title: Braille

text: Braille has been extended to an 8 dot code, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays. In 8 dot braille the added dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a cell 4 dots high by 2 dots wide. The additional dots are called 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot). 8-dot braille has the advantages that capital and lower cases of the letters are directly coded in the cell, a capital letter does not need two cells. All the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell, and all 256 possible combinations of 8 bits are encoded by the Unicode standard. Braille with six dots is frequently stored as braille ASCII.


title: Braille

text: It is possible to transcribe braille by replacing each letter with the braille code for the letter. This is usually known as "Grade 1 Braille". Grade 1 braille is mostly used by beginners.


title: Braille

text: The basic problem of Grade 1 braille is that braille "letters" are much larger than printed ones. The standard page is 11"x11" (28 cm by 28 cm) in size and only has room for twenty-five lines of forty characters. This means a book would need to be very thick compared to a standard printed book.


title: Braille

text: For this reason almost all English braille books use a transcription known as "Grade 2 braille". Grade 2 braille uses contractions, which allows to save space and increase reading speed. Grade 2 braille was developed by linguists (people who study languages), who also looked at customs, styles and practices. Transcribing a text into Grade 2 braille is difficult, and the people doing the transcription need to have a special education.


title: Braille

text: In English, there are 23 words which are replaced with a single letter. That way, the word "but" is contracted (shortened) to the single letter "b," "can" to "c", "do" to "d", and so on. Even this simple rule has exceptions and special cases, which must be thought of. As an example, only the verb "to do" is replaced by "d", the noun "do" (which stands for a note in music) is a different word, and is written in full.


title: Braille

text: Sometimes, part of words are contracted, and a character can mean different things in different parts of a word. There are many rules for this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter "f" lowered in the braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a word. At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word "to" although the character is written in braille with no space following it. At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.


title: Braille

text: The contraction rules cannot be used when it would make a problem with a prefix or suffix on the word. Also, some rules are flexible and may depend on the situation. So when the rules permit the same word to be written in more than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that is closer to the correct pronunciation."


title: Braille

text: "Grade 3 Braille" is a system that includes many additional contractions. It is almost like a shorthand. It is rarely used for books, but people use it to be able to write and read fast, for themselves. It can be used for taking notes.


title: Braille

text: Only very few people can use grade 4 braille. It uses many rules to shorten grade 3 even further. It allows a blind person to use shorthand to follow spoken conversation. Very often, systems of seven or eight dots are used.


title: Braille

text: The current Canadian paper money has raised dots on the bills that shows its value. This helps blind people who might otherwise be cheated. This 'tactile feature' does not use standard braille but, instead, a system developed by working with blind and visually impaired Canadians after they found that not all people who needed it could read braille.


title: Braille

text: Braille may not be the main way blind people read and write. In Britain (for example), of the two million visually impaired people, "only about 15-20 thousand use Braille". In the U.S.A. according to the 2015 "Annual Report" from the American Printing House for the Blind, there were 61,739 legally blind students registered in the U.S. Of these, only "8.6% (5,333) were registered as braille readers", 31% (19,109) as visual readers, 9.4% (5,795) as auditory readers, 17% (10,470) as pre-readers, and 34% (21,032) as non-readers.


title: Braille

text: Currently, among the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the United States, 90% of those who are Braille-literate are employed. Among adults who do not know Braille, only 33% are employed.


title: Braille

text: Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers which can be read aloud by software programs. This is a good communication method they can use with their friends. Inevitably, software will go on advancing, as it does in all its functions. Also, there are audio sources for literature: some are available for use without computer links. Much thought is going into all these issues.


title: Braille

text: A term which is useful to know is "accessible publishing": Accessible publishing means books and other texts are available in formats designed to aid or replace the reading process. Examples are: varieties of larger fonts, specialised fonts for certain kinds of reading disabilities, Braille, e-books, and automated Audiobooks and digital talking books. This means that Braille is only one way for sighting-impaired people to go; also that there are many more partially sighted people than registered blind people. The partially sighted obviously have more choices.


title: Braille

text: When braille is adapted to languages which do not use the Latin alphabet, the blocks are generally assigned to the new alphabet according to how it is transliterated into the Latin alphabet, not the alphabetic order of the national script. This is the case with Russian (Cyrillic alphabet), Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. In Greek, for example, "gamma" is written as Latin "g", even though it is the third letter of that alphabet (like the Latin "c"). Hebrew "beth", the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter "b", is instead written "v", as it is commonly pronounced. Esperanto letters with circumflexes, "ĉ", "ĝ", "ĥ", "ĵ" and "ŝ", are written as those letters without circumflexes with a filled sixth dot.


title: Braille

text: More differences are in Chinese braille. In Mandarin Braille, which is based on Zhuyin rather than the Latin Pinyin alphabet, the Latin braille values are used for the first consonants and the simple vowels. There are additional blocks for the tones, diphthongs, and any following vowel + consonant combinations. Cantonese Braille is also based on Latin braille for many of the initial consonants and simple vowels, but the blocks also have different values depending on whether they are in a leading syllable or following syllable position. For instance, the block for Latin "k" represents old-style Cantonese "k" ("g" in Yale and other modern Romanizations) when initial, but "aak" when final, while Latin "j" represents Cantonese initial "j" but final "oei".


title: Braille

text: However, at least two adaptations of Braille have completely reassigned the Latin sound values of the blocks. These are:


title: Braille

text: In Japanese Braille, alphabetic signs for a consonant and vowel are combined into a single syllable block; in Korean Braille, the consonants have different leading and following syllable forms. These changes made Braille much more compatible with Japanese kana and Korean hangul, but meant that the Latin sound values could not be kept.


title: Braille

text: Trained readers of Braille can read about 100 words per minute; trained readers who do not have sight problems can get to around 250 to 300 words per minute.


title: Hip hop

text: Hip hop is a type of culture/art style that started in the 1970s in the Bronx. It began in Jamaican American, African American, and Puerto Rican/Hispanic and Latino American urban areas in some of the larger cities of the United States. Hip hop uses drum beats produced by a drum machine, and rapping, where the rapper or group chants or says words with a rhythm that rhymes. The lyrics of hip hop songs are often about the life of urban people in the big cities. Hip hop music also uses musical styles from pop music such as disco and reggae. Rap and hip hop music have become successful music genres.


title: Hip hop

text: Hip hop as a culture involves the music as well as a style of dressing called "urban" clothes (baggy pants, Timberland leather work boots, and oversize shirts); a dancing style called breakdancing or "B-boying"; and graffiti, a street art in which people paint pictures or words on walls. In the 2000s, hip hop music and hip hop culture are very popular in the United States and Canada. Hip hop musicians usually use nicknames. Many of the popular hip hop musicians from the 2000s use nicknames, such as Snoop Dogg, Jay-Z, Eminem, Lil Wayne, and 50 Cent. Hip hop is sometimes fused with other genres such as country music and rock music.


title: Hip hop

text: Rapping is a form of singing. It is a mix between singing and talking. The words are spoken with rhythm and in the text there are rhymes. The urban youth made rhyming games based on rap. The beat in the background is a simple loop that is sometimes made by the rapper themself or sometimes copied from a sample CD. The simple loop carries out through the entire song usually, except for the chorus. It developed in the ethnic minority urban (city) areas, as an American form of Jamaican "toasting" (chanting and rhyming with a microphone).


title: Hip hop

text: Run DMC and The Sugarhill Gang were early popular hip hop groups in the 1980s. When rappers began to use violent language and gestures, the music was then liked by gangsters. This kind of music was called "gangsta rap". Gangsta rap often has lyrics which are about guns, drug dealing and life as a thug on the street. This genre also began in the 1980s and is still produced.


title: Hip hop

text: Some well known early rappers include: Tupac Shakur, Snoop Dogg, The Notorious B.I.G., Eminem, and Sean "P-Diddy" Combs. During the 1990s there was a rivalry between the two big record labels "Death Row Records" and "Bad Boy Records". The rappers Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G. were murdered. Later, the two record labels stopped the rivalry. Because most of the rappers who rapped for "Death Row Records" were from the West Coast of the US and most of the rappers who rapped for "Bad Boy Records" were from the East Coast, this rivalry was called "the West Coast – East Coast beef".


title: Hip hop

text: The fastest rapper according to Guinness World Records is Twista. In 1992, he rapped 11 syllables in one second. In 2013, the song Rap God by Eminem took the record for most words in a song; 1,560 in a little over 6 minutes, which is about 4 words per second.


title: Murder of Brian Wells

text: Brian Douglas Wells (November 15, 1956 – August 28, 2003) was an American man who died after a homemade neck-bomb exploded while being involved in a plot involving a bank robbery in Erie, Pennsylvania. Before his death, Wells was a pizza delivery man who, shortly before his death, made a delivery stop outside of Erie.


title: Murder of Brian Wells

text: Investigated by a task force led by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, it was described as "one of the most complicated and bizarre crimes in the annals of the FBI". The Wells story was the subject of significant attention in the mass media. The question of whether Wells was a victim or a mastermind behind the robbery plot is debated.


title: Murder of Brian Wells

text: In a July 2007 indictment, federal prosecutors said that Wells had been involved in the planning of the botched bank robbery. Two of his alleged co-conspirators, Marjorie Diehl-Armstrong and Kenneth Barnes, were indicted. In 2008, U.S. District Judge Sean J. McLaughlin sentenced Barnes to 45 years in federal prison. Two years later, Diehl-Armstrong was also found guilty and, in 2011, was sentenced to life in prison, where she died from cancer in 2017.


title: Glans penis

text: The glans penis (or just "glans") is the sensitive tip of the penis. It is also called the "head" of the penis. Slang names include "helmet" and "bell end". Usually, the glans is covered by the foreskin, except in men who have been circumcised.


title: Glans penis

text: The glans can become irritated or infected which occurs in a small number of males. It is more common in males who have poor hygene or are uncircumcised.


title: Glans penis

text: The opening of the urethra is at the tip of the glans. In children who have been circumcised and wear diapers, the opening of the penis has no protection. This can cause the urethra to get very narrow in a small amount of boys which can need surgery to reopen later.


title: Glans penis

text: The skin on the glans of a uncircumcised penis is very sensitive, and washing it too much with soap can cause dermatitis.


title: Glans penis

text: Circumcised men have a dry and wider glans that is leathery to the touch. There are special Moisturizer that a circumcised man can use on his glans to provide softer.


title: Glans penis

text: The glans penis is a cap around the corpus spongiosum. It is attached to the Corpus cavernosum penis and at the tip of the glans is the urethra opening. The foreskin helps keeps the glans moist.


title: Tabby cat

text: Tabby cat, also known as grey tiger, or simply tabby is the name for domestic cats with fur coats of stripes, dots, lines or swirling patterns. These cats often have a mark that looks like the letter "M" on their foreheads. Tabbies are not a cat breed. Tabby cats are very common. About two-thirds of the world's cat population are tabbies.


title: Tabby cat

text: The tabby pattern is in many pure breeds of cats, as well as in mixed breeds. The tabby pattern happens naturally because of cats' closest ancestor, the African Wildcat. It has the same colors and patterns.


title: Tabby cat

text: There are four tabby patterns that are genetically different: mackerel, classic, spotted, and ticked.


title: Tabby cat

text: There is also a fifth pattern that includes tabby as part of another basic color pattern. The "patched" tabby is a calico or tortoiseshell cat with tabby patches (also known as "caliby" and "torbie").


title: Tabby cat

text: Mackerel is the original pattern and is by far the most common tabby pattern. The legs and tail have dark bars as do the cat's cheeks. A "mackerel tabby" has narrow stripes that run in parallel down its sides. This is what some people refer to as a "tiger." An "M" shape appears on the forehead along with dark lines across the cat's cheeks to the corners of its eyes. Mackerels are also called 'Fishbone tabbies' probably because of the mackerel fish. A mackerel tabby pattern is the only striped coat pattern seen in domestic cats.


title: Tabby cat

text: The classic tabby cat (also known as "blotched" or "marbled") has a pattern usually in the colors of dark brown, ochre, and black; but sometimes grey. Classic tabbies have the "M" pattern on their foreheads too. The body is marked with a whirled or swirled pattern (often called a "bullseye") on the cat's sides. There is also a light colored "butterfly" pattern on the shoulders and three thin stripes (the center stripe is dark) running along its spine. Classic tabbies have dark stripes on their legs, tail, and cheeks. Classic tabby is a recessive trait, so these cats are not as common as mackerel tabbies.


title: Tabby cat

text: A ticked tabby pattern makes a grizzly color of fur of dark and light bands or bars. These break up the tabby pattern into a "salt-and-pepper" look. Some stripes or bars can often be seen on the lower legs, face and belly and sometimes at the end of the cat's tail.


title: Tabby cat

text: The spotted tabby has a gene that breaks up the mackerel tabby pattern so that the stripes appear as spots. Sometimes, the stripes of a classic tabby's pattern may be broken into larger spots. Both large spot and small spot patterns can be seen in the Australian Mist, Bengal, Egyptian Mau, Maine Coon, and Ocicat breeds.


title: Tabby cat

text: Tabbies may be brown, grey, orange, or calico, including dilute versions of these colors. The most common tabby color is brown. All orange cats are tabbies, and the orange portion of calico cats will always show tabby patterns. Since the orange gene is on the X chromosome, about 80% of orange tabby cats are male, and nearly all calico cats are female. Colorpoint cats (Siamese, Himalayan, etc) that are tabbies are referred to as lynx point. As with solid-color cats, tabbies may also be partly white, such as tuxedo or van patterns. The tabby pattern is not visible at all in the white portion.


title: Tabby cat

text: The mackerel tabby pattern was the first tabby pattern in domestic cats. It is believed to have come from the African Wildcat and the European Wildcat. Both of these wild cats have a pale, striped tabby pattern. But when those breeds mixed, it made a more distinct mackerel tabby coat. At first, the mackerel tabby was common in all domestic cats. But later, other tabby patterns happened because of mutations and selective breeding of the mackerel tabby. All domestic cats have the tabby gene. But the genes of some cat breeds hide the tabby appearance.


title: Guava

text: Guavas are plants in the genus "Psidium" of the family Myrtaceae. There are about 100 species of tropical shrubs and small trees in the genus.


title: Guava

text: They are native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America and the northern part of South America. Now they are found in all the tropical, and in some subtropical, regions because they are edible fruits.


title: Guava

text: Guava are also a kind of berry fruit on those plants. There are many kinds of guavas. The most common guava is the apple guava ("Psidium guajava"): it is so common that the word 'guava' usually refers to this species. Red guavas are called maroonguava. In 100 g of guava are 200 mg of vitamin C, which means that guavas have five times more vitamin C than oranges.


title: Bulleh Shah

text: Syed Abdullah Shah Qadri (Punjabi/) ; 1680–1757) famously known as Bulleh Shah , was a Mughal-era Punjabi Islamic philosopher and Sufi poet. His first spiritual teacher was Shah Inayat Qadiri, a Sufi mentor of Lahore. He was a Sayyid/Syed, a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.


title: Bulleh Shah

text: He was born in 1680 in the city of Uch, during the Mughal Empire (present day Pakistan). After his early education, he went to Lahore where he met Inayat Arian, and became his student.


title: Bulleh Shah

text: He died in 1757, at the age of 77. He was buried in Kasur, and a shrine was built over his grave. His funeral prayer was led by Qazi Hafiz Syed Zahid Hamdani a great religious personality of Kasur.


title: Bulleh Shah

text: He was buried in Kasur when he died in 1757. There is a clean and very huge veranda which leads to the Tomb of Baba Bulleh Shah as you enter the shrine. The ceiling of shrine is decorated with the verses of Bulleh Shah in elegant calligraphy.


title: Bulleh Shah

text: Amongst Urdu poets, Bulleh Shah lived 400 miles away from Mir Taqi Mir (1723–1810) of Agra. Bulleh Shah practised the Sufi tradition of Punjabi poetry .


title: Bulleh Shah

text: The verse form Bulleh Shah which is mainly involved is the Kafi, popular in Western Punjabi and Sindhi poetry. Many people have put his Kafis to music, from humble street-singers to renowned Sufi singers like Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Pathanay Khan, Abida Parveen, the Waddali Brothers and Sain Zahoor, from the synthesised techno qawwali remixes of UK-based Asian artists to the Pakistani rock band Junoon.


title: Bulleh Shah

text: In the 1990s, Junoon, a rock band from Pakistan, furnished his poems "Bullah Ki Jaana" and "Aleph" ("Ilmon Bas Kareen O Yaar"). In 2004, Indian musician Rabbi Shergill turned the abstruse metaphysical poem "Bullah Ki Jaana" into a rock/fusion song in his debut album "Rabbi"; the song was a chart-topper in 2005, helping the album to eventually sell over 10,000 copies and became immensely popular in India and Pakistan. The Wadali Bandhu, a Punjabi Sufi group from India, have also released a version of "Bullah Ki Jaana" in their album "Aa Mil Yaar... Call of the Beloved".


title: Bulleh Shah

text: Also in 2016, a collaboration between two EDM artists (Headhunterz and Skytech) named "Kundalini" used words created by Bulleh Shah, as well as having the words Bulleh Shah in the lyrics. Bulleh Shah's verses have been an inspiration to painters as well, as in the two series of paintings ("Jogia Dhoop" and "Shah Shabad") by an Indian painter Geeta Vadhera inspired by the poetry of Bulleh Shah and other Sufi poets and saints. In 2017, British Pakistani singer Yasir Akhtar used Bulleh Shah's poetry in his song "Araam Naal Kar – Take it Easy". In 2019, Sona Mohapatra used a Kalam of Bulleh Shah in her song "R.A.T Mashup".


title: Bulleh Shah

text: In 2009, the season 2 of "Coke Studio" featured "Aik Alif" performed by Sain Zahoor and Noori. Ali Zafar also used some of Bulleh Shah and Shah Hussain's verses in his "Dastan-e-Ishq". In 2010, the season 3 featured "Na Raindee Hai" and "Makke Gayaan Gal Mukdi Nahi" performed by Arieb Azhar. In 2012, Shah's poetry was featured with Hadiqa Kiani performing "Kamlee". In 2016, Ahmed Jahanzeb and Umair Jaswal performed "Khaki Banda"; and Rizwan Butt and Sara Haider performed "Meri Meri", In third episode of season 11 Fareed Ayaz, Abu Muhammad Qawal & Brothers performed a Qawwali based on Kalam by Bulleh Shah. In season 12 Hadiqa Kiani used verses of Shah in song "Daachi Waaleya".


title: August Ames

text: August Ames (born Mercedes Grabowski; August 23, 1994 – December 5, 2017) was a Canadian-American pornographic actress and model. She was born in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. She appeared in almost 290 movies. She won two AVN Awards in 2015 and in 2017, and is nominated for one in 2018.


title: August Ames

text: Ames was born in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. She was raised in Colorado Springs, Colorado during her teenage years. In her early years, she worked as a nanny, animal-assisted aid and horseback trainer.


title: August Ames

text: Her career began in November 2013, she began her career with companies: Evil Angel, Dark X, Girlfriends Films, New Sensations, Elegant Angel, Blacked, Brazzers, Sweetheart Video, Lethal Hardcore and Jules Jordan Video.


title: August Ames

text: Some of her best known works were "Safe Landings", "8Oil Overload", "Don't Tell Hubby", "10 Missing", "Spandex Loads", "Dirty Talk", "Big Wet Breasts", "Naturally Delicious", "Flesh Hunter", "Raw Talent 3" and "Titty Attack 8".


title: August Ames

text: On December 3, 2017, Ames sent out a tweet saying that she would never work with a man who had been in gay pornography. Ames, herself a bisexual, was criticized by people accusing her of homophobia.


title: August Ames

text: On December 5, 2017, Ames was found dead at her home in Camarillo, California after hanging herself at the age of 23. Her husband confirmed her death. She suffered from depression during her final years.


title: Execuflight Flight 1526

text: Execuflight Flight 1526 was an Execuflight airline charter flight from Dayton Airport, Ohio to Akron Fulton Airport on November 10, 2015, with a Hawker 800. On final approach to Akron, the pilots lost control of the aircraft and crashed in a residential neighborhood and exploded. The nine occupants were killed in the crash, the aircraft and the house in which it had crashed, had burned completely at the accident site.


title: Execuflight Flight 1526

text: The crew consisted of 40-year-old Colombian Captain Oscar Chávez and 50-year-old Italian First Officer Renato Marchese. There were no flight attendants on the flight. The captain had been with the airline since June 4, 2015. His cumulative flight experience was 6,170 hours, of which he had flown 3,414 hours as pilot in command. He had 1,020 hours of flight experience with the accident plane, of which 670 hours as pilot in command. The first officer was hired by Execuflight on June 1, 2015. He had 4,382 hours of flight experience, 3,200 of which he had served as pilot in command. His flight experience with accident-type aircraft totaled 482 hours, which he had completed in its entirety as a first officer.


title: Execuflight Flight 1526

text: Recordings and interviews with the colleagues of the pilots showed that the pilots were overly tired at the time of the accident, having only slept about six hours a night on average during the previous nights.


title: Execuflight Flight 1526

text: They lowered the aircraft below the safe altitude of 473 feet, although they could see the ground but still could not see the runway. As they searched for the runway, they failed to see that the airspeed had dropped to 98 knots, causing an aerodynamic stall.


title: Execuflight Flight 1526

text: The accident is featured in the 2nd episode of Season 21 of "Air Crash Investigation," also known as "Mayday." The episode is titled "Playing Catch Up".


title: Condensation

text: Condensation is how gas changes into a liquid when it touches a cooler surface. Condensation is part of the water cycle. It is the opposite of evaporation.


title: Condensation

text: Condensation of water is when water changes from gas to a liquid or crystal shape. Any gas can condense, either because the temperature is dropping or the pressure is increasing. In either case the pressure of the condensing gas is higher than the vapor pressure of the gas, at that temperature).


title: Condensation

text: During condensation, the molecules in the matter slow down. Heat energy is taken away, causing the state of matter to change. Condensation is exothermic. This means that condensation makes the temperature go up. Evaporation is the opposite and causes a temperature loss.


title: Condensation

text: It is a useful process. One use is in distillation. The gas made from a boiling liquid mix is sent to a condenser, where the different parts condense differently. This can purify a liquid, such as alcohol or water. The condensing liquid makes heat, which must be removed for the condensation to continue.


title: Ibn Battuta

text: Ibn Battuta (1304 – 1368 or 1369) was a Moroccan explorer. He is known for the account of his journeys called the "Rihla" ("Voyage"). He travelled for nearly 30 years and covered most of the Islamic world. He also explored West Africa, Southern and Eastern Europe, South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and China. This distance was more than Marco Polo travelled; about . Ibn Battuta was considered the greatest traveller of the medieval period.


title: Ibn Battuta

text: Battuta also made maps that were used by cartographers. He also met Mohammad bin tughlaq and write a book called the travels of bin battutta


title: Ibn Battuta

text: Ibn Battuta was born on February 24, 1304 in Tangier. His family consisted of judges and scholars of Islamic law. At age 21, Ibn Battuta started his long exploration when he went on the Hajj. This is a year-long pilgrimage that brings Muslims closer to God. Ibn Battuta first went across North Africa (Maghreb), to the great port Alexandria in 1326. Ibn spent 30 years visiting every Muslim country of his day. He recorded details about the social and political life he saw on his journeys. He gave information all about Muhammad Bin Tuglaq.


title: Ibn Battuta

text: Ibn Battuta met a Syrian Arab Damascene girl who was a slave of a black African governor in Mali. Ibn Battuta engaged in a conversation with her in Arabic.


title: Ibn Battuta

text: Christians became part of harems as slaves in the Balkans and Asia Minor when the Turks invaded. Muslim qadis owned Christian slave girls. Greek girls who were pretty were forced into prostitution after being enslaved to Turks who too al their earnings in the 14th century according to Ibn Battuta.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: A fixed-wing aircraft is a kind of aircraft. A fixed-wing aircraft is a machine that can fly, but is heavier than air. Fixed-wing aircraft are sometimes called airplanes, aeroplanes or sometimes just "planes". These are used to fly cargo and people. All fixed-wing aircraft have wings that use forward airspeed to generate lift. Gliders are fixed-wing aircraft that do not have engines.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: A steam-powered unmanned fixed-wing aircraft, that weighed , was built by John Stringfellow, in Chard, Somerset, England in 1848. It could fly by itself without needing to be dropped from high up. There were gliders before this, but they had to fly by being pushed off a building or hill.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: The first man who flew (took off, steered, and landed) a motor-powered aircraft was Orville Wright in 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: Today, fixed-wing aircraft fly between many cities all over the world, carrying people and cargo. Big cities usually have an international airport, where large fixed-wing aircraft can land and take off safely. Some large cities like New York City and London have more than one airport. Two major makers of fixed-wing aircraft are Airbus and Boeing.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: Advances in technology have made fixed-wing aircraft more efficient. Things like winglets and more efficient turbofans have helped to do this.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: Fixed-wing aircraft have long been used as airliners for moving passengers from place to place. Cargo aircraft carry cargo across seas and long distances, and passenger aircraft also carry some cargo.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: The first aircraft for war bombing was used in Libya in 1911 by Italy against the Ottoman Empire. Some fixed-wing aircraft are used by air forces to defend countries. These may be fighter aircraft, using guns or missiles for combat with other aircraft. They may be bombers, dropping bombs on ground targets.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: Fixed-wing aircraft allow people to travel longer distances, and faster than ships or trains. Aircraft can fly from New York to London in about 7 hours. It would take one week or more on a ship. Militaries use airplanes to carry their soldiers quickly from place to place.


title: Fixed-wing aircraft

text: Airplanes are also used by the military to see many things on the ground easily. This is called surveillance or reconnaissance. Often, fixed-wing aircraft will take photographs as well, which can be used for military planning later.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters are people whose job is to extinguish fires and rescue people. Besides fighting fires, firefighters rescue people and animals from vehicle accidents, collapsed buildings, hazardous atmospheres, entrapment, disabled elevators and many other types of emergencies. Firefighters also typically respond to HazMat incidents as well. Firefighting is a job which requires bravery, strength, quick thinking, level-headedness, and a wide range of skills.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters are based at and respond from a building called a "fire station" (also known as a "firehouse" or "fire hall"). When a call comes in and their help is needed, they drive a vehicle called a "fire engine" or "fire truck," which is also referred to as a fire apparatus, to the incident scene. These vehicles are appropriately equipped for the emergencies they respond to and typically can pump water and foam to put out fires. Fire engines also carry ladders, cutting tools and lots of different types of rescue equipment. Most carry first aid kits to help people who are injured or hurt. Another type of common fire apparatus, known as a “ladder truck”, is fitted with some variation of an articulating and telescoping ladder assembly which can be strategically positioned to give firefighters another means of access to an incident scene, as well as another means of egress for distressed victims or firefighters.


title: Firefighter

text: Firefighters wear heavy clothing to protect them from the heat when they are fighting a fire. This is called "bunker gear" or "turnout gear". They wear a self-contained breathing apparatus and mask to protect themselves from breathing in smoke and super hot air and gasses.


title: Firefighter

text: Depending on the country, the agency firefighters work for is called a "fire department", "fire service", "fire and rescue service" or "fire brigade". Fire departments are usually government agencies that are funded by taxes and look after a local area. Some sites employ their own firefighters, such as airports and some factories.


title: Firefighter

text: Some fire departments employ firefighters who work full-time and wait at the fire station to be called out. They have to work both in the daytime and at night, though they can usually have a rest if they have nothing to do at night. Villages and small towns usually have part-time firefighters who have other jobs outside of the fire service. These firefighters will drive from their home or workplace to the fire station when their help is needed. They may be volunteers, or they may be paid for doing this (known as "retained firefighters" in the UK).


title: Firefighter

text: In some places such as large US cities, it is common for the fire department to run the emergency medical services. In those departments, such as the New York City Fire Department, most of the fire department's calls are medical emergencies rather than fires. Although these are usually dealt with by full-time paramedics, many firefighters are trained in first aid and they may assist in medical emergencies, even bringing the fire engine to the scene.


title: Nevada

text: Nevada is one of the United States' states. Its capital is Carson City. Other big cities are Las Vegas, Henderson and Reno.


title: Nevada

text: Nevada was colonized by Spain and was apart of New Spain. Nevada was formerly apart of Mexico before Spanish colonization and was first inhabited by Native Americans before white Europeans arrived.


title: Nevada

text: Nevada was originally founded in 1821 as part of the First Mexican Empire. The Mexican Empire turned into the Mexican Republic in 1823, along with Nevada. Before the arrival of Europeans, Nevada was inhabited by Native American tribes including the Shoshone, the Paiute, the Washoe, and the Mohave.


title: Nevada

text: Fighting between the United States and Mexico started. They fought over what was to become the Southwestern United States and who could own this land. This was called the Mexican-American War. The war ended in an American victory in 1848. Nevada later became an American territory in 1861. It was called the "Nevada Territory". This was not all of Nevada as it is today. The eastern part of Nevada was part of "Utah Territory" and the southern part was part of "New Mexico". In 1859 in the Comstock Lode, gold and silver were first discovered. This started a huge growth in mining in the state which Nevada is known for.


title: Nevada

text: On October 31, 1864, now celebrated as "Nevada Day", Nevada was made the 36th state in the United States. It was given the distinct shape resembling a rectangle with a triangle. It was named "Nevada" meaning "snowy land" in Spanish, because it was snowy in the North. Later, on May 5, 1866, Nevada got its current borders because the Pah-Ute County in Arizona was taken as part of Nevada. It is now Clark County, Nevada. It was also agreed upon that the western part of Utah would become Eastern Nevada.


title: Nevada

text: On May 8th, 2020 Gov. Steve Sisolak allowed phase 1 re-opening of Nevada's economy, allowing restaurants and other previously non essential businesses to open.


title: Nevada

text: Tourism is very important to the economy of Nevada. Many people visit Las Vegas, which has many casinos and resorts. There is not as much farming as there is in some other states, because Nevada is so dry. However, mining is big in Nevada. More gold is mined in Nevada than in any other state.


title: Kokoreç

text: Kokoreç is a Turkish meal. It is made of lamb intestines. Intestines of suckling lambs (süt kuzusu) is most favored for this dish. It is not a standard menu item in restaurants. It can be found in any street.


title: Kokoreç

text: Kokoreç can be cooked in many ways. One way is to cook it similar to Döner; with a horizontal skewer (see also Rotisserie). The intestine parts are stacked together. This sort can be found in street vendors mostly. The most popular heating method is charcoal fire which gives it an extra rich flavour. After it is cooked, it is cut and put in a half or quarter portion of Turkish bread (somun). Tomatoes or spices can be added to it.


title: Kokoreç

text: Another way to cook is to cut it after cleaning, mixing it with cut tomatoes and green peppers. After that, it is cooked on a big griddle in large quantities, and then it is added hot red pepper and oregano. It is constantly mixed and cut by the cooker using two spatulas in his hands during cooking. When done, the dish is kept warm.


title: Kokoreç

text: Kokoreç can be served in many ways. It is usually served as a sandwich in form of Yarım Ekmek Kokoreç (Half-Bread) or Çeyrek Ekmek Kokoreç (Quarter-Bread). At the same time, it could be served without bread, on a plate, as a normal meal. Kokoreç is usually served with Ayran, Beer or Cola.


title: Computer memory

text: Computer memory is a temporary storage area. It holds the data and instructions that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs. Before a program can run, the program is loaded from storage into the memory. This allows the CPU direct access to the computer program. Memory is needed in all computers.


title: Computer memory

text: A computer is usually a binary digital electronics device. Binary means it has only two states. On or Off. Zero or One. In a binary digital computer transistors are used to switch the electricity on and off. The computer's memory is made from lots of transistors.


title: Computer memory

text: Each on/off setting in the computer's memory is called a binary digit or bit. A group of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is made from two nibbles of four bits each. Computer scientists made up the words "bit" and "byte". The word "bit" is short for "binary digit". It takes "bi" from binary and adds the "t" from digit. A collection of bits was called a bite. The computer scientists changed the spelling to "byte" to avoid confusion. When the computer scientists needed a word for half a byte, they thought "nibble", as in "half a bite", would be a fun word to choose.


title: Computer memory

text: A byte of memory is used to store a code to represent a character such as a number, a letter or a symbol. Eight bits can store 256 different codes. This was thought enough and a byte became fixed at eight bits.


title: Computer memory

text: Early computers used six bits to a byte. This gave them 64 different codes. These computers did not have lower-case letters.


title: Computer memory

text: Computer scientists had to agree on which code would represent each character. Most modern computers use ASCII, the "American Standard Code for Information Interchange". In ASCII each code is eight bits – any combination of 0s and 1s – and form one character. The letter A is denoted by the code 01000001.


title: Computer memory

text: To allow for all the different characters in all the worlds languages, modern computers need more than 256 different characters. Another code system called Unicode allows for 1,112,064 different characters by using from one to four bytes for each character.


title: Computer memory

text: The computer's CPU can access each individual byte. It uses an address for each byte. Computer memory addresses start at zero and go up to the biggest number the computer can use. Older computers were limited in how much memory they could address. 32-bit computers can address up to 4GB of memory. Modern computers use 64 bits and could address up to 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes = 16 exabytes of memory.


title: Computer memory

text: The numbers that computers use can get very large. To make it easier, the unit K (for kilobyte) or Ki (for kibibyte) can be used. In computer memory numbers are powers of two. One Kibibyte is two to the power of 10, that is 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 and written as 2 = 1024 bytes. For example, 64 Kibibytes, written as 64KiB or 64KB, of memory is the same as 65,536 bytes (1,024 × 64 = 65,536). For larger memory capacities, the units "megabyte" (MB) or "mebibyte" (MiB) and "gigabyte" (GB) or "gibibyte" (GiB) are used. One megabyte of computer memory means 2 bytes or 1024KB, which is 1,048,576 bytes. One gibibyte means 2 bytes or 1024MB.


title: Computer memory

text: The numbers are multiples of two. This is why a kilobyte of memory is 1024 bytes and not 1000 as would be the case for kilogram. To try to avoid this confusion the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) use the names kibibyte, mebibyte, and gibibyte for binary powers. They use kilobyte, megabyte, and gigabyte to mean powers of 10. The Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) have kept the older names. To make it worse the sizes of computer storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD), are measured in powers of ten. So a 500GB disk drive is 500 x 1000 x 1000 x 1000 bytes. This is a lot less that 500GB of memory which is 500 x 1024 x 1024 x1024. Most computer scientists still use the old names and have to remember that the units are different when talking about memory and storage devices.


title: Computer memory

text: There are some programs and instructions which the computer will always need. Read only memory (ROM) is the permanent memory which is used to store these important control programs and systems software to perform functions such as booting up or starting up programs. ROM is non-volatile. That means the contents are not lost when the power is switched off. Its contents are written when the computer is built, but in modern computers, the user can change the contents using special software.


title: Computer memory

text: Random access memory (RAM) is used as the working memory of a computer system. It stores input data, intermediate results, programs, and other information temporarily. It can be read and/or written. It is usually volatile, which means that all data will be lost when the power is turned off. In most cases it is loaded again from the hard disk which is used as data storage.


title: Las Meninas

text: Las Meninas is an oil painting by the Spanish painter Diego Velázquez. The painting hangs in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, the capital of Spain. It was painted in 1656.


title: Las Meninas

text: The word “Menina” means “lady-in-waiting” or “Maid of Honour”, i.e. a girl who serves in a royal court. There is a lot of detail in the painting, and more has been written about it than about almost any other Western painting because it is quite complicated. For example: people do not always agree about who is looking at whom and why they are standing there.


title: Las Meninas

text: "Las Meninas" shows a large room in the Madrid palace of King Phillip IV of Spain . Several people are in the painting, and we know who they are. Some are looking at one another and others are looking out from the painting at the viewer (the person who is looking at the painting).


title: Las Meninas

text: The person who stands in the middle is the Infanta Margarita Teresa of Austria (the princess, daughter of the king and queen). She has two maids of honour, one on each side of her, a chaperone, a bodyguard, two dwarfs and a dog. Velázquez has also painted himself, standing just behind the princess and her companions. He is standing at the artist’s easel. He has stopped painting for a moment and looks straight out at the viewer. At the back of the room is a mirror in which we can see the top halves of the bodies of the king and queen. This means that the king and queen are the viewers who are looking at the painting. The king and queen are probably being painted by Velázquez, but not everybody agrees with this.


title: Las Meninas

text: Velázquez was very famous in his lifetime. He painted portraits of several royal people at the Spanish court. Philip himself did not like being painted when he was old, but he allowed Velázquez to include him in "Las Meninas". He had given Velázquez a special room where he could paint, and he often sat and watched the painter at work in his studio.


title: Las Meninas

text: The painting was damaged a bit by a fire in 1734 and some of it was repainted, including the left cheek of the Infanta. In recent years it lost some of its colour, partly due to the pollution caused by so many visitors to the gallery. It was cleaned in 1984. Some people thought it made the picture look different.


title: Las Meninas

text: The people in "Las Meninas" are in Velázquez's studio in the royal palace. The Infanta Margarita Teresa of Austria (number 1 in the key picture) in the middle of the picture is five years old. She later married the Roman Emperor Leopold. She has two ladies-in-waiting ("meninas"): doña Isabel de Velasco (2), who is about to curtsy to the princess, and doña María Agustina Sarmiento de Sotomayor (3), who kneels in front of Margarita, offering her a drink from a red cup, or "bucaro", that she holds on a golden tray. To the right of the Infanta are two dwarfs: Maribarbola (4) who was German, and Nicolas Pertusato (5) who was Italian. He is trying to wake up a dog by his feet. Behind them stands doña Marcela de Ulloa (6), the princess's chaperone, dressed in mourning and talking to a bodyguard (or "guardadamas") (7). We do not know the name of the bodyguard.


title: Las Meninas

text: At the back on the right stands Don José Nieto Velázquez (8)—the queen's chamberlain during the 1650s, and the head of the royal tapestry works—who may have been a relative of the artist. Nieto is shown pausing, with his right knee bent and his feet on different steps. We are not sure what he is doing. None of the people in the picture can see him. Only the viewer (the king and queen?) can.


title: Las Meninas

text: Velázquez himself (9) stands to the left of the scene, looking outward past a large canvas supported by an easel. On his chest is the red cross of the Order of Santiago, which he did not receive until 1659, three years after the painting was completed. He later added the cross to the painting.


title: Las Meninas

text: The mirror on the back wall reflects the upper bodies and heads of the King Philip IV (10) and his queen, Mariana (11). Most people think that they are being painted by Velázquez, and that their daughter, the Infanta, is watching them.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Sexual orientation is forms of attraction to people. There are many different groups. Some examples are: attraction to a different gender (heterosexuality), attraction to the same gender (homosexuality), attraction to more than one gender (bisexuality), and no attraction any gender (asexuality).


title: Sexual orientation

text: The groups are part of sexual identity. Some people use something such as "pansexual" or "polysexual". Other people use nothing at all. "Androphilia and gynephilia" are an alternative to the gender binary in homosexual and heterosexual. "Androphilia" is attraction to a man or masculinity (any quality or behavior linked to a man). "Gynephilia" is attraction to a woman or femininity. "Sexual preference" overlaps with sexual orientation but is different. A bisexual person may like one gender more than another. "Sexual preference" may also give the idea of a degree of choice. The scientific consensus (position in the community of scientists) is that sexual orientation is not a choice.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation. There is some evidence of genes involved, however the main theory is related to hormones when a baby is growing inside the mother. For males, there is better proof of a biological cause of sexual orientation than social causes. In women, there is some evidence that social factors may play a small role.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Sexual orientation includes heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality, and asexuality. An asexual has little to no sexual attraction to people. This may be thought of as a lack of a sexual orientation. There is a large amount of discussion over whether or not this is a sexual orientation.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Sexual identity and sexual behavior are connected to sexual orientation but are different. Sexual identity is a concept of self. Sexual behavior is sex with other people. Sexual orientation is connections to other people. An individual may or may not show sexual orientation from behavior. A person who is not heterosexual by sexual orientation and has a heterosexual sexual identity is 'closeted'. This term may show a stage of change in any society that, little by little, attempts to support the sexual minority. In any sexual orientation study, scientists use the terms "concordance" (sexual attraction, sexual behavior, and sexual identity match) or "discordance" (sexual attraction, sexual behavior, and sexual identity do not match)"." Here is an example of discordance. A woman with attraction to women says she is heterosexual and only has sex with men. Sexual orientation (homosexual), sexual identity (heterosexual), and sexual behavior (heterosexual) of the woman do not match.


title: Sexual orientation

text: "Sexual identity" may also describe a perception of the "sex" of a person. "Sexual preference" is almost the same as "sexual orientation". The main difference is "sexual preference" gives the idea of a degree of choice. The Committee on Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity of the American Psychological Association says the term supports a "heterosexual bias".


title: Sexual orientation

text: "Androphilia" and "gynephilia" (or "gynecophilia") are terms in behavioral science (the study of human and animal behavior) that describe sexual orientation. It is an alternative to the gender binary in homosexual and heterosexual. The terms describe the focus of attraction with no need to credit a sex assignment or gender identity to the person. Other terms such as "pansexual" and "polysexual" also do not make any connection to the person. People may also use terms such as "queer", "pansensual," "polyfidelitous," or "ambisexual".


title: Sexual orientation

text: Some scientists support use of the terms to skirt bias in concepts of human sexuality in the West. Sociologist Johanna Schmidt says that a term like "homosexual transsexual" cannot line up in a society where a third gender is supported. One example would be Samoan Fa’afafine.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Bruce Bagemihl is also against "homosexual transsexual". This is because Bageminl thought this makes it simple to say a straight transgender woman is a homosexual male looking to run from stigma.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Very early writers thought sexual orientation connects to the gender expression of the person. Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Magnus Hirschfeld, Havelock Ellis, Carl Jung, and Sigmund Freud are some of the more famous writers. It was thought that a female person with attraction to female people is always masculine. Just the same, it was thought that a male person with attraction to male people is always feminine. This understanding of homosexuality as sexual inversion was a discussion at the time. By the second half of the 1900s, gender identity was seen as different from sexual orientation. Transgender and cisgender people may be attracted to men, women, or both. A homosexual, heterosexual, or bisexual person may be masculine, feminine, or androgynous. Still, studies by J. Michael Bailey and Kenneth Zucker say most of the gay men and lesbians describe different degrees of not matching gender roles as a child.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Today, the sexual orientation of transgender people match the gender. A trans woman who experiences attraction only to women is a lesbian. A trans man who experiences attraction only to women is a straight man.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Sexual orientation sees a more complex understanding of both sex (male, female, or intersex) and gender (man, woman, or third gender).


title: Sexual orientation

text: A gay or lesbian person may do sexual behaviors with someone of a different gender for many reasons. One reason is the desire for a family that looks common. Another reason is to skirt bias. A third reason is to skirt punishment in religion and another reason is to simply be friends with benefits. Not all LGBT people keep quiet about orientation to a wife or husband. Some who come out as gay or lesbian have a healthy continuous heterosexual marriage.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Sexual identity can change through the life of an individual. This may or may not line up with sex, sexual behavior, or sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is stable and will not change for most people. Still, some tests say that some people may experience change in sexual orientation. This is more common for a woman than for a man.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Scientists do not yet know the exact cause of sexual orientation. People thought that homosexuality was the result of wrong brain development. Early life experience and sexual abuse was thought to cause wrong brain development. This thought process comes from bias about homosexuality. Now many people guess that biology and environment play a complex part as a cause.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Tests link many biological factors which may have relation to the development of sexual orientation. The factors are genes, prenatal hormones, and brain structure. Tests are continuous in this area.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Some scientists have a belief that sexual orientation is not from any one factor. Instead, this is thought to be from a combination of genetics, hormones, and environment. There is more proof that supports a biological cause of sexual orientation than a social one. It is not thought that sexual orientation is a choice. Some scientists have the belief that this is set at fertilization. Statistics say there are biological differences between gay people and heterosexuals. This may result from the same cause as sexual orientation itself.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Identical twins are more likely to have the same sexual orientation as fraternal twins. This means genes are linked to the development of sexual orientation. Studies have not found single 'gay genes', instead several thousand genes of a small influence are involved in sexual orientation. There are issues with the methods used in this research.


title: Sexual orientation

text: The hormone theory of sexuality holds that certain hormones play a part in the sexual orientation that shows later in a mature person. Hormones in the fetus may be the prime effect on sexual orientation. This also may be one of many factors that combines with genes, environment, and social conditions to make a sexual orientation.


title: Sexual orientation

text: In humans, it is normal for females to have two X chromosomes. For males, it is normal to have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. A human fetus starts as female so the Y chromosome is what makes the changes necessary to switch to male. Androgen hormones control this process. These androgens are testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). The testicles in the fetus are responsible for the existence of androgens. The androgens will work together to make the sex difference of the fetus. This results in differences between males and females. Some scientists change androgen levels in mammals during fetus and early life as experiments.


title: Sexual orientation

text: More than one study says the chance of homosexuality in a male increases with each successful birth of a male child. This effect ends if a male uses his left hand more than his right hand since birth.


title: Sexual orientation

text: "Fraternal birth order" (FBO) effect is a theory that has strong proof of its prenatal origin. Tests give the idea that this may be from the immune system. This is an immune reaction from the mother against a substance important to the development of the male fetus. This reaction is even more probable after every successful male birth. It is thought that this immune effect changes future males prenatal development. This process is the maternal immunization hypothesis (MIH). This starts when cells from a male fetus enter the circulation of the mother. The immune system of the mother cannot support the Y proteins because she is female. This causes the development of antibodies. An antibody travels through the placenta into the section with the fetus. From here, an antibody crosses the blood–brain barrier of the brain of the fetus. This alters sex differences in brain structures relative to sexual orientation. This cause the son to experience more attraction to a man than a woman.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Research has examined the impact of social environment on sexual orientation. In males, there is not good evidence that social environment plays a role. In women, there may be some influence of the social environment, however more scientific research is needed.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Common ideas about the cause of homosexuality such as parenting or sexual abuse have flaws. Gay men often show feminine behavior in early childhood, which makes them targets for sexual abuse and for mistreatment by peers and family. This means it cannot be assumed that certain experiences caused their sexual orientation.


title: Sexual orientation

text: A sexual orientation change effort is a plan that will try to change a same gender sexual orientation. This is cognitive behavioral therapy or conversion therapy.


title: Sexual orientation

text: No mental health organization gives approval to any effort to change sexual orientation. Almost all have a statement that says not to get a treatment that claims to change sexual orientation. Some organizations with that statement are the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Counseling Association, National Association of Social Workers, Royal College of Psychiatrists, and Australian Psychological Society.


title: Sexual orientation

text: In 2012, the Pan American Health Organization makes a statement that says not to get a service that claims to change people with a not heterosexual sexual orientation. This is because there is no medical need. This is also a serious threat to the well-being of people that use this service. The scientific consensus of the world is that homosexuality is a normal and natural form of human sexuality. Homosexuality cannot be thought of as a disease. The Pan American Health Organization also says governments, schools, organizations, and communication outlets need to support respect for differences. Sometimes, a gay child will have to go to a "treatment" without choice. A gay child is sometimes put in a place separate from everyone for many months. Any places that have such poor treatment be subject to punishment under government law. This is for two reasons. The first reason is because this is against the moral concepts of medical care. The second reason is because this is against human rights that the international agreement keeps safe.


title: Sexual orientation

text: The National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH) takes takes issue with how the mental health society describes the success of conversion therapy. NARTH also takes issue with how the mental health society describes sexual orientation for two reasons. One reason is because it is not a fixed two part quality. The second reason is because it is not a disease. Instead, it describes as a continuous order of sexual attraction and emotional attraction. The American Psychological Association and the Royal College of Psychiatrists say there is trouble with the positions of the NARTH. Science cannot support the positions. The positions also make an environment in which bias increases.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Different definitions and strong social rules about sexuality makes sexual orientation hard to measure.


title: Sexual orientation

text: In the 1860s, Karl Henrich Ulrichs makes small books about a sexual orientation organization system. The organization system is only for males. It separates males into three simple groups. The groups are "dionings, urnings" and "uranodionings". Ulrichs outlines a set of questions to check if a man was an "urning".


title: Sexual orientation

text: A "dioning" is the same as heterosexual male. An "urning" is the same as a homosexual male. An "uranodioning" is the same as a bisexual male.


title: Sexual orientation

text: A "mannling" is a masculine "urning". A "weibling" is an effeminate "urning". A "zwischen" is an androgynous "urning". A "virilised" is an "urning" that will only have heterosex sex.


title: Sexual orientation

text: In 1896, Berlin sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld makes a system that measures the strength of sexual desire of an individual. This system measures on two different scales of 10 points. The scales are A (homosexual) and B (heterosexual). A heterosexual individual may be A0, B5. A homosexual individual may be A5, B0. An asexual is A0, B0. Someone with a strong attraction to both genders may be A9, B9.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Alfred Kinsey, Wardell Pomeroy, and Clyde Martin made the Kinsey scale. This scale was in "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female." It was made to fight the idea that people can only be homosexual or heterosexual. Kinsey sees that much of population is not all heterosexual or all homosexual. Such people experience both heterosexual and homosexual behavior.


title: Sexual orientation

text: The Kinsey scale is an organization of sexual orientation. The position on the scale is based on the relation of heterosexuality to homosexuality in their history.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Even with eight groups, it is still hard determining which group will be good to put an individual in. Masters and Johnson talk about the difficulty of sexual comparisons with the Kinsey results. They find it hard to put an individual between the numbers 2 to 4 if the individual has a large amount of heterosexual and homosexual experiences. This is because it becomes hard for that individual to judge the relative amount of each without bias.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Kinsey thought about two areas of sexual orientation. The two areas are sexual reactions and sexual experiences. Weinrich says important information is lost when the two values combine into one final result. A person only with same gender sexual reactions is different from someone with little sexual reactions but a large amount of same gender sexual experiences. Also, there are more than two areas of sexuality to be thought about. Attraction and identity are other areas to judge. This is fixed in the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid.


title: Sexual orientation

text: A 1970s study on masculinity and femininity says that the concepts are better on separate scales. The scales are in place of single continuous scale. Each end of the scale is representative of total opposites. When on the same scale, one will have to decrease for the other to increase. To be more feminine, one has to be less masculine. To be more masculine, one has to be less feminine. However, if they are thought of as separate areas, one can be both very masculine and very feminine. In the same way, heterosexuality and homosexuality on separate scales would allow one to be both very heterosexual and very homosexual. Or someone can be not very much of either. This makes determining the degree of heterosexual and homosexual in an individual easy. It is easy because each area is thought as independent rather than attempts to match a specific balance like the Kinsey scale.


title: Sexual orientation

text: Many people have been discriminated against because of their sexual orientation. In many cultures, people who are homosexual or bisexual have been teased (made fun of), fired from their job, or made to suffer violence because of who they are. In many countries and states, there are laws against having sex with somebody of the same gender, and people can be put in jail because of who they have sex with. In the United States, these laws were struck down (repealed) by the United States Supreme Court in the last few years. The Yogyakarta Principles are made to combat such discrimination and United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights also made a document "Born Free and Equal" to counter them by international human rights law.


title: Steam

text: Steam is the name given to water when it is in a gas form. Steam is sometimes thought of as a cloud of translucent mist, however that is only the result of the steam condensing in the air, forming water vapor. Actual hot steam is invisible.


title: Steam

text: When the pressure of the atmosphere is 1013 mbar (this is about the average pressure for a place which is at sea level), water will boil (turn into steam) at 100 degrees Celsius. This is the boiling point. Boiling happens in a boiler. 100 degrees Celsius is the same temperature as 212 degrees Fahrenheit, 80 degrees Réaumur and 373.15 Kelvin.


title: Steam

text: A major use of steam is to power steam engines. A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid.


title: Manipur

text: Manipur () is a state within the Republic of India. It has area of 22,347 km (8,628 mi). In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North-east Indian zone.


title: Manipur

text: The state is bordered by the Indian states of Nagaland to its north, Mizoram to its south and Assam to its west. Its eastern border is the Indian border with Myanmar. Manipur has a long recorded written history of kings ascended in the main throne of Kangla. The list of these kings can be found in a chronicle known as Cheitharol Kumbaba. Cheitharol Kumbaba, also spelled Cheitharon Kumpapa, is the court chronicle of the kings of Manipur. It recorded the history of the Kingdom of Manipur from the founding of the Ningthouja dynasty in 33 CE under king Nongda Lairen Pakhangba until the merger of the kingdom with India in 1949 and the subsequent abolition of monarchy. It ends with the last king of Manipur, Bodhchandra. The Cheitharol Kumbaba is probably one of the oldest chronicles of the region and is written on more than 1000 leaves of Meetei paper in Meetei Mayek, an early Meitei script.


title: Oregon

text: Oregon is a state in the United States. Salem is the capital (where most of the state government works), and Portland is the city with the most people. Oregon was the 33rd state to join the United States, in 1859.


title: Oregon

text: The state of Washington is to the north of Oregon. California and Nevada are to the south. Idaho is to the east. The Pacific Ocean is to the west.


title: Oregon

text: The Columbia River flows along most of the border with Washington. The Snake River flows along much of the border with Idaho. The highest mountain is Mount Hood ( high), part of the Cascade Range of mountains. Another famous Cascade Mountain in Oregon is Mount Mazama, better known as Crater Lake.


title: Oregon

text: Oregon was a long way from the United States of America, which was east of the Mississippi river in the 1830s and 1840s. To get to Oregon, settlers had to cross the Great Plains, which were empty except for a few forts and groups of Native Americans. Most people thought that it was impossible to farm there. They called it the "Great American Desert", because crossing it was long and dangerous; however, thousands did anyway.


title: Oregon

text: Mountain men (people who knew a lot about living in mountainous places) had found a passway over the Rocky Mountains, and they named it the South Pass. This path helped many wagons to reach the west coast. In 1836 a missionary named Marcus Whitman crossed through the pass with his wife to Oregon. This proved that it was possible for others with women and families to go too, and because of this, Oregon suddenly became the place pioneers wanted to make a trip to.


title: Oregon

text: Most of the settlers that came by the Oregon Trail had a very difficult trip. The Trail began in Missouri, and they went in covered wagons pulled by animals like bulls. They could only travel 100 miles in one week, and so the whole trip would take half a year. But still, lots of pioneers traveled so much that it is still possible to see the wagon ruts in some places today.


title: Oregon

text: Life on the trail was very hard for the pioneers. Every day, they would break up and camp, travel all day, and set up camp again. Food was usually beans and coffee, for every single day of the trip. The travelers always searched for water, wood for fires, and something to catch and eat fresh. But these were hard to find, and so sometimes they got mad at each other and fought with fists and guns.


title: Oregon

text: The Trail was also dangerous. Rivers could flood, washing away people and other things. Native Americans could attack, oxen or horses could die, and diseases and injuries could strike.


title: Oregon

text: By 1840, due to all the hard work of the pioneers, there were thousands of Americans in Oregon. Towns and farms had been set up. The area was part of British North America at the time. But the British, however, only had a few hundred settlers in Oregon. Because of this, the Americans began to plan to take over the whole land.


title: Oregon

text: Many Americans wanted this as well. They made up the slogan, "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" and wanted all of Oregon up to latitude 54 or they would go to war with Britain to get it. They were so eager to have Oregon all for themselves, they supported James Polk as president because he claimed to have similar thoughts with them as well.


title: Oregon

text: However, after President Polk was elected, he began to be more sensible. He did not want to wage war with Britain, if it could be avoided. The British also realized that the Americans would soon have enough settlers in Oregon to easily drive out the British defenders. In 1846 the British offered to divide Oregon by giving most of the border land between the USA and what is now Canada. President Polk accepted this, and so now the Americans had power over Oregon as well as the other states.


title: Oregon

text: There are a number of colleges and universities in Oregon. The four-year universities with the most students are Portland State University, Oregon State University, and the University of Oregon.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: Reading (pronounced: "Redding") is a large town in Berkshire in England. It is the largest settlement in Berkshire. It is home to about 230,000 people. Reading is found in South East England, between London and Bristol. The River Thames goes through the town. Reading replaced Abingdon as the county town of Berkshire in 1867.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: There is a large statue of a lion in Forbury Gardens, and local legend has it that the sculptor killed himself by jumping off the top because he had sculpted the legs wrong. The lion is a memorial to soldiers from Berkshire who were killed in Maiwand, (Afghanistan) in a war in 1880.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: Reading is the home of a school which used to be a Hospital in World War I and World War II. It is named Redlands Primary School.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: Madejski stadium is home to the Reading Football Club whose nickname is "The Royals". They are also known as the "Biscuit Men". The stadium was opened on 22 August 1998.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: Reading is the largest town in England. Of course, there are larger cities in England but Reading has not been granted city status and it doesn't have a cathedral. Also, Reading is home to the Oracle, a huge shopping centre and a large university named University of Reading.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: Reading began life as a Saxon Settlement. Reading was originally called Reada Ingas, which means people of Reada. Reada was a Saxon leader in the area with his tribe in the 6th century.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: The Normans built a wooden castle in Reading. It was later replaced by a stone castle. The king then demolished the castle in 1152 fearing it might come into the hands of his enemies.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: Reading was an important centre in the medieval period, as the site of Reading Abbey, a monastery with strong royal connections


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: The Huntley and Palmer's biscuit factory was the biggest in the world in 1914 and one factory was built on Kings Road by George Palmer in 1846.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: "The Blade" in central Reading is the tallest building in Reading. It is 86 metres tall. It is visible from many places in the town.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: Palmer Park was founded by George Palmer and it has a statue of George Palmer in it. Palmer Park was built for his workers to rest and people still enjoy using the park today.


title: Reading, Berkshire

text: TV presenter Chris Tarrant ("Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?") and comedian Ricky Gervais are from Reading, and also actress Kate Winslet, who has a road named after her. Musician Mike Oldfield is also from Reading. Tony Sullivan (local legend) is also a resident in the town. The town has two universities and is famous for its rock festival. Reading is home to Championship football and rugby teams.


title: Bonfire

text: A bonfire or balefire is a large controlled outdoor fire made from bales of straw or wood. The word is believed to come from "bone fire". In the time of the Celts, there were midsummer festivals where animal bones were burnt to ward off evil spirits.


title: Bonfire

text: In Great Britain, bonfires are particularly associated with "Guy Fawkes Night". This night is also known as "fireworks night" or "bonfire night". On this night, people celebrate that the Gunpowder Plot was discovered. This discovery took place on 5 November 1605. They do this celebration each year. (It is called an "annual celebration".)


title: Bonfire

text: In Northern Ireland, "bonfires" are associated with celebrations on the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne.


title: Bonfire

text: In Japan, large fires called bon-bi are set to welcome the return of the spirits of the ancestors. Though the two terms are not etymologically or historically related, they serve similar purposes and indicate the universal importance of large fires.


title: Bonfire

text: Bonfires were also used for rituals. The idea was that the fire would purify. It was used to consecrate things, or people, that is to make them sacred, in some way. In ancient times, cattle were important symbols of wealth and status. Such cattle were led through the smoke of a bonfire. Couples who were to be wed on May Day would leap through the flames of the bonfire to seal their vows. Coals from a bonfire would be taken home to light the fires in family hearths. This practice was thought to bring good fortune. People also believed that the residents of the Faery realm were incapable of producing fire themselves; embers of bonfires would be carried to the underworld and tended there.


title: Bonfire

text: Along with the Maypole, the bonfire is an important component of the Wiccan and Neopagan celebration of Beltaine, also known as May Day.


title: Bonfire

text: Nine woods are placed into a traditional Wiccan balefire. These woods are rowan, dogwood, elder, poplar, oak, juniper, holly, cedar, and apple. Occasionally, pine is also used instead of holly or elder, as are a handful of other woods. In some regions, superstition, religious belief, or tradition prohibits the cutting of certain trees.


title: Constellation

text: A constellation is a group of stars which make up imaginary outline or pattern in the night sky (the celestial sphere). Usually they are said to represent an animal, mythological person or creature in a shape. When seen, the group of stars seem to make a pattern.


title: Constellation

text: The word constellation comes from Latin: "con-", meaning together and "stella-" meaning stars. Some examples of constellations are Ursa major, Orion, Taurus, Draco, Cancer etc. Constellations were used to group stars. Different places in the world may have different constellations, but today astronomy has a fixed set of 88 constellations. This set is based on the Greek set and later some southern constellations were added, for example Antlia - the air pump. Most constellations have names that come from Greek mythology, like Orion or Andromeda.


title: Constellation

text: There are 12 constellations in the Zodiac. The Sun travels through the Zodiac once each year. There is also a thirteenth constellation Ophiuchus - the carrier of a serpent, which the Sun goes through. However, most people do not think that it is in the Zodiac.


title: Cats (musical)

text: Cats is a musical. It is based on "Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats", a book of poems by T.S. Eliot. Trevor Nunn wrote the lyrics for the song, "Memory", which is based on some of T.S Eliot's poems. Andrew Lloyd Webber wrote the music.


title: Cats (musical)

text: "Cats" premiered at the New London Theatre in the West End on 11 May 1981. It closed on 11 May 2002 after 8,949 performances. It opened on Broadway on 7 October 1982 at the Winter Garden Theatre. It closed on 10 September 2000, after 7,485 performances.


title: Cats (musical)

text: The musical won the 1982 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical and the 1983 Tony Award for Best Musical.


title: Cats (musical)

text: Every year, a tribe of cats known as the Jellicle Cats meet for the Jellicle Ball. At the Jellicle Ball, Old Deuteronomy, the leader of the tribe, chooses one cat to ascend to the Heaviside layer to be reborn and return to a new life.


title: Cats (musical)

text: Grizabella, an elderly (younger in some productions) glamour cat who left the Jellicle tribe's junkyard home, comes back to her tribe, but they shun her. While the other cats dance at the Jellicle Ball, Grizabella watches in the background. She performs a simple dance when the other cats leave and sings about how she wants to be accepted. Old Deutoronomy sees this and sympathizes with her.


title: Cats (musical)

text: In act two, Old Deuteronomy gets kidnapped by Macavity, a "mystery cat" who is the only true antagonist in the musical. As soon as he is successfully returned, it is time to choose who goes to the Heaviside layer.


title: Starbucks

text: Starbucks is a chain of stores that sell coffee. A chain is many stores owned by the same company. Many of the stores look the same, and all stores sell the same items, often at the same prices. As well as coffee, Starbucks sells beverages and baked goods.


title: Starbucks

text: Starbucks started in Seattle in the United States in 1971. The number of stores has grown quickly. There are over 9,000 Starbucks stores all over the world. Most of these stores are in the United States. Some large cities in the U.S. have many Starbucks stores. Sometimes they open so many stores in one city that there are two Starbucks within a few blocks of each other.


title: Starbucks

text: Starbucks sells many kinds of drinks. There are 5 sizes: short, tall, grande, venti and trenta. There are many ways to customize each drink. A "frappuccino", for example, is a cold drink. Flavored syrup and cream is added to coffee or juice and stirred with ice.


title: Nebraska

text: Nebraska is a state near to the center of the United States. Its capital is Lincoln and the largest city is Omaha. It touches the states of Wyoming, South Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Colorado and Kansas.


title: Nebraska

text: Nebraska has hot summers and cold winters. A temperature of 30 °C (which is about 86 °F) is common in the summer, and in the winter it can be -20 °C (which is about -4 °F) or colder at night.


title: Nebraska

text: Native American tribes, including the Omaha, Oto, Missouri, Pawnee, Arapaho and Cheyenne, all ceded land in Nebraska to the U.S. government.


title: Nebraska

text: On May 30, 1854, the United States government made a law called the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It made two territories called Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory. In the 1860s, many people moved there to take free land from the government. Nebraska became a state on March 1, 1867.


title: Context (language)

text: Context in language is what surrounds a word or piece of text. In order to understand what words mean, we have to know something about the situation where they are used. In print, a word, phrase or sentence has other text around it. This helps the reader to understand the piece in question. In speech, the social setting as well as the language help the listener to understand what is said.


title: Context (language)

text: Something like: "You can take it whenever you need to" might refer to almost anything. However, if it is said by a doctor to a patient, then the context is clear, and the listener can guess it refers to some kind of medication. So the context is what goes with a text (written or spoken) which helps the reader (or listener) understand the communication.


title: Context (language)

text: However, to understand what is really going on, we may need to go beyond what is said or written. A simple phrase, such as "I hate you" can mean exactly the opposite. All kinds of clues are needed to understand what has been said. Along with verbal communication comes non-verbal communication.


title: Racial segregation

text: Racial segregation means separating people because of their races. Segregation was legal and normal in many countries across the world, for many years. For example, until 1964, it was still legal to separate white and African-American people in some states. In South Africa, from the 1940s until the 1990s, a system called apartheid kept white and black South Africans separate. Racial segregation has happened in many other countries, throughout history.


title: Racial segregation

text: Segregation is not as simple as having "separate but equal" places for people of different races. Segregation happens when a country or a society views one race as better than another. The goal of segregation is to keep the "inferior" race away from the "better" race. Because one race is seen as "inferior," people of that race are not treated well. They go through discrimination. Often they are not given basic rights, like the right to vote. As a United States Supreme Court judge said in a case about segregation in schools: "separate facilities are [always] unequal." Things did stop segregation, like Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks. They helped a lot by speaking up for their side. Although they knew that they would get in trouble. Rosa Parks made every black person stop using the buses until the bus company ran out of money (most of their money came from black people). This worked and the black people were allowed to use the buses without separation.


title: Racial segregation

text: Segregation may have existed in early Anglo-Saxon England. When the Anglo-Saxons arrived in England in the 4th century, they may have created an "apartheid-like society," according to some historians. They may have treated the native British people like slaves, and had rules against marrying them. Some historians say Anglo-Saxons were much richer and had a higher social status than Celtic Britons.


title: Racial segregation

text: From the early 1800s to the late 1980s, the Australian government took many Aboriginal children away from their families. Their families had not agreed to let their children go. However, the government had decided to force Aboriginal children to "assimilate" into Australian society. The children where placed in white homes or on missions. There, they were forced to learn Christianity, leave behind their Aboriginal culture, become a part of white society, and marry white people. The goal of this program was to "breed out" Aboriginal traits so that they no longer existed in Australia. Later, in 1951, the United Nations would define this type of program as genocide.


title: Racial segregation

text: From about 1900 to the 1970s, Australia followed what became known as the "White Australia Policy." This policy kept non-white people from immigrating to Australia by making immigration tests too hard to pass.


title: Racial segregation

text: In the early- to mid-twentieth century, many Aborigines were forced to live on missions. The goal of this policy was to get the Aborigines off their lands, because white settlers wanted to use them.


title: Racial segregation

text: In the 1960s, Australia changed its official policy to "integration." This meant that the Aborigines had to be able to live in Australian society or on missions. However, many Aborigines refused to follow these orders and kept living far away from cities. In these areas, they were segregated from the rest of Australian society, and were also poorer. At the time, some people called the situation "apartheid," and even suggested that the Australian government's policies inspired the apartheid program in South Africa.


title: Racial segregation

text: In 1366, the King of England passed thirty-five laws called the Statutes of Kilkenny. Their goal was to prevent English settlers in Ireland from mixing with the Irish people or becoming too much like the Irish. The laws made it illegal the English to marry native Irish people, have Irish children, adopt Irish children, use Irish names or clothes, or speak anything but English.


title: Racial segregation

text: In 1830, France took control of Algeria from the Ottoman Empire. For over a hundred years, Algeria was a French colony. The French rulers kept an apartheid-like system in Algeria. For example, Arab and Berber Algerians were allowed to apply for French citizenship (which would give them the right to vote and other rights) only if they abandoned their Muslim religion and culture.


title: Racial segregation

text: Algerian Muslims were not willing to go along with this "system of apartheid," and this system was one of the main causes of the Algerian War in 1954.


title: Racial segregation

text: In fifteenth-century north-east Germany, "Wendish" (Slavic) people were not allowed to join some guilds. According to Wilhelm Raabe, "into the eighteenth century no German guild accepted a Wend."


title: Racial segregation

text: In 1935, after the Nazi Party had taken control of the German government, they passed the Nuremberg Laws. The Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, believed that the "Aryan" race was better than any other races. The Nuremberg Laws made it illegal for "Aryan" and "non-Aryan" people to marry or have sex. At first, the laws were mostly meant to keep "Aryans" from mixing with Jewish people (who the Nazis viewed as an inferior race). However, the Nazis later added "Gypsies, Negroes and their bastard [children]" to the Laws. Aryans who broke these laws could be sent to concentration camps; non-Aryans could be executed. To keep German blood "pure," after World War II began, the Nazis made it illegal for any non-German to marry or have sex with a German person.


title: Racial segregation

text: In 1939, the Nazis invaded Poland and took it over. They divided the Polish people into different ethnic groups. Based on how "Germanic" they were, each group had different rights. For example, the different groups were allowed different amounts of food; and were only allowed to live in certain places and use certain public transportation.


title: Racial segregation

text: During the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis made Jews wear yellow ribbons or stars of David with the word ""Jude"" ("Jew") on them. Racial laws discriminated against Jews and Roma people (Gypsies). For example, Jewish doctors were not allowed to treat Aryan patients; Jewish professors were not allowed to teach Aryan students. Jews were not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry; ride bicycles; or ride in cars. They were allowed to shop only from 3:00pm to 5:00pm, and only in stores owned by Jews. They could not go to theaters, swimming pools, or any other places for entertainment.


title: Racial segregation

text: During the Holocaust, the Nazis tried to kill all of the Jews and Roma in Europe. They also killed millions of Slavic people (including Ukrainian, Soviet, and Polish people), because they saw Slavs as an inferior race. First the Nazis forced Jews and Roma to live in ghettoes, apart from everyone else. Then they sent millions of Jews, Roma, and Slavs to concentration camps and death camps.


title: Racial segregation

text: Also, between 1939 and 1945, at least 1.5 million Polish people were deported to Nazi Germany for forced labour. Nazi Germany also used forced laborers from Western Europe. However, Polish people and other Eastern Europeans who the Nazis viewed as racially inferior were treated much worse. They were forced to wear a cloth tag on their clothing with the letter "P" on it, which showed that they were Polish. They had to follow a curfew and could not use public transportation. Usually, they had to work longer hours, for lower pay, than Western Europeans. In many cities, they had to live in segregated barracks, behind barbed wire. They were not allowed to talk to Germans outside of work. If they had sexual relations with Germans, they would be executed.


title: Racial segregation

text: During the Tang Dynasty, the Han Chinese passed several laws that segregated non-Chinese people from Chinese people. In 779, the Tang Dynasty made a rule which forced Uighurs to wear their traditional ethnic clothing, not Chinese clothing. It also banned them from 'pretending' to be Chinese, and from marrying Chinese women. The Han Chinese disliked the Uighurs because they loaned money for interest.


title: Racial segregation

text: In 836, when Lu Chun was appointed governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and marrying them. Lu made segregation the law. He made it illegal for non-Chinese people to marry Chinese people or to own property. The law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "Dark peoples" or "People of color." This meant foreigners like "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", and others.


title: Racial segregation

text: In 1938, Italy was ruled by a fascist regime led by Benito Mussolini. The regime was allied with Nazi Germany. Under pressure from the Nazis, the regime passed several laws that said the Italian Empire would now practice segregation. They called these laws the 'provvedimenti per la difesa della razza' (norms for the defence of the race).


title: Racial segregation

text: Because of these laws, Italy lost some of its best scientists. Some were fired. For example, Rita Levi-Montalcini, who would later win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, was told she could no longer work at her university. Others left Italy because of the laws. For example, Enrico Fermi, who worked on the first nuclear reactor and won the Nobel Prize for Physics, left the country. (His wife was Jewish.) Many other well-known scientists, physicists, mathematicians, and other scholars lost their jobs or left Italy because of the race laws.


title: Racial segregation

text: Albert Einstein resigned from his honorary membership at the Accademia dei Lincei, an Italian science academy, to protest the race laws.


title: Racial segregation

text: After 1943, when Northern Italy was occupied by the Nazis, Italian Jews were taken to Nazi concentration camps and death camps.


title: Racial segregation

text: For centuries, Jews in Europe were often forced to live in segregated ghettos and shtetls (small towns where mostly Jews lived). In 1204, the Pope ordered Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and to wear clothing that marked them as Jews. Forced segregation of Jews spread throughout Europe during the 14th and 15th centuries.


title: Racial segregation

text: In the Russian Empire, starting in the 1790s, Jews were only allowed to live in the Pale of Settlement. This was the Western frontier of the Russian Empire, about where Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine are today. By the early 20th century, most European Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement.


title: Racial segregation

text: In Morocco, beginning in the 15th century, Jewish people were segregated in "mellahs". In cities, a "mellah" was a separate area for Jews, surrounded by a wall with a fortified gateway. Rural "mellahs" were separate villages where only Jews lived.


title: Racial segregation

text: When Spanish people came to the Americas and made Latin American countries into colonies, they created a caste system based on race. They came up with fifteen different categories of people based on their race mixtures, including categories like "mulatto" and "mestizo". People who were "whiter" or more "Spanish" had a higher social status than people who were "darker" or more Native American. People who were "darker" were treated as inferior and faced discrimination for example, they had to pay higher taxes than "whiter" people.


title: Racial segregation

text: Usually, when they won their independence from Spain, most Latin American countries made laws against caste systems. However, prejudice based on race remains.


title: Racial segregation

text: Racial segregation in South Africa began when the country was a Dutch colony. The Dutch landed at Cape Town in 1652 and gradually took over more and more of the country. Segregation continued when the British Empire took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795.


title: Racial segregation

text: Slavery existed in South Africa until 1833. However, two years later, the government passed a law that changed slaves into indentured servants. This system was not very different from slavery. Throughout the rest of the 1800s, the South African colonies passed laws that limited these worker's rights and freedoms.


title: Racial segregation

text: In 1894 and 1905, the government passed laws saying that "Indians" and 'blacks" had no right to vote. Other laws discriminated against non-whites, but were not as bad as the apartheid laws that would come within the next 50 years.


title: Racial segregation

text: Apartheid in South Africa started in 1948. At that time, the National Party won control of the South African government. This political party was made up of Afrikaner people. Afrikaners are the descendants of Dutch settlers who came to South Africa in the 1600s and 1700s. The National Party believed in Afrikaner nationalism.


title: Racial segregation

text: The National Party passed apartheid laws to make racial segregation the law in South Africa. Some of the most important laws included:


title: Racial segregation

text: Under these apartheid laws, between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million non-white South Africans were forced to leave their homes and move into segregated neighborhoods. This is one of the largest mass removals in modern history.


title: Racial segregation

text: Other laws made it illegal for a person to marry or have sex with a person of a different race. Then, in 1969, the government took away "Coloured" people's right to vote. Since "Indians" and "blacks" had not been allowed to vote for decades, this meant that whites were the only people in South Africa who were allowed to vote.


title: Racial segregation

text: In 1970, non-whites were banned from having representatives in the government. That same year, black people's South African citizenship was taken away.


title: Racial segregation

text: Protests against apartheid started right after apartheid did. As early as 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) suggested fighting against racial segregation using many different strategies. Over the next 45 years, hundreds of anti-apartheid actions occurred. They included protests by the Black Consciousness Movement; student protests; labor strikes; and church group activism. In 1991, the Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed, reversing laws about racial segregation, including the Group Areas Act. In 1990, President Frederik Willem de Klerk started trying to end apartheid. Nonwhites were given the right to vote in 1993. South Africa had its first multiracial elections (where non-whites were allowed to be candidates in 1994. Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress won. Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for working together to end apartheid.


title: Racial segregation

text: The United States has a long history of racial segregation, starting when the first European settlers came to North America. First through slavery, then through racist laws, and then through racist attitudes, African-American people in the United States have faced segregation for centuries. People of other races have been segregated too. For example, during World War II, the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, ordered almost the entire Japanese-American population to be segregated in internment camps.


title: Racial segregation

text: People of all races have fought against segregation and discrimination in the United States. Thanks to movements like the Civil Rights Movement, segregation is now against the law in the United States. However, prejudice against minority groups still exists. This has led to new types of segregation caused by people's prejudices and behavior.


title: Racial segregation

text: The State of Israel has practiced apartheid against Palestinians. It started in its occupation of the West Bank; the term apartheid in this context refers to apartheid in international law. Or may compare it with apartheid in South Africa. Some use the term to include treatment of Arab citizens of Israel. They describe their status as second-class citizens.


title: Racial segregation

text: These features regard such things as the ID system. Also includes the pattern of Israeli settlements, separate roads for Israeli and Palestinian people, Israeli military checkpoints, marriage law, the West Bank barrier, the use of Palestinians for cheaper labour, the Palestinian West Bank land exclaves, inequality in infrastructure, legal rights (e.g. "Enclave law"), and inequality of access to land and resources between Palestinians and Israeli settlers. It is argued that, like South Africa, Israel may be classified as a settler colonial society, in violation of international law.