title: Mourning dove

text: This species' call is a "cooOOoo-wooo-woo-woooo", which is used by males when attracting a mate. Other sounds include a nest call ("cooOOoo") by paired males to attract their mates to the nests, a greeting call (a soft "ork") by males upon joining their mates again, and an alarm call (a short "roo-oo") by either male or female when in danger.


title: Mourning dove

text: In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is quiet and hard to hear, but is louder at take-off and landing.


title: Mourning dove

text: The male begins by flying noisily, and then in a graceful, circular glide with its wings outstretched and head down. After landing, the male will go to the female with a puffed out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Once the pair is mated, they will often spend time preening each other's feathers. The mourning dove does not easily leave its mate. Pairs may sometimes remain together throughout the winter. However, lone doves will find new partners if necessary.


title: Mourning dove

text: After mating, the male shows the female all the possible nest sites, and lets the female choose one and build the nest. The male will fly about, get material, and bring it to her. The male stands on the female's back to give the material to the female, who builds it into the nest. The nest is made of twigs, conifer needles, or grass. Sometimes, mourning doves will take place of the unused nests of other mourning doves, birds, or mammals such as squirrels.


title: Mourning dove

text: Most nests are in trees, but they can also be in shrubs, vines, or on buildings and hanging flower pots. When there is no good place to nest above, mourning doves will nest on the ground. The nest is almost always big enough for exactly two eggs. Sometimes, however, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, leading to three or four eggs in the nest. The eggs are small and white.


title: Mourning dove

text: Both sexes incubate; the male from morning to afternoon, and the female the rest of the day and at night. Mourning doves rarely leave their nest alone. Incubation takes two weeks.


title: Mourning dove

text: Both parents feed the chicks crop milk for the first 3–4 days of life. After that, they gradually begin to eat seeds. The feathers and wing muscles begin to develop for flight in about 11–15 days. This happens before the squabs are fully grown, but after they digest the adult food. They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging.


title: Mourning dove

text: Mourning doves breed quickly. In warmer areas, these birds may raise up to six broods in a season. This fast breeding is important because mourning birds die often. Each year, the mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young.


title: Mourning dove

text: Mourning doves eat mostly seeds. Seeds are at least 99% of their diet. Rarely, they will eat snails or insects. Mourning doves usually eat enough to fill their stomach and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow gravel or sand to help them digest. At bird feeders, mourning doves are attracted to corn, millet, and sunflower seeds. Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, but only eat what they can see. They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from them.


title: Mourning dove

text: Mourning doves especially prefer pine nuts, sesame, and wheat. When they cannot find their favorite foods, mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants, including buckwheat and rye.


title: Mourning dove

text: Mourning doves can be easily harmed with several different parasites and diseases, including tapeworms, nematodes, mites, and lice. The "Trichomonas gallinae", a parasite which lives in the mouth, is especially severe. While the bird sometimes shows no ill effects, the parasite often causes a yellowish growth in the mouth and throat. This can make the bird starve to death.


title: Mourning dove

text: The greatest predators of this species are birds of prey, such as falcons and hawks. Other times, during nesting, corvids, grackles, house cats or rat snakes will eat their eggs. Cowbirds rarely pass parasites mourning dove nests. Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests, and the cowbirds cannot eat the Mourning Dove's vegetarian diet.


title: Mourning dove

text: Like other doves, the mourning dove drinks without lifting or tilting its head. They often gather at drinking spots around dawn and dusk.


title: Mourning dove

text: Mourning doves wash themselves in the sun or rain. These birds can also take baths in shallow pools or bird baths. They may sometimes bathe themselves in the dust as well.


title: Mourning dove

text: When they are not breeding, mourning doves roost in dense deciduous trees or in conifers. During sleep, the head rests between the shoulders, close to the body, and is not tucked under the shoulder feathers as most species do. Sometimes, roosting is delayed on colder days during the winter in Canada.


title: Mourning dove

text: The mourning dove is of Least Concern to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The species is not at immediate risk. The population is about 475 million and they live across a wide area. However, around 40–70 million birds are shot as game every year.


title: Mourning dove

text: The mourning dove is closely related to the eared dove ("Zenaida auriculata") and the Socorro dove ("Zenaida graysoni"). Sometimes these three birds are put in the separate genus "Zenaidura". The Socorro dove was once thought to be the same species as the mourning dove. However, differences in behavior, call, and appearance separate them as two different species.


title: Mourning dove

text: The West Indian subspecies lives throughout the Greater Antilles. It is also lives in the Florida Keys. The Eastern subspecies lives mainly in eastern North America, as well as Bermuda and the Bahamas. The Western subspecies lives in western North America and parts of Mexico. The Panamanian subspecies is in Central America. The Clarion Island subspecies lives near the Pacific coast of Mexico.


title: Mourning dove

text: The mourning dove is sometimes called the American mourning dove, because it may be confused with the distantly related African mourning dove ("Streptopelia decipiens"). It also used to be known as the Carolina turtledove or Carolina pigeon. The species' scientific name was given in 1838 by French zoologist Charles L. Bonaparte, honoring his wife, Princess Zénaide. The "mourning" part of its name comes from its call.


title: Mourning dove

text: The mourning dove is thought to be most closely related to the extinct passenger pigeon ("Ectopistes migratorius").


title: Mourning dove

text: The Eastern mourning dove ("Z. m. carolinensis") is Wisconsin's official symbol of peace. The bird is also Michigan's state bird of peace.


title: Mourning dove

text: The mourning dove appears as the Carolina turtle-dove on plate 286 of Audubon's "The Birds of America".


title: Mourning dove

text: Mourning doves are referred to often in American literature. They are in some American and Canadian poetry such as in the works of Robert Bly, Jared Carter, Lorine Niedecker, and Charles Wright.


title: Hans Christian Andersen

text: Andersen was born in Odense, Denmark. His father was a shoemaker, and his mother washed clothes for customers. The family was poor. When Andersen was 11, his father died. At 14, Andersen left his mother and his home. He moved to Copenhagen.


title: Hans Christian Andersen

text: The king helped Andersen finish his education. Andersen wanted to be an actor or dancer. He did not have the talent for either. He started to write novels, plays, poems, short stories, and travel books. In 1835, he published four fairy tales that were liked by the readers. After this success, he wanted to write more fairy tales.


title: Hans Christian Andersen

text: Andersen's stories were popular all over Europe. He was invited into the homes of rich and powerful people. He fell in love with several men and women. He was in love with singer Jenny Lind. He also fell in love with ballet dancer Harald Scharff.


title: Hans Christian Andersen

text: Andersen was a happy and carefree man. He travelled all over Europe. He wanted to see the sights. He hoped travelling would make him even happier. He always carried a rope with him. He planned to use this rope as a fire escape if needed. In the spring of 1872, Andersen fell off of his bed and suffered major injuries. He never recovered fully. Soon after that, Andersen showed signs of liver cancer. He died on 4 August 1875 from liver cancer.


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: General elections were held in Brazil on 7 October 2018 to elect the President and Vice President and other political figures in the nation.


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: The first round of the presidential election was held on 7 October 2018. Jair Bolsonaro won 46% of the vote with Fernando Haddad winning 29.3%. Since no candidate won more than 50% of the vote, a second round was held on 28 October 2018 with Bolsonaro being elected president.


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: The 2014 elections Dilma Rousseff re-elected as president in the second round with 51.6% of the vote.


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: However, on 3 December 2015, impeachment process against Rousseff were officially accepted by the Chamber of Deputies. Vice President Michel Temer, of the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party, became Acting President of Brazil. On 31 August 2016, the Senate voted 61–20 in favor of impeachment, finding Rousseff guilty of breaking budgetary laws and removing her from office. Vice President Temer replaced Rousseff as the 37th President of Brazil.


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: Even though current President Temer said he would not run, he received an eight-year ban from holding office on 2 June 2016 for violating election laws.


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: Former President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva said he would run for the presidency again, but was arrested for money laundering and found guilty. On August 1, 2018, the Higher Electoral Court Minister, Luiz Fux, confirmed the decision that the former president Lula is ineligible to run for elections in 2018.


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: The following candidates advanced to the second round as they were placed in the top two candidates following the voting:


title: 2018 Brazilian general election

text: The following candidates were eliminated in the first round of the election as they were placed third or lower in the final votes:


title: Atomic clock

text: An atomic clock is a clock that works with atoms, as opposed to most other clocks which are mechanical. The frequency comes from the crossing radiation of electrons. Atomic clocks are currently the most exact clocks of the world. They are also called "primary clocks".


title: Atomic clock

text: Most clocks know the time because they count how many times something moves back and forth. Atomic clocks count how many times an atom wiggles back and forth.


title: Atomic clock

text: Worldwide, there are over 260 atomic clocks at over 60 different places. All data is collected at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France. The International Atomic Time is calculated there.


title: Atomic clock

text: The basics were developed by Isidor Isaac Rabi. He was an American physicist at Columbia University. He got the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944.


title: Stock (firearm)

text: A stock, also known as a shoulder stock, a buttstock, or simply a butt is a part of a rifle or other firearm, to which the barrel and firing mechanism are attached. It is held firmly against the shooter's shoulder when firing the gun. Stocks are also found on crossbows, though a crossbow stock is properly called a "tiller". The stock provides a means for the shooter to firmly support the device and easily aim it. The stock also transmits recoil (the shock of firing the weapon) into the shooter's shoulder. The term stock dates to 1571 and comes from the Germanic word "stoc", meaning tree trunk. This refers to the wooden nature of the gunstock.


title: Anglic languages

text: Anglic languages are West Germanic languages that come from Old English. They were first spoken on the British Isles. Creole languages based on forms of English are generally not included. Except for English, this group also includes Scots in Scotland, and Yola and Fingallan in Ireland.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: The Social Democratic Party of Germany (German Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands or SPD) is the oldest political party in Germany that still exists. It was created on 23 May 1863. Many people think that the SPD is one of the two most important political parties in modern-day Germany, with the Christian Democratic Union (CDU).


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: It was founded as the General German Workers Association ("Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein") (ADAV) on May 23rd in 1863 in Leipzig. Founder was Ferdinand Lassalle.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: In 1875 the ADAV joined with the Social Democratic Workers' Party ("Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei") (SDAP), which was founded in 1869 in Eisenach by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: The new name was the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany ("Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands") (SAP).


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: In 1914 the SPD was split into two. Most members of the party supported the Kaiser and his plans for war. The other members formed the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany ("Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschland") (USPD). They were against the war.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: Later the SPD was the only party in the Reichstag who voted against the Enabling Act,("Ermächtigungsgesetz") which allowed Hitler to become dictator.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: Afterwards, the Nazis banned the SPD and arrested the leading Social Democrats. Many were sent to Nazi concentration camps. Others moved away to towns where they were not known. Friedrich Kellner, an organizer for the SPD in Mainz from 1920 to 1932, moved to Laubach. He wrote entries in a secret diary about the crimes of the Nazis.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: In the GDR (East Germany) the Soviet Union forced the SPD to join with the communist party to make the Socialist Unity Party of Germany ("Sozialistische Einheitspartei"). In Western Germany the SPD continued as the largest center-left party.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: The SPD led some state governments in West Germany, but was always the leading opposition party in the Bundestag (federal parliament).


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: Under its parliamentary party leader Herbert Wehner the SPD joined the federal government led by chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU) with the CDU and the CSU in 1966. Party chief Willy Brandt became foreign secretary and vice chancellor.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: In 1969 Willy Brandt became federal chancellor. The SPD lead a coalition government with the FDP as its partner. In 1974 Helmut Schmidt became chancellor.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: Between 1998 and 2005 the SPD led the government under chancellor Gerhard Schröder. Its partner this time was The Greens.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: In November 2005 the SPD became the junior partner in a coalition with the CDU and CSU under Angela Merkel.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: In 1959 the SPD adopted the "Godesberger Programm", named after the town of Bad Godesburg in North Rhine-Westphalia. The SPD formally abandoned Marxism, and accepted the market economy (which means people and companies can make money and keep it themselves), but wanted to have a social balance (which means people would get help from the government if they had no job, were sick or too old to work, instead of relying on savings or charity). Companies might get subsidies to help keep people in work.


title: Social Democratic Party of Germany

text: Many people thought that the government of Chancellor Schröder (1998 - 2005) changed the idea of social balance, making people rely more on savings or charity. The SPD lost a lot of members. Now there is a discussion in the SPD about new social balance policies.


title: Marilyn (hill)

text: A Marilyn is a mountain or hill in the British Isles (including Ireland) with a relative height of at least 150 metres (492 ft). The name was coined as an ironic contrast to the designation Munro, that is used of a Scottish mountain with a height of more than 3,000 feet, which is homophonous with (Marilyn) Monroe.


title: Marilyn (hill)

text: There are currently 1556 Marilyns identified in Great Britain and surrounding islands: 1218 in Scotland, 174 in England 159 in Wales and 5 on the Isle of Man.


title: Marilyn (hill)

text: Many of the largest hills are Marilyns, including Ben Nevis, Scafell Pike and Snowdon. On the other hand, many large hills, including some Munros, and other well-known hills are not Marilyns because they do not meet the relative height criterion, like Scafell, Bow Fell in the Lake District and four thousand footers Cairngorm and Aonach Mor in Scotland.


title: Christmas tree

text: The Christmas tree is a tradition associated with the celebration of Christmas. It is normally an evergreen coniferous tree that is cut and brought into the home. In Europe, the tree is traditionally a Norway spruce tree.


title: Christmas tree

text: The tree is decorated with Christmas lights and colourful ornaments during the days around Christmas. An angel or a star is often placed at the top of the tree. Fir trees outside the home may be decorated in a similar fashion. The custom of the Christmas tree has its origin among the Protestant peoples of Northern Europe. It is not a religious symbol.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Olympia is the capital city of the state of Washington, in the United States of America. It became a city on January 28, 1859. As of the 2010 census, it has 46,478 people living in it. The people of Olympia are called "Olympians". Olympia is the county seat of Thurston County.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total size of 48.0 km² (18.5 mi²). 43.3 km² (16.7 mi²) of it is land and 4.7 km² (1.8 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 9.77% water.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Olympia is on the water (Puget Sound) and close to dark green forests and high mountains (the Olympic Mountains and Mount Rainier). On most days of the year the sky is full of clouds and it rains, but sunny weather is more common in July, August, and September.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Many people in Olympia work for the government of the State of Washington. Every year, state representatives and state senators come to Olympia to make laws and to pass a budget for the state government.


title: Olympia, Washington

text: Every April, the people of Olympia celebrate the "Procession of the Species,". It is a parade. Many Olympians, of all ages, dress up to look like animals, birds, fish, plants, and even insects, and walk in the parade. Some also play drums or dance the samba.


title: Simon Cowell

text: Simon Phillip Cowell (born 7 October 1959) is a British businessman, entrepreneur, record executive and television personality. Cowell is the A&R executive for Syco in the United Kingdom and the son of estate agent and music industry executive Eric Cowell Sr. and socialite Julie Brett. He was born in Lambeth, London and raised in Elstree, Hertfordshire. He is well known as a judge on television programmes "Pop Idol", "The X Factor", "American Idol" and "Britain's Got Talent". On these shows, Cowell is known for saying that most of the contestants on the shows are not talented. He is known for joining activities in the television and music industries, having made singles and records for many television characters.


title: Dolph Lundgren

text: Dolph Lundgren (born Hans Lundgren on November 3, 1957) is a Swedish actor, martial artists, and director who is known for his roles in "Universal Soldier", "Universal Soldier Day of Reckoning", "Rocky IV", "The Expendables", "The Expendables 2" and in "The Expendables 3". He is notable for playing the Soviet boxer Ivan Drago in Rocky IV.


title: Dolph Lundgren

text: Lundgren was born on November 3, 1957 in Spånga, Stockholm, Sweden. He studied at Washington State University and at Clemson University. Lundgren was married to Annette Qviberg from 1994 until they separated in 2011. They have 2 daughters. Lundgren lives in Los Angeles, California.


title: John Fogerty

text: John Cameron Fogerty (born May 28, 1945) is an American musician, songwriter and guitarist. He is best known for his time with the roots rock band Creedence Clearwater Revival (CCR), as well as his time as a solo musician.


title: John Fogerty

text: Fogerty was born in Berkeley, California. The first band he was a part of was called The Golliwogs. He started this band with his brother Tom Fogerty, and Doug Clifford and Stu Cook.


title: John Fogerty

text: In 1966, Fogerty served a United States Army Reserve unit at Fort Bragg, Fort Knox, and Fort Lee. In July 1967, he was discharged. At that time the band changed its name to Creedence Clearwater Revival. The band broke up in 1972. Since then, Fogerty has had a successful solo career.


title: John Fogerty

text: He is currently married to Julie Kramer. They have one daughter from Kramer's previous marriage, two sons and a daughter.


title: Krakatoa

text: Krakatoa (Indonesian name: "Krakatau") is an active volcano in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia. There are many different ways the name has been spelled. The volcano has erupted repeatedly in known history. The best known of these events occurred in late August 1883.


title: Krakatoa

text: On 22 December 2018 the central cone collapsed and caused a tsunami in the Sunda Strait. More than 400 people were killed.


title: Krakatoa

text: The 1883 eruption ejected more than six cubic miles (25 cubic kilometers) of rock, ash, and pumice, and made the loudest sound ever recorded by human beings. The sound was heard as far away as Perth in Australia (3,500 km; 2,200 miles), and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (4,800 km; 3,000 miles). Many thousands of people were killed and injured by the eruption, mostly in the tsunami (giant wave) which followed the explosion.


title: Krakatoa

text: The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world, which continued to register it up to 5 days after the explosion. The recordings show that the shock wave from the final explosion reverberated around the globe seven times.


title: Krakatoa

text: The eruption destroyed two-thirds of what was then the island of Krakatoa. New eruptions at the volcano since 1927 have built a new island, called "Anak Krakatau" (child of Krakatoa).


title: Cybercrime

text: Cybercrime is crime that uses a computer and computer network. There are many types of cybercrimes. These include doxxing, hacking, copyright issues, cyberterrorism and fraud. Many countries have laws against many types of porn such as twincest, fauxcest, child porn, bestiality and others. Some other actions can also be illegal such as cyberbullying, spying, child grooming or hebephilic behavior. Some governments have agencies that deal with computer crimes.


title: Cybercrime

text: A primary effect of cybercrime is financial; cybercrime can include many different types of profit-driven criminal activity, including ransomware attacks, email and internet fraud, and identity fraud, as well as attempts to steal financial account, credit card or other payment card information. Cybercriminals may also target an individual's private information, as well as corporate data for theft and resale.


title: Cybercrime

text: Cybercrime attacks can begin wherever there is digital data, opportunity and motive. Cybercriminals include everyone from the lone user engaged in cyberbullying to state-sponsored actors, like China's intelligence services. Cybercrimes generally do not occur in a vacuum; they are, in many ways, distributed in nature. That is, cybercriminals typically rely on other actors to complete the crime. This is whether it's the creator of malware using the dark web to sell code, the distributor of illegal pharmaceuticals using cryptocurrency brokers to hold virtual money in escrow or state threat actors relying on technology subcontractors to steal intellectual property (IP).


title: Sacred

text: The words sacred or holy are sometimes used interchangeably and are often misunderstood to mean "important" or "special" instead of "set apart" and "pure."


title: Sacred

text: According to Websters 1828 Dictionary (the more accurate definition given the spiritual context- Christian and beyond), sacred means "...separated from that which is common, vulgar, polluted, or open... or Holy." Holy, means "Properly, whole, entire or perfect, in a moral sense. Hence, pure in heart, temper or dispositions; free from sin and sinful affections. Applied to the Supreme Being, holy signifies perfectly pure, immaculate and complete in moral character..."


title: Sacred

text: Most religions have sacred books that provide teachings or doctrines associated with the religion. These books are "set apart," from other books published and associated with the religion. There is a deeper connection to these books over the others.


title: Sacred

text: For Christians this book is called the Bible. Muslim peoples have another book, they call the Qur'an. Jews call their book the Torah. Similarly, the Book of Mormon is also considered as a sacred book in Mormonism.


title: Sacred

text: Some religious people deem specific places sacred because of their mention in the sacred books. Jerusalem is seen as sacred by Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Mecca is sacred in Islam, and Ise Grand Shrine in Mie Prefecture is sacred in Japanese Shinto. In Hinduism the river Ganges is seen as holy.


title: Fall Guys

text: Fall Guys is a battle royale game, developed by Mediatonic and published by Devolver Digital. The gameplay for Fall Guys was inspired by the 1980s gameshow "Takeshi's Castle". In "Fall Guys", up to 60 players in a match compete to win each round. Players must survive each round by completing the goals of each round. The winner of the match is the last player standing. The game had experienced a rise in popularity in the summer of 2020 because it was given attention by Twitch streamers and PewDiePie.


title: Fall Guys

text: In "Fall Guys: Ultimate Knockout", the main gameplay comes from playing a series of mini-games in the game. Most mini-games are categorized into four major categories: races, survival, hunting, and logic. The only exception is for "finals", which are basically variations of some of the main mini-games. Most mini-games feature obstacles that block the progress of other players. Certain mini-games include elements of teamwork.


title: Fall Guys

text: The goal is to race to the finish line. Only around two-thirds of the participants can qualify. When the last qualifiable player passes the finish line, all remaining players are eliminated.


title: Fall Guys

text: In these rounds, players must stay alive until the timer runs out, or all activities have been completed:


title: Fall Guys

text: These levels are a lower category and mistaken for Survival levels, the biggest differences are that your brain is key, not reflex:


title: Fall Guys

text: Players are divided equally (where possible) into teams. Each game has a certain, unchanging number of teams. All games with two teams will be Blue and Yellow. Games with a third team will introduce Red. Games with a fourth team will introduce Green:


title: Fall Guys

text: When enough players have been eliminated and only a few remain, the final round will be played. Whoever wins these games will be crowned the overall winner of the show.


title: Fall Guys

text: Every few months, Fall Guys regularly hosts a new season. Each season hosts a new theme and comes with additional content.


title: Ahmad Khan Kharal

text: Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal (), also called Amo Kharal (1785-1857) was a Punjabi freedom-fighter and Folk hero, who fought against the British Raj in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.


title: Ahmad Khan Kharal

text: Amo Kharal was born in a rich landowning family of the Kharal Jat Clan in the Sandal Bar region of Punjab, in Jhamara village near Tāndliānwāla Faisalabad District. As a young man he fought against the rising Sikh power led by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Ahmad Khan Kharal had very cordial(good) relations with Maharaja Ranjit singh.(reference- Saeed Ahmed Butt (2015). "Rai Ahmad Khan Kharral (Myth or Reality)" (PDF). Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society. 28 (2): 173–191. Retrieved 2020-05-07.) Later on, as an old man in his 70s, when the rebellion broke out against the British, he also raised a force to fight against them.


title: Ahmad Khan Kharal

text: Amo Kharal was quite successful in helping the local people and keeping them safe from British troops, keeping up a guerilla warfare against them, for some months. On 26th July 1857, Amo Kharal went with a force to attack the Gogera Jail (now in Sahiwal District) to release some of his companions arrested by the enemy, but was ambushed by them and their local allies. Amo Kharal and his assistant, Sarang, were both killed, fighting bravely.


title: Ahmad Khan Kharal

text: The deeds of this brave and noble warrior are still remembered and sung by Punjabi poets in "dholas" and "vars", types of poems.


title: Ahmad Khan Kharal

text: Saeed Ahmed Butt (2015). "Rai Ahmad Khan Kharral (Myth or Reality)" (PDF). Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society. 28 (2): 173–191. Retrieved 2020-05-07.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Ho Chi Minh City () is a city in southern Vietnam. It is governed as a municipality and includes a large rural area. It is the biggest city in Vietnam. About 9 million people live in the city.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Before its fall on 30 April 1975, the city used to be called "Saigon", and this is still the most common name in everyday conversation. The name Saigon come from the Saigon River, which flows through the city.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: It used to be a Khmer port city called Prey Nokor, or “Jungle City”. The city was taken over by the Vietnamese and eventually took the name of"(Sài Gòn)". It was invaded by the French in 1859. As (French) Saigon it was the capital of French Indochina and became an important city in French colonial trade. After independence(from France), in 1954 to 1975, Saigon became the capital of the Republic of Vietnam. After the end of the US campaign (1973) in the Vietnam War, Saigon was overtaken by the North Vietnamese army on 30 April 1975 and renamed after Hồ Chí Minh. The tradition of naming places in Vietnam after great people is very common. Many streets bear the names of epic heroes. Hai Ba Trung street is named after heroic sisters.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Despite the name change, many people from other countries, and even among Vietnamese people, still call the city "Saigon" today. Interestingly enough, both the names of the Saigon River and the Saigon railway station have stayed unchanged.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) has expanded with industrialization. It now includes all of the surrounding towns. The city center is old Saigon. Old Saigon has two main districts (One and Three). The new city districts used to be rice fields and fish farms. There are fish all over the city.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Ho Chi Minh City is as flat as the river plain it sits on. Nearly all roads are built flat. Bicycle riding around the Mekong delta is very easy in dry weather. Because of the flatness, roads and buildings sink into the draining soil. Lying water keeps pollution very close to city homes. The rising tides can flood many districts when the moon is fullest.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Because rainwater can't be kept in valleys or mountains, the city-water is dangerous to drink. Most people drink from large bottles of water - .


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: When the streets flood (in rain or tides) the dirt from drains returns onto the city. This has caused a lot of problems for the health of the people living in the city. Escaping sewer water makes people very sick in the tropical countries. Older people may avoid drinking more than a few drinks a day.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: It's very tropical in the city. The trees in streets are cut down to half every year - but they grow back. Fresh food markets are all over the city. The city has so much rain, that drains and rivers surround every district.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: The southeast of the province has the . It's a 752 square kilometre mangrove area between Ho Chi Minh City and the sea.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Inside the wetlands there are birds, deer, fish, frogs, insects, lizards, monkeys, otters, and snakes. The centipedes all around the city are very dangerous (maybe deadly to tiny animals). People catch and consume the snakes.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: The wetlands and ecosystem has been designated as a biosphere reserve. Ho Chi Minh people get education on how to look after their biosphere reserve and wetlands.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: The city is a river port on the Saigon River. Several larger terminals operate outside and inside of the city. Many small docks operate around the city. The river system leads out to sea at Vung Tau, or onto the Mekong delta.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Delivery of materials for the city can be made by boat. Farm produce distributors can arrive by boat in many districts outside the city.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: The use of English is rising in HCMC. Many HCMC people will travel around the world by using English as their international language. Many other languages are studied. French was previously the most popular. Chinese is also very well known to many people.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: The city has international schools that teach foreign children. All classes (except for languages) are given in the chosen language. Many international schools have chosen English as the primary language. Some of the international schools are named by their country of origin. The schools named after a country use the national language of that country.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Many HCMC parents use to improve their children's English. HCMC adults attend colleges to learn English.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Some HCMC people will go overseas to get foreign education. It can be through staying with relatives, attending boarding schools, joining programs, or with family.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: English is taught at university in HCMC. It doesn't replace the national language at most universities. International universities might set a requirement for English or another language.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Wealthy people live a fantastic life in the city. But, others are very poor. Poor does not always mean without food, clothing, shelter, or work in HCMC. The cost of living in Vietnam helps even the poorest people to survive. Many temples, churches, charities, and government organizations help people that are even more misfortunate than the poor. But still, some ultra-poor people struggle with homelessness, and the tropical weather - they get very dark skin compared to other people.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: There is a lot of entertainment for the people in the city. Many discos, bars, and clubs operate all around the city. Food is also a source of entertainment for people in HCMC. Very strange restaurants sell very strange food: scorpions, bats, rats and more. Tourists are amazed by what is eaten in HCMC.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: The Mekong River delta is accessible from HCMC. It has a many rice, coconut, fish, and prawn farms. The main city is Can Tho City.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: The border to Cambodia is the closest international exit point for tourists. This exit border takes people to Phnom Penh City.


title: Ho Chi Minh City

text: Bien Hoa City is another industrial city to the northeast. Around there, the province of Binh Duong is growing through strong financial investment.


title: Harmony

text: Harmony means playing several notes together to make “chords”. The word comes from the Greek "harmonia" meaning "to join things up" . A tune by itself can sound nice, but it can be “harmonized” by adding an accompaniment of chords. Studying how to do this is called harmonization. Music students learn which chords sound nice after one another. These are called “chord progressions”. Many music theorists have written books about harmony.


title: Harmony

text: Music which is made of a tune with harmony underneath is called “homophonic”. In a way it is the opposite of polyphonic which means that each part (each voice) is a tune in itself. However, even polyphony needs to make pleasant harmony. Harmony as we know it in European music had become fully developed by the Baroque period (17th century).


title: Harmony

text: One can play a chord with three notes using the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of the scale of whatever key the music is in. This gives a chord which sounds like the “home chord”. This means that at least three notes are needed for harmony. In most homophonic music there are four: for example a choir will normally divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, or a string quartet will divide into violin 1, violin 2, viola and cello.


title: Harmony

text: Harmony which uses just the notes of the key (e.g. just using white notes for C major) is called “tonal harmony”.


title: Harmony

text: If music is not in any key at all, like in some music by Arnold Schoenberg, it is “atonal”. Harmony can be atonal.


title: Oven

text: Ovens are closed, heated containers which are used for heating, baking, and drying. It is used the most often in cooking and pottery. They provide even, dry heat to all surfaces of food inside them. An indoor oven can have an electric heating element, or be fired by natural gas or coal. Outdoor ovens are often made of brick or clay and are buried in hot coals. An oven which is used for making pottery is called a kiln. An oven used for heating or industrial processes is called a furnace. They are hot inside, and often things come out of them hot.


title: Oven

text: The people in the settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization were the first to have an oven inside of their mud-brick houses by 3200 B.C.


title: Oven

text: People who study the history of food give credit to the Greeks for making the baking of bread into an art. A type of oven called Front-loaded bread ovens were created in ancient Greece.


title: Fotos y Recuerdos

text: "Fotos y Recuerdos" () is a song by American singer Selena. The song sampled the song "Back on the Chain Gang" by The Pretenders.


title: Owen Wilson

text: Owen Cunningham Wilson (born November 18, 1968) is an Academy Award-nominated American actor, comedian, producer and screenwriter.


title: Owen Wilson

text: Wilson was born in Dallas, to photographer Laura (Cunningham) Wilson and Robert Andrew Wilson. He has an older brother, Andrew, and a younger brother, Luke. Both brothers are also involved in movie making.


title: Owen Wilson

text: The Sheryl Crow album "C'mon C'mon" has the song "Safe and Sound". The liner notes say it is about Wilson and Crow's relationship.


title: Owen Wilson

text: On August 26, 2007, Wilson was taken to St. John's Health Center. It was reported as a suicide attempt. He was later moved to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. His lawyer later said that Wilson had depression. A few days later, Wilson withdrew from starring in "Tropic Thunder".


title: Owen Wilson

text: He dated Kate Hudson in 2006. The pair broke up. It was widely reported that he tried to commit suicide in 2007 after the relationship with Hudson ended. In 2008, it was reported the pair were to marry. However the two would again break up and make up a number of times over 2008 and 2009.


title: Owen Wilson

text: On January 10, 2011, Wilson's representative said that Wilson and his girlfriend, Jade Duell, were expecting a baby. Just four days later, on January 14, it was Duell gave birth in Hawaii to a baby boy, Robert Ford Wilson.


title: Owen Wilson

text: Wilson is a fan of several Dallas-area professional sports teams. He has been spotted at Dallas Cowboys, Dallas Mavericks and Texas Rangers games. He is also a supporter of the English football team Chelsea F.C..


title: Owen Wilson

text: Wilson's bumped nose is because he broke it twice. Once was during a high school fight, and once playing football with friends.


title: Charlotte Rampling

text: Charlotte Rampling (born 5 February 1946) is an English actress. She has appeared in English language, French and Italian cinema. She was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2001 and received France's Legion of Honour in 2002.


title: Charlotte Rampling

text: Rampling's film career began in 1965. Her films include "Georgy Girl" (1966), Visconti's "The Damned" (1969), "The Night Porter" (1974), "Farewell My Lovely" (1975), Woody Allen's "Stardust Memories" (1980), Sidney Lumet's "The Verdict" (1982), "Angel Heart" (1987), "The Duchess" (2008) and Fred Schepisi's "The Eye of the Storm" (2011). She has been nominated four times for a Cesar Award, for "On ne meurt que 2 fois" (1985), "Sous le sable" (2000), "Swimming Pool" (2003) and "Lemming" (2005) and received an Honorary Cesar in 2001. On television, she starred in the 2012 BBC miniseries "Restless", for which she received an Emmy Award nomination.


title: Charlotte Rampling

text: Bisset was born in Sturmer, Essex, England. Her birth name is Tessa Charlotte Rampling. She is the daughter of Isabelle Anne and Godfrey Rampling, a olympic gold medalist. She had one sister, Sarah, who committed suicide in 1966 at the age of 23.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: On May 24, 2022, a mass shooting took place at Robb Elementary School in Uvalde, Texas, United States, when 18-year old Salvador Ramos shot and killed 21 people and injured 18 others. Of the people fatally shot, 19 were students and two were teachers. Earlier that day, Ramos reportedly shot and critically wounded his grandmother.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: The attack was the deadliest school shooting in Texas history, the deadliest mass shooting at a U.S. elementary school since the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in 2012, the deadliest U.S. school shooting since the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in 2018, and the 9th deadliest mass shooting in U.S. history.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: In 2022, the school had about 600 students in the second through fourth grades. The majority of them were Latino.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: The school district had many security measures at the time of the shooting, including four officers working within the school district and a security staff.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: The shooter is said to have entered the school at around 11:30a.m. CDT. Police say the shooting began two minutes later, and according to a Facebook post by the school, the school was put on lockdown at 11:43a.m. in response to gunshots in the neighborhood.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: U.S. Border Patrol agents began shooting at Ramos after responding to the shooting. Ramos fired back until being shot and killed by a patrol agent.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: The shooting came less than two weeks after a mass shooting in Buffalo, New York that killed ten people.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: Joe García, husband of Irma García, one of the teachers killed in the shooting, died afterwards of a heart attack, with his family saying he died of "grief".


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: Salvador Rolando Ramos (May 16, 2004 – May 24, 2022) was from North Dakota and lived in Uvalde. He had Hispanic ancestry. Before the shooting, he had no criminal record or documented mental health issues. He had a stutter and a strong lisp and was bullied because of it. He dropped out of high school because of bad attendance and would often get into fights with some of his classmates.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: Ramos legally bought a semi-automatic rifle from a local gun store on May 17, 2022, a day after his 18th birthday, and bought another rifle three days later. He had also bought an AR-15 style rifle eight days before the shooting. On May 18, 2022, he bought 375 rounds of ammunition.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: U.S. President Joe Biden addressed the nation on the night of the shooting and said: "As a nation we have to ask when in God's name are we going to stand up to the gun lobby...I am sick and tired of it -- we have to act." Biden did not lay out any plan to take action, which disappointed gun control activists. A study found that 90% of Americans supported universal background checks for gun buyers.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: Former presidents Bill Clinton, Barack Obama and Donald Trump, and many worlds leaders reacted to the shooting such as Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, French President Emmanuel Macron, New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, Pope Francis, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy, and United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres.


title: Robb Elementary School shooting

text: In the aftermath of the shooting, the Uvalde police response was criticized for not acting quickly. The police were outside the school and did not enter the school for 40 minutes to an hour after Ramos had entered the building and began shooting.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Indianapolis Motor Speedway (IMS) is in Speedway, Indiana (an enclave suburb of Indianapolis) in the United States. It is the home of the Indianapolis 500 race and the Brickyard 400 race.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: It was built in 1909. It is the original "Speedway", the first racing facility to use the word Speedway. IMS has permanent seating for more than 257,000 people. The infield raises capacity to approximately 400,000. It is the largest and highest-capacity sporting facility in the world.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Speedway is considered relatively flat by American standards but high-banked by Europeans. It is a two and a half mile, nearly rectangular oval. Each of the four turns are 1/4 mile. Two 5/8 mile long straight connect turns 2 to 3 and turns 4 to 1. Two 1/8 mile short straights, termed "short chutes", connect turns 1 to 2 and turns 3 to 4.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: A modern infield road course was constructed between 1998 and 2000. It used part of the oval and the infield to create a track. In 2008, the road course was changed to add another infield section. This is used for motorcycle racing, and is a course.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On the grounds of the Speedway is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum, which opened in 1956. It is also the home of the Brickyard Crossing Golf Resort, which originally opened as the Speedway Golf Course in 1929.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Indianapolis Motor Speedway was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In addition to the Indianapolis 500, the Speedway also hosts NASCAR's Brickyard 400. The Speedway also hosted the United States Grand Prix for Formula One from 2000 to 2007. In 2008, the Speedway added the Indianapolis motorcycle Grand Prix.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: After winning his fifth United States Grand Prix at Indianapolis in , Formula One driver Michael Schumacher holds the record for most victories with the Forumula One version of the road course. A.J. Foyt, Al Unser and Rick Mears each won the Indianapolis 500 four times on the traditional oval. Jeff Gordon has also won four times on the oval in the Brickyard 400. Johnny Aitken holds the record for total wins at the track, with 15 victories (all on the oval), during the 1909, 1910 and 1916 seasons.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The first motorsports event at the track consisted of 7 motorcycle races, sanctioned by the Federation of American Motorcyclists (FAM), on August 14, 1909.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The first weekend of automobile races took place August 19–21, 1909. It was 16 races sanctioned by the American Automobile Association (AAA). The event almost turned into a disaster because of the surface of crushed stone and tar. There were several accidents and five fatalities. The final race of the weekend was halted after of its originally-scheduled 300 miles.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Carl G. Fisher, was an Indiana native, and both a former race car driver and one of the owners of the track. He led the work to make the track safer for the drivers and spectators. The track surface was paved with 3.2 million paving bricks. This gave the track its popular nickname "The Brickyard". Today, (one yard) of the original bricks remain at the start/finish line., still giving meaning to the 'brick yard'. The final brick added to the roadway was a gold plated brick and laid by Governor Thomas R. Marshall on December 17, 1909.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Speedway reopened in 1910. Sixty-six automobile races were held during three holiday weekends (Memorial Day, Fourth of July and Labor Day). Each weekend featured two or three races of to distance. Several shorter contests were also held. Each race was its own event and earned its own trophy. All races were sanctioned by the AAA. In 1911, a change in marketing focus led to holding only one race per year.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: An estimated 80,000 spectators came to the first Indianapolis 500 Mile Race on Memorial Day May 30, 1911. Admission was one dollar. Ray Harroun won the race at the average speed of 74.602 mph (120.060 km/h).


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The next five Indianapolis 500 were held from 1912–1916. Three of the Indy 500 winners were Europeans. These races drew worldwide attention to the Speedway. More international drivers began to enter.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The 1916 race was shortened to 120 laps for . Several things caused the race to be shortened . There was a lack of entries from Europe and a lack of oil. Another reason was out of respect for the war in Europe.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On September 9, 1916, the Speedway hosted a day of short racing events. These were called the Harvest Classic. There were three races held at 20, 50 and distances. Johnny Aitken, in a Peugeot, won all three events, his final victories at the track. After the Harvest Classic, no race other than the Indianapolis 500 to be held on the grounds for seventy-eight years.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Racing was interrupted in 1917–1918 by World War I. The facility served as a military center for repairs.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Racing resumed in 1919. Speeds quickly increased. In 1925 Peter DePaolo became the first to average 100 mph (160 km/h) for the race.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: By the early 1930s, the increasing speeds began to make the track more dangerous. In the period 1931–1935 there were 15 fatalities. Part of the bricks were replaced with tarmac (a tar covered macadam or small stones). During the 1935–1936 seasons a number of changes were made. The inside wall was removed in the corners. The outside wall angle was changed to help keep cars inside the track. Hard crash helmets became required. The first yellow lights were installed around the track.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: At the beginning of the 1940s, the track needed more improvement. In 1941, half of the garage area, known as "Gasoline Alley", burned down before the race. When the United States joined World War II, the 1942 race was canceled. In 1942 all auto racing was banned. The 500-Mile Race was canceled for the years 1942–1945. The track mostly abandoned during the war years.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On November 29, 1944, three-time 500 winner Wilbur Shaw came back to do a tire test for Firestone. The test was approved by the government. Shaw found the track to be in very bad condition. He contacted the owner, Eddie Rickenbacker, and found that the Speedway was for sale. Shaw tried to find a buyer that would keep the Speedway as a race track. He found Indiana businessman Tony Hulman. The Speedway was purchased on November 14, 1945.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Major renovations and repairs were made to the Speedway. It opened in time for the 1946 race. Many improvements have been made since 1946.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The 500-Mile Race became part of the Formula One World Championship for 11 years (1950–1960). None of the regular Indy drivers raced in Formula One. Alberto Ascari from Ferrari was the only F1 driver to race in the 500 during this time.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In October 1961, the final remaining brick sections of the track were paved over with asphalt, with the exception of a distinct three-foot-wide line of bricks at the start/finish line. The "Brickyard" thus became known for its "Yard of Bricks".


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: From 1919 to 1993, the 500 was the only race run at the Brickyard. Tony George (Hulman's grandson) inherited the track. He brought more racing to the Speedway. NASCAR started racing in 1994 with the Brickyard 400. The International Race of Champions (IROC) event was added in 1998. The last IROC at Indy race was held in 2003.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2003, the Firestone Indy Lights Series, a minor league series of the Indy Racing League, started racing at the Speedway. They were the first series to race in May other than the 500 since 1910.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 1998, Tony George made a deal to bring Formula One back to the United States. The last time F1 raced in the US was 1991. A new Indy-based road course using part of the oval track, and part of the infield was built in two years. The first United States Grand Prix held at the Speedway was in 2000. The 2001 event reported 185,000 fans were reported in attendance. The success was even more important with the race. The race was held on September 30, 2001. It was the largest international sporting event held in the United States after September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Unlike the oval track, the Grand Prix road course is raced in a clockwise direction. This follows the general practice of Formula One, in where most circuits run clockwise.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On July 12, 2007, it was announced that Formula One would not return to the Speedway for . Tony George said there were problems meeting the demands of Bernie Ecclestone to continue hosting the event. On May 25, 2010 it was announced that Formula One would return to the United States in 2012 at a new purpose-built track in Austin, Texas.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: In 2005, there was a big problem with some of the Formula One tires. During practice, there was a big crash at turn 13. This part of the F1 circuit is the turn 1 of the oval track. This is also the only banked corner on the F1 calendar. Michelin realized their tires could not handle the banking. They would fail after a few laps. The cars using Bridgestone tires did not have the problem.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Michelin teams could not solve the problem. Michelin wanted to add a chicane before the turn. The FIA would not allow the track to be modified. Everyone involved tried to fix the problem right up to race. Michelin told their teams the tires were not safe to race with.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Michelin teams lined up on the starting grid. They drove around the track for the slow parade lap. At the end of the lap, they pulled into the pits and parked their cars. This left only the three Bridgestone teams (six race cars) to run the race. The two Ferrari cars were the only cars on the lead lap at the end of the race.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: On July 16, 2007, the Speedway announced that it would host a round of Grand Prix motorcycle racing beginning in 2008. The race was backed by Red Bull and known as the "Red Bull Indianapolis GP". This was the first motorcycle racing event at the facility since its first month of operation, in August 1909.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: Modifications approved by the FIA and FIM were made to the former Formula One circuit. The new circuit now has 16 turns. The motorcycle course runs counter-clockwise, the same direction as the oval track. It bypass the banking of the oval with a new infield section inside Turn 1. Also, the double-hairpin at the Hulman Straight was replaced with traditional S-turns. The construction was finished before the opening day of the 2008 Indianapolis 500.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: The Speedway Golf Course has hosted a PGA Tour event and an LPGA event. A Champions Tour event was hosted there from 1994–1999.


title: Indianapolis Motor Speedway

text: At the 1987 Pan American Games, the speedway hosted opening ceremonies and the speed roller skating competition.


title: Pseudocode

text: Pseudocode (sometimes written as pseudo-code) is a description of the source code of a computer program or an algorithm in a language easily understood by humans.


title: Pseudocode

text: It uses the general structure of a computer programming language, but omits details that are required by machines to execute the code. The primary purpose of writing pseudocode is to enable humans to understand the computer program or algorithm without having to understand the programming language.


title: Pseudocode

text: Pseudocode does not follow the syntax and grammar of any specific computer programming language. Variable declarations are generally omitted. Function calls and blocks of code, such as code for a loop, are often replaced by a one-line natural language sentence.


title: Sagol Kangjei

text: "Sagol Kangjei" (, ) is an ancient traditional form of the modern polo, which was played in Ancient Manipur (Antique Kangleipak) since 3100 BC till present. It was reproduced into a formal sports form by King Ningthou Kangba, of Ancient Manipur (Antique Kangleipak). Manipuri horses are notably used in the game.


title: Sagol Kangjei

text: The fact that Manipur is the birth place of polo is already supported by the Guinness World Records, by a declaration in the year 1991, as:


title: Alfalfa

text: Alfalfa ("Medicago sativa") is a species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae. It is also known as the lucerne. It is native to the Near East and central Asia. It has been introduced to Europe, central Africa, China, North America, and South America. Alfalfa is a crop. It is used to feed livestock.


title: Alfalfa

text: Alfalfa is high in protein, calcium and other minerals, vitamins in the B group, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K. The sun-dried hay of alfalfa has been found to be a source of vitamin D, containing 48 ng/g (1920 IU/kg) vitamin D and 0.63 ng/g (25 IU/kg) vitamin D. There is reference to vitamin D and vitamin D being found in the alfalfa shoot; this is awaiting verification. Mushrooms are not allowed in Jain vegetarianism, making alfalfa the only known source which Jains can use to make vitamin D supplements.


title: Mating

text: Mating is the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphrodite organisms. It is usually for sexual reproduction. Some definitions limit the term to pairing between animals. Other definitions extend the term to crossing in plants and fungi. It is usual for mating in plants or fungi to be called cross-fertilization, or "crossing" if the offspring have DNA from both genetic sources.


title: Mating

text: Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for internal fertilization. Fertilization is the actual fusion of gametes.


title: Mating

text: Mating may also lead to external fertilization. This is done by amphibians, most fish, many lower animals, and plants. Many aquatic species just spread their eggs and sperm in the water at one specific time of year. That time varies between species.


title: Mating

text: For some hermaphroditic species, copulation is not needed because the parent organism can self-fertilize (autogamy). In some flowering plants self-pollination can happen within the same flower, and some hermaphrodite animals self-fertilize. Many gastropods are hermaphrodite, and do simultaneous copulation in pairs. So do earthworms.


title: Mating

text: In some birds, mating includes behaviors such as nest-building and feeding offspring. The human practice of artificial insemination of domesticated animals is part of animal husbandry.


title: Paradise, Nevada

text: Paradise is an unincorporated town and census-designated place (CDP) in Clark County, Nevada, United States. It is close to the city of Las Vegas and contains most of the Las Vegas Strip. The population was 223,167 at the 2010 census, making it the unincorporated town with the most people in Nevada. It was founded on December 8, 1950.


title: Ageing

text: Ageing or aging is the many changes that happen in an individual over time. In living things, ageing includes most physical and psychological changes which happen after adulthood.


title: Ageing

text: Senescence is the biological process which leads to ageing. There have been many attempts to answer the question: why do animals (especially humans) age?


title: Ageing

text: In one way, ageing begins at birth, because cell division and growth is fastest then, and gradually slows down as time goes on.


title: Ageing

text: In another way, ageing starts when the likelihood of death increases. Actuarial tables show the likelihood of death at each stage of life. These tables are used by insurance companies to assess the rates of insurance on life policies and pensions. It turns out that we are least likely to die when we are adolescents and young adults. The reason suggested by biologists (such as Peter Medawar and George C. Williams) is that this is the time most significant for reproduction, or was in mankind's past. The assumption is that the peak age of reproduction in mankind's history was lower than today. A gene can be expressed at various stages of life. Any allele of a gene which interfered with reproduction would have less chance of passing on to the next generation. The number of such genes in the population would automatically be reduced. Thus natural selection would virtually eliminate any inherited effect which reduced fertility.


title: Ageing

text: However, later in life, inherited defects would have little or no effect on the population as a whole. In fact, during life our cells collect damage to their DNA which is random, but causes us to become gradually less fit as we age. And we have some cell types which never, or rarely, divide during adult life. Muscle cells and most neurons never divide in adult life. Obviously, they collect damage, and not just to the DNA. Also, we inherit various genetic conditions which have effect later in life, like Huntington's chorea. The twin effects of delayed heredity and buildup of damage is what makes us age. Protists do not age: they divide, and the next generation is just as good as the last. Why do even our dividing cells collect damage? The answer to that question is not known, but may be connected to a a cell division phenomenon.


title: Lust

text: Lust is a term for a strong desire or wanting, or maybe even needing, often for sexual acts, although it is also commonly used to talk of a "lust for life" or a "lust for power" or for other goals.


title: Lust

text: As a sexual desire, it is considered a sin (a failing) by Christianity, which lists it as one of the seven deadly sins.


title: Education in the United States

text: Education in the United States is provided by the public sector. The federal, state and local governments control and give funds to help local schools. Public education is available everywhere in the United States. School's curriculum, funds, teaching, employment and other policies are created by the elected school boards. There are also private schools, which cost money to attend.


title: Education in the United States

text: School districts are sometimes different from other local jurisdictions. They have their own officials and budgets. Education standards and state tests are created by the state governments. Since child education is required by law, ages to start school are different from each state. Children usually start school between the ages of five to six. They usually end their education when they are between the ages of seventeen and eighteen. Education requirements can be done by educating children in public schools, private schools (who is known by the government to be trusted) or a home school program. In most public schools, education is divided into three levels. The first level is elementary school. Grades in elementary school are different in each state. The second level is middle school. Grades in middle school are different in each state as well. The last level is high school. In some states, middle school is called "junior high school". Grades in high school are also different in each state. After a child has completed their senior year (12th grade), they will earn a high school diploma.


title: Education in the United States

text: If a child would like to continue on with their education or want to start a career, they can apply for college. After four years at a university or college, they will earn a bachelor's degree in one subject. Students can also choose to attend a two-year community college. Some two-year community colleges are called "Junior colleges". Colleges are not required and are not forced by local laws. Students must pay to attend college, but the price is lowered if they get a scholarship. After college, the now adult can earn a number of certificates for a career. Graduate school is another option after college. A student can earn a master's degree or Ph.D. in any subject. They may go to medical school to earn an M.D. and become a physician, law school to earn a J.D. and become a lawyer, or business school to earn an MBA.


title: I Vow to Thee, My Country

text: I Vow to Thee, My Country is a British patriotic song created in 1921 when a poem by Sir Cecil Spring-Rice was set to music by Gustav Holst.


title: I Vow to Thee, My Country

text: The lyrics come from a poem by Cecil Spring-Rice that he wrote in 1908 when he was working at the British Embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. At first called "Urbs Dei", or "The Two Fatherlands", the poem is about how a Christian owes his loyalties to both his homeland and the Kingdom of Heaven. The first verse, as written, had a very direct and heated patriotism that has become less popular since the First World War.


title: I Vow to Thee, My Country

text: In 1912, Rice was sent to Washington, D.C. as the British ambassador to the United States of America. While serving as ambassador, he tried to get President Woodrow Wilson to give up on neutrality and join Britain and her Empire in the war against Germany. After America entered the war, Rice was called back to Britain. Shortly before he left the United States, in January 1918, he re-wrote and re-titled "Urbs Dei", after making big changes to the first verse to talk more about the huge losses that British soldiers were having in the war years.


title: I Vow to Thee, My Country

text: The first verse talks about Great Britain, and mainly about those who died during the First World War. The end verse, that starts with the line "And there's another country", is talking about heaven. The final line of the end verse uses the Proverbs 3:17 as its base, which reads, "Her ways are of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace."


title: I Vow to Thee, My Country

text: In 1921 Gustav Holst changed the music from a section of the song "Jupiter" from his suite "The Planets" to create a setting for the poem. The music was made a bit longer so that it would fit the last two lines of the first verse; the result is usually called the "Thaxted" (named after the village where Holst lived for many years). This was first performed in 1925 and became very common at Armistice memorial ceremonies.


title: I Vow to Thee, My Country

text: Later on, Z. Randall Stroope would arrange a choir version of this song called "Homeland." He still used the "Jupiter" theme from the planets but also used two additional verses of his own to pay homage to his father who marched in the Bataan Death March.


title: Augsburg

text: Augsburg ( , , ; ) is a city in the South of Germany, in the state of Bavaria. It has about 272,000 inhabitants and a university. It was founded in the Roman age. In the time of Renaissance (after the Middle Ages) a family of bankers, the Fuggers, became very rich and powerful in Augsburg.


title: Augsburg

text: In 1555, a peace agreement called The Peace of Augsburg between Catholics and Protestants was signed in Augsburg.


title: Orgy

text: In common use, an orgy is when more than two people have sex together, sometimes also called group sex.


title: Orgy

text: Originally, the word comes from Latin. There it referred to a feast (or a banquet) of a rich citizen. When the Romans ate they were almost lying down, and the food was brought to them by slaves. These slaves would also provide the entertainment which usually consisted of music and dancing slaves.


title: Borough

text: In medieval times, boroughs were settlements with some self-government. Boroughs were particularly common in England, Germany and Scotland. In medieval England, boroughs had also the right to elect members of parliament. ("The Borough" in Southwark, London is thought to have been the original 'borough' of which all others come from.)


title: Borough

text: But in some cities it is a sub-division of the city (e.g. London, New York City, Toronto, Montreal). In such cases the borough will normally have either limited powers delegated to it by the city's local government or no powers at all. At certain times London has had no overall city government and London boroughs were the main unit of local government for Londoners.


title: Borough

text: In other places, such as Alaska, a borough does not mean a single township, but a whole region - in other words, it is similar to a county. In Australia borough can mean a town and its surrounding area, e.g. the Borough of Queenscliffe.


title: Borough

text: Boroughs exist in United Kingdom, more specifically in England and Northern Ireland, in the Canadian province of Quebec, in some states of the United States, in Israel, and formerly they also existed in New Zealand.


title: Borough

text: At the end of a word, -borough (or -brough) is found in the name of many towns and cities in England; in southern England it is usually spelt -bury. The suffix -bury is also used in the New England region of the United States, while -burg (or -burgh) is more common in Scotland and the American South and West.


title: Corgi

text: There are two breeds: the Pembroke Welsh corgi and the Cardigan Welsh corgi. Queen Elizabeth II has kept pet Pembroke Welsh corgis since she was seven years old.


title: Corgi

text: Corgis have a long torso and short legs, large bones, and a very short tail. Corgis were originally bred as herding dogs. They are very active and like exercise. They are intelligent and have good memories.


title: Corgi

text: Outside Wales, corgis have been made popular by Queen Elizabeth II. She usually had at least four as pets and once as many as thirteen. Her first corgi was named Susan. She mated Susan and her current dogs are still offspring of that breeding. She now has two corgis who are about twelve years old. Some portraits of Queen Elizabeth II show her holding a corgi or a few around her.


title: Cream Lemon

text: Cream Lemon is an anime series. It is a collection of short stories. There are many different types of stories in the anime, for example, soap opera (the Ami series), fantasy (Rall series), horror (Cream Lemon Dark) and parody (Pop Chaser). It deals with a lot of heavy perversions including S&M, men being raped by groups of women, bondage, torture, yuri and incest.


title: Cream Lemon

text: The first "Cream Lemon" OVA was released in August 1984. "New Century Cream Lemon" was released from July 27, 2001 to August 23, 2002. "Cream Lemon New Generation" was released from March 23, 2006 to May 31, 2006.


title: Tamam Shud case

text: The Tamam Shud case, also known as the Mystery of the Somerton Man, is an unsolved case of an unidentified man found dead at 6:30 am, 1 December 1948, on Somerton beach, Glenelg, just south of Adelaide, South Australia.


title: Tamam Shud case

text: It is named after the Persian phrase "tamám shud", meaning "ended" or "finished", printed on a scrap of paper found months later in the fob pocket of the man's trousers.


title: Tamam Shud case

text: The scrap had been torn from the final page of a copy of "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam", authored by 12th-century poet Omar Khayyám. "Tamam" was misspelt as "Taman" in many early reports and this error.


title: Tamam Shud case

text: Jessica Thomson living in nearby Glenelg was questioned in connection with the case, her phone number was found in the book. Shortly afterwards, she gave birth to a boy with the same rare ear trait as the unidentified man.


title: Bayes' theorem

text: In probability theory and applications, Bayes' theorem shows the relation between a conditional probability and its reverse form. For example, the probability of a hypothesis given some observed pieces of evidence, and the probability of that evidence given the hypothesis. This theorem is named after Thomas Bayes ( or "bays") and is often called Bayes' law or Bayes' rule.


title: Bayes' theorem

text: In many scenarios, P("B") is calculated indirectly using the formula formula_2, which simply states that the probability of "B" is the sum of the conditional probabilities based on whether "A" has occurred or not.


title: Bayes' theorem

text: A simple example is as follows: There is a 40% chance of rain on Sunday. If it rains on Sunday, there is a 10% chance of rain on Monday. If it did not rain on Sunday, then there is an 80% chance that it will rain on Monday.


title: Bayes' theorem

text: This would be the sum of the probability of "Rain on Sunday and rain on Monday" and "No rain on Sunday and rain on Monday":


title: Bayes' theorem

text: However, we were asked to calculate the probability that it rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, then this is where Bayes' theorem comes in. It allows us to calculate the probability of an earlier event, given the result of a later event.


title: Bayes' theorem

text: So, to calculate the probability it rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, we use the formula:


title: Bayes' theorem

text: To calculate the probability of it having rained on Sunday, given that it rained on Monday, we can take the following steps:


title: Bayes' theorem

text: Another way to see this, which shows where Bayes' theorem comes from, is to consider the probability P(AB) that it rains on both Sunday and Monday. This can be calculated in two different ways, which give the same answer for P(AB):


title: Gas compressor

text: A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature. When the gas is air, the machine is called an air compressor.


title: Gas compressor

text: Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids.


title: Gas compressor

text: Centrifugal compressors use a vaned rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 hp (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).


title: Gas compressor

text: Many large snow-making operations (like a ski resort) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines.


title: Gas compressor

text: Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor.


title: Gas compressor

text: Axial-flow compressors use a series of fan-like rotating rotor blades to progressively compress the gasflow. Stationary stator vanes, located downstream of each rotor, redirect the flow onto the next set of rotor blades. The area of the gas passage diminishes through the compressor to maintain a roughly constant axial Mach number. Axial-flow compressors are normally used in high flow applications, such as medium to large gas turbine engines. They are almost always multi-staged. Beyond about 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is often used to improve operation.


title: Gas compressor

text: Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors up to 1000 hp are still commonly found in large industrial applications, but their numbers are declining as they are replaced by various other types of compressors. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>5000 psi or 35 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units.


title: Gas compressor

text: Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3 hp (2.24 kW) to over 500 hp (375 kW) and from low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa). They are commonly seen with roadside repair crews powering air-tools. This type is also used for many automobile engine superchargers because it is easily matched to the induction capacity of a piston engine.


title: Gas compressor

text: A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute, archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors.


title: Gas compressor

text: Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls.


title: Gas compressor

text: A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box come in touch with the gas being compressed.


title: Gas compressor

text: Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas (CNG) as well as in a number of other applications.


title: Gas compressor

text: Air compressors sold to and used by the general public are often attached on top of a tank for holding the pressurized air. Oil-lubricated and oil-free compressors are available. Oil-free compressors are desirable because without a properly designed separator, oil can make its way into the air stream. For some purposes, for example as a diving air compressor, even a little oil in the air stream may be unacceptable.


title: Gas compressor

text: Charles's law says "when a gas is compressed, temperature is raised". There are three possible relationships between temperature and pressure in a volume of gas undergoing compression:


title: Gas compressor

text: Since compression generates heat, the compressed gas is to be cooled between stages making the compression less adiabatic and more isothermal. The inter-stage coolers cause condensation meaning water separators with drain valves are present. The compressor flywheel may drive a cooling fan.


title: Gas compressor

text: For instance in a typical diving compressor, the air is compressed in three stages. If each stage has a compression ratio of 7 to 1, the compressor can output 343 times atmospheric pressure (7 x 7 x 7 = 343 Atmospheres).


title: Gas compressor

text: Gas compressors are used in various applications where either higher pressures or lower volumes of gas are needed:


title: The Star-Spangled Banner

text: "The Star-Spangled Banner" () is the national anthem of the United States. Francis Scott Key wrote the words to it in 1814 after seeing British ships attacking Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland during the War of 1812.


title: The Star-Spangled Banner

text: The words are set to the music of a British drinking song called "To Anacreon in Heaven". The song has 4 stanzas but only the first one is usually sung.


title: Caliphate

text: A caliphate ( "khilāfa") is a state ruled by an Islamic leader known as a caliph ( "" ). This is a person considered a political-religious successor to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, and a leader of the entire Muslim community.


title: Caliphate

text: The Rashidun caliphs directly succeeded Muhammad as leaders of the muslim community. They were chosen through ", "a process of community consultation that some think is an early form of Islamic democracy. During the history of Islam after the Rashidun period, many muslim states, mostly hereditary monarchies, have claimed to be caliphates. Caliphs were not thought of as having the same prophetic power as Muhammid did.


title: Caliphate

text: In the Sunni branch of Islam a caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Followers of Shia Islam, however, believe a caliph should be an imam chosen by God from the "Ahl al-Bayt" (the "Family of the House", Muhammad's direct descendants).


title: Caliphate

text: Abu Bakr, the first successor of Muhammad, nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and there was consensus in the Muslim community to his choice. His successor, Uthman Ibn Affan, was elected by a council of electors (Majlis). But soon he was seen by some more as a "king" than as an elected leader. Uthman was killed by members of an opposition group. Then Ali took control. He was very popular with many, but he was not accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt. Later on even some of his own guard were against him. He had two major rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war.


title: Caliphate

text: Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman, and governor "(Wali)" of Syria became one of Ali's challengers. After Ali's death he became Caliph. Under him, the caliphate became a hereditary office for the first time. He founded the Umayyad dynasty.


title: Caliphate

text: In areas which were previously under Persian or Byzantine rule, the Caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy, greater religious freedom for Jews, indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples that were demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare.


title: Caliphate

text: Under the Umayyads the Caliphate grew rapidly geographically. Islamic rule expanded westward across North Africa and into Hispania and eastward through Persia and ultimately to Sindh and Punjab in modern-day Pakistan. This made it one of the largest unitary states in history and one of the few states to ever extend direct rule over three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia). Although not ruling all of the Sahara, homage was paid to the Caliph by Saharan Africa usually via various nomad Berber tribes.


title: Caliphate

text: Largely due to the fact that they were not elected via , the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community. Some supported prominent early Muslims like Al-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the "", "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. Following this disappointment, the finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several denominations.


title: Caliphate

text: The Umayyad Caliphate emerged as the rulers of the Islamic world. Although they maintained the Sasanians' administrative practices, the Umayyads considered Islam as primarily an Arab religion and were wary of Persian culture. They enforced use of the Arabic language in Persia, leading to the demise of the Middle Persian or Pahlavi alphabet in favor of the new Arabic/Persian alphabet in use to this day. They attempted to assimilate Persians as they had "Arabized" and assimilated the Egyptians and the Assyrians, but with much less success.


title: Caliphate

text: During the Umayyad period Hispania was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruled from Damascus, Syria. Later the caliphate was won by the Abbasids and "Al-Andalus" (or Hispania) split from the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad to form their own caliphate. The Caliphate of Córdoba (خليفة قرطبة) ruled the Iberian Peninsula from the city of Córdoba, from 929 to 1031. This period was characterized by remarkable success in technology, trade and culture; many of the masterpieces of Spain were constructed in this period, including the famous Great Mosque of Córdoba. The title Caliph (خليفة) was claimed by Abd-ar-Rahman III on January 16, 929; he was previously known as the Emir of Córdoba (أمير قرطبة). All Caliphs of Córdoba were members of the Umayyad dynasty; the same dynasty had held the title Emir of Córdoba and ruled over roughly the same territory since 756. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula, before it split into taifas. Spain possessed a significant native Muslim population until 1610 with the success of the Catholic-instigated Spanish Inquisition, which expelled any remnants of Spanish Muslim (Morisco) or Jewish populations.


title: Caliphate

text: The Abbasids had an unbroken line of Caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. By 940 the power of the Caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Berbers of North Western Africa, the Turkish, and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century, gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. However, the Caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendency of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.


title: Caliphate

text: 1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. A surviving member of the Abbasid House was installed as Caliph at Cairo under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate three years later; however, the authority of this line of Caliphs was confined to ceremonial and religious matters, and later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" Caliphate.


title: Caliphate

text: Ottoman rulers were known primarily by the title of Sultan and sometimes also used the title of Caliph. Mehmed II and his grandson Selim I used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. As the Ottoman Empire grew in size and strength, Ottoman rulers beginning with Selim I began to claim Caliphal authority.


title: Caliphate

text: Ottoman rulers used the title "Caliph" symbolically on many occasions but it was strengthened when the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517 and took control of most Arab lands. The last Abbasid Caliph at Cairo, al-Mutawakkil III, was taken into custody and was transported to Istanbul, where he reportedly surrendered the Caliphate to Selim I.


title: Caliphate

text: After the Ottomans lost a war with the Russian Empire they signed a peace treaty with Russia in 1774. The Sultan had to surrender large territories, including ones with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea, to the Russian Empire. However, Sultan Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by assigning himself the protector of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty. Russia, meanwhile, was the protector of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power. Although the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased.


title: Caliphate

text: Around 1880 Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering the spread of European colonialism in Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness vis-à-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.


title: Caliphate

text: In the 1920s the Khilafat Movement, a movement to defend the Ottoman Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. It was particularly strong in British India, where it formed a rallying point for Indian Muslims and was the one of the many anti-British Indian political movements to enjoy widespread support. Its leaders included Maulana Mohammad Ali, his brother Shawkat Ali, and Abul Kalam Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, and Hasrat Mohani. For a time it worked in alliance with Hindu communities and was supported by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee. However, the movement lost its momentum after the arrest or flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organization.


title: Caliphate

text: On March 3, 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. Its powers within Turkey were transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (parliament) of the newly formed Turkish Republic and the title has since been inactive. In 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed the title but most Muslims did not accept it.


title: Abjad

text: An abjad is an alphabet in which all its letters are consonants. Even though vowels can be added in some abjads, they are not needed to write a word correctly. Abjad are commonly written from right to left (RTL), rather than left to right seen in other writing systems. Well-known examples of abjads are the Arabic alphabet and the Hebrew alphabet.


title: Abjad

text: Abjads are the first writing systems that were made only to show a word's pronunciation, instead of its meaning, unlike ideographs or ideograms, and they were created before full alphabets, like the Greek alphabet, which have letters for both consonants and vowels.


title: Abjad

text: The earliest known abjad in the world is the Phoenician alphabet. Since in Afro-Asiatic languages, the root meaning of a word is found in its consonants, abjads are widely used in those languages. There are also languages without consonant roots that use abjads, such as Persian and Urdu, which both use the Arabic alphabet.


title: Pyramid scheme

text: A pyramid scheme is a way of making money that cannot continue very long. It involves promising people payment, services or ideals, primarily for enrolling other people into the scheme or training them to take part. It does not supply any real investment or sale of products or services to the public. Pyramid schemes are a form of fraud. For this reason, pyramid schemes are illegal in many countries.


title: Pyramid scheme

text: This type of scheme has existed for at least a century (100 years). The way the scheme is described is sometimes changed to hide what it is doing. Many people believe that multilevel marketing (MLM) is also a pyramid scheme.


title: Pyramid scheme

text: A successful pyramid scheme combines a business that seems real with a simple-to-understand money-making description which is used for profit. The idea is that the first person, Mr. X, makes a payment. To get money, Mr. X has to recruit others like him who will also make a payment. Mr. X gets paid out of money received from those new people (recruits). The recruits go on to involve others. As each new recruit makes a payment, Mr. X gets a part. He is promised always increasing benefits as the "business" expands.


title: Pyramid scheme

text: Such "businesses" do not have real products or services. To make them more believable, most such scams have fake letters from successful members and information. Only the first person (sometimes called the "pharaoh") and a very few at the top levels of the pyramid make a lot of money. The amounts get much smaller further down the pyramid. Someone at the bottom of the pyramid loses money. They paid to enter, but cannot get anyone else to join.


title: Pyramid scheme

text: Recruiting a large number of others into a scheme can be difficult so a system is used that seems more simple. In this model each person must recruit only two others. However, a larger number of levels is needed before the person gets paid any money. The scheme requires a person to recruit two others, who must each recruit two others, who must each recruit two others.


title: Pyramid scheme

text: The "eight-ball" model contains a total of fifteen members. This scheme has been called the "Airplane Game" and the four tiers labelled as "captain," "co-pilot," "crew," and "passenger" to denote a person's level.


title: Pyramid scheme

text: Such schemes may hide their pyramid nature by calling themselves as "gifting circles" with money being "gifted." The eight passengers must each pay (or "gift") a sum (e.g. $1,000) to join the scheme. This total of $8,000 goes to the captain who leaves the scheme. Everyone remaining moves up one level. There are now two new captains so the group splits in two with each group requiring eight new passengers. A person who joins the scheme as a passenger will not get any money until they advance through the crew and co-pilot levels to captain. Therefore, the participants in the bottom 3 tiers of the pyramid lose their money if the scheme collapses. Popular schemes such as the "Women Empowering Women" do this.


title: James Buchanan

text: He was the only president not to have married. His niece, Harriet Lane, stood in as First Lady. He was an experienced politician, and became president in 1857. His stances on slavery, and actions before the Civil War broke out, have been criticised by scholars.


title: James Buchanan

text: In 1860, Buchanan announced that he will not be taking part in the election & supported Abraham Lincoln who eventually became president-elect just a week after his announcement in the 1860 election.


title: James Buchanan

text: James Buchanan was born on April 23, 1791 in Cove Gap, Pennsylvania, into a prosperous merchant family. He had four sisters and three brothers, and studied at the Old Stone Academy before entering Dickinson College in 1807. There he studied law and was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar Association in 1812.


title: James Buchanan

text: Buchanan was engaged to Anne C. Coleman, but she died early, and he never had children. He is the only U.S. president who was never married.