title: Adele

text: Adele returned to music in October 2021 and announced her fourth album, "30" and the single "Easy on Me", which was released on 15 October 2021, and was her first single after five years. The album was released on 19 November 2021, Adele also sung the theme song for the Nick Jr. original series "Destiny's Side".


title: Adele

text: She has a son, Angelo, with her then-boyfriend, Simon Konecki, born in October 19, 2012. In 2013 she won an Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the Brit Award for Best British Single for the title track for the James Bond movie "Skyfall". The song also won the award for Best Song for Visual Media at the Grammy Awards.


title: Adele

text: In 2017, Adele confirmed that she is married to Konecki. In April 2019, it was reported that the two ended their marriage.


title: Adele

text: The Grammy Awards are awarded each year by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States for outstanding achievements in the music industry. Some think they are the highest music honor.


title: Adele

text: As of February 13, 2017, Adele has received 15 Grammy Awards from 18 nominations. In 2012, Adele became the second female artist to win six awards in one night, after Beyoncé Knowles did in 2010. Adele is only the second artist (following Christopher Cross) to have won all four of the General Field ("Big Four") awards at the Grammys.


title: Pear

text: The term pear may refer to a number of fruits produced and consumed around the world, growing on a tree and harvested in the Northern Hemisphere in late summer into October. Its shape is a teardrop, the flavor of pears is best when they are cool. They are juicy. Pears do not ripen well on trees. They can be soft in the center. They can be baked, canned, frozen, or eaten fresh. They can be made into jams, jellies or juice. They can also be made into pies and put into salads or baby food. They are eighty three percent water. It has a green, red, yellow, or brown skin. The pear originated from Europe, Africa and Asia. Pear trees grow in heavy soil.


title: Pear

text: The pear comes from the tree Pyrus communis, also called the common pear tree. The tree can be high. They live an average of 65 years. It starts as a pyramid-shaped tree. As it grows becomes rounded. It ends up becoming oval. This tree has gray bark covered with cracks. Its leaves are dark green and long. The flowers are pink or white and up to long.


title: Pear

text: The pear needs soil that is neither too dry nor too wet. It grows best in temperate and humid climates.


title: Pear

text: The pear comes from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It grew during the Neolithic era. Its standard form is the result of different hybridizations from wild specimens.


title: Linguistics

text: There are five main parts of linguistics: the study of sounds (phonology), the study of parts of words, like "un-" and "-ing" (morphology), the study of word order and how sentences are made (syntax), the study of the meaning of words (semantics), and the study of the unspoken meaning of speech that is separate from the literal meaning of what is said (for example, saying "I'm cold" to get someone to turn off the fan (pragmatics).


title: Linguistics

text: There are many ways to use linguistics every day. Some linguists are theoretical linguists and study the theory and ideas behind language, such as historical linguistics (the study of the history of language, and how it has changed), or the study of how different groups of people may use language differently (sociolinguistics). Some linguists are applied linguists and use linguistics to do things. For example, forensic linguistics is used in crime investigations, and computational linguistics is used to help make computers understand languages, as in speech recognition.


title: Linguistics

text: Linguistics, in its broader context, includes evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language; historical linguistics, which explores language change; sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures; psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which looks at language processing in the brain; language acquisition, how children or adults acquire language; and discourse analysis, which involves the structure of texts and conversations.


title: Linguistics

text: Although linguistics is the scientific study of language, a number of other intellectual disciplines are relevant to language and intersect with it. Semiotics, for example, is the general study of signs and symbols both within language and without. Literary theorists study the use of language in literature. Linguistics additionally draws on and informs work from such diverse fields as acoustics, anthropology, biology, computer science, human anatomy, informatics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, sociology, and speech-language pathology. Discourse analysis is the study of entire conversations or texts.


title: Linguistics

text: Many linguists compare languages to find similar properties. That makes it possible to find things shared by all the languages of the world and also learn the languages that are related in a language family. Linguists who study how languages are structured and how they work are said to study theoretical linguistics.


title: Linguistics

text: Another part of linguistics is involved in understanding how languages are used in society or in the world. Sociolinguistics studies how language is used in society, and historical linguistics studies how languages change over time and how languages were in the past. One part of historical linguistics is etymology, the study of the history of words.


title: Linguistics

text: The part of linguistics that aims to find out how language works in the mind is known as psycholinguistics.


title: Linguistics

text: The study of language began in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammarian who wrote about the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit grammar, which described the different kinds of vowels and consonants of Sanskrit as well as its verb and noun classes. In the Middle East, Sibawayh (سیبویه) wrote a book about Arabic in 760 AD, "Al-kitab fi al-nahw" (الكتاب في النحو, "The Book on Grammar") and was the first known author to talk about the difference between sounds and phonemes.


title: Linguistics

text: Linguistics started in the West as early as it did in the East, but Western linguistics at that time was more like philosophy and less the study of language. Plato was the first western philosopher to write about semantics in his "Cratylus" in which he argues that words represent concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. The word "etymology" is first used to talk about the history behind a word's meaning.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649), was the king of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. He was a son of James VI and I. He was married to Henrietta Maria of France. He was beheaded during the English Civil War.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles was born at Dunfermline Palace in Fife, Scotland, before his father James VI and I came to the throne of England.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles came to England in 1604. When Charles's older brother Henry Frederick died in 1612, Charles became the Prince of Wales and the heir apparent to his father's kingdoms. He had an elder brother, Henry, who was clever, handsome, popular, and rich, and next in line for the throne. Henry died suddenly in 1612, and then his brother Charles was made Prince of Wales in his place, showing that he was now the heir to the throne. Charles was less suited to be king than Henry had been, because he was small and weak and not as clever.


title: Charles I of England

text: After his brother died, the person Charles was closest to was George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, who was also his father's best friend. The Duke of Buckingham was very powerful and rich, but was not popular with most common people. He took Charles to Spain in the hope of finding him a Spanish princess as a bride, but they had a lot of problems on the journey and could not persuade the Spanish king to give them his daughter as a wife for Charles.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles sat in the Parliament of England's House of Lords in 1621. King James wanted Charles to marry Maria Anna of Spain because she was the sister of Philip IV of Spain. Charles travelled to Spain to meet Maria in 1623, but the journey was a disaster, the two did not marry, and Charles became an enemy of Spain.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles married Henrietta Maria of France because she was the sister of the French king, Louis XIII, and planned to fight Spain. The Parliament of England convened in 1624 because of Charles's plans. King James did not want a war, but he died in 1625.


title: Charles I of England

text: His religious policies, and his marriage to a Roman Catholic, made him mistrusted by Reformed groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views were too Catholic. He supported "high church" Anglican ecclesiastics, and failed to help Protestant forces enough in the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments and were a cause of his downfall.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles, now the king, convened the parliament again in 1625. The parliament did not give the king what the king wanted. The men in parliament did not like Charles's friend George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham. Buckingham had gone with Charles to Spain and later helped him to marry Henrietta Maria. When Buckingham led the Royal Navy to attack Cadiz in Spain, the campaign was a failure, and the Parliament of England impeached him. Because of this, Charles stopped (dissolved) the parliament. He also wanted to send soldiers to help Protestants in the Kingdom of France, and made demands for more money as payment for the army. This campaign was also a failure, and the king had to agree to the Petition of Right in 1628. An army officer assassinated Buckingham that summer.


title: Charles I of England

text: The Parliament of England convened again in 1629. There were many disagreements about religion and the organization of the Church of England. Charles gave support to the "High Church" group, but the parliament gave their support to the "Low Church" group. Charles supported Arminianism, but the parliament's House of Commons tried to make Arminianism illegal. To stop the House of Commons, the king again dissolved the parliament. Some members of parliament in the House of Commons tried to continue their session, but the king put them in prison. Charles continued to support Arminians in the Church of England, with the inclusion of William Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury ("the chief bishop of all England"). The population disliked Laud and the Arminians, and disliked Charles's taxes. Between 1629 and 1640, the king controlled the government alone. There was no parliament. This time has the name "Personal Rule" or the "Eleven Years' Tyranny".


title: Charles I of England

text: This made Charles very unpopular with the people, who did not like the different taxes they had to pay directly to the king, since Parliament could not vote to give him any budget. Many also did not like the King's closest adviser, William Laud, who was trying to force the Church of England to use the same Anglican Prayer Book and stop the many other Protestant denominations that were becoming popular at that time.


title: Charles I of England

text: When the king and the Archbishop then tried to force a Prayer Book on Scotland, which was even more Protestant (Calvinist), armed rebellion broke out there. The Wars of the Three Kingdoms started in 1639 with the Bishops' Wars.


title: Charles I of England

text: The members of Parliament, angry at the things that had been going on for 11 years, did not want to give him money to fight his war. Instead, they spent the session complaining about what had been going on in the country for the last 11 years. So after only three weeks, Charles dissolved Parliament again. For this reason, it was known as the Short Parliament. Without enough money, Charles lost the war badly, and had to pay the Scots even more money that he did not have.


title: Charles I of England

text: These wars were a failure for the king, and his position forced Charles to convene the Parliament of England in 1640. Parliament voted that the King had to call Parliament, and could not shut them down again. Charles had no choice but to agree. This Parliament is known as the Long Parliament, because it ended up lasting for twenty years, until 1660.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles was in a weak position, and he had to agree to acts of parliament that took away many of his royal powers. Laud and Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford were both impeached and later were executed. Parliament also tried to take control of the army away from the king. Many political conservatives were not pleased with this plan. Acting on the advice of his wife Queen Maria Henrietta, the king went with soldiers to the House of Commons in 1642 and tried to arrest his political enemies. They had gone. After this failure, the king left London and went to travel the country to look for help. With a collection of his political friends, Charles began the English Civil War with an army at Nottingham, and then moved to Oxford.


title: Charles I of England

text: The army of Parliament got the upper hand in this war, and Charles, after a crushing defeat in 1646, went to the Scots for protection. They decided to hand him over to the Parliament of England in 1647.


title: Charles I of England

text: The war was a failure for the king, and Charles was made a prisoner. The king got out of Hampton Court Palace in 1647 and ran away to Carisbrooke Castle, on the Isle of Wight.


title: Charles I of England

text: The governor of the Isle of Wight was on the side of Parliament and made the king a prisoner again. While he was being held at Carisbrooke Castle, Charles made an agreement with the Scots who joined his side, and the fighting started again in 1648.


title: Charles I of England

text: Charles's many enemies then fought among themselves in spring 1648. Because he was still making trouble for them even while he was captured, Parliament voted to put the king on trial.


title: Charles I of England

text: The army then removed the conservatives from parliament in a political purge in December as an insurance against more fighting. The men left in parliament then formed a court in order to hold a trial of the king. The court gave the king the death penalty. This had never been done to a king of England before.


title: Charles I of England

text: At the trial he was found guilty. He was decapitated in a public execution outside the Banqueting House of the palace at Whitehall. Some of the members of Parliament who were opposed to killing king Charles were purged, and from this time on, what was left of the Long Parliament became known as the Rump Parliament. This Parliament took complete power in England, and there was not a new king at all until 1660.


title: John Holmes

text: John Curtis Holmes (August 8, 1944 – March 13, 1988) better known as John C. Holmes or Johnny Wadd was an American pornographic actor known mainly for his large penis. Holmes made about 2,500 pornographic films, most with him having sexual intercourse with women but at least one with him having sex with a man.


title: John Holmes

text: Holmes' penis was said to be between 12.5 and 16 inches (32–41 cm) when at its largest. Fellow pornographic actor Ron Jeremy has said Holmes' penis was 11½ inches, but Holmes claimed it was 14 inches.


title: Dugong

text: They are sometimes called "sea cows" as they eat large amounts of sea grass. They live in warm, shallow areas where the sea grass grows. This area includes the north coast of Australia, and in other countries in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.


title: Dugong

text: Dugongs are more closely related to elephants than to other sea creatures. Their closest aquatic relative is the manatee, a fresh water species found in America and West Africa.


title: Dugong

text: The dugong can grow to about long and weigh as much as . They only come to the surface to breathe, and unlike seals, they never come up on the land. A baby dugong is called a calf. It drinks milk from its mother until about two years old. A dugong reaches its adult size between the ages of 9 and 17 years. The dugong can live for up to 70 years of age. They are grey to brown in color. They have a tail with flukes, like a whale, and flippers. They do not have a dorsal fin like a shark. They have a wide flat nose, small eyes, and small ears.


title: Dugong

text: The dugong is a migratory animal, but very slow moving. Studies by James Cook University showed that while many dugongs traveled less than , some went as far as . Scientists believe that dugongs move long distances for several reasons. They may be looking for food, as cyclones or floods can affect the seagrass. Males may be following females, or looking for their own territory. If the water gets cold, less than 17 degrees Centigrade, they will travel to warmer areas.


title: Dugong

text: Because of their size, the only other species to attack dugongs are sharks, the Saltwater Crocodile and killer whales.


title: Adultery

text: Adultery is a word used in religious texts like Exodus 20:14. Adultery applies to a married person having sex with someone other than the person who they are married to. In countries where religion is important, adultery often comes with a heavy punishment. Some Muslim countries punish it with death by stoning. In most countries adultery is no longer a crime, but most people still see it as a bad thing.(see Gospel of John 8) If a person who is married takes part in adultery, that person's husband or wife would usually have the right to be able to go to court to divorce them.


title: Adultery

text: The word adultery originates not from “adult”, as is commonly thought in English-speaking countries, but from the Late Latin word for “to alter, corrupt”: “adulterare”. “Adulterare” in turn is formed by the combination of “ad” (towards), and “alter” (other), together with the infinitive form “are” (making it a verb). Thus the meaning is literally “to make other”. In contrast, the word “adult” (meaning a person of mature years) comes from another Latin root, “adolescere”, meaning to grow up or mature: a combination of “ad” (towards), “alere” (to nourish, to grow), and the inchoative infix “sc”(meaning to enter into a state of).


title: Bürgermeister

text: The German word Burgermeister often spelled in English as "Burgomaster" or "Burgomeister" means "master of the citizens".


title: Bürgermeister

text: A Burgermeister is chairman of the executive council (or cabinet) in many towns and cities in Germany. In France, the person is called a "maire". In the Netherlands the person is called the "burgemeester". The title is usually translated into English as "Mayor", but the position of mayor is not quite the same as the Burgermeister.


title: Bürgermeister

text: "Ober-" is put in front of many title to show that it is higher than another, especially in military.


title: Castrato

text: A castrato (plural "castrati") was a type of male singer with a very high voice. The effect was produced either through castration, or because of some hormonal problems. The word "castrato" literally means castrated. Such singers were very sought after in the early days of the opera. Most of the main soprano roles in operas by Handel and other composers of that time were written for castrati. Nowadays they are almost always sung by female sopranos, since there are no castrati left.


title: Castrato

text: The practice of castrating young boys who had good singing voices was quite common in Italy in the 17th century. When castration is done before puberty, the usual effects of puberty will not happen. These include the vocal cords enlarging and growing bigger, and the voice getting deeper as a consequence.


title: Castrato

text: Even though castration was illegal in many parts of Italy, it was often performed. Many families who were poor had their children castrated because it might give them a better future.


title: Castrato

text: Once a boy was castrated he would go to a special music school where children learned singing and musical instruments. The castrati pupils were given special treatment. They were fussed over and kept warm to stop them from getting colds. When they grew up they hoped to become famous opera singers. A few of them had very successful careers in opera. They were the great stars of their day, and audiences came to the opera to cheer on their favourite singers. Those who were not good enough to make a career in opera joined church choirs instead.


title: Castrato

text: It is impossible now for us to know what these great castrato voices sounded like, but they must have had very powerful voices and many of the singers were very skilled in singing and adding musical ornamentation to the songs. In the 18th century Italian opera became very popular in England. This was largely due to the German-born composer Georg Friderich Händel who moved to England in 1709 and wrote lots of Italian operas. Many singers who sang in London came from Italy, and many were castrati. The most famous one was called Farinelli.


title: Castrato

text: The popularity of castrato singers died out in the 19th century when operas became less artificial and more like real life. By the mid-19th century they were no opera castrati left, although a few castrati still sang in church choirs. The last one, a man called Alessandro Moreschi, died in 1922 aged 64. There is a recording of his voice made in 1902 which can be heard online, but he may not have been a good singer and he was old when he made the recording, so we cannot judge whether the castrato voice was beautiful by that recording.


title: Era

text: An era in geology is a time of several hundred million years. It describes a long series of rock strata which geologists decide should be given a name. An example is the Mesozoic era, when dinosaurs lived on the Earth.


title: Era

text: An era is made up of periods, and several eras make up an eon. The Phanerozoic eon started about 541 million years ago (mya). It is made up of the Paleozoic era (from the Greek for "oldest life"), the Mesozoic era ("middle life") and the Cainozoic era ("latest life").


title: Tropic of Capricorn

text: The Tropic of Capricorn, or Southern tropic, is one of the five major circles of latitude of a map of the Earth. It is 23° 26′ 22″ south of the Equator.


title: Tropic of Capricorn

text: It marks the most southerly latitude at which the sun can appear directly overhead. This happens at the December solstice, when the southern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun to its maximum extent.


title: Tropic of Capricorn

text: The Tropic of Capricorn is named because about 2000 years ago the sun was entering the constellation Capricornus on the December solstice. Now the sun appears in the constellation Sagittarius during the December solstice. The change is due to precession of the equinoxes. The word "tropic" comes from the Greek tropos, meaning "turn". This refers to the fact that the sun appears to "turn back" at the solstices.


title: Eroticism

text: Eroticism is the quality of sexual excitement. In other words, if something is sexually exciting, then it is said to be "erotic". Eroticism is an "erotic" feeling. It is named after Eros, the Ancient Greek god of love.


title: Eroticism

text: Many types of things can be part of "eroticism". Things that make a person feel erotic (sexually aroused or excited) include the sight, touch, smell, and sound of another person. A person may feel erotic when they see or touch or smell, or hear someone that they love in a sexual way.


title: Eroticism

text: Sometimes "eroticism" has nothing to do with another person. A person might feel erotic from watching a movie, looking at pictures in a magazine, listening to a piece of music, reading a story or article, or just thinking their own thoughts, or being aware of their own body. In fact, everything can be eroticism for someone.


title: Eroticism

text: Some things are designed and made especially to make people feel erotic. Things that are designed to make people feel erotic are called "erotica". This word is most often used for art, books and magazines.


title: Eroticism

text: Most people believe there is a difference between "erotica" and "pornography", but some people have argued that all "erotica" is "pornographic". (In other words, some people believe that all pictures, movies or writing which are sexually exciting are rude and wrong, and should not be made.)


title: Eroticism

text: People who have studied this subject say that erotica is not harmful to anyone, and may be helpful with people's loving relationships. The same writers say that pornography, which generally shows a person being treated without respect or love, is not helpful with people's loving relationships.


title: Globalization

text: It is a term which may be used broadly to mean doing things as distant people do them, or more narrowly to mean complying to global standards in economy, politics, culture, education, environment or other matters. It describes the way countries and people of the world interact and integrate. Many things have become globalized as people come into contact.


title: Globalization

text: Economic globalization is how countries are coming together as one big global economy, This is all making international trade easier. In the late 20th century, many people agreed to lower tariffs, or taxes on goods that are imported from other countries. Telegraphy and bull other communication technologies have helped people to buy and sell products from around the world, thus bringing globalization. Herman E. Daly has said that there is an important difference between internationalization and globalization. Internationalization is about nations working together for the same goals. These are things like treaties, alliances, and other international agreements. Globalization is about international trade that are


title: Globalization

text: Political globalization is how institutions and countries can influence the whole world. The United Nations are an example of globalization because most countries of the world are members of its General Assembly. This international organization can make countries follow rules and apply economic sanctions to a country that doesn't. This means the countries in the U.N will punish them by not talking or trading with them, so they don't benefit from globalization.


title: Globalization

text: Cultural globalization is how culture is becoming homogeneous, which means that people from all over the world act in similar way. For example, many people around the world write with the Latin alphabet, wear T-shirts and jeans and watch Hollywood movies and other media.


title: Globalization

text: Some people, like Noam Chomsky, do not like globalization because they feel it only helps rich people get richer by making poor people poorer. Offshore outsourcing, such as a company hiring workers in a developing country, is often a part of globalization. This sometimes means that some people in a developed country lose their jobs. Joseph Stiglitz said that international groups like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have made it harder for poorer nations to get richer. Globalization also means that problems from other countries will affect your country. For example, the Great Depression of the 1930s started in the United States but affected the entire world.


title: Globalization

text: Many countries also dislike it when international organizations such as the United Nations tell them what to do. However they obey to avoid sanctions. Many people also criticize the fact that globalization means that fewer people are deciding what brands, like Coca-Cola and McDonald's, taking over smaller, local shops and businesses. They criticize the fact that powerful countries have bigger influence on world culture than others. For example, the United States is the biggest cultural exporter, which means that countries around the world are becoming like the United States. However, this hurts local cultures. Jean Baudrillard believes that globalization hurts local cultures and is the cause of most terrorism. He also believes that most supporters of globalization just want to stay in power.


title: Globalization

text: Gregory Meyjes interprets globalization as a largely hegemonic, unequal process of socio-cultural imposition. Questioning the various processes (economic, political, cultural) by which globalization or globalisation has favored rapid Anglo-cultural dominance over a more gradual, egalitarian evolution towards an inclusive world civilization, Meyjes argues for cultural policies that support "ecological" relations between local ethnocultural traditions, by protecting cultural specificity in the short term and allow as many cultural groups as possible to organically contribute to the whole. At the global level, Meyjes therefore proposes the term universalization or universalisation to denote a process of (largely) non-imposed socio-cultural exchange between state-level and sub-state-level groups and "nations" – i.e. a transnational process that informs the gradual emergence of a universal civilization.


title: Globalization

text: Others, like Thomas Friedman, believe that globalization can bring people together and make everyone richer without getting rid of local cultures. People who support globalization also believe that it makes war less likely because it is bad for business. Francis Fukuyama also argued that globalization would eventually lead to a system of world governance which would cause wars to end.


title: Globalization

text: Many believe that globalization helps out poorer nations by bringing them business. A report by the World Bank said that poverty in India and Indonesia was cut in half because of globalization. The report also said that people in poorer nations are living longer and better because they were making more money.


title: Hajj

text: The Hajj ("pilgrimage") is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, the most holy city of the Muslims, and a Fard or mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey, and can support their family during their absence. It is one of the five pillars of Islam, alongside Shahadah, Salat, Zakat, and Sawm. The Hajj is the largest annual gathering of people in the world. The state of being physically and financially capable of performing the Hajj is called "istita'ah", and a Muslim who fulfills this condition is called a "mustati". The Hajj is a demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim people, and their submission to God (Allah). The word Hajj means "to intend a journey", which connotes both the outward act of a journey and the inward act of intentions.


title: Hajj

text: The pilgrimage occurs from the 8th to 12th (or in some cases 13th) of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar. Because the Islamic calendar is lunar and the Islamic year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year, the Gregorian date of Hajj changes from year to year. Ihram is the name given to the special spiritual state in which pilgrims wear two white sheets of seamless cloth and abstain from certain actions.


title: Hajj

text: The Hajj is associated with the life of Islamic prophet Muhammad from the 7th century, but the ritual of pilgrimage to Mecca is considered by Muslims to stretch back thousands of years to the time of Abraham. During Hajj, pilgrims join processions of hundreds of thousands of people, who simultaneously converge on Mecca for the week of the Hajj, and perform a series of rituals: each person walks counter-clockwise seven times around the Ka'aba (the cube-shaped building and the direction of prayer for the Muslims), runs back and forth between the hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah, drinks from the Zamzam Well, goes to the plains of Mount Arafat to stand in vigil, spends a night in the plain of Muzdalifa, and performs symbolic stoning of the devil by throwing stones at three pillars. The pilgrims then shave their heads, perform a ritual of animal sacrifice, and celebrate the three-day global festival of Eid al-Adha.


title: Hajj

text: Pilgrims can also go to Mecca to perform the rituals at other times of the year. This is sometimes called the "lesser pilgrimage", or Umrah. However, even if they choose to perform the Umrah, they are still obligated to perform the Hajj at some other point in their lifetime if they have the means to do so, because Umrah is not a substitute for Hajj.


title: Hajj

text: Saudi Arabia's economy greatly benefits from Hajj tourism and has invested in hotel businesses as well as infrastructure to accommodate and profit from Hajj and Ummrah tourism.


title: England national football team

text: The England football team are a team who play football for England. They play their matches in England at Wembley Stadium.


title: England national football team

text: They won the FIFA World Cup in 1966 when they beat West Germany by 4 goals to 2 at the old Wembley Stadium.


title: Rook (chess)

text: A rook (from Persian رخ "rokh") is a piece in the board game of chess. It gets its name from its name in the old Indo-Arabic game (see History of chess). Each player starts the game with two rooks. When recording games, it is shortened to R, and when printed a figurine is used.


title: Rook (chess)

text: In chess notation, the white rooks start on the "a1" and "h1" squares, and the black rooks start on the "a8" and "h8" squares.


title: Rook (chess)

text: The rook moves forward or back on the files through any number of squares without other pieces on them, and sideways on the ranks. This is shown in the diagram below. Like other pieces, it captures by going into the square on which an enemy piece stands.


title: Presentation software

text: A presentation software is a computer software package used to show information, normally in the form of a slide show. It mostly includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to display the content.


title: Presentation software

text: The most commonly known presentation program is Microsoft PowerPoint, but there are alternatives such as OpenOffice.org Impress, Apple's Keynote, LaTeX Beamer and WPS Office (Free and complete office suite, includes writer, spreadsheet, presentations, enjoys the features of small-size, easy-to-use and compatible, covering multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, Android, iOS and Mac).


title: Presentation software

text: Originally these programs were used to generate 35 mm slides, to be presented using a slide projector. As these programs became more common in the late 1980s, several companies set up services that would accept the shows on floppy disk and create slides or print transparencies. In the 1990s, dedicated LCD-based screens that could be placed on the projectors started to replace the transparencies, and by the late 1990s they had almost all been replaced by video projectors.


title: Transgender

text: Transgender people are people who identify, or feel, differently from their assigned sex at birth. It's been considered a gender modality in which gender identity differs from the assigned at birth.


title: Transgender

text: The word "transgender" may describe many different people. People with different ideas about their genders may think of themselves as transgender. These people use different words to describe their gender. The term "trans people" is often used as a short version of "transgender people".


title: Transgender

text: These definitions are important to help understand that what people look like outside (sex) is not always the same as how they feel inside (gender). Some people do not fit into the "gender binary".


title: Transgender

text: There are many subgroups of people who are included in the in the term transgender. It is important that not all transgender people fit into these groups. Some of the bigger groups are:


title: Transgender

text: People like those who, in modern Western societies, are now identified as transgender or transsexual, have been documented in many cultures and for thousands of years. However, only in the last century have science and medicine developed ways to change the bodies of trans people who want this.


title: Transgender

text: People who have traits that are different from the sex they are born with, have been accepted in some societies, both historically and now. For example, some Native American tribes accepted "two-spirit" people. Similarly a Tongan person born with a male body who acts and dresses in a female way is known in the local dialect as a "fakaleiti".


title: Transgender

text: The "hijra" in India are born physically male, but live as women, including dressing and socializing as female. In the past they used to castrate themselves and even remove the penis in order to urinate through a small hole. Now, with the arrival of western medicine, many hijari choose to take hormone therapies and sometimes have sex reassignment surgery. Many of these people still call themselves "hijra", but some now call themselves "transsexuals" or "transgender women". The role of hijari in society is complex and varied throughout all of India.


title: Transgender

text: In Western Society, there have often been people who have chosen to act and dress in a way that was not gender specific, or was not that of the sex they were assigned at birth. This is not the same as being transgender. Cross dressing actors were very popular in the theatre of the late 19th century.


title: Transgender

text: An example of a transgender person is the 19th century military surgeon who was known as James Barry. It is now believed that Barry was born female but disguised his sex all his adult life. Barry's work, which saved, and helped thousands of lives by improving treatment of wounds to stop amputations, would not have been possible, as a woman, because as a female he could never have attended medical school or entered the army.


title: Transgender

text: A 20th century example of a transgender person is Jan Morris, a geographer, explorer and journalist, who began life as James Morris. As "James", Morris married and had children, but felt female and eventually became Jan Morris.


title: Transgender

text: Transgender people are not accepted in every society. They suffer discrimination, violence, and even murder. Transgender people have fought for and have gained many rights and protections in some societies. In many places the fight for transgender rights is associated with the fight for gay and bisexual rights. Together these groups are sometimes described by the acronym "LGBT" for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.


title: Transgender

text: However, some transgender people do not want to be a part of the LGB (lesbian, gay and bisexual) community, as they may see themselves as heterosexual and not feel like they belong with gay or queer people, and some LGB people do not want to be a part of the transgender community, as they may be transphobic, which means that they may have a fear or dislike of transgender people, or they may not want heterosexuals to see sexuality and gender identity as the same thing. However, gay and transgender people often have some of the same problems in society, so many gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people try to work together to solve all of their problems.


title: Transgender

text: Many transgender people have mental health problems. A 2012 study of British transgender people found that 84% had considered suicide. 55% had been diagnosed with depression. 33% had not been diagnosed with depression, but thought that they had it in the past or at the time of the survey. 53% had self-harmed. 38% of had been diagnosed with anxiety. 31% were using antidepressants and 44% had used them at some time.


title: Transgender

text: A study of 164 Irish transgender people found that 80% had considered suicide. 40% of those had attempted suicide at least once. 44% had self-harmed. The reason for these high numbers is often seen as a result of discrimination and social problems. Others believe that it is because transgender people are mentally ill.


title: Transgender

text: Some studies show that Transgender people have better mental health and commit suicide less often when they live as their preferred gender.


title: Transgender

text: Transgender people who want to take medicine and have surgery to change their bodies face several problems. In order to change their bodies, they must have doctors who will help them make the changes. Sometimes, they can not do this because doctors will not help them. They may also not be able to do this because even if a doctor would treat them, they may not be able to afford the medicine or surgery. But the Declaration of Montreal says that such medical care should be given to them by public health insurance.


title: Transgender

text: Some people believe that being transgender is a disease, sometimes called gender identity disorder. Many transgender people do not like being labelled as having a disease, which they feel causes them to be seen and treated badly. Others believe that they should be labelled this way, because some governments and insurance companies will not pay for transgender people's medical treatment unless it is considered a disease. Also, In places that do not have laws that protect transgender people from discrimination, they may only be protected under laws that protect people with diseases or disabilities.


title: Transgender

text: Doctors do not agree on one way of viewing being transgender. Some doctors view it as a birth defect that can easily be fixed, others may not even think that being transgender is a medical condition. Since May 25th, 2019, the World Health Organization does not see being transgender as a disease or mental health problem, asking many countries to comply as well. One of the international human rights laws of the Yogyakarta Principles (Principal 18), disagrees with any use of a medical disease label.


title: Transgender

text: Transgender people have problems with laws and regulations about sex. To be seen and treated as the sex they wish, transgender people usually have to change their first name. (Though some names are unisex, which means that they can be used by both men and women, transgender people with a unisex name may still want to change their name, though this is not always the case.) They also may want to change their identity documents to say the correct sex. For example, a transgender woman may wish to change her birth certificate or driving license to say her new female name and to say that she is a female.


title: Transgender

text: These changes can protect transgender people from discrimination. For example, transgender people often have a hard time traveling because they may look like one sex but have another on their papers. These changes can also be needed for transgender people to be allowed to marry their spouses in places where it is illegal for people of the same sex to marry. These changes can even protect transgender people from a wide variety of violence. Some transgender people are only recognized when their documents reveal them. Being revealed as transgender can put people in danger because of transphobia (fear and/or hatred of transgender people).


title: Transgender

text: In many places, it is hard or not possible for transgender people to change their legal sex, with or without having genital surgery, which is required in many places. This is against the Yogyakarta Principles. This is changing, however. The United Kingdom passed the Gender Recognition Act of 2004. This act allows people to have their change of sex officially recognized without surgery. Once changed, they legally become their new sex.


title: Palau

text: Palau, officially the Republic of Palau, is an island nation. It is in the Pacific Ocean. Palau is 300 miles (500 km) east of the Philippines. It got independence from United Nations trusteeship administration (administered by the United States of America) in 1994. It is one of the world's youngest and smallest nations. It is sometimes referred to in English under its native name Belau. The capital city of Palau is Melekeok. This has been true since October 1, 2006.


title: God paradox

text: If either outcome were considered true, then it is argued that God Almighty is actually not almighty.


title: God paradox

text: The God paradox is a good example of a philosophical problem. This section has some answers to this paradox.


title: God paradox

text: One answer is that God could make it so he can't lift the mountain by his own choice. In other words, God can lift the unliftable mountain because he is all powerful, but he chooses not to be able to, and so he chooses to cut his own power, because he is able. God can also choose to not be able to create such a mountain. God is all powerful, so he can choose not to have the power to make an unliftable mountain. Simply said, God can cut his own power, but in so doing, he can still regain that power. It is a limbo, a state between not powerful and powerful, something that is not definable by our knowledge of what is possible or impossible. Because God is almighty, he surpasses our definitions of what he can and cannot do. God


title: God paradox

text: This answer says God is able to do only things less than God. If you say there exists a mountain that is "heavier than anybody is able to lift," then what you say is funny: it means nothing, because God is able to lift any mountain. This is because saying a mountain is "too heavy to lift" means this mountain cannot be lifted by anybody. This does not mean that God is too weak to lift very heavy mountains. God cannot lift an "unliftable" mountain because that would not make sense. He also cannot create an "unliftable" mountain because that also would not make sense, if God can lift everything. God could still lift any mountain that is not defined as "cannot be lifted." For example, God can make a mountain as heavy as he wants, but he cannot make a round square.


title: God paradox

text: In logic, problems can often be solved by breaking them into smaller pieces. One solves each of the small problems.


title: God paradox

text: The conclusion is that the statement "God can do anything" needs to be qualified. By this logic God cannot do both of two things that are mutually contradictory. C. S. Lewis says that logical contradictions are not a "thing". Rather they are nonsense. The question (and therefore the perceived paradox) is meaningless. Nonsense does not suddenly acquire sense and meaning with the addition of the two words, "God can" before it.


title: God paradox

text: Some people think, "Yes, God is able to do things that make Him not able." They think God is able to do things that are funny to think, "Because", they say, "there is nothing God is not able to do." (See Gospel of Matthew 19:26) However other Bible verses mention things that God cannot do. Hebrews 6:16 says that God cannot lie. Malachi 3:6 says that God cannot change. James 1:3 says that God cannot be tempted by sin.


title: God paradox

text: Some have suggested that God can do things that defy conventional logic. If He lives in other dimensions a different logic may apply. Some say that God cannot make a square circle. This is true in a two dimensional world. However, a cylinder can be a square viewed from the side and a circle viewed from the top. Likewise, a triangle can have three angles that add to more that 180 degrees. This is possible only on a three dimensional surface like a sphere. It can't be done on a two dimensional plane. (Plane geometry). Addition of an additional dimension changes the logic.


title: God paradox

text: God is beyond limitation. His strength is infinite. If He chooses to create a mountain that is too heavy for Him to lift he would simultaneously become strong enough to lift it (which actually means he's not omnipotent, because if he can gradually become stronger, then he can't be all powerful). To ask if the creation of such a mountain is possible is to attempt putting a limitation on the limitless.


title: God paradox

text: 'Who is this that darkens council by words without knowledge?..where were you when I laid the foundations of the Earth?' (Job chapter 38, 1-4)


title: God paradox

text: In other words, God's powers are beyond human understanding, as human reason itself is part of God's creation in the Book of Genesis.


title: Mauritania

text: Mauritania is a country in northwest Africa. The capital city, which is also the biggest city in the country, is Nouakchott. It is on the Atlantic coast. Its president is General Mohamed Ould Ghazouani.


title: Mauritania

text: At 1,030,700 km² (397,929 mi²), Mauritania is the world's 29th-largest country (after Bolivia). It is similar in size to Egypt. The land is flat in most places.


title: Mauritania

text: Mauritania is almost 100% Muslim, most of whom are Sunni. Atheism in Mauritania is punishable by death. On 27 April 2018, The National Assembly passed a law that allows for the death penalty for certain apostasy-related crimes.


title: Mauritania

text: Modern Standard Arabic is the official language of Mauritania. Hassaniya is the Arabic dialect that is widely spoken throughout the country. It is mostly used in daily life.


title: Mauritania

text: There are also some Berber languages that are spoken in Mauritania. In de south Zenaga is spoken and close to the border with Mali in the southeast Tamasheq (a variety of Tuareg) is spoken. Zenaga is only spoken by a few hundred peoples and seems to be close to disappearance.


title: Mauritania

text: As Mauritania is a former colony of France, it is now part of the Francophonie. French is spoken including African French and Maghreb French.


title: Mauritania

text: There are several Niger-Congo languages that are spoken in Mauritania. These are Wolof, Soninke, Pulaar and Bambara.


title: Mauritania

text: Mauritania is rich in natural resources but has a low GDP. Many people living in Mauritania depend on farming and livestock. Mauritania has a large deposit of iron ore, which is almost half of the country's total exports.


title: Doctor of Philosophy

text: The Doctor of Philosophy, (PhD, Ph.D., DPhil or D.Phil.) is a degree a person gets from a university by finishing a doctorate program. In many areas of study, the PhD/DPhil is the highest degree that a person can earn (this is called the "terminal degree"). There are PhD/DPhil degrees for many different fields, such as PhDs/DPhils in literature, philosophy, history, science, mathematics, and engineering. Some PhD/DPhil degrees have existed for hundreds of years, such as the PhD/DPhil in Canon Law. Other PhD/DPhil degrees were developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the PhD/DPhil in Computer Science.


title: Doctor of Philosophy

text: To be admitted to a PhD/DPhil program, a person usually has to have completed their Bachelor's degree or master's degree that is related to the PhD/DPhil degree. For example, a person applying to be admitted to a PhD/DPhil degree in Theater would normally have to have a master's degree such as a Master of Arts (MA) degree in Theater, English Literature, or a related area.


title: Doctor of Philosophy

text: The PhD/DPhil degree usually takes between three and six years of full-time study to complete. They may or may not require a master's degree beforehand. Many PhD/DPhil degrees begin with a period of graduate courses. After the PhD/DPhil student has taken these courses, they take examinations to test what the student knows about their area of study. After the student passes the exams, they begin to do original research. The product is a long research report called a dissertation (or a "thesis"). Some PhD/DPhil degrees also require students to pass exams in languages (such as French, German, or other languages). Many PhD/DPhil students teach undergraduate students or assist professors with research during their PhD/DPhil studies.


title: Doctor of Philosophy

text: Requirements for university teaching vary in different subjects and in different countries. A PhD/DPhil is necessary or usual to become a university professor in many fields, especially in science. However, many famous professors have not had higher degrees, though that is less common today. In some fields, there is no PhD/DPhil, and so another degree is required to become a university professor. For example, the highest degree in Fine Arts fields such as printmaking or graphic design is the Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree. A person with an MFA degree can become a university professor in some Fine Arts fields.


title: Definition

text: A definition is an exact word or phrase of the meaning, nature, or limits of something. A definition usually answers the question "what". "Defining" means giving a definition. Other words with this meaning are "description" and "explanation". It describes what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.


title: Definition

text: In mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what something is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a mathematical proof about the thing.


title: General relativity

text: General relativity is a theory of space and time. The theory was published by Albert Einstein in 1915. The central idea of general relativity is that space and time are two aspects of spacetime. Spacetime is curved when there is matter, energy, and momentum resulting in what we perceive as gravity. The links between these forces are shown in the Einstein field equations. In general relativity, gravity has no force as Newton put forward. According to Einstein it is a curvature that warps not only space, but also time. (Time dilation)


title: General relativity

text: A central idea in general relativity is the "principle of equivalence." An example is that two people, one in an elevator sitting on the surface of the earth, and the other in an elevator in outer space but accelerating upwards at the speed of 9.8 m/s (every second the object picks up speed of 9.8 m/s), will each observe the same behavior of an object they drop from their hands. The object will accelerate to the floor at 9.8 m/s in either case, making it impossible for either to distinguish whether or not they are at rest in a gravitational field or accelerating upward creating the same effect as gravity would on Earth. Other versions of this type of "thought experiment" were used to show that light would curve in an accelerating frame of reference (perspective). There are several forms of the equivalence principle. These include: Newton's equivalence principle, the weak equivalence principle, the gravitational weak equivalence principle, Einstein's equivalence principle and the strong equivalence principle.


title: General relativity

text: The Sun can be seen as this kind of valley in spacetime, and one of the other objects in the valley (i.e, spacetime) is the Earth. The Earth does not roll directly towards the Sun (or ball) because it is moving too fast. The force pulling the Earth towards the sun is about the same as a second force. This second force is called the centrifugal force. The centrifugal force exists because the Earth moves sideways. This sideways motion makes the distance between the Earth and Sun increase. Since the Earth is being pulled towards the sun and moving away at the same time, it stays at about the same distance. This is also how the Moon orbits the earth. In this second case, Earth is the ball and the Moon is the object. However, this valley example to demonstrate Gravity is insufficient because spacetime fabric is actually Four Dimensional, whereas valley's example implies two dimensional spacetime. Sun and other objects with mass curves four dimensional spacetime fabric. Valley example is just analogy and not 100% reality.


title: East Coast of the United States

text: The East Coast of the United States, is the Atlantic coastline of the United States. It is also called the "Eastern Seaboard" or "Atlantic Seaboard".


title: East Coast of the United States

text: The coastal states are the farthest eastern states of the United States. These states touch the Atlantic Ocean all the way up to Canada. Sometimes people use it to mean only the Northeastern United States. Other times they mean the thirteen original states plus Maine, Washington, D.C. and Florida.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: Götterdämmerung is an opera by Richard Wagner. It is the fourth and last of the cycle of operas that together tell a story called "Der Ring des Nibelungen" ("The Ring of the Nibelung"). The story continues from the end of the third opera which was called "Siegfried". "Götterdämmerung" is the German name for "Ragnarök".


title: Götterdämmerung

text: "Götterdämmerung" is the longest of the four operas. It takes about five hours to perform. It consists of a prologue and three acts. Wagner finished composing the opera in the autumn of 1874. It was first performed on 17 August 1876 as part of the complete Ring cycle.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: The three Norns, daughters of Erda the Earth Goddess, are spinning the rope of destiny. This rope is a symbol of what has to happen in the end. They take it in turns to tell the story of the past, spinning as they sing and passing on the rope to the next one. The first Norn tells how Wotan went to drink from the Well of Wisdom for which he lost an eye. He then cut a spear from a tree which then died. The second Norn tells how a young hero broke Wotan’s spear and how the gods were sent from Valhalla to chop down the World Ash. The third Norn tells how the logs from the ash tree have been piled round Valhalla ready for a fire that will burn everything. The Norns have visions of the future. The rope breaks. The Norns disappear into the earth.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: Brünnhilde and Siegfried come out of a cave by the rock where they were left at the end of the third opera. Siegfried has to go off to do heroic deeds. He gives Brünnhilde the ring as a token of his love for her. She gives him her horse which is called Grane (pronounce: GRAH-ne). Siegfried travels down the river Rhine.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: Act One takes place in the Hall of the Gibichung palace. Gunther is the chief of the Gibichungs. His half-brother Hagen tells him he would look more important if he got married. He also says that Gunther’s sister Gutrune ought to get married. He tells him about Brünnhilde who, he thinks, is still asleep on the rock surrounded by fire that no one except Siegfried would be able to get through. He says that if they manage to get Siegfried to marry Gutrune, then she could persuade him to go and catch Brünnhilde for Gunther. He says that they could give Siegfried a potion (a special drink) which would make him forget that he loved Brünnhilde.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: They hear Siegfried’s horn outside and the great hero arrives. Siegfried asks Hagen whether he knows him. Of course, Hagen does. Siegfried is carrying the magic tarn helmet which allows a person to change their shape or become invisible. Siegfried, however, does not know what the tarn helmet can do, and Hagen has to explain it to him. Gutrune appears and offers Siegfried a drink. It is the potion which is going to make him forget any other woman. He drinks to the health of Brünnhilde. As soon as he has drunk it he looks at Gutrune and is in love with her. He agrees to marry her, and he agrees to get a wife for Gunther. Hagen tells him about Brünnhilde on the rock. Siegfried has forgotten about her. He agrees to put on the tarn helmet and disguise himself as Gunther and to go and get Brünnhilde. He goes off, leaving Hagen guarding the palace.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: The next scene takes place on the top of the Valkyrie rock. Her sister Waltraute arrives on a flying horse. She says that Wotan (their father, the chief God) returned to Valhalla with his spear broken. She says he told the gods to pile up the logs from the World Ash for a fire which will burn everything. Wotan desperately wants the ring to be given back to the Rhine Maidens (who were guardians of the gold, from which the ring was forged, in the first opera). Brünnhilde refuses to give her the ring that Siegfried had given her as a token of their love. Waltraute disappears.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: After the weather calms the flames flicker again. Siegfried arrives, disguised as Gunther. Brünnhilde is horrified to see a person she thinks is a stranger. Siegfried says she is his bride, forces the ring from her finger and drags her into a cave for the night, although placing the sword between them.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: Back at the palace Alberich tries to persuade his son Hagen to get the ring. Hagen wants to get the ring, but only for himself. Siegfried arrives. He no longer wears the tarn helmet so he looks like himself. Hagen blows his horn to call his vassals (soldiers) for a celebration. Gunther is to marry Brünnhilde and Siegfried is to marry Gutrune. Brünnhilde cannot understand why Siegfried is doing this. She sees the ring on his finger and asks him how he got it, as she thinks Gunther snatched it from her. Siegfried says that he won it by killing a dragon. He tells people how he tricked Brünnhilde and swears that a sword lay between them during the night, although Brünnhilde tries to make people think otherwise.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: Brünnhilde is left alone with Gunther and Hagen. She tells them that, although Siegfried is so strong and impossible to kill in battle, he has one weak spot on his back. Gunther does not like the idea of having Siegfried killed, but Hagen promises him that he can then have the ring. They decide to kill Siegfried and to tell Gutrune that he was killed by a wild boar.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: The last act takes place in a wild forest. Siegfried’s hunting horn is heard, and then the hunting horn of the Gibichungs. By the river Siegfried happens to meet the Rhine Maidens and teases them by showing them the ring, but does not let them have it. They tell him about the curse on the ring but Siegfried does not believe them. He meets Hagen. They drink together. Siegfried tells the men all about his life, how he was brought up by Mime, about the sword, the dragon and the bird singing. Then he cannot remember any more. Hagen gives him another drugged drink which makes him start to remember what actually happened. He remembers Brünnhilde and how he found her surrounded by fire. He gradually realizes how he has been tricked and feels unbearable sadness. Two ravens fly overhead and Hagen plunges his spear into Siegfried’s back. He dies while speaking the name of Brünnhilde. His body is carried off to a funeral march.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: Back at the palace his body is brought in. Gutrune accuses Gunther of murdering him, but Gunther says Hagen did it. Hagen says he did it because Siegfried, when disguised as Gunther, had slept with Brünnhilde. He tries to snatch the ring from the dead Siegfried’s finger, Gunther tries to stop him but is murdered by Hagen. He tries again to snatch the ring but to everybody’s horror the arm of the dead hero rises in the air.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: Brünnhilde enters and tells everyone how she promised Siegfried her love. Gutrune curses Hagen and falls onto her brother’s dead body. Brünnhilde orders a funeral pyre (a fire) to be prepared. She sings to Wotan that Siegfried is now at peace in death and that she understands more now. She takes the ring and promises to return it to the Rhine Maidens. She lights the fire which flares up and she rides on her horse Grane into the flames. The whole building catches fire, and the Rhine overflows and puts it out. Hagen jumps into the water trying to get the ring from the Rhine Maidens who drown him and finally take it back. The flood dies down and Valhalla (the gods’ palace) is lit up by the fire. The gods and the heroes die in the flames. The Twilight of the Gods has happened and Brünnhilde has redeemed the world with her love.


title: Götterdämmerung

text: The music of this long opera is extremely cleverly linked so that musical ideas flow into one another and combine to comment on the drama. Many of the themes have been heard in the other three operas. It is a very exhausting opera to sing, especially for Brünnhilde. There are usually two long intervals during a performance. The orchestra is very large and includes eight harps.


title: Travis Barker

text: Travis Landon Barker (born November 14, 1975) is an American drummer. He is better known for being in the band Blink-182. He is also the drummer for +44 and has several side projects such as Box Car Racer, Transplants and Expensive Taste.


title: Travis Barker

text: Just before midnight on September 19, 2008, Barker and Adam "DJ AM" Goldstein were involved in a plane crash. Barker and Goldstein survived but the pilot, Sarah Lemmon, the co-pilot, James Bland, Chris Baker and security guard, Charles "Che" Still all died in the crash. Barker suffered both second and third degree burns that covered around 1/3 of his body.


title: Islam and clothing

text: Muslims have different dress codes for different contexts. Conservative ideas of "hijab" require people to dress modestly both for outside and religious contexts. Clothing for everyday wear, inside and outside the house is different, and very much depends on the family.


title: Islam and clothing

text: Islamic men wear thobes as well as Kufi Hat's. Muslim men have over 160 rules about clothing. The strictest rules involve gold.


title: Islam and clothing

text: A man’s clothing is modest and loose so as not to emphasize the shape of the body. It should cover at least the area from navel to knees. They should wear a qamisi, a knee covering, to prayer.


title: Islam and clothing

text: Islam says that women should dress in a very special way. This dress code applies to women and adolescent girls, but not to children. Usually, women who travel to Islamic countries should also wear such dress.


title: Islam and clothing

text: In the very least, the garment should cover the shoulders. Long-sleeved garments (and trousers) are preferred. Use a headscarf to cover the hair (especially when you enter a mosque or other place of worship).


title: Satyameva Jayate

text: "Satyameva Jayate" ( ; lit. "Truth alone triumphs.") is a "mantra" from the ancient Indian scripture "Mundaka Upanishad". Upon independence of India, it was adopted as the national motto of India.


title: Satyameva Jayate

text: It is inscribed in script at the base of the national emblem. The emblem and the words "Satyameva Jayate" are inscribed on one side of all Indian currency. The emblem is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka which was erected around 250 BCE at Sarnath, near Varanasi in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is inscribed on all currency notes and national documents.


title: George W. Bush

text: George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman. He was the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He is the son of former U.S. President George H. W. Bush and former U.S. First Lady Barbara Bush. Before becoming president, he was the Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000. Bush is a member of the Republican Party.


title: George W. Bush

text: He flew warplanes in the Texas and Alabama Air National Guard. After graduating from Yale College in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, he worked in the oil industry. In 1977, he married Laura Welch and ran for the U.S. House of Representatives, but lost. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team.


title: George W. Bush

text: In 1994, he was elected Governor of Texas, defeating the incumbent governor, Democrat Ann Richards. As governor, Bush successfully backed legislation for tort reform, gave more money for education, set higher standards for schools, and changed the criminal justice system. Bush also helped make Texas the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S.


title: George W. Bush

text: In 2000, Bush was elected President of the United States when he defeated Democratic incumbent Vice President Al Gore in a extremely close election. He became the fourth person to be elected president without winning the popular vote. He is the second son of a former United States president to himself become president, the first being John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush was inaugurated in January 2001. As president, his earlier focus was on domestic issues. He cut taxes, passed an education reform bill, made changes to Medicare, and changed abortion laws. On September 11, 2001, the United States was attacked by Al-Qaeda, a terrorist organisation, via the Twin Towers. As a result of these attacks, Bush created the Department of Homeland Security and started a "War on Terror" that began with a war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also signed into law the Patriot Act in order to inspect on people believed to be terrorists. In 2003, he ordered an invasion of Iraq, which started the Iraq War. The reason why he did this was because his administration claimed that Iraq had a weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program, and that the Iraqi government was a threat to the U.S. However, no WMDs or a program for WMDs were ever found.


title: George W. Bush

text: He was re-elected to a second term in 2004, against Democrat John Forbes Kerry. In his second term, Bush reached multiple free trade agreements and was able to put John Roberts and Samuel Alito to the Supreme Court. He wanted to make major changes to Social Security and immigration laws, but these changes did not pass in Congress. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continued, and in 2007 he sent more troops to Iraq. Bush received criticism from both sides politically for his handling of Hurricane Katrina and for the midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys. In December 2007, the U.S. entered the Great Recession. This made the Bush administration create programs for protection of the country's financial system, such as the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP).


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush left office in January 2009, succeeded by Democrat Barack Obama, after an election against Republican John McCain. He has a ranch in Crawford, Texas, which is near Waco. In 2010, he published a memoir called "Decision Points". His presidential library opened in 2013. Though ranked lowly in rankings of presidents by scholars and historians, public opinion on Bush has improved after his presidency ended.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush was one of the most polarising U.S. presidents in history; he received the highest recorded approval ratings right after the 9/11 attacks, but one of the lowest such ratings during the 2008 financial crisis.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush was born at Yale-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut. Bush grew up in Midland, Texas. He went to a high school called Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, and graduated in 1964. He went to school at Yale University from 1964 until he graduated in 1968, with a bachelor's degree in history. He joined the Texas Air National Guard in 1968 (part of the United States National Guard) during the Vietnam War and became a fighter pilot but did not fight in the war. He left the Texas Air National Guard in 1973. In 1975 Bush earned an MBA from Harvard University.


title: George W. Bush

text: On November 5, 1977, Bush married Laura Welch. In 1978, Bush tried to get elected to Congress in West Texas, but lost. After that, he ran some oil companies and was one of the owners of the Texas Rangers baseball team. He thought about trying to become the commissioner of Major League Baseball, but went into politics instead. Bush is a Methodist. In 1994, he was elected to be Governor of Texas, defeating incumbent Democratic Governor Ann Richards.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush announced he was running for governor in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election. His campaign focused on four themes: changing welfare, changing torts, crime reduction, and making education better.


title: George W. Bush

text: He easily won the Republican primary. His opponent was popular Democratic incumbent Governor Ann Richards. During the campaign, he said that if he was elected, he would sign a bill that would allow Texans to get permits to carry concealed weapons (this means a person can carry a weapon on them, as long as it cannot be seen). Bush won the general election with 53.5 percent against Richards' 45.9 percent.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush used a budget surplus (when the government makes more money than it spends) to pass a $2 billion tax-cut, which was Texas's largest. He used government money to fund organizations that teach people of the dangers of alcohol and drug use and abuse, and helping to reduce domestic violence.


title: George W. Bush

text: In 1998, Bush won re-election with a record 69 percent of the vote. He became the first governor in Texas history to be elected to two consecutive four-year terms. In his second term, Bush promoted faith-based organizations and had high approval ratings. He proclaimed June 10, 2000, to be Jesus Day in Texas, a day on which he asked all Texans to "answer the call to serve those in need". In 1999, Bush signed a law that said electric retailers needed to buy a certain amount of energy from renewable sources. This helped Texas become the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S.


title: George W. Bush

text: Critics said that during his time as governor, Texas ranked near the bottom in environmental evaluations. Supporters pointed to his efforts to raise the pay of teachers and improve educational test scores.


title: George W. Bush

text: During Bush's first term, he was seen as a future presidential candidate. After he was reelected in 1998, this belief grew. In 1999, he decided to seek the 2000 Republican presidential nomination.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush ran against then-Vice President Al Gore in the 2000 United States presidential election. More than 100 million people voted on November 7, 2000. But the election was very close. When they began counting the votes, it became clear that whoever got the most votes in the state of Florida would win the election. But there were many issues with the ballots in Florida. Gore sued to get Florida to count the votes again. For more than a month no one knew who won the election. The Supreme Court made a decision to stop recounting votes. Gore decided to accept his loss on December 13 and Bush was declared the winner.


title: George W. Bush

text: While he was president, George W. Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act into law. It was an education reform bill.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush was the second President of the United States to deliver a speech in both Spanish and in English.


title: George W. Bush

text: He also signed very large tax cuts (many of them were for the middle and lower class) during his presidency.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush did not approve of abortion. In 2004, he signed the Unborn Victims Of Violence Act which made it so that if a pregnant woman is murdered, her murderer can also be charged with killing the fetus that the woman was carrying.


title: George W. Bush

text: His first foreign policy test came when an American spy plane crashed in China. Bush peacefully negotiated the release of the plane crew.


title: George W. Bush

text: Eight months after Bush became president, the September 11 attacks occurred. Because of this, President Bush declared a War on Terrorism.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush tried to do many things to stop another terrorist attack from happening. He ordered an invasion of Afghanistan in 2002. He did this because the leaders of Afghanistan were helping Osama bin Laden, who was responsible for attacking America on September 11, 2001. Almost ten years later, on May 2, 2011 bin Laden was killed on orders of President Barack Obama. Bush asked Congress to do more to stop terrorism. As a result, Congress passed a law that created the Department Of Homeland Security, a government department which tries to prevent terrorist attacks from happening. It also responds to emergencies such as floods or diseases.


title: George W. Bush

text: He signed the Patriot Act (which allowed the government to listen to people's phone calls so it can track down terrorists which try to communicate with each other).


title: George W. Bush

text: After Saddam refused to cooperate with the United Nations weapons inspectors and the United States Congress authorized Bush to invade Iraq if its government did not cooperate with the weapons inspectors, Bush decided on the Gulf War in 2003 with several allies. Saddam Hussein was removed from power, and Iraq turned into a democracy. Over 100,000 people were killed in this war.


title: George W. Bush

text: In the 2004 presidential election, Bush won again with a majority of votes. His opponent was Massachusetts Senator John Kerry, a Democrat.


title: George W. Bush

text: In 2005, Hurricane Katrina (the most destructive hurricane in American history) happened. It caused over 1800 deaths and caused billions of dollars of destruction. George W. Bush signed several acts into law which would help Hurricane Katrina victims.


title: George W. Bush

text: In the Iraq War, no weapons of mass destruction were found, and the Bush Administration was criticized for being wrong about Iraq having weapons of mass destruction. Bush added more American troops to Iraq (which was called "the surge") to speed up the war. The surge was successful, and in result, Iraq had less violence.


title: George W. Bush

text: Although the economy was doing very well during much of his presidency, in early 2008, the economy was slowing down. Bush signed a bill into law which would gave $600 to every American citizen, hoping that people would go out and spend the money so that it would prevent a recession (a bad economy) from happening.


title: George W. Bush

text: Later in 2008 December, stock market crashed and the country fell into its worst recession since the Great Depression. Bush helped create a 700 billion dollar bailout, which would give money to corporations (large businesses) to prevent them from being bankrupt and to try to prevent the recession from getting worse.


title: George W. Bush

text: Bush publicly supported Republican candidate John McCain during the 2008 presidential election, but Barack Obama won the election.


title: George W. Bush

text: During the last few days he was president, Bush gave his farewell address. He was succeeded by Barack Obama on January 20, 2009.


title: George W. Bush

text: After his presidency, Bush stayed away from the spotlight and did not want much attention. He said that he was not going to criticize President Obama. He began to build his presidential library in 2010. It was open to the public in 2013.


title: George W. Bush

text: After over a year and a half of saying little in public, in November 2010, Bush appeared on several television interviews and released a book called "Decision Points". The book focuses on fourteen big decisions he made in congress, including quitting drinking, running for president, Hurricane Katrina, invading Iraq, and his response to the financial meltdown in 2008.


title: George W. Bush

text: On May 2, 2011, President Obama called Bush, who was at a restaurant with his wife, to inform him that Osama bin Laden had been killed. The Bushes joined the Obama's in New York City to mark the tenth anniversary of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. At the Ground Zero memorial, Bush read a letter that President Abraham Lincoln wrote to a widow who lost five sons during the Civil War.


title: George W. Bush

text: On August 6, 2013, Bush was successfully treated for a coronary artery blockage with a stent. The blockage had been found during an annual medical examination.


title: Ice cream

text: Ice cream is a frozen dessert made from cream and ice, with added flavors and sweeteners. This mixture is quickly frozen while it is stirred continuously in a mixer,so that large ice crystals do not form. Some ice cream is made with carrageenan, a gum found in seaweed so that it is not sticky and easily eatable. Nowadays, ice cream comes with different flavors, shapes, colours and textures. It has a melting point of .


title: Ice cream

text: Ice cream was first eaten as early as 500 B.C in Persia. In the Achaemid Empire, ice cream was made of ice combined with flavorings. Just like modern ice cream, this type of ice cream is eaten during summer. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special type of ice cream reserved to the royalty during summers. This type of ice cream is made of rose water and vermicelli. The ice in this particular ice cream was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavors.


title: Ice cream

text: Ice cream became very popular in the Mediterranean in the 1800s. Mediterranean people during the 1800s could easily afford ice cream. People started to make lots of recipes for ice cream.


title: Ice cream

text: From the 1950s onward, ice cream became a lot more popular. Refrigeration was easily affordable because many people owned fridges that could store ice cream for a very long time without melting.


title: Ice cream

text: There are lots of ways to make ice cream. Most people don't make ice cream, because it is easier to buy.


title: Ice cream

text: Shops make ice cream by mixing cream and other things like milk, sugar, and eggs. Then they add flavoring (something that adds flavor to a food). Then they freeze it.


title: Ice cream

text: You can also make ice cream by putting cream, milk, and sugar in a plastic bag. Then put ice and salt in a bigger bag. If you put the smaller bag inside the bigger bag, then shake it for 5-10 minutes, you get ice cream.


title: Ice cream

text: People sell ice cream through many ways. You can buy ice cream in ice cream containers from supermarkets. You can also buy ice cream on a cone from an ice cream truck.


title: Ice cream

text: There are many different flavors of ice cream. Ice cream often has things added to it for flavor, like chocolate chips, nuts, fruit, cookie dough, sweets, sauces or small candies.


title: Ice cream

text: Traditionally, the three most common flavors are vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry. There are ice cream flavors that are very similar, such as French vanilla, vanilla bean, dark chocolate, chocolate chip, and strawberry cheesecake.


title: Ice cream

text: Chocolate chips, or little pieces of dark or white chocolate, are a common addition to ice cream. Three common chocolate chip ice creams are chocolate chip (made with vanilla ice cream), mint chocolate chip or mint 'n chip (made with peppermint, spearmint, or creme de menthe ice cream), and chocolate chocolate chip. Peppermint ice cream without chips is also a common flavor.


title: Ice cream

text: Many ice creams contain fruits. Besides strawberry, common fruit flavors are cherry, raspberry, blackberry, and peach. Some citrus fruits, such as orange and lime, are made into sherbets instead of ice cream.


title: Ice cream

text: Nut flavors include butter pecan, butter almond (both of which contain vanilla or caramel ice cream with nuts), pistachio, and peanut butter.


title: Ice cream

text: Coffee (mocha, cappuccino, espresso) and caramel (English toffee, butterscotch, rum) are also common ice cream flavors.


title: Ice cream

text: There are many ice cream flavors that contain some mixture of chocolate, fudge, coffee, caramel, nuts, and marshmallows. The most common is Rocky Road (chocolate ice cream, nuts and marshmallows), but others include Mocha Almond Fudge (made with almond nuts, fudge, and coffee ice cream) and Tax Crunch (coffee, nuts, and malt powder)


title: Ice cream

text: Some ice creams are a mixture of two or more ice creams. Neapolitan is a mixture of chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry; while spumoni is a mixture of chocolate and various fruit flavors.


title: Ice cream

text: Outside of the United States and Canada, flavors include dulce du leche (Mexico), macupino and lychee (both China)


title: Ice cream

text: Many ice cream parlors, such as Cold Stone Creamery, allow people to make something called a sundae, which is one or more flavors of ice cream mixed with things such as nuts, dark or white chocolate chips, bananas, cherries, pineapples, candies, cookies, marshmallows, and various syrups such as hot fudge, maple and butterscotch. Also, ice cream is often placed on a piece of pie, which is called "pie a la mode".


title: Lady-in-waiting

text: A lady-in-waiting (also called waiting maid) is a female personal helper at a noble court. A lady in waiting would be in charge of waking, dressing and accompanying a lady in her daily activities She helps a queen, a princess, or other noblewoman. A lady-in-waiting is often a noblewoman of a lower rank than the one she goes to. She is not thought to be a servant. Their duties are different depending on the court. People with artistic talents were usually chosen. In Russia, girls between "fourteen or twenty ["sic"]" were chosen, and left the court when she married. People like Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr were all ladies-in-waiting.


title: Edsel

text: Edsel was a make of car and a new car making division introduced by the Ford Motor Company on September 4, 1957. The company called that day, "E-Day." It was named after Henry Ford's son, Edsel Ford. The Edsel was also one of the biggest failures in history. It was sold for only three years, ending in 1960.


title: Edsel

text: Ford planned to move their Lincoln brand upmarket and put another make in beneath it. Design of the Edsel began in 1955 under the name "E-car" which stood for "Experimental car".


title: Edsel

text: Edsel produced four models their first year, the 1958 model year. These were the large Citation and Corsair, and the smaller, easier to buy Pacer and Ranger.


title: Edsel

text: The Bermuda, Villager and Roundup were station wagons based on the two smaller Edsel models. They were basically the same as the 1957-59 Ford wagons.


title: Edsel

text: 63,110 Edsels sold the first year, which was the second largest car launch for any brand in history. Only the Plymouth introduction in 1928 was better, but still not as many cars as Ford hoped would sell.


title: Edsel

text: There were only 2 Edsels in 1959, the Ranger and the Corsair. Only 44,891 cars were sold in that model year.


title: Edsel

text: Only the Ranger and Villager were produced in 1960. These were almost exactly like the 1960 Ford cars. Only 2848 cars were built before the Edsel Motor Division was closed on November 19, 1959.


title: Edsel

text: Edsel's failure is very famous because it failed after Ford put US$400,000,000 into its development. It had many innovations which are still in use today, including brakes which adjusted themselves and a very powerful V-8 engine called the "FE-series" that would be used for many years in later Fords. Also, the car did not live up to all of the promises in the advertisements before it was released. Some people blamed the look of the new car because of its very unusual grille shaped like a horse's collar. One famous quote from an auto writer said that the Edsel looked like "an Oldsmobile sucking on a lemon." Quality of the Edsel was a problem as well. Even the name was a problem to some buyers. Worst of all, the U.S. was entering a period of recession. All car sales were down.


title: Edsel

text: Many drivers did not like having the automatic transmission as push-buttons mounted on the steering wheel hub. Since this was the place the horn was normally found, drivers ended up shifting gears instead of honking the horn.


title: Edsel

text: The planned 1960 Edsel Comet compact car was relabeled Mercury Comet and sold more cars in its first year than all models of Edsel ever produced.


title: Edsel

text: Fewer than 6,000 Edsels survive and today they are considered collectors’ items, with convertibles sometimes selling for over US$20,000 if in good condition. As usual with classics, hardtop models are worth considerably less, station wagons less than that, and sedans least of all. It is possible to get a very good 1959 sedan for about US$3000–$3500.


title: Griffith's experiment

text: Griffith's Experiment was an experiment done in 1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process.


title: Griffith's experiment

text: Griffith used two strains of "Streptococcus pneumoniae". He then uses the bacteria to infect the mice, which have many similar characteristics to humans. He used a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system. This means that the host will die. The II-R strain does not have that protective shield around it and is killed by the host's immune system.


title: Griffith's experiment

text: In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither harmed the mice on their own, the blend of the two was able to kill mice.


title: Griffith's experiment

text: Griffith was also able to get both live II-R and live III-S strains of "S. pneumoniae" from the blood of these dead mice. He concluded that the type II-R had been "transformed" into the lethal III-S strain by a "transforming principle" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria.


title: Griffith's experiment

text: Today, we know that the "transforming principle" Griffith saw was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the shielding polysaccharide part from attack. Armed with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host.


title: Griffith's experiment

text: The exact nature of the transforming principle was confirmed in one of many experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty, as well as Hershey and Chase.


title: Equator

text: The equator is a line which is not real drawn around a sphere or planet, such as the Earth. It is one of the lines known as a line of latitude, or circle of latitude. The name "equator" is Latin for "even-maker"; at equator the day and night are exactly the same length around the year.


title: Equator

text: The equator is halfway between the North Pole and the South Pole. There, the surface of the planet is parallel to the axis of rotation. The equator divides the surface into the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere.


title: Equator

text: Unlike the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere, countries around the equator do not experience the four seasons, and the climate is usually very humid.


title: Shrub

text: A shrub or bush is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A "shrub" can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.


title: Shrub

text: Very many plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.


title: Shrub

text: In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.


title: Shrub

text: For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.


title: Protein

text: Proteins are long-chain molecules built from small units known as amino acids. They are joined with peptide bonds.


title: Protein

text: A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids. The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide comes from the DNA sequence of a gene. The genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids. Shortly after synthesis, some amino acids are chemically modified. This alters the folding, stability, activity, and function of the protein. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, as cofactors.


title: Protein

text: Proteins are essential to all cells. Like other biological macromolecules (polysaccharides and nucleic acids), proteins take part in virtually every process in cells:


title: Protein

text: Proteins are formed by a process called "protein synthesis". The cell reads the genetic information of the DNA and translates it into a protein. In eukaryotes, this process begins in the cell nucleus and ends in the ribosome. In prokaryotes all of it is done in the cytoplasm.


title: Protein

text: Proteins have different functions depending on their shape and sequence. They can be found in meat or muscle. They are used for growth and repair, as well as for strengthening the bones. They help to make tissue and cells. They are in animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, and in the human body.


title: Protein

text: Muscles are mostly made of protein. When protein is digested, it is broken down into amino acids. These amino acids can then be used to build new protein. Proteins form an important part in foods like milk, eggs, meat, fish, beans, spinach, and nuts. There are four factors that determine what a protein will do. The first is the order of the amino acids. There are 20 different types of amino acids. The second is the little twists in the chain. The third is how the entire structure is folded up. The fourth is whether it is made up of different sub-units. Haemoglobin molecules, for example, are made of four sub-units.


title: Protein

text: Most proteins are enzymes, and mutations may slow them or stop them working. 50% of human cancers are caused by mutations in the tumour suppressor p53. p53 is a protein which regulates cell division.


title: Protein

text: Proteins are necessary in an animal's diet, since they cannot make all the amino acids they need (they can make most of them). They must get certain amino acids from food. These are called the "essential amino acids". Through digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids. The amino acids are then used in metabolism to make the enzymes and structures the body needs.


title: Protein

text: There are nine essential amino acids for humans, which are obtained from food. The nine essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Meat contains all the essential amino acids humans need; most plants do not. However, eating a mixture of plants, such as both wheat "and" peanut butter, or rice "and" beans, provides all the essential amino acids needed. Soy products like tofu provide all the essential amino acids—as does quinoa—but these are not the only way to get the protein humans need.


title: Protein

text: The scientist Jöns Jacob Berzelius gave proteins their name, and hundreds of other scientists have studied proteins since him.


title: Nicholas II of Russia

text: Nicholas II of Russia, (May 18, 1868 – July 17, 1918) was the last Tsar (Emperor) of the Russian Empire. He became Tsar in 1894 after his father, Tsar Alexander III died. His reign lasted until the 1917 Russian Revolution.


title: Nicholas II of Russia

text: He married Princess Alix of Hesse, who was the daughter of Princess Alice of the United Kingdom and the granddaughter of Queen Victoria , and they had five children, Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Alexi. Alexi suffered from a disease called haemophilia, which caused his parents great sadness. After 1905, the royal family became friends with Grigori Rasputin, whom they believed could treat Alexi.


title: Nicholas II of Russia

text: In the first 20 years of his reign, Nicholas tried to make Russia more modern, but these plans were held back by the nobles and the Tsar's weak leadership. He and his chief ministers Sergei Witte and Pyotr Stolypin encouraged railways, land reform, education, the borrowing of money and friendship with France and the United Kingdom. In 1905, after Russia lost a war with Japan and the killing of protestors on Bloody Sunday, there were large protests against his government by people who wanted a parliament. He created one (the Duma), but he would not allow it to have many powers. His reign also saw the Khodynka Tragedy, attacks on the Russian Jews, anger over the power of Rasputin, and the imprisonments and executions of people who opposed the government.


title: Nicholas II of Russia

text: In 1914, he led Russia into World War I, but the war went badly for Russia and caused great hardship. It led to the fall of the monarchy in the 1917 Russian Revolution. He abdicated (quit being Tsar) in March of that year. He and his family were held as prisoners under house arrest. On July 17, 1918, Nicholas, his wife and their children were killed by a firing squad, on the orders of the new Bolshevik government. In 1981, the Tsar and his family were made Saints by the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1990, the bones of the Tsar and his family were found in the woods and given a proper burial in St Petersburg in 1998.


title: Nicholas II of Russia

text: The historians of the Soviet Union often described Nicholas as a tyrant. Modern historians see him as a man who tried to do what was right for his country but did not have the skills and was easily led by people who gave him bad advice.