title: Isabella of France

text: In 1325 Edward convinced Isabella to go to France. Her brother Charles IV of France was now king. Edward wanted her to negotiate for him over Gascony. This was Isabella's chance for freedom. She even convinced her husband to send their son Edward (III) to join her. Edward soon realized his mistake and demanded she and his son return. Isabella ignored his demands and remained in France. The anger she must have felt over the years of mistreatment in England finally gave her a chance to rebel against her husband. She had their son, the future king of England with her and Edward could do nothing. At this time she was joined by Roger Mortimer an English exile. Another who came to her aid was Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, Edward II's half-brother. A number of Englishmen in France joined her cause. Many were upset with Edward II and the Despensers.


title: Isabella of France

text: But Isabella was short of funds. She and her followers went north to Hainaut to find more support. In turn for their support, she negotiated a marriage for her son Edward to Philippa of Hainaut. She also gave up any claims she had to the French crown. She now had an army from Hainaut with many Englishmen backing her. While living in Hainaut, she and Roger Mortimer had become lovers.


title: Isabella of France

text: In 1326 Isabella and her army landed at Suffolk. Neither Edward or the Despensers could mount an army against her. Edward II was captured and lost his throne. His son Edward III was made king in his place, with his mother as regent.


title: Isabella of France

text: In 1321 when she was denied access to the Leeds Castle, she made her escort try to force their way in through the gate, and after they failed, she made 13 of her escort hang immediately. She had 4 children and at least 3 miscarriages. When she later died she was buried in her wedding dress.


title: Humidex

text: The humidex ("Hyu-mah-deks") is a temperature index used by Canadian meteorologists to describe how hot the weather feels to a person, by adding the effect of heat and humidity. For example, if the temperature is and the calculated humidex is 40, then that means the humid heat feels like a dry temperature of . The index is widely used in Canadian weather reports during summer to give the discomfort level.


title: Humidex

text: According to the Meteorological Service of Canada, a humidex of at least 30 causes "some discomfort", at least 40 causes "great discomfort" and above 45 is "dangerous". When the humidex hits 54, then heat stroke is very near.


title: Humidex

text: The current formula for getting the humidex (see below: Humidex formula) was developed by J.M. Masterton and F.A. Richardson of Canada's Atmospheric Environment Service in 1979. The humidex differs from the heat index used in the United States, in being derived from the dew point rather than the relative humidity.


title: Humidex

text: The record highest humidex in Canada occurred on July 25, 2007, when Carman, Manitoba hit 53.0. That number broke the previous record of 52.1 set during 1953 in Windsor, Ontario (The residents of Windsor would not have known it at the time, since the humidex had yet to be invented).


title: Humidex

text: When the temperature is 30 °C (86 °F) and the dew point is 15 °C (59 °F), the humidex is 34. Note how humidex is a dimensionless number, but it indicates an approximate temperature in °C. If the temperature remains and the dew point rises to , the humidex rises to 42. The humidex tends to be higher than the U.S. heat index at equal temperature and relative humidity.


title: Coat of arms of India

text: The Indian Emblem of India is the symbol of the Republic of India, formally called 'National emblem'. It has four lions. The idea for this coat of arms was taken from the Sarnath Lion Capital that was built by Indian emperor Ashoka. It's a pillar in the city of Sarnath. Ashoka built it around 250 BC using a single piece of polished sandstone. The symbol is invariably used on all types of currency notes, passports and coins of India. In the two dimensional view of this symbol, one can see 3 heads (the fourth being hidden from view). It was adopted on 26 January 1950, the day that India became a republic.


title: Coat of arms of India

text: The wheel beneath the lions is called the Ashoka Chakra or Dharmachakra comes from Buddhism, representing Truth and Honesty. The horse and the bull probably stand for the Strength (Mental) of the people of India. There are four Ashoka Chakras in total around the emblem and two horses and bulls each.


title: Coat of arms of India

text: The verse written below, Satyamev Jayate is a very popular and revered saying in the ancient language Sanskrit. It can be divided phonetically into three words - Satyam, which means truth, Ev or aev, that is, only and Jayate which means wins or won. The whole verse can be translated as, 'Only (the one who speaks) the truth will win or wins.' This verse describes the power of honesty and truth in society and religion. You can lie to your friends, family, but you cannot lie to God and yourself. Your conscience will forever be stained.


title: Coat of arms of India

text: The verse can also be translated as 'The truth alone triumphs'. Meaning that even after all the lies and deceptions with which we have been fooled, the truth will finally emerge victorious.


title: Color of the day (police)

text: The color of the day is a signal used by undercover officers of some big city police departments in the USA. It is used to help stop uniformed police officers shooting undercover police officers who they do not know are police officers. It is mostly known to be used by the New York City Police Department (NYPD), the NYPD Transit Bureau (which was called the "New York City Transit Police") and the NYPD Housing Bureau (which was called the "New York City Housing Authority Police Department") and other law enforcement agencies when they are at work in New York City. An undercover police officer will wear a headband, wristband or other piece of clothing in the same color as the "color of the day"; this color is told to officers at the precinct before they start work. The system is for officer safety and first started during the violence of 1970s and 1980s New York City. The color of the day system is not known by most of the public but it is written about a lot by newspapers, and by writers and can sometimes be seen on episodes of television shows such as NYPD Blue and recently .


title: Color of the day (police)

text: New York City is a very large metropolitan city with a population of over 8,310,000 people with over 18,800,000 people living in the area around it. An extra 500,000 people enter the city during a weekday. It has many police and law enforcement officers such as; the NYPD, the (MTA) Police (that used to be called the Metro North Commuter Railroad Police), the Port Authority Police, the FBI, the Department of Homeland Security, the Drug Enforcement Administration, and U.S. Customs and others. The color of the day system is about officer safety. With so many armed officers in the city, undercover police officers need to have an easy to use system in place so that other armed officers know that they are there and do not shoot them when they use their guns. The system is also used so that a uniformed officer will not disturb a person who is really an undercover police officer who is acting as a homeless person so that criminals will rob him.


title: Color of the day (police)

text: The NYPD Street Crimes Unit started in 1971. During the late 1970s, the 1980s and early 1990s, New York City had a lot more crime than it does today. Undercover officers were asked to go into the subways in plain-clothes or dressed as a homeless person to hide the fact that they were police. Many of these officers were black and had a fear that as they looked like civilian homeless people that uniformed officers would think that they were criminals if they used their guns. Many of these officers would dress and pretend to be drunk homeless people or as victims in order to catch muggers who were attacking them due to being unable to help themselves. The color of the day system was made to make these officers fear this less and was used by all undercover police officers. At the beginning headbands were given out to each street crime unit member, that were in the color of the day: beginning the use of the color of the day system. Later this included wristbands and today's officers often dress in the color: i.e.: T-shirts, shoes, and hats.


title: Color of the day (police)

text: The color of the day recognition system is written about by authors and people who study the police in schools but it is not often known about by most people in New York. Books that talk about it are Roger Abell's "The Black Shields" (a discussion of African American policing in New York), Greg Faliis' "Just the Facts Ma'am", and Leslie Glass' novel, "A Killing Gift".


title: Flower pot

text: A flower pot is a container in which flowers and other plants are grown. They are traditionally made from terracotta, but are now often also made from plastic, wood or stone. The flower pot is filled with soil and have a plant planted in them. Often there are holes in the bottom, to allow water to flow out, sometimes into a saucer that is placed under the flowerpot. If the plant becomes too big for the pot, it is moved to a bigger one.


title: Baseball uniform

text: A baseball uniform is clothing that baseball players wear during games. Like other uniforms, it identifies the group in which they are members, in this case their baseball team. Most baseball uniforms have the last names and uniform numbers of players who wear them. The names and numbers are usually on the back to identify each player. Baseball shirts, pants, shoes, socks, caps, and helmets are parts of the uniform. Players also wear gloves, but they are not part of the uniform, because players can choose their own gloves. Most uniforms have different logos and colors to show which team it is.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Baseball uniforms were first worn by the New York Knickerbockers Baseball Club in the 1840s. Their uniforms were pants made of blue wool, white flannel shirts and straw hats. Since then, the uniforms have gone through many changes. More items, ideas, and many other improvements were done and added to these uniforms over the years. Their style also changed, little by little over time.


title: Baseball uniform

text: On April 4, 1849, the New York Knickerbockers became the first team to use uniforms. In 1882, different colors that showed the different fielding positions of each player were added on uniforms and stockings (garment covering the foot and lower part of the leg). In 1888 and 1889, the Detroit Wolverines and Washington Nationals of the National League and the Brooklyn Bridegrooms of the American Association added stripes to their uniforms. By 1900, all players in Major League Baseball teams were using uniforms.


title: Baseball uniform

text: By the end of the 19th century, baseball teams started wearing two different uniforms. They wore one uniform when they played in their own baseball stadium (called ""home games"", "playing "at home"") and another when they played at another team's baseball stadium (""away" or "road games"", "playing "on the road""). It became normal to wear white at home and either gray, solid dark blue, or black colors on the road. In 1907, the Brooklyn Superbas used a blue pattern for their road uniforms. The New York Giants later used a pattern almost the same as to what the Brooklyn Superbas used on their road uniforms.


title: Baseball uniform

text: In 1916, on the Giants' uniforms, many purple lines gave them a tartan-like color. At this time, another kind of road uniform was a solid dark blue or black material with white. In 1963, Charles O. Finley changed his Kansas City Athletics home and road uniforms. They were changed to the colors of gold and green. In the 1970s, some teams used light blue for their road uniforms.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Pinstriping (long vertical stripes along uniforms) were created in the 19th century. They were first worn on some major league baseball team's uniforms in 1907. The pinstripes were soon widened in 1912, so that people could see them more easily.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Pinstriping was used again when the Brooklyn Bridegrooms started to wear them in 1907, 1916 and 1917. During that time when the striped uniforms were made again, other things for the baseball uniform were added, such as satin. The team that often wore pinstripes was the New York Yankees. They were first used in 1912. But the Yankees' pinstripes (on their home uniforms) have become a symbol of the Yankees. Because of that, books about the Yankees started to be made with pinstriped covers.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Numbers were first added to uniforms by the Cleveland Indians in 1916. In 1929, numbers were first added on the backs of baseball uniforms by the New York Yankees and the Cleveland Indians baseball teams. By the 1930s, it was normal for baseball uniforms to have numbers on them. The Yankees were one of the first baseball teams to wear uniform numbers. This was because of their normal position in the New York Yankee's batting order (Babe Ruth 3, Lou Gehrig 4, etc.).


title: Baseball uniform

text: By 1932, all major league baseball teams had numbers on their player's baseball uniforms. The numbers were on the backs of the shirts, with the team name or logo on the front. But in 1952, the Brooklyn Dodgers were the first team to put numbers on the fronts of baseball uniforms. As players began to have their own numbers on their uniforms, "retiring" a number of special baseball players started to happen. While testing new ideas to add to baseball uniforms, new designs and ideas were created. For example, the Houston Astros of the 1970s and 1980s, added numbers on the fronts of pockets on pants as well as on the back of their shirts.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Shoulder patches on baseball uniforms were worn usually in honor of something. The first patches to be used on major league uniforms were worn by the Chicago White Sox in 1907. The first patch to be worn on all 16 major league uniform sleeves in one year was in 1939. The second time patches were used in all the professional baseball teams, also with the minor leagues, was done in honor of the grand opening of baseball's Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York. The third patch to be worn by all teams, was the rectangular Major League Baseball centennial patch in 1969 in honor of 100 years of professional baseball. Many of the ballpark anniversaries have also inspired special patches to those who have recently died have been using patches rather than the traditional black arm bands (an item a person wears) of earlier decades.


title: Baseball uniform

text: From the 1840s to the 1870s, baseball players wore many kinds of hats, such as straw hats. Caps, or other kinds of headgear with eye shades that protect a player's eyes from the sun, have been a part of baseball uniforms since they were first created. In 1860, the Brooklyn Excelsiors were the first team to wear what would later become the baseball cap. Before that, teams often wore full-brimmed straw hats or no cap at all since there was no official rule in baseball about whether players had to wear caps or not. By the early 1900s, rounded top parts of a hat became the normal fashion. Other teams would sometimes use the flat-topped cap, such as the Giants in 1916, and the Pittsburgh Pirates in their 1979 World Series championship. Baseball caps have changed very little in recent decades. Over time, a bigger sun visor (the front of caps) has been made. The reason of the cap stays the same: to protect the player's eyes from the sun.


title: Baseball uniform

text: In the late 19th century, baseball players started to wear the soft but long-lasting leather shoes. Soon, removable spikes were designed and were used many times until 1976, when they were banned from baseball games. Soon after, white shoes, as well as solid reds and blues, became popular. As artificial turf was used more in baseball fields, changes to shoes were needed.


title: Baseball uniform

text: In the 19th and 20th centuries, baseball shoes were mostly colored black. The Kansas City Athletics designed new white shoes in the 1960s.


title: Baseball uniform

text: The stocking colors of teams were a way of telling one team from another. Stockings in 1900 were made of <nowiki>wool</nowiki> that were high in weight and were made of one-piece at full-length (above the knee). The foot covering part below the ankle bone was colored white or natural wool. It often created the illusion of stirrups. In 1868, the Cincinnati Red Stockings started to play in short trousers so their stockings could be seen. This led to the team's nickname. Teams started to be called the Chicago White Stockings or the St. Louis Brown Stockings because of what colored stockings they wore at the time. Some teams wore "candy cane" stockings instead of stripes during the 1920s; these included the Giants, St. Louis Cardinals and Washington Senators.


title: Baseball uniform

text: From the beginning, graphic designs were used to tell different teams apart. An Old English letter was worn on the fronts of baseball uniforms on the chest. This style is still being used today by the Detroit Tigers and their Gothic style "D" on their home uniforms. Road jerseys were able to tell the city the team it is from, as with the Tigers wearing the word "Detroit" on their road uniform shirts meaning the team's home city is Detroit, Michigan. Some early examples are a small red tiger on the black cap of the uniforms of the Detroit Tigers in 1901, as they were officially the Tigers from the beginning; and a bear cub logo on the Chicago Cubs' uniforms by 1907, as that unofficial nickname later become the official name of the baseball club. In another famous example, the Boston Americans (an unofficial name that made it easier to tell different teams apart) used the Nationals' red stockings in 1908 since the Nationals did not use them anymore. They have been called the Boston Red Sox ever since.


title: Baseball uniform

text: A baseball glove is a leather glove that baseball players wear. They are used to catch a baseball that are hit by a batter or thrown by an outfielder. When baseball gloves were first made, they were not used very much. Many baseball players who first wore baseball gloves or a type of them were often teased and taunted when they were used.


title: Baseball uniform

text: The first baseball glove to be worn was by catcher Doug Allison in 1870. Allison's hands were split and cracked open from catching in other games earlier in the week. He decided to wear something that would protect his hands so that they would not be damaged more. He got laughed and mocked at by his teammates because of his glove. In 1875, five years later, first baseman Charlie Waitt wore a glove for protection. His teammates also laughed at him. When baseball star Albert Spalding started to use baseball gloves for protection, more baseball players started to do what he did also because of his fame. Soon, all baseball players started to wear baseball gloves.


title: Baseball uniform

text: In 1920, Bill Doak, a pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals, asked that a web be placed between the first finger and the thumb of the glove for more protection. This was because more baseball players started to have more cuts and bruises because baseballs were thrown harder. This design was soon added to baseball gloves, and webbed gloves were starting to be used by all baseball players. In the 1940s, gloves would lace the fingers together for more control using the glove. The most recent idea added to baseball gloves was making the pocket of the glove deeper and finally making small baskets in the glove so that pitchers can hide their pitching grip.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Baseball helmets are hard hats that baseball batters wear to protect their heads from a baseball being hit or thrown at them. Roger Bresnahan made the first batting helmet after getting hit in the head one game. Then, more players started wearing helmets. Finally, players had to wear them from the 1970s. Usually, the design is like the regular home cap. The same helmets are used on the road even if the soft road cap is different.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Baseball uniforms have changed over time. However, many parts of baseball uniforms from many years ago are still being used today. For example, very few major league baseball players wear matching colored shoes and shoes that are completely black, although they did in the 19th and 20th centuries. Baseball numbers on backs and fronts of uniforms are still on backs and fronts of baseball uniforms today, and have been since 1932.


title: Baseball uniform

text: Often, a team will have a home uniform, an away uniform, a "Sunday game" uniform, uniforms that are worn only during batting practice, and uniforms worn only on special events. Also recently, throwback uniforms have become more popular. Current Major League Baseball uniforms have to follow rules, such as no advertisements on uniforms and that all players must wear their number on the back of the uniform.


title: Volcanic crater

text: It is usually a circular basin. When active, there is a vent or vents inside it. From these magma erupts as gases, lava, and . A crater can be huge, and sometimes deep.


title: Volcanic crater

text: During certain types of gigantic eruptions, the volcano's magma chamber may empty enough for an area above it to subside. This dropped surface crater is called a caldera.


title: British people

text: Britons, British people, or the British are people from Britain – either from the United Kingdom or the island of Great Britain. In history, the people of the British Empire, and later the British Commonwealth, were also named British or Britons.


title: British people

text: The first people to be named Britons were the people of ancient Britain, the ancient Britons. The ancient Romans named the people of Britain in . People from Roman Britain called themselves in . Bede used the spelling in , the spelling of which was possibly learned from the Old English word of the same meaning.


title: British people

text: Originally, the word Briton in the English language meant a person from one of the Brythonic languages-speaking peoples in Great Britain and northern France: mostly the people of Strathclyde, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. This meaning of the word was used in Middle English from the 13th century and after. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Briton could also be a name for Welsh people.


title: British people

text: The use of Britons to mean all the people of Britain was not common in the English language before the early 18th century. It became more usual after the Acts of Union 1707 joined together the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The word Briton was frequently used in the 18th and 19th centuries with the suggestion of "qualities of bravery and fortitude". The rare word "Britoness" was sometimes used in the past for women from Britain. Writers like Edmund Spenser, Thomas Babington Macaulay, and Alfred, Lord Tennyson used it for strong women like the ancient British queen Boudica (who fought the Romans) and the English queen, Elizabeth I (whose Royal Navy defeated the Spanish Armada).


title: British people

text: To become a British citizen, there are many different thing that must be considered. Unlike some countries, a person is not a citizen of Britan just because they were born there. When they were born and the citizenship status of thieir parents can affect if the can be a citizen. Other things that may affect being a citizen of England include being married to a British citizen, having indefinite leave to remain (ILR) and then living in the UK for 12 months or if the person had "settled status".


title: British people

text: Other things that may let a person apply for citizenship include having a British parent, being a citizen of another British country, not being a citizen of any country or having been a citizen in the past but giving up that citizenship. A person may also be able to apply if their parents came to the UK before 1973 and that person was also born in the UK or moved to it before they were 18. They must also have not moved away from the UK for more than two years.


title: Franco-Prussian War

text: The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) was a war between France and Prussia, which was helped by German allies of Prussia. The war was provoked by Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck, who wanted to unite Germans under Prussian rule by making them fight together against a common enemy. Bismarck irritated French Emperor Napoleon III into declaring war on 19 July 1870. The war ended by a Prussian victory on 10 May 1871.


title: Franco-Prussian War

text: The French feared a Protestant country on their border. France had helped Prussia beat Austria during the Austro-Prussian War (1866), but it would not allow the North German Confederation and South German states to unify. In 1869, the throne of Spain was offered to a prince of the Catholic branch of the Prussian Hohenzollern royal family.


title: Franco-Prussian War

text: France found out about the offer, and demanded for Prussia to reject it since France did not want to be surrounded by Hohenzollerns. The prince refused, but the French wanted Prussia to do the same. Prussian King Wilhelm I sent a telegram from Ems that assuring French Emperor Napoleon III that the prince would not become king of Spain. Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck publicly released a version that he had edited or doctored to make it seem that his king had insulted the emperor's ambassador. That was part of his plan to unify the German states. Both sides exchanged angry words, and France declared war. On July 19 1870 the war started, and Prussia was fully supported by the South German states.


title: Franco-Prussian War

text: With its German allies and universal conscription, Prussia brought together a bigger army than the French. The Prussian Army also had better weapons, training and leadership. For example, the Prussian General Staff were very well organised. The army had some old-fashioned equipment like the Dreyse needle gun, but its Krupp mobile artillery (heavy-duty guns) were far better than the old French muzzleloaders. Notable victories occurred at Sedan, Mars-la-Tour, Gravelotte and Metz. The Germans captured Napoleon in Metz, but French Republicans overthrew the Second French Empire and continued the war for a few months. The Germans conquered Paris and then made peace.


title: Franco-Prussian War

text: After the war, France had to give Prussia some regions that had been under French control. They were most of Alsace and some of Lorraine, most of which spoke German dialects. Prussia took steps to unite the independent German states into one country, the German Empire. The historical term for that is the Unification of Germany.


title: Ice sledge hockey

text: Sledge hockey (known as sled hockey in the United States) is a sport that is designed to allow players who have a physical disability to play sport.


title: Ice sledge hockey

text: On the other side it has six to eight metal teeth for maneuvering and propulsion. Movement is done by using the metal teeth. The metal teeth cannot be longer than 1 centimeter beyond the stick, to help stop damage to the ice or injure of other players.


title: Ice sledge hockey

text: People who live in Kolín see ice sledge hockey as a normal sport. Kolín's team are on the top of table. Kolín's ice hockey players won last season. Many of Kolín's players play in Czech republic's representation.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: An internal combustion engine is an engine in which combustion, or the burning of fuel, occurs on the inside. This differs from external combustion engines where the fire is outside the engine, such as a steam engine.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: There are many kinds of internal combustion engine but the term often means the machine that Niklaus Otto invented. In this kind, fire makes pressure increase inside a sealed box (cylinder). The pressure pushes a rod which is attached to a wheel. The rod pushes the wheel and makes it spin around. The spinning wheel is attached to other wheels, such as four car wheels, with a belt or a chain. The engine is very strong and can make all the wheels move.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: There can be many configurations of internal combustion engines such as the single piston engine, the inline engine, the flat engine, the V engine, the VR engine, the W engine, the X engine, the U engine, the H engine, the horizontal K engine, the opposed piston engine, the delta engine, the Wankel or rotary engine and the radial engine which is commonly used in planes.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: The most common layouts among these engines are the V layout, and the inline layout. In the V engine, the pistons are aligned in a V shape if you look at them from the front. There can be V twin engines, with 2 pistons, V3 engines, V4 engines, V6 engines, V8 engines, V10 engine, V12 engines, V14 engines, V16 engines, V18 engine, V20 engine and V24 engines. The VR layout is the same as a V layout except the angle between the V shape is smaller making the overall drive smoother. In inline engines, the pistons are aligned in a straight line. There can be inline 1 engines, also called a singular piston engine, all the way up to a straight 14 which was mainly used in older models of cars. Flat engines are the same as inline engines but are aligned horizontally.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: W, X, U, H, Horizontal K, Delta and opposed piston engines all have different configurations. In the W engine, the pistons are aligned in a W shape if looked at from the front. The Bugatti Chiron, one of the fastest cars in the world, features a W engine. The pistons in a X are aligned to look like an X from the front. In the U engine, there a 2 inline engine with separate crankshafts and a shared output shaft. When looked at from the front of the engine block, it resembles a U shape. H engines are U engines except there are 2 more inline engines attached to the bottom of the existing inline engines from the U engine. The H and the U layout can be configured vertically or horizontally. In delta engines, the pistons are aligned in a triangle shape. However, there are 2 pistons per cylinder/combustion chamber, and therefore the minimum amount of pistons in a delta engine is 6. Horizontal K engines persist of 2 flat pistons facing opposite each other at the bottom and a V engine above them, making them look like a horizontal K. The Opposed piston engines also have 2 pistons per cylinder. They can be aligned Vertically or Horizontally. When there are only 2 pistons in the engine, they can also be called boxer engine.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: Radial engines are commonly used in planes but can be rarely used in cars. An example of this is the Porsche 356 and the 1939 Plymouth Pickup. The pistons in are radial engine are aligned in a star shape. When having multiple sets of pistons, the engines can be stacked beside each other.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: Rotary/Wankel engines work the same as a piston engine except it doesn't have a piston but instead has a rotor that also cycles through the 4 main stages of engines (intake, compression, combustion and exhaust).


title: Internal combustion engine

text: As well as there are many engine layouts, there are many different parts to an engine. Some of these include pistons, camshafts, crankshafts, timing belts, valves and more. All parts of an engine need to be fully functional for it to work and all parts have a separate role. An engine works by first sending power from the car battery to the ignition coil which then causes an engine spark. The spark then ignites combustion in the cylinders and the combustion starts the engine.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: There can be petrol or diesel engines in a car. In petrol or gasoline engines, it is required to have an ignition system to burn the fuel and air mixture. However, in diesel engines, the an ignition system is not required to burn the fuel but instead, they use a different type of fuel called diesel, similar to heating oil, and the fuel is burnt through extreme compression.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: The car is started using a powerful electric motor, called a starter motor. The car is started using a key which is connected to the starter solenoid (a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or movement) and when the key is turned into the start position, the ignition switch verifies the key belongs to the car normally using an immobilizer system and then connects a circuit, sending power to the starter relay. It then sends 2 jolts of electricity into the solenoid, the larger burst being directly from the battery pack in the car and the other being from the ignition. The magnetic field created from the solenoid connects two metal (metal being a conductor to electricity) contact points, one being the solenoid plunger, together which then relays the electricity into the starter motor. The plunger also engages a fork which pushes the pinion gear (connected to the starter motor) to engage the flywheel automatically, starting the engine.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: For extra power, more air is needed to increase the energy evolved per unit of fuel. This is where forced induction must take place. There are some ways of creating forced induction such as turbochargers and superchargers. Turbochargers rely on the volume and velocity of the exhaust to spin the turbine wheel in the middle of the turbocharger. Turbochargers should consume less power from the engine than superchargers and therefore suffer bad throttle response. This delay can also be referred to as turbo lag. Smaller turbochargers spool quickly and deliver more boost pressure at lower engine speeds but suffers at higher RPMs. On the contrary, bigger turbochargers can deliver more power at higher revs but suffers low throttle response. There can be many turbochargers in a car, but the most common amount being 1 and 2. Superchargers on the other hand, have close to no lag time as the compressor is constantly spinning proportionally to the engine speed. However, they require torque from the engine to operate. Some common types of superchargers are the Roots-type supercharger, a Screw-type supercharger, and a Centrifugal-type supercharger. In a Roots-type supercharger there are paddles on two drums that are continuously rotating, that forces air into the intake. The Roots-type supercharger is a positive displacement device and therefore has the advantage of producing the same pressure ratio at any engine speed. A Screw-type supercharger, like the Roots-type supercharger, is a positive displacement device. They consist of 2 screws that compresses the air and are more efficient than roots type as they create a cooler air output than a roots supercharger but are more difficult to manufacture. A centrifugal-type supercharger, is not a positive displacement device. Although it looks like a turbocharger, they are very different as the power source of the centrifugal supercharger is horsepower from the engines crankshaft whereas a turbocharger uses the exhaust gas to spin the compressor.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: When using forced induction, the air temperature rises dramatically. To cool the air at higher temperatures, an intercooler is needed. An intercooler cools the air before it enters the cylinder (combustion chamber) using air or water. When hot air enters the combustion chamber, it decreases the fuel efficiency as warm air holds less oxygen than cool air. An air to air intercooler uses the cool air from outside to cool the existing hot air as it enters the intercooler. The more surface area the intercooler has the cooler the air can get. There are 2 types of air to air intercooler, the bar and plate intercooler and the tube and fin intercooler. Bar and plate intercoolers can cool the air to lower temperature but a tube and fin intercooler can cost less and also weight less. In air to water intercoolers, instead of using air from outside, it uses a cool liquid to cool the air as it passes though and then uses a radiator to cool the cooling liquid. Air to water intercooler are more complex, heavier and more expensive than air to water intercoolers but can be more efficient than them.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: The car battery is used to power important electrical components such as components used to start the car and stabilize the voltage that keeps the engine running by converting chemical energy into electrical energy.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: All the electrical accessories in a car are controlled and powered by an alternator which converts some of the engines mechanical energy into electrical energy. The alternator also charges the internal battery of the car. However the alternator is powered by the timing belt which only moves once the car is started and therefore it cannot be used to start the car and that is why a battery is needed. The alternator works with a timing belt that rests on a pulley attached to the alternator that moves once the car is started. When the timing belt spins the pulley, it turns a rotator shaft attached to the pulley which spins magnets around a coil. The spinning magnets are responsible for creating a current known as alternating current (AC) around the coil and is then directed to the alternators rectifier which changes the AC into another current called direct current (DC). The DC current is used to power the car and its electrical systems.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: The cars internal computer, also know as the Electric Control Unit (ECU) decides many things some of which include the fuel injection, exhaust system requirements and throttle response and for petrol engines it also can control the spark plug timing to ignite the mixture of air and fuel in the cylinder. It is primarily powered by the alternator but before the car is started, it must be powered by the battery as it decides the fuel injection and spark timing which are one of the key factors in getting a car started. The internal battery of the car also works as a surge protector (protecting the ECU from from AC voltage spikes that typically last from 1 to 30 microseconds and can reach over 1,000 volts) for the ECU.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: Cars can also have gears. The gears all controlled by the transmission. They can either be manual, automatic or Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT). Gear ratios


title: Internal combustion engine

text: Exhaust in a car is the fumes that come out of the pipe or pipes (normally in back of the car but can be on the sides)


title: Internal combustion engine

text: Engines need oil to make them slippery or the moving parts would grind together and stick. Parts of a car engine are measured to 0.01 of a millimetre and some engine parts fit together very tightly.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: Most road vehicles use the internal combustion engine today, and most of those use the four-stroke engine.


title: Internal combustion engine

text: Gas turbines are internal combustion engines that work continuously, not by strokes. Rocket engines and guns are internal combustion engines but they do not turn wheels.


title: Lock (water transport)

text: A lock is a part of a navigable waterway system that makes a water "channel" deep enough for vessels to use. The lock controls pool depths, for example in a lock and dam system across a waterway.


title: Lock (water transport)

text: The lock is a place where boats that travel up or down a river or canal can be moved to the next higher or lower level. Locks are built in places where the level of the water in the river or canal suddenly changes. This may be because of a waterfall there, or because a dam or a weir has been built, or because some other thing is in the way. The lock is like a big chamber with gates at each end. They have lock gears which empty or fill the chamber with water. Locks help a river to be more easily navigable (easier for boats to travel up and down), or for canals to be built across country that is not level.


title: Lock (water transport)

text: If a boat that is travelling downstream (in the same direction that the water is flowing) arrives at a lock, this is what happens:


title: Lock (water transport)

text: If a boat that is travelling upstream (in the opposite direction to the water flow), the opposite happens:


title: Lock (water transport)

text: The whole process of going through a lock may take about 15 to 20 minutes, depending on whether the boat has to wait. Some locks can take several boats at once, and the first one to enter may have to wait until other boats arrive.


title: Aurora (mythology)

text: Aurora was the ancient Roman equivalent of Eos. Eos was the ancient Greek goddess of the dawn. "Aurora" is the Latin word for dawn.


title: Aurora (mythology)

text: Aurora renews herself every morning at dawn and flies across the sky. She announces the morning's arrival. She has a brother and a sister. Her brother is the sun, and her sister is the moon. She also has many husbands and four sons, one for each cardinal direction: North, East, South, and West.


title: Aurora (mythology)

text: One of her lovers was Tithonus. Aurora asked Zeus to grant immortality to Tithonus. However, she failed to ask him for eternal youth. As a result, Tithonus ended up aging eternally.


title: Rattlesnake

text: The rattlesnake is a kind of snake, a reptile. About 50 species of rattlesnakes are known: they are a kind of pit viper.


title: Rattlesnake

text: There are two groups of rattlesnakes: the genera "Crotalus" and "Sistrurus". All have a venomous bite, and some are much more dangerous than others. Pit vipers have a set of heat-sensing "pits" on their heads which help them find prey and move towards it, even in the dark.


title: Rattlesnake

text: The name "rattlesnake" is used because they have a special tail with several parts on the end that can make a loud "bzzzz" sound, or rattle. This defends them against predators and large animals. It acts as a warning signal.


title: Rattlesnake

text: Rattlesnakes are native to the Americas from southwest Canada to central Argentina. They usually live in dry areas. They eat small animals such as birds and rodents.


title: Rattlesnake

text: When they are young, many are eaten by birds. When they are adult, they have a particular enemy: the common kingsnake, "Lampropeltis getula", a colubrid snake.


title: M-theory

text: M-theory is a new idea in small-particle physics that is part of superstring theory that was initially proposed by Edward Witten. The idea, or theory, often causes arguments among scientists, because there is no way to test it to see if it is true. If ever proven true, M-theory and string theory would mean big progress for science.


title: M-theory

text: To understand M-theory one must first have some knowledge of string theory. For hundreds of years, scientists have thought that the simplest objects in the universe are points, like dots. String theory says that this is wrong and that the simplest objects in the universe are shaped like pieces of string. These strings are so small that even when looked at very closely they look like points. Each basic particle is created by the strings vibrating in different patterns. The reason scientists had not thought of this idea for so long is that strings are much harder to work with than points. They seem to break such rules as causality and special relativity, which says that information cannot travel faster than the speed of light.


title: M-theory

text: String theory has been developed because of a very important problem that has existed for almost 100 years. Albert Einstein's theory that describes the universe on very large scales (it is called general relativity), and it disagrees with two theories that describe things on very small scales (they are called quantum mechanics and the standard model). There are also problems with the Standard Model: it includes about 20 numbers that seem to have no explanation; it has too many "basic particles" - some scientists think it needs to have fewer; and it does not include gravity, which is needed to explain weight.


title: M-theory

text: Many of these problems can be solved by thinking of basic particles as strings. Now there is only one number with no explanation, which gives the size of the strings. String theory includes particles that cause gravity, called gravitons; finding this out delighted the scientists who work on string theory. So, string theory successfully brings General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics together.


title: M-theory

text: But there are some problems with string theory. Normally, we think of the universe as having 4 dimensions, or "basic directions". 3 of these basic directions can be thought of as "up/down", "forward/backward" and "left/right". The other direction is time. String theory needs 10 basic directions.


title: M-theory

text: These six other directions can be explained if they are "curled up", so they are much too small to see. For example, by following the path of a spiral, it is possible to go a great distance along it without moving very far. The 6 other directions can be thought of as tiny spirals - strings can move along them a great distance but not seem to move. This can be looked at as a mathematical trick—a trick that has little to do with the real world that can be seen and touched. Such tricks are allowed if they give a theory that can better tell us how things work.


title: M-theory

text: Another problem with string theory is that there are 5 different versions of it. Each version allows different kinds of strings and says they work in different ways. String theory is supposed to be a "theory of everything" so there should be only one version, not 5. M-theory solves this problem.


title: M-theory

text: In 1995 Edward Witten started what has been called the "Second Superstring Revolution" by introducing M-theory to the world. This theory combines the 5 different string theories (along with a previously abandoned attempt to unify General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics called 11D-Supergravity) into one theory. What Witten actually did was to predict that the fact that all these different theories were connected was a result of there being some underlying theory of which they were all approximations. This theory is somewhat vague in nature and has not yet been pinned down.


title: M-theory

text: Additionally, it was found that the equations that required string theory to exist in 10 dimensions were actually approximations as well. The proposed M-theory would need one extra dimension and instead be a theory that takes place in "11 dimensions". Witten has himself compared this idea in simple terms to a general who takes up a position on a hilltop, the extra space-coordinate, to get a better view of the battlefield's two other dimensions.


title: M-theory

text: The combination is accomplished by knitting together a web of relationships between each of the string theories called dualities (specifically, S-duality, T-duality, and U-duality). Each of these dualities provides a way of converting one of the string theories into another. T-duality is probably the most easily explained of the dualities. It has to do with the size, written as R, of the curled up dimensions of the string theories. It was discovered that by taking a Type IIA string theory that has a size R and changing the radius to 1/R the result will end up being what is equivalent to a Type IIB theory of size R. This duality, along with the others, creates connections between all 5 (or 6, if supergravity is counted) theories. The fact that these dualities existed had been known before Witten came up with the idea of M-theory.


title: M-theory

text: Additional amusement has come for many in guessing what the M might stand for (possibilities include Matrix, Magic, Muffin, Mystery, Mother and Membrane). Regardless of what the M might possibly mean, M-theory has become one of the most interesting and active areas of research in theoretical physics today.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) (full name George Brown, et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas) was a Landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In 1950 in Topeka, Kansas, a black third-grade girl named Linda Brown had to run more than a mile through a railroad switchyard to get to her segregated school for black children. However, there was an elementary school for white children less than seven blocks away. At that time, many schools in the United States were segregated. Black children and white children were not allowed to go to the same schools.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Her father, Oliver Brown, tried to get Linda into the white school, but the principal of the school refused. Twelve more black parents joined Oliver Brown in trying to get their children into the white elementary school. The two schools were supposed to be "separate but equal." However, they were not.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: In 1951, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) helped the parents file a class action lawsuit. There were five lawsuits in Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, Delaware, and the District of Columbia about having black students going to legally segregated schools. In 1896, the Supreme Court had ruled in "Plessy v. Ferguson" that segregation was legal, as long as separate places for blacks and whites were "separate but equal." The NAACP's lawyers argued that the white and black schools in Topeka were not "separate but equal."


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Kenneth Clark is a psychologist that gave young African-American children black and white dolls to see how they felt about segregation and integration. The children liked the white dolls. After the doll test, Clark also gave the black children drawings of a kid and asked them to color it like themselves. Some of the children colored themselves with a white or yellow crayon, which was also used in the case.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The case eventually went all the way to the Supreme Court. After years of work, in 1954, Thurgood Marshall and a team of other NAACP lawyers won the case. It was named "Brown" because she was alphabetically the first name on the list of plaintiffs. After the lawsuit many of the plaintiffs lost their jobs and respect in society.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The Supreme Court has nine justices. The vote on Brown "v. Board of Education" was unanimous, meaning that all nine justices voted the same way. One of the judges, Robert Jackson, had recently had a heart attack and was not supposed to come back to court until the next month. However, he came to the court when the judges read their decision, possibly to show that every one of the judges agreed.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: The ruling in the case was written by Earl Warren, who was Chief Justice. He said "“separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."" This decision made the racial segregation of schools against the law in every US state.


title: Brown v. Board of Education

text: Some states did not obey this court decision at first. The supreme Court ruled the schools had up to 5 years to desegregate. It was not until the early 1970s that all United States public schools were integrated (the opposite of segregated). Integrating America's schools required many state and Supreme Court decisions to force schools to integrate.


title: Gunpowder

text: Gunpowder (or gun powder) is a mix of chemical substances (75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal and 10% sulfur). It is used primarily in firearms, burns very quickly, and creates gases. Those gases use up more space than the gunpowder they come from, so they push outward. If the gunpowder is in a small space, the gases will push on the walls of the space, building up pressure. In a gun, the pressure pushes against a bullet, causing it to fly out at high speeds. If the pressure became too high, it could destroy the gun barrel.


title: Gunpowder

text: Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese. The first references of black powder, the original form of gunpowder, date to the 9th century. According to legend, Chinese alchemists were looking for a formula to create the elixir of life, or the mythical potion that causes whoever drinks it to become immortal, when they accidentally created gunpowder. Because the powder was highly flammable, or burned very easily, they decided to call it "fire medicine" (Simplified Chinese: 火药 / Traditional Chinese: 火藥). The Chinese soon weaponized the substance, or made weapons out of it. In later centuries they made many weapons using gunpowder, including rockets, bombs, flamethrowers, and land mines, before making cannons and guns. The oldest weapon that uses gunpowder dates back to a bronze handheld cannon made in northeastern China in 1288. The first mention in Europe was in the 13th century when Roger Bacon described the formula of black powder. Gunpowder was extremely valuable to the Chinese civilization, in fact so valuable that sometimes it was traded for gold.


title: Free market

text: A free market is a system in which the prices for goods and services are determined by the open market and consumers, in which the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government, price-setting monopoly, or other authority. It is a result of a need being, then the need being met. A free market contrasts with a regulated market, in which government intervenes in supply and demand through non-market methods such as laws creating barriers to market entry or price fixing. In a free-market economy, prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy, and it typically entails support for highly competitive markets and private ownership of productive enterprises.


title: Free market

text: Although free markets are commonly associated with capitalism within a market economy in contemporary usage and popular culture, free markets have also been advocated by free-market anarchists, market socialists, and some proponents of cooperatives and advocates of profit sharing.[1]


title: Mulatto

text: Mulatto is a word referring to a person who is born to one black parent and one white parent. The term may be considered offensive or rude to some, because of its origin. The term is also used to refer to a light brown color, because of a mulatto's skin color. Many people prefer terms such as "biracial" and "of mixed race" over "mulatto".


title: Mulatto

text: In some cultures, such as in Cuba, there are a number of terms describing skin colour, and "none of them is taken as evaluative". There are simply descriptive terms. And in the Spanish language the term mulata would be used for females of mixed race.


title: Mulatto

text: There are other descriptive terms which are used in the Caribbean and Latin America, without their being regarded as racial in the pejorative sense.


title: Tenerife airport disaster

text: The Tenerife airport disaster happened on March 27, 1977, when two Boeing 747s collided on the ground of Los Rodeos Airport (now Tenerife North Airport). This crash killed 583 people on board the two flights.


title: Tenerife airport disaster

text: The crash was caused by many reasons. One reason is that as the KLM captain wanted to takeoff quickly so that he could return to Amsterdam. This made him misunderstand that he was cleared by Air Traffic Controller to takeoff and so he began to take off, eventually crashing into the Pan Am flight. At that time, the Tenerife North Airport did not have ground radar, so the controllers could not know that the KLM flight was taking off.


title: Tenerife airport disaster

text: Another reason was the fog surrounding the airport. The bad weather reduced the visibility, meaning the pilots could not see each other and neither could the controllers see the two planes on the runway. Because of the fog, the pilots only saw each other at the last minute, when they could not have prevented the crash. If there was no fog, the KLM crew would have seen the Pan Am plane on the runway and would not have taken off.


title: Heptarchy

text: The heptarchy (, "seven" + "realm") is a collective name applied to seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. These were: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually became the Kingdom of England. The term has been in use since the 16th century. It is used to apply both to the seven kingdoms and to the time period in which they existed.


title: Heptarchy

text: The idea of a heptarchy, a group of seven independent kingdoms, is thought to have come from the English historian Henry of Huntingdon in the 12th century. He listed the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in his "Historia Anglorum" (History of the English People). Bede, however, set up the idea that several kingdoms were more dominant than others (at different times). He created a list of kings who dominated the other kingdoms. The dividing line between these kingdoms was the River Humber. Northumbria (Deira and Bernicia) was the northern kingdom while the remaining kingdoms were those of the southern English. The actual term 'heptarchy' was first used in the 16th century by William Lambarde. His 1568 woodcut map is the earliest known use of the term.


title: Heptarchy

text: The term heptarchy is sometimes used to imply a between the kingdoms that did not exist. From the 6th century to the 9th century these were simply seven kingdoms set up by the Germanic invaders and their descendants. There was little equality between them. Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex were the most powerful of the seven and often dominated the others. The kingdoms were gradually reduced in number. The heptarchy basically ended with the coming of the Vikings. The term heptarchy was popular among scholars from the 16th to the 19th centuries but is occasionally used today.


title: Heptarchy

text: Originally Bede listed seven kings who held authority over the other kingdoms in England at the time. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle lists the eighth bretwalda:


title: Gerbilling

text: Gerbilling is an urban legend. This means it a story that is not true. It is the act of placing a gerbil into the human rectum for sexual pleasure. Other small live animals (usually gerbils but also mice, hamsters, rats and various other rodents) are used.


title: Gerbilling

text: Folklorist Jan Harold Brunvand writes that the urban legend began in 1984. It involved a mouse and an unidentified gay man. In passing years this story changes into a gerbil, and was made to involve to many named male celebrities that were publicly thought to be gay. Rumors about various male celebrities engaging in gerbilling have become popular urban legends over the years.


title: Gerbilling

text: In Poland, World War II historian Marek Jan Chodakiewicz lectured on gerbilling at the Institute of National Remembrance's educational center, describing that his ex-girlfriend Debbie, a registered nurse, extracted a fat-smeared hamster from the rectum of a gay man in 1984. Polish media stated that the hamster story is a well known urban legend, so well known that it has a Wikipedia page.


title: Fidelio

text: Fidelio is an opera in two acts by Ludwig van Beethoven. It is Beethoven's only opera. The German libretto is by Joseph Sonnleithner based on a French story. The opera tells how Leonore, disguised as a prison guard called "Fidelio", rescues her husband Florestan from death in a political prison.


title: Fidelio

text: "Fidelio" is an example of a “rescue opera”, a type of opera which was popular at the time. The hero (or heroine) has to fight against cruel people in order to rescue a lover. It was written at the time of the French Revolution. At this time, ideas about freedom and peace were being talked about by everyone, and this led to wars all over Europe. The famous Prisoners’ Chorus is a song for freedom, just like the last movement of his Ninth Symphony.


title: Fidelio

text: Beethoven spent some time working on the opera before he was completely happy with it. The first time it was performed (in 1805) it was a three-act opera called "Leonore". There were a lot of French military officers in the audience and they thought they were being criticised. In 1806 it was performed again with two acts and a new overture (now known as "Overture: Leonore No. 3"). But arguments between Beethoven and the theatre management meant there were no more performances. Eight years later Beethoven revised his opera again. This time it was called "Fidelio", and it was a great success. It has remained a famous opera ever since.


title: Fidelio

text: Jaquino is a prison guard. He wants to marry Marzelline, the daughter of Rocco who is the warden of the prison. But Marzelline has just fallen in love with someone she thinks is a man called Fidelio. Actually Fidelio is a woman who has dressed up as a man so that she can get into the prison where her husband Florestan is a prisoner (he has been arrested for political reasons). She is pretending to return Marzelline’s love so that she can find a way of rescuing Florestan. Rocco says he is happy for Marzelline to marry Fidelio. Fidelio (Leonore) says she will help Rocco with his job of looking after the prisoners. Rocco says she can do this, but there is one prisoner she is not allowed to guard. He has been locked up alone for two years. Leonore thinks it may be her husband, but she is not sure.


title: Fidelio

text: Don Pizarro, the military governor of the prison, hears that the prison is going to be looked at by inspectors who make sure that the prison is being properly managed. He knows that he should not have locked Florestan up, so decides to kill him before the inspection starts. He asks Rocco to dig the grave so that he can get rid of the body quickly. Rocco does not want to do this, but has to agree.


title: Fidelio

text: Leonore lets the prisoners have a walk in the garden. Rocco tells Leonore that he must help him dig the grave. Rocco is very cross that the prisoners are walking in the garden, but Rocco says they should be allowed because it is the King’s name-day. Rocco says they should be locked up again. So he locked them again.


title: Fidelio

text: Florestan sits alone in his cell. In his mind he imagines an angel who looks like his wife who is telling him to come to Heaven.


title: Fidelio

text: Leonore goes with Rocco to the prisoner. She is still not sure whether it is her husband. She gives him some bread. When Pizarro comes he gets ready to kill Florestan, but Leonore stands between them and tells Pizarro she will shoot him if he comes nearer. A trumpet is heard playing a fanfare because the Minister is arriving.


title: Fidelio

text: Outside the prison the Minister says that all the prisoners are now free. He is horrified to find Florestan among the prisoners, because he is his friend. The crowd ask for Pizarro to be punished. Leonore frees her husband from his chains and the crowd say that she is a great heroine.


title: Fidelio

text: Beethoven made several changes to the opera at different times. This included writing four different overtures. They are called "Leonore 1", "Leonore 2", "Leonore 3" and "Fidelio". The overture "Fidelio" is the one that is normally heard now at the beginning of the opera. "Leonore 2" was the overture performed at the first performance in 1805. "Leonore 3", composed in 1806, is the most famous of the overtures. "Leonore 1" may have been written in 1805, or it may have been intended for a performance in 1807 in Prague which never took place". Sometimes the "Leonore 3" overture is played during Act II between the two scenes. However, many people think it does not work dramatically there. It is usually heard today as a separate concert piece. The overture "Fidelio" was composed for performances of the opera in 1814.


title: Firefly

text: Fireflies are a family of beetles called the Lampyridae. These beetles are special in that most of them have bioluminescence, the ability to produce light. They are sometimes called 'lightning bugs' or 'forest stars'. There are about 2000 different species, most of which are nocturnal.


title: Firefly

text: Adults use flashes of light to attract mates. Also, firefly larvae flash their lights to warn predators that they are not a tasty meal. Many predators do not like the taste of firefly larvae.


title: Firefly

text: A firefly is an insect, so it has an exoskeleton and three body parts. Much like an annual cicada, they are usually soft-bodied, often with the elytra (front wings) more leathery than in other beetles.


title: Firefly

text: All fireflies glow as larvae. Bioluminescence serves a different function in lampyrid larvae than it does in adults. It appears to be a warning signal to predators, since many firefly larvae contain chemicals that are distasteful or toxic.


title: Firefly

text: Light in adult beetles was originally thought to be used for similar warning purposes, but its main purpose is now thought to be mate selection. Fireflies are a classic example of an organism that uses bioluminescence for sexual selection. They have evolved a variety of ways to communicate with mates in courtships: steady glows, flashing, and the use of chemical signals unrelated to photic systems.


title: Firefly

text: Fireflies live in tropical climates in the United States, Latin America, Caribbean Island, and South East Asia. They also live east of Rocky Mountains. Fireflies like to live in damp areas and dry areas. Examples of damp areas are rain forests, streams, marshes, ponds and leaf piles. Examples of dry areas are backyards and meadows.


title: Lagrange point

text: Lagrange points are stable positions near large bodies in orbit. When two large bodies are in orbit around each other, there are places that a third body can occupy. Lagrange points are found in the orbits of Earth and the Sun, or the Moon and the Earth. The most well-known natural occupants of Lagrange points are Trojan asteroids.


title: Lagrange point

text: The points are "five places where a small object (such as a man-made satellite) can orbit". At those points, the gravitational forces of the two large bodies and forces due to motion all balance up. So, at those places, a small object keeps more or less in a stable position. Dust clouds, asteroids, and man-made satellites are found in those points.


title: Lagrange point

text: This effect is named after the mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange, who wrote a paper on this in 1772 (long before we put satellites into orbit).


title: Lagrange point

text: The five places are called L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5. The first three (L1, L2, L3) are called metastable because if a satellite gets a bit out of place, it will fall away from that point, and not come back without using fuel. L4 and L5 are considered stable - if a satellite gets a bit out of place, it will be pulled back into place by the gravity and centripetal forces, and oscillate around the Lagrange point. This can result in very wide swings around L4 and L5, sometimes called by such names as "tadpole" and "horseshoe" orbits.


title: Lagrange point

text: NASA has inserted satellites into two Lagrange points of the Sun-Earth system. The L1 point (between the Earth and the sun) is used for satellites in a halo orbit to watch the sun, looking for solar flares. The L2 point (beyond the Earth) is used for space telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope launched on 25 December 2021. It is a million miles (about 1.5 million kilometers) from Earth.


title: Lagrange point

text: Because L4 and L5 are stable, they have attracted dust clouds. The Earth-Sun system has attracted a few asteroids and the bigger planets have more and larger ones. These asteroids are called "Trojan asteroids".


title: Precipitation

text: Precipitation is a form of water from the atmosphere. It is a term in meteorology, and includes rain, snow, sleet, ice pellets dew, frost, and hail. These form by condensation from atmospheric water vapor, and fall under gravity.


title: Precipitation

text: Fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions. In that case, the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate.


title: Precipitation

text: If liquid, precipitation can be measured using a rain gauge. The most common form of solid precipitation is snow. Snow is made when temperatures are so cold that water vapor changes directly to solid crystals. Frozen rain is hail or ice pellets.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: Ellen DeGeneres (born January 26, 1958) is an American stand-up comedian, television host and actress. She is the host of the talk show "The Ellen DeGeneres Show". She starred in two television sitcoms, "Ellen" from 1994 to 1998 and "The Ellen Show" from 2001 to 2002. She is seen as a very generous person when it comes to giving presents on her talk show "The Ellen DeGeneres Show." She is also seen as an inspiration to people to be who you are.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: During the fourth season of "Ellen" in 1997, DeGeneres came out publicly as a lesbian in an appearance on "The Oprah Winfrey Show". Since 2004, DeGeneres has been in a relationship with Australian actress Portia de Rossi. They were married on August 16, 2008.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: DeGeneres was born at Ochsner Foundation Hospital in Jefferson, Louisiana, She is the daughter of Elizabeth Jane "Betty" Pfeffer DeGeneres, a speech therapist, and Elliott Everett DeGeneres, an insurance agent. She has one brother, Vance. Her brother is a musician and producer. She is of French, English, German, and Irish ancestry. She was raised as a Christian Scientist until age 13. In 1973, her parents filed for separation and were divorced the following year. Shortly after, Ellen's mother married Roy Gruessendorf, a salesman. Betty Jane and Ellen moved with Gruessendorf from the New Orleans area to Atlanta, Texas. Vance stayed with his father.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: DeGeneres graduated from Atlanta High School in May 1976. Her first years of high school were at Grace King High School in Metairie, Louisiana. She moved back to New Orleans to attend the University of New Orleans, where she majored in communication studies. After one semester, she left school to do clerical work in a law firm with a cousin, Laura Gillen. She also held a job selling clothes at the chain store the Merry-Go-Round at the Lakeside Shopping Center.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: Her early jobs included working at J. C. Penney, being a waitress at TGI Friday's and another restaurant, a house painter, a hostess, and a bartender. She talks about her experiences as a child and at work in her comedic work.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: On a February 9, 2011, episode of "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", DeGeneres shared a letter from the New England Historic Genealogical Society. It said that she is Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge's 15th cousin via their shared common ancestor Thomas Fairfax. Madonna is DeGeneres' eleventh cousin.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: She is a fan of the National Football League, and has shown particular support for the New Orleans Saints and the Green Bay Packers. In 2011, she attended a Saints practice dressed as Packers Hall of Famer Don Hutson.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: In November 2011, then-Secretary of State Hillary Clinton named her a Special Envoy for Global AIDS Awareness.


title: Ellen DeGeneres

text: DeGeneres took a selfie at the 86th Academy Awards in 2014 with actors such as Brad Pitt, Angelina Jolie, Bradley Cooper, Jared Leto, and Lupita Nyong'o. It became the most retweeted image ever on Twitter, with over 3 million retweets.


title: Data storage device

text: A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using virtually any form of energy. People have been storing data for thousands of years, by pictures and writing. Modern storage device may hold information, process information, or both. Most often the term is used with computers. Data storage devices can permanently hold data, like files.


title: Data storage device

text: "Electronic data storage" is storage which requires electricity to store and get back that data. Most storage devices that do not require visual optics to read data fall into this category. Electronic data may be stored in either an analog or digital signal format.


title: Data storage device

text: Any input/output equipment may be considered data storage equipment if it writes to and reads from a data storage medium. Data storage equipment uses either:


title: Data storage device

text: A recording medium is a physical material that holds data expressed in any of the existing recording formats. With electronic media, the data and the recording medium is sometimes referred to as "software" despite the more common use of the word to describe computer software.


title: Data storage device

text: A typical way to classify data storage media is to consider its shape and type of movement (or non-movement) relative to the read/write device(s) of the storage apparatus as listed:


title: Amy Carter

text: Amy Lynn Carter (born October 19, 1967) is the daughter of former U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Rosalynn Carter.


title: Amy Carter

text: Carter later became known for her political activism. She participated in a number of sit-ins and protests during the 1980s and early 1990s that were aimed at changing U.S. foreign policy towards South African apartheid and Central America.


title: Amy Carter

text: Carter illustrated "The Little Baby Snoogle-Fleejer", her father's book for children, published in 1995.


title: Ozark (TV series)

text: Ozark is an American crime drama television series. The show was created by Bill Dubuque and Mark Williams for Netflix and produced by Media Rights Capital. Jason Bateman stars as the lead character in the series, as well as a director in a number of episodes. Laura Linney, Sofia Hublitz, Skylar Gaertner, Julia Garner, Jordana Spiro, Jason Butler Harner, Esai Morales, Peter Mullan, Lisa Emery, Charlie Tahan, Harris Yulin, Janet McTeer, Tom Pelphrey, Michael Mosley, Trevor Long, Marc Menchaca and McKinley Belcher III also star. The series has earned two Primetime Emmy Awards.


title: Ozark (TV series)

text: The series is about financial advisor Marty Byrde and his wife Wendy moving their family from Chicago to the Ozarks to start a money laundering operation for a Mexican drug cartel. When the Byrdes arrive in Missouri, they become mixed up with local criminals including the Langmores and Snells.


title: Ozark (TV series)

text: Each season of "Ozark" has ten episodes. The first season of was released on July 21, 2017. The second season was released on August 31, 2018. The third season was released on March 27, 2020.


title: Fold mountain

text: Fold mountains are mountains formed mainly by the effects of folding on layers in the upper part of the Earth's crust. The term is rather out of date, though still fairly common in physical geography literature.


title: Fold mountain

text: In the time before plate tectonics became well understood, the term was used for mountain belts, such as the Himalayas. These mountain ranges are "not" caused by the folding of the earth's crust. The main mechanism causing a thickening of the crust at these sites of continent-continent collision along boundary is thrust faulting.


title: Fold mountain

text: Fold mountains are formed when two tectonic plates move together (a convergent plate boundary). Fold mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks which accumulated along the margins of continents. When plates and the continents riding on them collide, the accumulated layers of rock may crumple and fold like a tablecloth that is pushed across a table, particularly if there is a mechanically weak basal layer such as salt.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant. It is in the methylxanthine class. It is found in many plants, and is used in drinks like coffee, some teas, some soft drinks, and energy drinks. It can be harmful for both humans and animals if a large amount is consumed. If a person ate 10-13 grams of caffeine quickly, between 80 and 100 cups of coffee, they would overdose and may die. It is the world's most popular psychoactive drug, and is legal in nearly all of the world.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine is the main drug that is in coffee. Coffee comes from a tree. The seeds of the tree are roasted to make coffee.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine comes from other plants as well. It is in guarana, yerba maté, cacao, and some plants used to make tea. The plants use caffeine as a "pesticide". This is a chemical that kills insects if they eat the plant. It is the way the plant protects itself.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine was first extracted from cocoa beans into its purest form which is a white powder and the word originated from the German word “kaffee” and the French word “café” which both mean caffeine.


title: Caffeine

text: It is called guaranine when it comes from the guarana plant and theine when it comes from a tea plant. It is called mateine in the mate drink. This drink is an infusion made with Yerba mate.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine is a "stimulant" drug. A stimulant is a drug that increases body actions like heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolism. It makes a person more awake and alert.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine also is a diuretic. This means it makes a person make more urine (the waste liquid a person makes).


title: Caffeine

text: The caffeine chemical is called a "xanthine alkaloid". This is a group of chemicals that are stimulants. Some xanthine alkaloids (like theophylline) are used to help asthma.


title: Caffeine

text: The biggest use of caffeine is as a stimulant. People drink coffee and other drinks with caffeine to stay awake.


title: Caffeine

text: Doctors sometimes use caffeine as a medicine. It is used for headaches (head pain). It is sometimes used to help premature (born "very" early) babies to breathe. The short-term risk of this treatment seems to be that the babies treated gain less weight than usual.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine is sometimes given to people after a lumbar puncture. This is a test to see if someone has meningitis.


title: Caffeine

text: In the beginning caffeine was found to relieve hunger, so it was used for weight loss. That did not last because people were using too much. Caffeine can be a very dangerous drug when not used in the right way.


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine also has medicinal properties. It is used in many over the counter medicines, such as Excedrin, Midol and Anacin. When combined with other analgesics, caffeine can help to alleviate headaches and cramps.


title: Caffeine

text: The largest problem with caffeine is addiction. This is when people get bad symptoms when they do not have the drug. When people have "withdrawal" (feel bad because they do not have the drug) they drink more. This makes them feel better. But if they cannot get more, they are likely to feel some of the symptoms listed below:


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine can also hurt people if they drink a lot at once. If someone takes too much of a drug at once it is called an "overdose". Caffeine overdose is a medical diagnosis. It is called: "Caffeine-Induced Organic Mental Disorder" or "Caffeine Intoxication". People with this can have these symptoms:


title: Caffeine

text: 250–300 mg of caffeine a day is a "moderate" amount. That is as much caffeine that is in three cups of coffee (8oz each cup). More than 750–1000 mg a day is a significant amount, but is very unlikely to kill someone. The Lethal Dose 50 of caffeine is 192 mg per kilogram, in rats. In humans, it is between 150 and 200 mg per kilogram (70-90 per pound.)


title: Caffeine

text: Caffeine is in many drinks and foods. This is "approximate" amounts of caffeine in some food and drink:


title: Clove

text: A clove ("Syzygium aromaticum", syn. "Eugenia aromaticum" or "Eugenia caryophyllata") is an aromatic dried flower bud of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. Cloves are native to Indonesia. A clove tree is an evergreen and grows to the height of 8-12 m. The part used in cookery is a dried flower bud. Cloves are harvested primarily in Zanzibar, Indonesia and Madagascar; it is also grown in India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, where they call it lavang.


title: Clove

text: Cloves are used in cooking, whole or ground. If you put whole cloves in a ham, they will impart their flavour to the meat. Dried cloves are a key spice in India.


title: Clove

text: Cloves were once traded in Portugal. Clove was once one of the most valuable spices, a kg costing 7 g of gold.


title: Krishna Balram

text: Krishna Balram is an Indian Adventure and Action Animated television series. Created by Rajiv Chilaka. Premiered in 2008 to 2010 on Cartoon Network it's focus on Lord Krishna and his elder brother Balram's Life and Adventure along with his friends and Radha in Vrindavan, Gokul and Barshana village. Krishna is a avatar of Lord Vishnu. Krishna's elder brother balram was the son of rohini. Rohini lived in Mathura nagari when vasudeva was imprisoned.


title: Krishna Balram

text: Krishna And Balram kids favorite series. Which resolved around 8 years old Krishna's 9 years old Balram's escaped in Vrindavan along with Radha and his friends, Krishna And Balram are always having fun, be it playing pranks on the unsuspecting gopis stealing, butter or destroying any demon sent to kill Krishna by his evil uncle Kansa.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: Yuri Alexeyevich Gagarin (; March 9, 1934 – March 27, 1968) was a Soviet and Russian cosmonaut (astronaut).


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: Yuri Gagarin was born in the village of Klushino near Gzhatsk (now in Smolensk Oblast, Russia), on 9 March 1934. Gzhatsk was renamed Gagarin in 1968 in his honour. His parents, Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina, worked on a collective farm. While manual workers are thought as "peasants," this may be too-simple if applied to his parents — his mother was said to love reading, and his father was a skilled carpenter. Yuri was the third of four children, and his elder sister helped raise him while his parents worked. Like millions of people in the Soviet Union, the Gagarin family suffered during the Nazi invasion in World War II. His two elder siblings were sent out to Nazi Germany for slave work in 1943, and did not return until after the war. While a youth, Yuri became interested in space and planets, and began to dream about his space tour which would one day become a reality. Yuri was thought by his teachers, as smart and hard-working, sometimes mischievous. His mathematics and science teacher had flown in the Soviet Air Forces during the war, which was said to make some impression on young Gagarin.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: After starting an apprenticeship in a metalworks as a foundryman, Gagarin was selected for further training at a technical high school in Saratov. While there, he joined the flight club, and learned to fly a light aircraft. In 1955, after finishing his technical schooling, he entered military flight training at the Orenburg Pilot's School. While there he met Valentina Goryacheva. Yuri married her in 1957, after gaining his pilot's wings in a MiG-15. Post-graduation, he was told to go to Luostari airbase in Murmansk Oblast, close to the Norwegian border, where bad weather made flying risky. As a full-grown man, Gagarin was tall, which was an advantage in the small Vostok cockpit. He became a lieutenant of the Soviet Air Force on November 5, 1957 and on November 6, 1959 he got the rank of senior lieutenant.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: Gagarin kept physically fit throughout his life, and was a good sportsman. As the space explorer Valery Bykovsky wrote:


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: As well as being a good ice hockey player, Gagarin was also a basketball fan, and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being an umpire/referee.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: In 1960, after the search and selection process, Yuri Gagarin was selected with 19 other space explorers for the "Soviet space program". Along with the other soon to be space explorers, he was tested by experiments made to test his physical and psychological score; he also underwent training for the upcoming flight. Out of the twenty originally selected, the final choice for the first launch was between Gagarin and Gherman Titov because of their performance in training, as well as their physical fitness.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: On 12 April 1961, Gagarin became the first man to travel into space, launching to orbit aboard the "Vostok 3KA-3" (Vostok 1). His call sign in this flight was Kedr (Cedar; ). During his flight, Gagarin famously whistled the song ""The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows"" (). The first two lines of the song are: ""The Motherland hears, the Motherland knows/Where her son flies in the sky"". This song was written by Dmitri Shostakovich in 1951 (opus 86), with words by Yevgeniy Dolmatovsky.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: Around the same time, some Western people claimed that Gagarin, during his space flight, had made the comment, ""I don't see any God up here"." However, no such words appear in the direct record of Gagarin's talk with the Earth during the spaceflight. In a 2006 interview a close friend of Gagarin, Colonel Valentin Petrov, said that Gagarin never said such words, and that the phrase came from Nikita Khrushchev's speech at the fullness of the Central Committee of the CPSU, where the anti-religious propaganda was talked about. In a certain context Khrushchev said, ""Gagarin flew into space, but didn't see any God there"."


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: After the flight, Gagarin became a world famous celebrity. He toured in many places like in Italy, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, and Japan. He did this to promote the Soviet Union achievements.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: In 1962, he began serving as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. He later came back to Star City. While there, he worked on designs for a reusable spacecraft. Gagarin worked on these designs in Star City for seven years. He became Lieutenant Colonel (or Podpolkovnik) of the Soviet Air Force on 12 June 1962. Then on 6 November 1963 he got the rank of Colonel (Polkovnik) of the Soviet Air Force. Soviet people tried to keep him away from any flights, being worried of losing their hero in an accident. Gagarin was backup pilot for Vladimir Komarov in the Soyuz 1 flight. As Komarov's flight ended in a deadly crash, Gagarin was banned from training for and helping out in further spaceflight/s.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: Gagarin then became deputy training director of the Star City cosmonaut training base. At the same time, he began to re-join as a fighter pilot. On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, he and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died in a MiG-15UTI crash near the town of Kirzhach. Gagarin and Seryogin were buried in the walls of the Kremlin on Red Square.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: People are not sure what caused the crash, but a 1986 investigation thinks that the turbulence from a Su-11 'Fishpot-C' interceptor using its afterburners may have caused Gagarin's plane to go out of control.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: Russian documents opened to the public in March 2003 showed that the KGB had changed their own investigation of the accident. In addition to this, one government and two military investigations. The KGB's report removed many conspiracy thoughts, instead of showing the actions of air base personnel added to the crash. The report says that an air traffic controller made Gagarin have old weather information. But by that time of his flight, conditions had become very bad. Ground crew also left fuel tanks on the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight needed good weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation ended, saying that Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either because of a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the old weather report, the crew thought their altitude to be higher than it actually was, and could not properly react to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin.


title: Yuri Gagarin

text: In his 2004 book "Two Sides of the Moon", Alexey Leonov tells that he was flying a helicopter in the same area that day when he heard "two loud booms in the distance." His thought was that the Sukhoi jet was flying below its minimum allowed altitude, and ""without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier."" The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov thinks the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier, and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.


title: History of video game consoles (sixth generation)

text: The sixth generation of video game consoles began on November 27, 1998. Also known as the last non-motion control gaming era, the sixth generation is also called the 128-bit generation. The sixth generation began with the release of the Dreamcast in Japan. This generation included the game consoles of the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube and Microsoft Xbox. The Dreamcast was discontinued in 2001, but sold games until 2007. The GameCube was discontinued in 2007. The Xbox sold its last games in 2008, but didn't get discontinued until 2009. The PlayStation 2 was discontinued in 2013, which ended the sixth generation.


title: Humorism

text: Humorism, or humoralism, was a system of medicine about the makeup and workings of the human body. It was a belief that too much or too little of any of four distinct body fluids in a person directly influenced their temperament and health. The humoralist system of medicine is highly individualistic. Each individual patient was made up of their own unique combination of humors.


title: Humorism

text: It resembled an early holistic approach to medicine linking mental and physical processes. From Hippocrates onward, the humoral theory was adopted by Greek, Roman and Persian physicians. It became the most commonly held view of the human body among early physicians until the coming of modern medical research in the nineteenth century. It has not been used in medicine since then.


title: Radar

text: Radar is a machine that uses radio waves for echolocation to find objects such as aircraft, ships, and rain.


title: Radar

text: By doing this, the radar can locate the object. Radar is used in many different ways. It can measure the speed and number of cars on a road, the amount of water in the air, and many other things.


title: Radar

text: The radar transmitter sends radio pulses. By controlling how often the rapid pulses of radar energy are sent out by a radar transmitter (called the transmitter's "pulse repetition rate"), and how long it takes for the reflected pulse energy to come back to the radar receiver, one can tell where objects are, and how far away. Digital circuits in a radar receiver calculate the distance to an object by knowing the time interval between energy pulses. The radar receiver's digital circuits count how long it takes between pulses for an object's reflected energy to be detected by the radar receiver. Since radar pulses are sent and received at approximately the speed of light, the distance to an object can easily be calculated. This is done in digital circuits by multiplying the speed of light by the time it takes to receive the radar energy reflected back from an object.


title: Radar

text: The time between pulses influences how far away an object can be detected. That distance is called the "range" of a radar transmitter and receiver. Radar transmitters and receivers use slow repetition frequencies to find the distance to objects that are far away. This makes it possible to accurately determine the distance to the moon, for example. Fast repetition is used to detect objects that are much closer, like ships at sea, high flying aircraft, or to determine the speed of fast moving automobiles on highways.


title: Radar

text: Radar was first used in 1904 by Christian Hülsmeyer. He was given a patent for radar (Reichspatent Nr. 165546). Radar was vital in the Battle of Britain and other parts of World War II. The Axis countries failed to keep up with British and American radar technology during the war.


title: Radar

text: The word "RADAR" was created in 1942 as an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. This acronym replaced the British initialism "RDF" ("Radio Direction Finding"). The word is now thought of by many people as a regular word, no longer as an acronym.


title: Ronaldo

text: Ronaldo (born 18 September 1976) is a retired Brazilian football player. During his career he played for F.C. Barcelona, PSV Eindhoven, Inter Milan, Real Madrid CF, A.C. Milan, and Corinthians. Ronaldo is widely regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. He won 2 world cups in 1994 and 2002 and the 1997 Ballon d'Or.


title: Airship

text: An Airship is kind of lighter-than-air aircraft. It floats in the sky and need not move to stay up. That is because it is filled with a lifting gas that is more lightweight than air. This is different from aeroplanes that stay up in the sky by moving. An airship floats like a balloon. But an airship is different from a balloon. An airship has an engine for power and a way to control its direction of movement. A balloon does not have an engine or a way to control its direction of movement.


title: Airship

text: Blimps were used by the United States in WWII to fight against submarines. Blimps are now used mostly for advertising and sometimes for looking down, for example at sport stadiums and tourist attractions.


title: Airship

text: The most famous airship was the "Hindenburg". The "Hindenburg" was a rigid airship made by the Zeppelin airship company. It burned when it was landing on May 6, 1937. There were 97 people on the airship when the fire started. The fire killed 35 of these people and one person on the ground.


title: ISO 3166-1

text: ISO 3166-1, is part of the ISO 3166 standard. It gives a code for the names of countries and dependent territories, and is published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The official name of the standard is "Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1: Country codes". There are three sets of country codes:


title: ISO 3166-1

text: ISO 3166-1 is not the only standard for country codes. Many international organizations use their own country codes, where some of them closely correspond to the ISO 3166-1 codes. For examples, see "country codes".


title: ISO 3166-1

text: Currently, 244 countries and territories have official ISO 3166-1 codes. The only way to enter a new country name into ISO 3166-1 is to have it registered in one of the following two sources:


title: ISO 3166-1

text: Once a country name or territory name appears in either of these two sources, it will be added to ISO 3166-1 by default.


title: ISO 3166-1

text: The following is a complete ISO 3166-1 encoding code list in alphabetical order by the English short country names officially used by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA), which uses country names from United Nations sources.


title: ISO 3166-1

text: Besides the officially assigned codes, code elements may be expanded by using either reserved codes or user-assigned codes.


title: ISO 3166-1

text: Reserved code elements are codes which, while not ISO 3166-1 codes, are in use for some applications in conjunction with the ISO 3166 codes. They are reserved to add flexibility to the coding system. Usually, obsolete codes may be kept as reserved, while some overseas territories, international organizations, and special nationality status have reserved codes of their own. See the corresponding sections in "ISO 3166-1 alpha-2" and "ISO 3166-1 alpha-3" for their respective reserved codes (ISO 3166-1 numeric does not have reserved codes).


title: ISO 3166-1

text: User-assigned code elements are codes at the disposal of users who need to add further names of countries, territories or other geographical entities to their in-house application of ISO 3166-1, and the ISO 3166/MA will never use them in the updating process of the standard. See the corresponding sections in "ISO 3166-1 alpha-2", "ISO 3166-1 alpha-3" and "ISO 3166-1 numeric" for their respective user-assigned codes.


title: ISO 3166-1

text: A country or territory may get new codes if it changes its name or its territorial boundaries. A country generally gets new alphabetical codes if its name changes, whereas a new numeric code is associated with a change of boundaries. Changes to ISO 3166-1 are announced in periodic newsletters, of which 12 have been released since the first edition of ISO 3166-1 was published in 1997:


title: ISO 3166-1

text: The second edition of ISO 3166-1 was published in 2007, which comprises a consolidation of all changes to the lists as published in the newsletters above.


title: ISO 3166-1

text: Information on reserved codes taken from "Reserved code elements under ISO 3166-1" published by Secretariat of ISO/TC 46, ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, 2001-02-13, available on request from ISO 3166/MA.


title: Protist

text: Protists are single-celled eukaryotes (which are organisms with a nucleus). The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. The protists are not a natural group, or clade, since they have no common origin. Like algae or invertebrates, they are often grouped together for convenience.


title: Protist

text: The term "protist" includes microorganisms from several distantly related phyla. Some are autotrophic (which means they make their own food by photosynthesis), and others are heterotrophic (which means they eat organic material).