title: Carbon

text: Carbon is important to the human body and other living things, and it is the second most common element in the human body, at 23% of all body weight. It is also a key part of many biological molecules (molecules used in life).


title: Carbon

text: Most of the carbon on Earth is coal. Graphite is in many (typically desert) areas, including Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Russia. Diamonds are rare and are found largely in Africa. Carbon is also in some meteorites.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: The Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan happened on Monday, March 30, 1981, 69 days after becoming President. Ronald Reagan was leaving after a speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel in Washington, D.C.. As Reagan left to enter his car, John Hinckley, Jr. fired his gun.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: At 2:27 pm Eastern Time, Reagan exited the hotel through "President's Walk" and its K Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine. Hinckley waited within the crowd of civilians. While the Secret Service blocked those attending the president's speech, in a "colossal mistake" the agency allowed an unsearched group to stand within feet of him, behind a rope line.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: Reagan unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Believing he would never get a better chance, Hinckley fired a Röhm RG-14 .22 Long Rifle blue steel revolver six times in 1.7 seconds.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: Five out of the six shots missed the president. The first bullet hit White House Press Secretary James Brady in the head. The second bullet hit District of Columbia police officer Thomas Delahanty in the back of his neck as he turned to protect Reagan. Hinckley now had a clear shot at the president, but the third bullet overshot him and hit the window of a building across the street.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: As Special Agent In Charge Jerry Parr quickly pushed Reagan into the limousine, the fourth bullet hit Secret Service agent Timothy McCarthy in the abdomen as he spread his body over Reagan to protect him. The fifth bullet hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open side door of the limousine. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine and hit the president in his left underarm, grazing a rib and lodging in his lung, stopping nearly 1 inch (25mm) from his heart. Parr's prompt reaction saved Reagan from being hit in the head. Reagan suffered from a punctured lung and heavy internal bleeding. He received medical attention quickly.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: The powers of the President were never actually given to anyone else during this time through the presidential line of succession. Secretary of State Alexander Haig caused anger and arguments at a press conference by stating "I am in control here", while Vice President George H. W. Bush returned to Washington D.C. Since the Vice President was not physically present in Washington D.C., Secretary Haig thought that, as Secretary of State, he was to meant to assume command. In reality, according to the US Constitution, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Tip O'Neill was to take over from President Reagan, and Vice President Bush to be in charge. Secretary Haig was angry about his mistake as was Speaker O'Neill.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: The shooter was 30-year old John Hinckley. Hinckley said that he wanted to shoot President Reagan to impress actress Jodie Foster. He planned the assassination after he saw the movie "Taxi Driver" and there was a scene similar to the event.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: Hinckley decided to copy DeNiro's character in the movie. He began to stalk President Jimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—only one foot away at one event. He was arrested in October 1980 at Nashville International Airport for illegal possession of firearms. Even though Carter made a campaign stop there, the Federal Bureau of Investigation did not connect this arrest to the President and did not tell the United States Secret Service.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to her dean, who gave them to the Yale police department. After this, the police wanted to find Hinckley, but failed. Hinckley soon moved to Washington, D.C. to carry-out his assassination plan.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: Nobody was killed in the attack. Press Secretary James Brady was left paralyzed and permanently disabled. Brady died in August 2014. Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity. He was in a psychiatric facility until 2016.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: The members of his staff were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly, and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation. Reagan left the hospital on the 13th day. He was able to travel outside of Washington 49 days later.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: Before the shooting, Reagan had the lowest approval ratings of any president during his first term in office. After the shooting, Reagan's approval ratings rose. The assassination attempt boosted his popularity and some may say that it helped him win his re-election campaign in 1984.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: Hinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on June 21, 1982. The defense psychiatric reports had found him to be insane while the prosecution reports declared him legally sane.


title: Assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan

text: Following his lawyers' advice, he was not a witness in his own defense. Hinckley was confined at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington, D.C.. He was released in 2016.


title: Political status of Taiwan

text: The political status of Taiwan is a difficult situation that many people disagree about. There are two countries in the world that call themselves China. The People's Republic of China (PRC) is the country most people think of when they hear the name China. The Republic of China (ROC) also calls itself China. It is better known in most of the world as Taiwan.


title: Political status of Taiwan

text: Taiwan was a part of China for thousands of years. After the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan and Penghu was illegally taken by Japan. After World War II, the Japanese returned Taiwan back to the Chinese. After losing a civil war in 1949, the ROC government fled to the island of Taiwan. It took control of Taiwan and several nearby islands. The PRC controlled mainland China. It also said it owns the island of Taiwan (which is also known as Taiwan province) and the other islands. The ROC said that it was the rightful government of China and it included all of China, including Taiwan and Mongolia. In 1971, the ROC lost its United Nations seat as China. The seat was given to the PRC instead. This made the PRC the rightful government of China internationally. Most countries have accepted the PRC as the leaders of China. Several countries, including the United States, have been careful to not say officially which parts of the original China are part of the PRC. 14 countries have official diplomatic relations with Taiwan. The major problems are about whether Taiwan is a part of the PRC or should be an independent country.


title: Political status of Taiwan

text: People who live in Taiwan have different ideas, and it is difficult to find out what most people believe because small changes in how polls are worded can change the results a lot. Japan returned Taiwan to mainland China since the end of WW2. Due to the defeat of Chinese Civil War, the Chinese Nationalist Party's refugee government escaped to Taiwan and despoiled the regime. Today, Taiwan government is still not a legal political power. China mainland is ruled by a communist government. The idea of freedom in communism is different than how people in a capitalism think freedom should be. A big part of people in Taiwan want to become part of Communist China. Some people in Taiwan want Taiwan to formally become the Republic of Taiwan, an independent country. Most of the people in Taiwan want to keep everything like it is now.


title: Political status of Taiwan

text: Today, most countries of the world see the PRC as China. Most countries however still have a very close economic and cultural relationship with Taiwan, even if they have major tensions with the PRC.


title: Political status of Taiwan

text: The relations between the PRC and Taiwan are tense. The PRC believes that Taiwan is a part of the PRC. The government of the PRC has said that if the people of Taiwan vote to become the Republic of Taiwan, that they will invade Taiwan and stop this from happening. In March 2004, they passed a law that will allow China to invade Taiwan if Taiwan tries to leave the PRC and become an independent country. This law has caused problems with the people in Taiwan. It has caused even more people in Taiwan not to want to be a part of PRC China.


title: Bahrain

text: Bahrain (officially called Kingdom of Bahrain) is an island country in the Arabian Gulf. Saudi Arabia is to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the King Fahd Causeway, and Qatar is to the south across the Persian Gulf. The Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge, not yet built, will link Bahrain to Qatar as the longest fixed bridge in the world. Qatar and Bahrain's flag is the same design but not the same colors because Qatar is white and maroon and Bahrain is white and red.


title: Bahrain

text: People have lived in Bahrain before there was writing. It has been ruled and influenced by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Persians, and the Arabs, who made the island Muslim. Bahrain was in old times known as Dilmun, Tylos, Awal and Mishmahig.


title: Bahrain

text: The islands of Bahrain, set in the middle south of the Persian Gulf, have attracted many invaders in history. The word "Bahrain", "Two Seas", means that the islands contain two kinds of water, sweet water springs and salty water in the sea.


title: Bahrain

text: A location between East and West, fertile lands, fresh water, and pearls made Bahrain important in history. About 2300 BC, Bahrain started trading with Mesopotamia (now Iraq) and the Indus Valley (now near India). It was then called Delmon, and was linked to the Sumerian Civilization about 2000 BC. Bahrain also became part of the Babylonian empire about 600 BC. Historical records called Bahrain the "Life of Eternity", "Paradise", the "Pearl of the Persian Gulf" and other names.


title: Bahrain

text: Until 1521, Bahrain also ruled Al-Hasa and Qatif (both are now the eastern province of Saudi Arabia) and Awal (now the Bahrain Islands). The country had all of the land from what is now Kuwait to Oman. This was called "Iqlim Al-Bahrain" (Province of Bahrain). In 1521, the Portuguese took Awal (now Bahrain) from the rest and since then the name of Bahrain only means today's Bahrain.


title: Bahrain

text: The modern history of Bahrain begins with Great Britain exploring the area, trying to keep Iran from taking more land. The British gave support to the Al-Khalifa family, who made a power base in the island and allied with the British to keep the island from Iran. The British got free passage to the Persian Gulf through this agreement. In November of 1957, the Iranian parliament declared that Bahrain was the Fourteenth Province of Iran. Later the British would become involved in the politics of Bahrain by choosing an Emir of the island. Iran and Britain later agreed that the United Nations Secretary General would judge the political situation in Bahrain. In a Plebiscite to decide the country's future, the majority of the people of Bahrain chose to reject Iran's claims, and to define their country and their culture to be Arabic, and not Persian.


title: Bahrain

text: Oil was found in the early 20th century and brought modern improvements to the country. Relations with the United Kingdom also became closer, and the British brought more military bases to the nation. British influence grew, until Charles Belgrave became an advisor; Belgrave brought modern education to Bahrain.


title: Bahrain

text: After World War II, anti-British feeling spread through the Arab world and led to riots in Bahrain. The British left Bahrain in 1971, making it an independent country. The sales of more oil in the 1980s brought money to Bahrain, but even when the sales of oil decreased in later years, it did not cause as many problems in Bahrain as in other oil countries, because the economy of Bahrain had grown into other areas.


title: Bahrain

text: In 1973 the election of first parliament was done but the government stopped & dissociate the parliament in 1975 which result in strong protests by the Bahraini opposition (Moderate Islamic & non-Islamist opposition).


title: Bahrain

text: In 1994, many highly educated Bahraini people signed a letter to Prince of Bahrain at that time Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa


title: Bahrain

text: to re-establish the parliament life which is strongly refused & the leader of the opposition at that time Sheikh Abdulamir Aljamri was jailed then a huge protest & conflicts occurs between Bahraini nation & the armed forces.


title: Bahrain

text: In 1999, Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa followed his father as head of state and called for elections for parliament to resolve the congestion that occurred over that last period. The women were given the right to vote and the new ruler released all political prisoners in 2001.


title: Bahrain

text: In 2002 the King released a new constitution without any voting from the nation & canceled 1973 constitution which caused strong refuse from the most of nation parties & opposition.


title: Bahrain

text: The situations became worse later & some of political activists were jailed like Abdulhadi Al-Khuwajah, Hasan Mushaima.


title: Bahrain

text: Many political websites that refused these changes were blocked like Bahrain online forum (the most popular website in Bahrain): www.bahrainonline.org Until 2009 there were many riots & conflicts especially from Shia group which faces a huge organized discrimination according to Human Rights Watch & US Congress.


title: Bahrain

text: Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the King, Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. The head of government is the Prime Minister, which is currently held by Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. Shaikh Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was the country's first prime minister from 1971 until his death in 2020. The prime minister has a cabinet of 15 members.


title: Bahrain

text: Bahrain has a bicameral legislature with a lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, elected by all of the people and the upper house, the Shura Council, appointed by the King. Both houses have forty members. The first elections were held in 2002, with Members of Parliament serving four year terms.


title: Bahrain

text: Women were given the right to vote and stand in national elections for the first time in 2002's election, but no women were elected to office that year, and Shia and Sunni Islamists won a majority of seats. Because no women were elected, six were appointed to the Shura Council, which also includes members of the Kingdom’s Jewish and Christian people.


title: Bahrain

text: The King recently created the Supreme Judicial Council to organise the country's courts and the government offices.


title: Bahrain

text: Bahrain is split into five governorates. Until July 3 2003, it was divided into twelve municipalities.


title: Bahrain

text: For further information, see: Decree-Law establishing governorates from the Bahrain official website.


title: Bahrain

text: In Bahrain, petroleum (oil product) producing and processing is about 60% of the money from export, 60% of government money, and 30% of Gross Domestic Product. The economy has changed as the sales of oil have changed since 1985, for example, during and after the Persian Gulf War of 1990 - 1991. Bahrain has high quality communications and transport, and so the country is home to many international companies with business in the Persian Gulf. A large part of the country's income comes from petroleum products made from imported crude oil. There are several major industrial projects being built. Unemployment, especially among young people, and the decrease of both oil and water resources are major economic problems.


title: Bahrain

text: Bahrain is a flat and dry archipelago, with a low desert plain rising gently to a low central hill, in the Arabian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia. The highest point is the 122 meter Jabal ad Dukhan ("Mountain of Smoke").


title: Bahrain

text: Bahrain has a total area of 620 km², which is a few square kilometres larger than the Isle of Man. As an archipelago of 33 islands, Bahrain does not share a land border with any other country, but it does have a 161 km coast line and claims a further 12 nm of territorial sea and a 24 nm contiguous zone. Bahrain enjoys mild winters and has very hot, humid summers.


title: Bahrain

text: Bahrain's natural resources include large amounts of oil natural gas as well as fish. Only 1% of the country includes land where crops can be grown. 92% of Bahrain is desert, and droughts and dust storms are the main natural dangers.


title: Bahrain

text: Environmental problems in Bahrain include desertification, which is causing the land where crops can be grown to decrease, and damage to coast lines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation caused by oil spills from large tankers and oil refineries.


title: Bahrain

text: The official religion of Bahrain is Islam; most of the people are Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, but there are also small Jewish and Christian minorities. Most Bahrainis are Arabs, although some tribes came from Persia. Today, many of the people in Bahrain are guest workers who come from Iran, South Asia and Southeast Asia. A "Financial Times" article from 31 May 1983 found that "Bahrain is a polyglot (speaking many languages) state, both religiously and racially. Leaving aside the temporary immigrants of the past 10 years, there are at least eight or nine communities (groups of people) on the island".


title: Bahrain

text: The present communities may be classified as Al-Khalifa, Arab tribes allied to Al-Khalifa, the Baharnah (Shia Arabs), the Howilla (Sunni Arabs from Persia), Sunni Arabs (from the mainland), Ajam (Persian Shia), Indians who traded with Bahrain and settled before the age of oil (used to be called Banyan), a tiny Jewish community, and a group which contains everyone else.


title: Bahrain

text: Manama, Bahrain's capital city, is as modern as other cities in the world. But life in the island's many villages (and in parts of Manama itself) remains traditional. Where there is tradition in the Persian Gulf area, there is Islamic conservatism: women cover themselves from head to foot and women travellers are expected to wear long skirts and one-piece bathing suits. Bahrain's population is 85% Muslim and Islam is the state religion. Arabic is the official language, but many people speak English.


title: Bahrain

text: Traditional folk art continues in several places around Bahrain: dhows (fishing boats) are built near Manama and Muharraq, cloth is made at Bani Jamrah and pottery is made at A'ali. A few goldsmiths still work in the Manama souk, though much of the work is now done in other countries. One of the important parts of Bahraini culture is the drinking of traditional Arabian coffee. Traditional Arabian street food like shawarma (lamb or chicken cut from a large spit and served in pita bread) and desserts such as baklava are also found.


title: Pregnancy

text: Pregnancy is when a woman or female mammal has an unborn baby inside her. During pregnancy, a female is called "pregnant". A human pregnancy is about 38 weeks long, from conception to childbirth. Usually the mother has one baby at a time. Sometimes the mother has two babies at one time. Two babies are called twins. The mother can have three or more babies at one time. This does not happen very often in humans.


title: Pregnancy

text: Pregnancy usually starts after a woman has sexual intercourse with a man. Her ovum (or egg) and his sperm (seed) come together and form a zygote (fertilized egg) inside her.


title: Pregnancy

text: Some people have trouble becoming pregnant. This is called "infertility". Women and men with infertility may take drugs or have surgery to help a pregnancy start. Some people use treatments that are not natural, like in vitro fertilization, to become pregnant with the help of a doctor.


title: Pregnancy

text: When the woman's egg and the man's seed come together, it makes one cell called a "zygote". The zygote grows into an embryo, which grows into a fetus. When the fetus is ready, the baby is born.


title: Pregnancy

text: Human pregnancy is divided into three parts called "trimesters". A trimester is about three months long. During the first trimester, the woman might feel ill in her stomach. She might have to urinate often. During the second trimester, the woman's abdomen starts to stick out. During the third trimester, her abdomen sticks out even more, and she becomes even heavier.


title: Pregnancy

text: At the end of a full pregnancy, the woman's body pushes the baby out through her vagina. This is called "delivering a baby" or "giving birth". Mothers can get help for birth from a midwife, nurse, or doctor. In some places, mothers give birth at home. In other places, mothers give birth in a hospital. Mothers who are ill or hurt may need to go to a hospital.


title: Pregnancy

text: Giving birth can hurt a lot at the end. In hospitals, a doctor or midwife can give drugs to the mother to reduce the pain.


title: Pregnancy

text: If the baby cannot be pushed out, then a doctor can cut the mother open to take the baby out. This operation is called a Caesarean section.


title: Pregnancy

text: The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women says that pregnant women must be given time away from work or equal welfare for her baby without losing her job (Article 11).


title: Pregnancy

text: Sometimes there are problems with pregnancies. A miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) is when the baby dies before it is born. A stillbirth is when the baby is dead when it is born. There are also diseases caused by pregnancy.


title: Pregnancy

text: Sometimes, women die from giving birth. In developed countries, this is much less common than it used to be. Every year, about 500,000 women die from giving birth, while about 7,000,000 mothers have big problems from giving birth. For example, giving birth can tear the mother's body and cause an obstetric fistula.


title: Pregnancy

text: A pregnancy can also stop without the baby being born. This is called abortion. Doctors can do things that will stop a pregnancy. Such an abortion is called "induced abortion". Countries have different laws about induced abortions. Some countries allow it, and others do not. In some countries, it is allowed, but only for certain reasons, such as the pregnancy resulting from rape, or a doctor saying that the pregnant woman might die if the pregnancy is not stopped. People also have different opinions about abortion. Often, these are influenced by religious beliefs.


title: Pregnancy

text: There are a few diseases that can kill a woman or make her very ill if she has a baby. Having abortions could save the lives or health of these mothers.


title: Pregnancy

text: A pregnancy test is something that women use to tell whether they are pregnant. The woman urinates on the stick. If the woman is pregnant, a plus sign or two lines will appear on the stick. If the woman is not pregnant, then a minus sign or one line will appear on the stick.


title: Elisabeth of Bavaria

text: Duchess Elisabeth of Bavaria (December 24, 1837 - September 10, 1898) was the wife of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.


title: Elisabeth of Bavaria

text: Elisabeth was born in Munich, Bavaria state in Germany. She was part of the royal family of Wittelsbach. She was the fourth of the ten children of Prince Maximilian of Bavaria and his wife Princess Ludovika. She was known as "Sisi". She grew up with her brothers and sisters at Possenhofen Castle. In August 1853, she went to Bad Ischl with her mother and older sister Helene, to celebrate Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph's 23rd birthday. The event was also supposed to be the occasion to announce his engagement to Helene. However, Franz Joseph liked the young and beautiful Elisabeth so much that he proposed to her instead.


title: Elisabeth of Bavaria

text: Elisabeth and Franz Joseph were married in great pomp in Vienna on April 24, 1854. Elisabeth had an informal upbringing, before marrying Franz Joseph. She disliked the much more formal life she had to live at court. Early in the marriage, her mother-in-law, Princess Sophie, took over the care of Elisabeth's daughters. One daughter died when she was a baby. The birth of her son Rudolf improved her standing at court. Her health suffered under the stress of the court life. She had four children: Sophie (1855-1857), Gisele (1856-1932), Rudolf (1858-1889) and Valerie (1868-1924).


title: Elisabeth of Bavaria

text: Franz Joseph and Elisabeth became King and Queen of Hungary in 1867, when the two countries joined together and created the Austro-Hungarian Empire.


title: Elisabeth of Bavaria

text: Elisabeth suffered from lung disease and melancholia. She disliked the strict etiquette of the court. She was often away and lived long periods of time abroad, notably in Hungary and at her villa in Corfu.


title: Elisabeth of Bavaria

text: Her only son, Rudolf, committed suicide in 1889, after killing his young mistress Marie Vetsera. Empress Elisabeth was assassinated by an Italian anarchist in 1898, while on a visit to Geneva.


title: Elisabeth of Bavaria

text: She has since become something of an historical icon and highly romantic figure, through a series of movies called "Sisi" in the 1950s. The movies starred actress Romy Schneider.


title: Science fiction

text: Science fiction (often shortened to sci-fi or SF) is the type genre of speculative fiction which deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, interstellar travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. It has been called the "literature of ideas", and it often explores the potential consequences of scientific, social, and technological innovations. Science fiction stories can be novels, movies, TV shows, video games, comic books and other literature.


title: Science fiction

text: SF is often about the future. It can be about imaginary new science and inventions such as spaceships, aliens, and robots. Science fiction stories are often in a world that is very different from the real world. They can have science and tools that do not exist in reality. Science fiction stories often take place on other worlds. There are often alien creatures.


title: Science fiction

text: Science fiction is drastically different from fantasy. Fantasy stories often have magic and other things that do not exist and are not science. Isaac Asimov was a famous science fiction writer. He once said that science fiction is possible, but fantasy is not.


title: Science fiction

text: Writers often use SF to explain everyday questions or problems by putting them in the future. Usually they invent a very different world to help people notice important ideas.


title: Science fiction

text: Science fiction changes over time. Some authors wrote SF books before this type of writing had a name. These writers and books were not called science fiction when they were published. But, they are often called science fiction today.


title: Science fiction

text: Two broad genres of science fiction are Hard SF and Soft SF. Although not everyone agrees on the exact definitions of these two types, the way they use science or the type of science used in the stories is different.


title: Science fiction

text: Hard science fiction, or "hard SF", is special because it uses true facts and theories from sciences. These sciences are very important in Hard SF: physics, astrophysics, and chemistry. Also, Hard SF can show worlds that more advanced technology may make possible. Many correct predictions of the future come from the hard science fiction subgenre. However, there have been many incorrect ideas about the future, too. Some hard SF writers have also worked as professional scientists. A few of these scientist/writers are Gregory Benford and Geoffrey A. Landis, while mathematician authors include Rudy Rucker and Vernor Vinge. Other noteworthy hard SF authors include Arthur C. Clarke, Hal Clement, Isaac Asimov, Greg Bear, Stanislav Lem, Larry Niven, Robert J. Sawyer, Stephen Baxter, Alastair Reynolds, Charles Sheffield, and Greg Egan.


title: Science fiction

text: Soft science fiction stories take ideas from social sciences such as psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology. Some important writers in this category include Ursula K. Le Guin and Philip K. Dick. Soft SF can be mostly about character and emotion. Ray Bradbury won a prize called the SFWA Grand Master and writes in this style. The Soviet Union produced social science fiction too. Some examples are Strugatsky brothers, Kir Bulychov and Ivan Yefremov.


title: Science fiction

text: Some Social SF and Soft SF can be types of speculative fiction, for example utopian or dystopian stories. George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four", Aldous Huxley's "Brave New World" and Margaret Atwood's "The Handmaid's Tale", are examples. Some people think that satirical novels in fantastic settings (places) such as "Gulliver's Travels" by Jonathan Swift are speculative fiction.


title: Science fiction

text: Within Hard or Soft SF, there are different types, or subgenres, of science fiction. Each subgenre is a group of stories that uses similar ideas or styles of story-telling. Publishing companies and critics put works of SF into different subgenres to help describe the work to help readers choose which books to read or movies to watch. Assigning genres is not simple. Some stories can be in two or more genres at the same time. Other stories may not fit any genre.


title: Science fiction

text: In Alternate (or alternative) history stories, writers imagine how the past might have been different. These stories may use time travel to change the past. Some set a story in a universe with a different history from our own. These are some important alternate history books:


title: Science fiction

text: The Sidewise Award is for the best works in this subgenre. The name Sidewise is taken from Murray Leinster's 1934 story "Sidewise in Time." Harry Turtledove is one of the most famous writers in the subgenre. He is often called the "master of alternate history".


title: Science fiction

text: Apocalyptic fiction is about the end of civilization. There are several types: through war ("On The Beach"), pandemic ("The Last Man"), astronomic impact ("When Worlds Collide"), ecological disaster ("The Wind From Nowhere"), or mankind's self-destruction ("Oryx and Crake"), or some other general disaster. Apocalyptic SF may also be about world or civilization after a disaster.


title: Science fiction

text: Cyberpunk began in the early 1980s. Bruce Bethke used this word as the title for a short story in 1980 by putting together two words: "cybernetics" and "punk". Soon, people used this word to describe William Gibson's book, "Neuromancer". Cyberpunk authors can put their stories in different settings. Stories usually take place in the near-future and the settings are often dystopian (characterized by misery). These are often societies with very advanced technology. A few huge corporations usually control the society. Another early cyberpunk novel that has become a classic is "Snow Crash" by Neal Stephenson.


title: Science fiction

text: Military science fiction stories happen during wars. These wars can be between different countries, different planets, or between different species. The stories are told by characters who are soldiers. They include detail about military technology, rules, and history. Some Military SF may be similar to real historical conflicts. Heinlein's "Starship Troopers" is an early example. Another is the Dorsai novels of Gordon Dickson. Joe Haldeman's "The Forever War" is a response to the World War II–style stories of earlier military SF authors. Haldeman was a soldier in the Vietnam War. Important military SF authors include John Ringo, David Drake, David Weber, and S. M. Stirling. Baen Books is known for cultivating military science fiction authors.


title: Science fiction

text: Maritime science fiction is science fiction that features a maritime or marine environment and technology and/or marine lifeforms mixed with science fiction. The probably earliest form of maritime science fiction literature is "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea".


title: Science fiction

text: Superhuman stories are about humans who get special abilities that are not normal. Maybe the new powers come from nature. Two examples of this type are Olaf Stapledon's novel "Odd John" and Theodore Sturgeon's "More Than Human". Sometimes scientists give people special powers on purpose. one example is A.E. van Vogt's novel "Slan". Frederik Pohl's novel "Man Plus" is another good example from this category. In that book, government scientists make a man into a powerful cyborg (part human, part machine).


title: Science fiction

text: These stories usually have two main points. One is the feeling of loneliness and separation that these superhuman people feel. The other is society's reaction to them.


title: Science fiction

text: Space opera is adventure science fiction in outer space or on distant planets. Action is more important than the science or characters. There is usually a strong hero and a very big conflict. The action often moves to many different places. Edward E. (Doc) Smith was an early Space opera writer. "Flash Gordon" and "Star Wars" are also popular examples.


title: Science fiction

text: Space western takes ideas from books and movies about exploring the American Old West and moves them to space in the future. These stories are often on "frontier" colony worlds (colonies that have only recently been terraformed and/or settled) serving as stand-ins for the backdrop of lawlessness and economic expansion that were predominant in the American west. Some examples are "Firefly" and the movie "Serenity" by Joss Whedon. Anime programs like "Cowboy Bebop" and "Outlaw Star" are also Space Westerns. Han Solo from "Star Wars" is an important Space Western character.


title: Science fiction

text: The first important time travel novel was Mark Twain's "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court". The most famous is H. G. Wells's 1895 novel "The Time Machine". Well's book uses a machine that allows an operator to travel to an exact time. Twain's time traveler is struck in the head and wakes up in the past. The term ""time machine"" was invented by Wells. Now it is the name for any vehicle that can take a rider to another time. Ray Bradbury's 1952 short story called "A Sound of Thunder" is a more recent and very famous example of this genre. Time travel stories can be complicated. They have logical problems such as the grandfather paradox. Time travel is a popular subject in modern science fiction, in print, movies, and television.


title: Science fiction

text: Science fiction fandom is the "community of the literature of ideas... the culture in which new ideas emerge and grow before being released into society at large". Members of this community, "fans", are in contact with each other at conventions or clubs, through print or online fanzines, or on the Internet using web sites, mailing lists, and other resources.


title: Science fiction

text: SF fandom emerged from the letters column in "Amazing Stories" magazine. Soon fans began writing letters to each other, and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines. Once they were in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other, and they organized local clubs. In the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area. Conventions, clubs, and fanzines were the main fan activities, or "fanac", for decades, until the Internet improved communication among a much larger population of interested people.


title: Science fiction

text: There are two very important science fiction awards: the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award. The Hugo is presented by the World Science Fiction Society at Worldcon each year. The Nebula is presented by SFWA and voted on by the community of authors. One important award for science fiction movies is the Saturn Award. The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror movies gives this award each year..


title: Science fiction

text: There are national awards, like Canada's Aurora Award and the UK Arthur C. Clarke Award, regional awards, like the Endeavour Award presented at Orycon for works from the Pacific Northwest, special interest or subgenre awards like the Chesley Award for art or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the Locus Award.


title: Science fiction

text: Conventions (in fandom, shortened as "cons"), are held in cities around the world, catering to a local, regional, national, or international membership. General-interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest like media fandom, filking, etc. Most are organized by volunteers in non-profit groups, though most media-oriented events are organized by commercial promoters. The convention's activities are called the "program", which may include panel discussions, readings, autograph sessions, costume masquerades, and other events. Activities that occur throughout the convention are not part of the program; these commonly include a dealer's room, art show, and hospitality lounge (or "con suites").


title: Science fiction

text: Conventions may host award ceremonies. Worldcons present the Hugo Awards each year. SF societies are a year-round base of activities for science fiction fans. They may be associated with an ongoing science fiction convention, or have regular club meetings, or both. Most groups meet in libraries, schools and universities, community centers, pubs or restaurants, or the homes of individual members. Long-established groups like the New England Science Fiction Association and the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society have clubhouses for meetings and storage of convention supplies and research materials.


title: Science fiction

text: The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) was founded by Damon Knight in 1965 as a non-profit organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors, 24 years after his essay "Unite or Fie!" had led to the organization of the National Fantasy Fan Federation. Fandom has helped support related groups as they started to form, including media fandom, the Society for Creative Anachronism, gaming, filking, and furry fandom.


title: Science fiction

text: The first science fiction fanzine, "The Comet", was published in 1930. Fanzine printing methods have changed over the decades, from the mimeograph and the ditto machine, to modern photocopying. The number of copies was usually not enough to use commercial printing. Modern fanzines are printed on computer printers or at local copy shops, or they may only be sent as email. The best known fanzine (or "'zine") today is "Ansible". David Langford is the editor and it has won several Hugo awards. Artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy Harvia, and Joe Mayhew; the Hugos include a category for Best Fan Artists. The earliest organized fandom online was the SF Lovers community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text archive file that was updated regularly. In the 1980s, Usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. In the 1990s, the development of the World-Wide Web made the online fan community much, much larger. Fans created thousands and then millions of web sites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media. Most of these websites are small, ephemeral, or about very specific topics. Though sites like SF Site and Read and Find Out give readers a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction.


title: Science fiction

text: Fan fiction is non-commercial fiction created by people who love an SF story or world. Fans write stories that take place in the setting of an established book, movie, or television series. Some people call it "fanfic". In some cases, the copyright owners of the books, movies, or television series have instructed their lawyers to issue "cease and desist" letters to fans.


title: Millennium

text: A millennium (plural: "millennia") is a time period of one thousand (1000) years. The word "millennium" is derived from two Latin words "mille" ("thousand") and annum ("year").


title: Ayatollah Khomeini

text: Ayatollah Khomeini was born Sayyed Ruhollah Mustafavi Khomeini, 17 May 1900 in Khomein, Central Iran (then Persia), – 3 June 1989 in Tehran) (Persian: روح الله موسوی خمینی). He was also known as 'Imam Khomeini'. Khomein was the political leader of the Islamic Revolution in 1979 and the Iran–Iraq War from 1980-1989.


title: Ayatollah Khomeini

text: Khomeini was also a poet. His poems are collected together in an "Imam Divan". Khomeini died of intestinal cancer and a heart attack on June 3, 1989, in Tehran at the age of 89.


title: Ayatollah Khomeini

text: On June 5, 1964, Khomeini was arrested and sent into exile (kicked from his country). He was exiled to Iraq, Turkey and then to France. Khomeini gave many speeches in France against Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran. On January 16, 1979, Pahlavi left Iran. Two weeks later, on February 1, Khomeini returned to Iran with the support of Jimmy Carter and Margaret Thatcher. Both Carter and Thatcher are Founders of the Islamic Republic of Iran and never owned up to the problems they have caused.


title: Ayatollah Khomeini

text: He received a traditional religious education in Qom (city in Iran). When he lived in Najaf (a holy city in Iraq) for some years, he spoke about Islam ideas about Government. During that time, he refined his theory of "velayat-e faqih" ("government of the jurist").


title: Ayatollah Khomeini

text: On February 11, 1979, Khomeini appointed his first own prime minister, Medhi Bazargan. On March 30, 1979 a referendum took place in Iran and as a result, the monarchy was replaced with an Islamic Republic. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini became Supreme Leader of Iran.


title: Ayatollah Khomeini

text: In early 1989 Khomeini issued a fatwā calling for muslims to kill Salman Rushdie and "all those involved in the publication" of his book called "The Satanic Verses". Rushdie has never been killed. However the Japanese translator of the book was stabbed to death in 1991.


title: Graham's number

text: Graham's number ("G") is a very big natural number that was defined by a man named Ronald Graham. Graham was solving a problem in an area of mathematics called Ramsey theory. He proved that the answer to his problem was smaller than Graham's number.


title: Graham's number

text: Graham's number is one of the biggest numbers ever used in a mathematical proof. Even if every digit in Graham's number were written in the tiniest writing possible, it would still be too big to fit in the observable universe.


title: Graham's number

text: It turns out that for this simple problem, the answer is "yes" when we have 6 or more points, no matter how the lines are colored. But when we have 5 points or fewer, we can color the lines so that the answer is "no".


title: Graham's number

text: By asking that the 4 points lie on a plane, we have made the problem much harder. We would like to know: for what values of "n" is the answer "no" (for some way of coloring the lines), and for what values of "n" is it "yes" (for all ways of coloring the lines)? But this problem has not been completely solved yet.


title: Graham's number

text: In 1971, Ronald Graham and B. L. Rothschild found a partial answer to this problem. They showed that for "n"=6, the answer is "no". But when "n" is very large, as large as Graham's number or larger, the answer is "yes".


title: Graham's number

text: One of the reasons this partial answer is important is that it means that the answer is eventually "yes" for at least some large "n". Before 1971, we didn't know even that much.


title: Graham's number

text: There is a much smaller limit for the same problem called N. It is equal to formula_1, where formula_2. This weaker upper bound for the problem, attributed to an unpublished work of Graham, was eventually published and named by Martin Gardner in Scientific American in November 1977.


title: Graham's number

text: Graham's number is not only too big to write down all of its digits, it is too big even to write in scientific notation. In order to be able to write it down, we have to use Knuth's up-arrow notation.


title: Graham's number

text: We will write down a sequence of numbers that we will call g1, g2, g3, and so on. Each one will be used in an equation to find the next. g64 is Graham's number.


title: Graham's number

text: After that, the graham grahal (g2) is equal to formula_18; the number of arrows in this number is g1.


title: Graham's number

text: We keep going in this way. We stop when we define g64 to be formula_19, where the number of arrows is g63.


title: English Wikipedia

text: The English Wikipedia is the English language edition of the Wikipedia online encyclopedia. English is the first language in which Wikipedia was written. It was started on 15 January 2001. It is the largest encyclopedia in the world, and the largest version of Wikipedia since April 2019. It has articles as of . In October 2015, the total volume of the compressed texts of the English Wikipedia's articles added up to 11.5 gigabytes.


title: English Wikipedia

text: The Simple English Wikipedia is a variation in which most of the articles use only basic English vocabulary (simplewiki). There is also the Old English (Ænglisc/Anglo-Saxon) Wikipedia (). It has a newsletter called The Signpost.


title: English Wikipedia

text: As the English Wikipedia is very popular, there can be many people editing the wiki in one minute. This made less effective for understanding changes. Instead, editors can select and watch for changes in particular articles, using the "watchlist" feature of MediaWiki. Both watchlist and recent changes can be filtered to show particular kinds of edits, such as edits from IP addresses or edits that may possibly be vandalism. Some editors use special software to detect and fix vandalism.


title: English Wikipedia

text: Some people think that the English Language Wikipedia shows bias and unfairness. Editors of reference works such as the "Encyclopædia Britannica" have questioned Wikipedia's utility and status as an encyclopedia. An example of bias is that around 90% of Wikipedia editors are male. Other people think that Wikipedia is more useful than other encyclopedias because it is large and can be updated quickly.


title: English Wikipedia

text: In 2012, the logo of the English Wikipedia like most Wikipedias was slightly changed. However, some Wikipedias, like the Simple English Wikipedia, still kept the old logo.


title: River system

text: A river system is sometimes called a drainage system. It is the whole natural water system in a drainage basin.


title: River system

text: Water in a drainage basin usually ends up in the sea, but there are places where the water just evaporates, or flows into an inland lake. Lake Chad, for example, is an example of an endorheic lake, which has no outlet to the sea.


title: River system

text: Rivers are an important feature of most landscapes, acting as the principal mechanism for the transport of weathered debris away from upland areas and carrying it to lakes and seas, where much of the classic sediment is deposited. River systems can also be deposition, accumulating sediment within channels and on floodplains.


title: River system

text: Water flow in rivers and streams is normally confined to channels, which are depressions or scours in the land surface that contain the flow. The floodplain is the land that is covered when the river is in flood. Together the channel and over bank settings comprise the "fluvial environment". There are main three types of river system . The upper course ,the lower course and middle course


title: Shah Jahan

text: Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592  – 22 January 1666) better known by his regnal name "Shah Jahan" Persian: "King of the World" was Mughal emperor in India from 1628 until 1658. He was the fifth ruler of the Mughal dynasty.


title: Shah Jahan

text: The period of his reign is considered as the golden age of Mughal art and architecture. Shah Jahan is best known for erecting many splendid monuments, the most famous of which in all the world, is the Taj Mahal at Agra, built in 1632–1648 as a tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal.


title: Shah Jahan

text: Akbarabadi Mahal, Kandahari Mahal, (most beloved wife) Mumtaz Mahal, Hasina Begum Sahiba, Muti Begum Sahiba, Qudsia Begum Sahiba, Fatehpuri Mahal Sahiba, Sarhindi Begum Sahiba and Shrimati Manbhavathi Baiji Lal Sahiba were the wives of Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan killed Mumtaz's husband to marry her. Mumtaz died during her 14th delivery. After her death, Shah Jahan married Mumtaz's sister.


title: Shah Jahan

text: Shah Jahan (also known as Prince Khurram) was born on 5 January 1592 at Lahore, Pakistan, and was the third son of Prince Salim (later known as 'Jahangir' upon his accession). His mother was a Rajput princess from Marwar called the Princess Jagat Gosaini (her official name in Mughal chronicles was Bilqis Makani). The name "Khurram" ("joyous") was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, Emperor Akbar, with whom the young prince was close in relation.


title: Shah Jahan

text: Just prior to Shah Jahan's birth, a soothsayer had reportedly predicted to the childless Empress Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, Akbar's first wife and chief consort, that the still unborn child was destined for imperial greatness. So, when Shah Jahan was born in 1592 and was only six days old, Akbar ordered that the prince be taken away from his mother and handed him over to Ruqaiya so that he could grow up under her care, and Akbar could fulfill his wife's wish to raise a Mughal emperor. Ruqaiya assumed the primary responsibility for Shah Jahan's upbringing and he grew up under her care. The two shared a close relationship with each other as Salim noted in his memoirs that Ruqaiya had loved his son [Shah Jahan ], "a thousand times more than if he had been her own [son]."


title: Shah Jahan

text: Shah Jahan remained with her [Ruqaiya] until he had turned almost 14. After Akbar's death in 1605, the young prince [Khurram] was allowed to return to his father's household, and thus, be closer to his biological mother.


title: Shah Jahan

text: As a child, Shah Jahan received a broad education befitting his status as a Mughal prince, which included martial training and exposure to a wide variety of cultural arts, such as poetry and music, most of which was inculcated, according to court chroniclers, by Akbar and Ruqaiya. In 1605, as Akbar lay on his deathbed,Shah Jahan, who at this point was 13, remained by his bedside and refused to move even after his mother tried to retrieve him. Given the politically uncertain times immediately preceding Akbar's death, Shah Jahan was in a fair amount of physical danger of harm by political opponents of his father, and his conduct at this time can be understood as a precursor to the bravery that he would later be known for,he was also well known for his intelligent brain and creative ideas.


title: Shah Jahan

text:
Punjab 1608-1611
Deccan 1611–1612
Bihar 1613–1614
Gujarat 1614–1618
Delhi 1623–1627
Bengal 1624–1625
Bihar 1625–1627


title: Shah Jahan

text: Shah Jahan leading the Mughal Army, in the upper left War elephantsbear emblems of the legendary Zulfiqar.


title: Shah Jahan

text: Shah Jahan was more radical in his thinking than his father and grandfather. Upon his accession, he adopted new policies which reversed Akbar's treatment of non-Muslims. In 1633, his sixth regnal year, Shah Jahan began to impose his interpretation of Sharia provisions against construction or repair of churches and temples and subsequently ordered the demolitions of newly built Hindu temples. He celebrated Islamic festivals with great pomp and grandeur and with an enthusiasm unfamiliar to his predecessors. Long-dormant royal interest in the Holy Cities was also revived during his reign.


title: Cro-Magnon

text: The earliest known Cro-Magnon remains are between 35,000 and 45,000 years old, based on radiometric dating. The oldest remains, from 43,000 45,000 years ago, were found in Italy and Britain. Other remains also show that Cro-Magnons reached the Russian Arctic about 40,000 years ago.


title: Cro-Magnon

text: Cro-Magnons had powerful bodies, which were usually heavy and solid with strong muscles. Unlike Neanderthals, which had slanted foreheads, the Cro-Magnons had straight foreheads, like modern humans. Their faces were short and wide with a large chin. Their brains were slightly larger than the average human's is today.


title: Cro-Magnon

text: The name "Cro-Magnon" was created by Louis Lartet, who discovered the first Cro-Magnon skull in southwestern France in 1868. He called the place where he found the skull "Abri de Cro-Magnon." "Abri" means "rock shelter" in French; "cro" means "hole" in the Occitan language; and "Magnon" was the name of the person who owned the land where Lartet found the skull. Basically, Cro-Magnon means "rock shelter in a hole on Magnon's land."


title: Cro-Magnon

text: This is why scientists now use the term "European early modern humans" instead of "Cro-Magnons." In taxonomy, the term "Cro-Magnon" means nothing.


title: Cro-Magnon

text: Like most early humans, the Cro-Magnons mostly hunted large animals. For example, they killed mammoths, cave bears, horses, and reindeer for food. They hunted with spears, javelins, and spear-throwers. They also ate fruits from plants.


title: Cro-Magnon

text: The Cro-Magnons were nomadic or semi-nomadic. This means that instead of living in just one place, they followed the migration of the animals they wanted to hunt. They may have built hunting camps from mammoth bones; some of these camps were found in a village in Ukraine. They also made shelters from rocks, clay, tree branches, and animal skin (leather).


title: Species

text: A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used.


title: Species

text: All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves ("Canis lupus") are one species. Humans ("Homo sapiens") are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called "Felis catus". However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.


title: Species

text: Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case "Corvus". Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things.


title: Species

text: There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".


title: Species

text: There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.


title: Species

text: Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).


title: Species

text: It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.


title: Species

text: The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.


title: Species

text: According to the most recent estimate, there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.


title: Species

text: Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.


title: Kalinga War

text: The Kalinga War fought between the Mauryan Empire and the state of Kalinga, an important kingdom that controlled the trade routes with Southeast Asia. Ashoka, the Mauryan king, wanted to capture Kalinga and so his huge army there in 262 BC.


title: Kalinga War

text: According to Megasthenes, the Greek historian at the court of Chandragupta Maurya, the ruler of Kalinga had a powerful army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants. After the ear, 150,000 men and women were deported from Kalinga and forced to work in clearing the wasteland for future settlements, and they were forbidden from ever returning to their old homeland. The descendants of the Kalinga people migrated later to Sindh. From there, they migrated to Persia, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Europe. Their descendants might be the Roma of Europe.


title: Kalinga War

text: Although he won the war, Ashoka realized the futility of war. He saw the bloodshed and suffering of the soldiers' families and vowed never to fight again. He converted to Buddhism and he dedicated his later life to help his subjects. He stopped conquering after he won a war. He wrote inscriptions for wanting that his son and grandson also never to think about war. He decided to observe Dhamma, a common code of conduct and was also inspired by the teachings of Buddha. He sent many Buddhist scholars to distant lands to propagate Dharma. It is said that one lakh people died in this war. Many pillar and rock edicts were written on the guilt that he felt after seeing the bloodshed.


title: Charity (practice)

text: Charity is the act of giving help to those in need of it. It is a humanitarian act. It involves giving money, goods or time and effort to those who need it. It is done without expecting something in return. Giving money or food to poor people is an example of charity. Poor, sick or injured people are generally considered the proper people to whom charity should be given. When such people are not supported, they often begin begging, which is directly asking for help from people they do not know. Others may rely on support from charitable organizations. These organizations collect money and goods and then give them to those in need.


title: Charity (practice)

text: Most charities are concerned with providing basic needs, such as food, water, clothing, health care and shelter. The most common form of charity is donating money. The money is then used to buy these basic needs. However, there are many other actions that may be performed as charity, such as teaching orphans, donating blood, or money to help fund medical research.


title: Charity (practice)

text: Charitable giving can be a responsibility in many religions. This kind of charity is called almsgiving or alms. In Islam, for example, it is called "zakat". It is one of the five most important duties of being a Muslim.


title: Minnesota

text: Minnesota is a state in the Upper Midwest of the United States of America. Part of the state has a border with the country of Canada.


title: Minnesota

text: The capital of Minnesota is Saint Paul. The largest city is Minneapolis. Over 3 million people live in the two cities and the suburbs that surround it, which are separated by the Mississippi River. They are known as the Twin Cities.


title: Minnesota

text: Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858. It was the 32nd state in the United States of America. The name Minnesota is Dakota (a Native American language) for "sky-tinted water". Eagle Mountain is the highest point in Minnesota. The state bird is the Common Loon.


title: Minnesota

text: Minnesota has a humid continental climate. The winters in Minnesota are long and severe. Hence the state has a short growing season. During the summer, the south of the state is hot; the north is warm.


title: Country code top-level domain

text: A country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is an Internet top-level domain generally used or reserved for a country (a sovereign state or a dependent territory).


title: Alcoholic proof

text: Alcoholic proof is a measure of how much ethanol there is in an alcoholic drink. It is commonly used the world over, on the basis that 100 degrees proof is the equivalent of 50 % alcohol by volume (ABV or Alc/Vol). In the United States, it is double the percentage of ABV.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: This system was introduced in the 18th century. The British claim that this term has a nautical background. Every evening, sailors would line up for their daily quota of grog/rum. This had to first be proved to be as strong as promised and not watered down. The spirit was tested with gunpowder: a mixture of water and alcohol "proved" itself when it could be poured on a small amount of gunpowder and still light up the wet powder. If the powder did not ignite, the mixture had too much water in it and the grog was considered below proof. It might have happened earlier, as the Americans claim that this definition came about in the 17th century when European traders began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to American Indians. The very same process led to the nickname "firewater", this time given by Native Americans. There is no record of the finite strength of the distilled spirits in the context of its sale to or consumption by Native Americans.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: A "proven" solution was defined as 100 degrees proof (100°). People have found out that this takes 57.15% ethanol. This value is still used as the British definition. A simpler ratio to remember is "seven to four": 70° proof is 40% alcohol by volume.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: A hydrometer can be used to measure the precise proof of a spirit. This test has gone through many formal changes.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: The European Union member nations have broadly adopted the recommendation of the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) which measures percentage of alcohol by volume at 20 °C.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: In Britain, this replaced the Sikes hydrometer system (based on proof spirit) which was used since 1816, although officially the "Customs and Excise Act of 1952" defined "spirits of proof strength" (or proof spirits):


title: Alcoholic proof

text: Previously, Clarke's hydrometer had been used since the 1740s when Customs and Excise and London brewers and distillers began to use Clarke's hydrometer.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: In the definition of the United States, the proof number is twice the percentage of the alcohol content measured by volume at a temperature of 60°F (15.5°C). Therefore, "80 proof" is 40% alcohol by volume (most of the other 60% is water). If a 150 proof beverage is mixed half-and-half with water, the drink is 75 proof.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: US Federal regulation (CFR 27 5.37 Alcohol Content) requires that liquor labels state the percentage alcohol by volume (sometimes abbreviated ABV). The regulations permit (but do not require) a statement of the degrees proof as long as it is right next to the percentage alcohol by volume.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: Alcohol is produced by yeast during the process of fermentation. The other product of fermentation is carbon dioxide, which is the gas that can make beer bottles explode or blow their tops off. The amount of alcohol in the finished liquid depends on how much sugar there was at the beginning for the yeast to convert into alcohol. In beer, the alcohol is generally 3% to 12% (6 to 24 proof) and usually about 4% to 6% (8 to 12 proof). Depending on the strain of yeast, wines top out at about 14% to 16% (28 to 32 proof), because that is the point in the fermentation process where the alcohol concentration denatures the yeast. Since the 1990s, a few alcohol-tolerant 'superyeast' strains have become commercially available, which can ferment up to 20%.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: Very few microorganisms can live in alcoholic solutions. The main three are yeast, "Brettanomyces", and "Acetobacter". In what is essentially disinfection, yeast keeps multiplying as long as there is sugar to "eat", gradually increasing the alcoholic content of the solution and killing off all other microorganisms, and eventually themselves. There are "fortified" wines with a higher alcohol concentration than that because stronger alcohol has been mixed with them.


title: Alcoholic proof

text: Stronger liquors are distilled after fermentation is complete to separate the alcoholic liquid from the remains of the grain, fruit, or whatever it was made from. The idea of distillation is that a mixture of liquids is heated, the one with the lowest boiling point will evaporate (or "boil off") first, and then the one with the next lowest boiling point, and so on. The catch is that water and alcohol form a mixture (called an azeotrope) that has a lower boiling point than either one of them, so what distills off first is that mixture of 95% alcohol and 5% water. Thus a distilled liquor cannot be stronger than 95% (190 proof); there are other techniques for separating liquids that can produce 100% ethanol (or "absolute alcohol"), but they are used only for scientific or industrial purposes. 100% ethanol does not stay 100% for very long, because it is hygroscopic and absorbs water out of the atmosphere.


title: Picture

text: A picture, also called an image, is a group of coloured points on a flat surface that looks the same as something else. For example, a picture can look the same as an object or a person. Pictures can also be drawings, paintings or photographs. People who make such pictures are called artists, photographers or painters. Pictures are very helpful. Sometimes people say pictures are worth a thousand words. Pictures and diagrams can be used to explain how to do things, and thus a picture is a kind of tool. A moment captured in an image.


title: Picture

text: An image is something that can be seen, but it is not physically there. It can be a photograph, a painting, or a picture on a television or computer screen. A lens can make an image of an object appear somewhere else. Cameras use this to make the image that becomes a photograph.


title: Picture

text: Most pictures today are 'photographs'. Photographs are made with cameras. A camera makes a picture that looks very real.


title: Picture

text: When there were no cameras, people made pictures by using paint, brushes, pencils, crayons, pens, and other things that people can write or draw with. Pictures made with paint and brush are called 'paintings'. Before cameras, some artists were able to make very real looking pictures with just paint. Sometimes pictures made with pencil or pen are called 'sketches', if they are made quickly and only look a little bit like the real thing.


title: Picture

text: Usually pictures are put on paper. Pictures made with paint are usually put on a strong, rough fabric called 'canvas'. Sometimes pictures can be put on walls or other things, even glass.


title: Picture

text: Some places, such as churches have pictures on windows made out of colored pieces of glass. These are called "stained glass".


title: Picture

text: If people take a lot of pictures, and show them one at a time, very fast, they can make a picture that looks like it is moving. This is called a "moving picture", or a movie. A television shows people a moving picture by using light.


title: Picture

text: A slide show is a series of pictures arranged to tell a story, for example to illustrate a narrative.


title: Picture

text: A projector shines light from a light bulb through a kind of transparent picture. When light shines through this kind of picture onto a screen or another flat place, the picture can be seen on that flat place. This is often used to show movies and slide shows to an audience.


title: Picture

text: Some people make pictures that do not look flat, by taking two regular flat pictures at the same time. People have to move their eyes in a special way or use a stereoscope so they can see both pictures together. When they look at the pictures using their binocular vision correctly, the picture does not look flat. This is called '3D' or 'three dimensional'.


title: Kolkata

text: Kolkata (spelled Calcutta before 1 January 2001) is the capital city of the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the second largest city in India after Mumbai. It is on the east bank of the River Hooghly. When it is called Calcutta, it includes the suburbs. This makes it the third largest city of India. This also makes it the world's 8th largest metropolitan area as defined by the United Nations. Kolkata served as the capital of India during the British Raj until 1911. Kolkata was once the center of industry and education. However, it has witnessed political violence and economic problems since 1954. Since 2000, Kolkata has grown due to economic growth. Like other metropolitan cities in India, Kolkata struggles with poverty, pollution and traffic congestion.


title: Kolkata

text: The discovery of the nearby Chandraketugarh, an archaeological site has proved that people have lived there for over two millennia. The history of Kolkata begins when the English East India Company arrived in 1690. Job Charnock, an administrator with the company is traditionally known as the founder of this city. However some academics say that Charnock is not the city's founder.


title: Kolkata

text: At that time Kolkata, ruled by the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah, had three villages. They were Kalikata, Govindapur and Sutanuti. The British in the late 17th century wanted to build a fort near Govindapur. This was to become more powerful than Dutch, the Portuguese, and the French. In 1702, the British completed the construction of old Fort William, which was used to station its troops and as a regional base. Calcutta was declared a Presidency City, and later became the headquarters of the Bengal Presidency. When regular fights with French forces started, in 1756 the British began to upgrade their fortifications. When this was protested, the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah attacked and captured Fort William. This led to the infamous Black Hole incident. A force of Company sepoys and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the next year. Calcutta became the capital of British India in 1772. However, the capital shifted to the hilly town of Shimla during the summer months every year, starting from the year 1864. Richard Wellesley, the Governor General between 1797 and 1805, helped in the growth of the city and its public architecture. This led to the description of Calcutta as "The City of Palaces". The city was a centre of the British East India Company's opium trade during the 18th and 19th century; locally produced opium was sold at auction in Kolkata, to be shipped to China.


title: German language

text: German (German: "Deutsch") is a West Germanic language. It is spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg; natively by around 100 million people. It is the most widely spoken mother tongue in the first language. There are some people who speak German in Belgium, The Netherlands, France and Northern Italy. There are people who speak German in many countries, including the United States and Canada, where many people emigrated from Germany. It is also spoken in Eastern Europe, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia.


title: German language

text: German is a part of the West Germanic language family and is much like English and Dutch. Much of the vocabulary in German is related to English, but the grammar is more complicated.


title: German language

text: German has a system of cases, and when helping verbs are used, the main part of the verb must be moved to the end of the sentence. For example, "Someone has stolen my car" is "Jemand hat mein Auto gestohlen" ("Someone has my car stolen"), and "Someone called me last night" is "Jemand hat mich letzte Nacht angerufen" ("Someone has me last night called").


title: German language

text: In writing, every noun must start with a capital letter. German is the only language that still has that rule, but Danish and English did so a long time ago.


title: German language

text: Standard German is an official language in Switzerland, but the Swiss dialect of German is difficult to understand for native speakers from Germany and even for Swiss who are not native to speaking German. One reason that the dialects are still so different today is that even if Switzerland adopted Standard German, mostly as a written standard, German Swiss in World War II wanted to separate themselves from the Nazis by choosing to speak dialect over the Standard German.


title: German language

text: Swiss German also has some differences in spelling, for example, the letter "ß", which is used only in German, is replaced by "ss".


title: German language

text: German numbers are similar to their English counterparts. Like most languages, the German number system is based mainly on the first 10 numbers. They will pop up over and over throughout all the higher numbers.


title: President

text: A president is the leader of a country or a company or other group. A president is usually elected by the people in that group. Voting is one way to elect a president.


title: President

text: The President of the United States is elected by the electoral college. Some other countries choose a president this way. In some, the Parliament does it. Some countries have direct elections to choose a president. Many countries have a monarch instead of a president and some have neither.


title: President

text: Companies have presidents. They are elected by the people who own part of the company. In some companies, the people who are workers for the company elect (vote for) their company president.


title: President

text: The president of a country is not the same thing as a prime minister. A prime minister is part of a parliament, but a president is not. In some countries, (such as the United States or France), the president has more power and responsibility than anyone else. Such a president is often called the nation's chief executive. As chief executive, the president must take an active role in all phases of government. In other countries (such as India, Israel or the Republic of Ireland), to be president is more of an honor or a symbol, and the position has no real power. This kind of president is often called "head of state".


title: President

text: The American President is restricted by the written United States Constitution, which was written to make sure that the American executive never became as powerful as in the British system. The British Prime Minister is part of both the Legislature and Executive, whereas the American President is the head of the Executive. The American governmental system shows a clear separation of powers unlike the British system.


title: President

text: So despite having a large nuclear arsenal, the American president can not carry out policy and introduce legislation as freely as the British prime minister.


title: Industry

text: In economics, different kinds of manufacturing and services are broken down into groups called industries. The word comes from a Latin word meaning "working diligently at a task". There are many different industries, like mining, farming and logging. The industrial revolution made new industries.


title: Industry

text: An industry produces goods or services which are of a common set of qualities and which are indistinguishable (called homogeneous, in economics). It uses standardised processes for production, mass production and divison of labor.


title: Industry

text: Slavery, which is forcing people to make goods and services, has happened since ancient times throughout the world as a way to have low-cost production. It usually produces goods for which profit depends on economies of scale. International law has declared slavery illegal.


title: Industry

text: The industrial revolution (from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century) saw the development and popularization of using machines to make goods instead of using hands. The industrial revolution played a role in the abolition of slavery in Europe and in North America.


title: Amoeba

text: Amoeba (plural = amoebae) is a well known genus of unicellular organism, a protist. One of its most common species, the Amoeba Proteus, is about 0.2 to 0.3 mm large. The amoeba was first discovered by August Von Rosenhof in 1757. It is a genus of protozoa that moves with "false feet", called pseudopodia.


title: Amoeba

text: The amoeba is a member of a whole group of amoeboid eukaryotic protists called Amoebozoa. They are heterotrophs, eating bacteria and other protists.


title: Amoeba

text: The pseudopodia (false feet) are extensions of the organism's cell membrane. They are used by the amoeba for phagocytosis (active food/nutrient intake) and motility (self-propelled movement).


title: Amoeba

text: Amoebae are often found within freshwater, typically on vegetation in decay in still or slow moving water, or in the benthic zone of some lakes. However, they are common organisms of study because it is easy to keep them in a laboratory. They are used to study sex


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: The Bharatiya Janata Party (abbreviated BJP) is one of the two major political parties in India. (The second being the Indian National Congress). Since the Indian elections in 2014, the BJP has 303 of the 542 seats in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India and 78 of the 238 seats in Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India. Amit Shah is the national president of BJP since 2014.


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Deputy Prime Minister L. K. Advani founded the party in April 1980.


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: "Bharatiya" means "Indian" and "Janata" means "People". The BJP's political beliefs are similar to the beliefs of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: The history of the Bharatiya Janata Party starts with the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (abbreviated BJS). The BJS was a political party created by Syama Prasad Mookerjee in 1951. At that time, the Indian National Congress was the political party that ruled India. The BJS's goal was to stop the Indian National Congress's policies.


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: Many people thought the BJS was part of the RSS because they had the same ideologies on leading the Government of India.


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: The party's first election campaign was about Kashmir. Kashmir was an area divided between India and Pakistan(2393squareKm). The BJS wanted to make Kashmir a part of India. The party's founder, Mookerjee, was arrested for protesting in Kashmir, when he was ordered not to do so. He died in prison, so Deendayal Upadhyay became the party's leader.


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: Even though there was slight public support for the party because of the campaign about Kashmir, the BJS only managed to win three seats in the Lok Sabha in the 1952 elections.


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: In the 1967 Indian elections, many political parties, including the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, joined up together to win a majority of the seats of many Indian states, including Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh. This was the first time the BJS had held any political office. In 1977, after the end of a State of Emergency declared by the Congress Government, BJS joined with several other parties to form BJP.


title: Bharatiya Janata Party

text: In 1996 BJP became the largest party in Parliament. It did poorly in the 2004 elections and became the major opposition party. The 2014 elections gave BJP enough seats to form a government.


title: New Jersey

text: New Jersey is one of the 50 states of the United States of America. It is in the northeastern section of the country along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a geographically small state, shaped like a letter [S], and bordered on the west by Pennsylvania and Delaware across the Delaware River, on the north by New York, on the northeast by the Hudson River and New York City, on the east and southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the southwest by Delaware Bay.


title: New Jersey

text: The capital of New Jersey is Trenton and the largest city is Newark, though New Jersey is better known for bordering the large cities of New York City and Philadelphia. The state nickname is "The Garden State". The current governor is Phil Murphy.


title: New Jersey

text: New Jersey is the fourth smallest state, but has the eleventh highest number of people. It therefore has the highest population density (number of people for the amount of land) in the United States. New Jersey is also well known for its beaches, industries, swamps, and pine forests.


title: New Jersey

text: The climate is hot and humid summers and cold winters, with about of precipitation every year. The average temperature in the summer is between and , and in winter around 16 °F (-9 °C) to 34 °F (1 °C).


title: New Jersey

text: Before Europeans came, the land that is now New Jersey was inhabited by the Lenape (also known as Delaware Indians by the English), who were nomads, hunters, and farmers. The Dutch came to the northern area of the state in the 1630s, after Henry Hudson explored the area, thought it was a nice place, and claimed it for the Dutch. Towns quickly sprang up, occupied by the Dutch, Swedes, and Finns. People rushed in. The first towns, such as Bergen (now Jersey City), Trenton (the capitol), and Burlington developed. Many others started themselves upon the west bank of the Hudson. New Jersey was part of the area known at this time as New Netherland.


title: New Jersey

text: In 1664, the English took New Netherland from the Dutch and added it to their colonies. This part was renamed New Jersey after an island in the English Channel known as Jersey.


title: New Jersey

text: New Jersey took part in the American Revolutionary War, and was a scene of battles. On Christmas in 1776, George Washington's army entered New Jersey to attack British soldiers at Trenton and Princeton. The American army won, in two small but famous battles that were important in boosting American morale.


title: New Jersey

text: Later, the rebels drove the British residents out of Princeton and for a time established a national capital there. New Jersey was the third state to join the USA and the first to approve the Bill of Rights.


title: Chichen Itza

text: Chichen Itza was a large Mayan city by the Maya civilization. It is on the Yucatán Peninsula, about 120 km to the east of Mérida.


title: Chichen Itza

text: the temple of Kukultán, the Plumed Serpent . This is called El Castillo: in Spanish. It has four sides, and each side has 91 steps.It is one of the seven wonders of world.


title: Chichen Itza

text: There are many temples and pyramids in Chichen Itza. Tourists, or visitors, were once able to climb some of the pyramids, but it was quite challenging because the steps are very steep and small. Climbing is no longer permitted.


title: Chichen Itza

text: "Temple of the Warriors" is a big temple with hundreds of columns. The columns used to hold up the roof of the temple. These columns are carved on all four sides with figures of warriors wearing feathers.


title: Chichen Itza

text: "The Great Ballcourt" is the largest known ancient sports field in Central America. It is 545 feet in length and 225 feet in width. Each end has a raised temple area. The sounds in the ballcourt are remarkable: a whisper from one end can be clearly heard at the other.


title: Chichen Itza

text: "Sacred Cenote" (pronounced sen-O-tay): a cenote is an underground lake or river. This cenote is where royalty gave gifts to the gods.


title: Cillian Murphy

text: Cillian Murphy (born 25 May 1976) is an Irish movie and theatre actor. Murphy is known for his roles in Christopher Nolan movies such as Scarecrow in "The Dark Knight Trilogy" (2005–2012). He also appeared in "Inception" and "Dunkirk". He also plays Tommy Shelby in the BBC drama television series "Peaky Blinders". He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 2005 for his role as Patrick/Patricia "Kitty" Braden in "Breakfast on Pluto".


title: Cillian Murphy

text: Murphy was born on 25 May 1976 in Douglas, County Cork, Ireland. He was raised in Ballintemple, a suburb of Cork. His father, Brendan Murphy, worked for the Irish Department of Education. His mother is a French teacher. He went to University College Cork.


title: Cillian Murphy

text: Murphy started his career as a rock musician. After he turned down a record deal, he started his acting career in a play in Disco Pigs in 1996. He went on to star in a British and Irish movie and stage production in the late 1990s and early 2000s. His first worldwide role was in 2003 as the hero in the horror movie "28 Days Later".


title: Cillian Murphy

text: Murphy's best-known roles were villains in two blockbusters: Scarecrow in the superhero movie "Batman Begins", and as Jackson Rippner in the thriller movie "Red Eye". He also played the Scarecrow in the next two Batman movies: "The Dark Knight" and "The Dark Knight Rises". He played the orphan teen in the 2005's "Breakfast on Pluto". For that role, he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award. He played a 1920s Irish revolutionary in "The Wind That Shakes the Barley".


title: Cillian Murphy

text: Murphy lived in London, England from 2001 until 2015 when he moved to Dublin, Ireland. He often works in or near a city. He has no thoughts of moving to Hollywood. He doesn't feel right with the celebrity circuit. He often gives interviews about his movies. He does not give information about his private life. He didn't appear on TV interviews until 2010. He won an Irish Film & Television Award in 2007. He won a Drama Desk Award in 2012.


title: Cillian Murphy

text: Murphy married Yvonne McGuinness in 2004. They have two sons; Malachy (b. 2005) and Carrick (b. 2007). He currently lives in Monkstown, Dublin, Ireland.


title: Fractional distillation

text: Fractional distillation is a process of separating a mixture of chemical compounds. This means that each part (called a "fraction") of the mixture can be kept apart from the other chemicals. Different chemicals have different boiling points. Fractional distillation is done by heating the mixture so that it evaporates and then each fraction condenses in its own separate compartment. The reason we don't use simple distillation is because for liquids that boil at less than 25°C from each other, some of the other liquid(s) may evaporate and so part of the separated liquid may have part of the other liquid(s).


title: Fractional distillation

text: It is a special type of distillation. Generally, the component parts boil at less than 25°C from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere (atm). If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25°C, a simple distillation is used.


title: Fractional distillation

text: Fractionation is done by boiling a mixture in a fractionating column. The mixture evaporates at different times and is caught in a container as a pure compound.


title: Fractional distillation

text: Fractional distillation is the main activity of oil refineries, and is done in a large fractionating column known as a "fractionation tower".


title: Fractional distillation

text: Industrially, crude oil is heated and sent up along the fractionating column that has decreasing temperatures with height and several platforms at different levels to collect the condensate. Different components of crude oil have different boiling points. High molecular weight components have higher boiling points and condense at lower portions of the column while fractions with lower boiling points rise to the top of the column to condense.


title: Fractional distillation

text: The main fractions include refinery gases, gasoline (petrol), naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil, and a residue that contains bitumen. These fractions are mainly used as fuels, although they do have other uses too. Hydrocarbons with small molecules make better fuels than those with large molecules because they are volatile, flow easily and are easily ignited


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: Sherlock Holmes is a character from books written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. His most famous story was "The Hound of the Baskervilles".


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: Sherlock Holmes was "born" on 6th January 1861 , and for more than 100 years his name has been known in every country of the world; and not only his name, but his appearance too. The hawk-like features and piercing eyes; the dressing-gown and pipe; the unusual cap and magnifying glass - these details are so familiar that if he were to appear amongst us today we should know him at once.


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: Many of the stories were made into movies and television dramas. He is a detective who tries to find out who committed crimes. There is a monument in London dedicated to him. He has a sharp mind and solves even the most difficult and strange cases. He works with his friend Dr. Watson, a retired army officer. Holmes plays the violin and smokes a pipe. He is very smart. He first appeared in 1887 and is known for his detective skills. Sometimes he takes cocaine and morphine.


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: In the story "The Sign of Four", the first part is titled "The Science of Deduction". Dr. Watson admires Sherlock Holmes attention to detail and Holmes explains the importance of details that appear unimportant but can be crucial in solving a mystery. This was the first time he met with Dr. Watson, his co-detective in the year 1887.


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: In the second part of the story "A Study in Scarlet", Sherlock Holmes's method is explained in detail. He is the only Consulting Detective in the world and his "science of detection" is based on analysis and deduction, figuring things out from things he already knows. He is especially good at backwards reasoning (inference or abduction). From the scratches around on an old watch, he decides the man drinks a lot; in another case seeing the man's clothes are respectable but worn, he thinks the man was once successful, but has fallen on hard times and taken to drink.


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: Sherlock Holmes does not know a lot about literature, philosophy, astronomy and politics but he knows a lot about chemistry. He also seems to know every detail of every horror that took place in the 19th century. But from the first interaction with Dr. Watson we could infer that he is very good in botany, geology and sensational literature.


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: Mycroft Holmes is Sherlock Holmes' brother. He works for the government and according to Sherlock, his brother Mycroft's powers of deduction are even better than his own, and often Mycroft's word has decided national policy. Sometimes, Sherlock goes to his brother to ask for advice on some little problem. In Sherlock's own words, Mycroft is the British government.


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: Professor James Moriarty is Sherlock Holmes' arch enemy (chief enemy). Moriarty commits many crimes. He is a mathematical genius and worked at a small English university, before he quit and moved to London. There he became the center of organized crime (the mob) and the object of Sherlock Holmes's investigative power who considered the professor his intellectual equal. Sherlock Holmes vs (against) Moriarty represents one of the greatest battles of wits (shrewdness, intelligence, smartness) in the history of the world. Holmes spoke often of Moriarty's genius in admiration in spite of (not considering) the horror of the crimes. He spoke well of Moriarty without taking into consideration the evil side of his nature. Among Holmes other foes is Moriarty's Chief assassin Colonel Sebastian Moran ["The Adventure of the Empty House']; Dr Grimesby Roylott; ["The Adventure of the Speckled Band<nowiki>"</nowiki>]; Roger Baskerville aka Jack Stapleton ["The Hound of the Baskervilles"]; Charles Augustus Milverton ["The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton"]; John Clay ["The Adventure of the Red headed League<nowiki>"</nowiki>] and Irene Adler ["A Scandal in Bohemia"]


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: In "A Scandal in Bohemia", the only case in which he fails, appears the only woman he considered his equal intellectually and the only woman who ever defeated him. Her name is Irene Adler. She was born in New Jersey and was an opera singer. She had a love affair (romance) with the king of Bohemia.


title: Sherlock Holmes

text: With the exception of stories published by his assistant Dr John H Watson, Holmes' name rarely appears in newspapers in connection with a case [i.e. A Study in Scarlet being the exception]. He has however accepted several honors during his lifetime. His most significant award to be received is the Legion of Honor decoration from the French Government for capturing an assassin. From Queen Victoria he declined a knighthood but accepted an emerald tiepin. From the Hereditary King of Bohemia he received an antique gold snuffbox. From the royal family of the Netherlands he received an expensive ring.


title: Strawberry

text: A strawberry is a short plant in the wild strawberry genus of the rose family. It is a widely grown hybrid species of the genus "Fragaria". The name is used for its very common sweet edible "fruit" and for flavors that taste like it.


title: Strawberry

text: The real fruit of the plant are the tiny "seeds" around the "fruit". The fruit is actually a sweet swelling of the plant's stem around the real fruit, which people call the pips.


title: Strawberry

text: The plant grown today is a mix of two other species of wild strawberries. It was first grown in the 1750s.


title: Strawberry

text: The Latin name of the strawberry used in science is '× '. ' is the name of the genus of "strawberry-like" plants. The × mark means that it is a hybrid, a mix of two other species. The Latin name ' says the hybrid is "pineapple-like". The strawberry is sometimes called the "gardenstrawberry" so that people don't mix it up with the other wild strawberries of the genus "".


title: Strawberry

text: The name is a bit misleading and is special to English. The other Germanic languages do not have a name like it. No one is really sure where the name came from. The plant is not a kind of straw, and its fruit is not really a berry.


title: Strawberry

text: People have eaten different kinds of wild strawberries for thousands of years. Today's bigger strawberry was first made around Brest in Brittany (northwest France) in the 1750s. It was made by joining the Virginia strawberry from eastern North America to the European Hautbois and the Chilean strawberry from western South America.


title: Strawberry

text: Most strawberries are grown on farms. Strawberry farmers often have bees in hives. The bees pollinate the strawberries.


title: Strawberry

text: The real fruit of the strawberries are the achenes, which people usually think of as the little seeds around the outside of the larger red "fruit". This kind of fruit, where different ovaries grow into a single larger "fruit", is called an "aggregate fruit".


title: Nu (letter)

text: Nu (uppercase/lowercase Ν ν) is a letter of the Greek alphabet used to represent the "n" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 50. Letters that came from it include the Roman N and Cyrillic Н.


title: Nu (letter)

text: In statistics, the lowercase formula_1 can be used to represent degrees of freedom. In physics, the same letter can also used to represent kinematic viscosity and the frequency of a wave.