title: Amloki

text: Amloki hails from a poor family. Her father,Ratan is a gambler and steals jewelry while her mother runs the family by preparing jaggery at daytime and acting in Jatra at night. The sole reason for her mother’s existence is Amloki. She believes that someday her daughter will be cured. However, destiny has its own plans. Amloki loses her mother suddenly.


title: Amloki

text: Her responsibility now solely rests on the shoulders of her irresponsible father. But instead of taking care of his special daughter, her father shoves off his duties and makes a quick escape. Now how Amloki survives all by herself in this cruel world and takes her truant father to task and makes him realize his mistakes.


title: Amloki

text: Amloki's mother Chandana who is in fact daughter of the influential GuhaThakurtas meets with an accident and loses her memory. However she is rescued by her cousin Mohana. Mohana then takes her to her maternal home of the GuhaThakurtas where in addition to Chandana's parents, her uncle and aunt and their two kids (Mohana and Nilay) reside along with Nilay's wife Baisakhi who is a shrewd manipulator.


title: Amloki

text: Chandana's family had earlier estranged her upon her marriage to Ratan who they knew was a good for nothing thug. However seeing the dire situation of Chandana, they welcome her back and their parental love comes to the fore. However Chandana can't seem to remember anything including her parents.


title: Amloki

text: In a separate development, Mohana rescues Amlaki from an orphanage and takes her to the GuhaThakurtas in a bid to adopt her as she is biologically unfit to reproduce. Amlaki is ecstatic upon seeing her real mother Chandana in the GuhaThakurta household. However she is unable to communicate this because of her inabilities. Ratan disguises himself as Ratnadeep Sengupta and under this guise meets Mohana to charm her as he believes she is the key to the GuhaThakurta household.He shows himself to be a simplistic classy and sophisticated gentleman and Mohana instantly falls in love with him unaware of his true intentions. Mohana's parents and Baisakhi conspire against Amlaki and get her deported from the household to a remote location. Mohana and Nilay are furious upon knowing this and vow to get Amlaki back. In the meanwhile, police comes to the GuhaThakurta household and arrests Nabakumar GuhaThakurta for his alleged role in the kidnapping of Amlaki.Amlaki is rescued and brought back to the house while Ratan in a bid to marry Mohana visits the family and is shocked to find Chandana and Amlaki there. However he is relieved to find that Chandana has lost all her memory and can't seem to identify him. Although Amlaki recognises him, she is unable to point this out to the family members.


title: Amloki

text: Taking advantage of Mohana's naivety Ratnadeep gets closer to her and is about to announce his decision to marry her when he comes to know that Chandana's father Nabakumar GuhaThakurta is the main owner and thus Chandana is the heir to the GuhaThakurta household and not Mohana whose father is just a mere employee. Sensing this opportunity he woos Chandana and tricks Nabakumar into thinking he is a perfect match for his daughter. Charmed by Ratan, Nabakumar agrees to this marriage as Ratan falsely informs them that Chandana's legitimate husband is dead. Mohana is shocked by this decision. To cover his tracks, Ratan lies that Amloki is actually a kleptomaniac and has a tendency of stealing things. Chandana is offended but decides to keep mum. Nabakumar insists on meeting Ratan's family members despite the latter's reluctance. Ratan asks his sister and her husband to play the role of his parents and sets up few miscreants disguised as genuine local people to sing praises about him.However Baisakhi catches onto Ratan and goes to Mohana with this information but Mohana outright dismisses her and even insults. This causes an incensed Baisakhi to keep shut and she vows not to let anyone know the truth but instead let them suffer. Mohana,on the other hand, is deeply in love with Ratnadeep and can't imagine a life without him. She is hell bent on marrying him by hook or by crook. She makes several unsuccessful attempts to stop Chandana and Ratnadeep from marrying. However she is caught and she is forcefully isolated from the marriage. On the day of marriage, Mohana thinks of dissuading Chandana by reminding her of her deceased husband which she has forgotten but Sudakshina stops her from reaching Chandana's room. Ratan persuades Chandana to go to a beauty parlour so that he can meanwhile steal the jewelry and blame it on Amloki. Chandana leaves for the parlour and Ratan steals the jewelry. Amloki is frightened at the prospect of Chandana marrying Ratan once again as she has been witness to the cruelty imposed to Chandana firsthand. However family members fail to perceive this and become bewildered at Amloki's attempts to sabotage the marriage and simply think this to be a manifestation of the apparent dislike which Amloki harbours towards Ratnadeep.


title: Amloki

text: Amloki catches Ratan stealing the jewelry and attempts to stop him. However she is no match for him as he gives it away to his sister and her husband. An aggrieved Amloki runs after the cab ferrying the both of them and the stolen jewellery and while doing so meets with an accident. On being caught entering the residence from the backgate Ratnadeep lies that Amloki stole all the jewellery and ran away. Nilay finds it to be a tad bit suspicious but keeps mum anyway. Chandana on returning from parlour is shocked to find Amloki accused of stealing. Her maternal instincts cry out to her that Amloki is in pain and she leaves the marriage venue while asking Mohana to delay the marriage while she searches for Amloki. Mohana on the other hand uses this opportunity to get married to Ratnadeep on Baisakhi's advice. After half of the marriage is over, the truth is out but Mohana lies that Chandana left the marriage asking for Mohana to be happy. Ratnadeep refuses to marry her but Baisakhi threatens him with dire consequences of revealing his truth to the family members. This causes Ratan to agree to the marriage. Chandana discovers Amloki is at a nursing home and after admitting her calls Mohana only to know that she has taken Ratnadeep for herself. Chandana faints but is rescued by Dr.Gaurav Sen, her potential love interest and her ex-fiance who is also the owner of the nursing home. At the last episode, Chandana recalls her old memories before the accident and when she sees Amloki, she shouts loudly saying "Amloki". Amloki was able to talk and hear. When Amloki said Maa to Chandana, Chandana was unable to believe that her daughter can talk as well as hear. Like that, the story ends.


title: Jane Eyre

text: Jane Eyre is a novel written by Charlotte Brontë. It was published in 1847 in England. It is Charlotte Brontë's most famous book.


title: Jane Eyre

text: Around this time, Charlotte was beginning to suffer a painful toothache, which made many of her teeth fall out. She was even more worried about her father's blindness. On 19 August 1846, Charlotte went to Manchester with her father to see an eye surgeon, William James Wilson. Wilson performed the operation on 25 August. The next day, Charlotte described it to her friend Ellen in a letter. Wilson had been helped by two other surgeons. The operation had taken about 15 minutes. Charlotte wrote, "Papa is now confined to his bed in a dark room and is not to be stirred for four days - He is to speak and to be spoken to as little as possible". "Depressed and weary (tired)", Charlotte began writing "Jane Eyre".


title: Jane Eyre

text: Charlotte did not have good eyes, so she wrote in little square books that she held close to her eyes. She wrote the first copy in pencil. When she left Manchester to go back home, she took the book with her and continued writing.


title: Jane Eyre

text: "Jane Eyre" is a love story. It tells about a young woman called Jane Eyre who was an orphan and goes to teach a girl named Adele Varens in a far-away house. The master of the house is Mr. Rochester. Jane and Mr. Rochester fall in love, but Jane is horrified when she finds out Mr. Rochester is already married to a crazy woman. She leaves the house, believing that marrying him would now be the same as adultery and that she would be his mistress, not his wife. When she goes away, she becomes sick and almost dies. Three people, Diana, Mary, and St. John Rivers, find her and let her live with them. There, she becomes a teacher and finds out that they are her cousins. She is very happy until St. John wants her to marry him and be a missionary with him. She knows that he does not really love her and thinks she is simply useful, so she says no. However, he continues to ask her, and she is finally almost persuaded that it is her duty to marry him when she hears Mr. Rochester crying, "Jane! Jane!" She feels that something has happened to him, and quickly goes back to see him. His crazy wife had set his house on fire and died in it. Mr. Rochester, because of the fire, had become blind and wounded. Jane, now that his wife is dead, is happy to marry him, and they get married and have a son.


title: Rey (Star Wars)

text: Rey Palpatine is a fictional character in the "Star Wars" franchise, played by Daisy Ridley. She is the main protagonist of the "Star Wars" sequel trilogy.


title: Rey (Star Wars)

text: She first appeared as one of the lead characters in "". Rey is a scavenger who was left behind (for protection) on the planet Jakku when she was a child, and soon becomes involved with the Resistance's conflict with the First Order after meeting Finn, a former Stormtrooper, and BB-8, the droid of ace Resistance pilot Poe Dameron.


title: Rey (Star Wars)

text: Although her background was unknown in the first two movies and her last name was not said as a decision by J. J. Abrams, it was revealed in The Rise of Skywalker that she is the granddaughter of Emperor Palpatine. This disproved fan theories,


title: Rey (Star Wars)

text: saying that she is the daughter of Han Solo, Princess Leia or Luke Skywalker or even Obi-Wan Kenobi's granddaughter.


title: Christine King Farris

text: Christine King Farris (born Willie Christine King; September 11, 1927) is the oldest and only living child of Martin Luther King, Sr.. She is Martin Luther King, Jr.'s only sister.


title: Christine King Farris

text: King Farris teaches at Spelman College and is the author of several books and a public speaker on many topics. For many years, she was the Vice Chair and Treasurer of the King Center and has been active for several years in the International Reading Association, and many church and civic organizations, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference.


title: Pierre Poilievre

text: Pierre Marcel Poilievre ( ; born June 3, 1979) is a Canadian politician who has been the leader of the Conservative Party of Canada and the leader of the Opposition since 2022. He is a member of Parliament (MP) since 2004. He was minister for democratic reform from 2013 to 2015 and minister of employment and social development in 2015.


title: Pierre Poilievre

text: On February 5, 2022, Poilievre announced his candidacy for the leadership election of the Conservative Party. He was elected Leader of the Conservative Party on September 10, 2022.


title: Veneto

text: Veneto is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in northeastern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is Venice.


title: Veneto

text: The region is in Northeast Italy, bordered to the north by the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region (and Austria in the northeastern corner), to the east by the Friuli Venezia Giulia region, to the southeast and south by the Adriatic Sea, to the southwest by the Emilia-Romagna region, and to the west by the Lombardy region.


title: Veneto

text: Veneto is the 8th largest region in Italy, with a total area of . The main river in the region is the Po. The highest mountain in the region is Marmolada (), in the Belluno province, with an altitude of .


title: Multi-user

text: Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system, computer program, or a game that allows use by more than one users of the same computer at the same time.


title: Multi-user

text: An example is a Unix server where multiple remote users have access (such as via Secure Shell) to the Unix shell prompt at the same time. Another example uses multiple X terminals so that multiple remote users can use X Window on a single machine.


title: Multi-user

text: The complementary term, single-user commonly refers to an operating system being usable only by one person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license agreement.


title: Multi-user

text: Single-user mode is a mode for Multi-user operating system where the computer boots or switches into a single superuser mode. It is mainly used for maintenance of multi-user environments such as network or Unix servers.


title: Thermodynamic entropy

text: Thermodynamic entropy is a measure of how organized or disorganized energy is present in a system of atoms or molecules. It is measured in joules of energy per unit kelvin. Entropy is an important part of the third law of thermodynamics.


title: Thermodynamic entropy

text: Imagine that a group of molecules has ten units of energy. If the energy in those molecules is perfectly organized, then the molecules can do ten units of work. However, if the energy became less organized (so, the entropy increased), the molecules might only be able to do six units of work, even though they still have ten units of energy in them.


title: Thermodynamic entropy

text: When total entropy is reached, there is no more energy to spend. A good example of this is a cup of hot tea. The tea has a lot of energy compared to the room the tea is in. Over time the heat in the tea will spread into the room. The tea will become colder. This is because the energy (heat) in the tea moves to the surrounding area. Once the tea became cold, there is no more heat that can be spread. The tea has reached total entropy.


title: Thermodynamic entropy

text: There are two types of these "rooms": An "open system" and a "closed system". An open system means that energy (like heat) can freely flow in and out of the room. A closed system means that the room is closed off from the outside; no energy can go in or out.


title: Thermodynamic entropy

text: In the case of the tea, the room was a closed system; no energy could enter it. But we can also make it an open system by placing a heater into the room. If we turn on the heater, we can use the heat from it to reheat the cup of tea. New energy has been brought into the room. The entropy has thus decreased. The heat that went from the heater into the tea can then move into the room again until total entropy has been reached. This is what the second law of thermodynamics is about.


title: Thermodynamic entropy

text: A real life example of an open system is the Earth. It gets a lot of energy from the Sun every day. This allows plants to grow and water to stay liquid. If we took away the Sun, plants would die and water would freeze because the surface of our planet would be too cold.


title: Urolagnia

text: Urolagnia (also urophilia, undinism) is when people gain sexual pleasure from urine and/or urination. The term has origins in the Greek Language (from "ouron", urine, and "lagneia", lust).


title: Urolagnia

text: Those who enjoy urolagnia may enjoy urinating on other people, or being urinated on. The practice of drinking the urine is called urophagia. People who practice urolagnia may play in a domination and submission scene.


title: Urolagnia

text: These activities are often described with the slang terms "golden showers", "water sports", or "piss play". Uncontrollable "bladder desperation" or "panty wetting" is socially a different matter.


title: Urolagnia

text: In New Zealand, publishing anything promoting or supporting urolagnia, whether in print or online, is an offence punishable by up to ten years in prison. Probably that law is rarely used.


title: Megalith

text: A megalith is a large stone used to build a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. Megalithic means structures made of such large stones, put together without the use of mortar or cement.


title: Megalith

text: The word "megalith" comes from the Ancient Greek ' "megas" meaning "great", and ' "lithos" meaning "stone". It has been used to describe stone structures built by people from many parts of the world living in many different times. Many megaliths were used to figure out the dates of the solstices and equinoxes.


title: Megalith

text: These structures were built mainly in the Neolithic period. They continued to be built into the Bronze Age. Some were built even earlier in the Mesolithic period.


title: Ghost of Kyiv

text: The Ghost of Kyiv () is the nickname given to an unconfirmed MiG-29 Fulcrum flying ace. They are known for shooting down six Russian planes in the Kyiv offensive on 24 February 2022. The Ghost of Kyiv is likely an urban legend and not a real flying ace.


title: Ghost of Kyiv

text: The Ukrainian Ministry of Defence said that the Ghost of Kyiv could be one of dozens of experienced pilots of military reserve who returned to the Armed Forces of Ukraine after Russia invaded.


title: Ghost of Kyiv

text: A former Ukrainian president, Petro Poroshenko, later posted a tweet of a photograph of a fighter pilot, claiming it to be the Ghost of Kyiv, who Poroshenko said was real.


title: Colin Kaepernick

text: Colin Rand Kaepernick ( ; born November 3, 1987) is an former American football quarterback. He played the position quarterback. Kaepernick played for the San Francisco 49ers from 2011-2016. He is currently a free agent. He played college football for the University of Nevada Wolf Pack. In the 2011 NFL Draft the 49ers drafted Kaepernick in the second round with the 36th overall pick. They were reluctant but needed a quarterback. Saints pulled the trigger and called upon Kyle. With a $20,000,000 three year contract Kyle takes the offer.


title: Colin Kaepernick

text: In 2016, Kaepernick became a national figure because he knelt on one knee during the United States national anthem, which is being played before every NFL game. He did this to protest police brutality and racism against African Americans in the United States. At first, Kaepernick sat down while the anthem was played, but a former United States Army Green Beret named Nate Boyer told him to kneel on one knee instead because this is what soldiers do at the graves where dead soldiers are buried and because Boyer thought it was more respectful than sitting down.


title: Colin Kaepernick

text: Kaepernick became a national activist with support of many other professional athletes, but many teams did not want him with them because the fans did not like the protest.


title: Colin Kaepernick

text: In June 2020, during the George Floyd protests, National Football League Comissioner Roger Goodell said on Twitter: "we were wrong for not listening to NFL players earlier and encourage all to speak out and peacefully protest. We, the NFL, believe Black Lives Matter."


title: Kirkwood gap

text: Kirkwood gaps are areas of the asteroid belt where asteroids are unusually scarce, as seen in the . They are caused by orbital resonances with Jupiter.


title: Kirkwood gap

text: The gaps were first noticed in 1857 by Daniel Kirkwood, who also correctly explained their origin in the orbital resonances with Jupiter while a professor at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania.


title: Liberal Party (UK)

text: The Liberal Party was a liberal political party. It was one of the two big political parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century.


title: Liberal Party (UK)

text: The party came from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and radicals in the 1850s. In the next 50 years it formed four governments under William Gladstone.


title: Liberal Party (UK)

text: The party split over the issue of Irish Home Rule. It returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory. They introduced the welfare reforms that created a basic British welfare state.


title: Liberal Party (UK)

text: H. H. Asquith was Liberal Prime Minister between 1908 and 1916. He was followed by David Lloyd George, whose premiership lasted until 1922. At that time the coalition the party had formed with the Conservative Party in World War I came to an end.


title: Liberal Party (UK)

text: By the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives' main rival. The party went into decline. By the 1950s, it won no more than six seats at general elections.


title: Liberal Party (UK)

text: Apart from notable by-election victories, the party's fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP-Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, but only 23 of the 650 seats it contested. At the 1987 General Election, it won less than 23% of the vote.


title: Liberal Party (UK)

text: Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes and social planner William Beveridge.


title: Lucille Ball

text: Lucille Désirée Ball (August 6, 1911 – April 26, 1989) was an American comedian, model, movie and television actress and studio executive. She was the star of the sitcoms "I Love Lucy", "The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour", "The Lucy Show", "Here's Lucy" and "Life With Lucy". Ball was one of the most popular and powerful actors in the United States during her lifetime. She also had one of Hollywood's longest careers.


title: Lucille Ball

text: Ball began acting in the 1930s. She became both a radio actress and B-movie star in the 1940s. Her television career began in the 1950s. She was still making movies in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1962, Ball became the first woman to run a major television studio, Desilu. This studio made many successful and popular television series.


title: Lucille Ball

text: Ball was born to Henry Durrell Ball (September 16, 1887 – February 19, 1915) and Desiree "DeDe" Evelyn Hunt (September 21, 1892 – July 20, 1977) in Jamestown, New York. Her family was Baptist. She was of French, Scottish, English, and Irish ancestry. She had a brother Fred Henry Ball (July 17, 1915 – February 5, 2007).


title: Lucille Ball

text: In 1929, Ball got work as a model. She later began her performing career on Broadway using the stage name Diane Belmont. She was in many small movie roles in the 1930s. She worked for RKO Radio Pictures at the time. Ball was named the "Queen of the Bs".


title: Lucille Ball

text: In 1951, Ball was important in the creation of the television series "I Love Lucy". The show ended in 1957 after 180 episodes. Then, some small changes were made to the series format. The time-length of the series was changed from 30 minutes to 60 minutes. The first program lasted 75 mins. Some new characters were added. The story was changed. After these changes, the program was renamed "The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour". It was shown from 1957 until 1960.


title: Lucille Ball

text: Ball went on to star in two more successful television series. The first was "The Lucy Show". It was shown on CBS from 1962 to 1968 (156 episodes). The other was "Here's Lucy". It was shown from 1968 to 1974 (144 episodes). Her last television series was in 1986. It was called "Life with Lucy". This program did not do very well. Only 8 of the 13 episodes that were made were shown on television.


title: Lucille Ball

text: Ball met and married Cuban band leader Desi Arnaz in 1940. On July 17, 1951, she gave birth to their first child, Lucie Désirée Arnaz. A year and a half later, Ball gave birth to their second child, Desiderio Alberto Arnaz IV, known as Desi Arnaz, Jr. Ball and Arnaz divorced on 4 May 1960.


title: Lucille Ball

text: On April 18, 1989, Ball said she had chest pains at her home in Beverly Hills and was taken to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, where she had dissecting aortic aneurysm and had an eight-hour aortic transplant. The surgery worked, and Ball was soon able to walk around her room with very little help. She got a lot of get-well wishes.


title: Lucille Ball

text: On the morning of April 26, Ball awoke with bad back pains then lost consciousness. After, she died at 5:47 a.m. PDT at the age of 77. Doctors thought that Ball had succumbed to a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm not that related to her ascending aortic aneurysm and surgery. Ball had been a smoker most of her life, making her risk of abdominal aortic aneurysm higher.


title: Lucille Ball

text: Ball was nominated for an Emmy Award thirteen times. She won four times. In 1977 Ball was one of the first people to be given the Women in Film Crystal Award. She was given the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1979, the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Kennedy Center Honors in 1986, and the Governors Award from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1989.


title: Mia Wasikowska

text: Mia Wasikowska (born 14 October 1989) is an Australian movie, television, and voice actress who is mostly known for her role as Alice in Tim Burton's "Alice in Wonderland". She is also known for her television role as Sophie in "In Treatment".


title: Mia Wasikowska

text: Wasikowska was born and raised in Canberra, Australia. She has an older sister named Jess, and a younger brother named Kai. Her mother, Marzena Wasikowska, is a photographer from Poland while her father, John Reid, is an Australian painter-and-collagist. As a child, she frequently accompanied her parents on their gallery rounds in Europe, and in her spare time, she continues to enjoy photography. She studied ballet as a child and turned to acting when she was 15.


title: Mia Wasikowska

text: After some television and movie works in Australia, Wasikowska moved to Los Angeles to be in the cable drama "In Treatment". Her portrayal of a suicidal teen earned critical praise and led to more work in American movies, including "Defiance" and "Amelia". In Tim Burton's Alice, Wasikowska co-starred with Johnny Depp, Anne Hathaway, Helena Bonham Carter and carried a blockbuster movie, appearing in almost every scene. She won an AFI International Award, a Teen Choice Award and nominated an Empire Award for her performance. In 2009, it was announced that Wasikowska was cast in the Lisa Cholodenko-directed indie comedy film "The Kids Are All Right" alongside Annette Bening, Julianne Moore, Josh Hutcherson and Mark Ruffalo. Film received positive reviews from critics, and Wasikowska received Hollywood Film Festival Breakthrough Actress Award for her role. From March to May 2010, Wasikowska filmed Cary Fukunaga's adaptation of Jane Eyre, in which she starred as the title character opposite Michael Fassbender as Mr. Rochester. In 2011, Wasikowska shot the small supporting role of Shia LaBeouf's character's love interest in John Hillcoat's "Lawless". Then she filmed the lead in Park Chan-wook's English-language debut movie, "Stoker", alongside Nicole Kidman and Matthew Goode. In 2014, she starred in David Cronenberg movie titled "Maps to the Stars" with Julianne Moore, John Cusack, Robert Pattinson, Olivia Williams, and Sarah Gadon which premiered in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.


title: Mia Wasikowska

text: In November 2013, it was announced that Wasikowska was cast in "Alice Through the Looking Glass", the 2016 sequel to "Alice in Wonderland".


title: Mia Wasikowska

text: Wasikowska lives in Bronte, New South Wales. In 2013, she began dating her "The Double" co-star Jesse Eisenberg. The two split in 2015.


title: Jesse G. James

text: Jesse Gregory James (born April 19, 1969) is an American television personality and CEO of West Coast Choppers. He builds custom-made motorcycles. James is the host of "Motorcycle Mania" and the former television series "Monster Garage" on the Discovery Channel.


title: Jesse G. James

text: Jesse Gregory James was born in Lynwood, California to Larry and Carol James, the younger of two children. James says he is related to criminal Jesse James from his great grandfather's cousin. However, there is no evidence of it being true. James says he grew up in Long Beach, California, but that he did not spend his whole childhood there. James' parents divorced while he was still in grade school in South Gate, California. He and sister Julie moved to Riverside with their father, Larry James, and attended La Sierra High School.


title: Linear algebra

text: Linear algebra is a branch of mathematics. It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of linear equations. Vectors and matrices are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are vector spaces and linear mappings between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and analytic geometry). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as engineering, physics and economics.


title: Linear algebra

text: This is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the value on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations.


title: Linear algebra

text: Linear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a matrix. For the previous example, the coefficients of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix.


title: Sea urchin

text: Sea urchins are the Class Echinoidea of the Phylum Echinodermata. Like the rest of the Echinoderms, literally "spike-skinned", they are entirely marine. They are usually globe-shaped, and protected by calcareous plates and spines. "Urchin" is an old word for hedgehog, and in many foreign languages these animals are called "sea hedgehogs".


title: Sea urchin

text: Like other echinoderms they have five-fold symmetry (called pentamerism) and move by means of hundreds of tiny, transparent, adhesive 'tube feet'. The symmetry is not obvious in the living animal, but is easily visible in the dried test.


title: Sea urchin

text: Sea urchins mostly feed on algae and small animals. They have a special chewing apparatus called "Aristotle's lantern", after the Greek philosopher Aristotle who was fascinated by sea urchins. With this apparatus they can scrape organisms stuck to the surface over which the urchin is moving.


title: Sea urchin

text: The spines are long and sharp in some species, and protect the urchin from predators. The spines inflict a painful wound when they penetrate human skin, but are usually not dangerous. Echinoids also have pincer-like pedicellaria all over their body between the spines. The job of these is to deal with anything (like larvae) settling on the test (outer shell). It is not known if the spines are venomous (unlike the pedicellariae between the spines, which are venomous).


title: Sea urchin

text: Typical sea urchins have spines that are in length, thick, and not terribly sharp. "Diadema antillarum", familiar in the Caribbean, has thin, potentially dangerous spines that can reach long.


title: Sea urchin

text: Sea urchins have five jaws with one tooth each. The teeth grow throughout the sea urchin's life. The teeth of the pink sea urchin chip against each other to stay sharp.


title: Sea urchin

text: Sea urchins feed mainly on algae, but can also feed on sea cucumbers, and a wide range of invertebrates such as mussels, polychaetes, sponges, brittle stars and crinoids. Sea urchins are one of the favorite foods of sea otters and wolf eels. Without predators to eat them, urchins breed in large numbers and eat almost all the nearby kelp, creating an "urchin barren", devoid of macroalgae and associated fauna. Sea otters have re-entered British Columbia, dramatically improving coastal ecosystem health by eating sea urchins.


title: Sea urchin

text: The first echinoid fossils are from the Lower Ordovician period. The earliest forms had flexible tests, with plates that could slide over each other. Echinoids were a relatively unimportant part of the biota in the Palaeozoic. Only one group survived the P/Tr extinction event to form the basis of all later echinoids. The group which survived into the Triassic, the Cidaroids, radiated into all other modern groups, which are known as the Euechinoids.


title: Sea urchin

text: The break with perfect symmetry, which happened in the Jurassic, gave them definite front and back ends. This opened up new habitats, in particular, the burrowing habitat. Sand dollars and heart urchins have been highly successful. The living echinoids are now important members of the biota, especially in shallow and in-shore waters.


title: Sea urchin

text: Some humans eat the reproductive organs of sea urchins (which they call roe). This is popular in Korea. In Japan, this kind of sushi is called "uni".


title: Antibody

text: Antibodies (also called immunoglobulins) are large Y-shaped proteins that can stick to the surface of bacteria and viruses. They are found in the blood or other body fluids of vertebrates. Antibodies are the key element in the adaptive immune system.


title: Antibody

text: The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target called an antigen. Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains a structure (like a lock) that fits one particular key-like structure on an antigen. This binds the two structures together.


title: Antibody

text: Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can "tag" a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system, or can neutralize its target directly. The production of antibodies is the main function of humoral immunity.


title: Antibody

text: Each antibody is different. They are all designed to attack only one kind of antigen (in practice, this means virus or bacteria). For instance, an antibody designed to destroy smallpox is unable to hit the bubonic plague or the common cold.


title: Antibody

text: Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, that small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable. This allows millions of antibodies with different tip structures to exist. Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen. This enormous diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens.


title: Antibody

text: Although a huge variety of different antibodies is made in a single individual, "the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the genome".


title: Antibody

text: There are a vast number of microbe strains, and so vertebrates need millions of different antibodies. Actually, humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies, each capable of binding a distinct antigen site. This must be done with a very much smaller number of genes: the total human genome has only about 20,000 genes.


title: Antibody

text: Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved. These allow vertebrate B cells to generate a huge pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes. The full details are not presented here, just a summary.


title: Antibody

text: The variety of antibodies is got by combining segments from a pool of genes in many different ways. Then, hyper-mutations occur in the binding site area of the antibody gene. This creates further diversity.


title: Antibody

text: Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily; the terms "antibody" and "immunoglobulin" are often used interchangeably. Antibodies are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large "heavy chains" and two small "light chains". There are several different types of antibody heavy chains, and several different kinds of antibodies, which are grouped into different "isotypes" based on which heavy chain they possess. Five different antibody isotypes are known in mammals. They help direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter.


title: Antibody

text: Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable, allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures, or antigen binding sites, to exist. This region is known as the "hypervariable region". Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen. This enormous diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens. The large and diverse population of antibodies is generated by random combinations of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen binding sites (or "paratopes"), followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene, which create further diversity. Antibody genes also re-organize in a process called class switching, which allows a single antibody to be used by several different parts of the immune system.


title: Sea otter

text: Sea otters ("Enhydra lutris") are marine mammals. They live along the Pacific coast of North America. Their historic range included shallow waters of the Bering Strait. It also included Kamchatka, and as far south as Japan.


title: Sea otter

text: Sea otters have about 26,000 to 165,000 hairs per square centimeters of skin. They have a rich fur for which humans hunted them almost to extinction. By the time the 1911 Fur Seal Treaty gave them protection, so few sea otters remained that the fur trade had become unprofitable. Sea otters eat shellfish and other invertebrates (especially clams, abalone, and sea urchins).


title: Sea otter

text: The otters usually carry a favorite rock in their paws or in a pouch under their forearm. They use it to smash shells open. This makes them one of the few animals that use tools. They grow to in length and weigh . Although once near extinction, they have begun to spread again, from small populations in California and Alaska. Sea otters are one of the smallest mammals in the ocean.


title: Sea otter

text: Without the sea otters to eat them, there were too many sea urchins. The sea urchins then began to eat large amounts of kelp. They ate and killed so many kelp plants that they turn kelp forests into desert-like places called urchin barrens. The fish, krill and other animals that lived in the kelp either died or left. In some places where sea otters have returned, like Juan de Fuca Strait, they ate enough sea urchins that the kelp forests grew back.


title: Sea otter

text: Sea otters catch the same shellfish, sea urchins, crabs, clams, and abalone, that indigenous peoples in Alaska and Canada need to eat. In May 2020, scientists from Simon Fraser University said in a report that more sea otters in northwestern North America would live if indigenous communities had more freedom to make decisions about them and to make plans based on traditional knowledge of sea otters, mixing in modern Western scientific methods as needed.


title: Gucci Mane

text: Radric Delantic Davis (born February 12, 1980), known professionally as Gucci Mane, is an American rapper and record executive.


title: Gucci Mane

text: Gucci released his first studio album "Trap House" in 2005. In 2007, he founded his own label, 1017 Records. He has released 12 studio albums and over 70 mixtapes.


title: Gucci Mane

text: He has a large tattoo of an ice cream cone tattooed onto his face which he got after he was released from the hospital.


title: Aishwarya Sen

text: Aishwarya Sen is an Indian actress. She acted in Bengali television. She played supporting roles in Punyi Pukur and Ichche Nadi. She is best known for his portrayal of Shubh Drishti opposite Gaurab Roy Chowdhury. Most recently, she portrayed a parallel protagonist in Kora Pakhi.


title: Aishwarya Sen

text: She was born into an upper-middle-class family. She has a total of 5 members in his family. She has one elder brother and one younger sister. Her mother was a house-builder. She got the characteristics of his mother.


title: Aishwarya Sen

text: She completed high school and bachelor's degree in Kolkata. Unlike others, she started to be a model. She also auditioned for web series and TV series across the city. This is how she entered the world of acting.


title: Aishwarya Sen

text: She started her career by starring in the popular Star Jalsa show Punyi Pukur opposite Sourav Das. She then starred in a parallel lead role in the popular Star Jalsa show Ichche Nadi. She became very famous by playing that character. Later, she played the lead role in Patal Kumar Gaanwala of Star Jalsa.


title: Symmetry

text: Reflectional Symmetry is a property of certain geometrical objects that appears the same when mirrored or reflected along an axis. This axis has to cross the shape through the middle of that object dividing into equal halves.


title: Symmetry

text: The precise notions of symmetry have various measures and operational definitions. For example, symmetry may be observed


title: Symmetry

text: Asymmetry is the absence of symmetry. It is best defined like that because symmetry is relatively rare, and all other objects are asymmetric.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Induction is one of the main forms of logical reasoning. The other is deduction. In induction, we find a general rule by using a large number of particular cases. For example, watching water in many different situations, we can conclude that water always flows downhill.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Induction is not the method of science, but it can be the starting-point for science. Everyone can see that the sun, moon and stars appear to move across the sky. Early civilisations thought this meant they revolved around the Earth, because that is what they always seem to do. We now know this is quite wrong, but discovering the real explanation was the start of modern science (see Copernicus, Galileo and heliocentrism). What they did was to work out an alternative theory or hypothesis, which eventually was shown to be a much better explanation of all the observations. That is real science, but the observations of the heavens, which started with the Babylonians, showed the regularity which needed to be explained. What science did was to prove the obvious explanation was not the right one.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Another example is the work of Darwin, who spent half his life collecting interesting facts about animals and plants. If he had stopped there, his name might not be known today. What he did was suggest a way in which all these facts could be explained. It was an hypothesis which could be, and was, tested in every way possible. It is well known now that the theory of evolution by natural selection best explains the way the living world has come to be as we see it. Again, real science was built on a collection of facts which needed an explanation. The philosophy of science is about testing hypotheses, rather than collecting facts, though facts are the basis of all science.


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Induction, the collecting of facts, is not by itself science. The philosopher Hume said it meant “instances of which we have had no experience resemble those of which we have had experience”. Later, John Stuart Mill raised the question “Why is a single instance, in some cases, sufficient for a complete induction, while in others [many examples] go such a little way towards establishing a universal proposition?” Philosophers usually think the real issue is: what distinguishes good from bad inductions? A way to say it is: "If all known "As" are "B", then "probably" all "As" whatever are "B"".


title: Inductive reasoning

text: Inductive reasoning allows for a false conclusion even if all the premises are true. This is illustrated in the following example:


title: Edict of Milan

text: The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by the Roman emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The letter was issued in February, 313 AD and removed the persecution of Christians.


title: Edict of Milan

text: With the Edict of Milan there began a period when Constantine granted favors to the Christian Church and its members. The exact words of the edict are no longer known.


title: Edict of Milan

text: The Edict of Milan was issued in 313 AD, in the names of the Roman Emperors Constantine I, who ruled the western parts of the Empire, and Licinius, who ruled the East. The two emperors were in Milan to celebrate the wedding of Constantine's sister with Licinius.


title: Edict of Milan

text: There had been already an edict of toleration issued by the emperor Galerius in 311. They were granted an indulgence, not favors.


title: Edict of Milan

text: "Wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the commonwealth may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes."


title: Edict of Milan

text: But by the Edict of Milan the meeting places and other properties which had been taken from the Christians were to be returned:


title: Edict of Milan

text: "...the same shall be restored to the Christians without payment or any claim of recompense and without any kind of fraud or deception..."


title: Root (linguistics)

text: The root in language is either a base word, or a part of a word to which affixes are added. Or, it is the part left after affixes have been taken away. Technically, it is the smallest unit which carries meaning: it cannot be reduced into smaller units. It is the same as a free-standing morpheme.


title: Root (linguistics)

text: If a root is a whole word, then it is called a "base word". It is the word which stands at the head of a dictionary definition, is the base of a word family.


title: Musical composition

text: Musical composition can mean an original piece of music, the structure of a musical piece, or the process of making a new piece of music. A composition is a piece of music (the word "composition" means "putting together", so a composition is something where music notes have been put together). When a composer writes a piece of music he or she is making a musical composition.


title: Musical composition

text: The word "composition" can also mean learning the skill of how to compose. Music students may go to music college to study composition. They will do this by looking at famous pieces of music to see how the composers of the past wrote music. They will study musical form, harmony, orchestration, counterpoint and learn about all the instruments and how to write well for them so that it sounds nice.


title: Jack Ruby

text: Jacob Leon "Jack" Rubenstein (March 25, 1911 – January 3, 1967) was an American criminal. Ruby was born on March 25, 1911 in Chicago, Illinois. On November 24, 1963, Ruby fatally shot Lee Harvey Oswald, who was in police custody after being charged with assassinating U.S. President John F. Kennedy two days earlier. Ruby was convicted of murdering Oswald, but the conviction was overturned. He continued to be held in prison while awaiting retrial. The retrial did not happen because he died on January 3, 1967 at Parkland Memorial Hospital in Dallas, Texas from lung cancer and a pulmonary embolism, aged 55.


title: Deep learning

text: Deep learning (also called deep structured learning or hierarchical learning) is a kind of machine learning, which is mostly used with certain kinds of neural networks. As with other kinds of machine-learning, learning sessions can be unsupervised, semi-supervised, or supervised. In many cases, structures are organised so that there is at least one intermediate layer (or hidden layer), between the input layer and the output layer.


title: Deep learning

text: Certain tasks, such as recognizing and understanding speech, images or handwriting, is easy to do for humans. However, for a computer, these tasks are very difficult to do. In a multi-layer neural network (having more than two layers), the information processed will become more abstract with each added layer.


title: Deep learning

text: Deep learning models are inspired by information processing and communication patterns in biological nervous systems; they are different from the structural and functional properties of biological brains (especially the human brain) in many ways, which make them incompatible with neuroscience evidences.


title: Lloyd Austin

text: Lloyd James Austin III (born August 8, 1953) is an American retired four-star general. He is the 28th and current United States Secretary of Defense since 2021. He was an Army officer and was the 12th commander of United States Central Command (CENTCOM). Austin was the first Black commander of CENTCOM.


title: Lloyd Austin

text: On December 7, 2020, Austin was nominated by President-elect Joe Biden to be Secretary of Defense. His nomination was confirmed by the United States Senate on January 22, 2021 which made him the first Black Secretary of Defense in American history.


title: Halva

text: Halva (also known as halvah, halwa) is a solid candy based on vegetable fat and sugar. There are many types of halva. In Israel, crude sesame base is popular. In Russia, halva made out of Sunflower seeds is popular.


title: Halva

text: Halva has a number of geographical sources: from Iraq, Lebanon, Pakistan, Iran, India, Uzbekistan, Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. It is considered a national dish in Turkey.


title: Cockroach

text: The cockroach is an insect of the suborder Blattaria of the order Blattodea. There are 4,000 species. About 30 species invade human homes. This is less than 1% of all the cockroach species. Four species are pests.


title: Cockroach

text: The families of Mantodea, Isoptera, and Blattaria are usually combined by entomologists into a larger group called Dictyoptera. Current evidence strongly suggests that termites have evolved directly from true cockroaches, and many authors now consider termites to be in the family of cockroaches.


title: Cockroach

text: Historically, the name Blattaria has been used largely interchangeably with the name Blattodea. Blattodea refers to a larger group that includes fossil groups related to roaches, but not true cockroaches themselves. These earliest cockroach-like fossils ("Blattopterans" or "roachids") are from the Carboniferous period between 354–295 million years ago. However, these fossils differ from modern cockroaches in having long ovipositors and are the ancestors of mantis as well as modern cockroaches. The first fossils of modern cockroaches with internal ovipositors appear in the Lower Cretaceous.


title: Cockroach

text: Cockroaches in the broader sense (Blattodea) have existed a very long time. The earliest cockroach fossils are 354–295 million years old. Science student, Cary Easterday, found a giant 300 million year old fossil cockroach long, in a coal mine in Ohio.


title: Cockroach

text: Most cockroaches are omnivores. They are tough, and hard to kill. A cockroach can live for two weeks without a head.


title: Cockroach

text: Cockroaches become adults in 3-4 months and can live up to one year. A female German cockroach can produce 8 egg cases in her lifetime and each egg case may contain 30-40 eggs.


title: Cockroach

text: The 1996 MTV musical movie "Joe's Apartment" had 5,000 singing cockroaches. Some parts of the movie were made with clay roaches and some with real roaches.


title: Cockroach

text: In the 1996 computer game "Bad Mojo", the main character is turned into a cockroach and must move through a building to get back to his human body.


title: Variegated leaf

text: A variegated leaf is useful in conducting experiments to show that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis to happen. They are also popular in horticulture.


title: Variegated leaf

text: The easiest of these experiments is to stain the places where starch is produced (starch is a more compact form of glucose).


title: Variegated leaf

text: Place the leaves in boiling water for six minutes to soften the cells, and then in ethanol (alcohol). When the leaves are drained of colour, spread them out on a flat surface. Soak the leaves in iodine and the green parts will turn blue/black and the non green parts will stay the yellowish brown colour of iodine liquid. The green parts contain starch, which makes iodine turn blue/black. The blue/black stain is what shows starch is present. You could take "before & after" photos to prove the black areas were green at the start.


title: Lady with an Ermine

text: Lady with an Ermine (Portrait of Cecilia Gallerani) ( ; ) is a painting by Leonardo da Vinci. It was painted between 1489 and 1490. The subject of the portrait is Cecilia Gallerani, the mistress of Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. Cecilia was pregnant at the time of the portrait. Leonardo was in the service of the Duke, who's nickname was 'white ermine'. The ermine was a symbol of purity for Leonardo. The painting was done in three stages and we know this because it went under reflective light technology and a multi lens camera was used. The first was a portrait just of Cecillia, the second he added a thin, small ermine and in the final stage, Leonardo made the ermine look more powerful and muscular. "Lady with an Ermine" is displayed in the Czartoryski Museum, Kraków, Poland.


title: Caspian tiger

text: The Caspian tiger ("Panthera tigris virgata") is an extinct sub species of the tiger. It was the most western sub species of the tiger, very close to Europe. They became extinct in the 1970s. They were found in Turkey, Armenia, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Iran, Mongolia, and Georgia.


title: Caspian tiger

text: Recent research by scientists looking at the tiger's DNA, have found that it is almost identical to the Siberian tiger. They now believe that the two species of tiger may not have become separate until the 1900s.


title: Caspian tiger

text: The Caspian tiger was the second largest of the tiger species. It had a bigger, muscular body, with longer strong legs. It had large paws and more claws. It had small, short ears. The color was different from other tiger subspecies, with yellow to gold fur with light to dark brown stripes. The chest and stomach area are white with yellow stripes. In winter it grew longer fur. It was the furriest of all the tiger subspecies.


title: Winchester Cathedral

text: Winchester Cathedral is a mediaeval Anglican church in Winchester, Hampshire. It is the seat of the Bishop of Winchester.


title: Winchester Cathedral

text: The cathedral has the longest nave and overall length of any Gothic cathedral in Europe. By contrast, the interior height of the nave vault at 78 feet is about half that of Beauvais Cathedral in France.


title: Winchester Cathedral

text: Built between 1079 and 1532, Winchester Cathedral has had an unusual architectural history. The exterior, apart from the modified windows, gives the impression of a massive Norman building and indeed, when first completed, the Norman Cathedral was second only in size to Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. However, the west front is now Perpendicular, with its huge window filled with fragments of medieval glass. Sadly this glass window was destroyed by the Roundheads.They also messed up the bones of some of the most important rulers. Inside, only the crypt and the transepts have retained their Norman appearance. The spectacular Perpendicular nave with its tall arcade arches and strong vertical emphasis has been literally carved out of the original Norman interior. The Very Rev. Norman Sykes wrote of it “Well might the visitor who enters … by the west door gasp with amazement". Winchester is also famous for its carved wooden fittings of many different periods.


title: Lulu (singer)

text: Marie McDonald McLaughlin Lawrie (born 3 November 1948), best known by her stage name Lulu, is a Scottish pop singer and actress. Her most famous hit is the song ""Shout"". Lulu's first hit was the song ""To Sir with Love"", which was the title song of the 1967 movie "To Sir, with Love", which was also her movie debut. She sang the title song of the 1974 James Bond movie "The Man with the Golden Gun".


title: Balen Shah

text: Balendra Shah is a Nepalese rapper, musician, structural engineer, and politician better known as Balen Shah or just Balen. He is now the 15th mayor of Kathmandu, Nepal's main city. He also served as a judge on Image Channel's hip-hop reality show Nephopko Shreepech.


title: Balen Shah

text: Since the early 2010s, Shah has been a popular personality in Nepalese hip-hop. Shah ran as an independent in the 2022 local elections, beating Nepali Congress candidate Sirjana Singh and CPN (UML) candidate Keshav Sthapit.


title: Fumihito, Prince Akishino

text: Fumihito was born in Imperial Household Hospital in Tokyo, He is the younger brother of Emperor Naruhito and the younger son of Emperor Emeritus Akihito and Empress Emerita Michiko.


title: Fumihito, Prince Akishino

text: He is the heir presumptive to the Chrysanthemum Throne. He has had the title and has headed his own branch of the imperial family.


title: CAPTCHA

text: A CAPTCHA is a test that is used to separate humans and machines. CAPTCHA stands for "Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart." It is normally an image test or a simple mathematics problem which a human can read or solve, but a computer cannot. It is made to stop computer hackers from using a program to automatically set up hundreds of accounts, such as email accounts. It is named after mathematician Alan Turing's Turing test.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: The British Virgin Islands is a British Overseas Territory and are part of the Virgin Islands, a chain of islands in the Caribbean. The islands comprise of the eastern half of the island chain. The British Virgin Islands has sixteen inhabited islands and more than twenty uninhabited islands. Over 22,000 people live there, which is fewer than the neighbouring United States Virgin Islands.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: The capital city, Road Town, is on Tortola, one of the islands in the group. Most of the people live on Tortola, but the other main inhabited islands include Anegada, Virgin Gorda and Jost Van Dyke.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: The islands were originally lived in by Caribbean Indians called Arawaks. By the time the first European explorers discovered the British Virgin Islands all of the Arawaks had left. The first Europeans to try and settle in the British Virgin Islands were the Dutch, but the English came soon after and the English and the Dutch settlers used to fight. The Spanish also claimed the islands, but no Spanish people ever tried to settle there. But the Spanish did attack the British and Dutch settlers.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: In 1672 the British took control of the islands during a war against the Dutch and they have held on to them ever since.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: During the early years after European settlement the British Virgin Islands was a plantation economy which relied heavily upon slave labour. After slavery was abolished in the British Virgin Islands there was a long period of decline and many people left. Those who remained were mostly descended from African slaves, although many of them also left to try and find better lives elsewhere.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: In the 1950s the British Virgin Islands got its own government, and the economy of the islands began to get better with the introduction of tourism and financial services.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: The British Virgin Islands are mostly self-governing, but some parts of the government is run by the United Kingdom.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: A new constitution was introduced in 2007. It grants more control over everyday life to the Islanders, and lists the protection a person can expect from the government. The head of Government in the British Virgin Islands is called the Premier, and he is in charge of a group of ministers of government which is called the Cabinet. Laws are passed by a group of elected politicians in the House of Assembly. Most of the international relations are still dealt with by the British Government in London on behalf of the people of the British Virgin Islands.


title: British Virgin Islands

text: Most people in the British Virgin Islands work in the tourist trade or in financial services. There are also a small number of farmers and fishermen.


title: Norfolk

text: Norfolk is a low-lying county in East Anglia in the east of southern England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and with Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast, including The Wash. The county town is Norwich. Norfolk is home to the Norfolk Broads, a famous tourist and wildlife spot.


title: Hairstyle

text: A hairstyle is the way hair is cut and styled. A haircut may be just practical, but a hairdo suggests professional styling. The fashioning of hair is an aspect of fashion, and cosmetics, especially for females. Practical, cultural, and popular considerations also influence hairstyles.


title: Hairstyle

text: People in many cultures cut their hair, rather than letting it grow naturally. Hair styles are often used to signal cultural, social, and ethnic identity and can be used to show social status or get attention. Generally, hairstyles are influenced by gender. Women's styles are different from men's. Fashion trends may have a great influence depending on the person.


title: Rodez

text: Rodez () is a commune in southwestern France in the department of Aveyron, of which it is its prefecture. It is in the region of Occitanie.


title: Rodez

text: It was the capital of Rouergue, a former French province. Rodez is also the capital of 3 "cantons": Rodez-1, Rodez-2 and Rodez-Onet.


title: Rodez

text: Existing from at least the 5th century BC, Rodez was founded by Celtic people, the Ruteni. Here they built an "oppidum" (fortified place) which, after the Roman occupation, was named "Segodunum" ("Fortified place", "high hill"). The town later was given the name of "Civitas Rutenorum" ("City of the Ruteni") and then only "Ruteni" and, finally, Rodez.


title: Rodez

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city was taken by the Visigoths and then by the Franks; in 725, the Moors took the city and destroyed the old church. Later it was occupied by the armies of the Dukes of Aquitaine and of the Counts of Toulouse. English troops occupied Rodez during the Hundred Years War.


title: Rodez

text: The "commune" of Rodez is on the western part of the central plateau ("Massif Central") of France. The Aveyron river and the "Auterne" stream flow through the city.


title: Rodez

text: The climate of Rodez, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers.


title: Rodez

text: Rodez forms, together with 5 other "communes", the urban area of Rodez with a population of 49,716 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Rodez, formed by 39 "communes" with a population of 85,181 inhabitants and an area of .


title: Rodez

text: Rodez is the prefecture of the Aveyron department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Rodez and the administrative centre () of three cantons:


title: Thomas Silverstein

text: Thomas Edward Silverstein (February 4, 1952 – May 11, 2019) was an American convicted murderer. He was in prison since 1977 after being convicted of four separate murders while imprisoned, one of which was overturned.


title: Thomas Silverstein

text: Silverstein was in solitary confinement since 1983, when he killed Corrections Officer Merle Clutts at the Marion Penitentiary in Marion, Illinois. He was called a brutal killer by prison officials and a former leader of the Aryan Brotherhood prison gang.


title: Thomas Silverstein

text: Silverstein said that the bad living conditions in prison caused him to kill prison officials. He was held "in a specially designed cell" in what is called "Range 13" at ADX Florence federal penitentiary in Colorado. He was the longest-held prisoner in solitary confinement within the Bureau of Prisons at the time of his death.


title: Thomas Silverstein

text: Silverstein died of heart failure after having heart surgery on May 11, 2019, after spending 36 years in solitary confinement. He was 67 years old.


title: Voting system

text: The voting system is a set of rules about the way people vote and how the votes are counted. Different countries have different voting systems. There are many different types of voting system. One of the first voting systems to be used is called "first-past-the-post". Under this system each voter writes an "x" next to their chosen candidate. At the end, the votes are counted. The candidate with the most votes wins. Some people think that first-past-the-post is unfair because they believe that many votes are wasted.


title: RAID

text: RAID is an acronym that stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks or Redundant Array of Independent Disks. RAID is a term used in computing. With RAID, several hard disks are made into one logical disk. There are different ways this can be done. Each of the methods that puts the hard disks together has some benefits and drawbacks over using the drives as single disks, independent of each other. The main reasons why RAID is used are:


title: RAID

text: Companies have used RAID systems to store their data since the technology was made. There are different ways in which RAID systems can be made. Since its discovery, the cost of building a RAID system has come down a lot. For this reason, even some computers and appliances that are used at home have some RAID functions. Such systems can be used to store music or movies, for example.


title: RAID

text: A hard disk is a part of a computer. Normal hard disks use magnetism to store information. When hard disks are used, they are available to the operating system. In Microsoft Windows, each hard disk will get a drive letter (starting with C:, A: or B: are reserved for floppy drives). Unix and Linux-like operating systems have a single-rooted directory tree. This means that people who use the computers sometimes do not know where the information is stored.(To be fair, a lot of Windows users don't know where their data is stored as well.)


title: RAID

text: In computing, the hard disks (which are hardware, and can be touched) are sometimes called "physical drives" or "physical disks". What the operating system shows the user is sometimes called "logical disk". A physical drive can be split into different sections, called disk partitions. Usually, each disk partition contains one file system. The operating system will show each partition like a logical disk.


title: RAID

text: Therefore, to the user, both the setup with many physical disks and the setup with many logical disks will look the same. The user cannot decide if a "logical disk" is the same as a physical disk, or if it simply is a part of the disk. Storage Area Networks (SANs) completely change this view. All that is visible of a SAN is a number of logical disks.


title: RAID

text: In the computer, data is organised in the form of bits and bytes. In most systems, 8 bits make up a byte. Computer memory uses electricity to store the data, hard disks use magnetism. Therefore, when data is "written" on a disk, the electric signal is converted into a magnetic one. When data is read from disk, the conversion is done in the other direction: An electrical signal is made from the polarity of a magnetic field.


title: RAID

text: A RAID array joins two or more hard disks so that they make a logical disk. There are different reasons why this is done. The most common ones are:


title: RAID

text: RAID is done by using special hardware or software on the computer. The joined hard disks will then look like one hard disk to the user. Most RAID levels increase the redundancy. This means that they store the data more often, or they store information on how to reconstruct the data. This allows for a number of disks to fail without the data being lost. When the failed disk is replaced, the data it should contain will be copied or rebuilt from the other disks of the system. This can take a long time. The time it takes depends on different factors, like the size of the array.


title: RAID

text: One of the reasons why many companies are using RAID is that the data in the array can simply be used. Those using the data need not be aware they are using RAID at all. When a failure occurred and the array is recovering, access to the data will be slower. Accessing the data during this time will also slow down the recovery process, but this is still much faster than not being able to work with the data at all.


title: RAID

text: Depending on the RAID level however, disks may not fail while the new disk is being prepared for use. A disk failing at that time will result in losing all the data in the array.


title: RAID

text: The different ways to join disks are called "RAID levels". A bigger number for the level is not necessarily better. Different RAID levels have different purposes. Some RAID levels need special disks and special controllers.


title: RAID

text: In 1978, a man called Norman Ken Ouchi, who worked at IBM, made a suggestion describing the plans for what would later become RAID 5. The plans also described something similar to RAID 1, as well as the protection of a part of RAID 4.


title: RAID

text: Workers at the University of Berkeley helped to plan out research in 1987. They were trying to make it possible for RAID technology to recognize two hard drives instead of one. They found that when RAID technology had two hard drives, it had much better storage than with only one hard drive. However, it crashed much more often.


title: RAID

text: In 1988, the different types of RAID (1 to 5), were written about by David Patterson, Garth Gibson and Randy Katz in their article, called "A Case for Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)". This article was the first to call the new technology RAID and the name became official.


title: RAID

text: RAID uses a few basic ideas, which were described in the article "RAID: High-Performance, Reliable Secondary Storage" by Peter Chen and others, published in 1994.


title: RAID

text: Caching is a technology that also has its uses in RAID systems. There are different kinds of caches that are used in RAID systems:


title: RAID

text: In modern systems, a write request is shown as done when the data has been written to the cache. This does not mean that the data has been written to the disk. Requests from the cache are not necessarily handled in the same order that they were written to the cache. This makes it possible that, if the system fails, sometimes some data has not been written to the disk involved. For this reason, many systems have a cache that is backed by a battery.


title: RAID

text: When talking about a mirror, this is a very simple idea. Instead of the data being in only one place, there are several copies of the data. These copies usually are on different hard disks (or disk partitions). If there are two copies, one of them can fail without the data being affected (as it still is on the other copy). Mirroring can also give a boost when reading data. It will always be taken from the fastest disk that responds. Writing data is slower though, because all disks need to be updated.


title: RAID

text: With striping, the data is split into different parts. These parts then end up on different disks (or disk partitions). This means that writing data is faster, as it can be done in parallel. This does not mean that there will not be faults, as each block of data is only found on one disk.


title: RAID

text: It is possible to calculate different kinds of checksums. Some methods of calculating checksums allow finding a mistake. Most RAID levels that use redundancy can do this. Some methods are more difficult to do, but they allow to not only detect the error, but to fix it.


title: RAID

text: Many of the ways to have RAID support something is called a "hot spare". A hot spare is an empty disk that is not used in normal operation. When a disk fails, data can directly be copied onto the hot spare disk. That way, the failed disk needs to be replaced by a new empty drive to become the hot spare.


title: RAID

text: RAID works by spreading the data over several disks. Two of the terms often used in this context are "stripe size" and "chunk size".


title: RAID

text: The "chunk size" is the smallest data block that is written to a single disk of the array. The "stripe size" is the size of a block of data that will be spread over all disks. That way, with four disks, and a stripe size of 64 kilobytes (kB), 16 kB will be written to each disk. The chunk size in this example is therefore 16 kB. Making the stripe size bigger will mean a faster data transfer rate, but also a bigger maximum latency. In this case, this is the time needed to get a block of data.


title: RAID

text: Many controllers (and also software) can put disks together in the following way: Take the first disk, till it ends, then they take the second, and so on. In that way, several smaller disks look like a larger one. This is not really RAID, as there is no redundancy. Also, spanning can combine disks where RAID 0 cannot do anything. Generally, this is called "just a bunch of disks" (JBOD).


title: RAID

text: This is like a distant relative of RAID because the logical drive is made of different physical drives. Concatenation is sometimes used to turn several small drives into one larger useful drive. This can not be done with RAID 0. For example, JBOD could combine 3 GB, 15 GB, 5.5 GB, and 12 GB drives into a logical drive at 35.5 GB, which is often more useful than the drives alone.


title: RAID

text: In the diagram to the right, data are concatenated from the end of disk 0 (block A63) to the beginning of disk 1 (block A64); end of disk 1 (block A91) to the beginning of disk 2 (block A92).


title: RAID

text: If RAID 0 were used, then disk 0 and disk 2 would be truncated to 28 blocks, the size of the smallest disk in the array (disk 1) for a total size of 84 blocks.


title: RAID

text: Some RAID controllers use JBOD to talk about working on drives without RAID features. Each drive shows up separately in the operating system. This JBOD is not the same as concatenation.


title: RAID

text: Many Linux systems use the terms "linear mode" or "append mode". The Mac OS X 10.4 implementation — called a "Concatenated Disk Set" — does not leave the user with any usable data on the remaining drives if one drive fails in a concatenated disk set, although the disks otherwise operate as described above.


title: RAID

text: Concatenation is one of the uses of the Logical Volume Manager in Linux. It can be used to create virtual drives.


title: RAID

text: Most modern hard disks have a standard called Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology (S.M.A.R.T). SMART allows to monitor certain things on a hard disk drive. Certain controllers allow to replace a single hard disk even before it fails, for example because S.M.A.R.T or another disk test reports too many correctable errors. To do this, the controller will copy all the data onto a hot spare drive. After this, the disk can be replaced by another (which will simply become the new hot spare).


title: RAID

text: The setup of the disks and how they use the techniques above affects the performance and reliability of the system. When more disks are used, one of the disks is more likely to fail. Because of this, mechanisms have to be built to be able to find and fix errors. This makes the whole system more reliable, as it is able to survive and repair the failure.


title: RAID

text: RAID 0 is not really RAID because it is not redundant. With RAID 0, disks are simply put together to make a large disk. This is called "striping". When one disk fails, the whole array fails. Therefore, RAID 0 is rarely used for important data, but reading and writing data from the disk can be faster with striping because each disk reads part of the file at the same time.


title: RAID

text: With RAID 0, disk blocks that come after one another are usually placed on different disks. For this reason, all disks used by a RAID 0 should be the same size.


title: RAID

text: With RAID 1, two disks are put together. Both hold the same data, one is "mirroring" the other. This is easy, fast configuration whether implemented with a hardware controller or by software.


title: RAID

text: RAID Level 5 is what is probably used most of the time. At least three hard disks are needed to build a RAID 5 storage array. Each block of data will be stored in three different places. Two of these places will store the block as it is, the third will store a checksum. This checksum is a special case of a Reed-Solomon code that only uses bitwise addition. Usually, it is calculated using the XOR method. Since this method is symmetric, one lost data block can be rebuilt from the other data block and the checksum. For each block, a different disk will hold the parity block which holds the checksum. This is done to increase redundancy. Any disk can fail. Overall, there will be one disk holding the checksums, so the total usable capacity will be that of all disks except for one. The size of the resulting logical disk will be the size of all disks together, except for one disk which holds parity information.


title: RAID

text: Of course this is slower than RAID level 1, since on every write, all disks need to be read to calculate and update the parity information. The read performance of RAID 5 is almost as good as RAID 0 for the same number of disks. Except for the parity blocks, the distribution of data over the drives follows the same pattern as RAID 0. The reason RAID 5 is slightly slower is that the disks must skip over the parity blocks.


title: RAID

text: A RAID 5 with a failed disk will continue to work. It is in "degraded mode". A degraded RAID 5 can be very slow. For this reason an additional disk is often added. This is called "hot spare" disk. If a disk fails, the data can be directly rebuilt onto the extra disk. RAID 5 can also be done in software quite easily.


title: RAID

text: Mainly because of performance problems of failed RAID 5 arrays, some database experts have formed a group called BAARF—the "Battle Against Any Raid Five".


title: RAID

text: If the system fails while there are active writes, the parity of a stripe may become inconsistent with the data. If this is not repaired before a disk or block fails, data loss may occur. An incorrect parity will be used to reconstruct the missing block in that stripe. This problem is sometimes known as the "write hole". Battery-backed caches and similar techniques are commonly used to reduce the chance for this to occur.


title: RAID

text: This was used with very large computers. Special expensive disks and a special controller are needed to use RAID Level 2. The data is distributed at the bit-level (all other levels use byte-level actions). Special calculations are done. Data is split up into static sequences of bits. 8 data bits and 2 parity bits are put together. Then a Hamming code is calculated. The fragments of the Hamming code are then distributed over the different disks.


title: RAID

text: RAID 2 is the only RAID level that can "repair" errors, the other RAID levels can only detect them. When they find that the information needed does not make sense, they will simply rebuild it. This is done with calculations, using information on the other disks. If that information is missing or wrong, they cannot do much. Because it uses Hamming codes, RAID 2 can find out which piece of the information is wrong, and correct only that piece.


title: RAID

text: RAID 2 needs at least 10 disks to work. Because of its complexity and its need for very expensive and special hardware, RAID 2 is no longer used very much.


title: RAID

text: Raid Level 3 is much like RAID Level 0. An additional disk is added to store parity information. This is done by bitwise addition of the value of a block on the other disks. The parity information is stored on a separate (dedicated) disk. This is not good, because if the parity disk crashes, the parity information is lost.


title: RAID

text: This is very similar to RAID 3, except that the parity information is calculated over larger blocks, and not single bytes. This is like RAID 5. At least three disks are needed for a RAID 4 array.


title: RAID

text: RAID level 6 was not an original RAID level. It adds an additional parity block to a RAID 5 array. It needs at least four disks (two disks for the capacity, two disks for redundancy). RAID 5 can be seen as a special case of a Reed-Solomon code. RAID 5 is a special case, though, it only needs addition in the Galois field "GF(2)". This is easy to do with XORs. RAID 6 extends these calculations. It is no longer a special case, and all of the calculations need to be done. With RAID 6, an extra checksum (called polynomial) is used, usually of "GF (2)". With this approach it is possible to protect against any number of failed disks. RAID 6 is for the case of using two checksums to protect against the loss of two disks.


title: RAID

text: Like with RAID 5, parity and data are on different disks for each block. The two parity blocks are also located on different disks.


title: RAID

text: There are different ways to do RAID 6. They are different in their write performance, and in how much calculations are needed. Being able to do faster writes usually means more calculations are needed.


title: RAID

text: RAID 6 is slower than RAID 5, but it allows the RAID to continue with any two disks failed. RAID 6 is becoming popular because it allows an array to be rebuilt after a single-drive failure even if one of the remaining disks has one or more bad sectors.


title: RAID

text: RAID 6 uses two parity blocks. These are calculated in a special way over a polynomial. "Double parity" RAID (also called "diagonal parity" RAID) uses a different polynomial for each of these parity blocks. Recently, the industry association that defined RAID said that double parity RAID is a different form of RAID 6.


title: RAID

text: RAID 1.5 (not to be confused with RAID 15, which is different) is a proprietary RAID implementation. Like RAID 1, it only uses two disks, but it does both striping and mirroring (similar to RAID 10). Most things are done in hardware.


title: RAID

text: RAID 5E, RAID 5EE and RAID 6E (with the added "E" for "Enhanced") generally refer to different types of RAID 5 or RAID 6 with a hot spare. With these implementations, the hot spare drive is not a physical drive. Rather, it exists in the form of free space on the disks. This increases performance, but it means that a hot spare cannot be shared between different arrays. The scheme was introduced by IBM ServeRAID around 2001.


title: RAID

text: Some Intel main boards have RAID chip that have this feature. It uses two or three disks, and then partitions them equally to form a combination of RAID 0, RAID 1, RAID 5 or RAID 1+0 levels.


title: RAID

text: This is the name for the driver that allows to do software RAID with Linux. In addition to the normal RAID levels 0-6, it also has a RAID 10 implementation. Since Kernel 2.6.9, RAID 10 is a single level. The implementation has some non-standard features.


title: RAID

text: Sun has implemented a file system called ZFS. This file system is optimised for handling large amounts of data. It includes a Logical Volume Manager. It also includes a feature called RAID-Z. It avoids the problem called "RAID 5 write hole" because it has a copy-on-write policy: It does not overwrite the data directly, but writes new data in a new location on the disk. When the write was successful, the old data is deleted. It avoids the need for read-modify-write operations for small writes, because it only writes full-stripes. Small blocks are mirrored instead of parity protected, which is possible because the file system knows the way the storage is organised. It can therefore allocate extra space if necessary. There is also "RAID-Z2" which uses two forms of parity to achieve results similar to RAID 6: the ability to survive up to two drive failures without losing data.


title: RAID

text: With RAID different disks can be put together to get a logical disk.The user will only see the logical disk. Each one of the RAID levels mentioned above has good and bad points. But RAID can also work with logical disks. That way one of the RAID levels above can be used with a set of logical disks. Many people note it by writing the numbers together. Sometimes, they write a '+' or an '&' in between. Common combinations (using two levels) are the following:


title: RAID

text: With six disks of 300 GB each, a total capacity of 1.8TB, it is possible to make a RAID 5, with 1.5 TB usable space. In that array, one disk can fail without data loss. With RAID 50, the space is reduced to 1.2 TB, but one disk of each RAID 5 can fail, plus there is a noticeable increase in performance. RAID 51 reduces the usable size to 900 GB, but allows any three drives to fail.


title: RAID

text: A RAID can be made with software in two different ways. In the case of Software RAID, the disks are connected like normal hard disks. It is the computer that makes the RAID work. This means that for each access the CPU also needs to do the calculations for the RAID. The calculations for RAID 0 or RAID 1 are simple. However, the calculations for RAID 5, RAID 6, or one of the combined RAID levels can be a lot of work. In a software RAID, automatically booting from an array that failed may be a difficult thing to do. Finally, the way RAID is done in software depends on the operating system used; it is generally not possible to re-build a Software RAID array with a different operating system. Operating systems usually use hard disk partitions rather than whole hard disks to make RAID arrays.


title: RAID

text: A RAID can also be made with hardware. In this case, a special disk controller is used; this controller card hides the fact that it is doing RAID from the operating system and the user. The calculations of checksum information, and other RAID-related calculations are done on a special microchip in that controller. This makes the RAID independent of the operating system. The operating system will not see the RAID, it will see a single disk. Different manufacturers do RAID in different ways. This means that a RAID built with one hardware RAID controller cannot be rebuilt by another RAID controller of a different manufacturer. Hardware RAID controllers are often expensive to buy.


title: RAID

text: This is a mix between hardware RAID and software RAID. Hardware-assisted RAID uses a special controller chip (like hardware RAID), but this chip can not do many operations. It is only active when the system is started; as soon as the operating system is fully loaded, this configuration is like software RAID. Some motherboards have RAID functions for the disks attached; most often, these RAID functions are done as "hardware-assisted RAID". This means that special software is needed to be able to use these RAID functions and to be able to recover from a failed disk.


title: RAID

text: The failure rate is how often a system fails. The "mean time to failure" (MTTF) or "mean time between failures" (MTBF) of a RAID system is the same as that of its components. A RAID system cannot protect against failures of its individual hard drives, after all. The more complicated types of RAID (anything beyond "striping" or "concatenation") can help keep the data intact even if an individual hard drive fails, though.


title: RAID

text: The "mean time to data loss" (MTTDL) gives the average time before a loss of data happens in a given array. Mean time to data loss of a given RAID may be higher or lower than that of its hard disks. This depends on the type of RAID used.


title: RAID

text: Arrays that have redundancy can recover from some failures. The "mean time to recovery" shows how long it takes until a failed array is back to its normal state. This adds both the time to replace a failed disk mechanism as well as time to re-build the array (i.e. to replicate data for redundancy).


title: RAID

text: The "unrecoverable bit error rate" (UBE) tells how long a disk drive will be unable to recover data after using cyclic redundancy check (CRC) codes and multiple retries.


title: RAID

text: Certain RAID levels allow to extend the array by simply adding hard disks, at a later time. Information such as parity blocks is often scattered on several disks. Adding a disk to the array means that a reorganisation becomes necessary. Such a reorganisation is like a re-build of the array, it can take a long time. When this is done, the additional space may not be available yet, because both the file system on the array, and the operating system need to be told about it. Some file systems do not support to be grown after they have been created. In such a case, all the data needs to be backed up, the array needs be re-created with the new layout, and the data needs to be restored onto it.


title: RAID

text: Another option to add storage is to create a new array, and to let a logical volume manager handle the situation. This allows to grow almost any RAID system, even RAID1 (which by itself is limited to two disks).


title: RAID

text: The error correction mechanism in RAID assumes that failures of drives are independent. It is possible to calculate how often a piece of equipment can fail and to arrange the array to make data loss very improbable.


title: RAID

text: In practice, however, the drives were often bought together. They have roughly the same age, and have been used similarly (called "wear"). Many drives fail because of mechanical problems. The older a drive is, the more worn are its mechanical parts. Mechanical parts that are old are more likely to fail than those that are younger. This means that drive failures are no longer statistically independent. In practice, there is a chance that a second disk will also fail before the first has been recovered. This means that data loss can occur at significant rates, in practice.


title: RAID

text: Another problem that also occurs with RAID systems is that applications expect what is called "Atomicity": Either all of the data is written, or none is. Writing the data is known as a "transaction".


title: RAID

text: In RAID arrays, the new data is usually written in the place where the old data was. This has become known as "update in-place". Jim Gray, a database researcher wrote a paper in 1981 where he described this problem.


title: RAID

text: Very few storage systems allow "atomic write semantics". When an object is written to disk, a RAID storage device will usually be writing all copies of the object in parallel. Very often, there is only one processor responsible for writing the data. In such a case, the writes of data to the different drives will overlap. This is known as "overlapped write" or "staggered write". An error that occurs during the process of writing may therefore leave the redundant copies in different states. What is worse, it may leave the copies in neither the old nor the new state. Logging relies on the original data being either in the old or the new state, though. This permits backing out the logical change, but few storage systems provide an atomic write semantic on a RAID disk.


title: RAID

text: Transactional support is not present in all hardware RAID controllers. Therefore, many operating systems include it to protect against data loss during an interrupted write. Novell Netware, starting with version 3.x, included a transaction tracking system. Microsoft introduced transaction tracking via the journaling feature in NTFS. NetApp WAFL file system solves it by never updating the data in place, as does ZFS.


title: RAID

text: Some sectors on a hard disk may have become unreadable because of a mistake. Some RAID implementations can deal with this situation by moving the data elsewhere and marking the sector on the disk as bad. This happens at about 1 bit in 10 in enterprise-class disk drives, and 1 bit in 10 in ordinary disk drives. Disk capacities are steadily increasing. This may mean that sometimes, a RAID cannot be rebuilt, because such an error is found when the array is rebuilt after a disk failure. Certain technologies such as RAID 6 try to address this issue, but they suffer from a very high write penalty, in other words writing data becomes very slow.


title: RAID

text: The disk system can acknowledge the write operation as soon as the data is in the cache. It does not need to wait until the data has been physically written. However, any power outage can then mean a significant data loss of any data queued in such a cache.


title: RAID

text: With hardware RAID, a battery can be used to protect this cache. This often solves the problem. When the power fails, the controller can finish writing the cache when the power is back. This solution can still fail, though: the battery may have worn out, the power may have been off for too long, the disks could be moved to another controller, the controller itself could fail. Certain systems can do periodic battery checks, but these use the battery itself, and leave it in a state where it is not fully charged.


title: RAID

text: The disk formats on different RAID controllers are not necessarily compatible. Therefore, it may not be possible to read a RAID array on different hardware. Consequently, a non-disk hardware failure may require using identical hardware, or a backup, to recover the data.


title: RAID

text: This guide was taken from a thread in a RAID-related forum. This was done to help point out the advantages and disadvantages of choosing RAID. It is directed at people who want to choose RAID for either increases in performance or redundancy. It contains links to other threads in its forum containing user-generated anecdotal reviews of their RAID experiences.


title: RAID

text: The RAID levels used most often are RAID 0, RAID 1, and RAID 5. Suppose there is a 3 disk setup, with 3 identical disks of 1 TB each, and the probability of failure of a drive for a given timespan is 1%.


title: Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam

text: Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam is a United States Navy and United States Air Force base in the U.S. state of Hawaii, on the south lagoon shore of Oahu. The navy base was started in 1899 and merged with the air force base in 2010. It is 8 miles (15 km) west of downtown Honolulu.


title: Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam

text: The Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, on December 7, 1941, which was a surprise. The attack led to America's fighting in World War II. The reason the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor was to destroy the U.S. Navy (Seventh Fleet), and prevent the U.S from stopping the Japanese expansion in Asia.


title: Canuck

text: The term was first used in the 19th century, although its etymology (origin) is not clear. Some possibilities are:


title: Canuck

text: The Random House Dictionary says that: "The term Canuck is first recorded about 1835 as an Americanism, originally referring specifically to a French Canadian. This was probably the original meaning, though in Canada and other countries, Canuck now more often refers to any Canadian."


title: Canuck

text: The use of "Canuck" is similar to the use of some other potentially offensive nicknames. When it is used by the people it names – Canadians in this case – it is usually acceptable. But when it is used by an outsider it can be thought of as insulting one's heritage.


title: Prayagraj

text: Prayagraj ( formerly called as Prayag, also known as Allahabad), is a city in Uttar Pradesh state of India. It is located where three Ganges and Yamuna and Saraswati(Mansatta) rivers join. This city is a holy city for Hindus. It is best known for Kumbha Mela. This fair occurs every 12th year in Prayagraj. The city was named "Allahabad" by the Mughal emperor Akbar.


title: Prayagraj

text: Previously Prayagraj known as Allahabad. The name has changed in Yogi Government Uttar Pradesh in 2018.


title: Prayagraj

text: A civic body called Prayagraj Nagar nigam adminiters the whole city,City comprises 1 police zone and 3 circles of district.


title: Prayagraj

text: There are 7 main stations in the city. Prayagraj junction is the headquarter of North Central Railway Zone. Daily thousands of trains go to the different routes.


title: Prayagraj

text: Thirthraj Prayag International airport: There is one domestic/Military airport in Prayagraj airport that holds various routes.There been has a proposal to develop as airport into international airport.


title: Calvin cycle

text: The Calvin cycle (also known as the Benson-Calvin cycle) is the set of chemical reactions that take place in chloroplasts during photosynthesis.


title: Calvin cycle

text: The cycle is light-independent because it takes place after the energy has been captured from sunlight.


title: Calvin cycle

text: The Calvin cycle is named after Melvin C. Calvin, who won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for finding it in 1961. Calvin and his colleagues, Andrew Benson and , did the work at the University of California, Berkeley.


title: Calvin cycle

text: Using the radioactive carbon-14 isotope as a tracer, Calvin, Andrew Benson and their team mapped the complete route that carbon travels through a plant during photosynthesis. They traced the carbon-14 from soaking up its atmospheric carbon dioxide to its conversion into carbohydrates and other organic compounds. The single-celled algae "Chlorulla" was used to trace the carbon-14.


title: Calvin cycle

text: The Calvin group showed that sunlight acts on the chlorophyll in a plant to fuel the manufacture of organic compounds, not directly on carbon dioxide as previously believed.


title: Calvin cycle

text: 1. Grab: A five-carbon carbon catcher called RuBP (Ribulose bisphosphate) catches one molecule of carbon dioxide and forms a six-carbon molecule.


title: Calvin cycle

text: 2. Split: the enzyme RuBisCO (with the energy of ATP and NADPH molecules) breaks the six-carbon molecule into two equal parts.


title: Calvin cycle

text: The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or 'glucose triose phosphates' (G3P). Each step of the cycle has its own enzyme which speeds up the reaction.