title: Indian independence movement

text: During the Second World War, the rulers of the British Raj declared India to be a party to the war. They did not discuss the matter with Indians and their leaders. The Indians and their leaders became divided over this matter. Some supported the British, while many did not. British rulers of India wanted the Indians to fight and die in the name of freedom, yet they had denied this freedom to India and the Indians for more than a hundred years. This created a lot of dissatisfaction among Indians, and two big movements for India's independence took shape. The first was the Indian National Army of Subhas Chandra Bose. The second was Quit India Movement of Mohandas Gandhi.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Subhas Chandra Bose and many leaders did not like the British decision to drag India into the Second World War. He had twice (in 1937 and 1939) become president of the Indian National Congress Party, the leading Indian political party of that time. However, he and many other leaders of the Indian National Congress Party differed on many matters. He resigned and formed a new party named All India Forward Bloc. The British government of India put him under house arrest, but he escaped in 1941. He reached Germany and secured the support of Germany and Japan to fight the British in India. In 1943, he traveled in submarines of Germany and Japan, and reached Japan. He organised the Indian National Army. The INA fought the troops of the British Raj in northeastern India. Despite many difficulties, INA recorded many victories. However, with the surrender of Japan in 1945, INA's operations stopped. Bose died in a plane crash, but circumstances of his death are not clear.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The British government of India put on trial three Indian National Army officers at the Red Fort in Delhi. The British had chosen for this trial one Hindu, one Sikh, and one Muslim of the INA. This made many Indians of all religions very angry. A naval mutiny also broke out in Bombay. Ultimately, the British ruled that these officers were guilty, but they set them free seeing the public anger. When India became independent, the government of India did not allow the former officers and soldiers of the INA to join the armed forces of the independent India. However, the government granted them very good pensions and other facilities. The Indian public also gave them much respect.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Many consider Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose a controversial figure due to his association with the Axis Powers. But, in India, people consider him a patriotic hero of the Indian independence movement.


title: Indian independence movement

text: On 8th August 1942, the leaders of the Indian National Congress Party met in Bombay (Mumbai). The leaders adopted a policy to force the British out of India. Gandhi's slogan "Do or Die" became a national slogan, and the movement became the Quit India Movement. At the beginning of the Second World War, the Indian National Congress Party had supported the British, but they had demanded freedom for India after the war. The British did not agree to this proposal. On 14th July 1942, the Indian National Congress Party passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British rule. However, this did not have support of some other political parties.


title: Indian independence movement

text: Gandhi had asked the people to keep the Quit India Movement as a peaceful movement. Many people started the movement in many places of India. But at some places, the movements turned violent. Gandhi refused to eat until the violence stopped. He was successful in ending the violence.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The British action was very quick. They arrested over 100,000 people. They levied fines on many people. They dropped bombs on the people who demonstrated against the British Raj. The troops of the British Raj even beat people with sticks and caned them. The British arrested all the leaders of the Congress Party. Gandhi's wife, Kasturba Gandhi, died during detention, as well as his secretary Mahadev Desai. Gandhi's health had also become very bad. In 1944, the British set him free fearing that Gandhi's death might result in a very large protest by Indians. Gandhi continued to oppose the British, and demanded that all other leaders be set free.


title: Indian independence movement

text: The Second World War had reduced the economic, political, and military strength of the British Empire. They were also aware that after the war Indians would begin a larger movement for independence. The mood of the British people and the British Army had also changed. After the Second World War, most of them were no longer willing to support the British ruling class in India. That position was now clear to the leaders of the United Kingdom. By early 1946, those leaders set free all the political prisoners held in India and opened independence discussions with the Indian National Congress Party. On the 14th of August 1947 Pakistan gained independence and a day later on the 15th of August India gained its independence as well.


title: Indian independence movement

text: On midnight of 15th August 1947, Britain handed India its formal political Independence. A short time after that, Gandhi, who was aging and ill, died from a bullet fired by a Hindu extremist named Nathuram Godse. The national leadership was then passed to his chief lieutenant, Jawaharlal Nehru. On 3rd June 1947, the Viceroy Lord Mountbatten announced partition of India into two countries: union of India, and an Islamic Pakistan. In this partition, many people died while others were separated from their families. On 26th January 1950, India adopted their constitution, the longest constitution in the world.


title: Korean language

text: The Korean language is spoken mainly in North and South Korea. It is spoken by more than 78 million people (most are North or South Koreans).


title: Korean language

text: In South Korea, it is called "hangukmal" (한국말) or "hangugeo" (Hangeul: 한국어, Hanja: 韓國語). In North Korea, however, it is called "choseonmal" (조선말) or "choseoneo" (조선어, 朝鮮語). They are named differently because the common names for North and South Korea are different. Additionally, Koreans usually call their language "urimal" (Hangeul: 우리말) or "urinara mal" (Hangeul: 우리나라 말), meaning "our language" or "our country's language."


title: Korean language

text: Korean uses two different writing systems. One is Hangul, the main alphabet. In North Korea, only Hangeul (Known as Choseongeul in North Korea) is used by law. In South Korea, only Hangeul should be used in most public areas like education, but the other system, Hanja, is still used in some newspapers and professional areas. Hanja is the system of Chinese characters that are used in Korean. It was the only way to write Korean before the creation of Hangeul in the 15th century, and it was common in novels before the 19th century.


title: Korean language

text: Although King Sejong the Great led the development of Hangeul to allow literacy to spread among common people and to create a writing system that represented the language more accurately than Hanja, it was not adopted by the upper classes of Koreans. Hanja would continue to be the official writing system until the late 19th century. Although it was rejected by the elite classes, Hangeul was used often by lower classes as a way to write down Korean literature and for lower classes to communicate.


title: Kayastha

text: Kayastha is one of the social groups of India. They have a long history. They number around 5-7 million people and most of them live in India.


title: Kayastha

text: Hindus believe that Lord Brahma created the world. He then created 16 sons from different parts of his body. His 17th son, Shree Chitraguptjee, was created from his mind and soul. He is the only son to be made from the whole body, not just parts. In human form he is called "kayastha", "kaya" meaning whole. Kayastha's have two roles in the caste system, as Kshatriya (a warrior) and Brahmin (a learned person or scribe). The Kayastha caste is divided into 12 sub-castes. Subdivision of Kayastha:- Chitragupta Kayastha of North India, Prabhu Kayastha of Maharashtra, Karnam/Karuneegar (Kayastha) of South India, Karanas (Kayastha) of Orissa, Bengali Kayastha of Bengal and Kalitas (Kayastha) of Assam.


title: Belgrade

text: Belgrade is the capital city of the country of Serbia. Before the wars of the 1990s, it was the capital of Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1992 after the Kingdom of Serbia collapsed in 1918 along with Austria-Hungary after World War 1.


title: Belgrade

text: Belgrade is also one of the most popular travel destinations in Southeastern Europe. It is famous for a very busy nightlife and a lot of entertainment activities.


title: Belgrade

text: The first settlements on the city's territory date back to Vinča cutlure. The city itself (under the name Singidunum) was founded by the Celtic Scordis tribe in the 3rd century BC. Then it was owned by the Romans, Byzantines, Avars, Slavs, etc. In 878 it was first mentioned as Belgrade. In 1403 it became the Serbian capital. In 1521, the city was conquered by the troops of the Ottoman Empire. In 1815 it again became the capital of Serbia. From 1918 to 2003 it was the capital of Yugoslavia. In 2003-2006, Belgrade was the unofficial capital of the confederal union of the two states of Serbia and Montenegro.


title: Comoros

text: Comoros (officially called Union of the Comoros) is a small island nation in the Indian Ocean. It is between Madagascar and mainland Africa. The capital is Moroni on Grande Comore. The population (except for Mayotte) is about 798,000 people.


title: Comoros

text: The Comoros Islands are in the Indian Ocean, between Mozambique and Madagascar. It is the southernmost member state of the Arab League.


title: Comoros

text: There are 4 islands from west to east: Grande Cormore, Moheli, Anjouan and Mayotte. All the islands are of volcanic origin. Islam is the official religion of Comoros with over 90% of the population being Sunni Muslims.


title: Comoros

text: Mayotte is also a territory that is claimed by Comoros but is under occupation by the French as an overseas territory. The other islands form the independent state of Comoros.


title: Comoros

text: The country has a history with many "coup d'état" since independence in 1975. As of 2008, about half the people live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.


title: Comoros

text: Mount Karthala is the country's highest point. Karthala is an active shield volcano on Grand Cormore. It had a minor eruption in May 2006.


title: Comoros

text: The Comoros is formed by Ngazidja (Grande Comore), Mwali (Mohéli) and Nzwani (Anjouan), the three major islands in the Comoros Archipelago. There are also many minor islets. The islands are officially known by their Comorian language names. International sources still use their French names (given in parentheses above). The capital and largest city is Moroni on Ngazidja.


title: Comoros

text: At 2,034 km2 (785 sq mi), it is one of the smallest countries in the world. The interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills.


title: Comoros

text: The climate is generally tropical and mild. The rainy season runs from December to April. It is called kashkazi/kaskazi, meaning north monsoon. The cool, dry season is from May to November. It is called kusi, meaning south monsoon.


title: Comoros

text: The temperature reaches an average of in March, the hottest month. The average low is in the dry season. The islands are rarely subject to cyclones.


title: Comoros

text: The President of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government. The constitution was adopted on 23 December 2001. It was last amended in May 2009.


title: Comoros

text: In November 1975, the Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations. The citizens of Mayotte chose to become French citizens and keep their island as a French territory.


title: Comoros

text: There is a small standing army. This includes a 500-member police force and a 500-member defense force. A treaty with France provides navy protection for territorial waters.


title: Comoros

text: The Comoros is one of the world's poorest countries. Agriculture is the leading sector of the economy. Agriculture includes fishing, hunting, and forestry.


title: Godwin's law

text: Godwin's Law (also known as Godwin's Rule of Nazi Analogies) is a saying made by in 1990. The law states: "As a discussion on the Internet grows longer, the likelihood of a person/s being compared to Hitler or another Nazi, increases." That means that as more people talk on the Internet for a longer time, it becomes more and more likely that someone will talk about Hitler or the Nazis.


title: Godwin's law

text: In 2019, Bret Stephens demonstrated both the Streisand Effect and Godwin’s Law, by publishing a column in the "New York Times", where he compared his experience on Twitter to the plight of Jews under Hitler’s regime.


title: Buddha

text: A Buddha is the holiest type of being in Buddhism, a teacher of God's and humans. The word "Buddha" means "enlightened one" in Sanskrit or Fully Awakened One in Pāli.


title: Buddha

text: It is also a title for Siddhartha Gautama. He was the man who started Buddhism. Sometimes people call him "the Buddha" or the "Shakyamuni Buddha". Other times, people call any person a Buddha if they have found enlightenment. If a person has not found enlightenment yet, but is very close to reaching it, then he is called bodhisattva.


title: Buddha

text: Buddhists believe that there are many Buddhas. The most recent one was Gautama Buddha. People who will become Buddhas someday are called "bodhisattvas."


title: Buddha

text: Buddhists believe that the Buddha was enlightened, which means that he knew all about how to live a peaceful life and how to avoid suffering. He is said to have never argued with other people, but only said what was true and useful, out of compassion for others.


title: Buddha

text: Some Buddhists pray to Buddhas, but Buddhas are not gods. Buddhas are teachers who help the people who will listen. A Buddha is a human being who has woken up and can see the true way the world works. This knowledge totally changes the person so that they can have a better life in the present and the future. A Buddha can also help a person achieve enlightenment.


title: Buddha

text: There are ideas which are said to lead someone to enlightenment. They are called the "Dharma" (Sanskrit) or "Dhamma" (Pāli), meaning "the way" or "the truth." Anyone can become a Buddha, but it is very difficult. He became Buddha under the peepal or "bodhi" tree at Bodhgaya in Bihar in what is now India.


title: Buddha

text: There is a special type of Buddha called a "pratyekabuddha" or "silent Buddhas". These Buddhas reached "enlightenment" on their own, but they did not teach others.


title: Buddha

text: Another type of Buddha is a "samyaksambuddha". This is the best kind of Buddha because he is able to teach all living beings.


title: Buddha

text: Buddhists believe that there have been many Buddhas in the past. There will also be many Buddhas in the future. Traditionally, seven Buddhas are given names.


title: Buddha

text: A Buddha is a person who has reached perfection. Some believe that there are 32 physical features of a Buddha; these are the 32 marks of a Great Man from Vedic Brahmin folklore, but are mentioned in the Pāli canon. Some of these features are represented in art and sculpture. These are listed below.


title: Buddha

text: 3. “Chapter 3 Buddhism. Origins and Fundamental Tenets. .” Religions in the Modern World: Traditions and Transformations, section written by Cathy Cantwell & Hiroko Kawanami., Routledge, 2016, pp. 75–78


title: Magazine

text: A magazine is a type of book people read. Magazines are not like regular books. This is because a new version of the magazine is printed many times each year. Magazines are a type of periodical.


title: Magazine

text: They are called periodicals because versions are published at a fixed frequency. Magazines are printed on paper. People usually need to subscribe to them. An example of a magazine is "Time". There are magazines about many things.


title: Magazine

text: Magazines are similar to newspapers, but usually the time between new versions is longer. Each one costs more money, and many are in color on every page. Also, sometimes magazines come with little gifts to reward the readers who buy it.


title: General officer

text: A general officer is an officer who is at a high military rank, usually in the army, and in some places, the air force. "General" is used in many countries around the world, and when a country uses a different word, there is another title that is of equal rank. Admiral is the corresponding rank in a navy.


title: General officer

text: Usually an army has more than one "general officer" rank, and usually "general" is the highest of the general officer ranks.


title: Death penalty

text: Death penalty, a form of capital punishment, is when a government or state executes (kills) someone, usually but not always because they have committed a serious crime. A crime that can be punished with the death penalty is called a capital crime or a capital offense.


title: Death penalty

text: Executions in most countries have become rarer in recent centuries. The death penalty is a disputed and controversial topic.


title: Death penalty

text: About one third of the countries in the world have laws that allow the death penalty. The United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan, Indonesia and Iran are examples of countries that have a death penalty. Canada, Australia, Mexico and all members of Council of Europe are examples of countries that have abolished the death penalty. 109 countries have gotten rid of the capital punishment for all crimes. Another 28 can be considered abolitionist in practice. Countries are considered abolitionist in practice if they retain the death penalty in law but have not carried out any executions for the past 10 years or more.


title: Death penalty

text: Most of the countries that have a death penalty use it on murderers, and for other serious crimes such as rape or terrorism. Other countries especially ones with Authoritarian or Totalitarian governments, however, also use it for smaller crimes like theft, drugs, or for saying bad things about the government.


title: Death penalty

text: A total of 557 people were executed in the United States between 1977, when the death penalty was reintroduced after a 10-year break, and 2000. During this period, 20 states did not carry out any executions. Here are the states with the most executions during this time:


title: Death penalty

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki>The Russian Soviet Socialist Republic, as part of the Soviet Union, reinstated capital punishment during the time of the Soviet Union.


title: Death penalty

text: It is common to have people executed for crimes including murder, manslaughter and attempted murder, but there are also other crimes that carry the death penalty. Some of these are:


title: Death penalty

text: According to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that became valid in 1976, people that were less than eighteen years old when they committed the crime may not be executed. According to the European Convention on Human Rights (which is effective in many European countries), specifically its 13th amendment (2002), no one can be executed.


title: Death penalty

text: There is a lot of different opinions on the topic of capital punishment. As it is an important topic, each country has very strong feelings. Many people say the death penalty is reasonable because it scares people away from doing things that are illegal. However, many others say there is a potential of executing an innocent person. Some people say the death penalty supports justice, retribution, and punishment. The other side says that execution is murder. Most people know the threat of crime to their lives, but the question lies in the methods and action that should be used to deal with it.


title: Death penalty

text: Throughout human history, governments and rulers have used many death penalty methods to execute people, such as crucifixion, flaying, and hanging. Some methods like crucifixion and flaying are no longer used by governments, because people think that these methods of killing are too cruel. The gas chamber was found unconstitutional in the United States (that is: against the United States constitution not allowing "cruel and unusual punishments") and is no longer used.


title: Death penalty

text: The Council of Europe has abolished all death penalty by 13th amendment of the European Convention on Human Rights. Amnesty International oppose all death penalty on ground of the right to life and prohibition of all tortures or any cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment insisted by Universal Declaration of Human Rights.


title: Henry VII of England

text: Henry VII or Henry Tudor (28 January 1457–21 April 1509) was King of England from 1485 to 1509. He founded the Tudor dynasty by winning the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. His son became king Henry VIII of England.


title: Henry VII of England

text: Henry VII was born in 1457 to Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. His father died two months before he was born, leaving his 13-year-old mother as his only parent. After Henry's birth, he spent a lot of time with his uncle Jasper Tudor. Jasper took Henry to France, where he spent most of his youth. Henry had a claim to the throne of England, but it was not a very good one, and he had to wait a long time for a chance to take the throne.


title: Henry VII of England

text: In 1483, a new king came to the throne in England, called Richard III. King Richard was not popular with everyone. Some thought he had stolen the throne from his young nephews and had killed them. This gave Henry the chance he had been waiting for. With help from the French, he raised an army. They landed at Dale in Pembrokeshire, close to where Henry had been born, so he was able to gather more supporters on the way.


title: Henry VII of England

text: The Wars of the Roses (1455–1485) had been going on for years. They were fought over the throne of England between supporters of the House of Lancaster and supporters of the House of York. Both houses were branches of the Plantagenet royal house, tracing their descent from King Edward III.


title: Henry VII of England

text: King Henry VI and his family the House of Lancaster fought against their enemies for many years. The wars finally came to an end when King Henry VII of England came to the throne in 1485


title: Henry VII of England

text: On 22 August 1485, Henry's army defeated Richard III's army at the Battle of Bosworth Field. When Richard III died in this battle, Henry VII became king. Other people also had a claim on the throne, and Henry did his best to stop them from taking it from him, either by executing them, putting them in prison, or trying to make friends of them, as he did with the Earl of Lincoln. Another step he took was to marry Elizabeth of York, the niece of King Richard III, who would herself have been the heir to the throne if she had not been a girl.


title: Henry VII of England

text: There were also people who pretended to be long-lost members of the royal family, so that they could try to take the throne. One of these was a little boy called Lambert Simnel, who looked very like Edward, Earl of Warwick. The real Earl of Warwick was Henry's prisoner, but this did not stop other people from believing that Lambert was him. The Earl of Lincoln rebelled against King Henry and raised an army to make Lambert king, thinking that he himself could rule the country. There was a battle, and the Earl of Lincoln was killed. Lambert Simnel was captured, but, because he was only a child, Henry spared his life and he became a royal servant.


title: Henry VII of England

text: Henry married Elizabeth of York, and by this action put an end to the Wars of the Roses. They had six children, but only four survived infancy:


title: Henry VII of England

text: Henry VII died of tuberculosis in 1509 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. He was succeeded by his son, Henry VIII on 21 April 1509.


title: Mannerism

text: Mannerism is a style of art that was created in the Late Renaissance period, from about 1520 until about 1600. The Mannerist style of painting or sculpture often shows figures that are "elongated" (made longer) and "distorted" (made into strange shapes"). The aim of the Mannerist artist was usually to make art that looked "elegant".


title: Mannerism

text: The Mannerist style began in Italy, where the artists were influenced by the figures that Michelangelo painted on the ceiling and in the "Last Judgement" in the Sistine Chapel. During the Renaissance, artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael had tried very hard to learn from nature, and to paint things in a way that was very realistic. These two famous painters both died around 1520. Many artists then decided that they were going to use the art of painting to "express themselves". They were not going to follow the rules of anatomy and perspective in the way that Leonardo and Raphael did. Mannerist paintings are often full of figures that seem to be twisting, writhing or fighting. The faces of the figures often show strong emotions such as sadness, fear, hatred or sexual feelings.


title: Mannerism

text: Not all the painters who were working during the Mannerist period painted in the Mannerist style. Many artists continued to work in the style of the High Renaissance. Painters in the Mannerist style were Tintoretto, Jacopo Pontormo, Agnolo Bronzino, Parmigianino and Rosso Fiorentino. Giambologna and Benvenuti Cellini were Mannerist sculptors. Giulio Romano was a Mannerist architect.


title: Mannerism

text: Mannerism spread from Italy to France, Germany and Spain. One of the most famous Mannerist painters was El Greco who worked in Spain. Some other artists who worked in the Mannerist style are the French sculptor Jean Goujon, the Dutch painter Abraham Bloemaert and the German painter Bartolomeus Spranger. Possibly the strangest paintings from this time were by Giuseppe Arcimboldo who did pictures in which people's faces seem to be made from fruit, flowers, fire and even fish.


title: Democratic republic

text: A democratic republic is the idea which combines both republicanism and democracy. This means that people can take part in the decisions that affect the way their community is run. There is no monarch. The country could be a presidential, semi-presidential or parliamentary.


title: Democratic republic

text: Many countries consider themselves democratic republics. Many of these countries are dictatorships where elections are rigged in various ways. For example, in Eastern Europe, countries had Soviet troops stationed after WWII. Elections were organized so that the electorate had no real choice. The consequence of this is that "democratic republic" has become a synonym for "dictatorship".


title: Songwriter

text: A songwriter is a writer who creates songs. A songwriter generally writes songs for popular music, rather than art songs or classical music. Many songwriters are also singers, and perform the songs they write - they are called singer-songwriters. Other songwriters have their songs performed by other singers.


title: Songwriter

text: The history of writing songs is thousands of years old. Scholars believe that men and women may have created and sung songs even at the time of prehistory. Many modern bands have one or two members who write songs for the band. Others have more members contribute songs, or give the whole band credit for writing. Others perform songs by outside writers.


title: Helicopter

text: A helicopter (also often used: chopper or heli) is a kind of flying machine or aircraft. A helicopter lifts up off


title: Helicopter

text: of the ground and moves because of its rotors. A rotor is several small wings, called rotor blades, that spin together around a shaft. For that reason, helicopters are sometimes called "rotary-wing aircraft". A helicopter flies differently from an airplane. An airplane must move forward to stay in the air, but because the helicopter's rotor blades are always moving, the helicopter can stop and stay in one place above the ground. Not needing a runway, they can land in places where an airplane cannot. Helicopters can move by tilting their rotor blades, which causes the aircraft to fly in the direction the blades are tilted.


title: Helicopter

text: Since around 400 BC, the Chinese had a flying top that was used as a children's toy. The flying top was made from bamboo and used the same method of spinning wings to fly up in the air. Later flying tops were made of feathers tied to a stick. Leonardo da Vinci first thought of a helicopter flown by a man in 1490, and drew pictures of his ideas. It was hundreds of years later (in the early 20th century) before anyone built one that could really fly. The first practical helicopters were built by Frenchman Louis Breguet in 1935 and by German Henrich Focke in 1936. A Russian immigrant, Igor Sikorsky, built and perfected the first practical helicopter in America in 1939.


title: Helicopter

text: Helicopters are especially useful when there are disasters when infrastructure is damaged. Food packets, water, medicines and clothes are dropped from the air to people on the ground who cannot be reached by road. When people are injured, helicopters can carry them to hospitals faster than an ambulance on the road.


title: Helicopter

text: Helicopters are also used by the military, because they can move troops and equipment to places an airplane cannot take them. Attack helicopters act as attack aircraft carrying and shooting guns and missiles.


title: Puma (brand)

text: PUMA AG is a German multinational company. The company designs and manufactures athletic and casual footwear, apparel and accessories.The headquarter is in Herzogenaurach, Bavaria, Germany.


title: Puma (brand)

text: It is estimated that Puma employs about 14,606 people worldwide and distributes its products in more than 120 countries.


title: Electron

text: An electron is a very small piece of matter. Its symbol is e, it was discovered by J. J.Thomson in 1897.


title: Electron

text: The electron is a subatomic particle. Every atom is made of some electrons that surround the nucleus of the atom. An electron can also be separate from any atom. It is believed to be an elementary particle because it cannot be broken down into anything smaller. Its electric charge is negative. Electrons have very little mass (little weight) so very little energy is needed to move them fast. They may move almost at the speed of light, for instance, as beta particles, and in the inner electron shells of elements with a large atomic number.


title: Electron

text: Electrons take part in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions. The electromagnetic force is strongest in common situations. Electrons repel (push apart) from each other because they have the same electric charge. Electrons are attracted to protons because they have opposite electric charge. An electron has an electric field, which describes these forces. The electricity that powers televisions, motors, mobile phones, and many other things is actually many electrons moving through wires or other conductors.


title: Electron

text: Electrons have the smallest electrical charge. This electrical charge equals the charge of a proton, but has the opposite sign. For this reason, electrons are attracted towards the protons in atomic nuclei. This attraction makes electrons near a nucleus form an atom.


title: Electron

text: One way to think about the location of electrons in an atom is to imagine that they orbit at fixed distances from the nucleus. This way, electrons in an atom exist in a number of electron shells surrounding the central nucleus. Each electron shell is given a number 1, 2, 3, and so on, starting from the one closest to the nucleus (the innermost shell). Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons. The distribution of electrons in the various shells is called electronic arrangement (or electronic form or shape). Electronic arrangement can be shown by numbering or an electron diagram. (A different way to think about the location of electrons is to use quantum mechanics to calculate their atomic orbitals.)The electron is one of a type of subatomic particles called leptons. The electron has a negative electric charge. The electron has another property, called spin. Its spin value is 1/2, which makes it a fermion.


title: Electron

text: While most electrons are found in atoms, others move independently in matter, or together as cathode rays in a vacuum. In some superconductors, electrons move in pairs. When electrons flow, this flow is called electricity, or an electric current.


title: Electron

text: An object can be described as 'negatively charged' if there are more electrons than protons in an object, or 'positively charged' when there are more protons than electrons. Electrons can move from one object to another when touched. They may be attracted to another object with opposite charge, or repelled when they both have the same charge. When an object is 'grounded', electrons from the charged object go into the ground, making the object neutral. This is what lightning rods (lightning conductors) do.


title: Electron

text: Electrons in their shells round an atom are the basis of chemical reactions. Complete outer shells, with maximum electrons, are less reactive. Outer shells with less than maximum electrons are reactive. The number of electrons in atoms is the underlying basis of the chemical periodic table.


title: Electron

text: Electric "charge" can be directly measured with a device called an . Electric "current" can be directly measured with a galvanometer. The measurement given off by a galvanometer is different from the measurement given off by an . Today laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons.


title: Electron

text: In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. In one instance a was used to contain a single electron for 10 months. The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.


title: Electron

text: The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time. The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can also be visualized.


title: Electron

text: The antiparticle of the electron is called a positron. This is identical to the electron, but carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, they may scatter off each other or be totally annihilated, producing a pair (or more) of gamma ray photons.


title: Electron

text: The effects of electrons were known long before it could be explained. The Ancient Greeks knew that rubbing amber against fur attracted small objects. Now we know the rubbing strips off electrons, and that gives an electric charge to the amber.


title: Electron

text: Many physicists worked on the electron. J.J. Thomson proved it existed, in 1897, but another man gave it the name 'electron'.


title: Electron

text: The model views electrons as holding indeterminate positions in a diffuse cloud around the nucleus of the atom.


title: Electron

text: The uncertainty principle means a person cannot know an electron's position and energy level at the same time. These potential states form a cloud around the atom. The potential states of electrons in a single atom form a single, uniform cloud.


title: Neutron

text: Neutrons, with protons and electrons, make up an atom. Neutrons and protons are found in the nucleus of an atom. Unlike protons, which have a positive charge, or electrons, which have a negative charge, neutrons have zero charge which means they are neutral particles. Neutrons bind with protons with the residual strong force.


title: Neutron

text: Neutrons were predicted by Ernest Rutherford, and discovered by James Chadwick, in 1932. Atoms were fired at a thin pane of beryllium. Particles emerged which had no charge, and he called these 'neutrons'. They were later added to the modern image of the atom.


title: Neutron

text: Neutrons have a mass of 1.675 × 10g, which is a little heavier than the proton. Neutrons are 1839 times heavier than electrons.


title: Neutron

text: Like all hadrons, neutrons are made of quarks. A neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. One up quark has a charge of +2/3, and the two down quarks each have a charge of -1/3. The fact that these charges cancel out is why neutrons have a neutral (0) charge. Quarks are held together by gluons.


title: Neutron

text: Neutrons can be found in almost all atoms together with protons and electrons. Hydrogen-1 is the only exception. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of the same element.


title: Neutron

text: The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect its chemical properties. However it affects its half-life, a measure of its stability. An unstable isotope has a short half-life, in which half of it decays to lighter elements. By contrast, a stable isotope has a long half-life, much longer than that of an unstable isotope. The stability of an isotope is related to radioactivity: an unstable isotope can be highly radioactive.


title: Amateur

text: The word amateur is normally used to mean: somebody who does something (e.g. a job) without being paid for it, or without having had training or education for it.


title: Amateur

text: The opposite of an amateur is a professional. He (or she) will expect to be paid a professional fee for the job.


title: Amateur

text: The word “amateur” comes from a French word meaning: "lover of". An amateur is someone who does something (e.g. play the piano, football) because they enjoy doing it. They are not doing it in order to be paid. It is not how they earn money to live.


title: Amateur

text: People often forget the real meaning of the word “amateur”. It is often mistakenly used to mean: someone who is not good at something. On the other hand, an amateur might be described as having done a very “professional” job, i.e. done it as well as someone who is paid.


title: Amateur

text: Although one might expect a professional to be better than an amateur, this is not always the case. Someone might be a very good amateur pianist, possibly better than some professionals.


title: Amateur

text: In some jobs it would be impossible for amateurs to be allowed to work. One cannot have amateur doctors or lawyers. In some areas, however, amateurs have been very useful in fields including computer programming and astronomy and birdwatching. Wikipedia, for example, is written by amateurs.


title: Amateur

text: In some sporting events, all players are professional or all are amateur. Many events mix professional and amateur participants.


title: Amateur

text: In some sports (e.g. tennis or football) in the past, amateurs and professionals would not compete against one another. This was not always because amateurs were thought to be not as good as professionals. In some countries, such as Great Britain in Victorian times, this was because of social class distinction. Amateur cricketers were rich gentlemen from the upper classes who did not want to associate with people from lower classes. This attitude slowly changed during the 20th century.


title: Amateur

text: Until the 1970s most Olympic events were for amateurs. Athletes were disqualified if they received money for the event, or in some cases even if they had been paid for sporting events outside the Olympics.


title: Magnet

text: A magnet is a special kind of metal. When a magnet goes near a special kind of metal or another magnet, and the poles (sides) touching are opposite, it will pull, or "attract" the other object closer. If the two poles are the same, the magnet and the other object will push away, or "repel", from each other. This attraction and repulsion is called "magnetism". Magnets can make some other metals into magnets when they are rubbed together.


title: Magnet

text: Soft magnets (meaning impermanent magnets) are often used in electromagnets. These increase (often hundreds or thousands of times) the magnetic field of a wire that carries an electrical current and is wrapped around the magnet. The field also increases with the current.


title: Magnet

text: Permanent magnets have ferromagnetism. They occur naturally in some rocks, particularly lodestone, but are now commonly manufactured. A magnet's magnetism decreases when it is heated and increases when it is cooled. It has to be heated at around . Like poles (S-pole and S-pole/N-pole and N-pole) will repel each other while unlike poles (N-pole and S-pole) will attract each other.


title: Magnet

text: Magnets are only attracted to special metals. Iron, cobalt and nickel are magnetic. Metals that have iron in them attract magnets well. Steel is one. Metals like brass, copper, zinc and aluminum are not attracted to magnets. Non-magnetic materials such as wood and glass are not attracted to magnets as they do not have magnetic materials in them.


title: Magnet

text: Lanthanoid elements can make very strong magnets. The spin of their electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields. So these elements are used for high-strength magnets when their high price is not a concern. The most common types of rare-earth magnets are samarium–cobalt and neodymium–iron–boron (NIB) magnets.


title: Magnet

text: A compass uses the Earth's magnetic field, and points to the North magnetic pole. A north side of the magnet is attracted to the south side of another magnet. However, the north side of the compass points to the north pole, this can only mean that the "north pole" is really the magnetic south, and the "South magnetic pole" is really the magnetic north.


title: Magnet

text: Ancient people discovered magnetism from lodestones (or magnetite) which are naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore. Lodestones, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses.


title: Magnet

text: The earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Anatolia, India, and China about 2500 years ago. The properties of lodestones and their affinity for iron were written of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia "Naturalis Historia".


title: Triple H

text: Paul Michael Levesque (born July 27, 1969) is an American business executive, retired professional wrestler, actor, and former bodybuilder. He is better known by the ring name Triple H, an abbreviation of his former Hunter Hearst Helmsley name. He is currently the COO ("Chief Operating Officer") of WWE.


title: Triple H

text: Before joining WWE, Levesque began his wrestling career with World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in 1993, wrestling under the name Terra Ryzing. He would then be repackaged as Jean-Paul Lévesque, a French Canadian aristocrat, before joining World Wrestling Federation (now WWE) in 1995.


title: Triple H

text: Since joining WWE, he has become a 14-time world champion (current): a nine-time WWE Champion and a five-time World Heavyweight Champion In addition, he won the 1997 King of the Ring, the 2002 Royal Rumble, and was the second Grand Slam Champion.


title: Triple H

text: He married Stephanie McMahon in 2003, becoming the son-in-law of WWE chairman Vince McMahon. Outside of wrestling, Levesque has made many guest appearances in film and on television. He is starring in the upcoming WWE Film "Journey of Death".


title: Triple H

text: At the 2008 edition of "Backlash", Triple H won the WWE Championship. He lost the title at Survivor Series 2008 to Edge.


title: Triple H

text: At the 2009 No Way Out, Triple H won back the WWE Championship in an Elimination Chamber match for the 8th time, beating The Rock's record of 7 times.


title: Triple H

text: After entering the 2016 Royal Rumble match at no. 30, he eliminated Ambrose to win the Royal Rumble and become a 14 time world champion. He later lost the title to Roman Reigns at WrestleMania 32.


title: Endemism

text: Endemism is an ecological word meaning that a plant or animal lives only in a particular location, such as a specific island, habitat type, nation or other defined zone. For example, many species of lemur are endemic to the island of Madagascar.


title: Endemism

text: There are two types of endemism - paleoendemism and neoendemism. "Paleoendemism" means that a species used to live in a large area but now lives only in a smaller area. "Neoendemism" means that a species has recently appeared which is closely related to the main species or one that has formed following hybridization and is now classified as a separate species. This is a common process in plants especially those which exhibit polyploidy.


title: Endemism

text: Endemic types are most likely to develop on islands because they are isolated. This includes remote island groups, like the Hawaiian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, and Socotra. Endemism can also occur in areas which are separated from other similar areas like the highlands of Ethiopia, or large bodies of water like Lake Baikal.


title: Endemism

text: Endemics can easily become endangered or extinct because of only living in a small area. They are also vulnerable to the actions of man, including the introduction of new organisms. There were millions of both Bermuda petrels and "Bermuda cedars" (actually junipers) in Bermuda when it was settled at the start of the 17th century. By the end of the century, the petrels were thought to be extinct. Cedars, whose numbers were low as a result of centuries of shipbuilding, were nearly made extinct in the 20th Century by the introduction of a parasite. Both petrels and cedars are very rare today, as are other species endemic or native to Bermuda.


title: Endemism

text: Endemic organisms are not the same as indigenous organisms — a species that is indigenous to somewhere may be native to other locations as well. An introduced species, also known as a naturalized or exotic species, is an organism that is not indigenous to a given place or area.


title: Endemism

text: According to the World Wildlife Fund, the following ecoregions have the highest percentage of endemic plants:


title: Shanghai

text: Shanghai (, ; ) is the biggest city in China and one of the world's largest cities. It had about 24,000,000 people in 2017. It is a special province-level city in China ("municipality"), like Beijing, Tianjin, and Chongqing. Right now, it is the biggest port in the world.


title: Shanghai

text: The Mandarin Chinese name of Shanghai is "Shànghǎi", which is written as in Chinese characters. This name means "On-the-Sea" because Shanghai used to be next to the East China Sea. Today, dirt from the Yangtze River has made Pudong much bigger and downtown Shanghai is about from the open sea. The city has become so big, though, that its government now controls other areas like Pudong and Fengxian that are still beside the sea.


title: Shanghai

text: Shanghai's name is a little simpler than most other Chinese cities' names, because it was a small fishing village for a long time. The short way to say its name in Chinese is still "Hù" (). A hu was an old kind of fishing trap that was made with bamboo and nets. The people around Shanghai used to use them to catch fish and crabs in Suzhou Creek and other waterways.


title: Shanghai

text: Shanghai is at the mouth of the Yangtze River, where it meets the East China Sea in the middle of China's east coast. Downtown Shanghai is located just south of the place where Suzhou Creek meets the Huangpu River. This is about southwest of where the Huangpu meets the Yangtze River. The area between downtown and the Yangtze used to be farmland and other cities like Wusong and Baoshan, but now Shanghai is so big that they are part of it.


title: Shanghai

text: For most of China's history, Shanghai was a small fishing village. The big cities nearby were Suzhou and Hangzhou. Under the Ming and Qing, Shanghai had a big city wall and started to grow.


title: Shanghai

text: Under the Ming and the Qing, people from other countries could only buy and sell things with China on an island near Guangzhou. The British effectively controlled Shanghai from the mid 19th century until World War II. Parts of Shanghai were controlled by the UK, the US, and France. This control was ended by the Japanese during World War II.


title: Shanghai

text: Nanjing Road, People's Square, Wan State Building Expo Group, the Bund, Zhujiajiao, Old City of Shanghai


title: Shanghai

text: City God Temple of Shanghai, Confucian Temple of Shanghai, Jing'an Temple, Jade Buddha Temple, Longhua Temple


title: Shanghai

text: Shanghai is home to the China Stock Exchange, along with Shenzhen, and is the financial center of China.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: The Ku Klux Klan is an American Christian hate group. It was started in Pulaski, Tennessee on December 24, 1865 and quickly spread among white people in the southern United States. Most of its hate has been towards African Americans, but it has also attacked Catholics, Jews and immigrants. Known as the KKK for short, it has sought to keep "white power", often through very violent acts, including killing people. The first Ku Klux Klan broke up and does not exist anymore. However, other groups with the same name and the same ideas have been created.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: The group was started after the American Civil War. It began as a social club for former Confederate soldiers, who during the war fought to defend slavery. The Klan quickly became a terrorist organization. It was one of several resistance movements against the Reconstruction of the United States.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: When the KKK started, the ex-Confederacy states were occupied by soldiers from the north. Klan members feared white people in the South could lose their supremacy over black people. The Klan acted against black voters to intimidate them. At times, Republicans were also targets of attacks by the Klan,


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: The methods of acting against people were often the same: the Klan members tried to frighten the people that the Klan wanted to go out of town. The KKK tried to scare people by burning crosses or by threatening them. If people did not react, the Klan would kill them. The growing violence which was promoted by the KKK led to many lynchings (execution without a fair trial and killing them, often by hanging). The KKK was "prohibited" (made against the law) in 1871. After 1871, many KKK members were imprisoned (put in Prison). However, the Klan had achieved many of its original goals. For example, the occupation troops were moved out of the Southern states, to the West. The KKK affected many African Americans throughout the last century. The establishment of Jim Crow laws restored white supremacy in the South and the "first era" KKK disbanded.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: In 1915, William J. Simmons, an Atlanta businessman, started the Ku Klux Klan for a second time. A movie called "The Birth of a Nation" had just been released. It showed African-American men (played by white actors in blackface) as stupid and sexually aggressive towards white women. It also showed the Ku Klux Klan as a heroic force. The movie proved to be an excellent recruitment tool for the KKK. Most of the rituals and traditions of the "old" Ku Klux Klan were kept. Any white Protestant man could join the KKK. The KKK still attacked African Americans, but they also attacked Jews and Catholics this time. In 1920, the Klan began attracting recruits from all over the nation. They promised better law enforcement, better government, better schools and to restore traditional family values.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: The KKK strongly argued for "white supremacy". "White supremacy" is the belief that white people are superior to other racial groups.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: In 86 years, the KKK killed an estimated 3,446 black people. Most often these were hangings and were not legal executions because there were no trials. Many people now call these acts a form of terrorism because the KKK used fear to control African Americans and take away their political rights. After reaching its height of political influence, the second Klan began to decline. There was a number of scandals, a great deal of internal feuding and people getting tired of their violent image. In the 1920s they had reached a peak of about 5 million members. By the 1930s they were down to about 30,000. They survived another 14 years before disbanding in 1944. This was after they had been prosecuted for failure to pay federal income taxes.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: In 1954, the United States Supreme Court (the highest court in the US) made an important decision. The case was "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas". The court "ruled" (decided) that it was unconstitutional to have different schools for black and white children. When this ruling passed, many independent Ku Klux Klan groups attacked African Americans.


title: Ku Klux Klan

text: In the summer of 1964, Edgar Killen killed three African Americans who participated in the civil rights movement. Killen was a member of the Ku Klux Klan. There was an early trial in 1967, but in this trial there was an all-white jury. It resulted in a hung jury so Killen was set free. In 1988 a movie called "Mississippi Burning" was made which talked about the events of this case. In 2005 there was another trial. Killen (at the time 80 years old) was sentenced to prison for 60 years. He died on January 11, 2018 in prison in Parchman, Mississippi at age 92.


title: Day

text: A day is the time it takes the Earth to spin around once. It is day time on the side of the Earth that is facing the Sun. When it is night time, that side of the Earth is facing away from the Sun. It takes 24 hours for the Earth to spin once, so that is one day, including the day time and night time. This is mean solar time, measured relative to the Sun. There is also sidereal time, measured relative to the fixed stars. The sidereal day is a few minutes shorter.


title: Day

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> There are only 29 days in February during a leap year. Otherwise, February has 28 days.


title: Grenoble

text: Grenoble is a French commune in the Alpine foothills. It is the prefecture of the Isère department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region.


title: Grenoble

text: A campus of the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation academy) is in Grenoble. Grenoble School of Management is also in the city, as well as the Université Grenoble-Alpes.


title: Geology

text: Geology is the study of the nonliving things that the Earth is made of. Geology is the study of rocks in the Earth's crust. People who study geology are called geologists. Some geologists study minerals (mineralogist) and the useful substances the rocks contain such as ores and fossil fuels. Geologists also study the history of the Earth.


title: Geology

text: Some of the important events in the Earth's history are floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, orogeny (mountain building), and plate tectonics (movement of continents).


title: Geology

text: Geology is divided into special subjects that study one part of geology. Some of these subjects and what they focus on are:


title: Geology

text: Rocks can be very different from each other. Some are very hard and some are soft. Some rocks are very common, while others are rare. However, all the different rocks belong to three categories or types, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.


title: Geology

text: All three kinds of rock can be changed by being heated and squeezed by forces in the earth. When this happens, faults (cracks) may appear in the rock. Geologists can learn a lot about the history of the rock by studying the patterns of the fault lines. Earthquakes are caused when a fault breaks suddenly.


title: Geology

text: Soil is the stuff on the ground made of lots of particles (or tiny pieces). The particles of soil come from rocks that have broken down, and from rotting leaves and animals bodies. Soil covers a lot of the surface of the Earth. Plants of all sorts grow in soil.


title: Geology

text: Geologists use some simple ideas which help them to understand the rocks they are studying. The following ideas were worked out in the early days of stratigraphy by people like Nicolaus Steno, James Hutton and William Smith:


title: Citizenship

text: Citizenship is a legal relationship between a person and a country. Usually the country is the one they were born in, lives in, supports, and in return gets protection. A person is usually a citizen of the country where he or she is born, but sometimes a person will apply for naturalization, to become a citizen in another country. There are countries which allow dual (two) citizenship, and countries which do not.


title: Citizenship

text: A citizen is a member of a sovereign group of people that have certain rights. Governments protect these rights or take advantage of them. Some Governments may exile people from citizenship laws on such matter vary between countries.


title: Citizenship

text: People born in Canada become citizens of the country by "Jus soli" even if their parents are not citizens.


title: Citizenship

text: In 2018 the New York Times reported that 20% of babies born in Richmond Hospital in Richmond, British Columbia, were born to mothers involved in birth tourism. This means that the babies automatically acquire Canadian citizenship.


title: Crusades

text: The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims. The eight big crusade expeditions happened between 1096 and 1291, mostly in the Middle East.


title: Crusades

text: The crusades started as a fight for control over the Holy Land. This is the land now called Israel. The Holy Land is very important for the three major monotheistic religions: Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Muslims believe the Prophet Mohammed visited the Holy Land and rose to Heaven from Jerusalem. Christians believe Jesus was born, crucified, and resurrected in the Holy Land. The Dome of the Rock, the Western Wall, the Temple Mount, and the Mount of Olives are all located there. So are many other important religious sites.


title: Crusades

text: During the Caliphate of Umar in the 7th century, Muslim forces had taken control of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem, and other important religious sites. In the crusades, Christian armies tried to re-take control of the Holy Land.


title: Crusades

text: There were many different crusades. The biggest and most important happened between the 11th century and the 13th century. During this time, there were 9 large crusades. They are numbered 1 through 9.


title: Crusades

text: There were also many smaller crusades. These continued through the 16th century, until the Renaissance and Reformation. Some crusades even happened within Europe (for example, in Germany, Austria, and Scandinavia and the Albigensian Crusade in France) .


title: Crusades

text: The word "crusade" is related to the word "cross", and means a Christian holy war. Muslims sometimes use the Arabic word “jihad" to describe the crusades.


title: Crusades

text: In 1095 the ruler of the Byzantine Empire, Alexius I, called for help to defend his empire against the Seljuk Turks. Pope Urban II asked all Christians to join a war against the Turks. The Pope told Christians that fighting the war would repay God for their sins. He said that anyone who died on a crusade would go straight to heaven.


title: Crusades

text: The Christian soldiers who joined the crusade were called "crusaders". They marched to Jerusalem, attacking several cities on their way. In 1099 they won the battle for Jerusalem.


title: Crusades

text: As a result of the First Crusades, four crusader states were created. These were the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.


title: Crusades

text: After about 50 years of peace, Bernard of Clairvaux called for a new crusade after the Turks attacked the town of Edessa. French and German armies marched to the Holy Land in 1147, but were defeated. However, on the way, the Crusaders helped the Portuguese capture Lisbon from Al-Andalus as part of the Reconquista.


title: Crusades

text: In 1187, after Saladin recaptured Jerusalem, Pope Gregory VIII called for a new crusade. Three of Europe's kings led this Third Crusade: Philip II of France, Richard I of England and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor.


title: Crusades

text: The Third Crusade was partially successful. The Crusaders took back control of Arsuf and Jaffa, two important cities in the Holy Land. However, they did not have enough soldiers to try to recapture Jerusalem. Instead, they made a truce with Saladin that let Christians travel safely through Jerusalem. The Crusaders then re-established the Kingdom of Jerusalem in Acre.


title: Crusades

text: In 1190, Frederick drowned in Cilicia. In 1192, Richard left the Holy Land. On his way home, his ship was wrecked, leading him to Austria. There, he was captured and ransomed by his enemy, Duke Leopold.


title: Crusades

text: Pope Innocent III started the Fourth Crusade in 1202. His plan was to attack the Holy Land through Egypt. To do this, he needed a fleet of ships. The Venetians agreed to build ships and train sailors for the crusade. The Venetians then changed the goal of the crusade, and went to the Christian city of Constantinople, where they tried to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the city was sacked in 1204.


title: Crusades

text: The Children's Crusade is a crusade of 1212. An outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany. A boy, from either France or Germany, said that Jesus had visited him, and told him to peacefully convert Muslims to Christianity. Following this vision, many children formed bands, and marched to Italy. There, they were put onto ships which either capsized in a storm, or which went to Morocco. Most of the children either starved to death or were sold into slavery.


title: Crusades

text: In the first movement, Nicholas, a shepherd from Germany, led a group across the Alps and into Italy in the early spring of 1212. About 7,000 arrived in Genoa in late August. However, their plans did not bear fruit when the waters failed to part as promised and the band broke up. Some left for home, others may have gone to Rome, while still others may have travelled down the Rhône to Marseille where they were probably sold into slavery. Few returned home and none reached the Holy Land.


title: Crusades

text: The second movement was led by a "shepherd boy" named Stephen de Cloyes near the village of Châteaudun. In June of that year, the boy said that he had a letter for the king of France from Jesus. He could gather a crowd of over 30,000 and went to Saint-Denis. There he was seen to work miracles. On the orders of Philip II, on the advice of the University of Paris, the crowd was sent home, and most of them went. None of the contemporary sources mentions plans of the crowd to go to Jerusalem.


title: Crusades

text: Later chroniclers elaborated on these events. Recent research suggests those taking part were not children, at least not the very young. In the early 1200s, bands of wandering poor started cropping up throughout Europe. These were people displaced by economic changes at the time which forced many poor peasants in northern France and Germany to sell their land. These bands were referred to as "pueri" (Latin for "boys") in a condescending manner, in much the same way that people from rural areas in the United States are called "country boys."


title: Crusades

text: In 1212, a young French "puer" named Stephen and a German "puer" named Nicholas separately began claiming that they had each had similar visions of Jesus. This resulted in these bands of roving poor being united into a religious protest movement which transformed this forced wandering into a religious journey. The "pueri" marched, following the Cross. They associated themselves with Jesus's biblical journey. This, however, was not a prelude to a holy war.


title: Crusades

text: Thirty years later, chroniclers read the accounts of these processions and translated "pueri" as "children" without understanding the usage. So, the Children's Crusade was born. The resulting story illustrates how ingrained the concept of Crusading was in the people of that time— the chroniclers assumed that the pueri must have been Crusaders. In their innocence, they returned to the foundations of crusading characteristic of Peter the Hermit, and met the same sort of tragic fate.


title: Crusades

text: According to Matthew Paris, one of the leaders of the Children's Crusade became "Le Maître de Hongrie," the leader of the Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.


title: Crusades

text: The Church tried another crusade to retake the Holy Land. A crusading force from Hungary, Austria, and Bavaria captured Damietta, a city in Egypt, in 1219. The crusaders had to surrender, due to losing the battle for Cairo.


title: Crusades

text: In 1228, Emperor Frederick II set sail from Brindisi for Syria. He did this after the Pope excommunicated him. By talking to the Turks he had success, and Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem was given to the Crusaders for ten years without fighting. This was the first major crusade not started by the Papacy, a trend that was to continue for the rest of the century. This crusade only lasted for a year, from 1228 to 1229.


title: Crusades

text: The Templars argued with Egypt in 1243. In 1244, Egypt attacked Jerusalem. Louis IX of France started a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254. It was a failure and Louis spent much of the crusade living in the city of Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first in 1251.


title: Crusades

text: The Eighth Crusade was organized by Louis IX of France in 1270, to help the Crusader states in Syria. However, the crusade got as far as Tunis, where Louis died a month later.


title: Crusades

text: Before he was the king, Edward I of England started a crusade in 1271. He retired the following year after a truce.


title: Crusades

text: In time, the people went on Crusades for other purposes. The Crusades ended two centuries after they had begun, achieving mixed results. The crusades ended with the Mamluk Fall of Acre in 1291. (the link is not yet started).


title: Hot dog

text: A hot dog is made of the remains of the pig after other parts are cut off and sold as bacon, sausage patties, and ham. However many people across the world eat hot dogs and enjoy them very much. Hot dogs can be boiled, grilled, or fried. The word frankfurter comes from Frankfurt, Germany. This sausage is usually served in a bun or another type of bread. The most common type of hot dogs are made from beef, sometimes mixed with pork. Chicken and vegetarian hot dogs are popular as well. Hot dogs and other sausage products were first developed as a way to sell these parts that people would not normally eat. Nearly 20% of the weight of a hot dog is usually non-meat ingredients including water, sugar, and spices. Some legal categories of hot dogs, such as "frankfurters" can contain up to 3.5% of non-meat fillers as well, such as corn meal.


title: Hot dog

text: To add to the taste, various toppings and sauces are often added. The most common sauces in the United States are ketchup, mustard and pickle relish. Onions, chopped pickles, peppers, hot sauce and cheese are also sometimes added to the food. Onions cooked in tomato sauce and Sauerkraut are popular toppings, as is chili.


title: Hot dog

text: In the United States, there are many different types of hot dogs, with different combinations of chili, cheese, onions, mustard, and other products. One of the most popular types of hot dogs is a chili dog. There are many different types of chili dogs. One of the most well-known is a Coney Island dog, a dog topped with a blend of chili, cheese, mustard and onions that is originally from Michigan.


title: Hot dog

text: A type of hot dog called a "kosher hot dog" is very common in parts of the United States and overseas. It is similar to most hot dogs except that it is always made of Kosher beef, has more spice added to it. Kosher hotdogs contain less of the less desirable sounding ingredients (such as rectum) as these parts are not considered to be Kosher beef. Halal hot dogs are also made.


title: Hot dog

text: Though hot dogs are most popular in the United States, they are served in many places around the world. People in Japan eat a lot of hot dogs, and the world's largest hot dog ever was made there. In some countries, "hot dog" is the name of a completely different sausage dish; for example, in New Zealand it is used to mean corn dog, and hot dogs are called "American hot dogs" instead.


title: Windows 10

text: Windows 10 is a computer operating system by Microsoft. It is part of the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems. It was known as Threshold when it was being developed. Windows 10 was announced at a press event on 30 September 2014. It came out for personal computers on 29 July 2015.


title: Windows 10

text: Windows 10 is designed to provide a common appearance for different systems. These include desktop, laptop, and other systems.


title: Windows 10

text: Unlike earlier versions of Windows, Windows 10 was regularly updated with new features based on user feedback, including before it was first released. Every half a year, Microsoft releases updates with new features. Each release has a four-digit build number. The first two digits refer to the year of release, and the other two digits refer to the month of release (e.g. "1903" refers to a build released in March 2019).


title: New South Wales

text: New South Wales is one of the states of Australia. It is the oldest state in Australia and is sometimes called the "Premier State". Of all Australian states, New South Wales has the most people. An inhabitant of New South Wales is referred to as a New South Welshman. The capital city of New South Wales is Sydney. Sydney is the biggest city in Australia.


title: New South Wales

text: The name New South Wales came from the journal of Lieutenant James Cook (later Captain Cook), who sailed up the east coast of Australia in 1770. He thought that the land looked like the south coast of Wales. He named it "New Wales" but then changed the name in his journal to "New South Wales".


title: New South Wales

text: New South Wales was founded (begun) in 1788, by the British who set up a small colony which became known as Sydney Town, and grew into the city of Sydney. The British colony of New South Wales originally included more than half of the Australian mainland, as well as New Zealand, Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria, Queensland and New Zealand.


title: New South Wales

text: The state is bordered on the north by Queensland, on the west by South Australia, and on the south by Victoria. Its coast faces the Tasman Sea. New South Wales contains two Federal Territories: the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), and the Jervis Bay Territory.


title: New South Wales

text: New South Wales' three big cities are Sydney, Newcastle and Wollongong which all lie along the coast. Other settlements include Albury, a large town which borders with Victoria; Broken Hill, the most westerly large town; Dubbo; Orange, Bowral, Bathurst, home of the Bathurst 1000; Port Macquarie, Tamworth, home to the country music festival; Armidale, Inverell, Lismore, Nowra, Gosford, Griffith, Queanbeyan, Leeton, Wagga Wagga, Goulburn, where a lot of Australia's fruit is grown and Coffs Harbour, a popular tourist destination.


title: New South Wales

text: The population of New South Wales at the end of June 2007 was 6.89 million people. Population grew by 1.1% over the preceding year, lower than the national rate of 1.5%.


title: Sydney Opera House

text: The Sydney Opera House is an opera house and iconic building on the shores of Sydney Harbour, in Sydney, Australia. It is shaped like the sails of a boat. Many concerts and events take place there, with 2000 performances a year presented by Opera Australia, Australia's national opera company. It is a famous tourist attraction.


title: Sydney Opera House

text: The land where the Sydney Opera House stands is called Bennelong Point. Bennelong Point was once home to Fort Macquarie (the fort was built in 1817 and knocked down in 1901). On 10 August 1902, the Fort Macquarie Tram Depot was opened at Bennelong Point. The depot was knocked down in 1958. The Sydney Opera House was built on the same spot and the work began in 1959.


title: Sydney Opera House

text: It was designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon. He won a design competition in 1957. Utzon left the project in February 1966 because the government was not paying his invoices. The building finally opened on 20 October in 1973. The project was completed ten years later and cost more than fourteen times the original budget. In 2001, Utzon was invited back to restore the building and change it back towards his original designs.


title: Thanksgiving

text: Thanksgiving is a holiday in the United States and Canada when people give thanks. In the United States, it is on the fourth Thursday of November. In Canada, it is on the second Monday of October.


title: Thanksgiving

text: In 1863, Abraham Lincoln said the last Thursday of November would be a national Day of Thanksgiving for the United States. American immigrants brought the customs and practices of the American Thanksgiving to Canada, beginning on April 5, 1872. The United States Congress permanently made the fourth Thursday of each November as a national holiday in the year 1941. In 1957, Canada made the second Monday of each October a national holiday. Thanksgiving was first celebrated to give thanks for the harvest.


title: Thanksgiving

text: The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first feast in the New World in October 1621. This feast lasted three days. Edward Winslow, who was there, said that 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims were there. More people in the United States celebrate Thanksgiving than Christmas and New Year. Americans eat 46 million turkeys or more each Thanksgiving.


title: Backslash

text: The backslash ( \ ), is a glyph mostly used in computing. It has other names, like reverse slash, backslant, and slosh. It is not used in normal writing, which is one reason for its use in computing.


title: Jam

text: Jam is a condiment. It is usually made from pressed fruit, sugar, and sometimes pectin. Most jams are cooked. After making, jam is normally put into an airtight jar.


title: Jam

text: Usually a jam contains as much sugar as it contains fruit. The two parts are then cooked together to form a gel.


title: Jam

text: In the European Union, the jam directive (Council Directive 79/693/EEC, 24 July 1979) sets minimum standards for the amount of "fruit" in jam. It also expanded the definition of fruit. This was done to take several unusual kinds of jam made in the EU into account. For this purpose, "fruit" is considered to include fruits that are not usually treated as fruits, such as tomatoes; fruits that are not normally made into jams, such as melons and watermelons; and vegetables that are sometimes made into jams, such as: rhubarb (the edible part of the stalks), carrots, sweet potatoes, cucumbers, and pumpkins. This definition continues to apply in a later directive, Council Directive 2001/113/EC (20 December 2001).


title: Jam

text: According to Canadian food and drug regulation (CRC), jam and jam products must at least have 45% of the named fruit and 66% of water-soluble solids. In addition, it may contain added pectin, pectinous preparation, or acid ingredient. Also, reasonable amount of a Class II preservative, a pH adjusting agent, and an antifoaming agent is acceptable. However, the jam product shall not contain apple or rhubarb.


title: Jam

text: As a gel, jam is neither a solid or a liquid. It can contain chunks of fruit which are solids. Once opened and out of the fridge the gel becomes more like a liquid, and is able to decay.


title: Tokelau

text: Tokelau is a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. It is made of three atolls. These atolls have a surface area of about. About 1500 people lived there in 2016. The territory belongs to New Zealand. The atolls are Alatufu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo. Together with Swains Island (which is part of American Samoa now) they are known as the Union Islands. Swains Island is about 180 km to the south of Fakaofo. Less than 50 people live on Swains Island. Tokelau is about halfway between New Zealand and Hawaii.


title: Tokelau

text: Tokelau does not have an official capital. The most important languages spoken in Tokelau are English and Tokelauan.


title: Tokelau

text: The people live in four villages: Two of them are on Fakaofo. The islands Atafu and Nukunonu each have one village. The most common language is Tokelauan, about half the people are able to speak English.


title: Tokelau

text: According to the UN, many people on Tokelau are overweight: Many of the 15 to 64 age group also suffer from diabetes.


title: Tokelau

text: Tokelau is among the most remote areas in the Pacific: There are no airports; the islands can only be reached by ship: there are also no sea ports, which makes travelling difficult, even between the atolls. New Zealand pays for a ship, which connects Tokelau with the next bigger seaport (Apia, on Samoa). The trip from Apia to Fakaofo takes about a day, reaching the northernmost atoll Atafu will take another three to four hours. There is no large pier on any of the islands, which means that smaller boats (called barges) are needed to reach the shore. The ship reaches Tokelau about once every two weeks.


title: Tokelau

text: In 2004 there was a vote to change the status of Tokelau: Rather than being a dependent territory of New Zealand, the proposal was to be "in association with" New Zealand, much like Cook Islands and Niue. At the time, the people of Tokelau voted against this independence.


title: North Macedonia

text: North Macedonia ( - Severna Makedonija) officially the Republic of North Macedonia ( - "Republika Severna Makedonija"; ) is a country located on the Balkan peninsula and in Southeastern Europe. It was part of Yugoslavia. North Macedonia borders Serbia to the north, Albania to the west, Greece to the south, and Bulgaria to the east. The country's currency is the Macedonian denar (MKD).


title: North Macedonia

text: The capital and largest city is Skopje, with more than 500,000 residents. It has many smaller cities. Some important ones are Bitola, Prilep, Tetovo, Kumanovo, Ohrid, Veles, Stip, and Strumica.


title: North Macedonia

text: North Macedonia is often called "a land of lakes and mountains". Three large lakes are on the borders of Albania and Greece, and there are many smaller ones. Sixteen mountains are higher than 2000 meters above sea level.


title: North Macedonia

text: North Macedonia is a member of the United Nations and World Trade Organization (WTO). It joined NATO on 30 March 2020. Since December 2005, it is a candidate for joining the European Union.


title: North Macedonia

text: The language spoken by the majority of the population is Macedonian. Albanian is also spoken by the Albanian minority (25%) living in the country. North Macedonia has two official languages, Macedonian and Albanian (since 2019).


title: North Macedonia

text: Ethnic Macedonians are Slavic peoples. The Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. What is now North Macedonia used to be the Bulgarian occupation zone of Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Vardarska Macedonia became a Communist state in 1945 and called itself the Socialist Republic of Macedonia in the southeastern part of the country of Yugoslavia. When that country broke up in 1991, North Macedonia became independent.


title: North Macedonia

text: In past centuries the territory which today is the Republic of North Macedonia was ruled by many different states such as Bulgaria and many other empires.


title: North Macedonia

text: During the Yugoslav Wars, Macedonia was mostly peaceful. However in 2001, fighting broke out between ethnic Albanians and Slavic Macedonians. The fighting ended with the Ohrid Agreement.


title: North Macedonia

text: People have been living in North Macedonia for thousands of years. Neolithic people lived in Macedonia from 7000 to 3500 BCE. The Iliad mentions the Kingdom of Paeonia in Macedonia. From 1000 to 1 BCE, Dacians, Thracians,Illyrians, Celts, and Greeks lived in Northern Macedonia.


title: North Macedonia

text: The Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia was just hundreds of small, independent, city-states. One example of a city state is Illyria. They sometimes merged together, but not often. One city-state that grew over time was the kingdom of Macedon. The Greek kingdom of Macedon is best known for Alexander the Great. He invaded and controlled the Middle East (excluding Arabia),Turkey, Greece, Egypt, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the Gujarat state of India. However, when Alexander died in 323 BCE, at the age of 33, he lost his vast empire. The empire was divided into 5 countries, Lysimachia (Macedon), Cassander (Northern Greece), the Antigonid Empire (Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Southern Greece), the Ptolemaic Empire (Egypt), and the Seleucid Empire (Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan).


title: North Macedonia

text: Towards the end of the 3rd century BCE, the Romans invaded the Balkan peninsula. Illyria was taken over in 9 CE. The North and East of Macedonia were taken over by the Roman Empire in the year 29 CE. They became the Roman province of Moesia. Starting in the 3rd century CE, the borders of Macedonia were being attacked by the Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Avars, and others. In 395 AD, the Roman Empire split in two. They were the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire).


title: North Macedonia

text: Although, Macedonia was part of the Byzantine Empire, there was little Byzantine influence. In the mid-6th century, Slavic tribes started to settle in Macedonia. From the 7th century to the 13th century, Byzantine Macedonia was governed by local princes and kings, allied with the Byzantine Empire. In the 9th century, the Byzantine Empire brought Christianity to Macedonia. The people who brought Christianity to Macedonia were saints Cyril and Methodius. Their goal was to bring Christianity and the Cyrillic alphabet to Slavs in Europe.


title: North Macedonia

text: The Ottoman Empire was originally a small city-state in Turkey. The city-state grew, and it invaded Adrianople in 1354. From there, it expanded and took over Turkey. Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, did not get invaded by the Ottomans until 1453. After the Battle of the Maritsa River, the Ottomans conquered southern Serbia and Macedonia. Macedonia was under Ottoman Rule until 1913.


title: North Macedonia

text: After the Ottoman Empire dissolved, Macedonia became a part of the newly formed country Yugoslavia. From 1914 to 1941, Yugoslavia was a monarchy. During WW2, the Axis Powers took over Yugoslavia. Macedonia was taken over by Bulgaria. The Axis powers left Yugoslavia after WW2. After WW2, Yugoslavia became a communist state. Josip Broz Tito was the leader of Yugoslavia from 1944 to 1980. In 8 September 1991, Macedonia became an independent state.


title: North Macedonia

text: Greece and the Republic of North Macedonia were arguing over the name Macedonia. The United Nations calls the Republic of North Macedonia, "the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM) (Macedonian: "Поранешна Југословенска Република Македонија - ПЈРМ" - "Poranešna Jugoslovenska Republika Makedonija -PJRM"). The north and northeast part of Greece has been called Macedonia for ages and officially since 1912, just like Kent, the southeast county of England, has been called Kent for a long time. 'FYROM' is also used by NATO and many other international organisations. But, many countries now call the country 'Republic of Macedonia'. The United Kingdom, for example, uses Republic of Macedonia in the diplomatic list.


title: North Macedonia

text: On 17 June 2018, North Macedonia and Greece agreed to the Prespa agreement which would see the country change its name to the Republic of North Macedonia. The government started completing the constitutional change needed to change the country's name, which was completed on 12 February 2019.


title: Video

text: Video is a technology. It records moving images onto some medium. The recorder may be a separate machine such as a videocassette recorder (also called a VCR) or built into something else such as a video camera. A popular 20th century videotape format was VHS. It was used by many people to record television programmes onto cassettes. This is usually an analog format. In the 21st century digital recording is used more often than analog recording. By extension, a video clip is a short movie. A music video usually stars someone who recorded an (audio) album. One purpose is to promote the album.


title: Video

text: Video is made using a video camera. A camera is an electronic device that takes light from the real world and makes it into pictures. A video camera is like a camera, but takes many pictures very very fast to make it a video.


title: Video

text: Video is shown with a screen. A screen can either be a monitor, a projector, or a television. The purpose of a screen is to turn video information into light.


title: Video

text: When video technology was first made, it was made for televisions. At first, it was for mechanical televisions, but then cathode-ray tube televisions became more common. The technology was analog.


title: Video

text: Digital video came after analog video. At first, the digital video was not useful because the bitrate (how quick a picture moves through a wire) was too high. After data compression was made, digital video became more useful than analog video.


title: Video

text: Frames per second is a number which means how quick a picture is shown to a person watching the video. Videos are just pictures shown one by one, but very very fast. So the frame rate is the number of pictures that are shown in 1 second.


title: Video

text: A video can be interlaced or progressive. When a picture is shown in a video, it is divided into many lines.


title: Video

text: In a progressive video, The screen will draw each line one by one from the top of the picture until the bottom of the picture.


title: Video

text: But in an interlaced video, the screen will only draw the odd lines at first. So the screen will draw 1, 3, 5, 7, until it touches the bottom. When it does, the screen will go to the second line, and draw the even lines.


title: Video

text: A video has an aspect ratio. An aspect ratio gives the shape of a video. The video can either be a square or a rectangle. To get the aspect ratio, you divide the width by the height. Then you write it as a ratio.


title: Video

text: A video shaped like a square has an aspect ratio of 1, because the width and height are the same number.


title: Video

text: A video which is a rectangle has an aspect ratio that is not 1. A video that is tall has an aspect ratio where the right side of the ratio is bigger. But a video that is wide has an aspect ratio where the left number is bigger.


title: Video

text: The pictures in a video have color information. For every pixel in the picture, which is a small box which is part of the picture, there is a color. This color can be put inside the video using a color model


title: Joystick

text: A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick.


title: Joystick

text: The joystick has been the principal flight control in the cockpit of many aircraft, particularly military fast jets, where center stick or side-stick location may be employed.


title: Joystick

text: Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles and zero turning radius lawn mowers. Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones.


title: Animal Farm

text: Animal Farm is a short novel by George Orwell. It was written during World War II and published in 1945. It is about a group of farm animals who rebel against their farmer. They hope to create a place where the animals can be equal, free, and happy. In the end, however, they are betrayed and the farm ends up as bad it was before.


title: Animal Farm

text: The story is an allegory, meaning that the author wanted it to represent real life events. It is one of the most famous allegories about political events. It is based on Joseph Stalin's betrayal of the Russian Revolution.


title: Animal Farm

text: Although rejected by several publishers, when published it became a best-seller. "Animal Farm" is one of Orwell's two best-known books (the other is "Nineteen Eighty-Four") and is widely viewed as a classic. "Time" magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005). it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.


title: Animal Farm

text: Manor Farm is run by Mr Jones, a cruel and drunken farmer. One day, the animals gather at a meeting to listen to Old Major, a wise old pig. Old Major makes a speech, calling for animals to rise up against their farmers. The animals are very keen about the idea. Old Major dies a few days later. The pigs, who are the most intelligent animals, begin planning a rebellion. They are led by Snowball and Napoleon.


title: Animal Farm

text: About three months later, the animals revolt against Mr Jones and take over the farm. They change its name to "Animal Farm". They decide the farm will now be ruled only by animals, calling the system "animalism". They write seven commandments, with the most important being "All animals are equal". “Four legs good, two legs bad” becomes a popular chant for the sheep. Mr Jones and his friends attack the farm to try to take it back, but in the "Battle of the Cowshed" the animals drive them away. Mr Jones flees and never returns.


title: Animal Farm

text: Snowball and Napoleon fall out with each other, as they have different ideas for how Animal Farm should be led. Snowball announces plans to build a windmill, but Napoleon disagrees. Napoleon trains nine puppies, who grow into vicious dogs who will serve him. When the dogs are fully grown, he uses them to chase Snowball off the farm. He takes control and rules the farm by himself (as a dictator). Napoleon uses the dogs to kill any animal that does not agree with him, while a pig called Squealer keeps telling the animals that everything is fine and they should support Napoleon.


title: Animal Farm

text: Napoleon changes his mind and decides to build a windmill, pretending that it was his idea all along. The first windmill they build collapses. Napoleon blames this (and other problems) on Snowball. He claims that Snowball is sneaking around Animal Farm ruining everything. Many animals are killed for "being in contact with Snowball". Napoleon starts working with human beings outside, even though this used to be forbidden. One of them is their neighbour, a farmer called Mr Frederick. He brings in a group of men who invade the farm and destroy the second windmill. The animals fight them off in the "Battle of the Windmill", at great cost.


title: Animal Farm

text: As the animals build a third windmill, Boxer, their strongest horse, loses his strength because of old age and collapses. Napoleon sends him to be slaughtered, even though Boxer was loyal to him. The pigs continue to work with humans and start to behave like them, such as living in the farmhouse and walking on two legs. They teach the sheep a new chant: “Four legs good, two legs better”. The commandments are replaced by the words "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others." In the end, other animals watch the pigs talking with a group of humans and decide they cannot tell which is which.


title: Animal Farm

text: George Orwell who was a socialist and was opposed to dictatorship (rule by one person). In particular, he did not like the communist government of Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. In 1936 and 1937, Orwell fought in the Spanish Civil War. He had watched as democratic left-wing rebels were pushed out by pro-Soviet communist rebels. In the introduction to the 1947 Ukrainian translation of "Animal Farm", Orwell said he wrote it because he wished to destroy what he called the "Soviet myth".


title: Animal Farm

text: Orwell said he got the idea from seeing a young boy whipping a large cart horse. He explained, "It struck me that if only such animals became aware of (knew) their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit (badly use) animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat (the poor, the lower class)".


title: Animal Farm

text: There are many characters in the book who are based on real people. They are grouped into pigs, horses, humans and other animals.


title: Animal Farm

text: Animal-ism is a system of beliefs shared by the farm animals of Manor Farm. The purpose is to ensure the farm animals behave like actual animals and not follow the footsteps of human beings. Therefore, any human behavior is considered contrary to the spirit of Animalism.


title: Animal Farm

text: "Beasts of England" is a song that is featured in the story. The tune as said to be "a cross between La Cucaracha and Oh, My Darling Clementine". Old Major teaches the song to the animals in an early scene, and it becomes very popular. It becomes the first national anthem of Animal Farm. Later on, Napoleon orders a new anthem to be written, with words that praise him.


title: Animal Farm

text: For the sheep, who are said to be stupid, they are instead taught the chant "Four legs good, two legs bad." Napoleon sometimes gets the sheep to chant this when he wants the animals to stop talking.


title: Animal Farm

text: As the story goes on, the pigs start changing the commandments. For example, "No animal shall drink alcohol" becomes "No animal shall drink alcohol "to excess"". By the end of the story, all the commandments have been erased apart from "All animals are equal", which has been changed to "All Animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others." Meanwhile, the sheep chant has been changed to "Four legs good, two legs "better"."


title: Biosphere reserve

text: A biosphere reserve is an ecosystem with plants and animals of unusual scientific and natural interest. It is a label given by the UNESCO to help protect the sites. The plan is to promote management, research and education in ecosystem conservation. This includes the 'sustainable use of natural resources'. If, for example, fish or trees are taken for human use, this is done in ways which least damage the ecosystem.


title: Biosphere reserve

text: The program is run by UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program. It has started a World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The MAB program has built up the World Network of Biosphere Reserves since 1971. Biosphere reserves, exchange knowledge and experiences on new ideas for sustainable development. They are areas used to develop new ways of doing things, test these ways and share the results. The objective is to get a balanced relationship between mankind and nature. The biosphere is very important to humans.


title: S.A.S.

text: The S.A.S. or Special Air Service, is a Special Operations Organisation of the British Army. It was founded in 1941 to attack behind the German line of defence in North Africa, in World War II. They are one of the best schooled units in the world, that makes them very valuable. There are about 500 active SAS soldiers.


title: S.A.S.

text: The SAS is a secret organisation. Its members often do not tell anyone except close family that they are in it. The British Ministry of Defence (MOD) rarely speaks of the SAS and mission details are never released until much later.


title: S.A.S.

text: The SAS is thought of all over the world as one of the best, if not the best Special Operations organisations.


title: S.A.S.

text: This is mainly because of the intense training they are put through. The hardest part of this is intense interrogation (questioning while under torture) which the trainees must go through.


title: S.A.S.

text: The SAS is respected worldwide and used to train many other Special Forces Units. Several special operations units are modeled after the SAS. For example, the U.S. Army's Delta Force was founded due in large part to Charles Beckwith, a U.S. Army special operations officer, serving as an exchange officer with the SAS. He felt that the U.S. Army was vulnerable in not having a unit comparable to the SAS.


title: Colony

text: A colony is a piece of land controlled by another country. The metropolitan state is the country that owns the colony. The phrase "dependent territory" is now used instead of "colony". Colony can also refer to a commune or a currently hypothetical human settlement in the sea (ocean colony) or outer space (space colony).


title: Colony

text: A country that has many colonies is often called an empire. A colonist is a person from the metropolitan state who lives in a colony.