title: CM Punk

text: On the January 5 episode of "Raw", he received an Intercontinental Championship title match against William Regal. The match ended in a disqualification, when Regal grabbed the referee's shirt. Due to this, Stephanie McMahon gave Punk a rematch the next week. The rematch ended in a disqualification but this time it was Punk that got disqualified. He was awarded another rematch on the January 19 episode of "Raw" but this time it was a No Disqualification match. Punk was able to win the match and the championship. When he won the championship, Punk became the nineteenth Triple Crown Champion. He also became the person to accomplish the Triple Crown in the fastest amount of time, which broke Kevin Nash's old record. On the March 9 episode of "Raw", Punk was defeated for the championship by John "Bradshaw" Layfield. Punk was able to win the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXV and became the first person to win the match twice. At the 2009 WWE Draft on April 13, 2009, he was drafted from "Raw" to "SmackDown". He began a feud with Umaga because of Umaga's multiple surprise attacks when Punk was attempting to cash in his Money in the Bank Contract. The feud resulted in a Samoan strap match at Extreme Rules. The match was won by Punk.


title: CM Punk

text: When the pay-per-view was about to end, Punk ran down to the ring, cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and defeated Jeff Hardy to win the World Heavyweight Championship. On the June 15 episode of "Raw", Punk defended his championship in a Triple Threat match against Edge and Hardy. At The Bash, Punk lost to Hardy by disqualification when Punk kicked the referee after he was affected with a storyline eye injury and claimed that he could not see the referee, but because the titles do not change hands from disqualification, Punk retained the championship. When Hardy believed that Punk was faking his eye injury, he called him out on it. This led Punk to turn heel and said that he was the moral superior to fans of Hardy because of his drug-free lifestyle. Punk lost the championship to Hardy at Night of Champions. Punk and Hardy had a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match at SummerSlam where Punk won the championship back. After the match, Punk was attacked by The Undertaker. Punk's feud with Hardy ended on the August 28 episode of "Friday Night SmackDown" when Punk defeated Hardy in a steel cage match where the loser of the match would have to leave the company. The match earned a Slammy Award for "Shocker of the Year" in 2009.


title: CM Punk

text: At Breaking Point in Montreal, Punk competed in a submission match against The Undertaker. Punk defeated The Undertaker in the match to retain the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker originally won the match with his Hell's Gate submission hold. The SmackDown general manager Theodore Long restarted the match after announcing that the ban that the former general manager Vickie Guerrero set on his move was still in effect. Punk won the match with the Anaconda Vise when the referee Scott Armstrong called for the bell even though the Undertaker did not submit (similar to the Montreal Screwjob which happened in the same arena in 1997). Punk was defeated by The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match for the World Heavyweight Championship at Hell in a Cell. Punk had a rematch against The Undertaker on "Smackdown" and had another rematch at Bragging Rights in a Fatal Four Way match which also involved Batista and Rey Mysterio but he lost both matches.


title: CM Punk

text: He changed his character in a more menacing direction on the November 27 episode of "SmackDown", when he revealed that he had converted Luke Gallows, who had the former gimmick of the mentally incompetent wrestler Festus, to the straight-edge lifestyle which had got rid of his mental problems. He continued to support his straight-edge philosophy, he began to present himself as a cult-like savior to the crowd. He also grew out the hair on his head, face and chest in an allusion to Jesus. Through the month of January, he began to convert planted members of the audience to the straight-edge lifestyle by making them take a pledge of allegiance to him and then shaving their head as a sign of renewal and devotion. After he converted multiple people who were not seen again, one of the converts Serena began accompanying Punk and Gallows and they later formed the Straight Edge Society. While leading the stable, he was also the mentor of "WWE NXT" rookie Darren Young. At one point, Young was going to join the Straight Edge Society but he chose not to join before he was about to have his head shaved.


title: CM Punk

text: Punk would occasionally give sermons and even gave sermon while competing in both the Royal Rumble and Elimination Chamber matches. During the Chamber match, Punk was eliminated by Rey Mysterio, who he was feuding with going into the PPV. This raised tensions between the two as Mysterio prevented him from winning a Money in the Bank qualifying match which then lead to Punk interrupting Mysterio's celebration of his daughter's ninth birthday and singing his own version of "Happy Birthday to You" to her. Mysterio challenged Punk to a Street Fight at WrestleMania XXVI but he lost to Gallows. A stipulation was added by Punk that if Mysterio lost, he would have to join the Society. Mysterio defeated Punk at WrestleMania and a rematch took place at Extreme Rules where if Punk lost, he would have to have his head shaved like his disciples. Punk was able to win the match after outside interference from a fourth member of the Society who kept his face covered. A third and final match was held at Over The Limit with both of the previous stipulations put on. At the event, Punk was defeated by Mysterio and had his head shaved bald.


title: CM Punk

text: Punk felt embarrassed by having his head shaved and he considered himself to be always pure unlike his followers, Punk appeared under a mask to cover his bald head on the May 29 episode of "SmackDown". At Fatal 4-Way, Punk challenged for the World Heavyweight Championship against Mysterio, The Big Show and the champion Jack Swagger but lost when Kane attacked Punk after Kane accused Punk of being the person who attacked The Undertaker. Punk was unmasked by Big Show on the July 16 episode of "SmackDown" while Punk was healing from an arm injury. On the July 23 episode of "SmackDown", Big Show unmasked the fourth member of the Straight Edge Society and it was revealed to be Joey Mercury. This incident led to a handicap match at SummerSlam. In the match, Big Show defeated the Straight Edge Society when Punk abandoned them. Punk was defeated in a singles match against Big Show at Night of Champions. A little while after, Serena was released from her WWE contract after she reportedly did not "live out" her straight edge persona in public. Mercury had also suffered an injury which caused the group to shorten. Gallows showed signs of dissent and Punk defeated Gallows in a match on the September 24 episode of "SmackDown". The ended the group.


title: CM Punk

text: Punk was traded back to "Raw" when he was swapped with Edge. Punk competed in an interbrand tag team match at Bragging Rights after he injured Evan Bourne to take his place, but the team lost. It was later reported that Punk had been suffering from a hip injury and he would need to stop competing for a while. To stay on television, Punk appeared and began commentating on "Raw" starting on November 22. During his commentary time, Punk showed favor toward heels and criticized John Cena because of his actions with The Nexus. Punk left commentary after he attacked John Cena with a chair on both "Raw" and "SmackDown". Punk revealed that he had joined The Nexus and this was the reason that he had attacked Cena. Punk would command the group to attack Randy Orton and blamed him for Punk's first World Heavyweight Championship reign in 2008 ending. The incident led to a match at WrestleMania XXVII where Orton defeated Punk. They also had a Last Man Standing match with The New Nexus barred from ringside at Extreme Rules which Punk also lost.


title: CM Punk

text: Within a week, Punk went on to defeat John Cena on "Raw", Rey Mysterio at Capitol Punishment and Alberto Del Rio in a number one contendership match. Punk would then reveal that his contract with the WWE would expire at Money in the Bank and promised that he would leave the company with the WWE Championship; some of his speeches and mannerisms were very similar to his final months with Ring of Honor. After Punk made a scathing on-air speech about the way that the WWE is run and about its owner Vince McMahon, he was suspended (storyline) from televised WWE events but he was brought back the following week after John Cena insisted. When Punk returned, he didn't appear with the other members of Nexus and the stable was quietly dissolved. This helped Punk turn back into a fan-favorite. Punk would go on to defeat John Cena at Money in the Bank to become the WWE Champion during his final night under a WWE contract.


title: CM Punk

text: On July 21, he made a surprise appearance at a joint WWE-Mattel panel at the San Diego Comic Con. During his appearance, Punk mocked the Chief Operating Officer Triple H and also offered a match to the WWE Championship tournament finalist Rey Mysterio as long as the match took place in Punk's hometown of Chicago. The WWE Championship tournament was won by Mysterio on the July 25 episode of "Raw" but he lost to Cena later in the night. When Cena won, Punk returned to upstage Cena's WWE Championship victory celebration which lead to a title dispute. Triple H later supported the fact that both Punk and Cena's claims as the WWE Championship as legitimate and he scheduled a match between the two at SummerSlam to decide who would become the undisputed WWE Champion. At SummerSlam, Punk was able to win the match but he lost the championship shortly after when Kevin Nash attacked Punk and Alberto Del Rio cashed in his Money in the Bank contract. On "Raw" the next night, Punk accused Nash of working with Triple H to try and keep Punk away from the WWE Championship. After many confrontations between the two, Punk and Nash demanded that they face each other at Night of Champions and Triple H agreed. Triple H would later change the match and would book himself to replace Nash instead after Punk continued to verbally attack him and his wife Stephanie McMahon.


title: CM Punk

text: Punk was defeated by Triple H in a No Disqualification match after The Miz, and R-Truth attacked both of them. At Hell in a Cell, Punk competed in a Triple threat Hell in a Cell match against Alberto Del Rio and John Cena but he was defeated. After the match, Punk was again attacked by The Miz and R-Truth. At Vengeance, Punk teamed up with Triple H in a match against The Miz and R-Truth but they lost after Nash attacked Triple H. The loss helped switch Punk's anti-establishment voice from Triple H over to John Laurinaitis, who became the interim Raw general manager. Punk didn't like the promotion that Laurinaitis received and called him a boring yes man.


title: CM Punk

text: On October 31, Punk forced his way into a match against Del Rio at Survivor Series. In the match, Punk defeated Del Rio to win back the WWE Championship. He defended the championship throughout the year, defeating Del Rio in a rematch on the November 28 episode of "Raw" as well as defeating both Del Rio and The Miz in a triple threat TLC match at . On the December 26 episode of "Raw", Punk was defeated in a gauntlet match by Dolph Ziggler which made Ziggler become the number one contender for the WWE Championship. If Punk was able to win the gauntlet match, he would have earned the right to face Laurinaitis in a match. On the January 2 episode of "Raw", Punk was defeated by Ziggler via countout after Laurinaitis interfered in the match. Throughout January, Laurinaitis would continue to mess up Punk's matches and cause him to lose to Ziggler. This eventually led to Punk attacking Laurinaitis. Punk defeated Ziggler in a match at Royal Rumble to retain his championship even with Laurinaitis acting as the outside enforcer.


title: CM Punk

text: On the January 30 episode of "Raw", entered a feud with Chris Jericho after Jericho attacked Punk and Daniel Bryan during their Champion vs. Champion match which helped Bryan gain the win. On the February 6 episode of "Raw", Jericho explained why he attacked Punk, saying that the WWE roster were imitations of himself and he singled out Punk for claiming that he was the best in the world, a moniker that Jericho had used during the last time that he was in WWE. Punk competed in an Elimination Chamber match at Elimination Chamber. The match also featured Jericho who Punk kicked out of the chamber and suffered a short lasting injury. Punk was able to win the match and retain his championship. On the February 20 episode of "Raw", Jericho won a 10-Man No. 1 Contender's Battle Royal and earned a match against Punk for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII. To try and gain a psychological edge, Jericho revealed that Punk's father was an alcoholic and also alleged that Punk's sister was a drug addict. Jericho said that Punk's straight edge philosophy was so that he would not end up falling into the same vices and promised that he would make Punk turn to alcohol by defeating him and winning the championship from him. A stipulation was added to the match by John Laurinaitis that if Punk was disqualified, he would have lost the championship. Jericho would then try to get Punk to use a weapon which Punk refused to do. Punk was able to defeat Jericho and retain his championship at WrestleMania XXVIII. On both the April 2 and 9 episodes of "Raw SuperShow", Punk was able to retain his championship against Mark Henry after he lost to him via count-out and disqualification. After both of the matches, Jericho would attack Punk and pour alcohol on him. On the April 16 episode of "Raw SuperShow", Punk was able to pin Henry in a no disqualification, no countout match to retain his title. The feud ended at Extreme Rules when Punk was able to retain his championship by defeating Jericho in a Chicago Street Fight.


title: CM Punk

text: Punk would go to feud with Daniel Bryan starting at Over the Limit when Punk was able to retain his championship after he reversed Bryan's finishing submission hold, the "Yes!" Lock, into a pinning combination. The replay, however, would show that Punk had visibly tapped out moments after the match finished. On the "SmackDown" before the pay-per-view, Bryan would interfere in the non-title match between Punk and Kane to attempt to frame Punk for attacking Kane with a steel chair, which started a three-way rivalry. On the June 1 episode of "SmackDown", a match between Punk and Kane took place for the WWE Championship but it ended in a double disqualification after Bryan ran in and attacked both men. Bryan's ex-girlfriend AJ would turn her affections towards both Punk and Kane. The feud ended when Punk was able to defeat Bryan and Kane in a triple threat match at No Way Out after AJ distracted Kane. Punk was able to defeat Bryan to retain the championship in a No Disqualification match with AJ as the special guest referee at Money in the Bank.


title: CM Punk

text: On July 23 episode of "Raw" named "Raw 1000", Punk faced the Money in the Bank winner John Cena and was able to defend his WWE championship but lost the match after Big Show interfered and attack Cena. After the night's special guest The Rock tried to help Cena, Punk would attack him and turn heel. On the next "Raw", Punk would explain that he attacked The Rock because he was tired of being overshadowed by people like Cena and Rock when the main focus of the company should be on the WWE Champion. Punk would attack both Cena and Big Show during their number one contender's match later on in the night. As a result of this, both Cena and Show were put into a title match against Punk at SummerSlam. At SummerSlam, Punk successfully defended his championship against them in a triple threat match. During the following weeks, Punk would demand respect from people like AJ Lee, Jerry Lawler and Bret Hart. He would eventually be managed by Paul Heyman during Punk's feud with Cena. Punk would face Cena to a draw at Night of Champions. Even though Cena was suffering from an arm injury, they continued to feud. Punk would reject Mick Foley and Jim Ross to pick him as his Hell in a Cell opponent and lead to Punk fighting with WWE chairman Vince McMahon. After Cena's injury made him unable to wrestle at Hell in a Cell, he was replaced by Ryback. At Hell in a Cell, Punk was able to defeat Ryback and retain his championship after referee Brad Maddox hit Ryback with a low-blow.


title: CM Punk

text: On "Raw" the next night, an angry Mick Foley confronted Punk for not picking John Cena as his Hell in a Cell opponent. Foley and Punk then agreed to face each other in the traditional five-on-five elimination tag team at Survivor Series. Punk would chose Alberto Del Rio, Cody Rhodes, Damien Sandow, and The Miz to be on his team but Punk was later replaced as team captain by Dolph Ziggler after Mr. McMahon booked him in a Triple Threat WWE Championship match against John Cena and Ryback instead. At the pay-per-view, Punk defeated Cena and Ryback after interference from the debuting stable called The Shield (Dean Ambrose, Seth Rollins, and Roman Reigns) which allowed him to retain his WWE Championship. He would hold the championship for a full year. On December 4, Punk underwent surgery for a partially torn meniscus which removed him from his title match against Ryback at . Even though Punk was injured, he became the longest reigning WWE Champion in the past 25 years on December 5, after he reached 381 days which passed John Cena's 380-day reign. Punk returned to in-ring action on the January 7, 2013 episode of "Raw" where he defeated Ryback in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match, following interference from The Shield to retain his championship.


title: CM Punk

text: Punk defended his WWE Championship against The Rock at the Royal Rumble on January 27, 2013. A stipulation was added to the match where if The Shield interfered, then Punk would be stripped of the title. Punk had originally pinned The Rock to retain his championship after The Shield attacked and put The Rock through a table while the arena lights were out. Vince McMahon came out to the entrance ramp and started to announce that Punk would be stripped of the championship, but he instead restarted the match at The Rock's request. Punk ended up losing the match, ending his record-setting reign at 434 days. Punk would receive a rematch for the championship on February 17 at the Elimination Chamber, with the stipulation that if The Rock was disqualified or counted out, he would lose the WWE Championship. Rock was able to pin and defeat Punk in the match to retain the championship. On the February 25 episode of "Raw", Punk faced off against Royal Rumble winner John Cena for his number one contendership to the WWE Championship, but was defeated.


title: CM Punk

text: On January 26, 2014, Punk was the first entrant in the Royal Rumble match. After he was able to last in the match until the final four, Kane, who was already eliminated earlier in by Punk, eliminated Punk from the outside and then chokeslammed him through the announcer's table.


title: CM Punk

text: The night after the Royal Rumble, Punk did not show up "Raw" or on the "SmackDown" tapings on Tuesday in Toledo, Ohio even though he was advertised. It was reported by the Wrestling Observer that, on Monday before Raw, Punk legitimately walked out of the company after he told both Vince McMahon and Triple H that he was "going home". On February 20, McMahon said that Punk was "taking a sabbatical" during a conference call to investors. After weeks of hearing the crowd chant for CM Punk at various WWE events, the company decided to make its first comments on the status of Punk on the March 3, 2014 episode of "Raw" in Punk's hometown of Chicago. When the show started, they played Punk's entrance music "Cult of Personality" and his old manager Paul Heyman came out instead. Heyman said that Punk was not at "Raw" and blamed the crowd. He also blamed the Undertaker for Punk's split from Heyman. On July 15, 2014, WWE moved Punk's profile from the active roster to their alumni page without them releasing a statement. On the same day, Punk thanked his fans without mentioning WWE on Twitter. In late July, Punk said that he was "never ever" going to return to wrestling.


title: CM Punk

text: On November 26, 2014, Punk appeared on his friend Colt Cabana's "Art of Wrestling" podcast. During the podcast, Punk decided to break his silence on his decision on leaving the WWE. Punk said the WWE had suspended him for two months after he walked out in January, and that he was fired by the company months later on his wedding day in June 2014. He said that them firing him on his wedding day was the last straw and he said that he would never return to the WWE. He also said that after a legal settlement with WWE, there would not be a further working relationship between them. The settlement that was reached included Punk giving the company permission to sell the rest of his remaining merchandise. Punk said that the main reason he left the WWE was because of his health problems. Punk said that during his last months with the company, he was working through an untreated and possibly fatal MRSA infection, broken ribs, injured knees, multiple concussions which included one at the Royal Rumble when Kofi Kingston kicked him, as well as having lost his appetite and ability to sleep well. He felt that the company had been pressuring and rushing him to wrestle before he was fully healed. Punk also noted that he was unhappy with his failure to main event a WrestleMania (saying that his entire career was a failure as a result), him being paid less than the other top wrestlers on the card for WrestleMania 29, being "creatively stifled" and him having the feeling that there were no long-term plans for wrestlers other than John Cena, as well as receiving smaller paychecks and not getting answers as to how the WWE Network would effect the salaries of the wrestlers. Punk ended with saying that he has "zero passion" left for wrestling.


title: CM Punk

text: Not even a week later, Vince McMahon appeared on Stone Cold Steve Austin's podcast "The Steve Austin Show". During the podcast, Stone Cold asked McMahon if he wanted to speak about CM Punk. McMahon apologized to Punk for the way that his firing happened, which he claimed was a "coincidence" while he blaming the lack of communication in the organization. McMahon also said that he would like to work with Punk again. Punk would appear on Cabana's "Art of Wrestling" podcast again. During the podcast, Punk said that he did not accept McMahon's apology, saying that it was insincere and a "publicity stunt" as McMahon had not contacted him directly to apologize and that he could have apologized earlier.


title: CM Punk

text: CM Punk debuted for All Elite Wrestling in August 2021, after seven years away from professional wrestling. He will make his in ring return September 5th, 2021 against Darby Allin at All Out in Chicago, Illinois.


title: CM Punk

text: On December 6, 2014, during UFC 181, Punk along with Joe Rogan announced that he had signed a multi-fight deal with Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) to fight in either their middleweight or welterweight division. UFC President Dana White said that Punk would most likely debut against another fighter at or near his experience level. His first fight is expected to be sometime in 2016.


title: CM Punk

text: CM Punk retired from mixed martial arts in December of 2020, notifying the UFC of his retirement and to withdraw him from the USADA testing pool.


title: CM Punk

text: CM Punk is married to AJ Lee. They were married on June 13, 2014. He has previously dated professional wrestlers Shannon Spruill, Tracy Brookshaw, Maria Kanellis, and Amy Dumas.


title: CM Punk

text: Punk is a fan of the Chicago Blackhawks and the Chicago Cubs. He wore a Blackhawks jersey and cut a promo during his return to Chicago. He also attended Blackhawks playoff games.


title: CM Punk

text: He is a fan of comics which he collects and reads. He wrote the introduction to Marvel Comics' "Avengers vs. X-Men". Punk wrote the Marvel comic "Thor Annual #1", which is set to be released sometime in February 2015.


title: Moth

text: Moths are insects of the order Lepidoptera. They are closely related to butterflies, which evolved from them. They also have wings, just like butterflies. Most species of moths are active only at night. They can be told apart from butterflies in several ways. Moth antenna look like little feathers, and their wings are held flat on their backs when they are not flying.


title: Moth

text: Most Lepidoptera are moths. There are thought to be about 160,000 species of moths (nearly ten times the number of species of butterflies). Thousands of species are still to be described. Most moths are tiny: they are called micromoths or microlepidoptera. The large moths are much better known, but fewer. Most species of moths are nocturnal, but not all. There are crepuscular and diurnal species.


title: Moth

text: Moths, usually their caterpillars, are a major farm pest in many parts of the world. Caterpillars eat the plants that farmers grow and sometimes kill them. The caterpillar of the spongy moth ("Lymantria dispar") causes great harm to forests in the northeast United States. In warm climates, the diamondback moth ("Plutella xylostella") is perhaps the most serious pest of cabbage crops.


title: Moth

text: Several moths in the family Tineidae have larvae which eat clothes and blankets made from natural fibres, such as wool or silk. They are less likely to eat materials containing some artificial fibres. They may be repelled by the scent of wood from juniper and cedar, by lavender, or by other natural oils.


title: Moth

text: Chemicals are the most effective way to keep moths away, but there are concerns about the chemicals being dangerous to people.


title: Moth

text: Some moths are farmed. The most important of these is the silkworm. It is farmed for the silk with which it builds its cocoon. The silk industry produces over 130 million kilograms of raw silk, worth about 250 million U.S. dollars, each year. Not all silk is produced by "Bombyx mori". There are several species of Saturniidae that also are farmed for their silk, such as the Ailanthus moth ("Samia cynthia" group of species), the Chinese oak silkmoth ("Antheraea pernyi"), the Assam silkmoth ("Antheraea assamensis"), and the Japanese silk moth ("Antheraea yamamai").


title: Moth

text: Moths will fly around bright objects, and appear to be attracted to light. Most scientists think that this is because moths use the light of the moon to help them fly in a straight line. The light from lamps confuses the moths.


title: Moth

text: Night-blooming flowers usually depend on moths (or bats) to pollinate them, and artificial lighting can draw moths away from the flowers, hurting the plant's ability to reproduce.


title: Moth

text: Moths usually pollinate night-blooming flowers because they are "nocturnal" (they rest during the day and come out at night). A moth uses its proboscis to collect nectar just like a butterfly does. However, moths do not always land on the flower to get the nectar: they often hover near the flower and flap their wings hard while they sip the nectar. Because of this, moth-pollinated flowers do not need a landing pad. In fact, some moth-pollinated flowers point downward, like the yucca flowers.


title: Moth

text: Nocturnal insectivores often feed on moths. Many bats, and some species of owls and some other birds eat moths. Moths are also a minor part of the diet of some lizards, cats, dogs, rodents, and some bears. Moth larvae are eaten by many birds, and are also vulnerable to parasitism by ichneumon wasps.


title: Moth

text: Many adult moths and larvae are protected by noxious substances eaten by the caterpillars. They advertise their foul taste in various ways. Warning colouration is visible by day, and some adult moths emit clicks which bats learn are warning signals.


title: Moth

text: Baculoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses which parasitize insects. They are often used as biological control agents. They are members of the Baculoviridae, a family that is restricted to insects.


title: Moth

text: There is evidence that ultrasound in the range emitted by bats causes flying moths to make evasive manoeuvers because bats eat moths. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that cause it to drop a few inches in its flight to evade attack. Tiger moths also emit clicks which foil bats' echolocation.


title: Cave painting

text: Cave paintings are paintings on cave walls and ceilings. Usually these paintings were made in prehistoric times.


title: Cave painting

text: It is not known why these paintings were made. They may have had a function for rituals. They may also have been a way to transit information; to tell other people about something. Most paintings are in caves that are difficult to get at.


title: Cave painting

text: Today, there are about 350 caves known which have paintings in them. Many are in France and Spain. The best known are probably the caves of Altamira (in Spain), Lascaux (in France), or Creswell Crags in England. Sometimes, paintings were also done on cliff faces. Fewer of those have survived though, because of erosion. One such example are the rock paintings of Astuvansalmi (in Finland).


title: Cave painting

text: Most often, animals or hunting scenes were painted. Sometimes hands are there too. Rarely, there are also more abstract patterns.


title: Cave painting

text: The paintings were drawn with red and yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide and charcoal. Sometimes the silhouette of the animal was put into the rock first.


title: Cave painting

text: There are different theories about why people created cave paintings. These are the most common explanations:


title: Cave painting

text: A painting on the wall of an Indonesian cave has is about 44,000 years old. It shows a buffalo being hunted. Last year another painting was found in Borneo.


title: Deem Bristow

text: Deem Bristow (April 11 1947 - January 15 2005) was an American actor and voice actor who has done various voice roles in animated shows and video games. He was best known for his role as Dr. Eggman in the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series from 1998 to 2004.


title: Deem Bristow

text: Bristow died on January 15, 2005 in San Diego, California at the age of 57. His cause of death was confirmed as heart failure.


title: Taliban

text: The Taliban is a large Sunni Islamic fundamentalist militant group operating in Afghanistan. The group formed the government of Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001 and took military control of most of Afghanistan again in August 2021. Since the Fall of Kabul on 15 August 2021, the Taliban again has full control of Afghanistan.


title: Taliban

text: In 1994 Taliban started a government in southern Afghanistan called the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The first leader of the Taliban was Mullah Mohammed Omar.


title: Taliban

text: The Taliban governed Afghanistan between 1996 and 2001. During this time, its leaders put in place the strictest forms of Sharia law ever seen in the Muslim world. Much criticism of the Taliban came from important Muslim scholars. For example, if a thief was caught stealing something the Taliban would cut off one of his hands so that he does not use it to steal again, no matter what it was that he stole. Many criminals were put to death quickly and without a fair trial and were executed in public. Anyone who refused to follow the law was considered a non-Muslim enemy. Every male had to go to mosque for prayer (except Afghan non-Muslims) during praying times, which is five times per day.


title: Taliban

text: The Taliban became known around the world for their very bad treatment of women and girls, denying them human rights. They also treated the Shia Muslim (who they consider heretics) and non-Muslim minorities (who are Hindus and Sikhs) very badly. Every form of art, music and entertainment was strictly banned under their rule, and sculptures, paintings, photos, cameras, televisions, etc. were destroyed. The Taliban also did cultural genocide when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamiyan in February and March 2001, because they consider the display of human and animal figures a sin.


title: Taliban

text: After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan. The Taliban had been giving its ally al-Qaeda a safe base from which to operate. The United States government said that Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda members did the attacks in the U.S. The Taliban asked the U.S. for proof of this before it would arrest them. The aim of the invasion was to remove the Taliban government from power, destroy al-Qaeda and capture bin Laden. After losing power in 2001, the Taliban had its headquarters in Pakistan.


title: Taliban

text: In February 2020, the United States and the Taliban signed the Doha Agreement that would remove all U.S. troops from Afghanistan by May 1, 2021. President of the United States Joe Biden said that the U.S. exit from Afghanistan would start on May 1, 2021 and end by September 11, 2021, which would be exactly 20 years since the September 11 attacks.


title: Taliban

text: On 15 August 2021, the Taliban captured Kabul and the Afghan government collapsed, with the Taliban taking control of most of Afghanistan. On 30 August 2021, the Taliban had took full control of the country and ending the War in Afghanistan, after the evacuations from Afghanistan ended.


title: Taliban

text: It is estimated that in 2020 the Taliban had an income of $1.6 billion, mostly from drugs, mining, extortion and taxes, donations (or gifts) and exports.


title: Taliban

text: The Taliban have financed themselves mostly from selling illegal drugs. A big part of the opium sold worldwide comes from Afghanistan: The Taliban grow the poppies (which are used to make opium). Another part of their income is racketeering: they offer "protection" in exchange for money. They also take taxes (in accordance with Islamic law, as they claim) in the areas they control. Finally, there's financial support in the form of donations, from abroad. Most of the donations come from countries around the Persian Gulf; many donations also come from Pakistan.


title: Taliban

text: An article in 2021 in the Wall Street Journal said that there is [financing or] "funding from the opium trade and extortion schemes [... for] Taliban operations".


title: Taliban

text: In the past, the Taliban had views on society that are stricter than those of many other Islamic countries:


title: Taliban

text: Several Taliban and al-Qaeda commanders ran a network of human trafficking. They abducted girls and women from ethnic minorities and sold them into sex slavery in Afghanistan and Pakistan. "Time" magazine writes: "The Taliban often argued that the restrictions they placed on women were actually a way of [worshipping] and protecting the opposite sex. The behavior of the Taliban during the six years they expanded their rule in Afghanistan made a mockery of that claim."


title: Taliban

text: The targets for human trafficking were mostly women from non-Pashtun ethnic groups in Afghanistan. Some women preferred to commit suicide rather than become slaves.. During one Taliban and al-Qaeda offensive in 1999 in the Shomali Plains alone, more than 600 women were kidnapped. Arab and Pakistani al-Qaeda militants, with local Taliban forces, forced them into trucks and buses. "Time" magazine writes: "The trail of the missing Shomali women leads to Jalalabad, not far from the Pakistan border. There, according to eyewitnesses, the women were penned up inside Sar Shahi camp in the desert. The more desirable among them were selected and taken away. Some were trucked to Peshawar with the apparent complicity of Pakistani border guards. Others were taken to Khost, where bin Laden had several training camps." Officials from relief agencies say, the trail of many of the vanished women leads to Pakistan where they were sold to brothels or into private households to be kept as slaves.


title: Taliban

text: Not all Taliban commanders took part in human trafficking. Many were opposed to the practice. Nuruludah, a Taliban commander, is quoted as saying that in the Shomali Plains, he and ten of his men freed some women who were being abducted by Pakistani members of al-Qaeda. In Jalalabad, local Taliban commanders freed women that were being held by Arab members of al-Qaeda in a camp.


title: Taliban

text: In their attacks, the Taliban also target civilians in Afghanistan. According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban were responsible for over 76% of civilian casualties in 2009. In 2010, the Taliban were again responsible for over three quarters of the civilian casualties. Civilians are targets of Taliban attacks twice as often as forces of the Afghan government, or troops of ISAF.


title: Taliban

text: In 2011, the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIGRC) said that Taliban fighters targeting civilians was a "war crime". Religious leaders condemned the attacks on civilans, saying they were against Islamic ethics.


title: Taliban

text: Also in 2011, human rights organisations pressed the International Criminal Court in Den Haag, to start investigations whether the Taliban committed war crimes.


title: Taliban

text: When they took control of the country, the Taliban promised an amesty to the fighters and officials of the former government. At the end of 2021, a few months after the Taliban taking control, Human Rights Watch, and other organisations have documented summary executions of these people. The United States, the European Union, and several other countries have therefore told the Taliban that they should keep the promise they gave.


title: Taliban

text: Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan operates in northwestern Pakistan and is sometimes called the Pakistani Taliban, but they are a separate group.


title: Taliban

text: Before the beginning of Tehrik-i-Taliban some of its (later) leaders and fighters were part of the 8,000 Pakistani militants fighting in the War in Afghanistan (1996–2001) and the War in Afghanistan (2001–present) against the United Islamic Front and NATO forces. Most of them come from the Pakistani side of the Af-Pak border regions. After the fall of the Afghan Taliban in late 2001 most Pakistani militants including members of today's TTP escaped (home) to Pakistan.


title: Hari (director)

text: Hari (born 26 December 1968) is an Indian movie director, best known for his action-masala in Tamil cinema. He made his directional debut in the movie "Thamizh" (2002).After this breakthrough, he gave many commercial success movies such as "Saamy" (2003), "Kovil" (2004), "Ayya" (2005), "Thaamirabharani" (2007), "Vel" (2007) and "Singam" (2010) movie. He has directed 15 movies.


title: Hari (director)

text: Hari was born in the Thoothukudi District of Tamil Nadu, India. His father, Gopal, is a vessels merchant. Later, his family moved to Chennai, where Hari graduated with a degree in Commerce.


title: Hari (director)

text: Hari first joined as an assistant, gaining experience by working with various directors; K. Natraj in " Valli", Nassar in "Avatharam" and Alex Pandian. Later, he assisted K. Balachander in his film "Kalki" and worked as an associate director with Saran in the films "Amarkalam", "Parthen Rasithen" and "Alli Arjuna".


title: Hari (director)

text: His first film, in 2002, was "Thamizh", with Prashanth and Simran. Film critic Balaji commented that it was "one of the few movies in recent times where a lot of importance seems to have been attached to the script. In spite of the flimsy story and routine screenplay where a youth grows to be a "dada", the dialogs elevate the quality of the movie and make it very enjoyable". His second film "Saamy", under the Kavithaalaya banner, starred Vikram. It was named the year's biggest hit, grossing 160 million. Its success led to remakes; in Telugu ("Lakshmi Narasimha"), Kannada ("Ayya") and Hindi languages ("Policegiri"). His next two films "Kovil", with Silambarasan and "Arul" also starred Vikram. In 2005, he made "Ayya", starring Sarathkumar, which introduced Nayantara to Tamil cinema. His next film was "Aaru", with Suriya in 2005. In 2007, he directed two films, "Thaamirabharani" with Vishal and "Vel", with Suriya. In 2008, he directed "Seval", with Bharath. Ayyappa Prasad from Nowrunning.com stated that Hari "panders to the taste of his rural audience all the way, but the movie is bound to disappoint city-dwellers, since neither the story nor its treatment appeal to anyone with high IQ .


title: Hari (director)

text: In 2010 Hari directed his tenth film "Singam", with Suriya, marking their third collaboration. although reviewers identified it as a standard masala entertainer.


title: Patriarch

text: Today, the word is mostly taken to have a meaning within Christianity. There, the word is used to refer to the highest-ranking Bishops of the respective churches, that is the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East


title: Darts

text: Darts is a type of throwing game where darts are thrown towards a circular target held on a wall. The circular target is called the dartboard. Darts is most liked in the United Kingdom (which was the first country to call darts a sport), mainly in England, and is a pub game. Darts was first played around the 1870s. Until 1930s all dart boards were made out of wood that had to be soaked in water the day before.


title: Darts

text: A normal board is 17 and three-quarter inches in diameter and split into 20 sections, plus there are two circles in the middle, an outer ring and a triple ring (the ring halfway from the bull). Throwing the dart on the green ring (known as the "single bull") scores 25 points and the red spot (the "bull") scores 50 points. The 20 sections around the outside of the two circles each have a number from 1 to 20. The outer ring scores double the points and the triple ring scores triple. The highest score that can be made by throwing three darts in one round is 180. This is where all three darts hit the triple 20.


title: Darts

text: The 20 numbers are arranged in a random order, and is still the order in the present day. From the top number clockwise, the numbers go 20, 1, 18, 4, 13, 6, 10, 15, 2, 17, 3, 19, 7, 16, 8, 11, 14, 9, 12 and 5.


title: Shehnai

text: A Shehnai is a South Asian music instrument which is normally played at marriages and other ceremonies, rites and rituals. The word itself is of Turkish origin, combining 'Sheh' (or 'Shah') 'Royal' and '-Nai' or 'Ney', a type of Flute. A version of the "Shehnai", the "Surnai", is also played in the Northern and North-western areas of India and Pakistan, in particular at traditional Polo matches.


title: Shehnai

text: Also referred as Nadasvaram in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. It is usually made of wood and it has to be blown like a flute to play it.


title: Moral equivalence

text: Moral equivalence is a term used in political arguments or debate. It is an informal fallacy. The phrase describes a kind of indirect proof, but the reasoning is flawed because it distorts issues. It draws comparisons between different things to make a point that one is just as bad as the other or just as good as the other.


title: Moral equivalence

text: The user of the term imagines a kind of independent position above or beyond the two contenders. The moral equivalence theory allows someone using the term to appear both objective and detached at the same time.


title: Moral equivalence

text: The concept of moral equivalence is not a term of philosophy; rather, it is only a logical fallacy used in arguments.


title: Moral equivalence

text: It is usually used to suggest a moral or ethical hierarchy for two sides in a conflict -- that one is better or worse than the other. The term originates from a 1906 speech "" by William James.


title: Moral equivalence

text: The term's popular use was expanded by Jeane Kirkpatrick, who was US ambassador to the United Nations when Ronald Reagan was President of the United States. In 1986, Kirkpatrick published "The Myth of Moral Equivalence" which responded to the argument that there was "no moral difference" between the Soviet Union and democratic states.


title: Rectangle

text: In geometry, a rectangle is a shape with four sides and four corners. The corners are all right angles. It follows that the pairs of sides opposite each other must be parallel and of the same length.


title: Rectangle

text: People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers. The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".


title: Singapore National Pledge

text: The Singapore's National Pledge was written by Sinnathamby Rajaratnam in 1966, not long after Singapore's Independence. A draft was submitted to the then Prime minister Lee Kuan Yew, before he made it better and passed it to the Cabinet.


title: Domain (biology)

text: In biological taxonomy, a domain (also superregnum, superkingdom, or empire) is a taxon in the highest rank of organisms, higher than a kingdom.


title: Domain (biology)

text: Domain (or its synonyms) is the most inclusive of these biological groupings. The arrangement of taxa reflects the fundamental evolutionary differences in the genomes. There are several modern alternative domain classifications of life. Among them are:


title: Domain (biology)

text: After defining Archaea as a new domain, Woese redrew the taxonomic tree. His three-domain system is based upon genetic relationships. It divides life into 23 main divisions in three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Archaea are neither bacteria nor eukaryotes. Looked at another way, they are prokaryotes that are not bacteria.


title: Steve Biko

text: Stephen Bantu Biko (18 December 1946 – 12 September 1977) was a South African activist. He is famous for his activism against apartheid in South Africa during the 1960s and 1970s. He created the Black Consciousness Movement.


title: Steve Biko

text: Biko was born in Ginsberg Township (now called the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa). He started high school at Lovedale High School. However, he was kicked out of school because of his political ideas about South Africa. He finished high school at St. Francis College.


title: Steve Biko

text: During the late 1960s, Biko was a medical student at the University of Natal. During this time, he helped create the South African Students' Organisation. The organization later changed into the Black Consciousness Movement, and elected Biko as its first president in 1968.


title: Steve Biko

text: As a student, during the early 1970s, Biko fought against apartheid in many ways. Eventually, in 1972, he was kicked out of the University of Natal. In February 1973, the South African apartheid government banned Biko. This severely limited his freedom of speech.


title: Steve Biko

text: Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement played key roles in organizing protests, led by South African high school students, that resulted in the Soweto Uprising.


title: Steve Biko

text: On 18 August 1977, Biko was arrested. He died on 12 September 1977 due to injuries he got while in police custody.


title: Oleander

text: Oleander, "Nerium oleander", is a poisonous shrub. It is commonly used in gardens because of its pink colored flowers. "Nerium oleander" is native to northern Africa, the eastern Mediterranean basin and southeast Asia. Oleander prefers dry, warm climates and may naturalize in such areas. Recently, scientific studies on cardenolide oleandrin show that it may be used to prevent mutagenesis.


title: James Charles

text: James Charles Dickinson (born May 23, 1999) is an American Internet personality, beauty YouTuber and make-up artist. In 2016, he became the first male ambassador for CoverGirl.


title: James Charles

text: Charles is most known for his YouTube channel focusing on makeup, which he launched on December 1, 2015. It currently has 19.5 million subscribers, making him the #1 most subscribed beauty guru. His TikTok buddies are Addison Rae, Charli D’Amelio, Chase Hudson, and Avani Gregg.


title: James Charles

text: On May 6, 2019, his channel had 16.6 million subscribers, and on May 11, 2019, he became the first ever YouTube personality to lose over 1 million subscribers in 24 hours.


title: James Charles

text: On October 11, 2016, at the age of seventeen, Charles became the first male spokesperson for cosmetics brand CoverGirl.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: There are two ways that natural and man-made things can use rotation to move around. One way is for the entire thing to roll. The other way is for part of the thing to turn while the rest does not, like a wheel or a propeller. Some living things move around by rolling, but no living things seem to use wheels. Biologists have written about the reasons for this. Writers of science fiction and fantasy have invented many animals with wheels.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Wheels are a very useful technology for people. Many technologies that people use are also found in nature, like wings and lenses.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: It may seem strange, then, that wheels have never evolved in nature, but there are two reasons for this. First, there are natural limits to what kinds of things can exist in nature. Living things change slowly over time, a process called evolution by natural selection. This process can create many different answers to a problem, but it can't always create every answer that can be imagined. Also, the ways that new living things build themselves (a process called developmental biology) can't always create every kind of part that can be imagined. Second, wheels are sometimes less useful than other ways of moving, like walking, running, or slithering like a snake. For the same reason, some groups of people in the past have given up using wheels completely.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Some living things move around by rolling. These are not true examples of wheels, because the whole organism rotates, without any parts that stay still, like an axle.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Some kinds of animals form their bodies into a circle. In some cases, they do this to protect themselves, and in some cases they do it to be able to roll. Animals that do this include some caterpillars, tiger beetle larvae, myriapods, mantis shrimp, and salamanders. Other animals form into a ball instead. These animals include pangolins, hedgehogs, armadillos, the armadillo Lizard, isopods, the wheel spider, and fossilized trilobites. These animals may roll "passively", meaning they are pushed by gravity or wind, or "actively", meaning they push themselves by changing their shape. Tumbleweeds are a part of a plant that grows above the ground. Tumbleweeds break off from their roots and roll in the wind in order to spread their seeds.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Dung beetles form round balls of animal feces. They roll these balls with their bodies. Although the ball rolls instead of the beetle, the beetles have many of the same problems as rolling animals.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: A kind of skin cell called a keratinocyte moves itself by rolling, as part of the process of healing.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: A kind of tiny animal called a rotifer uses a ring of cilia (small hair-like parts) moving in rhythm to move and feed itself. The word "rotifer" in Latin means "having wheels", but rotifers do not actually have any parts that rotate.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: No known multicellular organism (an organism made of many cells) can spin part of its body while keeping the rest of its body still. However, there are at least two examples of rotating parts used by cells. One example is a molecule called ATP synthase. ATP synthase is used to store and move energy. For example, it is used in the processes of photosynthesis (a way of storing energy from the sun) and oxidative phosphorylation (a way of releasing stored energy). ATP synthase is similar to flagellar motors, which are talked about below. Biologists (scientists who study life) think that ATP synthase is an example of modular evolution. In modular evolution, two parts with different jobs join together and pick up a new job.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The only known example in nature of a part that can spin all the way around to push an organism is the flagellum. The flagellum is a tail used like a propeller to push single-celled prokaryotes. The bacterial flagellum is the best known example. About half of all known bacteria have at least one flagellum. This means that rotation may actually be the most common way of moving around found in nature.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: At the bottom of the bacterial flagellum, where it meets the cell membrane, a motor protein acts as an engine. This engine gets its power from proton motive force, the flow of protons (hydrogen ions) across the cell membrane. This is caused by a concentration gradient (a difference in the number of protons on each side of the membrane) created by the cell's metabolism. (Bacteria called "Vibrio" use two kinds of flagella, one of which is powered by sodium ions instead.) Flagella are very efficient, meaning not much energy is wasted. They can push bacteria as fast as 60 times their length every second. The motor at the bottom of the flagellum has a similar structure to ATP synthase. Bacteria called spirillum have twisted bodies with flagella on both ends. Spririllum bacteria spin around as they move.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: A kind of organism called archaea, which are different from bacteria, also use flagella powered by rotating motor proteins. The two kinds of flagella evolved from different parts. Eukaryotic cells are a more complex kind of cell found in plants and animals. Some of these cells also have flagella called cilia, but these flagella do not rotate at the bottom. Instead, they bend so that the tip of the flagella moves in a circle.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The science of evolution can help to explain why multicellular organisms have not developed wheels. To put it simply, a complex structure (one made of several parts working together) can't evolve unless its early, unfinished form helps the organism to live and to have children.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: In the modern science of evolution, adaptations (changes that affect the fitness of an organism) appear slowly, over many generations, by means of natural selection. Because of this, genetic changes usually only spread in a population if they do not lower the fitness of individuals. Neutral changes (changes that don't raise or lower fitness) can spread by genetic drift. In some cases, changes that lower fitness can spread, but large changes that take many steps can only spread if each of the steps raises fitness. The biologist Richard Dawkins describes the situation this way:


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: In this metaphor, fitness is a landscape, where useful traits are peaks and harmful ones are valleys. Wheels may be a very useful peak, but the valley around that peak is too low or too wide for the gene pool (the set of genes in the population) to move to it by genetic drift or natural selection. Stephen Jay Gould points out that evolution can only build with parts that are already available. He writes that, "wheels work well, but animals are debarred [(prevented)] from building them by structural constraints [(limits)] inherited as an evolutionary legacy."


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Natural selection therefore explains why wheels have not appeared. A wheel without one or more of its important parts would probably not help an organism very much. However, the same is not true for the flagellum discussed above. As the flagellum evolved, different parts of other structures were used for a new purpose. The part that is now a rotating motor, called a basal body, may have evolved from a part that was used by bacteria to inject poisons into other cells. This use of existing parts is called "exaptation".


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The biologist Robin Holliday has written that, because there are no living things with wheels, creationism and intelligent design (stories of life that claim an intelligent creator) are less likely to be right. Holliday argues that an intelligent creator, free from the limits of evolution, would use wheels in any place they would be useful.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: People have found it fairly easy to build wheeled systems, even complex ones, and they have been able to solve problems of power transmission (moving energy from one place to another) and friction. However, the ways new organisms build themselves are very different from the ways humans build things. It is not clear that the processes of life would be able to make a wheel. The reasons for this are talked about below.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The greatest barrier to many-celled organisms with wheels is the interface (meeting point) between the parts that move and the parts that stay still. Wheels, or wheels and axles, need to be able to turn freely relative to the rest of the organism. Animal joints have a limited range of motion (the angle they can move), but wheels need to be able to turn through any angle without needing to be turned back. Because of this, wheels can't be attached to the axle or shaft that they turn on. No true many-celled organism is known to grow solid tissues or organs that are not attached to the rest of the organism.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: To drive a wheel (that is, to make it turn), something must put a torque (twisting force) on it. For machines made by people, this torque is usually made by a motor. There are many kinds of motors, such as electric motors, turbines, and steam engines. Torque can also come from a person, as with a bicycle. In animals, movement is usually caused by skeletal muscles. These muscles get energy by metabolizing (breaking down) the nutrients in food. Skeletal muscles are attached with connective tissue to the bones they move, so they would not be useful for driving a wheel directly. Also, animals use their muscles in cycles - joints move in one direction, then the other, instead of moving in one direction constantly. Large animals cannot gain speed very quickly, because it is more difficult for muscles to pull against a large inertia (the resistance of a heavy object to movement).


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: In most machines, a lubricant (like oil or grease) or a bearing is used to limit friction (rubbing) between moving parts. Keeping friction down is important for limiting wear damage to the parts, and for keeping the parts from getting too hot. The faster the parts move, or the more force between them, the more important it is to reduce friction. In animal joints like the human knee, friction is reduced with a tissue called cartilage that has a low coefficient of friction, and a lubricating fluid called synovial fluid that has a low viscosity (resistance to flowing). Gerhard Scholtz, a professor at the ("Institute for Biology and Comparative Zoology") at Humboldt University of Berlin, has written that a similar lubricating fluid or material from dead cells could help an animal wheel to turn freely, but something like this has never been seen in nature.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Another problem is the flow of materials to and from a living wheel. If the tissues that form the wheel are living, then they must receive oxygen and nutrients and have wastes taken away in order to continue metabolism (the process of using energy to maintain functioning). A normal animal circulatory system (the network of tubes that allow blood to flow), would not be able to provide for the necessary flow of materials. Without blood flowing, materials would have to diffuse to and from the wheel. Diffusion is limited by partial pressure and surface area, by a rule called Fick's law of diffusion. For large animals, diffusion would not be enough to keep tissues alive. Instead of a living wheel, a wheel could be made of dead material like keratin, which makes up hair and nails.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: In some environments, wheels are simply not as good as limbs for getting around. So it may be that, even if it were possible for wheels to evolve, they would not be found often in nature. In fact, given the limits of wheels, the main question can be turned around: instead of asking ""Why doesn't nature use wheels?"", the question becomes ""Why don't people build more machines with limbs?"" In engineering, wheels are often used instead of limbs, because limbs are more complex to design and control—not because wheels necessarily do the job better.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: On hard, flat ground, like paved roads, hard wheels are more energy efficient than other ways of moving around. However, wheels are not as efficient (they take more energy to move) on soft surfaces, like soils, because they have to deal with "rolling resistance". In rolling resistance, a vehicle loses energy as the shape of the wheel and the surface are deformed (changed), and the surface pushes back against the wheel. Smaller wheels have to deal with more resistance for their size than larger wheels. Softer surfaces deform more than hard surfaces, and they don't come back to their starting shape as well. This causes greater resistance. Compared to concrete, the resisting force on medium-hard soil can be five to eight times greater, and on sand it can be ten to fifteen times greater. While wheels must deform the surface along their entire path, limbs only cause a small deformation at the point that the foot touches the ground.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Rolling resistance is also the reason that some human civilizations didn't use wheels. During the Roman Empire, wheeled chariots were common in the Middle East and North Africa. However, when the Empire fell, wheels became less useful to the local people, who turned to camels to transport goods in the sandy desert climate. Stephen Jay Gould wrote about this strange fact of history in his book "Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes". He wrote that without maintained roads, camels needed less human power and water than a cart pulled by oxen.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: When moving in water, rotating mechanisms are more efficient only when the "Reynolds number" of the flow is very low. The Reynolds number is a way to describe the behavior of a flow—in a flow with a low Reynolds number, like those in which bacteria move, viscosity is the most important effect to consider. In flows with high Reynolds numbers, inertia is the most important effect, and mechanisms that "oscillate", or move back and forth, are more efficient. Although ship propellers usually have an efficiency near 60%, and aircraft propellers around 80% (up to 88% in the human-powered "Gossamer Condor"), oscillating foils like fish tails and bird wings can be as efficient as 96%−98%.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Wheels can slip, meaning they fail to get a grip, on loose or slippery ground. Slipping wastes energy, and can lead to loss of control or becoming unable to move. This happens to cars on mud, ice, and snow. Where wheels have this problem, people sometimes use other mechanisms instead. In the logging industry, vehicles with legs are sometimes used to reach areas that are more difficult than what wheels can deal with. Vehicles with tracks, like tanks, don't slip as much as vehicles with wheels, because they have a larger area touching the surface. However, vehicles with tracks often have a larger turning radius than wheeled vehicles, meaning they take more space to turn. They are also less efficient, and more complex to build.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The engineer Mieczysław G. Bekker showed that in natural terrain, small obstacles are much more common than large ones. This is called a "log-normal" distribution. This means that obstacles are a problem for wheeled vehicles of all sizes. The main ways of dealing with obstacles are to go around them, and to go over them.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The most common types of steering do not include separate articulation (joints for bending) for each wheel, so they have a limited turning radius. This limits how well these kinds of vehicles can move around where there are a large number of obstacles.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Michael LaBarbera of the University of Chicago shows the limited turning radius of wheels by comparing humans walking with humans in wheelchairs. Jared Diamond points out that most examples of rolling in nature are found in wide open, hard terrain. This includes the use of rolling by dung beetles and tumbleweeds.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Wheels are bad at dealing with vertical (upright) obstacles, especially obstacles about the same size as the wheel itself. If a vehicle or animal can move its center of mass, then the largest vertical obstacles that can be climbed are half as high as the wheel. If the center of mass cannot be moved, the highest obstacle that can be climbed is one eighth to one quarter the height of the wheel.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Also, without joints, a wheeled vehicle can become stuck (unable to move) on top of an obstacle, with the obstacle between the wheels so they don't touch the ground. Limbs, unlike wheels, are useful for climbing, and can deal with difficult terrain.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: For wheels without joints, climbing obstacles will cause the body of the vehicle to tilt. If the weight of the vehicle moves outside of the wheels, the vehicle can tip over because of "static instability". At high speed, a vehicle's inertia can cause it to become "dynamically unstable". This means it can be tipped over by a smaller obstacle, or simply by turning or changing speed too quickly. Without jointed limbs, it can be impossible to recover from being tipped over.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Limbs used by animals to move over terrain are often also used for other purposes, such as holding and manipulating things, climbing, swinging from branches, swimming, digging, jumping, throwing, kicking, and grooming. Without joints, wheels are not as useful as limbs for these jobs.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The hoop snake is an animal described in legend in the United States and Australia. The snake is said to hold its tail in its mouth and roll like a wheel towards its victims. The Japanese Tsuchinoko is a similar legendary animal.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The 1944 science fiction short story "Arena", by Fredric Brown, includes a telepathic (mind-reading) alien called an "Outsider". The Outsider is shaped like a ball and moves by rolling. A 1967 "" episode with the same name was based on the story. A 1964 episode of "The Outer Limits" called "Fun and Games" may have been based on the same story. Neither television episode included a rolling animal.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The Dutch artist M. C. Escher invented an animal that he named "Pedalternorotandomovens centroculatus articulosus". This animal was able to roll itself forward like a wheel. Escher drew the animal in his 1951 picture (also known by the English title "Curl-up").


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: A 1956 Scrooge McDuck comic by Carl Barks, "Land Beneath the Ground!", included "Terries" and "Fermies", characters who move from place to place by rolling like a bowling ball. The Terries and Fermies have turned their rolling into a sport, causing earthquakes in the process.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: "Tuf Voyaging", a 1986 science fiction novel by George R. R. Martin, includes a type of alien called a "Rolleram", which kills its victim by rolling over it.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: In the "Sonic the Hedgehog" video game series, the main character Sonic and his sidekick Tails move by rolling. The "Sonic the Hedgehog" series first appeared in 1991.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The 1995 short story "Microbe", by Kenyon College biologist and feminist science fiction writer Joan Slonczewski, is about a trip to explore an alien world, where the plant and animal life is entirely made of doughnut-shaped organisms.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: L. Frank Baum's 1907 children's book "Ozma of Oz" includes human-like creatures with wheels instead of hands and feet, called "Wheelers".


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The 1968 novel "The Goblin Reservation" by Clifford D. Simak includes an intelligent kind of alien that uses natural wheels.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: Piers Anthony's 1977 book "Cluster" and its sequels (the later books in the same series) include a type of aliens called Polarians. The Polarians move around by holding and balancing on a large ball. The ball is a living part of the Polarian's body that can be removed temporarily.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: David Brin's "Uplift" Universe includes a kind of wheeled alien called the G'Kek. The G'Kek are described in the 1995 novel "Brightness Reef". In the 1996 novel "Infinity's Shore", the G'Kek are said to look like "a squid in a wheelchair." They suffer from arthritis in their axles as they become old, especially when living in an environment with high gravity.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: A 1997 novel in the Animorphs series, "The Andalite Chronicles", includes a kind of aliens called Mortrons. The Mortrons are made of two separate living parts: a yellow and black bottom half with four wheels, and a long, red head with sharp teeth and hidden wings.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The 2000 novel "The Amber Spyglass", by English author Philip Pullman, includes a type of alien known as the Mulefa. The Mulefa have diamond-shaped (◊-shaped) bodies with one leg at the front and back and one leg on each side. The Mulefa use large, disc-shaped seed pods as wheels. They hold the pods on axles made of bone on their front and back legs, while pushing themselves with their side legs. The Mulefa and the seed pod trees have a symbiotic relationship, or a relationship that helps both sides: the Mulefa use the seed pods as wheels, and the seed pod trees depend on the rolling to crack open the pods and allow the seeds to spread.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: In the 2000 novel "Wheelers", by English mathematician Ian Stewart and biologist Jack Cohen, a kind of alien called "blimps" can grow machines called "wheelers", which use wheels to move.


title: Rolling and wheels in the natural world

text: The 2009 Disney children's television series Jungle Junction includes jungle animals with wheels instead of legs. One of these animals, "Ellyvan", is a hybrid (a combination) of an elephant and a van. These animals move around their home on highways.


title: Bonn

text: Following World War II Bonn was in the British occupation zone. In 1949 Bonn was chosen as the provisional capital of West Germany.


title: Bonn

text: Bonn was the choice of Konrad Adenauer, a former Cologne Mayor and the first Chancellor of West Germany after World War II, who came from that area. Frankfurt am Main had most of the needed facilities already, so using Bonn meant spending about 95 Million DM to building new roads and building. However, Frankfurt am Main had been an important city during the war, and choosing Bonn was to symbolise a new start for the new Germany.


title: Bonn

text: Because of its relatively small size for a capital city, Bonn was sometimes jokingly called the "Bundesdorf" (Federal Village).


title: Bonn

text: Bonn was the capital of West Germany from 1949 until 1990 it. The Bundestag voted to move to Berlin on 20 June 1991, after a heated debate. The Federal President had already decided to make Schloß Bellevue in Berlin his main official residence. The extra building work needed meant it was 1999 before the government's move was completed.


title: Bonn

text: Beethoven's birthplace is located at Bonngasse. Next to the market place is the Old Town Hall, built in 1737 in Rococo style, under the rule of Clemens August of Bavaria. It's used for receptions of guests of the town, and as a bureau for the mayor. Close by is the "Kurfürstliches Schloss", which has been built as a residence of the prince-elector, and nowadays is the main building of the University of Bonn.


title: Bonn

text: The "Poppelsdorfer Allee", an alley flanked by chestnut trees, connects the "Kurfürstliches Schloss" with the "Poppelsdorfer Schloss", a palace that was built as a resort to prince-electors in the first half of the 18th century. This axis is interrupted by a railway line and Bonn Central Station, a building erected in 1883/84.


title: Bonn

text: The three highest buildings in the city are the radio mast of WDR in Bonn-Venusberg (180 m), the headquarters of the Deutsche Post called "Post Tower" (162.5 m) and the former building for the German members of parliament "Langer Eugen" (114.7 m) which nowadays is the new location of the UN-Campus.


title: War (Edwin Starr song)

text: "War" is a counterculture protest song. It was written by Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong in 1969. It was released by the Motown label in 1970. Whitfield first produced the song with The Temptations as the original singers. It was performed by Edwin Starr. The song is a protest against the Vietnam War.


title: Rashidah Ali

text: Rashidah Ali (better known as Rah Ali) (Born January 27, 1984). She is known for her appearances on Love & HipHop: New York. She has had a long friendship with fellow Love & HipHop: New York star: Remy Ma for some time. Though not friends anymore. She is described as wild & not one to back down from a fight. As wife and now mother, the business woman Rah Ali has made a success trail for herself.


title: Michael Morpurgo

text: Sir Michael Andrew Bridge Morpurgo (born 5 October 1943) is a British writer. Michael Morpurgo grew up in London during a war there. He was a teacher, but the book "Poetry in the Making" by Ted Hughes, made him decide to write instead of teaching. He is the author of over one hundred books, mostly for children, many of which have given many prizes and awards.


title: Michael Morpurgo

text: Five of his books have been made into films. "My Friend Walter" (1988) and "Out of the Ashes" (2001) have both been made into television.


title: Justice

text: Justice is a concept on ethics and law that means that people behave in a way that is fair, equal and balanced for everyone.


title: Justice

text: Governments, and especially the police and courts, see that the laws are obeyed in most societies. Because they can punish a person for not obeying the law, most people agree that laws should be fair and the same for everyone. But governments sometimes make laws that many people believe are not just. If many people believe this, people may lose respect for the law and may even disobey it. However, in democratic societies, the law itself has ways to change or get rid of these unjust laws.


title: Islamabad

text: Islamabad (, "abode of Islam") is the Federal capital city of Pakistan, and is in the Pothohar Plateau in the northwest of the country. Islamabad Town is also a town in Jammu and Kashmir. It is in the Islamabad Capital Territory, though the area has historically been a part of the crossroads of the Punjab region and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province (the Margalla Pass being a historic gateway to the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and the Pothohar Plateau historically is a part of the Punjab region).


title: Islamabad

text: This city is rich in nature. It is surrounded by the Margalla Hills. It has a humid subtropical climate ("Cwa" in the Köppen climate classification). Islamabad is an expensive city to live in as the prices of most of fruits, vegetable and poultry items increased in Islamabad during the years 2015-2020.


title: Islamabad

text: Islamabad has a large number of educational institutions including colleges, universities and technical education and training bodies.Some of them are:


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March 1685 in Eisenach – 28 July 1750 in Leipzig; pronounced "BAHK") was a German composer and organist. He lived in the last part of the Baroque period. He is most famous for his work "Toccata and Fugue in D Minor", "St. Matthew Passion", "St. John Passion", "Mass in B minor", and the "Brandenburg Concertos". He spent several years working at courts of noblemen. Here he wrote most of his chamber music and orchestral music. Most of his life, however, he worked in a church where he was expected to write church music. Bach wrote almost every kind of music except opera. During the last part of his life most composers were writing in a new style called the Classical style, but Bach always wrote in the Baroque style. That made some people at the time think he was old-fashioned, but today we know that his work is the very best of Baroque music. Along with Mozart and Beethoven, Bach is regarded as one of the greatest composers who has ever lived.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach came from a highly musical family. His father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, was a trumpeter at the court of Saxe-Eisenach. Many of his relatives were professional musicians of some sort: violinists and town musicians, organists, "Cantors" (Directors of Music in a church), court musicians and "Kapellmeisters" (Directors of Music at a royal court). Most of them played several instruments. Of his twenty children, several became quite famous composers, especially Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714–1788), Johann Christian Bach (1735–1782), Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710–1784).


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: When he was fifteen, he went to the small town of Lüneburg. At first he sang treble in the choir and was said to have a very fine treble voice, but his voice very soon got lower, so he made himself useful playing instruments. He learned by listening to famous organists like Reincken (1623–1722) and Dietrich Buxtehude (1637–1707). Bach got his first job in 1703 in Arnstadt. It was a well-paid job for a young boy who was 18 years old. There was a new organ in the church, and Bach already knew a lot about organ building as well as being a brilliant organist. They asked him to examine the new organ, and then they offered him a job. Bach spent four years as organist there. He composed some organ works. Unfortunately, the congregation were not musical enough to like it. They did not understand the ornamental notes he added to the hymn tunes. Bach got rather fed up with the priests who were always complaining about it, so he resigned and took another job in Mühlhausen, not far away. After a year there, he gave up that job and went to a big town called Weimar.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Johann Sebastian was made organist to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. At the Duke’s court there was a chapel with an organ. Bach composed many of his great organ works at this time. He became very famous as an organist and was invited to play in other big churches and to give advice on organ building. He was extremely good at improvisation. On one occasion he was in Dresden at the same time as a French organist named Louis Marchant. There was going to be a competition between the two men to see who was better at improvisation. Bach was practicing the day before and Marchant heard him. He realized that Bach would win, so he left.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In 1714 the Duke made Bach "Konzertmeister" (Concertmaster, a job that paid more money). He had to write cantatas for church services. In 1717 he was offered a job in the town of Cöthen, where he would earn an even better salary. The Duke was angry and did not want him to go but Bach insisted, so the Duke put Bach in prison for a month. In the end he had to let the musician go.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: At Cöthen, Bach worked for Prince Leopold. The Prince was very musical and a wonderful man to work for. Bach was "Kapellmeister" (Director of Music) and was treated well. The organ was not very good, and it was not used much, so Bach did not write any organ music during this period. The Duke had an orchestra, and Bach was in charge. Nearly all Bach’s orchestral works were written in Cöthen: the Brandenburg Concertos, the violin concertos, the orchestral suites, the solo music for violin and for cello, and a lot of keyboard music for harpsichord or clavichord.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: During 1719, the great composer George Frideric Handel, who had moved to England, came to Germany to visit his mother. Bach wanted to meet Handel, who was only 30 km away, but these two famous musicians never met. Handel wanted to spend his limited time in Germany with his mother who was old and frail, knowing that it would be the last time he would see her.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach’s first wife, Maria Barbara Bach, died in 1720. The couple had seven children. Soon afterwards, he married Anna Magdalena with whom he had another thirteen children. However, several of his children died young.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In 1723 Bach moved to Leipzig to take the job of "Cantor" at the St Thomas Church, a very large church in the town. As "Cantor" he was in charge of all the music, both at St Thomas and at another church nearby. He also had to compose music for the town. It was an excellent job, and more secure than being at a court. The schools were good for his sons. Bach stayed in Leipzig until his death. He loved his job most of the time and worked very hard. He composed many cantatas for the church services. These services were very long, lasting about three hours. Many of the cantatas he wrote last about 30 minutes. He had assistants to play the organ. Bach himself directed the choir and the orchestra. There were probably 16 singers in the choir and 18 players in the orchestra. He wrote the "St Matthew Passion" and the "St John Passion". Both these works, which are very long, tell the story of Jesus dying on the cross. They are among the most famous pieces of music ever written. He also wrote cantatas for special occasions such as weddings or funerals.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Life was not always easy, and sometimes there were arguments with the people who ruled the church. The sub-deacon wanted to choose some of the hymns, but this was the "Cantor’s" job. Bach was a sensible man, and he managed to get his way without making enemies. On another occasion he argued with the headmaster of the school (Bach had to do some teaching at the church school) about who was allowed to choose the choir section leaders. This actually went to court, and Bach won the case.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach often made journeys to other towns. In 1747 he visited the court of Prussian King Frederick the Great near Berlin. The king, a music lover, gave Bach a theme to improvise from on the harpsichord. Bach sat down and improvised a fugue using this theme. Later Bach wrote a very long composition for flute, violin and harpsichord with cello accompaniment, in many movements, all based on this theme. At the end, the theme is heard in 5 of the 6 voices. Bach called it "The Musical Offering" and he sent it to the king.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Bach wrote many fugues, eventually he decided to write a collection called "The Art of Fugue". His plan was to publish it, but he died before he could finish it (his son later published it in his honor, as Bach's last published piece). In the last year or two of his life, he became blind in spite of two eye operations.


title: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: In the 19th century more people became interested in Bach, and many of his works were published after he had been dead more than a hundred years.


title: Electric vehicle

text: An electric vehicle is a vehicle that uses electricity to move. Its wheels are driven by electric motors.


title: Electric vehicle

text: Electric vehicles were one of the first kinds that did not use horse or human power. Electric trains and cars were built in the 1830s, and in the early 1900s there were more electric cars than gasoline-powered cars. But cars powered by gasoline or diesel fuel become the most common kind of car for most of the last 100 years.


title: Electric vehicle

text: Electric vehicles have long been used in some special cases, such as forklifts used inside a building, golf carts, trolley bus or certain vehicles used around airplanes at an airport. Early in the 21st century people are using more electric and hybrid vehicles again as a way to reduce pollution and use less gasoline.


title: Electric vehicle

text: It is unclear who the first inventor was, but Ányos Jedlik of Hungary built a small model of a working electric car in 1828. In the 1830's Robert Anderson of Scotland, Professor Stratingh of Holland and Thomas Davenport, a blacksmith from Vermont all built electric vehicles. Davenport is said to be the inventor of the DC electric motor. In 1865, Gaston Plante of France made a better battery. In 1886, the inventor Frank Sprague of Connecticut made important changes to the electric motor.


title: Electric vehicle

text: Great Britain and France were early leaders in making better electric cars. Interest in the electric car in the United States grew after 1891 when A. L. Ryker built a three-wheeled electric car, and William Morrison built a six-passenger wagon.


title: Electric vehicle

text: The years 1899 and 1900 were the best years for electric cars in America, as they outsold all other types of cars (steam, gasoline and diesel). One example was the 1902 Phaeton built by the Woods Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago, which had a range of 18 miles, a top speed of 14 mph and cost $2,000. (At that time, there were few good roads between towns, so most driving was for short distances). Electric cars could go as far as steam-powered cars and did not take 30 to 40 minutes to get started. Gasoline engines were smelly and noisy.


title: Electric vehicle

text: But then the internal combustion engine (that used gasoline and diesel) were greatly improved, and cars that used those engines could go much farther and faster than other cars.


title: Electric vehicle

text: Some people would make electric cars in their garages by taking out the engine and putting in an electric motor and batteries, but for a long time, no big car company made an electric car. Only in the late 1990's did big car companies start making electric cars again. The most famous was the GM's EV-1. Now interest in alternative fuel vehicles is growing.


title: Electric vehicle

text: These types of cars do not have any kind of internal combustion engine, but are driven entirely using electric motors, which gets its power in different ways other than an engine.


title: Electric vehicle

text: A hybrid is a combination of two things. In this case, it is an electric motor, and another type of power, such as an engine. Because of this, hybrid vehicles are not true electric vehicles.


title: Electric vehicle

text: There are many other types of electric vehicles. A trolley bus (also called a trackless trolley) uses overhead electric lines to power it. Many trains use a railway electrification system to supply power. A few high-speed rail lines use powered magnets in the track to move the train, in a system called 'mag-lev' (magnetic levitation). There are electric bicycles and motorcycles and some tricycles (trikes) like the Corbin Motors Sparrow, which was also seen in the Austin Powers movie Goldmember.


title: Electric vehicle

text: Most freight trains are diesel-electric. The locomotive has a diesel engine which provides electricity, and an electric motor which makes the wheels turn. In recent years, however, there are buses and trains that store their power in a battery or use some other source like fuel cells. These kinds of vehicles do not need wires.


title: Electric vehicle

text: These vehicles use an electric motor, so they are very quiet, no smell and no pollution from exhaust gases that is why UK is considering stop sale of diesel, petrol and hybrid vehicles by 2035. They can even be used indoors, in tunnels and mines. Oil for gasoline and diesel is a limited resource - it will not last forever and is becoming more expensive. If the electricity for a battery-electric vehicle comes from a renewable energy source, like a windmill, solar cells, geothermal or hydroelectric, then it will not produce as many global warming gases.


title: Electric vehicle

text: Batteries do not store a lot of energy, and they are large and heavy, so the vehicles usually cannot go very far. It takes a long time to recharge a battery, sometimes many hours. Good batteries can be very expensive, and all batteries need to be replaced after a while. Most electricity in the United States comes from coal or natural gas, so an electric vehicle that is powered by electricity from one of these plants will still add to global warming gases.


title: Beam balance

text: A beam balance is a device used to measure mass. An object is put into a disk on one side that hangs from one end of a bar. It is balanced with weights at the other end. It has a lever at the middle just for support with two equal arms and a pan suspended from each arm at the end of the beam by equal length of strings. More so it can be used to measure various object.


title: Jackstones

text: Jackstones is a traditional Korean game. It is usually played by girls. The game is similar to the game Jacks. Jackstones is also a traditional game played in IndiaTamilnadu by the name Anchakal it is also played in rural villages of Andhra Pradesh by the name of Achenagandlu or Achamgilla or Chintapikkala aata, using small stones or Tamarind seeds.


title: Jackstones

text: The game is played with five stones. Each stone is about the size of an almond. Players can only use one hand to play the game. The game has five parts or "stages".


title: Jackstones

text: In the first stage, the player throws the stones on the ground. They pick up one stone and throw it upward. Before the stone falls onto the ground, they need to pick up another stone from the ground and then catch the one that was thrown. This is done again until there are no stones on the ground.


title: Jackstones

text: The second stage is the same with the first stage except that the player needs to pick up two stones at once before the stone which was thrown falls down. The third and the fourth stages are the same.


title: Jackstones

text: In the fifth stage, players can get points. All of the stones are thrown upward. The player must catch as many of the stones as they can with the back of their hand. Then, the stones they caught are thown into the air again and the player must catch all of them. The player gets points for how many stones they catch. If they caught 3 stones, they get 3 points. If they caught 4 stones, they get four points. After that, the next player does the same. When all players have done this, the game is finished. The person (or the team) who has a higher point wins.


title: Lycra

text: Lycra is a type of synthetic fabric that is very elastic. It is also called Spandex or elastane. The name "spandex" is an anagram of the word "expands".


title: Lycra

text: Lycra was invented in 1958 , United States. It was invented by Joseph Shivers, a chemist. It is made from a combination of polyester and polyurethane.


title: Lycra

text: Because of its elasticity and strength, lycra is often used to make clothing. It is commonly mixed with cotton to make things like tights, bras,Lycra shirt,Dr199 and underwear. Lycra is especially common in sports clothing, such as wrestling singlets. It is also often used to make swimsuits and wetsuits, because lycra dries more quickly than many other fabrics.


title: Lycra

text: Aside from the varied manufacturing processes that can be used to make this fabric, there are no distinct differences between Lycra, elastane, and spandex. It is, however, important to know more about each term:


title: Lycra

text: Lycra: As a registered trademark of the DuPont corporation, the "Lycra" brand is one of the most reliable and high-quality forms of elastane fabric on the market. However, elastane that has been branded as Lycra can sometimes cost more than other types of spandex


title: Lycra

text: Elastane: The term "elastane" is most commonly used in Europe, and each continental European language has a slightly different version of this word. Elastane is the most technically correct term used to describe these polyether-polyurea copolymer fabrics.


title: Lycra

text: Spandex: Despite the persistence of a common misconception, spandex is not a registered trademark of any company. Instead, it is the term that DuPont originally used to describe their polyurethane fabric during the development process. "Spandex" is an anagram of "expands," and the attractive simplicity of this name has made it the preferred term for referring to elastane products in the United States and elsewhere.


title: Lycra

text: Lycra is a trademark of DuPont, and it is only made by this international corporation. DuPont has manufacturing locations in more than 90 countries, which means that this fabric could be made in any number of areas around the world.


title: Lycra

text: Overall, the international spandex industry has shifted eastward in the last few decades as China has risen to the fore as the dominant manufacturing power in the world. DuPont has a number of factories in China, and many other companies also manufacture spandex in this country.


title: Lycra

text: The future of Lycra fabric production around the world looks bright. A ReportBuyer report from 2018 indicates that this fabric will continue to be made in greater and greater quantities until at least 2023, and all signs indicate that this production boom will continue far past this projected date.


title: Lycra

text: The production of Lycra is not considered to be inherently detrimental to the environment. While it's true that the production of elastane fabrics requires high levels of energy and the use of a variety of toxic chemicals, unlike fabrics like nylon, the raw ingredients for Lycra are not derived from non-renewable resources like petroleum oil.


title: Lycra

text: Instead, these ingredients are fully synthesized in laboratory settings, and DuPont is one of the world's leaders in sustainable and safe elastane manufacturing processes. There's no getting around the fact that the production of Lycra involves carcinogenic chemicals, but scientific research has indicated that elastane factory workers in Sweden exhibit negligibly greater cancer risk, which seems to indicate that workplaces in which this material is made are not very hazardous. No studies have been done, however, to examine the impact of elastane production on workers in other countries.


title: International

text: International mostly means something (a company, language, or organization) involving more than a single country. The term international as a word means involvement of, interaction between or encompassing more than one nation, or generally beyond national boundaries. For example, international law, which is applied by more than one country and usually everywhere on Earth, and international language which is a language spoken by residents of more than one country.


title: International

text: The term "international" was coined by the utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham in his "Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation", which was printed for publication in 1780 and published in 1789. Bentham wrote: "The word "international", it must be acknowledged, is a new one; though, it is hoped, sufficiently analogous and intelligible. It is calculated to express, in a more significant way, the branch of law which goes commonly under the name of the "law of nations". The word was adopted in French in 1801. Thomas Erskine Holland noted in his article on Bentham in the 11th edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica" that "Many of Bentham's phrases, such as 'international,' 'utilitarian,' 'codification,' are valuable additions to our language; but the majority of them, especially those of Greek derivation, have taken no root in it."


title: Electric chair

text: An electric chair is a specially built chair which is used to execute condemned criminals by electrocuting (giving them a strong electric shock) them. This means that they are being killed as a punishment for a crime that they were accused of, usually murder.


title: Electric chair

text: An electric chair is a strong wooden chair which has electrodes (which are objects often made out of metal that conduct electricity) for running electric current through the convict's body. One electrode is placed on the convict's head, and another is placed on the convict's right shin. When the switch is turned on, a 2,000 volt current goes through the convict. The current is to stop the heartbeat, cause unconsciousness, and cause death. Sometimes, the chair was made from the wood of the gallows which it replaced.


title: Electric chair

text: The electric chair is sometimes used as the very symbol of death penalty. It is also a part of Americana (that is: cultural symbols of USA) and the electric chairs of many states have ironic nicknames like Old Sparky, Yellow Mama, Gruesome Gertie, Sizzling Sally or Hot Seat. The execution itself is sometimes called "riding the lightning".