title: Airbus

text: In the early 1990s, the Airbus CEO Jean Pierson said that the partnership should be closed, and Airbus Industrie should become its own company. However, the difficulties of integrating and valuing the assets of four companies, as well as legal issues, delayed the initiative. In December 1998, when British Aerospace and DASA were close to merging with each other, Aérospatiale stopped the negotiations. The French company thought that if BAe and DASA merged, that company would own 57.9% of Airbus. Aérospatiale insisted that each company own half of Airbus each. However, the problem was fixed in January 1999, when BAe merged with Marconi Electronic Systems instead. This company became BAE Systems. Then in 2000, three of the companies which made Airbus Industrie (DaimlerChrysler Aerospace, the new Deutsche Airbus; Aérospatiale-Matra, the new Sud-Aviation; and CASA) merged. This merger made EADS. EADS now owned Airbus France, Airbus Deutschland and Airbus España, which was 80% of Airbus Industrie. BAE Systems and EADS created the new company, Airbus . Both companies owned part of Airbus.


title: Airbus

text: Throughout 1988, some Airbus engineers, led by Jean Roeder, began secretly designing a very big plane. It was made to allow Airbus to rival Boeing, whose 747 had been the only very big plane since the 1970s. Airbus made the project public at the 1990 Farnborough Air Show. Airbus wanted to make this plane 15% cheaper to use than the Boeing 747-400. In June 1994, Airbus named the plane the A3XX.


title: Airbus

text: Five A380s were made for testing, and also to demonstrate the plane to airlines and the public. The first A380 was shown to the public on 18 January 2005, and it first flew on 27 April 2005. The head test pilot said that flying the A380 was like "like handling a bicycle". On 1 December 2005, the A380 reached its maximum speed, Mach 0.96. On 10 January 2006, the A380 made its first flight across the Atlantic, to Medellín, in Colombia.


title: Airbus

text: On 3 October 2006, Airbus' CEO Christian Streiff said that the Airbus A380 was delayed because of problems with the software used to design the aircraft. The Toulouse factory used the latest version of CATIA (made by Dassault), but the people who were designing the plane in the Hamburg factory were using an older version. The 530 km of cables which go through the aircraft had to have their design completely changed. No airlines cancelled their orders, but Airbus still had to pay a lot of money because of the delay.


title: Airbus

text: The first A380 was delivered to Singapore Airlines on 15 October 2007. It began to be used on 25 October 2007, when it flew between Singapore and Sydney. Two months later, Singapore Airlines' CEO Chew Choong Seng said that the A380 was better than both the airline and Airbus thought. It used 20% less fuel per passenger than the Boeing 747-400. Emirates was the second airline to get an A380 on 28 July 2008, and it used the A380 to fly between Dubai and New York on 1 August 2008. Qantas got the A380 on 19 September 2008, and its A380s flew between Melbourne and Los Angeles on 20 October 2008.


title: Airbus

text: On 6 April 2006, it was announced that BAE Systems would sell its 20% of Airbus. Its share was worth about €3.5 billion (US$4.17 billion). At first, BAE wanted to agree a price with EADS informally.


title: Airbus

text: On 2 July 2006, BAE's part of the company was thought to be worth about £1.9 billion (€2.75 billion), which was much less than what BAE, analysts, and even EADS thought. In September 2006, BAE sold its part of Airbus for £1.87 billion (€2.75 billion, $3.53 billion). On 4 October, BAE's shareholders decided that the sale should go ahead, meaning that Airbus is now completely owned by EADS.


title: Airbus

text: On 28 February 2007, CEO Louis Gallois said that Airbus was planning to make some changes. The programme was called Power, and it got rid of 10,000 jobs over four years: 4,300 in France, 3,700 in Germany, 1,600 in the UK and 400 in Spain. Airbus factories in Saint Nazaire, Varel and Laupheim could be sold or closed, while Meaulte, Nordenham and Filton are "open to investors". Unions in France and Germany threatened to go on strike because of the job cuts.


title: Airbus

text: At the 2011 Paris Air Show, Airbus got 730 orders for Airbus A320neo family planes. These orders were worth $72.2 billion, and the number of orders is a new record in aviation. The A320neo was announced in December 2010, and it got 667 orders. Together with the orders before that time, there were 1029 orders made within six months after the plane was launched, which is also a new record.


title: Airbus

text: The first Airbus plane was the A300, the world's first twin-engined aircraft to have two aisles. A shorter version of the A300 is called the Airbus A310. Airbus launched the A320, which is special as it is the first commercial plane to use a digital fly-by-wire control system. The A320 has been, and still is, a very big success. The A318 and A319 are shorter versions, and the A321 is a longer version, of the A320. The A320's main rival is the Boeing 737 family.


title: Airbus

text: The long-range wide-body planes, the Airbus A330 and the Airbus A340, have efficient wings, which also have winglets. The Airbus A340-500 can fly for , which is the second-longest range for any commercial plane, after the Boeing 777-200LR. All Airbus aircraft after the A320 have similar cockpits, which makes it easier to train pilots. Airbus stopped making A340s in 2011 because not enough planes were being sold compared to other planes like the Boeing 777.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus is studying a replacement for the A320. This plane is called the Airbus NSR, for "New Short-Range aircraft". Those studies said that the NSR could burn 9–10% less fuel than the current A320. Instead of making a brand new plane, Airbus decided to make changes to the current A320 by adding winglets and other improvements. This updated type of A320 is called the "A320 Enhanced" and it should use 4–5% less fuel.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus Executive and Private Aviation is the part of Airbus which makes private jets. After Boeing started the Boeing Business Jet, Airbus made the A319 Corporate Jet in 1997. As of December 2008, 121 corporate and private jets are being used and 164 aircraft have been ordered.


title: Airbus

text: In the late 1990s Airbus became interested in designing and selling aircraft to the military. Airbus made planes for aerial refuelling with the Airbus A310 MRTT and the Airbus A330 MRTT, and tactical airlift with the A400M.


title: Airbus

text: In January 1999, Airbus started another company, Airbus Military , to design and make a tactical transport aircraft, the Airbus Military A400M. The A400M was designed by several NATO members: Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Turkey, and the UK, so that these countries did not have to use foreign transport planes. The A400M has had many delays.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus is in a fierce rivalry with Boeing. NAirbus won more plane orders in 2003 and 2004. In 2005, Airbus got 1111 orders, and Boeing got 1029. In 2006, Airbus had its second-best year ever, when it got 824 orders. The year before that was even better. In August 2010, Airbus said that it would be making more A320 airliners, so that 40 would be made every month by 2012, when Boeing was making more 737s, so that 35 would be made every month.


title: Airbus

text: As of April 2013, 7,264 Airbus aircraft are being used. There are 21% more Boeing aircraft than Airbus, because Airbus has not existed as long as Boeing. However, Airbus is catching up, as older Boeings are being retired.


title: Airbus

text: Recently, more Boeing 777s have been sold than Airbus planes like the A330-300. The A330-200 is the main rival of the 767, and the A330-200 has sold more than the 767.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus has also made the Airbus A350 XWB to be a rival to the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. This was done because airlines were asking Airbus to make a plane to rival the 787.


title: Airbus

text: Boeing has complained that Airbus gets unfair help from European governments. However, Airbus has said that Boeing gets money illegally from the United States government, as the U.S. government buys many of Boeing's military products.


title: Airbus

text: The WTO said in August 2010 and in May 2011 that Airbus was given unfair help by governments of European countries. In February 2011, the WTO found that Boeing had been given help by U.S. governments which broke the WTO rules.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus uses the "Beluga" to move different parts of Airbus planes from one factory to the other. Boeing also uses some Boeing 747s to do this to transport parts for the 787. However, some parts of the Airbus A380 are too large to be carried by the Beluga. These big A380 parts are brought to Bordeaux on a ship. They are then taken to Toulouse on the Itinéraire à Grand Gabarit.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus started making a $350 million factory in Harbin, China in July 2009. When it is finished, 1,000 people will work there.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus has started "Flightpath 2050", which will lower the amount of noise, CO and NOx made by Airbus planes.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus has joined Honeywell and JetBlue Airways to lower the amount of pollution and how much oil planes need to use. They are trying to make a biofuel which could be used by 2030.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus recently had the first flight using special fuel. It used 60% kerosene and 40% gas to liquids (GTL) fuel. It gave out the same amount of carbon, but less sulphur. The special fuel worked with Airbus' engine, so this type of fuel should not need new engines. This flight is thought to be a good advance towards environmentally-friendly planes.


title: Airbus

text: Airbus names its planes in a special way. The format is: the plane name, a dash, and a three-digit number.


title: Airbus

text: The three-digit number after the plane name means the aircraft series, the company which makes the engines, and the version of the engines. For example, an A320-200 with version one International Aero Engines (IAE) V2500 engines would be called the A320-231.


title: Climbing plant

text: Climbing plants are plants which climb up trees and other tall objects. Many of them are vines whose stems twine round trees and branches. There are quite a number of other methods of climbing.


title: Climbing plant

text: The climbing habit has evolved many times. In most cases the climbing plants were more diverse (had more species) than their non–climbing sister groups.


title: Climbing plant

text: It is a key innovation which has been very successful. Over 130 plant families include climbers. Vine species may represent more than 40% of species diversity in tropical forests.


title: Climbing plant

text: It has evolved independently in several plant families, using many different climbing methods: Botanists generally divide climbing plants into two broad groups:


title: Climbing plant

text: The climbing fetterbush ("Pieris phillyreifolia") has a strange habit. It is a woody shrub vine which climbs without clinging roots, tendrils, or thorns. Its stem goes into a crack in the bark of fibrous barked trees (such as bald cypress). The stem flattens and grows up the tree "underneath" the host tree's outer bark. The fetterbush then sends out branches that emerge near the top of the tree.


title: Climbing plant

text: Most vines are flowering plants. These may be divided into woody vines or lianas, such as wisteria, kiwifruit, and common ivy, and herbaceous (nonwoody) vines, such as morning glory.


title: Climbing plant

text: One odd group of climbing plants is the fern genus "Lygodium", called "climbing ferns". The stem does not climb, but rather the fronds (leaves) do. The fronds unroll from the tip, and theoretically never stop growing; they can form thickets as they unroll over other plants, rock faces, and fences.


title: Virginia

text: Virginia is a state in the United States. Its capital is Richmond and its largest city is Virginia Beach. The official name of Virginia is the "Commonwealth of Virginia".


title: Virginia

text: Virginia is bordered (touching) by West Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia (across the Potomac River) to the north, by Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south, and by Kentucky and West Virginia to the west.


title: Virginia

text: Virginia became a state in 1788 after the American Revolution. Before it became a state of the United States, Virginia was one of the Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain. Virginia was founded (started) in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia.


title: Virginia

text: The state of West Virginia was part of Virginia until the American Civil War. Virginia then left (seceded from) the United States and joined the Confederate States of America. The western counties of Virginia seceded from Virginia to form a new state which was loyal to the Union. After the end of the Civil War, Virginia became part of the United States again in 1870, but the counties that had left to start West Virginia did not join Virginia again.


title: Virginia

text: Virginia is the state where eight United States presidents were born. This is more than any other state.


title: Virginia

text: Virginia has many industries like local and national government, military, farming, technology and business. Many Virginians work for the government because it is next to Washington, D.C.. The Central Intelligence Agency, Department of Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation are in Northern Virginia. Farming is the main industry in the state, making 334,000 jobs. Tomatoes, peanuts, tobacco, and hay are grown in Virginia. Technology is a fast growing industry. Virginia is 4th in technology workers after California, Texas, and New York.


title: Dubai

text: The city of Dubai is the largest and most populated city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital city of the emirate of Dubai, UAE. The city is sometimes called "Dubai City" to prevent it from being mixed up with the emirate.


title: Dubai

text: Dubai is a city and emirate in the United Arab Emirates known for luxury shopping, ultramodern architecture and a lively nightlife scene. Burj Khalifa, an 830m-tall tower, dominates the skyscraper-filled skyline. At its foot lies Dubai Fountain, with jets and lights choreographed to music. On artificial islands just offshore is Atlantis, The Palm, a resort with water and marine-animal parks.


title: Dubai

text: There are records of the town of Dubai from 1799. The city was a dependent of Abu Dhabi until 1833. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen (chiefly Indians), who settled in the town. Until the 1930s, the town was known for its pearls.


title: Dubai

text: Dubai has a hot desert climate. Summers are extremely hot, windy, and humid. The highest recorded temperature in the UAE is 52.1 °C (126 °F), recorded in July 2002.


title: Dubai

text: According to the UN, about 14 percent of the world population will face water scarcity by the year 2025. This shortage of water is expected to be worse in arid countries like the UAE. The UAE cloud seeding initiative is part of the government’s attempt to deal with the existing and future water needs of the country’s growing population.


title: Service sector

text: The Service Sector, also called tertiary sector, is the third of the three traditional economic sectors. The other two are the primary sector, which covers areas such as farming, mining and fishing; and the secondary sector which covers manufacturing and making things. The service sector provides services, rather than producing material commodities. Activities in the service sector include retail, banks, hotels, real estate, education, health, social work, computer services, recreation, media, communications, electricity, gas and water supply.


title: Service sector

text: The service sector is an important part of the economy. For example, in Australia in 2007, 85% of all businesses were in the service sector. In 2009 there were more than nine million people employed in the service sector in Australia, which was 86% of all jobs. In India, there has been a huge growth in service sector businesses which made up 55% of India's GDP in 2006—2007. Computer software businesses in India are increasing at a rate of 35% per year.


title: Service sector

text: Many sector businesses focus on what is called the “knowledge economy”. They need to keep ahead of other businesses by understanding what their customers want and being ready to give it to them quickly and at low cost.


title: Service sector

text: One good example of this are banks which went through big changes in the late 20th century. Using information and communication technology, banks have vastly reduced the number of people they need to employ, and lowered the cost of providing bank service. For example, an automated teller machine is able to provide basic banking services 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, in many different places. Before this, banking services were only available from the bank when it was open. Many banks and building societies have joined together to form much lower cost businesses that can make more money from a wider customer base. The key to this process is gaining information about their customers and constantly coming up with new services for them.


title: ISO 4217

text: ISO 4217 is the international standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies, as established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The ISO 4217 code list is the common way in banking and business, all over the world, for defining different currencies. In many countries, the codes for the more common currencies are so well-known, by the general public, that exchange rates written in newspapers or posted in banks use only those codes to define the different currencies, instead of translated currency names or currency symbols. ISO 4217 codes are used on airline tickets and international train tickets to remove any uncertainty about the price.


title: ISO 4217

text: The first two letters of the code are the two letters of ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes (which are also used as the basis for national top-level domains on the Internet). The third letter is usually the initial of the currency itself. So Japan's currency code is JPY, "JP" for Japan and "Y" for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the names "dollar, franc" and "pound" being used in dozens of different countries, each having significantly differing values. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency code's last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. In some cases, the third letter is the initial for "new" in that country's language, to distinguish it from an older currency that was revalued; the code sometimes outlasts the usage of the term "new" itself (for example, the code for the Mexican peso is MXN). Other changes can be seen, however; the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB, where the B comes from the third letter in the word "ruble".


title: ISO 4217

text: There is also a three-digit code number assigned to each currency, in the same manner as there is also a three-digit code number assigned to each country as part of ISO 3166. This numeric code is usually the same as the ISO 3166-1 numeric code. For example, USD (United States dollar) has code 840 which is also the numeric code for the US (United States).


title: ISO 4217

text: The standard also defines the relationship between the major currency unit and any minor currency unit. Often, the minor currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but 1/1000 is also common. Some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all. In others, the major currency unit has so little value that the minor unit is no longer generally used (e.g. the Japanese "sen", 1/100th of a yen). This is indicated in the standard by the currency exponent. For example, USD has exponent 2, while JPY has exponent 0. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya (UM) = 5 khoums, and Madagascar has 1 ariary = 5 iraimbilanja.


title: ISO 4217

text: ISO 4217 includes codes not only for currencies, but also for precious metals (gold, silver, palladium and platinum; by definition expressed per one troy ounce, as compared to "1 USD") and certain other entities used in international finance, e.g. Special Drawing Rights. There are also special codes allocated for testing purposes (XTS), and to indicate no currency transactions (XXX). These codes all begin with the letter "X". The precious metals use "X" plus the metal's chemical symbol; silver, for example, is XAG. ISO 3166 never assigns country codes beginning with "X", these codes being assigned for privately customized use only (reserved, never for official codes)—for instance, the ISO 3166-based NATO country codes (STANAG 1059, 9 edition) use "X" codes for imaginary exercise countries ranging from XXB for "Brownland" to XXR for "Redland", as well as for major commands such as XXE for SHAPE or XXS for SACLANT. Consequently, ISO 4217 can use "X" codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes.


title: ISO 4217

text: Supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO are normally also represented by codes beginning with an "X". The euro is represented by the code EUR (EU is included in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list to represent the European Union). The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit (ECU), had the code XEU.


title: ISO 4217

text: In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978) of the related UN/ECE Group of Experts agreed that the three-letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, "Codes for the representation of currencies and funds", would be suitable for use in international trade.


title: ISO 4217

text: Over time, new currencies are created and old currencies are discontinued. Frequently, these changes are due to new governments (through war or a new constitution), treaties between countries standardizing on a currency, or revaluation of the currency due to excessive inflation. As a result, the list of codes must be updated from time to time. The ISO 4217 maintenance agency (MA), SIX Interbank Clearing, is responsible for maintaining the list of codes.


title: ISO 4217

text: The US dollar actually has three codes assigned: USD, USS (same day) and USN (next day). According to UN/CEFACT recommendation 9, paragraphs 8-9 ECE/TRADE/203, 1996, available online :


title: ISO 4217

text: A number of territories are not included in ISO 4217, because their currencies are: (a) not "per se" an independent currency but a variant of another currency, (b) a legal tender only issued as commemorative banknotes and/or coinage, or (c) a currency of an unrecognized or partially recognized state. These currencies are:


title: ISO 4217

text: A number of currencies were official ISO 4217 currency codes and currency names until their replacement by the euro or other currencies.


title: ISO 4217

text: Note that the currency names used below may not match the currency names used in the ISO standard itself, but the codes do match.


title: NATO phonetic alphabet

text: The NATO phonetic alphabet is a way of using words to replace letters. The first letter of the word is the letter the word stands for. Although it is called a "phonetic alphabet" it is not really used for phonetics like the International Phonetic Alphabet or other phonetic alphabets. It is used to clearly say letters out loud when they might be hard to hear such as over the phone or when people are talking from different countries, or when it is important to be accurate such as in the military and in air travel. There have been many different phonetic alphabets over time. On board ships, flags are used to stand for letters, and each have their own meanings. Different countries also have different phonetic alphabets used in any subject


title: NATO phonetic alphabet

text: Below the symbol for "O" picture is the English spelling (or ""phonetic"") alphabet that is used most often today:


title: NATO phonetic alphabet

text: Numbers are also in the phonetic alphabet. The English numbers 0 through 3 and 5 through 8 are written and spoken the same. The number 4 is written the same, but pronounced "fower" to avoid confusion with the word "for". The number 9 is written the same, but it is pronounced "niner" to avoid confusion with the German word "Nein" ("No").


title: E-mail

text: Electronic mail (or e-mail or email) is an Internet service that allows people who have an e-mail address (accounts) to send and receive electronic letters. Those are much like postal letters, except that they are delivered much faster than snail mail when sending over long distances, and are usually free.


title: E-mail

text: Like with regular mail, users may get a lot of unwanted mail. With e-mail, this is called spam. Some programs used for sending and receiving mail can detect spam and filter it out nearly completely.


title: E-mail

text: To send or receive an email in the traditional way, one needs a device (computer, phone etc.) connected to the Internet and an e-mail program (simply called mailer). Several formats exist for email addresses. The most common, called , looks like user@domain.com. E-mail messages are sent mostly by text, and sometimes by HTML style.


title: E-mail

text: Some companies let people send and receive emails for free from a remote website. Gmail, Hotmail and Yahoo! are among the many that do this kind of "web mail". Webmail does not follow the pattern below exactly because the webpage is a web application and takes care of many details by itself. The traditional way uses a mailer, as is usual with smartphones.


title: E-mail

text: Microsoft invented its own "communication protocol" (or set of rules) for sending and receiving mail, called "Exchange". Exchange protocol works entirely differently from the traditional method and is not explained here.


title: E-mail

text: This diagram gives an example of what happens when email is sent from one person to another using the traditional method. In this example, Alice is sending email to Bob.


title: Rosa Parks

text: Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was an African-American civil rights activist. She was called "the mother of the Modern-Day American civil rights movement" and "the mother of the freedom movement".


title: Rosa Parks

text: Parks is best known for what she did in her home town of Montgomery, Alabama on December 1, 1955. While she sat in a seat in the middle of the bus, the bus driver told her to move to the back of the bus so a white passenger could take the seat in the front of the bus. During this time, when there were no white seats for white people, black people were told to get up out of their seat. Parks refused to move. She was a member of the local chapter of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Like so many others she was tired of being treated as a lower class person because of the color of her skin.


title: Rosa Parks

text: She was arrested. This led to the Montgomery bus boycott. The boycott lasted 381 days. This caused a change in the law. After that, black people were able to sit wherever they wanted to on the bus. Her refusal to let others treat her differently was an important symbol in the campaign against racial segregation.


title: Rosa Parks

text: Rosa Parks was born in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913. Her parents were James and Leona McCauley. She was mainly of African ancestry. One of her great-grandfathers was Scots-Irish and went to Charleston, South Carolina as an indentured servant.


title: Rosa Parks

text: Her father left home to find work when Rosa was 2 years old. Her mother taught school in another town. Rosa and her brother Sylvester were brought up by their grandparents.


title: Rosa Parks

text: Rosa started school in 1919 when she was 6 years old. At that time, schools were segregated. There were black schools and white schools. Later, Parks remembered how buses took white students to their school, but black students had to walk to theirs:


title: Rosa Parks

text: "I'd see the bus pass every day... But to me, that was a way of life; we had no choice but to accept what was the custom. The bus was among the first ways I realized there was a black world and a white world."


title: Rosa Parks

text: In 1924 she went to the Montgomery Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery, Alabama. After 5 years, she left school and went to work in a shirt factory. She also took care of her grandmother.


title: Rosa Parks

text: On December 1, 1955, Parks got onto a city bus to go home after work. She paid her 10¢ and sat down in the first row of seats behind the painted line on the floor which marked the black section. After several stops, more white passengers got on the bus. The bus driver ordered Parks and three other black people to give up their seats so the white people could sit down. The other three moved to the back of the bus, but Parks slid over to the window. She said she was following the law by sitting in the right section. Later, she said that when she was told to go to the back of the bus, "I thought of Emmett Till and I just couldn't go back." (Till was a black 14-year-old boy who was lynched in Mississippi about three months earlier.)


title: Rosa Parks

text: The driver stopped the bus and called the police. Two police officers arrested Parks and took her to jail for violating Alabama's bus laws.


title: Rosa Parks

text: Her mother called upon Edgar Nixon to bail her out. Nixon was the president of the local NAACP chapter. Nixon knew the danger Parks was in and immediately arranged her bail.


title: Rosa Parks

text: The local NAACP had been looking for a test case to challenge the bus segregation laws. Parks was a respected working woman. She was well-spoken, and her case would be a good way to challenge the law. It was decided that on December 5, a boycott of all the buses in Montgomery would be held.


title: Rosa Parks

text: The word was spread throughout the black community of the intended bus boycott. Black ministers told their congregations to support the boycott. On Monday, December 5th, Rosa Parks had to appear in court. This was also the first day black riders would stay off the Montgomery buses. The streets of Montgomery were filled with black people walking to work. Black children walked to school. That same morning, all Montgomery buses were assigned two motorcycle policemen to guard against any black gangs intimidating riders. There were no black gangs. The black community simply cooperated with the boycott. The buses remained empty all day. White riders fearing trouble stayed off the buses as well.


title: Rosa Parks

text: In addition to the charge of violating the bus laws, Parks was also charged with disorderly conduct. Her trial was quick, only about 30 minutes. The court found her guilty of all charges and fined her $14. The boycott continued.


title: Rosa Parks

text: Parks appealed her conviction. Her attorney, Fred Parks, and others in the NAACP brought an appeal named "Browder v. Gayle". The appeals court ruled on June 19, 1956 in favor of the black citizens of Montgomery. But the city appealed the decision.


title: Rosa Parks

text: On September 13, 1956, the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the lower court. The bus boycott ended. It had lasted 381 days. Black citizens of Montgomery could ride the buses and sit where they chose. Rosa Parks rode the bus again on December 21, 1956. This time it was an integrated bus. Ironically, she had the same bus driver who had her arrested the year before. In an interview, Parks said "He didn't react (pause) and neither did I".


title: Rosa Parks

text: Rosa Parks was a heroine of the black community. While she didn't do it alone, her actions sparked a fire that led to great changes.


title: Rosa Parks

text: After the Montgomery Bus Boycott, Parks went through many difficulties. She lost her job at the department store. Her husband was forced to quit his job.


title: Rosa Parks

text: In 1957, Parks and her husband left Montgomery for Hampton, Virginia to find work. In Hampton, Parks found a job as a hostess in an inn at Hampton Institute, a historically black college.


title: Rosa Parks

text: Later, Parks and her husband moved to Detroit, Michigan. Parks continued to work as an activist. For years, she worked for United States Congressman John Conyers. After that, she worked as an activist against apartheid in South Africa. She also opened a center in Detroit that gave advice to black youth about careers and job opportunities.


title: Rosa Parks

text: In 1999, President Bill Clinton awarded Parks a Congressional Gold Medal. This is the United States' highest honor (most important award) for civilians. When he gave her the award, President Clinton said:


title: Rosa Parks

text: "We must never ever, when this ceremony is over, forget about the power of ordinary people to stand in the fire for the cause of the human dignity."


title: Rosa Parks

text: Parks died on October 24, 2005, at her home in Detroit due to dementia. On October 30, her casket lay in state in the United States Capitol. This is a great honor for people in the United States.


title: Leninism

text: Leninism is a way of thinking about how the communist party should be organized. It says it should be a dictatorship of the proletariat (the working class holds the power). It is thought to be one of the first steps towards socialism (where the workers own the factories, etc.). It is one part of Marxism–Leninism, which emphasizes the transition from capitalism to socialism.


title: Leninism

text: Vladimir Lenin was a Russian Marxist. He had a set of ideas based on Marxism. Lenin's development of Marxism has become known as Leninism. These ideas include:


title: Armenia

text: Armenia (Armenian: Հայաստան, "Hayastan"), officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country located in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.


title: Armenia

text: Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in the ethnicity of Armenians. It has an ancient cultural heritage. One of the earliest Armenian kingdoms such as Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301.


title: Armenia

text: Between the 16th century and 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Iranian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule.


title: Armenia

text: During World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, all non-Russian countries declared their independence after the Russian Empire ceased to exist, leading to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.


title: Armenia

text: Armenia is divided into ten provinces, with the city of Yerevan having special administrative status as the country's capital. The chief executive in each of the ten provinces is the "marzpet" ("marz" governor), appointed by the government of Armenia. In Yerevan, the chief executive is the mayor, appointed by the president.


title: Armenia

text: The Republic of Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD.


title: Armenia

text: Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Council of Europe and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh, which was proclaimed in 1991.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Edward Christopher “Ed” Sheeran (born 17 February 1991) is a British singer-songwriter and guitarist. He also writes and produces songs on his own and created his label, Paw Print Records. Sheeran is recognized for doing pop music. He was born in Halifax, West Yorkshire. As a child, he lived in Framlingham, Suffolk, England.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Ed Sheeran was born on February 17, 1991 in Halifax, West Yorkshire, England. His father worked as an art curator at Cartwright Hall, his mother worked at Manchester City Art Gallery. Sheeran started writing music in his early teen's.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: In 2005, Sheeran started publishing some EP albums. The first one has been named "Orange Room EP". He continued publishing EPs until 2010 when he released "Songs I Wrote with Amy". It was the last EP released before publishing his number one popular album "+".


title: Ed Sheeran

text: He then moved to London in 2008 to start a music career. He first played in various events and also made an EP. Then he signed a contract with a record company, Atlantic Records.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: In 2011 he made his first album, called "+". The album went to number one in the music rankings of many countries and had also been certified double platinum. Some of the songs on this album have been successful, such as "The A Team" and "Lego House" (leaked as the third single of the album in November 2011). Also, the song "You Need Me, I Don't Need You" was released as the second single in August before the album came out. As the fourth single, "Drunk" was out in January 2012. Finally, the song "Give Me Love" was released as the sixth and final single of "+", on 26 November. From this album, his first single "The A Team" has been recently nominated in the Song of the Year category for the 2013 Grammy Awards. Sheeran was nominated in many categories at the 2013 BRIT Awards.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Sheeran performed at the 2012 Olympic Games Closing Ceremony on 12 August. He performed a cover of the song Wish You Were Here by Pink Floyd.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: He collaborated with Taylor Swift on her fourth album "Red", doing a duet with her on the song "Everything Has Changed". He has also written songs for One Direction. He wrote the song "Moment" and gave it to One Direction in 2011. He co-wrote two songs that were on their second album "Take Me Home". He first gave them the song "Little Things" that he had written with his friend Fiona Bevan when he was 17 years-old. As well as this, co-wrote the song "Over Again".


title: Ed Sheeran

text: "Don't", Sheeran's #3 song on his album "×" (pronounced "multiply"), was released in 2014 and was nominated for several awards. The song was about how Ellie Goulding was cheating on him with One Direction's Niall Horan. In the song, it says, "it's not like we were both on tour. We were staying on the same hotel floor." Goulding did, in fact, cheat on him while they were staying in the same hotel. Sheeran thought it was very easy to forgive Goulding after he found out about it.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: The most successful single from "×" was "Thinking Out Loud", which reached number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and finished at the number-two song of 2015 in the United States. Sheeran won Grammy Awards for Song of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance for the song.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Sheeran collaborated with Justin Bieber on Bieber's album "Purpose". He co-wrote the song "Love Yourself", which became a number-one hit for Bieber in the UK, US, Canada, and Australia, and the song finished as the number-one song of 2016 in the US.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Sheeran's third studio album, "÷" ("divide"), was released on 3 March 2017. He released the two singles "Shape of You" and "Castle on the Hill" in January 2017. "Shape of You" became his first number-one hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100 when it entered at the top of the chart. The song has reached number one in several countries around the world, and "Castle on the Hill" has become a top-ten hit. Sheeran became the first artist to have songs enter at numbers one and two at the same time on the UK Singles Chart when the first single was at the top and "Castle on the Hill" was at number two. His song <nowiki>"Galway Girl"</nowiki> has reached the number one position in the Scotland and Ireland singles charts. All of the album's songs were within the top 20 of the UK Singles Chart.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: In December 2017, Sheeran released the single "Perfect". He later released an acoustic duet version with singer Beyoncé and an orchestral version with Andrea Bocelli. The song went on to top the charts of several countries worldwide.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: In May 2019, Sheeran released the song "I Don't Care" (with Justin Bieber) as the first single from his then-upcoming album, "No. 6 Collaborations Project". The song reached number one in Australia and the UK and number two in Canada and the US. The album also includes the songs "Cross Me" (with Chance the Rapper); "BLOW" (with PnB Rock, Bruno Mars, and Chris Stapleton); and "South of the Border" (with Camila Cabello and Cardi B).


title: Ed Sheeran

text: On 25 June 2021, Sheeran released the upbeat single "Bad Habits". In 19 August, he announced his fifth album, "=" will be released on 29 October. Before the album will be released, Sheeran also released "Shivers" and the promotional single "Visiting Hours".


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Ed Sheeran has won many prizes, for example the award for Best British Male Solo Artist at the 2012 BRIT Awards. He has also won four Grammy Awards.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Despite his popularity and fame, Sheeran has been spotted smoking several times. In an interview with Ryan Seacrest, published on YouTube on 5 March 2014, Sheeran revealed that smoking is his worst habit. After ten years as a smoker, he now claims to be smoke-free. However, in an article published on the Daily Mail website, on 19 March 2015, he was spotted smoking a roll-up cigarette, outside a hotel in Brisbane. He has since quit smoking again.


title: Ed Sheeran

text: Sheeran announced that he became engaged to his girlfriend, Cherry Seaborn, over Christmas 2017. They married the following year.


title: Birbal

text: Birbal (born Mahesh Das; 1528 16 February 1586), or Raja Birbal, was a Hindu advisor in the court of the Mughal emperor, Akbar. Birbal was appointed by Akbar as a poet and singer in around 1560. He was one of the "navaratnas" (nine jewels of Akbar).


title: Birbal

text: He is mostly known in the Indian subcontinent for the folk tales which focus on his wit. In the local folk tales he is presented as a very clever person. These tales are popular in India. These tales involve him being smarter then or making fool of other courtiers and sometimes even Akbar, using only his intelligence and cunning. From the twentieth century onwards, plays, movies and books based on these folk tales were made. Some of these folk tales are in children's comics and school books.


title: Jamaica

text: Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean; it is part of the Greater Antilles. The island, in area, lies about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola. Its capital city is Kingston; other towns include Montego Bay, St. Ann's Bay and Spanish Town. The island is divided into three counties – Cornwall, Middlesex and Surrey – which are subdivided into 14 parishes: Kingston, St. Andrew, St. Catherine, Clarendon, Manchester, St. Elizabeth, Westmoreland, Hanover, St. James, Trelawny, St. Ann, St. Mary, Portland and St. Thomas.


title: Jamaica

text: Jamaica is the third-largest island country in the Greater Antilles. Its Taíno name is "Xaymaca", meaning "Land of Springs". Jamaica is part of the West Indies.


title: Jamaica

text: The Taino indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by "caciques" (chiefs of villages). The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.


title: Jamaica

text: Christopher Columbus, during his second voyage to the Americas, claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there on 5 May 1494 and his probable landing point was Dry Harbour, now called Discovery Bay. There is some debate as to whether he landed in St. Ann's Bay or in Discovery Bay. St. Ann's Bay was named "Saint Gloria" by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land.


title: Jamaica

text: In 1503, during his fourth voyage, Columbus had to spend one year on the northern coast of the island, and he named the island "Isla de Santiago" (by Sant Iago Apostol, in Spanish "Santiago").


title: Jamaica

text: In 1509, the new Governor of the Hispaniola, Diego Columbus, sent Juan de Esquivel, a Conquistador born in Seville, Spain, with 70 men to Jamaica to complete the conquest of that island. They first lived in the St. Ann's Bay area and soon Esquivel founded a town, "Sevilla La Nueva" (in English, "The New Seville") on the north coast, one mile to the west of St. Ann's Bay.


title: Jamaica

text: Sevilla was abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy. The capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called "Saint Jago de la Vega", in the south around 1534.


title: Jamaica

text: In 1654 Oliver Cromwell decided to break the Spanish control of the West Indies and he sent a fleet in an expedition) led by William Penn and General Robert Venables. The fleet arrived to the Santo Domingo island on 13 April 1655 but the British lost in two battles on 17 and 25 April and they decided to move to Jamaica.


title: Jamaica

text: On 10 May 1655, Penn and Venables led a successful attack on Jamaica. The Spanish surrendered to the English, freed their slaves and then fled to Cuba. It was this set of freed slaves and their descendants living in the Jamaican mountains who became known as the Maroons.


title: Jamaica

text: After a long period of direct British colonial rule, Jamaica gained a degree of local political control in the late 1930s, and held its first election under full universal adult suffrage in 1944. Jamaica joined nine other U.K. territories in the West Indies Federation in 1958 but withdrew after Jamaican voters rejected membership in 1961. Jamaica got its independence in 1962, remaining a member of the Commonwealth.


title: Jamaica

text: Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, with King Charles III serving as the monarch. However, as Charles III is shared as head of state of fifteen other countries (the Commonwealth realm) in addition to the UK and resides mostly in the United Kingdom, he is thus often represented as King of Jamaica in Jamaica and abroad by the Governor-General of Jamaica. The governor-general is nominated by the Prime Minister of Jamaica and appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister. The monarch and the governor-general serve largely ceremonial roles.


title: Jamaica

text: The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral. This means that it consists of two Houses, the Senate, also called the Upper House, and the House of Representatives, also known as the Lower House. The members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or "MPs") are elected by the people of Jamaica. The leader of the political party with most members in the House of Representatives is appointed by the governor-general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and the parliamentary leader of the opposition and are then appointed by the governor-general.


title: Jamaica

text: Jamaica has traditionally had a system of two parties, with power often alternating between the People's National Party and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The party with current administrative and legislative power is Jamaica Labour Party, with a two-thirds Parliamentary majority as of 2016.


title: Jamaica

text: Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes, which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance.


title: Jamaica

text: In 2011 (last national census), there were 2,697,983 people living in Jamaica: 1,334,533 men and 1,363,450 women. There were 1,453,438 (53.9%) living in towns and cities. The population density was 245.5 persons/km².


title: Jamaica

text: According to estimates about 70% of Jamaicans are Black and the rest of the 30% are composed of mostly Mixed Race people, but also includes White and Asian Jamaicans.


title: Jamaica

text: The people of Jamaica is 62.5% Protestant (10.8% Seventh-day Adventist Church, 9.5% Pentecostal, 8.3 Other Church of God, 7.2% Baptist, 6.3% New Testament Church of God, 4.8% Church of God in Jamaica, 4.3% Church of God of Prophecy, 3.6% Anglicans, 7.7% other Christian), 2.6% Catholics, 14.2% other or unspecified, 20.9% none.


title: Jamaica

text: Jamaica is between latitudes 17° 42"N and 18° 31"N and longitudes 78° 22"W and 76° 11", that is between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. It has an area of .


title: Jamaica

text: Jamaica is the third-largest island country in the Greater Antilles, after Cuba and the Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic); it is larger than Puerto Rico. The island is from east to west; the width, from north to south, varies between to . The country is composed mainly of the mainland, but near the coast there are a few isolated small islands.


title: Jamaica

text: The Blue Mountains are the longest mountain range in Jamaica. They include the island's highest point, Blue Mountain Peak, at .


title: Jamaica

text: The Rio Minho is the longest river in Jamaica at . It rises close to the island's geographic centre, flows generally south-southwest and reaches the Caribbean Sea at Carlisle Bay in the central south coast, to the west of the island's southernmost point, Portland Point.


title: Jamaica

text: The Black River is one of the longest rivers in Jamaica. At a length of , it was believed to be the longest until it was discovered that the Rio Minho was longer. It was originally called Rio Caobana.


title: Jamaica

text: The island is known for the Rastafarian movement, as well as reggae artist Bob Marley. The popular sprinter Usain Bolt is also an asset from the country. Usain Bolt won gold in the 100 and 200 races in Rio 2016. England goalkeeper Joe Hart is also born in Jamaica. The captain of AS Roma Lorenzo Pellegrini is also born in Jamaica.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: Switzerland is divided into 26 different areas called "cantons". A canton is similar to a state in the United States.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: In the past, each canton had its own army and money. This changed in 1848 when Switzerland finished a civil war and changed to the structure it has now.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: The cantons Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden (Nidwalden and Obwalden together are called "Unterwalden") are called "Urkantone". An Urkanton is a canton that existed since the foundation of Switzerland in 1291. With time, other cantons joined Switzerland. "Jura" is the newest canton in Switzerland since 1978. In that year, it split from the canton of Berne, after some rioting.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: The cantons of Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft, Appenzell-Innerrhoden, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden, Obwalden and Nidwalden are different from the others in one way. For historical reasons, their voting is counted differently in national elections. Other than that, they are the same as the others.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: In Switzerland, the individual municipalities and cantons are very free. Usually, there is a Swiss law (at the level of the whole confederation). Very often this states general things and says that the cantons must follow this rule. The cantons then make detailed rules, each in the way it sees fit. Sometimes this leads to strange situations. There are 26 different schooling systems.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: Drug abuse is a federal offense. Punishment is usually one to three years, but can also be only a fine. The problem is: Consumption itself (not trading, or giving away for free) is not punishable. Also in light cases, the police can say that there will be no fine. This has led to the fact, that in each canton, this law is applied differently. In one canton, smoking marijuana will mean a fine, in another, it can mean a prison term.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: The word for that is called federalism. That means, that each canton has its own government. So all cantons have their own constitution. The constitution is the highest law in a state.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: Notes: As of 31 December 2001, National Statistics, km², per km², based on 2000 population seat of government and parliament, the seat of the judicial authorities is Trogen.


title: Cantons of Switzerland

text: The two-letter abbreviations for Swiss cantons are widely used, e.g. on car license plates and in the ISO 3166-2 codes (with the prefix "CH-", i.e. CH-SZ for the canton of Schwyz).


title: American Civil War

text: The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a civil war in the United States of America. It was fought when 11 Southern states left the United States and formed the Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy). The US government and the states that remained loyal to it were called the Union.


title: American Civil War

text: The main cause of the war was slavery, which was allowed in the South, including all 11 Confederate States. Slavery was illegal in most of the North. The Confederate States tried to leave the Union after Abraham Lincoln, who disliked slavery, was elected US president. The Union believed that it was illegal for the states to break away. There were five states that allowed slavery which stayed in the Union.


title: American Civil War

text: The war began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a fort in South Carolina that was held by Union soldiers. The war lasted four years and caused much damage in the South. Most battles were in northern states until 1862 and in southern states after 1862.


title: American Civil War

text: After four years of fighting, the Union won the war, and soon, slavery was made illegal everywhere in the United States of America.


title: American Civil War

text: When the United States of America was founded in 1776, most states allowed slavery. However, over the next 84 years, the Northern states decided that slavery was a bad thing and banned it. The Southern states kept slavery legal. Slaves from Africa grew tobacco, cotton and other cash crops in those states. It was very different in the North, where the Industrial Revolution led to more people working in factories instead of on farms.


title: American Civil War

text: The United States became divided into slave and free states. By 1860, those groups were angry at each other. Few people wanted to end slavery in the South and so Americans argued on whether slavery should be allowed to spread to the territories and new states in the west. In the late 1850s, there was fighting in Kansas over whether the territory should allow slavery.


title: American Civil War

text: Abraham Lincoln from the Republican Party won the 1860 United States presidential election. He then did not want to ban slavery in the states. Like nearly everyone else, he believed that the US Constitution did not allow the federal government to ban slavery (the amendment to ban slavery was passed later, in 1865). He also thought that banning it suddenly would anger the South.


title: American Civil War

text: Instead, Lincoln and his Republican Party thought that slavery should be banned in US territories. They thought that slavery would die out if it could not go to new places.


title: American Civil War

text: Lincoln became president on March 4, 1861. In the four months between the election and the day that Lincoln became president, seven Southern states declared their independence from the Union. The outgoing US president, James Buchanan, said that was against the law but he could do nothing to stop them.


title: American Civil War

text: The Republican Party treated secession as a rebellion. No country in the world ever recognized the Confederacy as a separate nation. That was because of diplomacy on the part of the Union, anti-slavery feelings in Europe and the northern blockade of southern ports, and of war against the United States.


title: American Civil War

text: The first seven states to join the Confederacy were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Four others joined after the fighting began: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The Confederacy claimed Kentucky and Missouri belonged to them, but they never joined the Confederacy. Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland were slave states that tried to avoid taking sides. Delaware supported the Union although it was a slave state. Also, the western counties of Virginia chose to remain in the Union and created a new state, West Virginia.


title: American Civil War

text: Fighting started when the Confederates shot and threw bombs at Fort Sumter, a Union Army fort in South Carolina. Lincoln then asked the Union states to bring soldiers to fight the Confederates.


title: American Civil War

text: The Confederates said that all forts and other federal buildings in the South belonged to them. Fort On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces attacked the fort and forced the Union soldiers in it to surrender. Lincoln then asked every Union state for volunteers to join the Union Army. Four more southern slave states joined the Confederates, rather than supply forces to fight against them.


title: American Civil War

text: The US Navy stopped other ships from going in or out of southern ports. That stopped the Confederacy from selling its cotton and other goods and also made it harder for the South to buy weapons and military supplies.


title: American Civil War

text: The American Civil War was fought in three important land areas, or "theaters." The "Eastern Theater" was the land east of the Appalachian Mountains. "The Western Theater" included everything between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River and along the river. The Trans-Mississippi Theater included territory west of the Mississippi River.


title: American Civil War

text: Both the United States and the Confederacy had their capital cities in the Eastern Theater. Washington, DC, had been the US capital since 1800. When the South seceded, its first capital was Montgomery, Alabama, but it moved the capital to Richmond, Virginia. Richmond and Washington DC are only about 90 miles (145 km) apart.


title: American Civil War

text: One of the first battles of the war was fought in Virginia. The Union tried to march to Richmond, but the Confederates stopped them at the First Battle of Bull Run, on July 21, 1861. The Union Army of the Potomac then tried to capture Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign during the spring of 1862, but Robert E. Lee became leader of the Army of Northern Virginia and defeated the Union Army. He then won the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862. Lee tried to win the war by invading Maryland, but he lost the Battle of Antietam and retreated to Virginia. The Eastern Theater was the hardest fight for the Union, as they did not get far in Virginia until 1864. They did much better in other areas.


title: American Civil War

text: There was much fighting between ships in the war, but the Union had a stronger and bigger navy. Lincoln put the Confederates under a blockade and so the Union Navy would not let any ships into or out of southern ports. The Confederates used ships called "blockade runners" to bring things from Europe like weapons. The navies of each side also fought on the rivers. The ships included ironclads, which were protected by iron on their sides, and cottonclads, which used cotton along their sides. During the Battle of Hampton Roads, the Confederate ironclad "Virginia" fought against the Union ironclad "Monitor". It was the first time in world history that two ironclads fought each other.


title: American Civil War

text: In the Western Theater, much of the fighting happened along the Mississippi River. Ulysses S. Grant was an important Union general in the West. The Confederates tried to send their soldiers into the state of Kentucky in the summer of 1861. In the early months of 1862, the Union Army made the Confederates retreat from Kentucky and from western Tennessee. They tried to recapture western Tennessee by attacking Grant's army at the Battle of Shiloh, but Grant won the battle. The Confederates then tried to send their soldiers into eastern Kentucky in the fall of 1862 but lost the Battle of Perryville and then left Kentucky. Over the next year, the Union took control of the rest of Tennessee.


title: American Civil War

text: The North won control of almost all of the Mississippi River by capturing the cities along the river in the fall of 1862 and the spring of 1863. However, the Confederacy still held Vicksburg, an important city and fort. If they held, the Confederates could move soldiers and supplies from one side of the river to the other. Grant started the Siege of Vicksburg during the month of May 1863. The siege continued until July 4, 1863, when the Confederates there surrendered to Grant. That was one of the turning points in the war by dividing the Confederacy into two parts.


title: American Civil War

text: There were also battles west of the Mississippi River Valley in the Trans-Mississippi Theater. For example, two important battles were the Battle of Wilson's Creek and the Battle of Pea Ridge. The Confederates tried to invade New Mexico in February and March 1862 but they were defeated at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. After the Union captured Vicksburg, the area became separated from the rest of the Confederate States. Other battles happened in the area after the capture of Vicksburg.


title: American Civil War

text: During the Siege of Vicksburg in the west, another turning point came in the east. After winning some battles, Lee decided to invade the North again. Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia went into Pennsylvania. The Confederate Army met the Union Army near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania and fought the Battle of Gettysburg, which lasted from July 1 to 3, 1863. More soldiers died at Gettysburg than in any other Civil War battle, which the Union won. Lee and his troops were pushed back into the South and could no longer invade the North.


title: American Civil War

text: From Vicksburg, Grant led the army to finish taking control of Tennessee in the Chattanooga campaign. Lincoln then decided that Grant was his best general and put Grant in control of all Union armies. Abraham Lincoln also made William Tecumseh Sherman the general in charge leading the Union troops from Tennessee to Georgia. Grant led many attacks on Lee's army in Virginia. The battles were made up the Overland Campaign.


title: American Civil War

text: The Union had more success when Sherman marched into Georgia in May 1864, into the middle of the Confederate States. In September, he captured Atlanta, an important city. Sherman then led a "march to the sea" and captured Savannah. He then marched north through South Carolina and North Carolina. Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston attacked Sherman at the Battle of Bentonville. Sherman won the battle. Even in the 20th century, Southerners remember Sherman's march as destroying many homes, farms, and railroads, but his soldiers are blamed for things that they could not have done since they were too far away.


title: American Civil War

text: By late 1864, Lee's army was struggling, as they had less soldiers and supplies than Grant's army. Helped by Philip Sheridan, Grant's army slowly started to push into Virginia. At the start of April 1865, they won several battles against Lee's army and captured Richmond. Lee decided that he had too few soldiers to keep on fighting. He surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865 near Appomattox Court House. Later, many other Confederate armies surrendered as well. The last Confederate general to surrender was Brigadier General Stand Watie, who surrendered on June 23, 1865, in Oklahoma.


title: American Civil War

text: After the war ended, Lincoln pardoned all of the Confederate soldiers and so they could not be arrested or punished for fighting against the Union. The South would be allowed to rejoin the United States but only later. Some Confederates did not want to return to the United States and moved to places like México or Brazil.


title: American Civil War

text: Historians have had different ideas about whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most of them, such as James McPherson, say that it would have been difficult but possible. The Union had far more people, money and industry. By most estimates, the Union had over 2 million soldiers while the Confederacy had 1 million.


title: American Civil War

text: One advantage the Confederacy had was that they only needed to defend their land, whereas the Union could only win if they took full control of the Confederate states. Furthermore, the Union could only fight the war if their people wanted them to keep fighting. Lincoln had opponents in the North (the Copperheads) who wanted the war to end. If the Confederacy had defended itself for long enough, it may have led to more people in the Union turning against the war and supporting the Copperheads. However, Lincoln held on to his support and won the 1864 election.


title: American Civil War

text: The Union Navy blocked ships from going into the Confederate ports. Although some ships managed to get past, most could not. The Confederacy had big money problems because they could not sell cotton and other goods to other countries. The Confederacy collected less taxes than the Union, so they printed money to pay for the war. This caused inflation (rising prices).


title: American Civil War

text: Another factor was that the Confederacy could not get help from outside. They had hoped that Britain and France would support the Confederacy because they wanted to buy their cotton. However, Britain and France did not give them help. There were three reasons for this. Firstly, they thought that slavery was wrong. Secondly, they did not want to become enemies of the United States. Thirdly, they could get cotton from elsewhere.


title: American Civil War

text: Most historians also think that Abraham Lincoln was a better leader than Jefferson Davis. Don E. Fehrenbacher says that Lincoln's skills helped keep the Border States and ordinary people on his side. Lincoln left his generals alone if they did a good job and fired them if they did not. Davis lacked a clear plan, tried to do too many tasks at once and often chose people to do jobs just because they were his friends. He annoyed his generals and other Confederate politicians. William Cooper says that better leadership helped the Union, but they were already more likely to win.


title: American Civil War

text: Many soldiers on both sides died during the war. Most of the war was fought in the South. Many railroads, farms, houses and other things were destroyed, and most people there became very poor.


title: American Civil War

text: The period after the war, called Reconstruction, lasted from the end of the war to 1877. The Union Army stayed in some Southern states and made them occupied territory. Three important amendments were added on to the US Constitution. The amendments were proposed (or suggested) by the US government. Although not every American supported them, they got enough support to pass:


title: American Civil War

text: After the war, some of the Union Army's leaders went into politics. Generals Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley became US presidents. Other veterans were elected to other offices.


title: American Civil War

text: The Southern states were allowed to ask to rejoin the union. When they were accepted, that could send senators and representatives to the US Congress again and make their own state laws. During Reconstruction, black Americans built schools and other social infrastructure. Some of the schools became the historically black colleges that still exist. After southern states rejoined the Union, most of them made laws that limited what black people could do.


title: American Civil War

text: The Amnesty Act of 1872 restored the rights to vote and to hold political office for most former members of the Confederacy. Some of them also became politicians.


title: Terabyte

text: A terabyte (TB) is a unit of measurement in computers and similar electronic devices. One terabyte holds 1000 gigabytes (GB) or a trillion (1,000,000,000,000) bytes, and 1000 terabytes make one petabyte.


title: Terabyte

text: Large organizations use terabytes of storage to hold massive amounts of data. People at home might use terabytes for backups. An external hard drive can be several terabytes. Usually, one terabyte of space costs $50.


title: Tesco

text: Tesco is a multinational retailer owned by Tesco PLC from the United Kingdom. It was started by Jack Cohen in 1919 who opened the first Tesco grocery store in 1931 near London, England. His business grew very quickly and there were 100 Tesco stores by 1939. At first, Tesco only sold food in its stores, but in the 1990s it began to sell other things like mobile phones, DVDs and videos, clothing, and books. It now also operates petrol stations, banks, and is an Internet service provider in the UK since 2012.


title: Tesco

text: There are different brands of Tesco stores, which are all different sizes. They go from small convenience stores to large hypermarkets. With more than 3,000 stores in the UK alone, it is one of the biggest retailers in the country. Tesco's website was also one of the first to let people buy things from the Internet.


title: Tesco

text: The company that owns Tesco is called Tesco plc (public limited company) and is listed on the London Stock Exchange. It has opened stores in other countries within Europe and Asia. Countries with Tesco stores include Ireland, Hungary, Malaysia, and Thailand. Today, Tesco is the third-largest retailer in the world when measured by profit and the fifth-largest by revenue.


title: Morpheme

text: A morpheme is the smallest linguistic part of a word that can have a meaning. In other words, it is the smallest meaningful part of a word. Examples of morphemes would be the parts "un-", "break", and "-able" in the word "unbreakable".


title: Woman on top

text: Woman on top (also called cowgirl or riding position) is a group of sex positions in which the man lies back or sits. The woman straddles him facing either forward or backward. The man then inserts his erect penis into the woman's vagina or anus.


title: Woman on top

text: The cowgirl name comes from the image of the receiving partner "riding" the other partner the same way a cowboy rides a bucking horse. The position is often cited as one of the more popular sex positions, mostly by women.


title: Village

text: A village is a place where people live, normally in the countryside. It is usually larger than a hamlet and smaller than a town or city. In some places, it may be a kind of local government. The dwellings in a village are clustered fairly close to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape.


title: Village

text: In the past, villages were where most people lived. Villages were a usual form of community for societies that do subsistence agriculture, and for some non-agricultural societies. After the industrial revolution, when people started making a lot of things in factories, people lived more in towns. Moving to towns is called urbanization. When villages grow a lot they can grow into towns and then cities. This is what happened to Dubai and Chicago.


title: Village

text: In The U.K. the biggest difference between a hamlet and a village is that many villages have a church.


title: Village

text: The word "village" is not used in most states. However, in twenty US states, a "village" is a sort of local government, similar to a city but with less power and for a smaller place. But this is not so in all the United States. In many states, there are villages which are bigger than the smallest cities in the state. The difference is not the population, it is how much power the different sorts of places have, and what they do for people living there.


title: Village

text: In many states, a "village" is only a place where people live, with no legal power, similar to a hamlet in New York state. The name for these is "unincorporated villages".


title: Fenrir

text: In Norse mythology, Fenrir (Old Norse: “he who dwells in the marshes”), also known as Fenrisúlfr (Old Norse: “Fenrir's wolf”), or Vanargand ("Monster of the River Van"), is a giant, monstrous wolf, son of Loki and the giantess Angrboða, and the brother of Hel and Jörmungandr.


title: Fenrir

text: Fenrir was tied up by the gods but was destined to break free from his bonds and devour Odin during Ragnarök, after which he is killed by Odin's son, Víðarr.


title: Fenrir

text: Odin found out about a prophecy that the children of Loki and Angora would cause trouble for the gods. He had Fenrir brought to him along with its brother Jörmungandr and its sister Hel.


title: Fenrir

text: After throwing Jörmungandr into the sea and sending Hel into the land of the dead, Odin had the wolf raised among the Æsir. Only the god Týr was brave enough to feed the growing monster. The wolf got stronger and stronger. The gods were scared that he would eventually destroy them. They tried to chain it up. He agreed to be chained two times. Both times he easily broke the chains.


title: Fenrir

text: Odin had the dwarfs make the chain Gleipnir ("deceiver" or "entangler"). It looked like a silken ribbon but was made of six magical ingredients: the sound of a cat's step, the beard of a woman, the roots of a mountain, bear's sensibility, fish's breath, and bird's spittle.


title: Fenrir

text: The gods challenged Fenrir to break this chain as well. The wolf saw how thin and well made Gleipnir was and thought it was a trick. He agreed to try and break the chain, but only if one of the gods would put his hand in the wolf's mouth. He believed this would force them to free him if he could not break the chain. Only Týr was willing to put his hand in the wolf's mouth. Fenrir tried to break the chain. The more he tried, the tighter the chain held him. When the gods would not free him, the wolf bit off Týr's hand at the wrist.


title: Fenrir

text: It is said that at Ragnarök, the wolf will break free. He will join forces with the enemies of the gods and will then eat Odin. After that Viðarr, Odin's son, will slay the wolf to avenge his father's death.


title: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: The Great Pyramid of Giza is a huge pyramid built by the Ancient Egyptians. It stand 18.4 km from Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain mostly intact. When it was built it was 146.5 metres (481 feet) tall. It was the tallest building in the world for over 3,800 years. Erosion and other causes have shrunk it to 138.8 metres. The pyramid was probably built for Khufu, an Egyptian pharaoh. It was perhaps built by Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu. It is believed that it took about 20 years to build, and was completed around 10,000 BC.


title: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: When it was built, the Great Pyramid was covered by white stones that formed a smooth outer surface. Some of these stones can still be seen around the base. Most of what can be seen of the pyramid now is its basic core 2,300,000 blocks of limestone and granite. There have been many different theories to explain how the pyramid was built. Most accepted building ideas are based on the idea of moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. Archaeologists found that the Pyramids of Giza were not built by slaves, but workers who were paid for working. Their graves were found near the pyramid in 1990.


title: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: There are three known rooms, or chambers, inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the rock on which the pyramid was built. This chamber was not finished. The other two chambers are higher up inside the pyramid. They are called the Queen's Chamber and the King's Chamber, but these are modern labels as we do not know how the Egyptians were going to use them. The Great Pyramid has two passages, one leading up, and the other down. It is the only Egyptian pyramid to have the two passages.


title: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: The Great Pyramid is part of a group of buildings, called the Giza Necropolis. This includes two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu. One is close to the pyramid and one near the Nile. There are three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives. Other buildings include an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, and a raised causeway which joins the two temples. There are other tombs, called mastaba, probably for other important people.


title: Ecclesia (Church)

text: Ecclesia (or Ekklesia) in Christian theology means both: a particular body of faithful people, and the whole body of the faithful. Latin "ecclesia", from Greek "ekklesia," where the word is a compound of two segments: "ek", a preposition meaning "out of", and a verb, "kaleo", signifying "to call" - together, literally, "to call out". That usage soon disappeared and was replaced with "assembly, congregation, council", or "convocation".


title: Ecclesia (Church)

text: If one speaks of the whole body of Christian faithful, then there are included not only the members of the Church who are alive on earth but all who were members of the church before. Some churches therefore describe the Church as being composed of the "Church Militant" (Christians on Earth) and the "Church Triumphant" (Christians in Heaven). In Catholic theology, there is also the "Church Suffering" (Christians still in purgatory).


title: Ecclesia (Church)

text: Finally, 'The Church' may sometimes be used, especially in Catholic theology, to speak of those who exercise the office of teaching and ruling the faithful, the "Ecclesia Docens", or again (more rarely) the governed as distinguished from their pastors, the "Ecclesia Discens".


title: Czech language

text: The Czech language is a Slavic language spoken by people in the Czech Republic. Ten million people speak it. It is very similar to the Slovak language; the differences between these two languages are small enough that speakers of Czech and Slovak usually understand each other.


title: Czech language

text: It has three genders and is an inflected language like Latin. The grammar is much more complex than that of English.


title: Animation

text: Derived from the Latin word for "soul", animation is a way of making a movie from many still images. The images are put together one after another, and then played at a fast speed to give the illusion of movement.


title: Animation

text: Animation is a relatively new art form, and though the idea of moving images has been a theme throughout ancient civilizations, it was not until late into the 19th century that experimental animation truly began. Today, the industry of animation is booming, making up a huge commercial enterprise.


title: Animation

text: Because it is expensive to make, most animation comes from professional companies. However, independent animators have existed since the 1950s in America, with many of those people entering the professional industry. In Europe, the independent movement has existed since the 1910s, with animators like pre-revolutionary Russia's Ladislas Starevich and Germany's Lotte Reiniger.


title: Animation

text: Many people use a computer animation program called Adobe Flash to create animations. Flash uses a combination of drawing and computer graphics to make animations. Many animations on the internet are made in Flash. Most animators on the internet do not work for professional companies.


title: Animation

text: Many television shows, especially those made for children, use limited animation. Companies such as UPA and Hanna-Barbera Productions do this. Simple, limited movement makes the images easier to draw, which allows faster and cheaper production of animation.


title: Bihar

text: Bihar (; ) is a state in the Republic of India, covering an area of 38,202 mi² (99,200 km²). The capital is Patna. Bihar is bordered by the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the west, Jharkhand to the south, and West Bengal to the east. To the north of Bihar is the country of Nepal. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the East Indian zone. It is one of the poorest regions in India.


title: OnlyFans

text: OnlyFans is a website for posting videos and pictures online and making money or for buying those things. The website is British and based in London.


title: OnlyFans

text: People who create videos or other things on the site can earn money from users who subscribe to their content. These people who subscribe and pay money to see what people make are known as the "fans". The company charges a 20% fee for all transactions made on the site.


title: OnlyFans

text: It is popular with people who sell sexual videos or images but also has other types of videos and images. For example sports experts, musicians and other people who make things who post regularly online.


title: OnlyFans

text: The people who post things can get money directly from their fans every month basis as well as one time payments called "tips" from video views.


title: OnlyFans

text: OnlyFans has been criticised for hosting hurtful material including sexual videos of children. The National Center on Sexual Exploitation reports fewer numbers of hurtful sexual videos of children than are posted to Facebook, which is a site with more people using it. Facebook having more people on it and more hurtful videos is talked about to show that the problem of hurtful videos is not just on OnlyFans but on many websites online. A campaign to investigate OnlyFans began in the US Congress in August 2021.


title: OnlyFans

text: People disagree about how safe it is to be someone who makes things and posts them the OnlyFans site for not getting hurt or stolen from. People who make and post things have been stalked and hurt by fans, sometimes resulting in the leaking of the person's private information.


title: OnlyFans

text: In July 2020, Sky News in the United Kingdom reported that OnlyFans had not paid a UK tax called the "value-added tax" for three years before the news story, and could face paying the taxes and extra as punishment by the government. from tax authorities.id a UK tax called the "value-added tax" for three years before the news story, and could face paying the taxes and extra as punishment by the UK government.


title: Lernaean Hydra

text: In Greek mythology the Hydra (or Lernaean hydra) was a serpent-like monster. According to Theogony 313, the Hydra is the child of Typhon and Echidna. The Hydra had many heads. If you cut off one hydra head, two more would grow back in its place. It is also said that the Hydra's teeth were able to raise skeletons from the dead. There are pictures of the Hydra on vases and bronze plates dating back as far as the 7th century BC.


title: Lernaean Hydra

text: Hercules (who is called "Heracles" in Greek mythology) kills the Hydra as one of his labors. The Hydra lived in the lake of Lerna in the Argolis. The lake itself is older even than the Mycenaean city of Argos. Lerna was also the site of the myth of the Danaids.


title: Lernaean Hydra

text: The second of the 12 labors of Hercules was to kill the Hydra. The monster also had one immortal head that was in the middle. All of the heads could spit deadly acid. To defeat the Hydra, Hercules called on his nephew Iolaus for help. As soon as Hercules cut off one head, Iolaus would cauterise the wound with a flaming torch so that nothing could grow to replace it. After removing the Hydra's immortal head, Hercules buried it under a large rock. Then he collected the monster's poisonous blood. In later adventures, he dipped his arrows in the blood to kill other monsters.


title: Flea (musician)

text: Flea (Michael Peter Balzary) is an Australian-American bassist. He was born on October 16, 1962, in the city of Melbourne, Australia. He plays in the rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers. He has been with the band since its beginning in 1983 along with vocalist Anthony Kiedis. He is also known onstage for wearing bizarre, erotic costumes that largely appeal to the audience.


title: Flea (musician)

text: Flea is known for his unique bass style. He uses a wide range of bass guitar techniques, mainly popping and slapping and changing the speed of his tempo during songs and his quick improvisation. Flea is also a skilled trumpet player. Flea was responsible for getting John Frusciante back into Red Hot Chili Peppers.


title: Flea (musician)

text: In September 2009, it was announced that Flea would be playing with Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke, to perform some of Yorke's material.


title: Flea (musician)

text: Flea is generally regarded by the public as the greatest rock bassist of all time, among similar artists such as Les Claypool and Victor Wooten.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Alexander Graham Bell (March 3, 1847 - August 2, 1922) was a Scottish-born British-Canadian-American teacher, scientist, and inventor. He was the founder of the Bell Telephone Company. In 1876, Bell was the first inventor to patent the telephone, and he helped start the Bell Telephone Company with others in July 1877. In 1879, this company joined with the New England Telephone Company to form the National Bell Telephone Company. In 1880, they formed the American Bell Telephone Company, and in 1885, American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), still a large company today. Along with Thomas Edison, Bell formed the Oriental Telephone Company on January 25, 1881.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His family was known for teaching people how to speak English clearly (elocution). Both his grandfather, Alexander Bell, and his father, Alexander Melville Bell, taught elocution. His father wrote often about this and is most known for his invention and writings of Visible Speech. In his writings he explained ways of teaching people who were deaf and Mute. It also showed how these people could learn to speak words by watching their lips and reading what other people were saying.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Alexander Graham Bell went to the Royal High School of Edinburgh. He graduated at the age of fifteen. At the age of sixteen, he got a job as a student and teacher of elocution and music in Weston House Academy, at Elgin in Morayshire. He spent the next year at the University of Edinburgh. While still in Scotland, he became more interested in the science of sound (acoustics). He hoped to help his deaf mother. From 1866 to 1867, he was a teacher at Somersetshire College in Bath, Somerset.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: In 1870 when he was 23 years old, he moved with his family to Canada where they settled at Brantford, Ontario. Bell began to study communication machines. He made a piano that could be heard far away by using electricity. In 1871 he went with his father to Montreal, Quebec in Canada, where he took a job teaching about "visible speech". His father was asked to teach about it at a large school for deaf mutes in Boston, Massachusetts, but instead he gave the job to his son. The younger Bell began teaching there in 1872. Alexander Graham Bell soon became famous in the United States for this important work. He published many writings about it in Washington, D.C.. Because of this work, thousands of deaf mutes in the United States of America are now able to speak, even though they cannot hear.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Bell's genius is seen in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve that he shared with others. These included fifteen for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aeronautics, four for hydrofoils, and two for a selenium cell. In 1888, he was one of the original members of the National Geographic Society and became its second president.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: His past experience made him ready to work more with sound and electricity. He began his studies in 1874 with a musical telegraph, in which he used an electric circuit and a magnet to make an iron reed or tongue vibrate. One day, it was found that a reed failed to respond to the current. Mr. Bell desired his assistant, who was at the other end of the line, to pluck the reed, thinking it had stuck to the magnet. His assistant, Thomas Watson complied, and to his surprise, Bell heard the corresponding reed at his end of the line vibrate and sound the same - without any electric current to power it. A few experiments soon showed that his reed had been set in vibration by the changes in the magnetic field that the moving reed produced in the line. This discovery led him to stop using the electric battery current. His idea was that, since the circuit was never broken, all the complex vibrations of speech might be converted into currents, which in turn would reproduce the speech at a distance.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Bell, with his assistant, devised a receiver, consisting of a stretched film or drum with a bit of magnetised iron attached to its middle, and free to vibrate in front of the pole of an electromagnet in circuit with the line. This apparatus was completed on June 2, 1875. On July 7, he instructed his assistant to make a second receiver which could be used with the first, and a few days later they were tried together, at each end of the line, which ran from a room in the inventor's house at Boston to the cellar underneath. Bell, in the room, held one instrument in his hands, while Watson in the cellar listened at the other. The inventor spoke into his instrument, ""Do you understand what I say?"" and Mr. Watson rushed back into the upstairs and answered ""Yes."" The first successful two-way telephone call was not made until March 10, 1876 when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson answered back and came into the room to see Bell. The first long distance telephone call was made on August 10, 1876 by Bell from the family home in Brantford, Ontario to his assistant in Paris, Ontario, some 16 km (10 mi.) away.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Bell is also credited with the invention of an improved metal detector in 1881 that made sounds when it was near metal. The device was quickly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of U.S. President James Garfield. The metal detector worked, but did not find the bullet because of the metal bedframe the President was lying on. Bell gave a full description of his experiments in a paper read before the "American Association for the Advancement of Science" in August, 1882.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Bell married Mabel Hubbard on July 11, 1877 and they had four children. He died of problems caused by anemia and diabetes at his home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia in 1922. He was 75 years old.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: Bell was an active supporter of the eugenics movement in the United States. He was the honorary president of the "Second International Congress of Eugenics" held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York in 1921.


title: Alexander Graham Bell

text: As a teacher of the deaf, Bell did not want deaf people to teach in schools for the deaf. He was also against the use of sign language. These things mean that he is not appreciated by some deaf people in the present day.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: The SPL is in a league format – Celtic gains points by playing another team in the league. Three points are awarded to Celtic for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Once all the games have been played, Celtic at the top of the league wins the SPL trophy. If two or more teams are equal on points, then the difference between goals scored and goals against is considered. The season runs from August until May each year. Each club will play each other at least three times before the table splits in half for the last part of the competition. Each club will then play five more games against clubs in their half of the table. Each team plays a total of 38 games.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: Once every team has played each other three times the league splits into two halves for another five games. This means that the top six teams play each other once, and the bottom six teams play each other once. Many people do not like the SPL splitting. Many managers such as Jim Jeffries, the manager of Hearts at the time, have publicly asked for the split to be removed. The man in charge of the SPL, the Chief Executive, said that 11 of the 12 SPL teams would need to agree and, of eight teams asked, five said they wanted the split kept.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: Teams cannot move between the two splits, meaning that even if a team in seventh place has more points than the team in sixth they will not move above them in the league. This happens often, for example in the 2005–06 season, the seventh-placed club, Inverness Caledonian Thistle, gained more points than the fourth-placed club, Hibernian but finished the league in seventh.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: In the 2000–01 season, the SPL decided to stop the "winter break", forcing teams to play through January. This means that many games are stopped because of the damage to the pitch and very bad weather. Former Celtic manager Martin O'Neill, former Dundee manager Jim Duffy, and former Rangers manager Walter Smith are among those who have asked to start the winter break again. Former Rangers manager Alex McLeish accused the SPL of taking Scottish football "back to the Dark Ages" after its decision to stop the winter break, meaning that they were going back to an old, outdated system.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: A total of four clubs can qualify for European competitions. The teams who finish first in the SPL qualify for the UEFA Champions League. The second and third-placed team, and the winner of the Scottish Cup, qualify for the UEFA Europa League.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: Rangers and Celtic have recently played in the final of the UEFA Cup, with neither club winning in the final match. In 2003 Celtic played FC Porto in Seville, Spain but Porto won 3– 2. More recently, in 2008 Rangers played FC Zenit St. Petersburg in Manchester, England, but lost 2– 0. More than 200,000 Rangers fans went to Manchester to watch the game on several large televisions.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: Normally, the team who finishes last in the SPL is relegated to the Scottish First Division and the team who finishes first in the First Division is promoted to the SPL. However, there are some criteria that the team must meet in order to be promoted. In 2003, Falkirk finished first in the Scottish First Division but their stadium did not meet the agreed criteria. Instead, they asked if they could share a stadium with Airdrie United while their own stadium was expanded. This caused arguments as the chairmen of the SPL clubs voted against this idea. Because Falkirk's stadium was too small, they were not promoted into the SPL, and the team who finished last in the SPL (Motherwell) was not relegated.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: This situation almost happened again in 2004. There were many votes and threats of legal action from Partick Thistle, the team who finished last in the SPL. The situation was solved and Inverness Caledonian Thistle were allowed promotion, as long as they shared a stadium with their rivals Aberdeen at Pittodrie, a stadium over 100 miles (160 km) away.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: In 2005, the stadium size criteria were reduced. A team playing in the SPL must now have at least 6,000 seats (down from 10,000). Standing room is not allowed on SPL grounds for safety reasons. This then allowed Inverness Caledonian Thistle to return to their home stadium during the 2005–06 season.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: In the SPL, there are no restrictions on clubs signing players. The only rule on signing players is with general Scottish employment law. There are no salary caps or age restrictions. There are no restrictions on the size of the playing squad or restrictions on the number of players from other countries.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: The only rule is the "Under-21" rule. This means that every club must name at least three players under the age of 21 in their match day squad. They do not need to play. There has been some criticism over this rule. Walter Smith, Gus MacPherson and Jim Jeffries all showed their disapproval.


title: Scottish Premier League

text: Between the 1998–99 season and the 2001–02 season, the right to show SPL matches on television was held by Sky Sports, with highlights being shown by STV's Scotsport. Sky Sports withdrew from the SPL when their offer of £45 million, to continue showing live games on TV, was declined by the SPL. The SPL asked for more money. Discussions began in 2002 for a new pay-per-view satellite television channel, called "SPL TV". However Rangers and Celtic did not like the idea, and rejected it. Because of this, the remaining 10 SPL clubs announced their intention to resign from the league.