television shows and fashion shows are set in Los Angeles.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles has the second largest Hispanic and Latino population in the United States, only behind New York City. Many are of Mexican and Central American descent.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles is home to a large Albanian, Turkish, Roma, Mexican, Brazilian, Filipino, Chinese, Korean, Cambodian, Japanese, Bulgarian, Romanian, Italian, Greek, Indonesian, white Australian, Asian, Egyptian, Colombian, Bolivian, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Hungarian, Peruvian, Paraguayan, Argentine, Uruguayan, Salvadoran, Guatemalan, Honduran, Panamanian, Indian, Irish, Armenian, Georgian, Persian, Azerbaijani, Kyrgyz, Kazakh, German, and Dutch population.


title: Los Angeles

text: The area comprising present-day Los Angeles County was first settled by small groups of Native Americans for centuries before the first European contact in 1769 when Gaspar de Portola and a group of missionaries camped on what is now the banks of the Los Angeles River. The name Los Angeles comes from the Spanish language,and it means "The Angels". The name is an abbreviation from the original name of the place. The original name is "El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río Porciúncula" (in English, "The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels of the River Porciúncula"), giving it both one of the longest and shortest (referring to its shortening of "LA") place names in the world. Los Angeles was founded in 1781 while the area was within the borders of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The area had earlier been explored by two Franciscan priests named Junipero Serra and Juan Crespi and following the Mexican War of Independence the region passed into the hands of Mexico which subsequently ceded control of California to the U.S. in 1848. On April 4, 1850 California became a State of the USA. Los Angeles began half a century of rapid growth after railroads arrived in the city in the 1870s. Los Angeles was home to the Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984. It will host the Olympic Games in 2028. Three times the city broke out in riots, in 1943, in 1965, and in 1992, all due to racism. In 1994, an earthquake killed 72 people and damaged many buildings.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles has the second largest Mexican, Armenian, Salvadoran, Filipino and Guatemalan population by city in the world, the third largest Canadian population in the world, and has the largest Japanese, Iranian/Persian, Cambodian and Roma (Gypsy) population in the country.


title: Los Angeles

text: Spanish is the most spoken foreign language in Los Angeles. Korean, Filipino, Armenian, Chinese, and Persian are also spoken in the city.


title: Los Angeles

text: Most tourists in Los Angeles come from Mexico, Canada, China, Australia, Japan, UK, South Korea, Germany, France, Scandinavia, the Middle East and India.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles is a very large city, and the edges of the city are very far from the center, going from the beaches to the mountains. The Santa Monica Mountains run through the city, separating it into the San Fernando Valley to the north and the Los Angeles Basin to the south. The Los Angeles River also runs through the city some . Los Angeles moves about one-quarter of an inch (6.3 millimeters) to the east every year. It is caused by the city's tectonic plates and rough ground geography and since Los Angeles is at a close distance with the San Andreas Fault. This brings Los Angeles and San Francisco closer together each year.


title: Los Angeles

text: The climate in Los Angeles is a Mediterranean climate. The weather is usually warm and dry during the summer, and it is mild and more rainy in the winter. The weather is different depending on how far away from the ocean you are, so places near the beach usually do not get as hot in the summer. It is very rare for temperatures to go below freezing near the coast, but can occur further inland. The city receives about of rain each year, although the amount can change a lot from year to year. Snow is very rare except on the mountain tops where some occasional light snow might fall.


title: Los Angeles

text: L.A. has many famous sights. There are many very long beaches, such as Venice Beach. Many visitors go to Hollywood, home to the Hollywood Walk of Fame the Mann's (Grauman's) Chinese Theater, a large cinema and L.A. Live, an entertainment complex. Los Angeles also has many fine museums such as the L.A. County Museum of Art, California Science Center and the Getty Museum. Another sight is the Los Angeles City Zoo. Los Angeles is the only major city in the world with an active population of wild mountain lions.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles is known for its large movie and television industry. Much of this is located in Hollywood. Some military aircraft are also made there, as well as spacecraft. The music industry is also concentrated in the area. The city is also a banking center. The San Pedro area has a busy port.


title: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles has a rich history and culture of popular music. Many of the most notable recording artists in the history of the United States either started or flourished in Los Angeles or Greater Los Angeles. The surf music scene is largely associated with Los Angeles and suburbs like Malibu. Motown Records moved from Detroit, Michigan to Los Angeles in the 1970s. The West Coast Hip-hop scene and genres such as G-funk are largely centered in Greater Los Angeles.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms until her death on 8 September 2022.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth became queen when her father, King George VI, died on 6 February 1952. At the time of her death, she had ruled longer than any other king or queen in the history of the United Kingdom. She had also ruled longer than any other living king or queen in the world, since the death of Thailand's Bhumibol Adulyadej on 13 October 2016. She was the second-longest reigning monarch in history.


title: Elizabeth II

text: In 1947, Elizabeth married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who died in 2021. Elizabeth and Philip had four children, eight grandchildren and 12 great-grandchildren. She died on 8 September 2022 at the age of 96, and was succeeded by her eldest son, Charles III.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth was born in her grandparents' home at 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair, London on 21 April 1926. Her father was Prince Albert, Duke of York, who later became George VI. Her mother was Elizabeth, Duchess of York.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth was the granddaughter of King George V and Queen Mary. She was named after her mother. Her nickname was "Lilibet".


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth had one sister, Princess Margaret. Margaret was born in 1930. The two young princesses were taught at home. They had a governess named Marion Crawford.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the British Throne. The first in line was her uncle, the Prince of Wales. The second in line was her father, the Duke of York.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth's grandfather, King George V, died in 1936. Her uncle became King Edward VIII. He was king only for a short time. He abdicated.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth was 13 years old when World War II started. London was bombed. Elizabeth and Margaret were moved to Windsor Castle. This was for their safety. People thought that they should be sent to Canada. Their mother did not approve this idea.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth joined the British army in 1945. She drove a truck. She was a mechanic. In 1947, she made her first official trip outside Britain. She went with her parents to South Africa. She made a speech on her 21st birthday. She said her whole life would be devoted to the service of British Commonwealth and Empire.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Princess Elizabeth married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on 20 November 1947. The wedding was held in Westminster Abbey. The couple lived mostly at Clarence House in London.


title: Elizabeth II

text: The couple had four children. Charles was born on 14 November 1948. Their second child, Anne, was born on 15 August 1950. Their son Andrew was born on 19 February 1960. Their son Edward was born on 10 March 1964. The princes and princess sometimes use the name Mountbatten-Windsor. This is their official last name when they need one (royal families rarely use them).


title: Elizabeth II

text: In 1951, the King's health was poor. He could not go to many public events. Princess Elizabeth started to make official visits for him. The King died on 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was crowned Queen on 2 June 1953. The ceremony was held in Westminster Abbey. She wore a dress that was decorated with the national flowers of the countries of the Commonwealth. Many people bought TV sets to watch the event.


title: Elizabeth II

text: In 1952, Her Majesty the Queen and Prince Philip moved into Buckingham Palace in central London. This is the main official home of the monarch.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Her early years as Queen were spent traveling to many places. In 1953, the Queen and Prince Philip began an around the world tour in the Royal Yacht, "Britannia". Their tour went for six months. She was the first reigning monarch to visit Australia, New Zealand and Fiji.


title: Elizabeth II

text: In October 1957, she made an official visit to the United States. She spoke to the United Nations General Assembly. She toured Canada. She became the first monarch to open the nation's Parliament. The Queen liked going to to Canada. She called Canada her "home away from home".


title: Elizabeth II

text: In February 1961, she visited India, Iran, Pakistan and Nepal for the first time. Since then, the Queen made visits to most Commonwealth countries. She had also been to most European countries and many countries outside Europe.


title: Elizabeth II

text: In 1991, she became the first British monarch to speak to a joint session of the United States Congress. She goes to the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings. She is the most widely traveled head of state in history.


title: Elizabeth II

text: When Elizabeth became Queen on 6 February 1952, she was officially Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka). These were the Commonwealth countries. She was also Queen of the Union of South Africa (which became a republic in 1961).


title: Elizabeth II

text: There were many more countries that she also ruled, because they belonged to the British Empire. One by one, many of the countries became independent, and as they gained independence she became Queen of many of them. Altogether, she was sovereign of 32 nations.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Some of the countries are now republics and have a president as "Head of State", while some of them kept the Queen as "Head of State". Queen Elizabeth II was the only monarch of more than one independent nation. The old British Empire became the Commonwealth of Nations.


title: Elizabeth II

text: It includes both monarchies and republics. It is now called "The Commonwealth". The Queen is the Head of the Commonwealth. She worked hard to keep peace and good communication between all the nations that are members.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Ever since she became queen, Elizabeth spent about three hours every day "doing the boxes". The "boxes" are two large red boxes that were brought to her from the Parliament every day. They are full of state papers sent to her from her various departments, embassies, and government offices. One of the most famous photos taken of Elizabeth as a teenager shows her with her father, the King, learning about "the boxes". Because she had been doing this since 1952, she knew a great deal about the government of the UK.


title: Elizabeth II

text: When the Queen WAS in London, she met her Prime Minister once a week, to talk about events. She also had meetings with the First Minister of Scotland and other Ministers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the Prime Ministers and Ministers of other countries, when she was in their country, or when they visited London.


title: Elizabeth II

text: In the late 1990s, there were "referendums" in which the people of Scotland and Wales were asked if they wanted parliaments that were separate from the parliament of the United Kingdom. This was called a "devolution policy". As a result, the new Scottish Parliament and the National Assembly of Wales, were set up. The Queen opened the first sessions of these two bodies.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Some people in Australia wanted a republic, with an elected or appointed president as Head of State instead of the Queen. In 1999, the people of Australia were asked in a referendum whether they wanted a republic. The decision of the people was to remain a monarchy. The Queen visited Australia the following year and said that she would continue to serve Australians as she had done for 48 years.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth II was friends with many world leaders. Her first Prime Minister of Australia, Sir Robert Menzies called her "My Dear" and recited a poem that said "I will love her till I die". She has friendships with Mary Robinson, President of Ireland (1990–1997) and George W. Bush, who was the first American President in more than 80 years to stay at Buckingham Palace. Nelson Mandela, in a BBC documentary, called her "my friend, Elizabeth".


title: Elizabeth II

text: In May 2007, the Queen and Prince Philip made a state visit to the United States, in honour of the 400th anniversary of the Jamestown settlement.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Elizabeth II, as the Monarch of the United Kingdom, is the "Supreme Governor" of the Church of England and sworn protector of the Church of Scotland. She is very interested in the Church of England, but the Archbishop of Canterbury runs the church. She rarely attends the yearly meeting of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.


title: Elizabeth II

text: The Queen regularly goes to church wherever she is: at St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle, St. Mary Magdalene Church at Sandringham House, Crathie Kirk at Balmoral Castle, and Canongate Kirk in Edinburgh, when she stays there in Holyroodhouse, her official home in Scotland.


title: Elizabeth II

text: The Queen often meets with leaders from other religions as well. In 1980, she became the first British Monarch to visit the Vatican, where she was welcomed by Pope John Paul II. She made another visit 20 years later on 17 October 2000. Queen Elizabeth II is Patron of "The Council of Christians and Jews" in the UK.


title: Elizabeth II

text: The Queen has shown a very strong sense of duty, ever since she was a girl. Her father, King George VI, was not meant to be king. Her uncle became king when her grandfather died. But he fell in love with an American woman who was divorced, and that wasn't allowed. So he had to give up being king very shortly after ascending. George VI didn't want to be king, because he was quite nervous and had a stammer. However, Elizabeth's grandfather said that he didn't think her uncle was very good as a king, and wanted George to reign, then Elizabeth. From the moment she realised that one day she would be Queen, she became very interested in her duties and did all she could to help her father. Her promise to serve her people all her life has always been very important to her. Some people think that now that she is old, perhaps she will retire ("abdicate") and let her son Prince Charles take over. People who know her well, including Prince Charles, have said that this will never happen.


title: Elizabeth II

text: The Queen has often shown courage, ever since she joined the military at 18. During a trip to Ghana in 1961, she was warned that it was dangerous to be near the President Kwame Nkrumah because people wanted to kill him. But she refused to stay away. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Harold Macmillan, wrote that the Queen got very impatient with people if they tried to treat her like "a film star".


title: Elizabeth II

text: In 1964, when the Queen was invited to Quebec, there were fears for her safety because there was opposition to her visit. There were suggestions that the tour should be cancelled. But the Queen's secretary said that the Queen would not want to be stopped from going to Quebec because of any danger. During the Trooping the Colour in 1981, she was shot at, but she carried on. The Queen was praised for her courage and for her ability to keep her horse calm. It was later discovered that the shots were blanks. In 1982, a man called Michael Fagan broke into Buckingham Palace in the morning, and found the Queen's bedroom. He woke her up, and sat on her bed, until the guards came to take him away.


title: Elizabeth II

text: Throughout her long reign, Queen Elizabeth II has been supported in her duties by her husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Prince Philip promised to help the Queen on the day of her Coronation. The Queen was also helped by her mother Queen Elizabeth, known as "The Queen Mother", who lived to be 101 years old, and stayed very active in her old-age. The Queen is the patron of many organisations and charities. She has many invitations and official duties. Many of the duties have been shared by other members of the Royal Family, who have also become patrons of many organisations.


title: Elizabeth II

text: The Queen was sad about the broken marriages and divorces of three of her children, Prince Charles, Princess Anne and Prince Andrew. Prince Charles's marriage to Lady Diana Spencer was thought to be a fairytale wedding because Diana was young and beautiful, and they seemed very happy. But soon the marriage became troubled, and after their divorce, she was killed in a car accident in 1997. On 9 April 2005, Prince Charles married Camilla Parker-Bowles, whom he had loved for many years. In 2002, within seven weeks of each other, the Queen's mother and sister, Princess Margaret, both died on 30 March and 9 February respectively.


title: Elizabeth II

text: As the Queen is old, people worry about her health, but she is rarely sick. However, she is leaving more duties to the younger members of the Royal Family, particularly to Prince Charles, who will become King when she dies.


title: Elizabeth II

text: The Queen's wealth is private. It is difficult to estimate how much she is worth. She owns Sandringham House, Balmoral Castle, and other large properties. She does not own Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, or the royal collection of art. These are worth millions of pounds. In 2021, "Forbes" magazine estimated her personal fortune at about US$500 million (£300 million).