title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1963, civil rights leaders planned a protest march in Washington, D.C. All of the major civil rights groups, some labor unions, and other liberal groups cooperated in planning the march. The march's full name was "The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom." The goals for the march were to get civil rights laws passed; to get the U.S. government to create more jobs; and to get equal, good housing, education, jobs, and voting rights for everyone. However, the most important goal was to get President Kennedy's civil rights law passed.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Many people thought it would be impossible for so many activists to come together without violence and rioting. The United States government got 19,000 soldiers ready nearby, in case of riots. Hospitals got ready to treat huge numbers of injured people. The government made selling alcohol in Washington, D.C., illegal for the day.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The March on Washington was one of the largest non-violent protests for human rights in United States history. Martin Luther King, Jr., thought that having 100,000 marchers would make the event successful. On August 28, 1963, about 250,000 activists from all over the country came together for the march. The marchers included about 60,000 white people (including church groups and labor union members), and between 75 and 100 members of Congress. Together, they marched from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial. There, they listened to civil rights leaders speak.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Martin Luther King, Jr., spoke last. His speech, called "I Have a Dream," became one of history's most famous civil rights speeches.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Historians have said that the March on Washington helped get President Kennedy's civil rights bill passed.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Malcolm X was an American minister who converted to Islam in prison, around 1948. He became a member of the Nation of Islam. This group believed in black supremacy - that the black race was the best of all. They believed that blacks should be completely independent from whites, and should eventually return to Africa. They also believed that black people had the right to fight back and use violence to get their rights. Because of this, Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam did not support the civil rights movement, because it was non-violent and supported integration.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: However, in March 1964, Malcolm X was kicked out of the Nation of Islam, because he had disagreements with the group's leader, Elijah Muhammad. He offered to work with other civil rights groups, if they accepted that blacks had the right to defend themselves.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: On March 26, 1964, Malcolm met with Martin Luther King, Jr. Malcolm had a plan to bring the United States before the United Nations on charges that the U.S. violated African Americans' human rights. Dr. King may have been planning to support this.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Between 1963 and 1964, civil rights activists got more angry and more likely to fight back against whites. In April 1964, Malcolm gave a famous speech called "The Ballot or the Bullet." ("The ballot" means "voting.") In the speech, he said that if the U.S. government is "unwilling or unable to defend the lives and the property of Negroes," then African Americans should defend themselves. He warned politicians that many African Americans were not willing "to turn the other cheek any longer." Then he warned white America about what would happen if blacks were not allowed to vote:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In the summer of 1964, civil rights groups brought almost 1,000 activists to Mississippi. Most of them were white college students. Their goals were to work together with black activists to register voters, and to teach summer school to black children in "Freedom Schools." They also wanted to help create the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). At the time, only white people could take part in the Mississippi Democratic Party. The MFDP was planned as another political party that would allow black and white Democrats to take part in politics.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Many white Mississippians were angry that people from other states were coming in and trying to change their society. Government workers, police, the Ku Klux Klan, and other racist whites used many strategies to attack the activists and black people who were trying to register to vote. The Freedom Summer project lasted for ten weeks. During that time, 1,062 activists were arrested; 80 were beaten; and 4 were killed. Three black Mississippians were murdered because they supported civil rights. Thirty-seven churches, and thirty black homes or businesses, were bombed or burned.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: On June 21, 1964, three Freedom Summer activists disappeared. Weeks later, their bodies were found. They had been murdered by members of the local Ku Klux Klan - including some who were also police in the Neshoba County sheriff's department. When people were searching for their bodies in local swamps and rivers, they found the bodies of a 14-year-old boy and seven other men who also seemed to have been murdered at some time.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: During Freedom Summer, activists set up at least 30 Freedom Schools, and taught about 3,500 students. The students included children, adults, and the elderly. The schools taught about many things, like black history; civil rights; politics; the freedom movement; and the basic reading and writing skills needed to vote.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Also during the summer, about 17,000 black Mississippians tried to register to vote. Only 1,600 were able to. However, more than 80,000 joined the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). This showed that they wanted to vote and take part in politics, not just let white people do it for them.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: John F. Kennedy's suggested civil rights bill had support from Northern members of Congress - both Democrats and Republicans. However, Southern Senators blocked the suggested law from passing. They filibustered for 54 days to block the bill from becoming a law. Finally, President Lyndon B. Johnson got a bill to pass.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In December 1964, Martin Luther King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. When giving him the award, the Chairman of the Nobel Committee said:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In January 1965, Martin Luther King and the SCLC went to Selma, Alabama. Civil rights groups there had asked them to come help get black people registered to vote. At the time, 99% of the people registered to vote in Selma were white. Together, they started working on voting rights.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: However, the next month, an African-American man named Jimmie Lee Jackson was shot by a police officer during a peaceful march. Jackson died. Many African-American people were very angry. The SCLC was worried that people were so angry that they would get violent.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The SCLC decided to organize a march from Selma to Montgomery. This would be a 54-mile (87-kilometer) march. Activists hoped the march would show how badly African-Americans wanted to vote. They also wanted to show that they would not let racism or violence stop them from getting equal rights.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The first march was on March 7, 1965. Police officers and racist whites attacked the marchers with clubs and tear gas. They threatened to throw the marchers off the Edmund Pettus Bridge. Seventeen marchers had to go to the hospital, and 50 others were also injured. This day came to be called Bloody Sunday. Pictures and film of the marchers being beaten were shown in newspapers and on television around the world.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Seeing these things made more people support the civil rights activists. People came from all over the United States to march with the activists. One of them, James Reeb, was attacked by white people for supporting civil rights. He died on March 11, 1965.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Finally, President Johnson decided to send soldiers from the United States Army and the Alabama National Guard to protect the marchers. From March 21 to March 25, the marchers walked along the "Jefferson Davis Highway" from Selma to Montgomery. On March 25, 25,000 people entered Montgomery. Martin Luther King gave a speech called "How Long? Not Long" at the Alabama State Capitol. He told the marchers that it would not be long before they had equal rights, "because the arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: After the march, Viola Liuzzo, a white woman from Detroit, drove some other marchers to the airport. While she was driving back, she was murdered by three members of the Ku Klux Klan.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: On August 6, 1965, the United States passed the Voting Rights Act. This law made it illegal to stop somebody from voting because of their race. This meant that all the state laws that kept black people from voting were now illegal.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: For almost 100 years, registrars (the government workers who had registered people to vote) were all white. They had total power over who they could register and who they would not register. If a registrar refused to let a black person register, that person could only file a lawsuit, which they were not likely to win. However, the Voting Rights Act finally made a change to this system. If a registrar discriminated against black people, the Attorney General could send federal workers to replace local registrars.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The law worked right away. Within a few months, 250,000 new black voters had signed up to vote. One out of every three of them was registered by a federal worker who replaced a racist registrar. In 1965, 74% of Mississippi's black voters actually voted, and more black politicians were elected in Mississippi than in any other state. By 1967, most African Americans were registered to vote in 9 of the 13 states in the South.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Politics in the South were completely changed by African Americans having the power to vote. White politicians could no longer make laws about African Americans without blacks having a say. In many parts of the South, black people outnumbered whites. This meant that they could vote in black politicians, and vote out racist whites. Also, black people who were registered to vote could be on juries. Before this, any time an African American was charged with a crime, the jury that decided whether they were guilty would be all-white.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: From 1966 to 1968, the civil rights movement focused a lot on fair housing. Even outside the South, fair housing was a problem. For example, in 1963, California passed a Fair Housing Act which made segregation in housing illegal. White voters and real estate lobbyists got the law reversed the next year. This helped cause the Watts Riots. (Later, in 1966, California made the Fair Housing Act the law again.)


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Activists, including Martin Luther King, led a movement for fair housing in Chicago in 1966. The next year, young NAACP members did the same in Milwaukee. Activists in both cities got attacked physically by white homeowners, and legally by politicians who supported segregation.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Of all the civil rights laws passed during the Civil Rights Movement, the Fair Housing Act was the hardest to pass. The law would make discrimination in housing illegal. This meant black people would be allowed to move into white neighborhoods. As Senator Walter Mondale said: "This was civil rights getting personal."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The suggested Fair Housing Bill was sent to the United States Senate first. There, most Senators - Northern and Southern - were against the bill. In March of 1968, the Senate sent a weaker version to the House of Representatives. The House was expected to make changes that would make the bill even weaker.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: That did not happen. On April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King was murdered. This made many members of Congress feel like they needed to do something about civil rights quickly. The day after Dr. King's murder, Senator Mondale stood in front of the Senate and said:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: On April 10, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968. President Johnson signed the law the next day. Part of the law is called the "Fair Housing Act." It makes it illegal to discriminate in selling, renting, or lending money for housing, based on a person's race, skin color, religion, or home country.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1968, Martin Luther King and the SCLC were planning the Poor People's Campaign. People of all races took part in the movement. The movement's goal was to decrease poverty for people of all races.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: As part of his work against poverty, Dr. King and the SCLC started to speak out against the Vietnam War. King argued that poor people in Vietnam were being killed, and that the War would only make them poorer. He also argued that the United States was spending more and more money and time on the War, and less on programs to help poor Americans.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In March 1968, Dr. King was invited to Memphis, Tennessee to support garbage workers that were on strike. These workers were paid very little, and two workers had been killed doing their jobs. They wanted to be members of a labor union. Dr. King thought this strike was a perfect fit for his Poor People's Campaign. As soon as he got to Memphis, King started getting threats.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The day before he was murdered, King gave a sermon called "I've Been to the Mountaintop." The next day he was murdered. After King was killed, people rioted in more than 100 cities across the United States.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Civil rights leader Ralph Abernathy continued the Poor People's Campaign after King's death. About 3,000 activists camped out on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., for about six weeks.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The day before Dr. King's funeral, his wife, Coretta Scott King, and three of their children led 20,000 marchers through Memphis. Soldiers protected the marchers. On April 9, Mrs. King led another 150,000 people through Atlanta during Dr. King's funeral. An old, wooden wagon, pulled by mules, pulled Dr. King's casket. The wagon was a symbol of Dr. King's Poor People's Campaign.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Many people were killed during the Civil Rights Movement. Some were killed because they supported civil rights. Others were killed by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) or other racist whites who wanted to terrorize black people. No one knows just how many people were killed during the Civil Rights Movement. However, here are some examples. People whose names are highlighted in blue were children or teenagers when they were killed.


title: Taurus (astrology)

text: Taurus is an astrological sign, which is with the constellation (a group of stars that make the shape of an animal or person) of the same name. Under the tropical zodiac, Taurus is occupied by the Sun from April 20 to May 20, and under the sidereal zodiac, it is currently from May 14 to June 19.


title: Taurus (astrology)

text: In mythology, Taurus is often with the Greek myth of the bull-form taken by Zeus in order to win Europa. Taurus is also associated with the Greco-Roman goddess Aphrodite/Venus and sometimes also the goddesses Hera/Juno, Ishtar, Isis, Freyja, and Frigg and the gods Pan, Dionysus/Bacchus, Xolotl, and Quetzalcoatl.


title: De facto

text: De facto is a phrase from the Latin language that means "in fact" or "in practice". It is often used in contrast to "de jure" (which means "by law") when talking about law, governance, or technique. When talking about law, ""de jure"" is used to describe what the law says, and ""de facto"" is used to describe what actually happens.


title: De facto

text: "De facto" is sometimes also used when there is no appropriate law or standard, but a common practice, that may not necessarily be widely accepted, exists. For example, the "de jure" name of Bill Clinton is William Jefferson Clinton. This is his name according to official records. His "de facto" name is Bill Clinton because this is what he is usually called.


title: Bag

text: A bag is a kind of soft container. It can hold or carry things. It may be made from cloth, leather, plastic, or paper. Many bags are disposable but some are made to use for a long time. A bag may have one or two handles or a shoulder strap. Bags come in different shapes and sizes depending on how they will be used. A small bag that can be carried with a single hand is sometimes called a handbag, purse, or pocketbook. Children can suffocate, or stop breathing and die, when they put certain kinds of bags over their heads, due to having the supply of oxygen cut off.


title: Multiculturalism

text: Multiculturalism is a word that describes a society where many different cultures live together. It is the simple fact of cultural diversity.


title: Multiculturalism

text: In a multicultural society, there is not an official (decided by the people in charge) culture that every person must be a part of. Instead, all cultures are respected as much as each other.


title: Multiculturalism

text: A multicultural society can result when people from many different countries migrate to one place, or an empire conquers many countries. Tolerance is a big help for multiculturalism. Xenophobia makes it difficult.


title: Multiculturalism

text: A multicultural society would be composed of people from different ethnic backgrounds and cultures living and working together. In society when people from different backgrounds link with each other's culture shows the acceptance of each other's culture and background.


title: Freedom of speech

text: Freedom of speech is the right to state one's opinions and ideas without being stopped or punished. Sometimes this is also called Freedom of expression. Freedom of speech is thought to also include freedom of the press and Freedom of information. However, new laws are usually needed to allow information to be used easily.


title: Freedom of speech

text: Most people think freedom of speech is necessary for a democratic government. In countries without free speech, people might be afraid to say what they think. Then, the government does not know what the people want. If the government does not know what they want, it cannot respond to their wants. Without free speech, the government does not have to worry as much about doing what the people want. Some people say this is why some governments do not allow free speech: they do not want to be criticised, or they fear there would be revolution if everyone knew everything that was happening in the country.


title: Freedom of speech

text: A well-known liberal thinker, John Stuart Mill, believed that freedom of speech is important because the society that people live in has a right to hear people's ideas. It's not just important because everyone should have a right to express him or herself.


title: Freedom of speech

text: Few countries with "free speech" let everything be said. For example, the United States Supreme Court said that it was against the law to shout "fire" in a crowded theater if there is no fire, because this might cause people to panic. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also says that it is not okay to cause national, racial or religious hatred. Also, some countries have laws against hate speech.


title: Freedom of speech

text: As Tocqueville pointed out, people may be hesitant to speak freely not because of fear of government punishment but because of social pressures. When an individual announces an unpopular opinion, he or she may face the disdain of their community or even be subjected to violent reactions. While this type of suppression of speech is even more difficult to prevent than government suppression is, there are questions about whether it truly falls within the ambit of freedom of speech, which is typically regarded as a legal right to be exercised against the government, or immunity from governmental action.


title: Dodo

text: Like many other island birds, they lost the power of flight because it was no advantage where they lived. Dodos were in the same family as the pigeon. They were endemic to (only lived on) the island of Mauritius. They became extinct in the late 17th century.


title: Dodo

text: The Dodo has become a symbol of extinction caused by the arrival of humans in ecosystems where humans had never before lived.


title: Dodo

text: The history of the word 'Dodo' is not clear. Dutch admiral Wybrand van Warwijck discovered the island and the bird in 1598 during an expedition to Indonesia. He called the bird 'walgvogel', meaning "disgusting bird" because he disliked the taste of the meat. Four years later, the Dutch captain, Willem van Westsanen, used the word 'Dodo' for the first time.


title: Dodo

text: The "Encarta Dictionary" and the "Chambers Dictionary of Etymology" say "dodo" is a Portuguese word, coming from "doido". It means "fool" or "crazy". Another idea is that 'dodo' was a copy of the bird's own call, a two-note pigeon like sound, "doo-doo".


title: Dodo

text: In 1606 Cornelis de Jonge wrote a description of the Dodo, and of other animal and plants on the island .


title: Dodo

text: The dodo was a large bird and weighed about . They had grey feathers and yellow feet. Their big hooked bill was a green/yellow color. It had short wings that were only stubs. They ate fruit, seeds and nuts. Portuguese sailors said that they saw the Dodos eating fish. They also ate rocks and stones which might have helped them digest food. They are eaten by humans who come in the search of treasure or spouting.


title: Dodo

text: The dodo was not scared of people which made it easy to hunt and kill. Dogs, cats, rats and pigs were left on the island and also killed the dodos. Because dodos built their nests on the ground, the new animals ate their eggs. The forests were chopped down and the dodo lost its habitat. Within 80 years, the dodo was extinct.


title: Dodo

text: The last known stuffed bird was at Oxford University and was thrown out as rubbish. Only a foot and a head are left. The American Museum of Natural History in New York has a skeleton showing. It was put together out of bones from several different Dodos. The Natural History Museum of Mauritius has the only complete skeleton of a dodo, found in a swamp.


title: Skull

text: A skull, or cranium, is a set of bones that make up the head of a vertebrate and keep in place all body parts in the head. It supports the structures of the face and forms a protective cavity for the brain.


title: Skull

text: As well as protecting the brain, the skull fixes the distance between the eyes and between the ears. This allows stereoscopic vision, and helps the brain judge direction and distance of sounds. In some animals, the skull also has a defensive function (e.g. horned ungulates). The frontal bone is where horns are mounted.


title: Skull

text: The skull is made of a number of joined (fused) flat bones. In humans, the adult skull is normally made up of 28 bones.


title: Skull

text: Skulls can be classified based on fenestras which are window or opening in a skull. There are 5 types of fenestras which are:


title: Vehicle

text: A vehicle is a machine to move people and things. A vehicle is not alive. A horse can move people and things, but it is an animal, not a machine or a vehicle.


title: Vehicle

text: The word vehicle is borrowed from French and Latin. French "véhicule", going back to Middle French, borrowed from Medieval Latin "vehiculum" "medium, agent of transmission," going back to Latin, "wheeled vehicle, means of transport," from "vehere" "to carry, convey.


title: Vehicle

text: Some vehicles move on land. Most land vehicles have wheels. Examples of land vehicles are bicycles, cars, motorcycles, and trains.


title: Vehicle

text: Some land vehicles, like tanks and snowmobiles, have tracks. These tracks look and work like conveyor belts.


title: Arvind Kejriwal

text: Arvind Kejriwal (born 16 August 1968) is an Indian politician. He is the current and 7th Chief Minister of Delhi. He is the national convener of Aam Aadmi Party (AAP). He started the Aam Aadmi Party in 2012. Kejriwal won the TIME 100 Readers' Poll in 2014.For the 2019 general elections the Aam Aadmi Party shared seats with the Indian National Congress.


title: Arvind Kejriwal

text: Kejriwal was born in Bhiwani, Haryana on 16th August 1968. He was educated at Campus School in Hisar. He graduated from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, majoring in mechanical engineering.


title: Arvind Kejriwal

text: AAP contested Delhi legislative assembly elections in 2013. Kejriwal defeated incumbent Chief Minister, Sheila Dikshit of the Indian National Congress (INC). Kejriwal was sworn in as the second-youngest chief minister of Delhi on 28 December 2013.


title: Arvind Kejriwal

text: Kejriwal contested in 2014 Indian general elections. He lost against the BJP prime ministerial candidate, Narendra Modi.


title: Arvind Kejriwal

text: Aam Aadmi Party won 67 of the 70 constituencies in the 2015 Delhi Assembly elections. Arvind Kejriwal took oath on 14 February 2015 as Delhi's chief minister for a second time.


title: Emerald (color)

text: Emerald is a color that is a shade of green. It is light and bright, with a faint bluish cast. The name comes from the color of emerald.


title: Emerald (color)

text: Emerald are highly transparent color . This color is evenly distributed, with no eye-visible color zoning.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia is a condition which may be diagnosed by a psychiatrist. It is mental illness where people may see, hear or believe things that are not real. It can be a big problem for people who have it. Some similar mental illnesses include schizotypal personality disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizoid personality disorder.


title: Schizophrenia

text: It is a relatively common condition affecting one in 200 people. It is not infectious in any way. There is a danger that the sufferer may self-harm. Its cause is not exactly known. Very often it first appears in teenage years when the sufferer goes through puberty. There is no cure, but there is treatment which can help most of the sufferers.


title: Schizophrenia

text: People with this disorder often do not behave the way most people do towards others. They also may not know what is real (this is called psychosis). Some common signs are strange beliefs, unclear or confused thinking and language, hallucinations (such as hearing voices that aren't there), poor interaction with others, less expression of feelings, and not doing much. They also may not care about many things.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia is a chronic condition. As of 2021, there is no cure, but a combination of a therapy and certain drugs can allow most people suffering from it to lead a normal life.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The word "schizophrenia" comes from two Greek words that mean "to split" and "mind," because there is a 'split' between what's going on in the person's mind and what is actually happening. A person with schizophrenia does not change between different personalities: they have only one. The condition in which a person has more than one personality, meaning they act like a different person at different times, is dissociative identity disorder. There are no medical tests that can be used to say if a person has schizophrenia or not, so getting a diagnosis depends on which list of symptoms are used. It also depends on the doctor or psychologist who talks to the person. The lists of symptoms include wording like "Disorganized [not organized, or oddly organized] speech present for a significant portion of time". It is difficult to agree on what exactly "disorganized speech" is and how disorganized it has to be. It is also difficult to agree on how long a "significant portion of time" is. Because of this, two doctors or psychologists trying to make a diagnosis may often disagree. One will say that the person is schizophrenic and the other will say he or she is not.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia has many different symptoms, and not everyone with schizophrenia has all of them. For this reason, some scientists think that schizophrenia is several separate illnesses that have some of the same symptoms. These scientists claim that the research done on schizophrenia is not accurate since different researchers mean different things when they use the word "schizophrenia" in scientific studies.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Many medications (licensed drugs to cure or treat an illness) may also cause the same symptoms as schizophrenia. The most common ones are antidepressants (medicines to treat depression) and ADHD medication (medication to treat ADHD, a condition affecting the brain, including memory and focusing on surroundings.) If a person has taken anti-vomiting medication (medication to stop them being sick) for some time and suddenly stops, he or she may get schizophrenia symptoms. Hundreds of medications have schizophrenia symptoms as rare side effects (unintended effects of taking them). Illegal drugs such as LSD, amphetamines, magic mushrooms and cocaine may cause schizophrenia symptoms.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Medical illnesses, and treatment with certain medicines, can cause symptoms very similar to that of schizophrenia. In fact, there are over a hundred medical problems that can cause the same symptoms of schizophrenia. For this reason, it is important to rule out the possibility of either of these things being the cause for the person's symptoms. For this reason, the person should have a thorough medical exam to rule out problems like;


title: Schizophrenia

text: People with schizophrenia often have delusions or hallucinations. A schizophrenic delusion is a belief that is very different from what other people with the same way of life believe. Hallucinations are usually experiences of hearing voices that don't exist. These voices often say unpleasant things to the person. Many people can hear voices like this without being schizophrenic, for instance right before falling asleep. This is called a hypnagogic hallucination. The brain cannot tell them apart from normal sounds that are heard. This is not yet fully understood by science.


title: Schizophrenia

text: There are many risk factors that may cause a person to develop schizophrenia. They include trauma (damage caused by stressful events) and genetics (schizophrenia running in families). Having a schizophrenic parent may be very stressful, and there may also be genes that influence the development of schizophrenia. It is very easy to show that trauma, such as sexual abuse (forced unwanted sexual behaviour towards somebody) increases the risk, but 40 years of searching for the right genes has not found anything that has been confirmed by independent research groups.


title: Schizophrenia

text: People with schizophrenia may also have other mental health disorders, like depression, anxiety and drug abuse. They often have problems functioning in society, and have difficulty keeping a job. However, there are a number of people with schizophrenia who get well and have earned college degrees and had professional careers. For example, Elyn. R. Saks successfully became a law professor at the University of Southern California and a published author.


title: Schizophrenia

text: In a family treatment called "Open dialog" in Finland, eight out of every ten people with schizophrenia "get well." In developing countries, where doctors use less drugs, 2 out of 3 patients get well from schizophrenia. In western countries, where medications are used as treatment, 1 of 3 get well, but many suffer from drug side effects such as diabetes, obesity, and brain damage.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Treatment of schizophrenia may include medication to help treat the symptoms, different types of psychotherapy (therapy by a professional), such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and many rehabilitation therapies (therapies restoring things to how they were before), such as cognitive remediation therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy, CBT, is a talk therapy that focuses on helping the person to think about their strange ideas (delusions) in more realistic ways.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The therapist may design a behavioral experiment for paranoia (false beliefs of danger) that will help the person to find out for example, if there really are cameras everywhere in the house. For hallucinations, cognitive therapy focuses on normalizing: many people hear voices without being stressed, and we all hear voices in the form of thoughts, it is just that people with schizophrenia hear them a bit more clearly than most people.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The guidelines also warn against using more than one antipsychotic drug at the same time. Both for people who are at risk for getting schizophrenia and for people who have got it, they recommend cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and family therapy. Getting support from people who have become well from schizophrenia is also strongly recommended.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The symptoms of schizophrenia fall into three main categories: positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and cognitive symptoms.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Positive symptoms are thoughts, behaviors, or anything experienced by the senses that are not shared by others - like hearing voices that are not really there. They are called 'positive' not because they are good but because they are "added on". These symptoms may include having strange thoughts that do not make sense (delusions), disorganized thoughts and speech, and feeling, hearing, seeing, smelling, or tasting things that do not exist (hallucinations). Positive symptoms often respond to drug treatment and cognitive behavioral therapy, CBT. Stopping anti-psychotic or anti-vomiting drugs too quickly may also cause these symptoms.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Negative symptoms are thoughts, behaviors or emotions normally present in a healthy person that a person with a mental disorder has less of or may not have at all; they are 'minus' these. The sign for minus is -; it is also the sign for the word "negative". Negative symptoms includes a 'flat affect'; having a blank inexpressive look on the face and/or monosyllabic speech (speech always sounding the same) spoken in a slow monotone, few gestures, lack of interest in anything including other people, and an inability to act spontaneously or feel pleasure. These problems are also side effects of anti-psychoctic drugs. They may also be symptoms of many medical problems such as a metabolism that is too low.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Cognitive symptoms are problems with attention, certain types of memory, the concept of time, and with the ability to plan and organize. Cognitive deficits caused by schizophrenia can also be difficult to recognize as part of the disorder. They are the most disabling of the symptoms because cognitive problems affect everyday functioning. These problems may also be side effects of anti-psychotic drugs, antidepressants, sleeping medication and anti-anxiety drugs.


title: Schizophrenia

text: A combination of what has happened to a person and the person’s genes may play a role in the development of schizophrenia. People who have family members with schizophrenia and who experienced a brief period of psychotic symptoms have a 20 to 40 percent chance of being diagnosed one year later. This may be both the result of stressful events because of the family member and possibly a genetic effect.


title: Schizophrenia

text: It is difficult to know if schizophrenia is inherited because it is hard to find out whether something comes from genes or the environment. Those who have a parent, a brother or sister with schizophrenia have a higher risk of developing schizophrenia. The risk is even higher if you have an identical twin with schizophrenia. This may seem to show that schizophrenia is inherited. However, it may be the stress of living with a schizophrenic family member that is traumatic. Identical twins are much closer and are treated much more in the same way, and this may be the reason why one of them is more likely to get schizophrenia if the other has it. Dr Jay Joseph has found many problems with the scientific studies of inheriting schizophrenia, including false reporting of results. Joseph also claims that 40 years of the search for the schizophrenia gene has not found a single gene that independent research groups have confirmed.


title: Schizophrenia

text: There are may environmental risk factors factors for schizophrenia such as drug use, stress before birth and in some cases exposure to infectious diseases (a disease that spreads from person to person). In addition, living in a city during childhood or as an adult has been found to double the risk of schizophrenia . This is true even after taking into account drug use, race, and the size of one’s social group. Other factors that play an important role include whether the person feels socially isolated, as well as social adversity, racial discrimination (treating a person badly because of their race), the person's family not working properly, unemployment, and poor housing conditions. There is evidence that childhood experiences of abuse or trauma are risk factors for developing schizophrenia later in life.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Several drugs have been linked with the development of schizophrenia and the abuse (harmful use) of certain drugs can cause symptoms like those of schizophrenia. About half of those people who have schizophrenia use too much drugs or alcohol, possibly to deal with depression, anxiety, boredom, or loneliness. Frequent marijuana use may double the risk of serious mental illness, including schizophrenia.


title: Schizophrenia

text: More people with schizophrenia smoke than the general population; it is estimated that at least 60% to as many as 90% of people with schizophrenia smoke. Recent research suggests that cigarette smoking may be a risk factor for developing schizophrenia. Smoking also reduces the effects and side effects of anti-psychotic drugs, and this may be one of the reasons for the high smoking rate. Patients taking anti-psychotic drugs die up to 20 years earlier than others, possibly because the medication makes them overweight, gives diabetes and leads to them smoking.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Factors such as lack of oxygen, infection, or stress and lack of healthy foods in the mother during pregnancy, might result in a slight increase in the risk of schizophrenia later in life. People who have schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring (at least in the northern half of the world). This might relate to increased rates of exposures to viruses before birth. This difference is about 5 to 8 percent.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Some people who have schizophrenia have differences in their brain structure compared to those who do not have the disorder. These differences are often in the parts of the brain that manage memory, organization, emotions, the control of impulsive behavior, and language. For example, there is less brain volume in the frontal cortex and temporal lobes, and problems within the corpus callosum, the band of nerve fibers which connects the left side and the right side of the brain. People with schizophrenia also tend to have larger lateral and third ventricles. The ventricles are spaces within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The human brain has 100 billion neurons; each one of these neurons are connected to many other neurons. One neuron may have as many as 20,000 connections; there is between 100 trillion and 500 trillion neural connections in the adult human brain. There are many different parts or 'regions' of the brain. To complete a task - like recalling a memory - usually more than one region of the brain is involved, and they are connected by neural networks which is like the brain's wiring. It is believed that there are problems with the brain's wiring in schizophrenia.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The DSM-IV-TR or the ICD-10 criteria are used to determine whether a person has schizophrenia. These criteria use the self-reported experiences of the person and reported abnormalities (unusual occurrences) in the behavior of the person, followed by a clinical assessment. A person can be determined to have the disease only if the symptoms are severe.


title: Schizophrenia

text: There are various medical conditions, other psychiatric conditions and drug abuse related reactions that may mimic the symptoms of schizophrenia (meaning they have some or all of the same symptoms). For example, delirium can cause visual hallucinations, or an unpredictable changing levels of consciousness. Schizophrenia occurs along with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), a disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with certain ideas or actions. However, separating the obsessions of OCD from the delusions of schizophrenia can be difficult.


title: Schizophrenia

text: There is no clear evidence that treating schizophrenia with anti-psychotic drugs early is effective. The British NICE guidelines recommend cognitive behavioural talk therapy for all people at risk. In recent research, 76 patients at risk for schizophrenia were divided into two groups. One group got omega3 for 3 months and the other got a dummy pill (food oil). After 12 months only 4.9% of the omega 3 group had got schizophrenia compared to 27.5% in the other group. There is some evidence which shows that early treatment with drugs improves short term outcomes for people who have a serious episode of mental illness. These measures show little benefit five years later. Attempting to prevent schizophrenia in the pre-onset phase with anti-psychotic drugs is of uncertain benefit and so is not recommended (as of 2009). Prevention is difficult because there is no reliable way to find out in advance who will get schizophrenia.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The treatment of schizophrenia is based upon the phase of the illness the person is in. There are three treatment phases:


title: Schizophrenia

text: There are some goals during the acute phase of treatment. Some of these goals are to prevent harm. To prevent harm, the person being treated will have the severity of psychosis and it's symptoms reduced. These symptoms include agitation, aggression, negative symptoms, self-disorder, and thought disorders. Another goal is to find and treat the things that led to the episode of psychosis. Then, the person will be treated by trying to go back to how they were before psychosis. Lastly, the person will be helped by forming social connections and finding out what treatment plans work for them. Some treatment plans can be for a long time, and others can be for a short time.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The stabilization phase also has goals. One is to reduce the stress the person feels. Another is to prevent the person from experiencing psychosis again. Then, the person is helped further with social connection and getting better. If the person has improved with a medication, it is recommended they keep taking it for at least 6 months.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The last phase of treatment is to make sure that the person is improving. If the treatment has bad side effects, it may be changed in this phase. Some treatments during this stage are psychotherapy and medication. Antipsychotic medications greatly reduce the risk of the person experiencing psychosis again. They are strongly recommended.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The first-line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication, which can reduce the positive symptoms in about seven to fourteen days. However, medication fails to improve negative symptoms or problems in thinking significantly. Many antipsychotics are Dopamine antagonists (a substance interfering with how another substance works.) High concentrations of Dopamine are thought to be the cause of hallucinations and delusions. For this reason blocking Dopamine reception helps against hallucinations and delusions.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The British national guidelines for treatment (NICE) suggest checking for reactions to traumatic experiences, deciding together with a doctor about using medication, taking into account the side effect risks of getting diabetes, becoming seriously overweight, getting brain damage (tardive dyskinesia, 5% risk per year), men growing breasts, and feelings described as inner torture (akathesia). The guidelines warn against using more than one antipsychotic drug at the same time.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Some reviews of research sponsored by the makers of antipsychotic drugs claim that about 40 to 50 percent of people have a good response to medication, 30 to 40 percent have a partial response, and 20 percent have an unsatisfactory response (after 6 weeks on two or three different drugs). Other research from The British Journal of Psychiatry were more negative and claimed that "the clinical relevance of antipsychotics is in fact limited". This study included 22 428 patients and 11 antipsychotic drugs.


title: Schizophrenia

text: A drug called clozapine is an effective treatment for people who respond poorly to other drugs, but clozapine can lower the white blood cell count in 1 to 4 percent of people who take it. This is a serious side effect.


title: Schizophrenia

text: For people who are unwilling or unable to take drugs regularly, injectable long-acting preparations of antipsychotics can be used. When used in combination with mental and social interventions (treatment), such preparations can help people to continue their treatment.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Numerous mental and social interventions can be useful in treating schizophrenia. Such interventions include various types of therapy, community-based treatments, supported employment, skills training, token economic interventions, and mental interventions for drug or alcohol use and weight management. Family therapy or education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual, might reduce a return of symptoms or the need for hospitalizations (having to go into hospital.) There is growing evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (also known as “talk therapy”) .


title: Schizophrenia

text: The British national guidelines for treatment (NICE) recommend for both people are at risk of getting schizophrenia and people who have got it, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and family therapy. Getting support from people who have become well from schizophrenia is also strongly recommended.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia has great human and economic costs. The condition results in a decreased life expectancy of 12 to 15 years, primarily because of its association with being overweight, not exercising, and smoking cigarettes. An increased rate of suicide (a person killing themself) plays a lesser role. These differences in life expectancy increased between the 1970s and 1990s.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia is a major cause of disability, with active psychosis ranked as the third-most-disabling condition. Approximately three-fourths of people with schizophrenia have an ongoing disability with symptoms that keep coming back. Some people do recover completely and others function well in society. Most people with schizophrenia live independently, with community support. In people with a first episode of serious mental symptoms, 42 percent have a good long-term outcome, 35 percent have an intermediate outcome and 27 percent have a poor outcome. Outcomes for schizophrenia appear better in the developing world than in the developed world, although that conclusion has been questioned.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The suicide rate of people who have schizophrenia is estimated to be about 4.9 percent, most often occurring in the period following the first appearance of symptoms or the first hospital admission. 20 to 40 percent try to kill themselves at least once.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenia and smoking have shown a strong association in studies worldwide. Use of cigarettes is especially high in individuals who have schizophrenia, with estimates ranging from 80 to 90 percent of these people being regular smokers, compared to 20 percent of the general population. Those individuals who smoke tend to smoke heavily and to smoke cigarettes with a high nicotine content.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Research continues on schizophrenia. In the spring of 2013, genetics associations were shown between five major psychiatric disorders: autism, ADHD, bipolar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia per recent study. In the summer of 2013, for the first time, brain tissue development was replicated in three dimensions by scientists cloning a human "mini-brain" using stem cells. This could help with schizophrenia and autism neurological research (research related to the brain.)


title: Schizophrenia

text: As of 2011, schizophrenia affects around 0.3% to 0.7% of people, or 24 million people worldwide, at some point in their lives. More men are affected than women: the number of males with the disorder is 1.4 times greater than that of females. Schizophrenia usually appears earlier in men. For males the symptoms usually start from 20 to 28 years of age, and in females it is 26 to 32 years of age. Symptoms that start in childhood, middle or old age are much rarer. Despite the received wisdom that schizophrenia occurs at similar rates worldwide, its rate of likelihood varies across the world, within countries, and at the local level. The disorder causes approximately 1% of worldwide disability adjusted life years (in other words, years spent with a disability). The rate of schizophrenia varies depending on how it is defined.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Accounts of a schizophrenia-like syndrome are rare before the 19th century. Detailed case reports from 1797 and 1809, are regarded as the earliest cases of the disorder. Schizophrenia was first described as a distinct syndrome affecting teenagers and young adults by Bénédict Morel in 1853, termed "démence précoce" (literally 'early dementia'). The term dementia praecox was used in 1891 by Arnold Pick in a case report of a psychotic disorder. In 1893 Emil Kraepelin introduced a new distinction in the classification of mental disorders between "dementia praecox" and mood disorder (termed manic depression and including both unipolar and bipolar depression). Kraepelin believed that "dementia praecox" was primarily a disease of the brain, and a form of dementia, different from other forms of dementia such as Alzheimer's disease which usually happen later in life.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Eugen Bleuler coined the term ”schizophrenia”, which translates roughly as "split mind", in 1908. The word was intended to describe the separation of functioning between personality, thinking, memory, and perception. Bleuler realized that the illness was not a dementia because some of his patients improved rather than got worse.


title: Schizophrenia

text: In the early 1970s, the criteria for determining schizophrenia were the subject of numerous controversies. Schizophrenia was diagnosed far more often in the United States than in Europe. This difference was partly the result of looser criteria for determining whether someone had the condition in the United States, where the DSM-II manual was used. In Europe, the ICD-9 manual was used. A 1972 study, published in the journal Science, concluded that the diagnosis of schizophrenia in the United States was often unreliable. These factors resulted in the publication of the DSM-III in 1980 with a stricter and more defined criteria for the diagnosis.


title: Schizophrenia

text: Negative social judgment has been identified as a major obstacle in the recovery of people who have schizophrenia.


title: Schizophrenia

text: In 2002, the term for schizophrenia in Japan was changed from “Seishin-Bunretsu-Byō”　精神分裂病 (“mind-split-disease”) to “Tōgō-shitchō-shō”　統合失調症 (“integration disorder”), in an attempt to reduce feelings of shame or embarrassment. The idea that the disease is caused by multiple factors (not just one mental cause) inspired the new name. The change increased the percentage of people who were informed of the diagnosis from 37 percent to 70 percent over three years.


title: Schizophrenia

text: In the United States in 2002, the cost of schizophrenia, including direct costs (people who were not hospitalized, people who were hospitalized, medicines, and long-term care) and non-healthcare costs (law enforcement, reduced workplace productivity, and unemployment), was estimated to be $62.7 billion.


title: Schizophrenia

text: The book “A Beautiful Mind” and the film of the same name are about the life of John Forbes Nash, an American mathematician and Nobel Prize winner who has schizophrenia. The movie “The Soloist” is based on the life of Nathaniel Ayers, a gifted musician who dropped out of the Julliard School, in New York City after the symptoms of schizophrenia began. He later became homeless in Los Angeles, California, in the notorious Skid Row section.


title: Communication protocol

text: In computing, a communication protocol refers to the set of rules that computers use to communicate with each other. The protocol defines the signals that the computers will give each other, and other details such as how communication begins and/or ends.


title: Rajasthan

text: Rajasthan (Rajasthani:मारवाड़) (Awadhi:राजस्थान) or the former : Rajputana is a state in northwestern India. It is the largest state of India in terms of land area; 132,150 mi² or 342,269 km². It is bigger than the Republic of the Congo but smaller than Germany. In traditional India geography it falls under the North Indian zone. The Thar Desert covers most parts of the state. The capital of the state is city of Jaipur.


title: Rajasthan

text: Before Indian independence the area of Rajasthan was known as Rajputana; it consisted of many states of varying sizes ruled by Rajput princes.


title: Conflict

text: A conflict is a struggle between people which may be physical, or between conflicting ideas. The word comes from Latin "conflingere" Conflingere means "to come together for a battle". Conflicts can either be within one person, or they can involve several people or groups. Conflicts arise because there are needs, values or ideas that are seen to be different, and there is no means to reconcile the dispute.


title: Conflict

text: Very often, conflicts lead to fights, or even wars (in the case where conflicts are solved with weapons). Conflict between ideas is usually fought with propaganda.


title: Electronic dance music

text: Electronic dance music, often simplified as EDM, (occasionally referred to as electronica or dance) is a form of electronic music which is meant to be danced to, often in the setting of a nightclub, discothèque or party. Generally, electronic dance music is created by producers and composers, and is then used by DJs, or disc jockeys, in the above settings. Electronic dance music takes many forms and styles. As a genre, it is generally up-tempo music created by electronic software and machines, such as synthesizers, drum machines, keyboards, samplers, sequencers and computers. Occasionally, the term "techno" is used to describe electronic dance music in general, despite being a generalisation as techno is a distinguishable subgenre of EDM, Techno being used to talk about EDM is partly technos fault grammatically due to the echn part of techno looking similar to the letters edm.


title: Electronic dance music

text: Being quite a generic term, EDM has a variety of 'origins' and derivations. EDM can be said to stem from a fusion between regular dance music and electronic music. One notable example can be Donna Summer's 1977 single "I Feel Love", which combined elements of disco with electronic music. The innovative blend helped trigger several major EDM genres, such as Hi-NRG, Eurodance and techno music. Giorgio Moroder, who co-wrote the song and was also one of its producers, additionally created some of the earliest forms of electronic dance music. Kraftwerk are also credited as influencing electronic music. Whilst a lot of electronic dance music originates from disco, this is not the case for all EDM.


title: Electronic dance music

text: The song which has been credited as bringing EDM into mainstream popular music is Madonna's 1998 single "Ray of Light". Whilst it is attributed as helping bring the genre mainstream, electronic dance music existed and had enjoyed popularity years before the single's release; house music, for instance, had been popular in the United States since the early 1990s (its popularity can also be attributed to another Madonna single, 1990's "Vogue").


title: Electronic dance music

text: There are different types of EDM, each varying in style, beats per minute and sound. This is a list of some of the major electronic dance music genres (each genre may additionally have further subgenres, which have not been looked at in too much detail for this section)


title: Cherry blossom

text: Japanese cherry blossom or sakura (Japanese kanji and Chinese character: 桜 or 櫻; katakana: サクラ) are cherry trees, "Prunus serrulata", and their blossoms. The cherry fruit is from a different species of tree.


title: Cherry blossom

text: Cherry trees are a symbol of spring for Japanese people. The word Sakura can also be used as a name for women.


title: Cherry blossom

text: The traditional custom of "Hanami" or "Flower viewing" involves visiting places where sakura are blooming. Japanese people love cherry blossoms, but they are not the national flower in Japan. Someiyoshino is the most famous type of sakura.


title: Legal precedent

text: In common law legal systems, a precedent or authority is a legal case that establishes a principle or rule. This principle or rule is then used by the court or other judicial bodies use when deciding later cases with similar issues or facts. The use of precedent provides predictability, stability, fairness, and efficiency in the law. The Latin term stare decisis is the doctrine of legal precedent.


title: Legal precedent

text: The precedent on an issue is the collective body of judicially announced principles that a court should consider when interpreting the law. When a precedent establishes an important legal principle, or represents new or changed law on a particular issue, that precedent is often known as a landmark decision.


title: Legal precedent

text: Precedent is central to legal analysis and rulings in countries that follow common law like the United Kingdom and Canada (except Quebec). In some systems precedent is not binding but is taken into account by the courts.


title: Legal precedent

text: Precedent that must be applied or followed is known as "binding precedent" (alternately "mandatory precedent", "mandatory" or "binding authority", etc.). Under the doctrine of "stare decisis", a lower court must honor and the findings of law made by a higher court that is within the appeals path of cases the court hears. In the United States state and federal courts, jurisdiction is often divided geographically among local trial courts, several of which fall under the territory of a regional appeals court, and all regional courts fall under a supreme court. By definition decisions of lower courts are not binding on each other or any courts higher in the system, nor are appeals court decisions binding on each other or on local courts that fall under a different appeals court. Further, courts must follow their own proclamations of law made earlier on other cases, and honor rulings made by other courts in disputes among the parties before them pertaining to the same pattern of facts or events, unless they have a strong reason to change these rulings.


title: Legal precedent

text: In extraordinary circumstances a higher court may overturn or overrule mandatory precedent, but will often attempt to distinguish the precedent before overturning it, thereby limiting the scope of the precedent in any event.


title: Legal precedent

text: Precedent that is not mandatory but which is useful or relevant is known as "persuasive precedent" (or "persuasive authority" or "advisory precedent"). Persuasive precedent includes cases decided by lower courts, by peer or higher courts from other geographic jurisdictions, cases made in other parallel systems (for example, military courts, administrative courts, indigenous/tribal courts, State courts versus Federal courts in the United States), and in some exceptional circumstances, cases of other nations, treaties, world judicial bodies, etc.


title: Legal precedent

text: In a case of first impression, courts often rely on persuasive precedent from courts in other jurisdictions that have previously dealt with similar issues. Persuasive precedent may become binding through the adoption of the persuasive precedent by a higher court.


title: Legal precedent

text: Long-held custom, which has traditionally been recognized by courts and judges, is the first kind of precedent. Custom can be so deeply entrenched in the society at large that it gains the force of law. There need never have been a specific case decided on the same or similar issues in order for a court to take notice of customary or traditional precedent in its deliberations.


title: Legal precedent

text: The other type of precedent is case law. In common law systems this type of precedent is granted more or less weight in the deliberations of a court according to a number of factors. Most important is whether the precedent is "on point," that is, does it deal with a circumstance identical or very similar to the circumstance in the instant case? Second, when and where was the precedent decided? A recent decision in the same jurisdiction as the instant case will be given great weight. Next in descending order would be recent precedent in jurisdictions whose law is the same as local law. Least weight would be given to precedent that stems from dissimilar circumstances, older cases that have since been contradicted, or cases in jurisdictions that have dissimilar law.


title: Legal precedent

text: Precedents viewed against passing time can serve to establish trends, thus indicating the next logical step in developing interpretations of the law. For instance, if immigration has become increasingly restricted under the law, then the next legal decision on that subject may serve to restrict it further still.


title: Legal precedent

text: Scholars have recently attempted to apply network theory to precedents in order to establish which precedents are most important or authoritative, and how the court's interpretations and priorities have changed over time.


title: Legal precedent

text: Super-stare decisis is a term used for important precedent that is resistant or immune from being overturned, without regard to whether correctly decided in the first place. It may be viewed as one extreme in a range of precedential power, or alternately, to express a belief, or a critique of that belief, that some decisions should not be overturned.


title: Legal precedent

text: In 1976, Richard Posner and William Landes coined the term "super-precedent," in an article they wrote about testing theories of precedent by counting citations. Posner and Landes used this term to describe the influential effect of a cited decision. The term "super-precedent" later became associated with different issue: the difficulty of overturning a decision. In 1992, Rutgers professor Earl Maltz criticized the Supreme Court's decision in "Planned Parenthood v. Casey" for endorsing the idea that if one side can take control of the Court on an issue of major national importance (as in "Roe v. Wade"), that side can protect its position from being reversed "by a kind of super-stare decisis."


title: Legal precedent

text: The issue arose anew in the questioning of Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito during their confirmation hearings before the Senate Judiciary Committee. Before the hearings the chair of the committee, Senator Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania, wrote an op/ed in the "New York Times" referring to "Roe" as a "super-precedent." He mentioned the concept (and made seemingly humorous references to "super-duper precedent") during the hearings, but neither Roberts nor Alito endorsed the term or the concept.


title: Legal precedent

text: In a controversial 1997 book, attorney Michael Trotter blamed over-reliance by American lawyers on binding and persuasive authority, rather than the merits of the case at hand, as a major factor behind the escalation of legal costs during the 20th century. He argued that courts should ban the citation of persuasive precedent from outside their jurisdiction, with two exceptions:


title: Al-Khwarizmi

text: Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (, ) was a Persian mathematician and astronomer. He was believed to have been born around 800 AD and died in 850 AD during the Abbasid Empire.


title: Al-Khwarizmi

text: Al-Khwarizmi was known for the book he wrote about algebra, "Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing". He also wrote a book which taught the Western world about Hindu numerals and how to use them. This book was later titled the "Hindu Art of Reckoning". With his books, al-Khwarizmi authored astronomical tables- tables designed to calculate the position of planets or eclipses.


title: Al-Khwarizmi

text: His work changed the understanding and knowledge of mathematics in the Middle Ages and mathematicians in Europe read his book. They began to use these Hindu–Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...) instead of the Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, ...). The Arabic numeral system is easier to do mathematics with, as Roman numbers have no place values. This means that they can only deal with whole numbers and do simple equations. Roman numerals also have no number zero.


title: Al-Khwarizmi

text: He wrote a book on algebra named "Al-Jabr Wal' Muqibla". In this book, he introduced his own number system and also introduced Arabic numerals. His books were translated into Greek and Latin. They named his books "So said Algorizmi". The word "algorithm" is derived from the word Algorizmi. The word algebra comes from the word al-jabr that is at the beginning of the title of the book.


title: Al-Khwarizmi

text: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi worked at the House of Wisdom, where people worked on translating scientific works.


title: The Edge

text: David Howell Evans (born 8 August 1961), more widely known as The Edge, is an English-born musician. He is known best as the guitarist, keyboardist and backing vocalist for the Irish rock band U2.


title: The Edge

text: David Howell Evans was born at the Barking Maternity Hospital, in Essex, England. His parents, Garvin and Gwenda Evans, are Welsh. When he was one, his family moved to County Dublin, Ireland. There, he attended St. Andrew's National School. He received piano and guitar lessons with his brother, Dik Evans. At Mount Temple Comprehensive School, they both answered an advertisement posted by Larry Mullen Jr. wanting musicians to form a band. The band accepted both of them. This band went through several major changes before emerging as U2 in March 1978. Dik Evans left the band just before the name change. U2 began performing in various venues in Ireland and eventually began developing a following. Their first album, "Boy", was released in 1980.


title: The Edge

text: In 1981, Evans came very close to leaving U2 for religious reasons, but he was persuaded to stay. During this time, he became involved with a group called Shalom Tigers. Bono and Larry Mullen Jr. were also involved in this group. Shortly after deciding to remain with the band, he wrote a piece of music that later became "Sunday Bloody Sunday". The Edge married his high school girlfriend Aislinn O'Sullivan on 12 July 1983. The couple had three daughters together: Hollie in 1984, Arran in 1985 and Blue Angel in 1989. The couple separated in 1990, but were unable to get officially divorced until 1996 because of Irish laws regarding marriage; divorce was made legal in 1995.


title: The Edge

text: During U2's Zoo TV Tour, The Edge began to date Morleigh Steinberg. The couple began dating in 1993, and had their daughter, Sian, and a son, Levi. They were married on June 22, 2002.


title: Hanuman

text: Hanuman is one of the most popular gods of Hindus. He is also known by other names like Hanumat. His mother’s name was Anjana. Based on her mother’s name, Hanuman is sometimes called "Anjaneya", that is, one born of Anjana. His father’s name was Kesari.


title: Hanuman

text: He is blessed by Vayu as the god of winds. Hanuman’s image shows him as a strong man with the face of a monkey. He also has a tail it represents the morality, higher pride of being self.


title: Hanuman

text: Hanuman is a very powerful and strong god. He finds an important place in the Ramayana. He was a devotee of Rama, a form (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, a god of Hindus. Hanuman is a figure of strength, perseverance and devotion. When he was young he thought the sun a mango. One of his most famous stories was when he helped Rama rescue Sita from Ravana which is the famous story of Diwali.


title: C Sharp (programming language)

text: C# (pronounced "see sharp") is a computer programming language. It is developed by Microsoft. It was created to use all capacities of .NET platform. The first version was released in 2001. The most recent version is C# 11, which was released in November 2022, alongside .NET 7. C# is a modern language. C#'s development team is led by Anders Hejlsberg, the creator of Delphi.


title: C Sharp (programming language)

text: Today, C# can be run on most platforms (Windows, Linux, macOS, etc.) without changing the source code. C# can be run on the Xbox 360 platform with a special framework.


title: C Sharp (programming language)

text: C# code is similar to C++ and Java code. The CLR (Common Language Runtime) is needed in order to run a C# program.


title: C Sharp (programming language)

text: * This program asks for input from the user, i.e. a name. It then prints "Hello [name]", replacing [name] with whatever the person typed in.


title: C Sharp (programming language)

text: C# can be edited in a number of IDEs (Integrated Development Environments), some of which are listed below:


title: Eritrea

text: Eritrea is located on the coast of the Red Sea. It is north of the Bab-el-Mandeb and the Horn of Africa. Eritrea has borders with the countries of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. The land area of Eritrea is 101,000 km², and it is one of the smallest countries in Africa.


title: Eritrea

text: Eritrea became an independent country on May 24, 1993. It is one of the newest countries in the world.


title: Eritrea

text: Many different countries have ruled the land that is now called Eritrea. Between 1885 and 1941 it was a colony of Italy. Between 1941 and 1952, the United Nations put it under the protection of the United Kingdom. After 1952, Eritrea became a part of Ethiopia. This was the reason for a long civil war between the Eritreans and the government of Ethiopia.


title: Eritrea

text: Eritreans are the native inhabitants of Eritrea, as well as the global diaspora of Eritreans displaced by the Eritrean War of Independence and seeking refuge from human rights violations by the Eritrean government. Eritreans constitute several component ethnic groups, many of which are closely related to ethnic groups in Ethiopia and other parts of the Horn of Africa.


title: Eritrea

text: The Eritrean national identity began to develop during the Scramble for Africa, when Italy claimed Eritrea as one of its colonies. This marked the establishment of Eritrea's present-day borders. Following Italy's defeat in World War II and the subsequent British administration of Eritrea, the former colony was federated with Ethiopia in 1952. Tensions increased through the 1950s between Eritreans wishing for independence and the Ethiopian government, culminating in the Eritrean War of Independence.


title: Eritrea

text: The majority of the Tigrinya inhabit the highlands of Eritrea; however, migration to other parts of the country has occurred. Their language is called Tigrinya. They are the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting about 60% of the population. The predominantly Tigrinya populated urban centers in Eritrea are the capital Asmara, Mendefera, Dekemhare, Adi Keyh, Adi Quala and Senafe, while there is a significant population of Tigrinya in other cities including Keren, and Massawa.


title: Eritrea

text: They are 96% Christians, (of which 90% are of the Eritrean Orthodox faith, 5% Roman Catholic and Eastern Catholic (whose mass is held in Ge'ez as opposed to Latin), and 5% belonging to various Protestant and other Christian denominations, the majority of which belong to the (Lutheran) Evangelical Church of Eritrea).


title: Eritrea

text: The Tigre reside in the western lowlands in Eritrea. Many also migrated to Sudan at the time of the Ethiopian-Eritrean conflict and lived there since. They are a nomadic and pastoralist people, related to the Tigrinya and to the Beja people. They are a predominantly Muslim nomadic people who inhabit the northern, western, and coastal lowlands of Eritrea, where they constitute 30% of local residents. Some also inhabit areas in eastern Sudan. 95% of the Tigre people adhere to the Islamic religion Sunni Islam, but there are a small number of Christians among them as well (often referred to as the Mensaï in Eritrea). Their language is called Tigre.


title: Eritrea

text: The Jeberti people in Eritrea trace descent from early Muslim adherents. The term "Jeberti" is also locally sometimes used to generically refer to all Islamic inhabitants of the highlands. The Jeberti in Eritrea speak Arabic and Tigrinya. They account for about 4% of the Tigrinya speakers in the nation.


title: Eritrea

text: According to the CIA, the Afar constitute under 5% of the nation's population. They live in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region of Eritrea, as well as the Afar Region in Ethiopia, and Djibouti. They speak the Afar language as a mother tongue, and are predominantly Muslim. Afars in Eritrea number about 397,000 individuals, the smallest population out of the countries they reside in. In Djibouti, there are about 780,000 group members, and in Ethiopia, they number approximately 1,300,000.


title: Eritrea

text: The Saho represent 4% of Eritrea's population. They principally reside in the Debubawi Keyih Bahri Region and the Northern Red Sea Region of Eritrea. Their language is called Saho. They are predominantly Muslim, although a few Christians known as the Irob live in the Debub Region of Eritrea and the Tigray region of Ethiopia.


title: Eritrea

text: The Bilen in Eritrea represent around 2% of the country's population. They are primarily concentrated in the north-central areas, in and around the city of Keren, and south towards Asmara, the nation's capital. Many of them entered Eritrea from Kush (central Sudan) in the 8th century and settled at Merara, after which they went to Lalibela and Lasta. The Bilen then returned to Axum in Ethiopia's Tigray Province, and battled with the natives; in the resulting aftermath, the Bilen returned to their main base at Merara. The Bilen include adherents of both Islam and Christianity. They speak the Bilen as a mother tongue. Christian adherents are mainly urban and have intermingled with the Tigrinya who live in the area. Muslim adherents are mainly rural and have interbred with the adjacent Tigre.


title: Eritrea

text: The Beja in Eritrea, or Hedareb, constitute under 5% of local residents. They mainly live along the north-western border with Sudan. Group members are predominantly Muslim and communicate in Hedareb as a first or second language. The Beja also include the Beni-Amer people, who have retained their native Beja language alongside Hedareb.


title: Eritrea

text: According to the CIA, the Kunama constitute around 2% of Eritrea's population. They mainly live in the country's Gash Barka Region, as well as in adjacent parts of Ethiopia's Tigray Region. Many of them reside in the contested border village of Badme. Their language is called Kunama. Although some Kunama still practice traditional beliefs, most are converts to either Christianity (Roman Catholic and Protestant) or Islam.


title: Eritrea

text: The Nara represent under 5% of the nation's population. They principally reside along the south-western border with Sudan and Ethiopia. They are generally Muslim, with a few Christians and some practising their indigenous beliefs. Their language is called Nara.


title: Eritrea

text: The Rashaida are one of Eritrea's nine recognized ethnic groups. They represent around 2% of the population of Eritrea. The Rashaida reside in the northern coastal lowlands of Eritrea and the northern eastern coasts of Sudan. They are predominantly Muslim and are the only ethnic group in Eritrea to have Arabic as their communal language, specifically the Hejazi dialect. The Rashaida first came to Eritrea in the 19th century from the Arabian Coast.


title: Eritrea

text: A few monolingual Italian Eritreans remain. As of 2008, they were estimated at 900 people, down from around 38,000 residents at the end of World War II. They contributed with the development of the Eritrean language with a local "Pidgin".


title: Eritrea

text: Eritrea is known for being the most oppressive country in Africa, sometimes considered to be the "North Korea of Africa". The nation has been accused of many human rights violations, severely limited freedoms, and many arbitrary (made-up) arrests.


title: Eritrea

text: The population of Eritrea is about 3.6 million. About 0.5 million people live in Asmara. People from Eritrea are called Eritreans. Most of them speak "Tigrinya" or "Tigre" as their first language. The people usually use Tigrinya or Arabic for official business.


title: Eritrea

text: Eritrea has nine ethnic groups. These are the Afar people, the Bilen people, the Hedareb people, the Kunama, the Nara, the Rashaida, the Saho, the Tigre, and Tigray-Tigrinya.


title: Eritrea

text: The currency of Eritrea is called the Nakfa. Eritrea is a very poor country. Almost half of Eritrea's economy comes from Eritreans who live abroad. They send money home to their families. Most of the rest comes from farming.


title: Eritrea

text: Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena.


title: Old English

text: The Old English language, often called Anglo-Saxon, was spoken in Anglo-Saxon England from 450 to 1100 . It was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, who came to Great Britain from what is now Germany and Denmark. Different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms spoke different dialects, but a western dialect became the main literary version. Both modern languages of England and Scotland (English and Scots) came from the language of the Anglo-Saxons.


title: Old English

text: Old English is very different from Modern English and has many more Germanic words. In early centuries, it was rarely written down and even then was in runes. After the 9th century, the Latin alphabet was used more often. Old English grammar is difficult, with complex inflections, and close to Old German. Latin was used by churchmen like the venerable Bede. Old English gradually turned into Middle English after the Norman Conquest of 1066.


title: Phrase

text: A "phrase" is a group of words that adds meaning to a sentence. A phrase is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject, verb and a predicate.


title: Phrase

text: In English there are five different kinds of phrases, one for each of the main parts of speech. In a phrase, the main word, or the word that is what the phrase is about, is called the "head." In these examples, it is printed in "bold". The other words in the phrase do the work of changing or "modifying" the head.


title: Phrase

text: In a Verb phrase, one or more words work together to give more meaning to a verb. In English, the verb phrase is very complex, but a good description of its many forms can be found here.


title: Phrase

text: In a Prepositional phrase, one or more words work together to give information about time, location, or possession, or condition. The preposition always appears at the front of the phrase (preposition = pre-position).


title: Foolscap

text: Foolscap is paper cut to the size of , sometimes . This was a traditional paper size used in Europe and the British Commonwealth, before the adoption of the international standard A4 paper, the most common standard size in the world. Foolscap was so called because, in the 18th century, folio-sized paper had the watermark of a fool's cap on it. Basically, it is taller than A4.


title: Foolscap

text: In North America, foolscap is lined, legal-size paper. In some South American countries it is called "oficio", because it is or was used for official documents.


title: Foolscap

text: Paper of the size is now very rarely used, being superseded by A4 (297 x 210). However, some ring binders, lever arch files, suspended files, and other filing related things still use the size.


title: Capybara

text: Capybara ("Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris") is a semi-aquatic rodent of South America. It weighs about a hundred pounds, and is about two feet tall at the shoulder. The capybara is the world's largest rodent.


title: Capybara

text: Capybaras are closely related to guinea pigs and to chinchillas. When they are full-grown, they weigh about 55 kg, or 100 pounds. The capybara's stocky body is about a meter, or 3 feet, long, and its shoulder is about 60 centimeters, or about two feet, high off the ground. Females are usually bigger and heavier than males. Capybaras have brown or reddish-brown fur. When they are old their fur is thin, their skin can get sunburned easily. Their eyes and ears and nostrils are high on their heads, so they can easily be kept above water when the capybara is swimming.


title: Capybara

text: Capybaras live in grassy wetlands or close to rivers in many parts of South America. In the morning, evening, and at night they eat grass, mostly on land. They spend the hottest hours of the day in the water. They are good swimmers and divers. Webs between their toes help them swim. They can only hold their breath underwater for about five minutes at a time. Sometimes they hide in water for much longer, with only their noses sticking out to breathe. Many predators like to eat them. They are a favourite food for jaguars, eagles, anaconda snakes, and many other animals.


title: Capybara

text: Capybaras eat plants, mostly grass. Their babies are usually born in litters of four at one time. They can start to eat grass once they are about a week old, but they will also keep nursing from their mothers and even from other grown females until they are about four months old. They live in large groups, usually 10-30 capybaras together. Some groups have even had 100 capybaras. They talk to each other using many sounds: clicks, grunts, whistles, and barks.


title: Capybara

text: Capybaras are not endangered. Their population is stable, not increasing or decreasing very much. They can live in towns or zoos. Humans can touch them, but it is not common, as it can cause disease. Sometimes humans eat capybaras. They are hunted for meat, and sometimes they are raised on farms. Also, their tough skin is sometimes used to make high quality leather, especially for gloves. Capybaras are sometimes kept as pets. They can be kept pets in the United States, but not in some places. They are also very liked in Japan, and are kept as pets there too.


title: Autism

text: Autism is a serious disorder that affects brain development. It is one of a group of disorders called autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Asperger syndrome, atypical autism and childhood autism are kinds of autism spectrum disorders.


title: Autism

text: ASD is a condition that affects the way a person relates to their environment. The word "spectrum" is used because not all people with autism have the same traits and difficulties. Some people find interacting more difficult than others. Autism may be very apparent in someone or they may show no outward signs of it. The main areas of difficulty are in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication {speaking and body language} and narrow or repetitive behaviors and interests. In most cases of autism, motor communication {doing things} is affected. All these signs develop in the child's first two to three years of age.


title: Autism

text: People who have autism find it difficult to act in a way that other people think is "normal". They may find it difficult to talk to other people and to look at other people in the eyes. Some people with autism do not like being touched. A person who has autism can seem shy or uninterested. They may talk only to themselves, rock themselves backwards and forwards, and laugh at their own thoughts. They might not like any type of change and may find it very difficult to learn a new behavior like going to school.


title: Autism

text: Autism is caused by the way that the brain develops, both before and after a baby is born. About one in every 160 children has an autism spectrum disorder. It has no known cure, and many autistic people do not want a cure. They want it to be accepted as a difference. This is known as neurodiversity.


title: Autism

text: The word “autism” comes from the Greek word “autos”, meaning “self.” The term describes conditions in which a person is removed from social interaction—hence, an “isolated self”. The term "autism" was first used by a psychiatrist named Eugen Bleuler in 1911 to describe one group of symptoms of schizophrenia. Sigmund Freud considered this idea and thought it was related to narcissism.


title: Autism

text: Three decades later, researchers in the United States began to use the term autism to describe children with emotional or social problems. Two researchers by the name of Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner were the pioneers of the research study for autism in the 1940s.


title: Autism

text: In 1943 Leo Kanner (a doctor from Johns Hopkins University) did a study of 11 children. He found out that they had difficulties such as changing environments, being sensitive to certain stimuli, having speech problems and allergies to food. Later he named the children’s condition “early infantile autism”, now called "autism".


title: Autism

text: In 1944 Hans Asperger studied separately a group of children and found very similar conditions. The children in Hans Asperger's group did not repeat words and they had no speech problems like Kanner's did. However, the children did have problems with fine motor skills such as holding a pencil. The children he studied seemed to be clumsier than other children. They also had “[...] a lack of empathy, little ability to form friendships, one-sided conversation, intense absorption in a special interest and clumsy movements”. Hans Asperger described a "milder" form of autism; his discovery is now called Asperger syndrome.


title: Autism

text: In 1943 and 1949, Kanner described the children he studied in scientific papers. In these papers, he wrote that he thought the children's parents were not loving them enough. He wrote that this might be part of the reason why the children had autism. For example, in 1949 he wrote that the children's parents showed no warmth, or love, to their children. He thought the parents were so "cold" that he compared them to refrigerators:"“[The children] were left neatly in refrigerators which did not defrost. Their withdrawal seems to be an act of turning away from such a situation to seek comfort in solitude”."This idea became known as the "refrigerator mother theory". For decades parents were blamed for causing their children's autism by not loving their children enough. By now, we know this is not true.


title: Autism

text: Schizophrenia and autism were linked in many researchers’ studies. It was in the 1960s when medical professionals started to see these two disorders as separate conditions. Since 1980, Kanner’s so-called "early infantile autism" is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Because there was not enough information on the differences between schizophrenia and autism, the DSM came out with a more accurate definition of autism in 1987. Since then, early infantile autism is called autism disorder. For the first time the DSM also introduced standardized criteria to diagnose autism. The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) expanded the definition of autism and included milder cases of autism. Asperger’s syndrome was added as a type of autism in 1994. The fifth edition of the DSM was released in 2013. In this edition, the types of autism are grouped under the general term Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Individuals are now diagnosed on an autism spectrum with varying levels of intensity (mild, moderate and severe).


title: Autism

text: In 2021, an online survey of 16-90 year-olds showed that autistic men are more likely to be bisexual, while autistic women are more likely to be homosexual.


title: Autism

text: Different studies resulted in different numbers of the frequency of autism spectrum disorders. One study stated ten cases of classical autism, 2.5 cases of Asperger's syndrome and 15 cases of mild autism (PDD-NOS) in 10,000 people - tendency: increasing. Other sources speak about 60 autism spectrum disorder cases in 10,000 people. However, the number of autism cases is not equal in men and in women. Here, the results of studies vary highly. Researchers in general say that 3-4 men are diagnosed for every woman that is diagnosed. This ratio decreases for severe cases to 1:1. It increases for high-functioning cases and in Asperger's syndrome reaches a ratio of 8:1. Recently, the awareness has increased that this ratio may be so high because studies are simply missing female autistic people. This could be because tests for autism typically focus on male autism traits. Another possible explanation is that autistic females may be better at adapting to social expectations and hiding their social problems. Studies have suggested that the brains of autistic females may rather be like neurotypical men’s (non-autistic men) brains of the same age. These may be reasons why it is not so easy to realise whether a woman is autistic — and therefore, why more men than women are diagnosed.


title: Autism

text: Over the past years, individuals have been using the terms "autism" and "autism spectrum disorder" like they mean the same thing. Autism is a spectrum disorder. This means that some people who have autism are only mildly affected. These people may go to regular schools, go to work, and have partners and families. Some people are affected worse than others. These people may be able to take care of most of their own needs at home like dressing and getting food, but not be able to have a regular job or travel alone. A person who has severe autism may need to be cared for all their life. Few people with autism are extraordinarily gifted or talented. These people are said to have savant syndrome. They are often very good at just one thing in particular, like mathematics, playing the piano or remembering football scores.


title: Autism

text: The overall category of the Autism Spectrum Disorder is called Pervasive Developmental Disorder. The name describes medical conditions with developmental problems in a number of fields. In most cases, when referring to the Autism Spectrum Disorder, we are referring to the most common disorders:


title: Autism

text: The different categories, the so-called “International Classification of Diseases” (ICD), are defined by the World Health Organization. As shown in the table, the diseases vary in several points. These are the age of onset, social interaction, communication and behaviour. An individual belongs to a certain category, depending on the areas of impairment. All three may seem similar in symptoms, yet are not the same. Still, people within one group show similar symptoms. The groups can be used to search for an underlying cause of the disease and to provide a better treatment.


title: Autism

text: Scientists do not know exactly what causes autism. There may be many different causes for the different types of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Scientists do know about some things that make a person more likely to have an Autism Spectrum Disorder.


title: Autism

text: The autism spectrum disorders are highly heritable disorders. This means that it is very likely (over 90%) that the child of an autistic person will also be on the autism spectrum. The reason for this are certain genes. These genes are linked to autism and are passed on from a parent to the child. Already Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger noticed that fathers of autistic children often preferred being on their own over being with people. Therefore, Kanner and Asperger suspected a genetic cause. Studies with families with a child on the autism spectrum were done to investigate this theory. They found that sometimes the children’s parents (fathers as well as mothers) also show social difficulties, shyness and problems with understanding contextual information when talking to someone. Some studies have found this in only 10 out of 100 families, some in as much as 45 out of every 100 families.


title: Autism

text: Other than the studies done on children who had autistic parents, recently a couple of studies were done on children who either had a sibling or a twin showing autistic signs. Similar to the results in the autistic parents studies, most children having autistic siblings/twins were found out to be showing autistic traits. According to a recent study, around fifty percent of infants with autistic siblings showed some kind of behaviour different from what's expected, around one fourth of them took longer in achieving infancy milestones and around 17% of all were later diagnosed with ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder).


title: Autism

text: Moreover, twin studies showed that it is much more likely that identical twins are both on the autism spectrum than that non-identical twins are both on the autism spectrum. Identical twins have nearly the same DNA. Therefore, it is very likely that they are either both autistic or both not autistic. Non-identical twins share only half of their genes which makes it less likely that they both have the disorder. Scientists have shown that a child is 20 to 80 times more likely to be autistic if they have a sister or brother who is autistic.


title: Autism

text: However, it is not a single gene that increases the risk for autism spectrum disorders. Several genes have been linked to the disorder. All of the found related genes can in sum only explain one or two out of every ten autism cases. None of the genes that have been found to play a role in autism can explain more than one out of every 100 cases.


title: Autism

text: Researchers have not found a single neuronal correlate for autism spectrum disorders, i.e. no abnormal functioning of the brain is the only cause of autism. Nevertheless, scientists found some differences between the brains of autistic people and the typical human brain. These differences lie in the anatomy of the brain, the activity in certain brain regions as well as in the connections between brain regions. It is a general tendency that autistic people use the same brain regions as other people but show different activity. In some areas the activity is less, in others it is stronger. However, this may only be true for male autists. Throughout the last years, studies have shown that brains of autistic women might be like normal men's brains.


title: Autism

text: Some researchers grouped autistic people's difficulties into three main areas in order to investigate their neuronal basis.


title: Autism

text: Researchers say that building a Theory of mind is one of the main problems for autistic people. This makes it difficult for them to interact with others. Problems in social interaction are probably worsened by low preference for social stimuli, such as faces. This tendency has been found in studies tracking the person’s eye movements and in EEG studies. EEG studies showed lower than normal activity in the fusiform face area (FFA), a brain region that is usually active when seeing faces. However, the results of other studies could not show this.


title: Autism

text: Also, scientists measured brain activity of people on the autism spectrum with fMRI while they were thinking about their own emotions. They found activity in the same brain regions as in non-autistic people. The difference was that some regions which are important for thinking about oneself and emotions (especially the anterior insula) were less active in autistic people. Other brain regions were much more active. These findings may explain the difficulties people with autism experience when trying to understand complex facial expressions and emotions (such as shame, jealousy).


title: Autism

text: People on the autism spectrum show a lower ability for executive function. Executive function means physical, emotional and cognitive self-control. This includes planning actions, focusing, shifting attention and flexibility of behaviour and thinking. Autistic people's ability can improve but it will remain below non-autistic people's ability in executive function.


title: Autism

text: Problems with executive function are probably caused by large networks in the brain. Grey matter and white matter irregularities have a negative influence on the way different brain regions work together (functional integration). A smaller corpus callosum leads to abnormalities in working memory (an active process of keeping a memory until it is needed) and planning actions.