title: Magnus Carlsen

text: In return for the sponsorship, Carlsen wears the names of the sponsors on his jackets. This is called 'logo exposure'. He attends meetings, and gives talks. His image helps the companies to hire 'high achievers' to their staff. Put simply, companies of that type are keen to hire intelligent people. Carlsen's overall business manager is his father, Henrik.


title: Magnus Carlsen

text: Norway held the 2014 Chess Olympiad, and the Norwegian Government has pledged (promised) 70 million kroner (~8.5 million euros) in support of the event.


title: Naturalism (arts)

text: Naturalism in art refers to the depiction of realistic objects in a natural setting. The Realist movement of the 19th century advocated naturalism in reaction to the stylized and idealized depictions of subjects in Romanticism, but many painters have used a similar approach over the centuries. One example of Naturalism is the artwork of American artist William Bliss Baker, whose landscape paintings are considered some of the best examples of the naturalist movement. Another example is the French Albert Charpin, from the Barbizon School, with his paintings of sheep in their natural settings.


title: Naturalism (arts)

text: Naturalism began in the early Renaissance, and developed itself further throughout the Renaissance, such as with the Florentine School.


title: Naturalism (arts)

text: Naturalism is a type of art that pays attention to very accurate and precise details, and portrays things as they are.


title: Naturalism (arts)

text: Some writers restrict the terms "Naturalism" and "Realism" for use as labels for period styles of the middle and late nineteenth century in Europe and America, thus making available the terms "naturalism" and "realism," all lowercase, for tendencies of art of any period so long as the works strive for an accurate representation of the visible world. Thus, "Naturalism" is tied to a time and place, whereas "naturalism" is timeless. As well as a major turning point in art.


title: Mole (unit)

text: Mole is the SI unit used to measure how many molecules or atoms there are. One mole is around 600 sextillion molecules. Scientists use this number because 1 gram of hydrogen is around 1 mole of atoms.


title: Mole (unit)

text: The exact value of one mole is . This number comes from experiments with carbon because it's easy to work with.


title: Mole (unit)

text: Anything can be measured in moles, but it is not practical for most tasks because the value is so massive. For example, one mole of grapefruits would be as big as the earth.


title: Mole (unit)

text: Because different molecules and atoms do not have the same mass, one mole of one thing does not weigh the same as one mole of something else. Atoms and molecule mass is measured in amu. One amu is equal to one gram per mole. This means that if an atom has a mass of one amu, one mole of this atom weighs one gram.


title: Mole (unit)

text: A value of 1 can be used for hydrogen's relative mass, although the correct value is slightly larger. So: moles = mass/relative mass = 20/1 = 20 moles.


title: Mole (unit)

text: 1 dm is the same as 1000 cm, so the value in cubic centimetres needs to be divided by 1000. 100/1000 x 0.1 = 0.01 moles.


title: Mole (unit)

text: A methane molecule is made from one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Carbon has a mass of 12.011 u and hydrogen has a mass of 1.008 u. This means that the mass of one methane molecule is 12.011 u + (4 × 1.008u), or 16.043 u. This means that one mole of methane has a mass of 16.043 grams.


title: Mole (unit)

text: A mole can be thought of as two bags of different sized balls. One bag contains 3 tennis balls and the other 3 footballs. There is the same number of balls in both bags but the mass of the footballs is much larger. It is a different way to measure things. Moles measure the number of particles, not the mass. So both bags contain three moles.


title: Mole (unit)

text: A mole is simply a unit of the number of things. Other common units include a dozen, meaning  12, and a score, meaning 20. Similarly, a mole refers to a specific quantity-- its distinguishing feature is that its number is far larger than other common units. Such units are typically invented when existing units can not describe something easily enough. Chemical reactions typically take place between molecules of varying weights, meaning measurements of mass (such as grams) can be misleading when compared the reactions of individual molecules. On the other hand, using the absolute number of atoms/molecules/ions would also be confusing, as the massive numbers involved would make it all too easy to misplace a value or drop a digit. As such, working in moles allows scientists to refer to a specific quantity of molecules or atoms without resorting to excessively large numbers.


title: Mole (unit)

text: The SI units for molar concentration are mol/m. However, most chemical writing uses mol/dm, or mol dm, which is the same as mol/L. These units are often written with a capital letter M (pronounced "molar"), sometimes preceded by an SI prefix, for example, millimoles per litre (mmol/L) or millimolar (mM), micromoles/litre (µmol/L) or micromolar (µM), or nanomoles/L (nmol/L) or nanomolar (nM).


title: Song

text: A song is a piece of music which contains lyrics and words. Songs may be made by songwriters. Other songs are folk songs, which are songs created by people long ago that have been sung as tradition.


title: Song

text: Some people form bands which write and record songs to make money from it. When two or three singers sing the song it is called a duet or trio. Some people also make parodies of songs, which is usually changing the words of the song but keeping the tune. Parodies are usually made to make fun of a song or its writer/singer (parody artist "Weird Al" Yankovic is an example of this).


title: Song

text: The word "song" is often used to describe any piece of music, even one without words or lyrics. The proper word for a piece of music without words is ""instrumental"".


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine (also called meth or speed) is a man-made stimulant drug. Many people use it illegally, but it is occasionally used legally by prescription to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or obesity as "Desoxyn".


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine has two isomers, "left-handed" and "right-handed". Left-handed methamphetamine helps fight stuffy nose and is legal. Right-handed methamphetamine makes people feel high and is mostly illegal. This page is mostly about the right-handed form.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine is very addictive. This means that when people start taking the drug, they will want to keep taking more, even if it is making them sick.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine can be in powder or crystal form, and can be snorted, smoked, injected, or eaten. In its smoked form, methamphetamine is known as "ice," "crystal," "crank," "batu," "barang," "cerita," or "glass".


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine has been around for a very long time, though the procedures for manufacturing the drug have changed throughout the years and made it much more potent. In Germany, in the late 1800s, amphetamine was developed, and in 1919, Japan created methamphetamine, which was easier to produce than amphetamine. The drug was widely used in combat during World War II to promote wakefulness. After World War II, there was an epidemic of methamphetamine abuse in Japan, according to the Foundation for a Drug-Free World.


title: Methamphetamine

text: When methamphetamine is snorted, the crystals are ground up and made into little lines (also called rails). Then they are inhaled through the nose with rolled-up paper, rolled-up dollar bills, empty plastic pen tubes, short plastic straws, or other things that can be made into a small "tube" shape.


title: Methamphetamine

text: When methamphetamine is snorted, its effects last longer than when it is smoked or injected. The effects can last as long as twelve hours. However, it takes longer to feel the effects, and there is not as strong of a "rush" (a very happy feeling called euphoria).


title: Methamphetamine

text: Snorting methamphetamine can damage the nasal septum on the inside of the nose. Also, if people share the same snorting tube, they can get infections.


title: Methamphetamine

text: When methamphetamine is smoked, the crystals are placed into a glass pipe (called a "meth pipe") or a hollowed-out lightbulb. The crystals are warmed up from underneath by a flame (like from a lighter or matches). The methamphetamine is not actually "smoked" this way; it is heated up until it melts. When it melts, it turns into a gas that the user then breathes in.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Smoking methamphetamine causes euphoria to happen very quickly in the person using it, and causes strong euphoria. However, the vapor (gas) can damage the lungs.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine can be mixed with water, then put into a needle and injected. Methamphetamine can be injected under the skin (this is called "skin-popping"); into a muscle (intramuscular injection); or into a vein (intravenous inection). Injecting methamphetamine into a vein causes the quickest, strongest euphoria.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Injecting methamphetamine can damage the body in many ways. It is very addictive. People can get infections (including HIV, hepatitis C, and many others) from dirty needles. People sharing a needle can also cause diseases in their blood.


title: Methamphetamine

text: If methamphetamine is eaten, it gets absorbed into the body from the digestive system. Although the effects take longer to be felt when compared to other routes of administration (between fifteen and forty five minutes), they tend to outlast the highs achieved through smoking, injecting, and snorting. The onset is comparatively gentler, but can cause gastrointestinal problems for the user and is not considered one hundred percent safe. The body naturally filters out some toxins when methamphetamine is ingested orally, but due to the potency of the drug, addiction is still a strong risk factor.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Adverse effects are the bad things that using methamphetamine can cause. Methamphetamine has many adverse effects. For example:


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine is very addictive. This means that when people start taking the drug, they will want to keep taking more, even if it is making them sick or depressed.


title: Methamphetamine

text: One of the reasons methamphetamine users who quit the drug go back to using it is the craving to use more because of how good it feels. The euphoria is so strong that many users claim to have an uncontrollable urge to get more of the drug after using it. Cravings to use more methamphetamine can make the user obsessed with getting more and getting the same high.


title: Methamphetamine

text: When people are addicted to methamphetamine, they can also have withdrawal symptoms when they do not take the drug after the high goes away. Withdrawal symptoms can include a wide range of feelings of emotional pain or suffering. Without methamphetamine, addicts can feel anhedonia. This means they cannot feel good without using the drug.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Methamphetamine can make a user psychologically dependent. This means that without using the drug, someone who is dependent experiences withdrawal symptoms. These include depression, anxiety, paranoia, not being able to sleep and other symptoms involving what's going on in the user's head. These symptoms are more intense in methamphetamine users than other drug users.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Physical dependence is when a user experiences withdrawal symptoms like, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cold sweats, muscle and joint pain and other symptoms involving negative things happening to the user's body. Some who are physically dependent report pain all throughout their body and not going away for days or weeks. Physical dependence is more common among people who use opioids (strong, addictive pain relievers that can cause euphoria in non-medical situations) like morphine, heroin, oxycodone, hydrocodone and fentanyl. Physical dependence doesn't happen in users of stimulant drugs like methamphetamine.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Overdosing (commonly called "OD'ing") on methamphetamine (taking too much) can make a person very sick. Some of the symptoms of methamphetamine overdose are very dangerous, and can even kill a person. Methamphetamine overdoses resulting in the user dying are very rare, but in once instance in Thailand, a dose of 200mg in 2 people's systems was enough to kill them. Overdosing on the drug can cause:


title: Methamphetamine

text: "Meth Mouth" is a term used to describe destroyed or decayed teeth in people that use methamphetamine. Meth mouth can happen very quickly. A new addict can go from having healthy teeth to losing all of their teeth in as little as one year. The decay (rotting teeth) is not caused by methamphetamine itself, but by users not brushing their teeth, having a lot of sugary drinks, and having dry mouth.


title: Methamphetamine

text: Taking methamphetamine for a too long can cause Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. In fact, a teenager taking methamphetamine can show symptoms similar to Alzheimer's.


title: Methamphetamine

text: People who take methamphetamine over a long period of time time often have serious psychological problems, such as:


title: Copper

text: Copper is a chemical element. It is the 29th element in the periodic table. Its atomic weight is 63.55. It is a transition metal in the middle of the periodic table. The symbol for copper is "Cu", which comes from the Latin word "cuprum", which, in turn, came from the Latin word for the island of Cyprus, where copper was found.


title: Copper

text: Copper is a reddish-orange color when it is pure, but soon gets a reddish tarnish after it is exposed to air.


title: Copper

text: Copper is one of the few coloured metals. Most metals are gray or silver. Gold, copper, caesium and osmium are the only four coloured metals. Copper is green as copper(II) carbonate and copper(II) hydroxide. It turns green because it oxidises. After a time in the air, copper forms green copper carbonate at the surface, called verdigris. That is why the copper roof of a building looks green.


title: Copper

text: Copper is very flexible and ductile. It can be stretched into wires easily. Copper is also very soft, it has a Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 3. That means that it is harder than a fingernail but softer than a steel pocketknife.


title: Copper

text: It reacts with solutions of hydrochloric acid or ammonia containing oxygen. It can also dissolve in a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid. This makes copper(II) chloride. It does not dissolve in weak acids. It can dissolve in nitric acid to make copper(II) nitrate and nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide.


title: Copper

text: Copper forms chemical compounds. In these compounds, it has two normal oxidation states: +1 and +2. +2 is more common. Most +2 copper compounds are blue. +1 copper compounds can be white. Copper compounds are weak oxidizing agents. They corrode many metals. This corrosion takes the metal and puts it in the chemical compound, leaving the copper behind. An example would be iron and copper(II) sulfate reacting to make copper and iron(II) sulfate. +1 copper compounds are reducing agents when in air. They are normally made by reduction of +2 compounds.


title: Copper

text: Copper(I) compounds have copper in +1 oxidation state. They are weak reducing agents. They react with air to make copper(II) compounds. They also disproportionate to copper and copper(II) compounds. Most of them do not dissolve in water.


title: Copper

text: Copper(II) compounds have copper in +2 oxidation state. They are weak oxidizing agents. They are greenish when hydrous (water molecules added). They are more stable in air than copper(I) compounds.


title: Copper

text: Copper can be found as a metal in the ground. Normally, it is green on the outside. Most copper is not as a metal but in chemical compounds. Chalcopyrite is the most common copper ore. It is a mixture of pyrite and copper sulfide. Copper is found in small amounts in living things. Some mollusks and arthropods have blue blood because they have copper in their blood. Animals such as humans and other mammals have red blood because it contains iron.


title: Copper

text: Copper can be used in many ways but one example is wires. Copper is used in making wires as it is easy to stretch and it is not expensive. So that’s why large wire companies will use copper as it is cheaper and takes less time to get


title: Copper

text: Copper may be the oldest metal in use, as very old copper tools have been found. Copper is used in electrical wiring. It can also be shaped into various parts. It can be used in a heat sink. The Statue of Liberty is made of copper. It is also used in pipes carrying water, because it does not corrode.


title: Copper

text: When people mix copper with tin, bronze is made. Bronze is much harder, and created the Bronze Age. It became less important when people learned to use iron better. When zinc is mixed with copper, brass is made, which is even harder than bronze. Copper with nickel makes cupronickel.


title: Copper

text: Copper is also used in medical and food production industries. Copper can alter proteins, form radicals, and disrupt enzymes, thereby inactivating or killing bacteria and viruses.


title: Copper

text: Copper is an easily molded base metal that is often added to precious metals to improve their elasticity, flexibility, hardness, color, and resistance to corrosion.


title: Copper

text: Copper is important in the human body. If a person does not get enough copper, the molecules in the body might not work. Having too much copper, though, can be a problem. Humans get most of the copper they need from food, and vitamins also contain copper to make sure we get enough. Copper compounds are also used to kill fungi and algae.


title: Copper

text: Copper is not as toxic as a metal. Copper compounds are toxic, although small amounts are needed to live. Copper is expelled from the body easily, so it does not build up in toxic effects.


title: Copper

text: Copper is sometimes just taken out of the ground and shaped into objects. But most copper is not in a metal form in the ground. Chalcopyrite is the main copper ore. It is heated with air to separate the iron as iron(II) oxide. Some copper(I) oxide is made. Sulfur dioxide is also made. Then silicon dioxide is added, which reacts with the iron(II) oxide to make a liquid which is drained. Now only copper and sulfide are left. The copper sulfide reacts with air to make copper metal and sulfur dioxide. Some copper sulfide reacts with the copper(I) oxide to make copper and sulfur dioxide. This makes impure copper.


title: Copper

text: Copper is made pure by electrolyzing it. A thin sheet of pure copper is put on the cathode and a thick sheet of impure copper is put on the anode. The electrolyte is copper sulfate. The impure copper gets dissolved in the solution. It then coats the thin sheet of pure copper. This makes the copper pure.


title: Copper

text: Large amounts of copper are recycled because of its high value and the increasing depletion of worldwide copper reserves.


title: Wicca

text: Wicca is a neo-pagan (meaning "new pagan") religion that was created by a British man named Gerald Gardner in the mid-to-late 1940s. Gardner popularized the new religion through books of his that were printed in 1949, 1954, and 1959. Those three books are "High Magic's Aid", "Witchcraft Today", and "The Meaning of Witchcraft". Gardner called Wicca the "witch cult" and "witchcraft", and called its followers the "Wica" (or "Wicca"). In his 1959 book he also called them the "Wicca" (with two 'c's), which is where that word came from. The word "wicca" means "witch" in Old English. People who follow Wicca are called "Wiccans". Before the name "Wicca" was adopted, the religion was sometimes called simply "the craft".


title: Wicca

text: Wicca is now used as an umbrella term for many different paths that have branched off from Gardner's original practices.


title: Wicca

text: Some time from 1945 to 1949, Gerald Gardner changed, and added content to, the rituals of an earlier group, called the New Forest Coven. In so doing, Gerald Gardner created Wicca. The many elements from the grimoire (old hand-written book) called the "Key of Solomon" are present in Wicca. Those are also in Gardner's 1949 book, "High Magic's Aid", and were most likely added by Gardner himself, rather than by the New Forest Coven that came before him.


title: Wicca

text: The New Forest Coven was created in the city of Christchurch, England (on the southern coast of England), some time in the 1930s. It was created by a group of low-ranking rosicrucians who belonged to the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship. Members of that group read the books about witches by Margaret Murray and Charles Leland, which gave them the idea to create a witch coven.


title: Wicca

text: Some time after Gerald Gardner joined the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship in Christchurch, he was drawn to the group of low-ranking rosicrucians. They initiated him into the New Forest Coven in September 1939, shortly after Gardner had lost all faith in the rosicrucian order's leadership on September 3rd.


title: Wicca

text: There are many different traditions of Wicca, yet many are common beliefs that are shared by all Wiccans, such as the afterlife, magic, and morality.


title: Wicca

text: Most Wiccans believe in a horned male god and a moon goddess. The only wiccans who do not believe in both the goddess and the god are those who belong to the unorthodox sect called Dianic Wicca; such wiccans believe in the existence of only the goddess. Some wiccans believe that the god and the goddess are equal. However, some other wiccans believe that the goddess is more important than the god.


title: Wicca

text: The main Wiccan moral teaching is called the "Wiccan Rede". The word rede means ""advice"" or ""council"" in Old German. ""An ye harm none, do what ye will"" is the very basic Wiccan Rede, which means, ""Do what you want to do, but do not harm anything in the process"." This is most likely based from Crowley's "Do what though wilt, shall be the whole of the law".This means that you must think about how your actions will affect other beings and yourself.


title: Wicca

text: There is a rule in Wiccan (branched from Pagan belief) that is called "the rule of threefold return" or "the threefold rule" or "the rule of three", or called equivalent names that use the word "law" instead of "rule". The rule of threefold return is a belief that what you do for good or bad will return to you 3 times the original intent. Therefore, you should only send out or work with good intentions to avoid three-times the bad return as Karma. The rule of threefold return is revealed to second-degree initiates (though they are usually already familiar with it) during the second-degree initiation ritual, in which the initiator scourges the initiate, and then the initiate returns three times the number of scourgings to the initiator. That second-degree initiation ritual, along with the threefold rule within it, were made public by Gerald Gardner's 1949 book "High Magic's Aid", in chapter 17.


title: Wicca

text: In 1986, a wiccan named Raymond Buckland, through his popular wiccan book "Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft", created a new definition for the rule of threefold return. In Buckland's definition, the rule of threefold return is not a rule of conduct, but a law of karma, which states that every beneficial action or harmful action that a person does returns to them three times as powerful. Buckland's definition of the threefold rule became more well-known than the original definition of the threefold rule.


title: Wicca

text: Many Wiccans have special places at home where they perform rituals, magic, and worship. These places are called "altars". Originally, there was only one altar that was used by the coven, when the coven was gathered. But as solitary wiccan practice became more popular, wiccans started to use personal altars.


title: Wicca

text: Some Wiccans put other objects on their altars, such as statues of gods or goddesses, a bell, candles, incense, and/or a besom (an old-fashioned broom that is made of all-natural materials). A besom is often used to "sweep" away negative energy or spirits.


title: Wicca

text: Those objects that are common on solitary altars are derived from the various objects that are used in the wiccan group rituals. Those ritual objects include a sword (also called a 'magic sword'), a black-handled knife (called an athame), a bowl containing water, a bowl containing salt, an asperger (an object that sprinkles water), candles, a bell, a white-handled knife (which is now usually called a 'bolline', due to being confused with a different object), a wand, a cup (also called a chalice), a pentacle, a censer (a container that burns incense), a scourge (a short whip with several whipping cords), and binding cords. Gerald Gardner, a founder of modern Wicca, started the practice of calling such objects by the misnomer 'tools' or 'working tools', because he was imitating Freemasonry, which used actual tools, such as a trowel.


title: Wicca

text: Wiccans have two types of holidays, called "sabbats" and "full moon esbats". There are eight sabbat holidays throughout the year. As the name suggests, full moon esbats take place during a full moon, so there are twelve or thirteen of them per year. Many post-Gardnerian wiccans use the neo-druidic term 'wheel of the year' to refer to the cycle of eight sabbats.


title: Wicca

text: In Wicca, a private book containing spells, rituals, potions, and occult knowledge, called a "Book of Shadows", is kept. In some types of Wicca, such as Gardnerian Wicca, the contents of the book are kept secret from anyone but other members of the group, or . However, some versions of the book have been published. Some parts of these published versions, such as the "Wiccan Rede" and the "Charge of the Goddess" have been used by non-Wiccans or Wiccans. Many eclectics create their own personal books, and keep them to themselves.


title: Wicca

text: Wicca music or Wicca rock is music influenced by the Wicca religion and its beliefs relating to nature and conservation.


title: Wicca

text: An early band called Themis toured Canada and the USA singing and talking about Wicca. The Themis body of works promotes things that are Wiccan, such as the divinity of nature; the Lord and Lady (dual deity aspect of Wicca) and an ethical credo (moral code) that resembles Wiccan philosophies.


title: Wicca

text: Another Canadian band, a group of vocalists from Vancouver Canada, the Chalice and Blade , also perform original pieces based on the beliefs of Wicca and "sing songs which show (their) reverence for the earth and the balance of the God and Goddess" -Chalice and Blade


title: Wicca

text: According to The Religion Newswriters Foundation "Wicca is moving into the mainstream" smashing stereotypes as their movement matures. Throughout America, Wiccans are organizing congregations and youth groups, training clergy, pursuing charity work, sharing parenting tips and fighting for civil rights


title: Eid al-Adha

text: Eid al-Adha ( "‘Īdu l-’Aḍḥā") "Festival " or "Greater Bairam" is a religious festival celebrated by Muslims all over the world. It is when Muslims sacrifice a goat, sheep, cow, camel, and bull sending part of the meat to poor people as a donation. It marks the end of the pilgrimage hajj for the millions of Muslims who make the trip to Mecca each year and pray 5 times a day. They like to tell Allah what they are thinking and hope for him to help them, and remember Ibrahim and Isma’il’s courage and devotion to God.


title: Eid al-Adha

text: The festival is to celebrate Ibrahim's (Abraham) willingness to sacrifice his son, Isma’il, because Allah told him to do so in a dream. Showing that he loved Allah more than his own son. And at the final moment, after taking his son's consent, as he was swinging his axe to kill his son God told an angel to switch a lamb instead of his son, and this act of sacrificing a lamb is copied by Muslims all over the world on Eid.


title: Eid al-Adha

text: Ibrahim was tempted by Satan not to listen to God, and Ibrahim drove Satan away by throwing pebbles at him. This is also still commemorated by Muslims during Hajj.


title: Eid al-Adha

text: The Eid prayer must be offered in congregation. It consists of two Rakaah (units) with seven Takbirs in the first Raka'ah and five Takbirs in the second Raka'ah.


title: Eid al-Adha

text: The sacrifice of an animal, usually a cow, sheep or a goat, is a very important part of Eid. The act repeats what Ibrahim did, and also shows Muslims' devotion to God (Allah).


title: Eid al-Adha

text: Muslims celebrate by having a feast, and giving gifts to the poor. In some Muslim traditions gifts are also given to children. In Muslim countries the day is given as a national holiday.


title: Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon

text: Antony Charles Robert Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon (7 March 1930 – 13 January 2017), commonly known as Lord Snowdon, was an English photographer and filmmaker. He was married to Princess Margaret, younger daughter of King George VI and younger sister of Queen Elizabeth II.


title: Kashmir

text: Kashmir (Hindi: कश्यपपुरा, , , ), previously spelled Cashmere, is a region in South-central Asia. Historically, the name Kashmir referred to the valley just to the south of the western end of the Himalayan mountain range. Today, Kashmir refers to a much larger area that includes the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (which includes the Kashmir Valley, Jammu region and Ladakh), Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan (part of Pakistan), and Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract (part of China). The main "Valley of Kashmir" is a low-fertile area surrounded by mountains and contains many rivers. People like it for its natural beauty and simple lifestyle. The region is part of a border dispute between India and Pakistan.


title: Kashmir

text: In total it has an area of 230,166.1 square kilometres or (89,106 square miles). The population of the region is more than the individual populations of 127 UN member nations and its area is larger than that of 97 nations.


title: Kashmir

text: The name of the land is thought to be derived from the process of desiccation - Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate". Hence, Kashmir stands for "a land desiccated from water". There is also a theory which takes Kashmir to be a contraction of Kashyap-mira or Kashyapmir or Kashyapmeru, the ""Sea or Mountain of Kashyapa"", the sage who is credited with having drained the waters of the primordial Lake Satisar, that Kashmir was before it was reclaimed. The Nilamata Purana gives the name Kashmira to the (Kashmir Valley includes the Wular Lake) Mira" which means the sea lake or the mountain of Sage Kashyapa. Mira in Sanskrit means Ocean or boundary, considering it to be an embodiment of Uma and it is the Kashmir that the world knows today. The Kashmiris, however, call it "Kashir", which has been derived phonetically from Kashmir.


title: Kashmir

text: The Ancient Greeks called it as "Kasperia". Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44); In classical literature Herodotus also called it "Kaspatyrol". Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria. Xuanzang, the Chinese monk who visited Kashmir in 631 AD called it "Kia-shi-mi-lo", the Tibetans called it Khachal, meaning "snowy mountain". It is and has been a land of rivers, lakes and wildflowers. "Cashmere" is an archaic spelling of present-Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way. A tribe of Semitic origin, named Kash (which means a deep slash in the native dialect), is believed to have founded the cities of Kashan and Kashgar, not to be confused with the Kashyapi tribe from Caspian. The land and the people were known as 'Kashir' from which 'Kashmir' was also derived from therein.


title: Kashmir

text: The Kashmir conflict has existed since India and Pakistan became independent states. At first, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, wanted his state to remain independent of both India and Pakistan. On 20 October 1947, tribesmen supported by Pakistan invaded Kashmir. Singh fought back at first, but on 27 October, he asked the Governor-General of India, Louis Mountbatten, for help. He agreed, but made Singh turn over Jammu and Kashmir to India. Once the papers of accession to India were signed, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation, but they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. Pakistan claimed that it was illegal for Singh to give Kashmir to India, and the First Kashmir War was started. India took the matter to the United Nations. The UN resolution asked Pakistan to vacate the areas it had occupied and asked India to assist the U.N. Plebiscite Commission to organize a plebiscite to determine the will of the people. Pakistan refused to vacate the occupied areas.


title: Kashmir

text: In 1953, as the US-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pact was being formed, Nehru declared an ultimatum. Pakistan would have to choose between a plebiscite with the possibility of winning control over Kashmir, or their pact with the US. As the alliance formed and was concluded in 1954, Nehru withdrew the offer of plebiscite. Kashmir remains an area of conflict until today.


title: Kashmir

text: India and Pakistan have fought several wars over Kashmir. In 1949 and 1972 they agreed on a border for most of the Territories (except for the Siachen Glacier). This demarcation line which marks the border between India and Pakistan is known as the Line of Control. It is guarded by Indian and Pakistani troops.


title: Kashmir

text: The border between Aksai Chin (held by China) and Jammu and Kashmir (held by India) is known as Line of Actual Control.


title: Kashmir

text: The Kashmir border between the Punjab (Pakistan) and Indian-administered Kashmir is called the working boundary, but is not recognised by Pakistan. India has built a fence along part of this border.


title: Kashmir

text: The Siachen Glacier and the bordering Saltoro Range first saw military action in 1984 when the Indian Army occupied the glacier and the Saltoro range to prevent Pakistan from occupying the area. This operation was codenamed Operation Meghdoot. There have been several minor changes to the held positions. However, the Indian Armed forces have held onto the heights on the plateau, preventing the Pakistani soldiers from climbing up the Saltoro range.


title: Kashmir

text: The Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) refers to the current position that divides Indian and Pakistani troops in the Siachen Glacier region. The line extends from the northernmost point of the LOC (Line of Control) to Indira Col. This line runs across the edge of the Saltoro Range, which is a mountainous plateau with peaks that are over 8,000 meters tall. The current position of the AGPL follows the general line:


title: Kashmir

text: A group of Districts forms a Division, which is administered by a 'Divisional Commissioner'. Kashmir is now divided in twenty-one districts, grouped under five divisions jointly controlled by Pakistan and India respectively:


title: Kashmir

text: Kashmir's economy is centred around Agriculture, like that of Pakistan. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was Rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like Asparagus, Artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar (National tree of Pakistan), firs and Pines, chenar (State tree) or plane, Maple, birch and Walnut, apple, cherry.


title: Kashmir

text: Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from Western China). Kashmiris are well adept at Knitting and making Pashmina Shawls, silk carpets, rugs, Kurtas, and Pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as Organic foods mainly to the Greater Middle East region which it forms an integral part. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, Papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk.


title: Kashmir

text: The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Pakistan earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled kashmir.


title: Kashmir

text: The Indian-held portion of Kashmir is believed to have potentially rich rocks containing hydrocarbon reserves.


title: Kashmir

text: The economy of the region is focused on agriculture. People grow rice there. In the Indian part they also grow corn, such as wheat and barley. Its climate is different from that of most of the Indian subcontinent: It is milder. Therefore, crops like artichoke, cauliflower, cabbage and certain kinds of beans are also grown.


title: Kashmir

text: Cashmere wool is well-known almost anywhere in the world. Cashmere wool is wool from Cashmere goats. Because of conflicts over the territory, however, most Cashmere wool no longer comes from Kashmir.


title: Kashmir

text: Tourism has been important in Kashmir for many years. Many people call the region "Paradise on Earth". Tourists from all over the world visit Kashmir. In the 21st century, fewer people have visited Kashmir because of terrorism. Kashmir is regularly referred to as "Jannat-e-Kashmir" due to its connotation with paradise. The term "Jannat-e-Kashmir" is originally a Persian phrase referring to Kashmir because of the many Persian Sufi saints who visited the Kashmir Valley and wrote poems about it in Persian language. Many Sufi saints are buried in the Kashmir Valley and there are Sufi shrines everywhere in Kashmir.


title: Kashmir

text: 78% of the people in Kashmir are Muslim and Islam is the majority religion of the territory. The other religions are Hinduism followed by 12% of the population and Sikhism followed by 10% of the population in Kashmir. During the reign of the Shah Miri dynasty of Kashmir starting in the 13th century, Islam was firmly established in Kashmir.


title: Liberty Bell

text: The Liberty Bell is an important and famous symbol of American independence (freedom). It used to be in the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall). The bell was ordered from the London firm of Lester and Pack (which is known as the Whitechapel Bell Foundry today) in 1752. It had the letters "Proclaim LIBERTY throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." Those words are a part of Leviticus 25:10. The bell first cracked when it was first rung when it came to Philadelphia, and was made again twice by John Pass and John Stow, two workmen. When it was first made, the Liberty Bell was used to make lawmakers come to legislative meetings. It was also used to call people to public meetings.


title: Liberty Bell

text: Bells were rung when the Declaration of Independence was read on July 8, 1776. While there is no record that the Liberty Bell also was rung, most historians believe it was rung with the other bells. In the 1830s, the bell was used as a symbol by abolitionist societies, who called it the "Liberty Bell". The bell got its large, well-known crack in the early 19th century. One story claims it was cracked while ringing after the death of Chief Justice John Marshall in 1835.


title: Liberty Bell

text: The bell became widely famous after a short story in 1847 claimed that an old bell-ringer rang it on July 4, 1776, after hearing the Second Continental Congress's vote for independence. Actually, the bell could not have been rung on that Fourth of July, because no announcement of the Declaration was made that day. However, many people believed this story. Even some historians accepted it as a fact. From 1885, the City of Philadelphia, which owned the bell, allowed it to go to many different patriotic meetings. Many people came to see the bell, and it grew even more cracked. Pieces were broken off by souvenir hunters. The last such journey was in 1915. After that, the city refused any more requests of that kind.


title: Liberty Bell

text: Ever since the city began in 1682, Philadelphia had been using its city bell to make its people know about meetings or civil danger. The first bell hung from a tree behind the Pennsylvania State House, now known as Independence Hall. In 1751, a bell tower was built in the Pennsylvania State House, and the leaders there began looking for a bell which could be heard from far away (the city was growing larger quickly). Isaac Norris, speaker of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, ordered the colony's London agent, Robert Charles, to get a "good Bell of about two thousands pound weight".


title: Liberty Bell

text: We hope and rely (trust) on thy (your) care and assistance (help) in this affair and that thou (you) wilt (will) procure (get) and forward it by the first good opp as our workmen inform us it will be much less trouble to hang the Bell before their Scaffolds are struck from the Building where we intend (wish) to place it which will not be done 'till the end of next Summer or beginning of the Fall. Let the bell be cast by the best workmen & examined carefully before it is Shipped with the following words well shaped around it vizt.<br>


title: Liberty Bell

text: By Order of the Assembly of the Povince  of Pensylvania  for the State house in the City of Philada 1752<br>


title: Liberty Bell

text: So Charles paid Lester and Pack (today the Whitechapel Bell Foundry) £150 13s 8d, (the same amount of money as about $36,400 today) for the bell, including the cost of taking it to Philadelphia and its insurance. It arrived in Philadelphia in August 1752.


title: Liberty Bell

text: A big reason why the bell became famous was because of a writer named George Lippard. On January 2, 1847, his story "Fourth of July, 1776" appeared in "Saturday Review" magazine. The short story was about an old man on July 4, 1776. It described how he was sitting sadly by the bell, afraid that Congress would not be able to declare independence. Suddenly, a young boy comes to tell the old man to ring the bell. The story was widely reprinted. This made people think of the Liberty Bell and the Declaration of Independence as closely related.


title: Immigration

text: Immigration means people moving from their native regions into another country to live. People who immigrate are called immigrants. Some are illegal immigrants. Some immigrants are refugees and some ask for political asylum.


title: Immigration

text: If someone wants to immigrate to the United States, that person has to apply to become a legal citizen. If the person is accepted, they will receive a green card. A green card is a piece of evidence stating that the person is trying to legally stay within the country's borders. The person must keep the green card for at least five years in order to become a citizen of the United States of America. (USA-GOV pg. 1)


title: Immigration

text: "Immigrant" and "emigrant" both describe human migration. The same people are "emigrants" when they leave their own country or region, and "immigrants" when they arrive somewhere else.


title: Immigration

text: The phrases "many people emigrated from Europe in the 19th century to America" and "many people immigrated to America from Europe in the 19th century" have the same meaning.


title: Immigration

text: Immigration has always been difficult. When people immigrate, they leave behind their friends, families, and culture. They also have to sell what they have, like a house, farm, or anything else too big to bring. Immigrating is also difficult because of the strict Immigration laws and qualifications within each country. It is hard to become a legal citizen of a country. It takes time (about 5 years in the US) and a lot of patience to become legally apart of a country. (USA-GOV pg. 1)


title: Immigration

text: Learning different languages in order to feel comfortable in a country is also extremely difficult for some people They might not have the opportunity to go a to school and learn certain things. Not knowing or beginning to learn the language of a country the person immigrates to can be very uncomfortable at first. This is because communication is needed within our everyday lives, such as at work, in grocery stores, restaurants, and just everyday life. (Global Citizen, 2014, par. 3)


title: Immigration

text: Travelling can also be very expensive. Many immigrants have to use all their money to pay fees or plane tickets.


title: Immigration

text: Once immigrants arrive in the new countries, they can face many difficulties. They may have to get a job, find a house, and learn a new language. Immigrants can also be victims of racism.


title: Binaural beats

text: A binaural beat is an auditory illusion. It is perceived when two different pure-tone sine waves are presented to a listener, one tone to each ear.


title: Binaural beats

text: For example, if a 530 Hz pure tone is presented to a subject's right ear, while a 520 Hz pure tone is presented to the subject's left ear, the listener will perceive the illusion of a third tone. The third sound is called a binaural beat, and in this example would have a perceived pitch correlating to a frequency of 10 Hz, that being the difference between the 530 Hz and 520 Hz pure tones presented to each ear.


title: Binaural beats

text: They may help people with pain when they are in hospital. Some people use binaural beats to help them sleep, meditate or have out of body experiences. There are computer programs and smartphone programs that make binaural beats.


title: Binaural beats

text: Heinrich Wilhelm Dove (18031879) discovered binaural beats in 1839 and published his findings in the scientific journal "Repertorium der Physik". While research about them continued after that, the subject remained something of a scientific curiosity until 134 years later, with the publishing of Gerald Oster's article "Auditory beats in the brain" ("Scientific American", 1973). Oster's article identified and assembled the scattered pieces of relevant research since Dove, offering fresh insight (and new laboratory findings) to research on binaural beats.


title: Binaural beats

text: Oster saw binaural beats as a powerful tool for cognitive and neurological research. Unsolved questions include how animals locate sounds in their environment: the remarkable ability of animals to pick out and focus on specific sounds in a sea of noise (known as the ).


title: Kilometres per hour

text: Kilometres per hour is a unit of measurement, which measures speed or velocity. The unit symbol is km/h or km·h. By definition, an object travelling at a speed of 1 km/h in a straight line for 1 hour moves 1 kilometre. The unit is the most commonly used unit of speed worldwide, more common than the SI unit of speed, metres per second.


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: In mathematics, a matrix (plural: matrices) is a rectangle of numbers, arranged in rows and columns. The rows are each left-to-right (horizontal) lines, and the columns go top-to-bottom (vertical). The top-left cell is at row 1, column 1 "(see diagram at right)".


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: Matrices are often represented by capital roman letters such as formula_1, formula_2 and formula_3, and there are rules for adding, subtracting and "multiplying" matrices together, but the rules are different than for numbers. As an example, the product formula_4 does not always give the same result as formula_5, which is the case for the multiplication of ordinary numbers. A matrix can have more than 2 dimensions, such as a 3D matrix. Also, a matrix can be one-dimensional, as a single row or a single column.


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: Many natural sciences use matrices quite a lot. In many universities, courses about matrices (usually called linear algebra) are taught very early, sometimes even in the first year of studies. Matrices are also very common in computer science, engineering, physics, economics, and statistics.


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: The horizontal lines in a matrix are called rows and the vertical lines are called columns. A matrix with "m" rows and "n" columns is called an "m"-by-"n" matrix (or "m"×"n" matrix) and "m" and "n" are called its dimensions.


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: The places in the matrix where the numbers are, are called "entries". The entry of a matrix "A" that lies in the row number "i" and column number "j" is called the "i,j" entry of "A". This is written as "A"["i,j"] or "a".


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: We write formula_6 to define an "m" × "n" matrix "A", with each entry in the matrix called "a" for all 1 ≤ "i" ≤ "m" and 1 ≤ "j" ≤ "n".


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: The sum of two matrices is the matrix, which ("i","j")-th entry is equal to the sum of the ("i","j")-th entries of two matrices:


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: The two matrices have the same dimensions. Here, formula_9 is true (and is true in general for matrices of equal dimensions).


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: Every square dimension set of a matrix has a special counterpart called the "identity matrix", represented by the symbol formula_15. The identity matrix has nothing but zeroes except on the main diagonal, where there are all ones. For example:


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: is an identity matrix. There is exactly one identity matrix for each square dimension set. An identity matrix is special because when multiplying any matrix by the identity matrix, the result is always the original matrix with no change.


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: An inverse matrix is a matrix that, when multiplied by another matrix, equals the identity matrix. For example:


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: The determinant takes a square matrix and calculates a simple number, a scalar. To understand what this number means, take each column of the matrix and draw it as a vector. The parallelogram drawn by those vectors has an area, which is the determinant. For all 2x2 matrices, the formula is very simple:


title: Matrix (mathematics)

text: There are no simple formulas for the determinants of larger matrices, and many computer programmers study how to get computers to quickly find large determinants.


title: Vienna

text: Vienna (; ; Central Austro-Bavarian: "Wean" ; Viennese German and Austrian German: "Wian" ) is the capital and largest city of Austria.


title: Vienna

text: It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is an administrative district ("Bundesland") of its own.


title: Vienna

text: Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Vienna

text: The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona. The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle "ad weniam" is mentioned.


title: Vienna

text: In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights. It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).


title: Vienna

text: In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Vienna

text: During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.


title: Vienna

text: In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.


title: Vienna

text: During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.


title: Vienna

text: At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.


title: Vienna

text: After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.


title: Vienna

text: Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)


title: Vienna

text: After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).


title: Vienna

text: After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.


title: Vienna

text: There are many old buildings, churches and museums in the city centre. Classical music and opera are popular in Vienna. The composers Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Brahms all worked in Vienna. Vivaldi also died in Vienna. The city has two world-famous orchestras: the Vienna Philharmonic and the Vienna Symphony.


title: Furry

text: A furry is a person who is interested in or creates fictional animal characters who have human traits. This group of people make up the furry fandom. Furry characters (called "fursonas," especially when referring to someone's personal furry characters) can walk on two legs or talk. Another word for a "furry character" is an "anthropomorphic character," which means a character which has some human features.


title: Furry

text: Many different stories have furry characters. Fairy tales and mythology often have animal characters who talk or do other human things. Books, comics, children's books, video games, and toys can have furry characters too. Some of the most popular cartoon characters are furries: Bugs Bunny, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Disney's Robin Hood, and Scooby-Doo.


title: Furry

text: Sometimes, people draw porn of furry characters to fit their sexual interests. Quite a few people believe this represents a large part of the furry fandom, and it gains significant news attention.


title: Furry

text: To be a furry character, an animal needs to look or act like a human in some way. Here are some of the ways:


title: Furry

text: It's also important to say here that there's also "feral" sections of the fandom. They focus more on the animal aspects of the character, and most feral furry characters don't talk or do many human activities.


title: Furry

text: Not all of these features have to be on a furry character for it to be a furry character. Some furry characters can be thought of as "fursonas" without walking on their hind legs or having jobs.


title: Furry

text: A character does not need to have fur to be a furry. A lizard or bird character that has these features could also be a furry, although they may also be called a "scalie" or an "avian".


title: Furry

text: Humans are good at reading human body language, but less good at reading animal body language. Art showing animals smiling or frowning like humans makes it easier for humans to know how the character is feeling.


title: Furry

text: Because humans have been around animals for a long time, humans expect certain animals to act certain ways. Art that gives humans animal traits tells people what to expect from those characters. For example, many cultures see foxes as clever, so many people will assume a fox furry character is clever.


title: Furry

text: For thousands of years, people have told stories and made art with furry characters. Egyptian mythology has many gods who are part animal and part human. Roman mythology has a story about a minotaur, which is part bull and part human. The werewolf of European mythology is part wolf and part human.


title: Furry

text: In the modern day, people from all around the world make up the furry fandom. Many of them meet and talk to each other the Internet, but they also meet in real life. Furry websites like FurAffinity and DeviantArt let people share pictures, stories, music, games, and animations that have furry characters.


title: Furry

text: Fans of furry characters sometimes make up a furry character to represent themselves. This is called a "fursona." Often, but not always, the fursona's species is that person's favorite animal. These people sometimes talk to each other while pretending to be their fursonas. This is called a "role-play," because each person is playing a role, like in a television show or stage play. Role-playing isn't exclusive to furries, but it is a big part of the community. These role-plays usually happen over instant messaging or forums, but sometimes happen in real life.


title: Furry

text: People who like furry art sometimes meet to talk about their favorite characters, buy books or art, and show off their costumes. These meetings may also have music, dancing, and parties. Conventions are usually held in large hotels, so there is enough room for hundreds or even thousands of people.


title: Furry

text: The largest furry conventions are Anthrocon, Midwest FurFest, Further Confusion, RainFurrest, Furry Weekend Atlanta, and Eurofurence. Many others happen all around the world each year. Furry conventions are similar to science fiction conventions.


title: Furry

text: Some people who like furry characters wear toy ears and tails for fun. Others dress up in "fursuits," which are costumes that look like furry characters. Fake fur is used to make these costumes, so they can be many different colors. Some fursuits look very much like real animals; other fursuits look like cartoon characters or legendary creatures.


title: Furry

text: A person who wears a fursuit is called a fursuiter. Fursuits may cover the person's whole body, or just part of it. A fursuit that covers the whole body is called a "full suit." A suit that covers only part of the body (usually the head, arms, and feet, plus a tail) is called a "partial suit" or "partial." With a partial suit, the rest of the body is covered by clothes to hide the person inside.


title: Furry

text: Fursuits are almost always one-of-a-kind. This is because they are often based a specific fursona and usually made one at a time. Some are made by the person who will wear them, others are made by artists who make them for money.


title: Furry

text: People usually wear fursuits for fun. Sometimes people feel less shy in a fursuit because no one can see who they are. This can make them feel more comfortable dancing, playing, hugging, meeting people, or being silly. People may also wear fursuits to be a mascot for a charity or event, usually one related to animals.


title: Furry

text: Inside a fursuit, it can be difficult to see and hear. Fursuiters often have a friend help them cross traffic or use stairs. In hot weather, fursuiters must be careful not to overheat.


title: Furry

text: Like many groups, the furry fandom has its own slang. "Murr" is a word used to show you like something or find it attractive sexually. "Scritching" is gentle scratching; in the furry fandom, this is a way to show you like someone, like hugging. "Yiff" is a slang word for sex. A "fursuit" is a costume that looks like a furry character. A "fursona" is a furry character someone makes up for himself or herself, although sometimes the word is used to describe furry characters (or "furs") in general. "Anthro" is short for anthropomorphic (human-like) and can mean either a furry character (example: "an anthro bear") or the genre (example: "anthro art"). The word “snoot” is slang for snout. Furries often "boop" snoots; this means gently pushing or tapping a fursuiter's nose, usually done as part of roleplay, as a greeting, or for fun. The word "beans/bean" is ether referring to a person or paw pads.


title: Furry

text: Some people in the furry fandom find that attraction to furry characters or people in fursuits is an important part of their sexuality, and some do not. In one survey 37% of furries questioned answered that it was important to their sexuality, while 24% said that it was not. Other surveys say that only a small minority of people in furry fandom say that they are sexually attracted to animals. all though some say this there called "murrsuiters" and is only a very small percentage of the "furry fandom" people still think that very small percent is most of the community.


title: Rajaraja Chola I

text: Raja Raja Chola I was a renowned tamil king who ruled over the Chola dynasty of southern India between 985 and 1014 CE. During his reign, the Cholas expanded beyond South India with their domains stretching from Sri Lanka in the south to Kalinga in the north. Raja Raja Chola also launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of the Malabar Coast as well as the Maldives and Sri Lanka. Raja Raja Chola died in 1014 and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I.


title: Whigs

text: The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Tories. The British prime minister was usually from one of the two parties.


title: Whigs

text: The Whigs played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715. They held it until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in.


title: Whigs

text: When they held power, the Whigs purged (got rid of) the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession and local officials.


title: Markiplier

text: Mark Edward Fischbach (born June 28, 1989), known by his YouTube username Markiplier, is an American internet personality, video game commentator and charity fundraiser.


title: Markiplier

text: Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Fischbach began his career in Cincinnati, Ohio. His father was of German descent, while his mother is Korean. He studied Civil Engineering at the University of Cincinnati, later changing his degree to Biomedical Engineering. He later left college and started his YouTube career.


title: Markiplier

text: , his channel has over 9 billion total video views and 22 million subscribers, and is currently the 36th most-subscribed channel on YouTube.


title: Markiplier

text: In 2017, Fischbach began his first improv tour, known as the "You're Welcome Tour", which spanned from North America to Europe and Australia.


title: Markiplier

text: Fischbach has done multiple charity streams and fundraisers with other YouTubers. "Forbes" reported in 2017 that Fischbach and his fans had helped raise roughly $3 million for charity in past fundraising streams. In April 2018, he raised $1,506,793.81 in charities.


title: Markiplier

text: On November 15, 2019, Fischbach created a new channel with YouTuber Ethan Nestor (known online as CrankGameplays) called Unus Annus, a channel which planned to upload a video every day for one year, after which the channel would be deleted along with its videos. The channel had 1 million subscribers in its first 5 days and 4.56 million in its last few minutes. The channel was deleted on November 14, 2020. The channel was meant to remind viewers about life and death and how quickly both can come and go.


title: Markiplier

text: Fischbach, along with Wade Barnes (LordMinion777) and Bob Muyskens (Muyskerm) has streamed a podcast on Twitch called "3 Peens in a Podcast" since 2018.


title: Markiplier

text: In May 2021, Fischbach announced that he, Barnes, and Muyskens would be starting a podcast called "Distractible".


title: Dress code

text: A dress code is a rule about what people should, must or mustn't wear. Many times these rules are obvious: they do not need to be written. For example, when walking around a city or going to work one needs to have appropriate clothes. These can change depending on different countries and cultures. At other times a dress code can be a written rule: this can happen for important events. Some private places might also have a dress code that people need to follow to be allowed in - for example churches and nightclubs. Many organizations require a uniform.


title: Dress code

text: The way a person chooses their clothes can be very important in a social environment. Different types of clothes can give an idea of how much money a person has, what religion he follows, marital status, etc.


title: Dress code

text: In the Western world, there are the following dress codes for important events. These can include, for example, State dinners (when important people of different countries meet over dinner), weddings or the Nobel Prize ceremony.


title: Square kilometre

text: A square kilometer (sometimes written "km²") is based on the SI unit of measurement of area, the "square meter". It is the area inside a square that has each side equal to 1 kilometer (1000 meters). This way of talking about area is often used to say how much land there is, on a farm or in a city, for example.


title: Lutheranism

text: The Lutherans are named for Martin Luther, their leader in the protest against the Roman Catholic Church. He began this protest against the Catholic Church in the 16th century. Luther was a German priest, theologian, and university professor in Wittenberg. He worked to improve the theology and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, primarily indulgences and abuses of power by the Bishop of Rome. This overall movement is known as the Protestant Reformation.


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutheranism started when Martin Luther and his followers were excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther’s ideas helped begin the Protestant Reformation. Other reformation leaders who separated from the Roman Catholic Church agreed with Luther on some things, but criticized him for not separating himself far enough from Roman Catholic doctrine (see John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli).


title: Lutheranism

text: Lutherans believe the Bible is the first and only authoritative source for Christian faith and teaching. Like other Christians, they believe in the Trinity, that Jesus Christ was both God and man, that all humans are sinful since Adam and Eve (see original sin), and that humans are saved by Jesus' death on the cross. Lutherans believe that the central idea to all of their beliefs is that humans are saved by grace alone through faith alone because of Jesus Christ alone (see Justification (theology)). The main points of Lutheran theology were summed up in 1530 by Philip Melanchthon in the writing called The Augsburg Confession.


title: Lutheranism

text: Similarities with the Roman Catholic faith include (but are not limited to) liturgy, doctrine of the real presence of the Eucharist, baptism, and Original Sin. Unlike Roman Catholicism, Lutheran pastors and bishops are allowed to marry, do not pray for intercession with the saints (including Mary), reject the authority (and infallibility) of the Pope or Magisterium, and more.


title: Lutheranism

text: Major American denominations include the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America (ELCA), the Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod (LCMS), and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS), and the North American Lutheran Conference (NALC).


title: Illegal drugs

text: Some drugs are allowed only if you have permission (called a "prescription") from a doctor. Other drugs are illegal, meaning a person is never allowed to have them.


title: Illegal drugs

text: If the police find a person with drugs they are not allowed to have, the person may be taken to court. Court cases may result in fines (when a person is required to pay money to the government), prison, or "in some" "countries" execution.


title: Illegal drugs

text: A country may want to stop drugs because of the negative effect on the people that use them, or because making the drug illegal will make the government more money.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Some people use drugs to make themselves more productive or to help themselves stay awake, in this case they would use a stimulant such as amphetamines or caffeine.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Some members of the Native American Church use Peyote (a type of cactus that contains the drug mescaline).


title: Illegal drugs

text: Drugs can have many effects on a person's health. Some drugs cause many people to die every year. Tobacco and alcohol can cause death, other drugs do not cause death. Cannabis and psilocybin mushrooms ("magic mushrooms") do not cause death. But all drugs affect one's health.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Someone using drugs may get "intoxicated". Intoxicated people may do dangerous things. They may be unable to safely drive or operate machinery.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Overdose occurs when someone uses too much of a drug. Overdosing is very dangerous. It can cause death. Some drugs are easy to overdose on (heroin, alcohol, and aspirin). Other drugs are difficult to overdose on (LSD, cannabis). Many drugs cause long-term (long-lasting) health effects. Smoking tobacco can cause cancer. Drinking alcohol damages the liver (cirrhosis).


title: Illegal drugs

text: Many drugs are used as medicine to help make sick people better. Opiates (morphine, heroin and codeine) are analgesics (painkillers). Nitrous oxide and ketamine are used as anesthetics (to force someone to sleep) for surgical operation. Amphetamines are legally prescribed to treat attention disorders in some countries, such as the United States.


title: Illegal drugs

text: An addiction is the repeated use of a drug. An addict (person with an addiction) uses the drug again and again. Addicts will continue to use the drug, even if the drug hurts them. Addiction causes cravings for the drug. A craving is an intense need for the drug's effects. Drug tolerance occurs when a person's body adapts to a drug. The body becomes more resistant to the drug and craves the drug all the time. If a dependent person stops taking the drug, they may become very sick or die. Medical help is often required to stop addiction.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Addiction and dependence can happen separately from each other. People can be addicted to things that are not drugs, like gambling or sex.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Some psychoactive drugs are known to be very addictive (causing addiction, like alcohol, heroin, tobacco, methamphetamine and cocaine) other drugs are known to be slightly less addictive (such as khat, cannabis and caffeine) or not addictive at all (such as LSD and Psilocybin mushrooms).


title: Illegal drugs

text: People with anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, schizophrenia, and major depression have a higher chance of getting addicted.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Different drugs are used in different ways. The same drug can be available in different forms, and each form is used a certain way.


title: Illegal drugs

text: For example, Crack cocaine (cocaine in solid form) is smoked or vaporized, but Powder cocaine (cocaine that looks like salt) is snorted.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Orally is the slowest method of using a drug because it must be digested in the stomach first. Injecting a drug (IV or IM) is the fastest method of using a drug. IV and IM drugs are most likely to cause an overdose. It is important to use clean needles to inject. Injecting with used or dirty needles spreads deadly infections (such as Hepatitis C or HIV).


title: Illegal drugs

text: Smoking anything can cause cancer. Smoking can also lead to emphysema (a disease of the lungs). Snorting a drug can lead to ear, nose, and throat conditions. Eating a drug can cause oral (mouth related) problems, like tooth decay.


title: Illegal drugs

text: There are many categories (types) of psychoactive drugs (drug that affects the brain). These categories have subcategories (categories inside categories). For example, benzodiazepines and opiates are both subcategories of depressants. Some drugs, such as ketamine have elements of two categories (hallucinogens and depressants). Every drug is different, so it is important to know the effects of each individual drug.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Hallucinogens change the way people see, hear, feel or think. The three main groups of hallucinogens are: psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants. Each group has different effects. They may cause hallucinations. Hallucinations are a feeling, sound, or sight that does not exist. When one hallucinates, they feel, hear, or see something that is not truly there.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Stimulants speed up the central nervous system. People using stimulants may feel happy and excited. Also, they have more energy, concentration, or motivation. Stimulants may cause difficulty sleeping.


title: Illegal drugs

text: Depressants slow down the central nervous system. People using depressants feel happy and content, and sleepy and relaxed. Depressants slow down bodily functions such as breathing and heart rate. They may also make speaking or moving difficult. The difficulty speaking is "slurred speech".


title: Illegal drugs

text: Antipsychotics are used to balance one's moods or stop hallucinations. Many anti-psychotics are legal prescription drugs. One can have them if they have a prescription (doctor's permission). Anti-depressants help depression. Some anti-depressants are also anti-psychotics.


title: AIDS

text: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease caused by a virus called HIV.


title: AIDS

text: As of 2018, it is estimated that there are 39.7 million people worldwide infected with HIV. The HIV pandemic is most severe in Sub-Saharan Africa. Over 60% of all people with HIV live in the region.


title: AIDS

text: Many people with HIV do not know they have it. Because of this, the exact number of people with HIV is unknown.


title: AIDS

text: Scientists believe the first human who got HIV was a person in Africa in the early 1900s. It infected only a small amount of people (disease not recognised), until it then turned into an epidemic reported to have started in New York (USA) in 1981. It then very quickly started spreading to other countries. This happened when Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) went from apes or chimpanzees to humans. This virus probably crossed to humans when a hunter came into contact with monkey blood while cutting up monkeys to eat. Research in October 2014 shows that the virus started in Kinshasa during the 1920s. It was quickly spread by unprotected sex, dirty needles used by intravenous drug users, and it then made its way into the medical blood supply . Some people described the spread of the disease as a "sexidemic" (widespread).


title: AIDS

text: Not everyone who has HIV has AIDS. When people first get HIV, they can be healthy for years. A person is diagnosed as having AIDS when he or she gets specific types of illnesses or gets sick in certain ways due to their HIV. Once a person's HIV progresses to (or turns into) AIDS, the person will continue to have AIDS for the rest of their life. While there are many treatments for HIV/AIDS, at this point there is no cure.


title: AIDS

text: If a person gets an "AIDS-defining illness," this is usually a sign that the person has AIDS. Healthy people do not get these illnesses, because a healthy immune system is strong enough to fight off these diseases. Because of this, getting an AIDS-defining illness is a sign that a person's immune system is seriously damaged. In a person with HIV, getting an AIDS-defining illness signals that the HIV has damaged the immune system badly enough that the person now has AIDS.


title: AIDS

text: There are medicines that help people with AIDS. These are called "antiretroviral" medicines (or "antiretrovirals".) Anti- means against. HIV is a retrovirus. So "antiretroviral" means it fights retroviruses.


title: AIDS

text: Antiretrovirals cannot cure AIDS. This means they cannot make all of the virus leave a person's body. But they can make people with AIDS more healthy. Antiretrovirals help people fight the HIV virus. This makes their immune systems work better. So antiretrovirals are a "treatment" but not a "cure" for HIV.


title: AIDS

text: People with HIV/AIDS who take antiretroviral medicines live longer. They live longer without getting "AIDS defining illnesses". But after a long time, the HIV virus learns how to fight the antiretrovirals. The HIV virus is not killed by this medicine. HIV becomes "resistant" to the medicine. Then the "resistant" HIV hurts the immune system and the person may get AIDS.


title: AIDS

text: Sometimes when HIV is resistant to one medicine, another medicine can be used. To make less resistance happen, people with AIDS take more than one medicine at the same time. They may take 2–4 medicines at once. This is sometimes called a "cocktail" or "AIDS cocktail".


title: AIDS

text: When HIV gets resistant to one medicine, this is changed to another medicine. So the "AIDS cocktail" that people with AIDS take changes over time. But after a long time, the HIV learns to be resistant to "many" drugs. This is called "multi-drug-resistant" (acronym MDR) HIV. After the HIV in a person has MDR-HIV there may be no more medicines to treat them. So scientists keep trying to find new medicines to fight HIV.


title: AIDS

text: Many people who die of AIDS, especially in Africa, leave behind children who are still alive, and may need help. These children are called AIDS orphans.


title: AIDS

text: The most important way to stop HIV/AIDS is education. People can get HIV from the exchange of bodily fluids and from sharing needles. Children can also get HIV from their mothers (when they grow inside pregnant mothers and when they drink breast milk.)


title: AIDS

text: Sex is one way to get HIV. If people use condoms when they have sex, there is a much smaller chance of catching HIV.


title: AIDS

text: A person can also get HIV by "sharing needles". This means using a needle that has not been cleaned after someone else has used it. Some people who take illegal drugs like heroin and cocaine take these drugs by needle. Some of these people share needles. If one person has HIV and he shares his needles, he can give HIV to other people. But if people have clean needles or if they know how to clean needles, they do not get HIV as much.


title: AIDS

text: Many people do not know that condoms and clean needles help stop HIV. They may not even "know" that sharing needles and sex with someone who has HIV can make them get HIV. Even if people know about condoms and clean needles, they may not "have" condoms and clean needles.


title: AIDS

text: There are some people who do not want people to "know" about condoms or clean needles. They believe that if people know about condoms and have condoms they will have more sex. They believe that if people have clean needles they will use illegal drugs more. Many of these people think this because of their religion. For example, the Catholic church does not want people to have or use condoms. They do not want people to have condoms because they do not think people should have sex unless they are married. They also think that married people should not use condoms, because they believe that if people have sex, they should be prepared to accept a possible pregnancy.


title: AIDS

text: Scientists who study (look at and learn about) people who use condoms, see that if teenagers (children 13–19) learn about condoms (and other birth control) they have "less" unsafe sex. Scientists see that learning about these things does not make teenagers start having sex earlier. The teenagers also have "safer" sex. Safer sex means doing things (like wearing condoms) to try not to get pregnant or get sexually transmitted diseases (STDs or STIs) like HIV, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Using a condom works very well for keeping people from getting pregnant or getting STDs if people know how to use a condom the right way.


title: AIDS

text: Scientists have also learned that if a city has a needle exchange program it will have fewer people who use illegal drugs. "Needle exchange programs" are where people can come in and trade dirty needles for clean needles. This means that "if" they use drugs they will be more safe. But needle exchange programs do more than give people clean needles. They teach people about drugs. If people want to stop using drugs, they help them.


title: AIDS

text: The best way to stop HIV is thought to be a vaccine. There is no vaccine for HIV yet. Many scientists are looking for an HIV vaccine. Even one that protected some people from HIV would save millions of people's lives.


title: AIDS

text: Some people think that HIV is not the cause of AIDS. They dispute the connection between HIV and AIDS, the existence of HIV itself, or the validity of HIV testing and treatment methods. These claims, known as "AIDS denialism", are rejected by the scientific community. However, they have had a significant impact, particularly in South Africa. There the government's official embrace of AIDS denialism (1999–2005) was responsible for its weak response to that country's AIDS epidemic. It has been blamed for hundreds of thousands of avoidable deaths and HIV infections.


title: AIDS

text: Some conspiracy theories have been put about. Operation INFEKTION was a worldwide Soviet active measures operation to spread the claim that the United States had created HIV/AIDS. Surveys show that a significant number of people believed – and continue to believe – in such claims.


title: J. J. Thomson

text: Sir Joseph John "J.J." Thomson, OM, FRS (18 December 1856 – 30 August 1940) was a British physicist and Nobel laureate. He discovered the electron and isotopes, and invented the mass spectrometer. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906 for his discovery of the electron and his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. John Joseph Thomson in 1893 said: "There is no other branch of physics which affords us so promising an opportunity of penetrating the secret of electricity."


title: J. J. Thomson

text: In 1897, Thomson showed that cathode rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle of very small mass compared to its electric charge. It was later called the electron and was the first subatomic particle to be found. Thomson also found the first evidence for isotopes of a stable (non-radioactive) element in 1913, while studying anode rays (positive cations).


title: J. J. Thomson

text: In atomic theory he hypothesized that atoms were spheres of evenly spread positive charge, where an individual negatively charged electron resided. He later concluded there was more than one negatively charged particle in an atom.


title: J. J. Thomson

text: Many of the young men who studied and worked with him at University of Cambridge also became famous physicists.


title: Tyr

text: Tyr is a god in Norse mythology. In the Eddas, he is either the son of Odin or Hymir. He is the god of single (man-to-man) combat. Tyr only has one hand.


title: Tyr

text: At one point in time, the gods decided that the wolf Fenrir (also called "Fenriswolf") could no longer go free. They wanted to lock him up onto a chain. But he broke every chain they tried to put on him. Finally, they had the dwarves make a magical chain. But Fenrir sensed what the gods would do. So Fenrir asked that one of them put his hand into his mouth. Knowing that if Fenrir was left unfettered, he would have grown strong enough to kill all the God's and destroy the world. Tyr was the only one who had the courage. When Fenrir sensed he had been tricked, he bit off Tyr's hand. Tyr remained handless forever.


title: Nutrition

text: Nutrition provides the cells of an organism with food, in a form they can use. Organisms need food to be able to keep their bodies working properly. They also need food to be able to do certain things. Malnutrition can happen when a person does not eat the right amount of nutrients. They can get better by changing their diet to have the right amount of the various nutrients.


title: Nutrition

text: Different organisms have different food requirements, and they eat different things in order to meet those requirements. Animals that do not eat meat, for example, will have to get certain nutrients like protein from other foods.


title: Nutrition

text: A nutrition expert is called a dietician. Nutritionists are different because they do not need the government to recognize them as experts. Anyone can call themselves a nutritionist.


title: Nutrition

text: The six main types of nutrient are carbohydrates, fats, minerals, protein, vitamins, and water. A macronutrient is a nutrient that needs to be eaten a lot. A micronutrient, such as a vitamin, is needed in smaller amounts, but it is still important. Carbohydrates are not needed by the body but most people eat a lot of them. Complex carbohydrates are more nutritious than simple carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates are found in vegetables while simple carbohydrates are found in processed foods. They take longer to digest because they have more fiber. Because they stay in the stomach for longer they leave the person who has eaten them feeling fuller for longer. Protein is needed for building cells. It is found in milk, meat, fish, beans, eggs and other foods like quinoa. Protein is made of amino acids.


title: Nutrition

text: Fat is found naturally in some foods. People often eat it in processed foods such as cakes and chocolate. It is high in energy. Omega 3 and omega 6 fats are needed by the body. There are saturated fats and unsaturated fats. It is recommended that people avoid the saturated type. It has been linked with heart disease. Trans fats is also a fat people should avoid. A lot of people think that fat is bad in general, but it is still controversial. People are also advised not to eat too much sugar or salt.


title: Nutrition

text: Most people eat three meals a day. Eating every few hours keeps blood sugar stable. Some foods are good for us and some foods are bad.


title: Tajikistan

text: Tajikistan is a country in Central Asia. It was previously part of the Soviet Union. Tajikistan is a republic. The capital city is Dushanbe. The official language is Tajik,which is a dialect of Farsi (Persian).


title: Tajikistan

text: Tajikistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the CIS. Tajikistan is eighth in size of CIS countries.


title: Tajikistan

text: Tajikistan is one of the new countries in South-central Asia. It is west of China, north of Afghanistan and Pakistan, that is separated by a narrow 14 km strip of Tajik claimed land known as the Wakhan Corridor in the Pamirs, east of Uzbekistan and south of Kyrgyzstan.


title: Tajikistan

text: Its total area is only about . It is slightly smaller than Wisconsin, USA. Tajikistan’s borders total to long.


title: Tajikistan

text: Almost all of the country (85 percent) is mountainous with river valleys running across, however high altitude mountains of Pomir are in the eastern part of the country, (which is the west end of the Himalayas). The climate there is semiarid to polar. The mountains cover an area of about . There are other countries within the mountain range. The mountains are between high.


title: Tajikistan

text: Karakul lake is located within a meteorite crater, which would have formed about 25 million years ago, or less than 5 million years ago.


title: Tajikistan

text: The land that is now Tajikistan has been lived in since 4,000 BC. It has been under the rule of various empires throughout history, mostly the Persian Empires.


title: Tajikistan

text: On 9 September 1991, after long periods of mass protests against the Soviet Government, the Parliament of Tajikistan declared independence from Soviet Union, and held the first presidential elections.


title: Tajikistan

text: Rahmon Nabiev, who ran the country during Soviet Union in the late 1970s and early 1980s, become its president. He was unable to bring any much-needed reforms to the country, and so there were protests in the capital city, Dushanbe.


title: Tajikistan

text: The government responded by organizing a pro-government demonstration, mainly made of old Communist Party members and people from the southeast of the country brought to the city. Anti-government protests did not stop, so the government gave weapons to the pro-government demonstrator. Then the Opposition armed themselves.


title: Tajikistan

text: After this bloody civil war broke out. In which all of the new democratic parties, political organizations, and movements together with the political Islamic movements created an alliance, opposing the old communist government and southerners.


title: Tajikistan

text: "... The greatest obstacle to improving the economy is resistance to reform. From the President down to the policeman on the street, the government is characterized by cronyism and corruption. Emomali Rahmon and his family control the country's major businesses, including the largest bank, and they play hardball to protect their business interests, no matter the cost to the economy writ large... The government has limited opposition party operations and rejected electoral law reforms for the February 28, 2010, parliamentary elections. The Embassy does not expect the elections to be free and fair. There has been almost no coverage of opposition political parties by state media, and most of the population is unaware of the purpose of the elections..."


title: Braille

text: The Braille system is a way of writing things. It is named after Louis Braille, the French man who invented it. The system is used by blind people to read and write. The Braille system uses a set of raised bumps or dots that can be felt with a finger. Each set of dots is a character in an alphabet, and the numbers and some punctuation.


title: Braille

text: Louis Braille was not the first person to think about how to let the blind read and write. In the 17th century the Italian Jesuit Francesco Lana thought about different systems of writing for the blind. He invented a system of dashes that could be felt.


title: Braille

text: Valentin Haüy was one of the first French who was interested in the problems the blind had when they wanted to communicate. Haüy was born in Picardie in 1745, and studied languages at the university in Paris. First he studied deaf people who could not speak, then blind people. In his opinion the biggest problem of the blind was that they could not read. He then invented a system which allowed them to read and write sentences and to do mathematics. Later he started a school for blind children. His writing system used two columns which had between one and six positions each. Vowels had a dot in the left column, for example.


title: Braille

text: Charles Barbier used a similar system, because Napoleon wanted a code that soldiers could use to exchange messages silently and without light at night. Barbier called it night writing. Night writing uses two columns of six dots. It uses phonemes (separate sounds), not letters. Barbier's system was too hard for soldiers to learn, and the military did not use it. From the year 1821, he started to test his system in the school Haüy had founded. There it became very successful. Even though the system was difficult to learn, it did help the blind to read better than earlier systems. Barbier had understood that it was better to use a system that used dots over one that used lines.


title: Braille

text: Barbier met Braille when he visited the National Institute of the Blind. Braille saw the biggest problem of the code: The human finger cannot feel the whole symbol at one time. This makes it impossible to move rapidly from one symbol to the next. Braille's change was to use a 6 dot cell — the braille system — which completely changed how the blind would read and write.


title: Braille

text: Braille can be seen as the world's first binary way of character encoding. The system as originally invented by Braille has two parts


title: Braille

text: Braille is used with different languages today. In each language, the letters are "encoded" differently, depending on the alphabet. The list of codes is known as braille code, or code page. There are also different braille codes in use for special purposes, like writing shorthand, mathematics or music.


title: Braille

text: To make it possible to read faster, certain transcriptions of Braille use shortened words, or contractions. This is known as "Grade 2 Braille".


title: Braille

text: Braille uses cells of six raised dots, in two columns of three dots. The dot positions on the left are numbered one, to three, the ones on the right four to six, as shown in the picture.


title: Braille

text: Each symbol is coded with certain dots present, and others absent. The dots are approximately 0.02 inches (0.5 mm) high; inside the cell, the dots are about 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) apart. The space between the dots of two cells is about 0.15 inches (3.75 mm) horizontally and 0.2 inches (5 mm) vertically. A standard braille page is 11 inches by 11 inches and typically has between forty and forty-two braille cells per line and twenty-five lines.


title: Braille

text: As first made by Louis Braille, the first group of characters, using just the top 4 dots of the braille cell, represents letters "a" through "j" (this group of ten characters is called a "decade"). Dot 3 (bottom left) is added to each of the "a" through "j" symbols to give letters "k" through "t". Both of the bottom dots (dots 3 and 6) are added to the first decade to give letters "u", "v", "x", "y", and "z". The letter "w" is left out of this group because French did not use the letter "w" when Louis Braille made his alphabet. The fifth decade is the same as the first decade, but shifted down by a row (dots 1 and 4 are blank).


title: Braille

text: English braille has codes for the letters and some punctuation, and some double letter signs and word signs directly, but capitalization and numbers need a prefix symbol. In practice, braille produced in the United Kingdom does not use capital letters.


title: Braille

text: There are braille codes for representing shorthand (produced on a machine which embosses a paper tape) and for representing mathematics (Nemeth Braille) and musical notation (braille music).


title: Braille

text: Braille can be made using a "slate" and a "stylus" in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, by hand, or it may be produced on a special braille typewriter or "Perkins Brailler", or produced by a braille embosser attached to a computer. It may also be made using a refreshable braille display.


title: Braille

text: The six bit braille code is very limited, it only allows 64 different possible combinations. This means that many things need more than one braille character to be coded. One example for this is how numbers are coded in English braille: First there is a symbol that says the next symbol is a number, and then there is the symbol for the number. The symbol for "number" is usually given only once; every symbol that follows is treated as a number, until there is a space.