title: Electromagnetism

text: Photons have energy and momentum. When two charged objects push or pull on each other, they send photons back and forth. So photons carry the electromagnetic force between charged objects. Photons are also known as messenger particles in physics because these particles often carry messages between objects. Photons send messages saying "come closer" or "go away" depending on the charges of the objects that are being looked at. If a force exists while time passes, then photons are being exchanged during that time.


title: Electromagnetism

text: Fundamental electromagnetic interactions occur between any two particles that have an electric charge. These interactions involve the exchange or production of photons. Thus, photons are the carrier particles of electromagnetic interactions.


title: Electromagnetism

text: Electromagnetic decay processes can often be recognized by the fact that they produce one or more photons (also known as gamma rays). They proceed less rapidly than strong decay processes with comparable mass differences, but more rapidly than comparable weak decays.


title: Bipolar disorder

text: Bipolar disorder (also known as manic depression) is a mental illness where a person will have repeated, long-lasting feelings (episodes) of high (mania) and low mood (depression). It may occur with or without cycles of normal mood, called euthymia. A mixed episode occurs when both mania and depression are present at the same time.


title: Bipolar disorder

text: "Bipolar" literally means "two poles" or two extremes in how much energy the brain has. Sometimes, a person can experience something called mania. Mania is when a person's brain goes into a high-energy state. When in a high-energy state, mania can cause extreme emotions such as panic attacks or extreme happiness such as euphoria. This feeling is often followed by a period of depression, which is a low-energy state. A person who is depressed may act sad or hopeless. People with bipolar disorder switch between these two states.


title: Bipolar disorder

text: People who are in a manic state are often over-confident and very optimistic. This can cause them to take large risks and do things that are not normal for them to do. Manic episodes last for at least a week, but can last as long as three to six months. They are usually followed by a depressive episode. A person who is manic may talk very quickly with no pauses, have thoughts that change very quickly, or act without thinking. They may also experience psychosis, where they cannot tell what is real and what is not. They may think that they are unstoppable or that they are on a mission for God. Mania may become so severe that it can affect the person’s ability to work or interact with others. Every person is different, so it is important to remember that these things do not happen to all people with bipolar disorder.


title: Bipolar disorder

text: Hypomania is a less extreme version of mania. Someone who is hypomanic will have symptoms similar to mania. They may have increased energy and may deny that anything is wrong. A hypomanic episode may last from a few days to a few months.


title: Bipolar disorder

text: People who are in a depressive state are often sad and pessimistic. They may lose interest in activities they usually like, or become isolated and lonely. Other symptoms include anxiety, hopelessness, changes in sleep, and suicidal thoughts. A depressive episode can last from a few weeks to several months. When bipolar disorder develops at a young age, the first few episodes are usually depressive. Because a manic or hypomanic episode is needed to diagnose bipolar disorder, some people are diagnosed with major depression at first.


title: Bipolar disorder

text: Bipolar disorder is an illness that can show in different ways. It is often diagnosed in adolescents or young adults. A few subtypes have been identified; these subtypes mostly describe the nature of the "episodes" of the disease:


title: Bipolar disorder

text: The exact cause of bipolar disorder is unknown. It is estimated that there is a 71 percent chance of bipolar disorder passing from parent to child. If one identical twin has bipolar disorder, there is a 40 to 70 percent chance that the other will develop bipolar disorder in their lifetime. MRI studies have shown that certain parts of the brain responsible for mood regulation are larger in bipolar patients. It is also possible for bipolar disorder to develop after a stroke, brain injury, or certain infections.


title: Bipolar disorder

text: Like most mental illnesses, there are ways to treat bipolar disorder. The most common way to treat bipolar disorder is by using medications called mood stabilizers. These medicines prevent and control the manic and depressive episodes. One of the most common mood stabilizers is lithium. Therapy can also be used to control the symptoms. The same treatments and medicines do not work for everyone, and it is not uncommon for people to have symptoms return if they stop taking medication. Things like this can make bipolar disorder a difficult illness to live with, but educating patients about it makes it easier. Sometimes, people need to be treated against their will. Patients may be thinking about or have tried to commit suicide, or they may be unable to see their situation properly. In many cases, teaching people about their disease helps. When they have gone through the phases of the illness a few times, they often see that treatment can make their life easier.


title: Rhinoceros

text: A rhinoceros (rhino for short) is any animal in the family Rhinocerotidae. They are in the order Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates. There are five living species. Two of these species are native to Africa. Three of these species are also native to Southern parts of Asia.


title: Rhinoceros

text: All five rhinoceros species are native to Africa or Asia. The two species in Africa are the White rhinoceros and the Black rhinoceros. The three species in Asia (including islands of Indonesia) are the Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian rhinoceros.


title: Rhinoceros

text: The rhinoceros is a herbivore. Its favourite food is plants, branches and bushes (if it is a browser species), or grass (if it is a grazer species).


title: Rhinoceros

text: Rhinoceroses have a large horn on the nose. Their horns are not like those of other horned mammals: the rhinoceros' horn is made of keratin packed together very tightly.


title: Rhinoceros

text: Only the white rhinoceros is not in critical danger of becoming extinct. They are protected, but hunted mainly by poachers, for their horns. The horns are used in Asian medicine, similar to elephants and tigers, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman. Loss of habitat is also a danger to rhinos. Governments have made logging their habitat and poaching illegal.


title: Kaliningrad

text: Kaliningrad (; ; German: ; ; briefly Russified as "Kyonigsberg") is a seaport and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian exclave between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Sea. Kaliningrad is the second-largest city in the Northwestern Federal District, after Saint Petersburg, the third-largest city in the Baltic region and the seventh-largest city on the Baltic Sea. It is the westernmost Oblast of Russia.


title: Kaliningrad

text: It is surrounded by NATO and European Union members Poland and Lithuania and is geographically separated from the main part of Russia itself. Borderless connection is only possible by sea or air.


title: Kaliningrad

text: In 2002, it had a population of 430,003 people. This was more than in 1989, when the last census was done. At that time, the city only had a population of 401,280. About 78% of the people there are Russians, 8% Belarusians, and 7.3% Ukrainians.


title: Kaliningrad

text: Until World War II the people were mostly Germans. Many fled during the war, and the rest were expelled between 1946 and 1949.


title: Kaliningrad

text: It was the capital city of the German province of East Prussia, the earlier Duchy of Prussia, and before that of the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights.


title: Sydney Harbour Bridge

text: The Sydney Harbour Bridge, in Sydney Harbour, is a bridge that joins north Sydney with south Sydney. People can cross the bridge by car, walking or by train. It now carries eight traffic lanes. Using six intended traffic lanes and an additional two that were formally tram tracks.


title: Sydney Harbour Bridge

text: There are two railway lanes that head in opposite directions. There is a tunnel that goes underneath. The bridge is an important tourist attraction. The scenery attracts many tourists and people living in or near the city. One of the many attractions of the Harbour Bridge is its famous 'BridgeClimb'. Luna Park Sydney is located next to the bridge.


title: Sydney Harbour Bridge

text: The bridge is long and wide. The highest point of the arch is tall. Building began on 19 March 1923 and ended in 1932. John Bradfield led the bridge's building.


title: Sydney Harbour Bridge

text: The standards of industrial safety during construction were poor by today's standards. Sixteen workers died during construction, but surprisingly only two from falling off the bridge. Several more were injured from unsafe working practices undertaken whilst heating and inserting its rivets, and the deafness experienced by many of the workers in later years was blamed on the project.


title: Sydney Harbour Bridge

text: Henri Mallard between 1930 and 1932 produced hundreds of stills and film footage which reveal at close quarters the bravery of the workers in tough Depression-era conditions.


title: Sydney Harbour Bridge

text: The total financial cost of the bridge was AU£6.25 million, which was not paid off in full until 1988.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Jacinda Kate Laurell Ardern (; born 26 July 1980) is a New Zealand politician. She is the 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand and Leader of the Labour Party since 2017. She was elected to the House of Representatives in 2008. She has been the member of Parliament (MP) for Mount Albert since March 2017.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern was born in Hamilton and grew up in Morrinsville and Murupara. After graduating from the University of Waikato in 2001, Ardern began her career working as a researcher for Prime Minister Helen Clark. She later worked in London in the Cabinet Office, and was elected president of the International Union of Socialist Youth. Ardern was first elected as an MP in the 2008 general election, when Labour lost control after nine years. She was later elected to represent the Mount Albert electorate in a by-election in February 2017.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern was elected Deputy Leader of the Labour Party on 1 March 2017, after the resignation of Annette King. Just five months later, after Labour's leader Andrew Little resignation, Ardern was elected as party leader. She led her party to win 14 seats at the 2017 general election on 23 September, winning 46 seats to the National Party's 56. After working with New Zealand First, a minority coalition government with Labour and New Zealand First was formed, supported by the Green Party. Ardern became Prime Minister and she was sworn in by the governor-general on 26 October 2017. She became the world's youngest female head of government at age 37. Ardern later became the world's second elected head of government to give birth while in office when her daughter was born in June 2018.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern calls herself a social democrat and a progressive. Her government has focused on the New Zealand housing crisis, child poverty, and social inequality. In March 2019, she became popular because of her leadership during the Christchurch mosque shootings and for introducing strict gun laws in response. For much of 2020, she also became popular for the country's response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Ardern led the Labour Party to a historic victory in the 2020 general election, winning a majority of 65 seats in Parliament.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern was born in Hamilton, New Zealand, and grew up as a Mormon. She was raised in Morrinsville and Murupara, where her father, Ross Ardern, worked as a police officer. Her mother, Laurell Ardern ( Bottomley), worked as a school catering assistant. She studied at Morrinsville College, where she was the student representative on the school's board. She later went to the University of Waikato, graduating in 2001 with a Bachelor of Communication Studies (BCS) in politics and public relations.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern became interested in politics because her aunt asked her to help her with campaigning for New Plymouth MP Harry Duynhoven during his re-election campaign at the 1999 general election.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern joined the Labour Party at the age of 17 and became a senior figure in the Young Labour party of the party. After graduating from university, she spent time working in the offices of Phil Goff and of Helen Clark as a researcher. She volunteered at a soup kitchen in New York City in the United States and worked on a workers' rights campaign. Ardern moved to London, England where she became a senior policy adviser for British prime minister Tony Blair. Ardern also worked at the Home Office to help with a review of policing in England and Wales.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ahead of the 2008 election, Ardern was ranked 20th on Labour's party list. She would soon return from London to campaign full-time for a seat in the New Zealand Parliament. She also became Labour's candidate for the safe National electorate of Waikato. Ardern lost the election, but entered Parliament as a list MP because of her high ranking in the party list. She became the youngest sitting MP in Parliament.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Opposition Leader Phil Goff promoted Ardern to the front bench, naming her Labour's spokesperson for Youth Affairs and for Justice (Youth Affairs). She made appearances on TVNZ's "Breakfast" programme as part of the "Young Guns" feature, alongside National MP and future National Party leader, Simon Bridges.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern ran for the parliament seat of Auckland Central for Labour in the 2011 general election, running against incumbent National MP Nikki Kaye for National and Greens candidate Denise Roche. She lost to Kaye by 717 votes. However, she returned to Parliament because of her party list ranking, on which she was ranked 13th.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: After Goff resigned from the Party leadership, Ardern supported David Shearer for party leader. She was promoted to the fourth-ranking position in his Shadow Cabinet on 19 December 2011, becoming a spokesperson for social development under the new leader. Ardern ran again in Auckland Central at the 2014 general election. She again finished second, but increased her own vote and lowered Kaye's majority from 717 to 600. She was soon ranked 5th on Labour's list and because of this, Ardern still returned to Parliament where she became Shadow spokesperson for Justice, Children, Small Business, and Arts & Culture under new leader Andrew Little.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern later ran for the Labour nomination for the Mount Albert by-election to be held in February 2017. The by-election was held because of the resignation of David Shearer. When nominations for the Labour Party closed on 12 January 2017, Ardern was the only nominee and was selected. On 21 January, Ardern took part of the 2017 Women's March, a worldwide protest in opposition to Donald Trump, the newly inaugurated President of the United States. She was confirmed as Labour's candidate at a meeting on 22 January. Ardern won a landslide victory, winning 77 per cent of votes cast in the preliminary results.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Following her win in the by-election, Ardern was elected as Deputy Leader of the Labour Party on 7 March 2017, after the resignation of Annette King. Ardern's vacant list seat was taken by Raymond Huo. However, Ardern would remain as Deputy Leader for exactly five months because she was elected Leader of the Labour Party in August.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 1 August 2017, just seven weeks before the 2017 general election, Ardern became Leader of the Labour Party and also Opposition Leader, after the resignation of Andrew Little. Ardern was confirmed in an election to choose a new leader at a meeting the same day. At 37, Ardern became the youngest leader of the Labour Party in its history. She is also the second female leader of the party after Helen Clark. At first, Little had talked to Ardern on 26 July and said he thought she should take over as Labour leader. Ardern said no and told him to remain as leader.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: At her first press conference after her election as leader, she said that the upcoming election campaign would be positive. After her appointment, the party had a large amount of public campagin donations, reaching NZ$700 per minute at its highest. When Ardern became party leader, Labour rose in opinion polls. By late August the party had reached 43 per cent as well as beating the National Party in opinion polls for the first time in over a decade. Critics said that her ideas were similar to Andrew Little's and believed that Labour's sudden increase in popularity was because of her youth and good looks.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In mid-August 2017, Ardern said that a Labour government would create a tax working group to look for the chance of increasing taxes for the wealthy and lowering them for middle-class working families. This idea became unpopular and Ardern said that her tax plan would not be pushed in a first term of Labour government. Minister of Finance Steven Joyce found that the Labour Party had problems in its $11.7 billion budget.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: The Labour and Green parties' proposed water and pollution taxes also became unpopular from farmers. On 18 September 2017, farmers and lobbyists protested against the taxes in Ardern's hometown of Morrinsville. During the protest, one farmer had a sign calling Ardern a "pretty Communist". This was criticised as sexist by former Prime Minister Helen Clark.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In the final days of the general election campaign, the National Party took a slight lead over the Labour Party.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In the 2017 general election held on 23 September 2017, Ardern was re-elected to her Mount Albert electorate seat by 15,264 votes. Preliminary results from the general election showed that Labour received 35.79 per cent of the party vote to National's 46.03 per cent. After more votes were counted, Labour increased its votes to 36.89% while National dropped back to 44.45%. Labour gained 14 seats, increasing its parliamentary representation to 46 seats. This was the best result for the party since losing power in 2008.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: After the election, Ardern and Deputy Leader Kelvin Davis began talks with the Greens and New Zealand First parties about forming a coalition against National Party which did not haven enough seats for a majority. On 19 October 2017, New Zealand First leader Winston Peters agreed to form a coalition with Labour, making Ardern the next Prime Minister. The Green Party also supported the coalition. Ardern named Peters as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs. She also gave New Zealand First five posts in her government, with Peters and three other ministers in her Cabinet.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern was sworn-in as the 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand by Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy on 26 October 2017. Ardern promised that her government would have empathy and be strong.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern became New Zealand's third female Prime Minister after Jenny Shipley (1997–1999) and Helen Clark (1999–2008). She is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders. At aged 37, Ardern is also the youngest person to become New Zealand's head of government since Edward Stafford, who became premier in 1856.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 19 January 2018, Ardern announced that she was pregnant, and that Winston Peters would become acting Prime minister for six weeks after the birth. Following the birth of a daughter, she took her maternity leave from 21 June to 2 August 2018.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern focused on cutting child poverty in New Zealand by half within a ten years. In July 2018, Ardern announced the start of her government's flagship Families Package. The package would increase paid parental leave to 26 weeks and introduced a $60 per-week universal BestStart Payment for low and middle-income families with young children. In 2019, the government a school lunches pilot programme to help cut child poverty numbers. She also increased welfare benefits by $25, expanding free doctor's visits and giving free menstrual hygiene products in schools.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern's government added increases to the country's minimum wage over a period of time. Her government also cancelled the National Party's planned tax cuts, saying instead it would focus on healthcare and education. The first year of post-secondary education was made free on 1 January 2018 and the government agreed to increase primary teachers' pay by 12.8 (for beginning teachers) and 18.5 per cent by 2021. Even thought the Labour Party campaigned on a capital gains tax for the last three elections, Ardern promised in April 2019 that the government would not pass a capital gains tax under her leadership.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 2 February 2018, Ardern went to Waitangi for the annual Waitangi Day commemoration and she stayed in Waitangi for five days. Ardern became the first female Prime Minister to speak from the top marae. Her visit was popular among Māori leaders, with commentators seeing the difference between her performance to the Prime Ministers before her.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In September 2019, she was criticised for her handling of an allegation of sexual assault against a Labour Party staffer. Ardern said she had been told the allegation did not involve sexual assault or violence before a report about the incident was published in "The Spinoff" on 9 September. Many did not believe this as one journalist found that Ardern's claim was hard to believe.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern does not support putting people who use cannabis in prison and promised to hold a referendum on the issue. A non-binding referendum to legalise cannabis was held at the same time of the 2020 general election. Ardern said she used cannabis when she was young during a televised debate before the election. In the referendum, voters did not support the proposed cannabis legalisation and many found that Ardern not supporting the 'yes' campaign may have caused the legalisation's defeat.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 5 November 2017, Ardern made her first official trip to Australia, where she met Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull for the first time. Relations between the two countries had not been good because of Australia's treatment of New Zealanders living in the country, and shortly before taking office. Turnbull promised to work with Ardern and not have their political beliefs in the way.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In November 2017, Ardern announced that the government would being part of the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations even though the Green Party did not support it. On 25 October 2018, New Zealand ratified the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, which Ardern had described as being better than the original TPP agreement.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In December 2017, Ardern supported for a United Nations resolution criticising U.S. President Donald Trump's decision to recognise Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 24 September 2018, Ardern became the first female head of government to go to the United Nations General Assembly meeting with her baby present. Her address to the General Assembly on 27 September had positive support from the United Nations where she talked about climate change, for the equality of women, and for kindness.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In October 2018, Ardern criticized China for its Xinjiang re-education camps and human rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in the country. Ardern was also worried about the treatment of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar. In November 2018, she met with Myanmar's leader Aung San Suu Kyi and offered any help New Zealand could give to solve the Rohingya crisis.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 23 September 2019, at a United Nations summit in New York City, Ardern had her first formal meeting with U.S. President Donald Trump. She said that Trump was interested in New Zealand's gun buyback policy.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 28 February 2020, Ardern criticised Australia's policy of deporting New Zealanders, many of which had lived in Australia but had not become Australian citizens.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 15 March 2019, 51 people were fatally shot and 49 injured in two mosques in Christchurch. In a statement broadcast on television, Ardern said that the shootings had been carried out by suspects with "extremist views" that have no place in New Zealand, or anywhere else in the world. She also called it as a well-planned terrorist attack.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: She announced a time of national mourning and created a national condolence book that she opened in the capital, Wellington. She also travelled to Christchurch to meet first responders and families of the victims. In an address at the Parliament, she said that she would never say the name of the attacker: "Speak the names of those who were lost rather than the name of the man who took them ... he will, when I speak, be nameless". Ardern became popular in the country and the world for her response to the shootings. A photograph of her hugging a member of the Christchurch Muslim community with the word "peace" in English and Arabic was projected onto the Burj Khalifa. A mural of this photograph was opened in May 2019.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In response to the shootings, Ardern said her government's plans to create stricter gun laws. She said that the attack had shown many weaknesses in New Zealand's gun law. On 10 April 2019, less than one month after the attack, the New Zealand Parliament passed a law that bans most semiautomatic weapons and assault rifles, parts that turn guns into semiautomatic guns, and higher capacity magazines.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 15 May 2019, Ardern and French President Emmanuel Macron co-chaired the Christchurch Call summit to bring together countries and tech companies. The goal was to stop social media's role in organising and promoting terrorism and violent extremism.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 14 March 2020, Ardern announced the government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand. She said that the government would be requiring anyone entering the country from midnight 15 March to isolate themselves for 14 days. She said the new rules will make it harder for people to travel to the country. On 19 March, Ardern said that New Zealand's borders would be closed to all non-citizens and non-permanent residents, after 11:59 pm on 20 March (NZDT). Ardern announced that New Zealand would move to a nationwide lockdown, at 11:59 pm on 25 March.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: National and international media had positive responses about her leadership and quick response to the outbreak in New Zealand. "The Washington Post" said her interviews, press conferences and social media is an example of what a leader should do. In mid-April 2020, two people sued Ardern and other government officials, saying that the lockdown limited their freedoms and was made for political reasons. The lawsuit was dismissed.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 5 May 2020, Ardern and Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced plans to create a trans-Tasman COVID-safe travel zone that would allow residents from both countries to travel freely without travel restrictions.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Opinion polls showed the Labour Party with nearly 60 per cent support. In May 2020, 59.5 per cent of citizens found Ardern as "preferred prime minister".


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In the 2020 general election, Ardern led her party to a landslide victory. Her party won an overall majority of 65 seats in the 120-seat House of Representatives, and 50 per cent of the party vote. She was also re-elected to her seat on the Mount Albert electorate by 21,246 votes. Ardern said her landslide victory was because of her response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic impacts it has had.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 2 December 2020, Ardern declared a climate change emergency in New Zealand and promised that the country would be carbon neutral by 2025 in a parliamentary motion. She said that the public will be required to buy only electric or hybrid vehicles. This was supported by the Labour, Green, and Māori parties but was opposed by the opposition National and ACT parties.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In response to the housing affordability issues, Ardern proposed the removal of the interest rate tax-deduction, lifting Housing Aid for first home buyers, giving away infrastructure funds and expand the Bright Line Test from five to ten years.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 14 June 2021, Ardern said that the New Zealand Government would apologise for the Dawn Raids. She formally apologised for the raids in August 2021.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 12 December 2020, Prime Minister Ardern and Cook Islands Prime Minister Mark Brown announced that a travel route between New Zealand and the Cook Islands would be created in 2021. It would allow a two-way quarantine-free travel between the two countries. On 14 December, Prime Minister Ardern confirmed that the New Zealand and Australian Governments had agreed to create a travel route between the two countries the following year. On 17 December, Ardern also announced that the government had bought two more COVID-19 vaccines from the pharmaceutical companies AstraZeneca and Novavax for New Zealand and its Pacific partners.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 26 January 2021, Ardern stated that New Zealand's borders would remain closed to most non-citizens and non-residents until New Zealand citizens have been "vaccinated and protected". A month later, her government created a vaccination programme. In August 2021, after one person tested positive for the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant, the country went under lockdown again.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 29 January 2022, Ardern went into self-isolation after she had contact with someone who tested COVID positive on a flight to Auckland. Goveror-General Cindy Kiro and chief press secretary Andrew Campbell, who were on board the same flight, also went into self-isolation.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 14 May 2022, Ardern tested positive for COVID-19. Her partner Gayford had tested positive for COVID-19 several days earlier on 8 May.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In early December 2020, Ardern showed support for Australia during an issue between Canberra and Beijing over Chinese Foreign Ministry official Zhao Lijian's Twitter post saying that Australia had committed war crimes against Afghans. She described the image as not being correct, adding that the New Zealand Government would raise its concerns with the Chinese Government.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 16 February 2021, Prime Minister Ardern criticised the Australian Government's decision to remove dual New Zealand–Australian national and ISIS bride Suhayra Aden's Australian citizenship. Aden had migrated from New Zealand to Australia at the age of six and became an Australian citizen. In response, Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison defended the decision to take away Aden's citizenship, saying legislation removing dual nationals of their Australian citizenship if they were engaged in terrorist activities. After a phone conversation, the two leaders agreed to work together to fix the issues Ardern had said.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In response to the 2021 Israel-Palestine crisis, Ardern said on 17 May that New Zealand "condemned both the rocket fire we have seen from Hamas" and "a response that has gone well beyond self-defence on both sides". She also said that Israel had the right to exist but Palestinians also had a right to a peaceful and safe home.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In late May 2022, Ardern led a trade and tourism mission to the United States, where she asked President Joe Biden to have the U.S. rejoin the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership. On the trip, she made an agreement with Governor of California Gavin Newsom creating a two-way cooperation between New Zealand and California in reducing the effects of climate change and doing more research on it.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In late June 2022, Ardern went to the NATO's Leader Summit. This was the first time that New Zealand had formally addressed a NATO event. During her speech, she talked about New Zealand's promise for peace and human rights. Ardern also criticised China and Russia for human rights issues and military actions.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: When she became Labour Party leader, Ardern had positive coverage from the media, including international medias such as CNN, with many calling it the 'Jacinda effect' and 'Jacindamania'.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Jacindamania was seen as an important reason behind New Zealand gaining global attention and media influence in many reports. In a 2018 trip, Ardern got a large amount of media attention after delivering a speech at the United Nations in New York City. Many saw her as the "cure to Trumpism". Many saw her as an example against masculine politicians like U.S. President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern has been described as a celebrity politician. She has become popular for her leadership following the Christchurch mosque shootings, COVID-19 pandemic and the Whakaari / White Island eruption.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern was one of fifteen women selected to appear on the cover of the September 2019 issue of British "Vogue", by guest editor Meghan, Duchess of Sussex. "Forbes" magazine placed her at 38 among the 100 most powerful women in the world in 2019. She was included in the 2019 "Time" 100 list and was a candidate for "Time"'s 2019 Person of the Year. Many believed that she would win the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize for her handling of the Christchurch mosque shootings. In 2020, she was listed by "Prospect" as the second-greatest thinker for the COVID-19 era. In 2021, New Zealand zoologist Steven A. Trewick named the flightless wētā species "Hemiandrus jacinda" in honour of Ardern. A spokesperson for Ardern said that a beetle ("Mecodema jacinda"), a lichen, and an ant had also been named after her.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In May 2021, "Fortune" magazine gave Ardern the top spot on their list of world’s greatest leaders, saying her leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as her handling of the Christchurch mosque shootings and the 2019 Whakaari/White Island eruption.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern has called herself as a social democrat, a progressive, a republican and a feminist. She called former Prime Minister Helen Clark, a political hero. She believes that the large amount of child poverty and homelessness in New Zealand is a "blatant failure" of capitalism.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern believes in removing the Māori electorates and they should be decided by Māori people. She supports teaching of the Māori language in schools.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: In September 2017, Ardern said she wanted New Zealand to have a debate on removing the monarch of New Zealand as its head of state.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern has supported same-sex marriage, and she voted for the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013 which legalised it. In 2018, she became the first New Zealand prime minister to march in a pride parade. Ardern supported legalising abortion and removing it from the Crimes Act 1961. In March 2020, she voted for the Abortion Legislation Act that would make abortion legal.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern has also supported a two-state solution to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. She has criticised Israel over the death of Palestinians during protests at the Gaza border.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern is a second cousin of Mayor of Whanganui Hamish McDouall. She is also a distant cousin of former National MP for Taranaki-King Country Shane Ardern.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Ardern's partner is television presenter Clarke Gayford. The couple first met in 2012. They did not spend time together until Gayford talked to Ardern about a controversial communications bill. On 3 May 2019, it was reported that Ardern was engaged to be married to Gayford. The wedding was planned for January 2022, but she changed the wedding date for a another time because of COVID-19 restrictions.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: On 19 January 2018, Ardern announced that she was pregnant with her first child, making her New Zealand's first prime minister to be pregnant in office. On 21 June 2018, she gave birth to a girl the same day, becoming only the second elected head of government to give birth while in office (after Benazir Bhutto in 1990). On 24 June, Ardern revealed her daughter's name as Neve Te Aroha.


title: Jacinda Ardern

text: Though raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LSD), Ardern left the church in 2005 because the church's views did not support her own political views. In January 2017, Ardern said she was agnostic, saying "I can't see myself being a member of an organised religion again". As prime minister in 2019, she met the President of LDS Church, Russell M. Nelson.


title: Airline

text: An airline is a company that transports people and items using airliners. An airline may have as few as one airplane or a fleet of hundreds of airplanes.


title: Airline

text: An airline has many costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, booking commissions, advertising, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs.


title: Pamela Anderson

text: Pamela Denise Anderson (born July 1, 1967 in Ladysmith, British Columbia, Canada) is a Canadian-American actress, sex symbol, glamour model, producer, television personality, and author.


title: Pamela Anderson

text: Anderson started her career in Labatt Beer commercials. She was then offered to pose for Playboy and appeared in five issues. Anderson was the Playmate of the Month in February 1990. Anderson was a sex symbol in the 1990s. In 1993 she joined the cast of "Baywatch". Anderson has been a contestant in two series of "Dancing with the Stars" and in the 2013 series of "Dancing on Ice".


title: Pamela Anderson

text: For a time, she was known as Pamela Anderson Lee during her marriage to the drummer for Mötley Crüe, Tommy Lee. The couple had two sons. She later married Kid Rock and Rick Salomon. She is a dual citizen: Canadian and American. In 2002, she stated that she has been diagnosed with hepatitis C.


title: Turmeric

text: Turmeric ("Curcuma longa") is a spice, widely used in Asian cooking. It is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant, in the ginger family, Zingiberaceae.


title: Turmeric

text: Turmeric plants are widely grown in tropical areas of India, where over 70,000 acres are cultivated every year. The plant has long leaves, surrounding spikes where small flowers form. However the root, or ‘rhizome’ of the turmeric plant is harvested, in much the same way as ginger. The turmeric rhizome takes about 10 months to grow before it can be harvested; it is then boiled, cleaned and dried in the sun. Most of the harvested turmeric is ground up and sold in jars for use in cooking, however the fresh root turmeric can also be used.


title: Turmeric

text: Turmeric is one of the main ingredients of curry powder, and is used to give it the characteristic yellow colour. It is also delicious added to rice dishes, seafood, and mustards and pickles.


title: Turmeric

text: Turmeric is also more widely used as a colourant for textiles and food products. It is sometimes substituted for saffron as it is much less expensive, but produces the same yellow colour. Turmeric has also been used as an alternative to medicine and can be made into a drink.


title: Qing dynasty

text: The Qing Dynasty () was a dynasty of rulers of China from 1644 to 1912. The dynasty was founded by the Manchus and so its other name is the Manchu dynasty. The surname of the Qing emperors was Aisin Gioro. It became the Republic of China in 1912 after the 1911 Xinhai Revolution.


title: Qing dynasty

text: In 1580, Nurhaci became the Jian Zhou general of the Ming dynasty. He unified the Manchu tribe and organised the Eight Banners. In 1616, Nurhaci declared himself Khan (King) and founded the Jin dynasty in Liao Ling. In 1626, Nurhaci led armies to attack Ning Yuan. Unluckily, Nurhaci was wounded by Yuan Chonghuan's Portuguese cannon and he died 2 days later. Huang Taiji, the son of Nurhaci, then succeeded to the throne and became the Khan of the Manchu tribe. In 1643, Huang Taiji was dead, caused by apoplexy. Shunzhi Emperor inherited Huang Taiji's throne. Prince Dorgon became the regent. In 1644, the Manchu armies conquered the north of China. The capital was changed to Beijing. The Ming dynasty was overthrown, though fighting continued until 1683.


title: Qing dynasty

text: The self-strengthening movement ( or ; 1861 - 1895) was a reform organised during the late Qing. With the defeat in the Opium Wars and the outbreak of Taiping Rebellion, the emperor and the imperial officials realised that it was necessary to improve the country's state with a series of reforms. Therefore, the Self-Strengthening Movement was started.


title: Qing dynasty

text: The movement could be divided into three phases: the first phase (1861 - 1872), the second phase (1872 - 1885) and the third phase (1885 - 1895). The major leaders are Yixin, Prince Gong (Chinese: 恭親王), Wenxiang (Chinese: 文祥), Zeng Guofan (Chinese: 曾國藩), Li Hongzhang (Chinese: 李鴻章), Zuo Zongtang (Chinese: 左宗棠), Shen Baozhen (Chinese: 沈葆禎) and Zhang Zhidong (Chinese: 張之洞). However, owing to the conservatives opposition and the problems of modernization, it failed finally.


title: Qing dynasty

text: With the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movenment, the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War and the scramble for concessions, many Chinese leaders realised that reforms were urgently needed. Thus, the Hundred Day's Reform (Chinese: 戊戌變法; 11 June 1898 - 21 September 1898) was started in 1898. The leaders of the reform were Guangxu Emperor, Kang Youwei (Chinese: 康有為) and Liang Qichao (Chinese: 梁啟超). Eventually, it ended in a coup d'état led by Empress Dowager Cixi.


title: Qing dynasty

text: The Manchus changed their ways to be more like the Chinese in order to rule them better. The Manchus started wearing Chinese clothes and writing in Chinese. They began to enjoy Chinese food and art. One of the Manchu emperors, Qianlong Emperor, began to worry about how much like the Chinese the Manchus were becoming and he tried to get Manchus to be more Manchu. Qianlong Emperor made Manchus ride horses and shoot bows and arrows so that they would remember where they came from. The Chinese people used different types of clothes like maccukau, konaha, schinin and sakahn.


title: Qing dynasty

text: In the early Qing, Guangdong was a province. There were 79 counties. In 1911, it was checked that there were 5,041,780 households, approximately 28,001,564 people. The famous mountains in Guangdong were Lingchau, Huangling and Luofu. Dongjiang, Beijiang and Xijiang were the most important rivers in Guangdong. Guangzhou, Zhaoqing, Xiamen and Fujian were the major Guangdong cities.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often called by his initials LBJ, was an American politician. He was the 36th president of the United States from 1963 to 1969. Before becoming president, he was the 37th vice president of the United States from 1961 to 1963. He became president when President John F. Kennedy was killed in November 1963. He was also a U.S. representative, U.S. senator, and the Senate's Majority Leader. He was a Democrat.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Johnson was born in Stonewall, Texas. Before he became a politician, he was a high school teacher. In 1937, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. In 1948, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, then became its majority leader in 1954. In 1960, he ran for president, but did not win the Democratic nomination. He was then chosen to become the running mate of Senator John F. Kennedy, and the Kennedy-Johnson ticket won.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy was killed in Dallas, Texas. Johnson then became the next president of the United States. In 1964, Johnson was elected president, defeating his opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater, in a landslide. He received 61.1% of the popular vote.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: As president, Johnson created the Great Society. It was a series of programs created to help the American people. They involved expanding civil rights, public broadcasting, Medicare, Medicaid, aid to education and the arts, urban and rural development, and public services. He passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. His personal beliefs on the issue of civil rights, however, put him against other white, southern Democrats. He also wanted to make poor Americans' lives better by launching the "War on Poverty." He continued President Kennedy's space program, expanding the Apollo program. He also enacted the Higher Education Act of 1965, creating federal student loans. Johnson also signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which was the basis for U.S. immigration policy today.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: In foreign policy, Johnson's presidency prioritized stopping the expansion of Marxist–Leninist governments. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This made the U.S. become more involved in the Vietnam War. More American soldiers were being sent to Vietnam, and as the war continued, American deaths went up along with deaths of Vietnamese civilians. In 1968, the Tet Offensive happened, which made the public start to dislike the war. Many people wanted the U.S. military to no longer be in Vietnam.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: During his presidency the American political landscape changed a lot, as white southerners who supported the Democrats started to support the Republican Party and African-Americans began supporting the Democratic Party. Because of his domestic agenda, Johnson's presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States. Although Johnson started his presidency popular, he lost popularity due to the Vietnam War and ongoing social unrest.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: In the 1968 presidential election, he ended his run for another term as president after he did not do well in the New Hampshire primary. The election was eventually won by Republican candidate Richard Nixon. Johnson returned to his Texas ranch and remained private until he died of a heart attack in 1973.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Historians and scholars rank Johnson very well because of his domestic policies which progressed civil rights, health care, and welfare. However, he receives strong criticism for his role in escalating the Vietnam War, which resulted in the deaths of 58,220 American service members, dropping over 7.5 million tons of explosives over Vietnam, and the use of the noxious herbicide Agent Orange.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Johnson was born in Texas. His father was a politician who had worked for the Texas state government. As a young adult, he was a teacher. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1937, then to the Senate in 1948. He won the Senate election by just 87 votes.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: In the Senate, Johnson very quickly became powerful and in 1955 became leader of the Senate and was the youngest to have ever held that position. He started great programs for the public. It helped that he knew the other Senators well and could often persuade them to support his ideas. In 1960, he ran for president, but during the contest to see who the Democrats would support, he lost to John F. Kennedy. Johnson was then selected by Kennedy as the candidate Vice President. Kennedy narrowly won the election and Johnson became vice president. Like most vice presidents, Johnson did not like the job. It gave him too little power.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Lyndon B. Johnson was well known as someone who could persuade other lawmakers in Congress to pass laws. To gain more support for his ideas, he often arm-twisted other politicians (meaning he would threaten them if they didn't agree with him).


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Johnson took over as president after Kennedy was assassinated. He finished Kennedy's term as president then in 1964 he ran for re-election and won easily against Barry Goldwater. Johnson won 61.1% of the vote. This is the highest percentage of the vote ever won by someone running for president since 1820.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Johnson began a "war on poverty". He created the Great Society (a series of government programs intended to improve the living standards of the country). These programs include public broadcasting, protecting the environment, Medicare (health care for the elderly), Medicaid ([health care for the poor). He supported civil rights for African Americans and continued where Kennedy left off in giving them freedom. The Voting Rights Act in 1965 gave the government powers to stop them from being denied the right to vote. Compared to Kennedy's weak relationship with Congress, Johnson was able to convince politicians to support some of the same policies which they opposed under Kennedy.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: At the same time, Johnson increased the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War. Johnson increased the number of soldiers in Vietnam from 16,000 to 500,000 in order to stop the Viet Cong (the Communist rebels in South Vietnam). As the years passed, Johnson became more and more unpopular as the war kept on going without an end in sight. By 1968, almost 1000 American soldiers were being killed in Vietnam every month and the enemy still had not been defeated. In March 1968, Johnson said he would not run for re-election.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Johnson's time as president ended on January 20, 1969. He went back to Texas to live on his ranch in Stonewall. He began smoking cigarettes again for the first time since 1955, and his health quickly declined. He began suffering heart attacks which later resulted in his death.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Johnson died at his ranch on January 22, 1973, at age 64 after having a heart attack. Johnson had a state funeral, and the final services took place on January 25. The funeral took place at the National City Christian Church in Washington, D.C.


title: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: Despite the disaster in Vietnam, Johnson is still thought of as being a good president by historians because of what he achieved with civil rights. In 1973, the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston was renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.


title: Refraction

text: Refraction is the change in direction of a wave, caused by the change in the wave's speed. Examples of waves include sound waves and light waves. Refraction is seen most often when a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium. Different types of medium include air and water.


title: Refraction

text: When a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, the wave will change its speed and its direction. For example, when a light wave travels through air and then passes into water, the wave will slow and change direction. In this property when the light is transmitted through a medium, polarisation of electrons take place, which in turn reduces the speed of light, thus changing the direction of light.


title: Refraction

text: As light goes into a medium which is denser, the light ray will 'bend' toward the normal. When it goes back into the less dense medium (with a lower refractive index), it will bend back through the same angle as when it came in (if the surface at exit is parallel to the surface at entry).


title: Refraction

text: An example of how refraction works is placing a straw in a cup of water, with part of the straw in the water. When looking at a certain angle, the straw appears to bend at the water's surface. This is because of the change in density of the medium and thus, bending of light rays as they move from the air to water.


title: Refraction

text: A good and simple way to understand how light works is to think of it like a car. When the car hits the gravel surface (this is the medium) on an angle, the tire that hits it first will slow, causing it to turn in that direction. Therefore, if light hits a medium on the right having a greater refractive index, it will bend right. The amount of bending is given by . Lenses work by refraction.


title: Refraction

text: When light refracts in a prism, it splits into colours of the rainbow because some wavelengths bend more than others.


title: Refraction

text: In optics the refractive index or index of refraction "n" of a substance is a dimensionless number that describes how light, or other radiation, goes through that medium. It is defined as


title: Refraction

text: where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and "v" is the "phase velocity" of light in the medium. Snell's law uses refractive indexes to calculate the amount of refraction.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader best known for making England a republic and leading the Commonwealth of England and primarily because of ethnic cleansing activities in Ireland euphemistically called as Cromwellian Genocide.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: Cromwell's actions during his career seem confusing to us today. He supported Parliament against the King, yet he ordered his soldiers to break up parliament. Under his rule, the Protectorate said that people's religious beliefs should be respected, but people who went against what most people believed were sometimes tortured and imprisoned.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: Cromwell was the first ruler of England to be a Puritan. He created a new model army. Many English people today think he was one of their greatest leaders.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: Cromwell started off as a gentleman from Huntingdon. He first studied at Huntingdon Grammar School. He had a bad relationship with his father. He went on to Sidney Sussex College at the University of Cambridge. This was a new, small college where he had the chance to talk about his new Puritan ideas. However, he never took a degree because his father died in 1617 while he was studying.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: In 1628, Cromwell became an MP and a Puritan and supported Parliament in its quarrel with the King. When war broke out, the King's army was stronger and better-prepared than the army of Parliament. Cromwell saw this, and he decided to train men to fight better. Soon the "New Model Army" he had trained began to win battles. As a result, Parliament won the war. By the end of the war, Cromwell was very powerful.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: During the following years, Oliver Cromwell conducted two campaigns to subdue the Irish Catholics (1649-1650), and in the battles of Dunbar and Worcester (1650-1651) crushed the Scottish royalists, who had proclaimed King Charles II. , first-born of the executed sovereign.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the Commonwealth of England. A Council of State was appointed to manage affairs, which included Cromwell among its members. His real power base was in the army.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: In 1652, Cromwell took over Ireland. Many historians believe that Cromwell committed an ethnic cleansing against the Irish Catholic people. Cromwell wanted the Irish Catholics to move out of eastern Ireland into the northwest. According to these historians, Cromwell and his army used massacres, starvation, and threats of execution to force the Irish to leave. Historian Frances Stewart says that 600,000 Irish people 43% of the Irish population died from these policies.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: The House of Commons tried hard to control the army, but could not: in 1653, Cromwell dissolved the House of Commons, yielded legislative power to 139 people of his confidence and took the title of Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, with powers wider than those enjoyed by the monarch. During his tenure he reorganized public finances, promoted the liberalization of commerce in order to ensure the prosperity of the mercantile bourgeoisie, promulgated the Navigation Act (1651), through which he imposed on the Netherlands the English maritime supremacy, defeated the United Provinces (1654), snatched Jamaica from Spain (1655), persecuted the Catholics and placed England at the head of the European Protestant countries.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: A new constitution known as the Instrument of Government made Cromwell Lord Protector for life. He had the power to call and dissolve parliaments.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament. Cromwell thought about the offer for six weeks. Then he rejected it and was ceremonially re-installed as "Lord Protector" (with greater powers than had previously been granted him under this title) at Westminster Hall.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria (probably first contracted while on campaign in Ireland). He died at Whitehall on 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: At his death (3 September 1658), however, the Republic was immersed in a period of chaos, which ended with the restoration of the monarchy in the person of Charles II of England by the Parliament (1660). Despite his prudence, the new monarch did not hesitate to order the exhumation of the corpse of the man who had signed the death sentence of his father, to cut off his head and expose it in the Tower of London.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Although Richard was not entirely without ability, he had no power base in either Parliament or the Army, and was forced to resign in the spring of 1659, bringing the Protectorate to an end. A year later Parliament restored Charles II as king.


title: Oliver Cromwell

text: When the Royalists returned to power, Cromwell's corpse was dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. It is said that his head was lost for months until a soldier found it. His skull was passed around as a token until it was buried at Tyburn.


title: Eric Roberts

text: Eric Anthony Roberts (born April 18, 1956) is an American movie, television, stage, and voice actor. He is known for his roles in "King of the Gypsies" and "Paul's Case". He is also known for playing a Gotham Gangster Salvator Maroni in "The Dark Knight". He was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards and one Academy Award.


title: Eric Roberts

text: Roberts was born in Biloxi, Mississippi. His parents, Betty Lou (née Bredemus) and Walter Grady Roberts, one-time actors and playwrights, met while performing theatrical productions for the armed forces. They later co-founded the Atlanta Actors and Writers Workshop in Atlanta, Georgia off of Juniper Street in Midtown. Roberts' mother filed for divorce in 1971 and it was finalized early in 1972. His younger siblings, Julia Roberts (from whom he was estranged until 2004) and Lisa Roberts Gillan, are also actors. His mother married Michael Motes and had daughter Nancy Motes in 1976. Roberts is of English, Scottish, Irish, Welsh, German, and Swedish ancestry. Roberts was raised in Atlanta, Georgia. He studied at Henry W. Grady High School.


title: Eric Roberts

text: He was sued two times, one for drug related problems and the other for slamming his wife into a wall. All charges were later dropped.


title: Eric Roberts

text: Roberts is currently married to Eliza Garret since 1992; they have a son and a daughter. He also has a daughter from an earlier relationship with Kelly Cunningham, Emma Roberts. He is the brother of Julia Roberts and Lisa Roberts Gillan.


title: Pokémon Red and Blue

text: The games are set in the fantasy world of Kanto and follow the adventure of the main character, Red, in his quest to learn Pokémon battling. Both games have almost the same plot, but the player must trade among the two in order to complete the games' Pokédex. The Kanto Saga of the Pokémon anime is based on the games' plots.


title: Pokémon Red and Blue

text: "Pokémon Red" and "Blue" got good reviews, and their releases started the beginning of what would become a multibillion-dollar company, both selling millions of copies around the world.


title: Gauri Khan

text: Gauri Khan () (née Chibber, born 8 October 1970) is an Indian movie producer. A Hindu of Punjabi Mohyal origin, born in New Delhi, India. She graduated from Modern School, New Delhi and has a degree in History from Lady Sriram College. She is married to Bollywood actor Shah Rukh Khan. She has produced some of the movies with her husband as the main actor, including Paheli (an unsuccessful Indian submission to the Oscars in 2005), Main Hoon Na, and Om Shanti Om. She also made a short guest appearance in Om Shanti Om.


title: Gauri Khan

text: She used to host a weekly Hindi music countdown show, "Oye", for a music channel in the 1990s. She is the face of the fashion line, "Aftershock". She was on the January 2008 cover of the Indian edition of Vogue magazine.


title: Gauri Khan

text: Together with Shahrukh Khan, Gauri is part-owner and part-producer of the production company, Red Chillies Entertainment (RCE). Shah Rukh started the company for his friend and colleague, director-choreographer Farah Khan. With the backing of RCE, Farah launched her directorial career with the movie, Main Hoon Na (2004).


title: Gauri Khan

text: Gauri has three children: Aryan Khan born 12 November 1997, Suhana Khan born 23 May 2000 and AbRam Khan born in 2013.


title: Siege

text: A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress. The purpose is to conquer by starvation, lack of water, or by a well-prepared assault.


title: Siege

text: Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict. The defender inside has a strong, static, defensive position. Negotiation between combatants is common.


title: Siege

text: A siege happens when the attacker gets to a city or fortress which cannot be taken by storm, and which refuses to surrender. Sieges block the supplies and reinforcements or escape of men. Siege engines, artillery bombardment, and undermining are frequent. Deception and treachery are common.


title: Siege

text: Sieges can be decided by starvation, thirst, or disease. This form of siege can take many months or even years, depending upon the size of the stores of food the fortified position holds.


title: Bobsleigh

text: Bobsled or bobsleigh is a team sport played during the Winter Olympic Games. It is played by riding on iced tracks with a sled. Modern tracks are made of concrete, coated with ice. Artificial bobsleigh tracks are also available.


title: Bobsleigh

text: International bobsled competitions are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT).


title: Bobsleigh

text: The first bobsleds were built in St. Moritz, Switzerland, in the late 19th century by rich tourists from Britain who were staying at the Palace Hotel owned by Caspar Badrutt.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Dame Jane Morris Goodall (; born Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall on 3 April 1934), formerly Baroness Jane van Lawick-Goodall, is an English zoologist, primatologist, ethologist and anthropologist. She is also the UN Messenger of Peace. She is the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees. Goodall is best known for her 45-year study of social and family interactions of wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania. She is the founder of the Jane Goodall Institute and has worked extensively on conservation and animal welfare issues.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Born in London, she has been interested in animals since childhood. As a child she was given a lifelike chimpanzee toy named Jubilee by her father; her fondness for the toy started her early love of animals. The reason the chimpanzee's name is Jubilee is because in 1935 there had been a chimpanzee named Jubilee also that was born in London and all of the zoo's chimps had been born in Africa.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Leakey raised funds, and in 1960 Goodall went to Gombe Stream National Park, becoming the first of "Leakey's Angels". She was accompanied by her mother whose presence was necessary to satisfy the requirements of David Anstey, chief warden. He was concerned for their safety; Tanzania was ""Tanganyika"" at that time and a British protectorate.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Leakey arranged funding and in 1962 sent Goodall, who had no degree, to Cambridge University where she obtained a PhD degree in Ethology. She became only the eighth person to be allowed to study for a PhD without first obtaining a BA or BSc. Her thesis was completed in 1965, titled "Behavior of the free-ranging Chimpanzee". It told of her first five years of study at the Gombe Reserve.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Goodall has been married twice. On 28 March 1964 she married a Dutch nobleman, wildlife photographer Baron Hugo van Lawick. The couple had a son, Hugo Eric Louis, affectionately known as "Grub," who was born in 1967. They divorced in 1974.


title: Jane Goodall

text: In 1975 she married Derek Bryceson. He was a member of Tanzania's parliament and director of national parks; he died of cancer in October 1980. With his position in the Tanzanian government as head of the country's national park system, Bryceson was able to protect Goodall's research project. He put an embargo on tourism at Gombe while he was alive.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Goodall is best known for her study of chimpanzee social and family life. She began studying the Kasakela chimpanzee community in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania in 1960.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Instead of numbering the chimpanzees she observed, she gave them names such as Fifi and David Greybeard, and observed them to have unique and individual personalities, an unconventional idea at the time. She found that, “It isn’t only human beings who have personality, who are capable of rational though emotions like joy and sorrow”.


title: Jane Goodall

text: She also observed behaviours such as hugs, kisses, pats on the back, and even tickling, what we consider 'human' actions. Goodall insists that these gestures are evidence of "the close, supportive, affectionate bonds that develop between family members and other individuals within a community, which can persist throughout a life span of more than 50 years". These findings suggest similarities between humans and chimpanzees can be seen in emotion, intelligence, and family and social relationships.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Goodall’s research at Gombe Stream challenged two long-standing beliefs of the day: that only humans could build and use tools, and that chimpanzees were vegetarians. While observing one chimpanzee feeding at a termite mound, she watched him repeatedly place stalks of grass into termite holes, then remove them from the hole covered with clinging termites, effectively “fishing” for termites. The chimps would also take twigs from trees and strip off the leaves to make the twig more effective, a form of object modification which is the rudimentary beginnings of toolmaking.


title: Jane Goodall

text: "Man the Toolmaker" is a famous phrase in anthropology. In response to Jane's research, Louis Leakey wrote, "We must now redefine man, redefine tool, or accept chimpanzees as human!" Over the course of her study, Goodall found evidence of mental traits in chimpanzees such as reasoned thought, abstraction, generalization, symbolic representation, and even the concept of self. All these were thought to be uniquely human abilities.


title: Jane Goodall

text: In contrast to the peaceful and affectionate behaviours she observed, Goodall also found a mean side of chimpanzee nature at Gombe Stream. She discovered that chimps will systematically hunt and eat smaller primates such as "Colobus" monkeys. Goodall watched a hunting group isolate a colobus high in a tree, block all possible exits, then one chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus. The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours. The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as "one-third of the colobus population" in the park each year. This alone was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behavior.


title: Jane Goodall

text: Also startling, and disturbing, was the tendency for aggression and violence "within" chimpanzee troops. Goodall observed dominant females deliberately killing the young of other females in the troop in order to maintain their dominance, sometimes going as far as cannibalism. Goodall saw highly intelligent, emotional creatures living in complex social groups, when other researchers saw non communicating apes.


title: Jane Goodall

text: She says of this revelation, "During the first ten years of the study I had believed […] that the Gombe Stream chimpanzees were, for the most part, rather nicer than human beings, then suddenly we found that chimpanzees could be brutal that they, like us, had a darker side to their nature". These findings revolutionized our knowledge of chimpanzee behaviour. They were further evidence of the social similarities between humans and chimpanzees, albeit in a much darker manner.


title: Dance music

text: Dance music is music that is made to be danced to. In a broader sense, an enormous amount of music sounds like dance music, even if it is not composed for dancing. The history of dance music is similar to the history of dance as well as to the history of music.


title: Dance music

text: Dance music was probably the first kind of music there was. Thousands of years ago human beings must have discovered the joy of making noises by beating sticks in rhythm. They probably danced as they did this.


title: Dance music

text: We know that the Ancient Greeks danced to music, although we do not know much about what that music was like.


title: Dance music

text: In the Dark Ages (before the Middle Ages) dancing was very popular. The Christian Church thought that dancing was bad because it was always linked to the devil. This is why the church people thought that musical instruments were bad, because instruments were used for dancing.


title: Dance music

text: The earliest Western dance music that we know are some of the medieval dances such as caroles and the Estampie. Composers started to write their music down on music staves. Dance music had to have a regular beat so that the dancers could dance in time. This is why barlines were invented. The music was divided into bars with a particular number of beats in each bar. This was different from church music which was based on plainchant which was very free in the way it was sung.


title: Dance music

text: In the Baroque period many composers started to write pieces of music which were based on dance rhythms. Composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach wrote suites which were collections of dance movements. The most popular dances in a suite were: allemande, courante, sarabande, minuet and gigue. Even when not writing dance movements, a lot of Baroque music is based on dance rhythms, for example: the grand opening chorus of Bach’s "St Matthew Passion" is based on the rhythm of a sicilienne.


title: Dance music

text: In the Classical music period composers wrote a lot of symphonies and string quartets. They had four movements. The third was normally a minuet, although it was not for dancing to. Composers such as Mozart and Schubert also wrote a lot of music which was for dancing or easy listening. This was the popular music of its time.


title: Dance music

text: In the Romantic era the waltz became popular. Many waltzes were written to be danced to, but other composers simply wrote music (especially piano music) called “waltz”. Chopin wrote piano pieces called after several kinds of dance: waltz, polonaise, mazurka etc. Ballet had become very popular. There was a lot of dance music in operas, especially in French operas.


title: Dance music

text: In the 20th century “dance music” was often thought of as meaning: music played by dance bands. This kind of music developed into rock and roll in the 1960s. Nowadays there is a wide variety of popular dance music, including hip hop. Spanish or Latin American dances such as the samba, tango and cha cha cha are popular all over the world. Towards the end of the 20th century, a form of dance music known as electronic dance music (EDM) arose. This is electronic music which is made in a specific way as to be danced to, usually in the setting of a nightclub, discothèque or a party. Genres of EDM include post-disco, techno, house and trance, amongst several others.


title: Keyboardist

text: A keyboardist is a musician who plays one or more of the musical instruments called keyboard instruments, such as the piano, organ, or electronic synthesizer. They may also use MIDI. A person who plays piano is also called a pianist. A person who plays organ is called an organist. Many types of music use keyboardists, such as rock, pop, funk, and classical music.


title: Mario Kempes

text: Mario Alberto Kempes Chiodi (; born 15 July 1954) is an Argentine former professional footballer who played as a striker.


title: Mouse

text: It has a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail and a high breeding rate. Most belong to the mus genus. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse ("Mus musculus"). Usually, house mice are brownish-gray. It is also a popular pet. In some places, certain kinds of field mice are also common. They are known to invade homes for food and occasionally shelter.


title: Mouse

text: These small animals are often used in science experiments, or sometimes kept as pets. Some mice carry diseases. In some places they damage crops. This causes some people to think of mice as vermin or pests. Many other people think mice are cute and fun animals.


title: Mouse

text: Mice are rodents, therefore they are related to squirrels, rats, and beavers. Mice eat weeds, seeds, berries, and more. They are eaten by owls, foxes, and cats, amongst others.


title: Mouse

text: The word "mouse" should only be used for small murines, but does get used for other distantly-related small rodents. The murines are the largest subfamily of mammals. In fact, it is larger than almost all mammal orders.


title: Mouse

text: These are not mice either, or only distantly related. These mice live in forests. They can run and jump better than mice, and they get their common name from this.


title: Mouse

text: The aggressive "grasshopper mouse" rarely eats other mice, but it does like grasshoppers and insects. It is also only a distant relative.


title: Mouse

text: Anthropomorphism makes cartoon mice look and act more like people than like real mice. For example, the Disney characters Mickey and Minnie Mouse walk, talk, and act like people. Jerry, the mouse star of Tom and Jerry cartoons, is similarly humanized.


title: Striptease

text: Striptease is an entertainment, by females usually, before an audience. It is often included in the theatre form called burlesque. With music and dance, the stripper gradually removes her clothing. It is a very ancient dance form, and occurs in many societies.


title: Striptease

text: Stripping is done in a teasing manner, but without being obscene (for example, by delaying to take an item off). While hiding certain parts of the body with hands or pieces of clothing, stripper dances around. Sometimes, plays are arranged, the strippers are disguised as Arabic dancers, Salome, Lolita or other well-known people. The spectator sometimes identifies with the stripper. Erotic dreams and exhibitionist fantasies may be projected into the striptease.


title: Striptease

text: The Sumerians had a myth of the goddess Inanna descending into the Underworld. At each of the seven gates, she removed an article of clothing or a piece of jewelry. As long as she remained in hell, the earth was barren. When she returned, fecundity abounded.


title: Striptease

text: Salome's dance for King Herod is referred to in the New Testament ( and ). However, the first mention of her removing seven veils is in Oscar Wilde's play of "Salome" in 1893. Some have claimed as the origin of modern striptease. After Wilde's play and Richard Strauss's opera "Salome", first performed in 1905 the erotic 'dance of the seven veils', became a standard routine in opera, vaudeville, film and burlesque. A famous early practitioner was Maud Allan who in 1907 gave a private performance of the dance to Edward VII.


title: Striptease

text: In ancient Greece, the lawgiver Solon established several classes of prostitutes in the late 6th century BC. Among these were the "auletrides": female dancers, acrobats, and musicians, noted for dancing naked in an alluring fashion in front of audiences of men. In ancient Rome, dance featuring stripping was part of the Floralia, an April festival.


title: Striptease

text: Empress Theodora, wife of 6th-century Byzantine emperor Justinian is reported by several ancient sources to have started in life as a courtesan and actress who performed in acts inspired from mythological themes and in which she disrobed "as far as the laws of the day allowed". She was famous for her striptease performance of "Leda and the Swan". From these accounts, it appears that the practice was not exceptional or new. It was, however, actively opposed by the Christian Church, which got statutes banning it in the following century. The degree to which these statutes were enforced is open to question. No practice of the sort is reported in texts of the European Middle Ages.


title: Striptease

text: In the 1880s and 1890s, Parisian shows such as the Moulin Rouge and Folies Bergère had attractive scantily-clad women dancing and "tableaux vivants" (static poses). Acts in the 1890s had a woman slowly removed clothes in a vain search for a flea crawling on her body. The "People's Almanac" credits this as the origin of modern striptease.


title: Striptease

text: Starting in 1905, Mata Hari entered the scene. On the invitation of Emile Guimet she danced before a carefully chosen audience. The scene at the end of the show, where she was naked was a sensation. Similar performances, at the requests of Baron von Rothschild, Cécile Sorel, Gaston Menier and Natalie Clifford Barney followed. Mata Hari had never learned how to dance, and had never studied Indian and oriental dancing. Her dances were a product of her imagination. In 1917, Mata Hari was charged with espionage and sentenced to death. She was shot, on 15 October 1917, in Vincennes, near Paris.


title: Striptease

text: Another landmark performance was the appearance at the Moulin Rouge in 1907 of an actress called Germaine Aymos who entered dressed only in three very small shells. In the 1930s the famous Josephine Baker danced semi-nude in the "danse sauvage" at the Folies and other such performances were provided at the Tabarin. These shows were notable for their sophisticated choreography and often dressing the girls in glitzy sequins and feathers. By the 1960s "fully nude" shows were provided at such places as Le Crazy Horse Saloon.


title: Striptease

text: After the war, in the 1950s striptease became the motor of an emerging sex industry (mainly focused on publications, like Playboy). Paris saw the opening of the high-society strip clubs, like the Alcazar or the Crazy Horse.


title: Striptease

text: In modern times, the art of striptease gets lost more and more. In the 1990s, a German private TV channel (called RTL) made a strip show called Tutti Frutti. Since then, during the night, many TV stations have women, who try to get rid of their clothes (without even dancing), while they advertise some phone sex numbers (or other prime-rate numbers).


title: Striptease

text: There is also a film called "Striptease". It plays in US strip clubs, without giving much background information.


title: Striptease

text: Originally, striptease was only done by women. Today, a very small number of male strippers are there. Among the most notable of them are the Chippendales.


title: Romantic poetry

text: Romantic Poetry was one branch of the Romantic movement. The first generation of Romantic poets (1798) were primarily Coleridge, William Blake and Wordsworth. The second generation was at its culmination in the 1820s, with poets such as Shelley, Byron and Keats. The movement showed an interest in the Gothic, Medieval art, and nature. The ballad form was re-introduced, and the poems often took their form from fairy tales and folk songs. Poets were enjoying writing for themselves rather than senior nobility, and later they were the source of inspiration for the Pre-Raphaelite painters.


title: Georgian language

text: Georgian (Ⴕⴀⴐⴒⴓⴊⴈ Ⴄⴌⴀ, "khartuli ena") is the official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus.


title: Georgian language

text: Georgian is the primary language of about 3.9 million people in Georgia itself (83 percent of the population), and of another 500,000 abroad (chiefly in Turkey, Iran, Russia, the United States and Europe). It is the literary language for all ethnographic groups of Georgian people, especially those who speak other South Caucasian languages (or "Kartvelian languages"): Svans, Megrelians, and the Laz. Gruzinic, or "Kivruli", which is sometimes considered a separate Jewish language, is spoken by an additional 20,000 in Georgia and 65,000 elsewhere (primarily 60,000 in Israel).


title: Wasabi

text: Wasabi is a spice traditionally prepared from a plant from the cabbage family. Its root is used as a spice and has a very strong flavor. The root is smashed up into paste and used as a condiment. Its hotness is more like hot mustard or horseradish than chili pepper, because it irritates the nose more than the tongue. Eating too much wasabi can cause a very painful feeling in the nose. The plant grows naturally in Japan. It is often eaten with sushi.


title: Wasabi

text: Wasabi needs clean water and a cool climate. It is difficult to grow wasabi. There are two ways to grow wasabi. One way is to grow wasabi in water. The other way is to grow wasabi in a field.


title: Wasabi

text: Major sources of wasabi are Shizuoka, Nagano, Shimane, Yamanashi, and Iwate prefectures in Japan. Other source of wasabi include China, New Zealand, Taiwan.


title: Wasabi

text: Because the wasabi plant is so hard to grow, real wasabi is very rare and expensive, most wasabi is a green paste that is really made from horseradish, mustard and food coloring.


title: Ancient India

text: Ancient India had a long-lived civilization and culture. It covered several countries including modern-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.


title: Ancient India

text: The Indus Valley Civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. It marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries. The civilization is famous for its cities that were built of brick, had a road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses.


title: Ancient India

text: During the Maurya Empire, founded in 321 BCE, most of the Indian subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Ashoka the Great who in the beginning sought to expand his kingdom, then followed a policy of ahimsa (non-violence) after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and under Ashoka Buddhist ideals spread across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia.


title: Child-headed family

text: A child-headed family or child-headed household is a family in which a minor (child or adolescent) has become the head of the household. They are most common in developing countries and areas of war, where the children's parents have been killed by conflict or disease. In some cases, relatives of the children adopt them after the parents die. Situations where a child, usually the eldest, has to provide for the family happen when there are no adult relatives to take the children or the relatives can not afford to support more children. Whether and how much the government helps the orphaned family depends on the country. Most help comes from charity and aid organisations like UNICEF.


title: Child-headed family

text: Child-headed families are most common in Africa. The HIV/AIDS epidemic has led to many situations where both parents have died and left behind a family of orphans. The children may begin taking over their parent's responsibilities before the last surviving parent has died, when the parent is sick or too weak to work. The eldest children often have to stop going to school and get a job instead in order to gain income for the family. A study by Cornell University in 2005 showed that, in Namibia, the average age of the children acting as parents in their families was 17; some were as young as 9 years old. The number of children heading households in sub-Saharan Africa is reported to be growing. A survey in South Africa in 2006 showed that 122,000 (0.67%) of the country's children were living in child-headed households.


title: Child-headed family

text: In Rwanda, it is estimated that the 1994 genocide left at least 60,000 households to be run by children. Many of the girls who were raped during the conflict are left to raise both their siblings and their own children.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Bernard "Bernie" Sanders (born September 8, 1941) is an American politician. He is the Junior United States senator from Vermont. He is an Independent, but often votes with the Democratic Party in the Senate. He became senator on January 3, 2007. He ran for President of the United States in 2016 and in 2020.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders was born in Brooklyn, New York City. He graduated from the University of Chicago in 1964. While a student, he was active in organizing protests for civil rights. In 1963, he took part in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, where Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his "I Have a Dream" speech.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders was elected mayor of Burlington, Vermont in 1981. He was re-elected three times. In 1991, he became a United States representative for Vermont's at-large congressional district. He was a congressman for 16 years. In 2006, he was elected to the U.S. Senate after he won 64.5% of the vote. In 2012, he was re-elected by winning almost 71% of the vote. In 2018, he was re-elected by winning nearly 68% of the vote.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders calls himself a democratic socialist. He thinks that a social democratic government for the United States is a good idea. Sanders is against income inequality and is supporting universal health care, parental leave and LGBT rights. He is against racial inequality and mass surveillance. In January 2015, Sanders became a member of the Senate Budget Committee. Sanders has been seen as the most popular senator in the country by multiple yearly polls.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: On April 30, 2015, Sanders became a candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination for President in the 2016 United States presidential election. He made the announcement in a speech on the Capitol lawn. His campaign started on May 26 in Burlington. Unlike some of the other presidential candidates, Sanders did not want Super PACS to give him money. People give him money on his website. He won 22 primaries and caucuses in the 2016 Democratic primaries. He won about 45% of pledged delegates to Hillary Clinton's 55%. On July 12, 2016, he formally endorsed Clinton due to DNC policies, but did not end his own presidential campaign. On July 26, 2016, during a roll-call vote at the 2016 Democratic National Convention Sanders lost the nomination to Clinton.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: After his presidential campaign ended, he started an organization, Our Revolution. Its goal is to "recruit and support candidates for local, state, and national office". He has also announced the upcoming creation of The Sanders Institute, which will spread his political ideas through documentary movies and other media. In February 2017, Sanders began webcasting "The Bernie Sanders Show" on Facebook.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: On February 19, 2019, Sanders announced a second presidential campaign for the Democratic nomination in the 2020 presidential election. His 2020 campaign had raised over four million in donations from individual donors, the largest than any other presidential candidate in history. In early 2020, Sanders was seen as the front-runner for the nomination after winning the first three primary contests and leading in national polling numbers, but after Joe Biden won most of the Super Tuesday contests in March the primary became more competitive. After failing to win many primary states, Sanders ended his campaign on April 8, 2020, later supporting Biden's campaign for President.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders was born in Brooklyn, New York to Eli Sanders and to Dorothy Glassberg. His father was a Jewish immigrant born in Słopnice, Poland in 1904. His mother was born to Jewish parents in New York City in 1912. He has an older brother, Larry. His grandparents were murdered in the Holocaust. His mother died in 1960 and his father died in 1962.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders studied at Brooklyn College. After he graduated from college, Sanders went to the University of Chicago. When he studied in Chicago, Sanders was a leader of the University of Chicago sit-ins in 1962 because of segregation at the university. He graduated from the university in 1964 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science. He said that he was an average student who thought that classrooms were boring and that his community activism was more important.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: He was one of thousands of students who traveled by bus to Washington, D.C., to be part of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Later that summer, he was found guilty of resisting arrest during a protest against segregation in Chicago's public schools and was fined $25.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders began his political career in 1971 as a member of the Liberty Union Party. He was the Liberty Union candidate for Governor of Vermont in 1972 and 1976. He was also a candidate for senator in 1972 and 1974. In the 1974 Senate election, Sanders lost to Patrick Leahy and to Dick Mallary. In 1979, Sanders resigned from the party.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: He worked as a writer and director for the American People's Historical Society (APHS). When he worked at APHS, he made a 30-minute documentary about Eugene V. Debs.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: After Sanders's failed run for governor, close friend Richard Sugarman wanted him to be a candidate for mayor of Burlington. Sanders won the election in February 1981. He beat the six-term mayor Gordon Paquette by ten votes. He took office on April 6, 1981.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: As mayor, Sanders wanted to fix Burlington's Lake Champlain. In 1981, Sanders was against Tony Pomerleau. Sanders did not want Pomerleau to change the industrial lake property owned by the Central Vermont Railway. He did not want the waterfront to become expensive condominiums, hotels, and offices.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders used the slogan "Burlington is not for sale". He supported a plan that changed the waterfront area into a district with housing, parks, and public space. As of 2016, the lake area has a public beach and bike paths, along with a boathouse, many parks, and a science center.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: In 1987, U.S. News named Sanders as one of America's best mayors. He was a big critic of President Ronald Reagan and his policies on income inequality.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: When he was mayor, Sanders helped to fix the city's budget. Sanders left office on April 4, 1989. For a short time, Sanders taught political science at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government in 1989 and at Hamilton College in 1991.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: In 1988, Republican congressman at the time Jim Jeffords wanted to become senator. This left an open office in Vermont's at-large congressional district.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders became a candidate for the seat as an Independent, but he lost the election. In 1990, Sanders became a candidate for the seat again and defeated Peter Plympton Smith by 16%. Sanders became the first independent elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 40 years. Sanders' 1990 victory was called by "The Washington Post" and others as the "First Socialist Elected" to the United States House of Representatives in many years. Sanders continued to win re-elections with many votes.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: In 1991, Sanders co-founded the Congressional Progressive Caucus. He chaired the grouping of mostly liberal Democrats for the first eight years. In 1993, Sanders voted for a bill supported by the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) to stop lawsuits against gun companies. He was against the Brady Bill.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: After Ron Dellums left Congress in 1998, Sanders was the only member of Congress who called himself a socialist.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders voted against the Iraq Resolutions in 1991 and 2002. He was against the 2003 invasion of Iraq. He voted for the allowed use of military force against terrorists. The authorization looked for good reasons to use military actions after the September 11 attacks.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders is against the Patriot Act. As a member of Congress, he voted against the original Patriot Act. Sanders voted for several acts that would block the Patriot Act.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: After Jim Jeffords retired from the Senate in 2006, Sanders became senator when he won the Senate election with 65% of the vote. During the election season, then-Senator Barack Obama supported Sanders and campaigned with him in Vermont.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders has been a leading voice on issues such as income inequality, climate change, and campaign finance reform. Sanders continued to be a major critic on mass surveillance policies such as the Patriot Act.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: On December 10, 2010, Sanders gave a 8½-hour speech against the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010. After the speech, people wanted Sanders to be a candidate for president in the 2012 presidential election.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders' filibuster was published in February 2011 by Nation Books as "The Speech: A Historic Filibuster on Corporate Greed and the Decline of Our Middle Class".


title: Bernie Sanders

text: On January 3, 2013, Sanders became chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs. After his term as chairman ended on January 3, 2015, Sanders became a member of the Senate Budget Committee. Sanders made proposals to raise the minimum wage, stop income inequality, and increase Social Security payments.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders is the longest serving Independent member of Congress in American history. In November 2015, Sanders changed parties and became a member of the Democratic Party. On July 26, 2016, however shortly after losing the Democratic presidential nomination, Sanders said he would serve as an Independent in the Senate.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Following Donald Trump's victory in the 2016 presidential election, Sanders accepted his victory and promised to work with Trump.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: On January 4, 2017, while on the Senate floor, Sanders showed a large cutout of a tweet by President-elect Trump from May 2015 where Trump said he was the "first & only potential GOP candidate" who opposed any cuts to Social Security, Medicare and Medicaid, citing it as what Trump appealed to older voters to elect him on.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: While in Los Angeles on February 19, Sanders called Trump "a pathological liar". He promised the defeat of "Trump and Trumpism and the Republican right-wing ideology."


title: Bernie Sanders

text: On March 30, two days after President Trump signed an "Energy Independence" executive order, Sanders called Trump's choice to focus on job creation over climate change is "nonsensical, and stupid, and dangerous".


title: Bernie Sanders

text: Sanders was against the nomination of Neil Gorsuch for the Supreme Court. He outlined his issues with Gorsuch in an April 4, 2017 appearance on the Senate floor. Sanders said he believed Gorsuch would support removing restrictions on campaign finance and would vote to overturn Roe v. Wade.


title: Bernie Sanders

text: On April 7, 2017, Sanders showed disapproval of President Trump's ordered airstrike from the day before: "If there’s anything we should’ve learned from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, in which the lives of thousands of brave American men and women and hundreds of thousands of Iraqi and Afghan civilians have been lost and trillions of dollars spent, it’s that it’s easier to get into a war than out of one."


title: Bernie Sanders

text: In May 2017, Sanders endorsed Labour Leader of the Opposition Jeremy Corbyn in the 2017 United Kingdom general election.