title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869 in Porbandar, India. Several members of his family worked for the government of the state. When Gandhi was 18 years old, he went to study law in England. After he became a lawyer, he went to the British colony of South Africa where he experienced laws that said people with dark skin had fewer rights than people with light skin. In 1897, Gandhi was attacked by a group of people in Durban Harbor, South Africa when he was going to work. He went to South Africa because he could not find work in India. When traveling through South Africa, Gandhi was also kicked out of a first class train because of his skin color. Then Gandhi started protesting against segregation. He decided then to become a political activist, so he could help change these unfair laws. He created a powerful, non-violent movement. During Gandhi's life, India was a colony of the British Empire, but wanted independence. He was a huge leader during that era and his thoughts helped catalyze the Indian independence movement.


title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: On 9 January 1915 when Gandhi returned to India, he decided to again lead a march against a law called the Rowlatt Act. But then the protest turned violent and people started to kill the protesters.


title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: When he returned to India, he helped cause India's independence from British rule, inspiring other colonial people to work for their independence, break up the British Empire, and replace it with the Commonwealth.


title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: People of many different religions and ethnic groups lived in British India. Many people thought the country should break into separate countries so different groups could have their own countries. In particular, many people thought that Hindus and Muslims should have separate countries. Gandhi was a Hindu, but he liked ideas from many religions including Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, and he thought that people of all religions should have the same rights, and could live together peacefully in the same country.


title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: In 1938, Gandhi resigned from Congress. He said he could no longer work through Congress to unite the divisions in caste and religion. He also felt that he had little to offer to the political process.


title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: On 15 August 1947, the British Indian Empire split into India and Pakistan. Gandhi wanted independence but did not want the former Raj to split into two different countries. Instead of celebrating independence day, he was crying over the end of British India.


title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: Gandhi's principle of "satyagraha", often translated as "way of truth" or "pursuit of truth", has inspired other democratic and anti-racist activists like Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela. Gandhi often said that his values were simple, based upon traditional Hindu beliefs: truth ("Satya"), and non-violence ("ahimsa").


title: Mahatma Gandhi

text: On January 30, 1948, he was shot to death by a Brahman activist Nathuram Godse, because Godse thought that Gandhi was too respectful to the Muslims. Godse was tried and executed by Indian officials.


title: California

text: California, officially the State of California, is a state in the western part of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is the third biggest US state by land area (after Alaska and Texas) with 163,696 square mi (423,970 km). It has more people than any other state with over 39 million people as of 2019. It also has more people than Canada. Its largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco. The capital is Sacramento. The states around its borders are Arizona to the southeast, Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south.


title: California

text: California is the US state with the largest economy. California's Silicon Valley is home to some of the world's most valuable technology companies, including Apple, Alphabet Inc., and Facebook.


title: California

text: What is now California was first settled by Native Californian tribes. It was explored by Europeans in the 16th and 17th century. It became the 31st state of the United States in 1850.


title: California

text: 39% of people in California are Hispanic. California hosts a large Mexican American population. Hispanics are expected to number 23.7 million in 2050. Asians are the fastest growing ethnic group in California.


title: California

text: Many celebrities and rich people live in California. Los Angeles attracts tourists from all over the world due to its celebrity culture. Many movies and television shows are filmed in Los Angeles.


title: California

text: California is home to many immigrants. Recent immigrants in California are from Asia. Most immigrants in California come from Mexico (3.9 million), the Philippines (859,000), China (796,000), Vietnam (539,000), and India (513,000).


title: California

text: Many Latinos such as Peruvians, Brazilians, Dominicans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, Colombians, Venezuelans, Panamanians, Nicaraguans, Guatemalans, Argentines, Uruguayans, Bolivians, Mexicans, Hondurans and Salvadorans live in California. California is also home to a large Indonesian, Dutch, Surinamese, Indian, Chinese, Vietnamese, Bulgarian, Korean, Greek, Italian, Portuguese, Cape Verdean, Romanian, Japanese, Hungarian and Egyptian population.


title: California

text: In 2021, the number of Hispanic and Latino residents in California had surpassed the number of white residents, with about 15.75 million Hispanics compared to 13.4 million white residents.


title: California

text: The geography of California varies depending on region. Southwestern California has small mountain ranges and the cities of San Diego and Los Angeles. Southeastern California has the Mojave Desert and Death Valley, the lowest place in the United States. The eastern part of the state has the highest point in the United States outside of Alaska: Mount Whitney, in the Sierra Nevada mountain range.


title: California

text: The cities of Sacramento, Bakersfield, and Fresno are in the Central Valley. The valley has the Sierra Nevada to the east and the Pacific Coast Ranges to the west. It is California's single most productive agricultural region and one of the most productive in the world. It produces more than half the fruit, vegetables, and nuts grown in the United States. More than seven million acres (28,000 km) of the valley are irrigated by an extensive system of reservoirs and canals.


title: California

text: The west-central part of the state has some small mountains and the cities of San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland. Northern California has the Cascade Range, the Klamath Mountains, and the Modoc Plateau. Far northern California does not have many people, but the San Francisco region and the Sacramento region are often thought of as part of northern California.


title: California

text: California is home to many animals such as racoons, the California condor, and the mountain lion. California’s official flower is the California poppy. California was once home to the Grizzly bear and the jaguar. California poppy is the official flower of California.


title: California

text: The state is a leader in three businesses: farming, movie-making, and high technology, mostly software and websites. Aerospace used to be a large industry there, but it has been downsized in the last 20 years.


title: California

text: California is very diverse. Today it has high numbers of Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, and Armenian Americans.


title: California

text: There are many earthquakes in California. They happen when two tectonic plates (parts of the Earth's crust) shift underground. Californians need to be prepared for earthquakes and often store extra food, water, flashlights, and first aid supplies in case of such an emergency.


title: California

text: California has more people than any other state in the United States. If California was a separate country, it would have the sixth largest economy in the world. California is probably the state with the most ethnic groups. It also has many different geographic features – mountains, deserts, and coasts. It is often called "The Golden State". The state flower is the golden poppy. The post office uses "CA" as a shorthand for California, and the Associated Press uses "Calif." or "Cali."


title: California

text: California has a large population of Mexican Americans. Mexican Americans have influenced Californian cuisine and Californian culture. California also has a large Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Indian, and Chinese population. There aren't as many white people in the state but there are still many Russian, Spaniard, German, English, Scottish, Portuguese, Italian, Dutch, Irish, and French people in the state. Other ethnic groups in California are Serbians, Persians, Bulgarians, Navajos, Cherokees, Nicaraguans, Alaskans, and Romani people.


title: California

text: California is popular among celebrities. Celebrities such as Kim Kardashian, Dwayne Johnson, Kylie Jenner, and Jennifer Aniston are from California.


title: California

text: California English is a dialect of the English language spoken within California. California is the home to a highly diverse populace, and this is reflected in many other languages, especially Spanish. As is the case of English is spoken in any state, not all features of California English is used by all speakers in the state, and not all features are restricted in use only to the state. However, there are some linguistic features which can be identified as either originally or predominantly Californian.


title: California

text: California is famous for In-N-Out Burger, which is the regional chain of fast food restaurants and founded in 1948 by Harry and Esther Snyder.


title: California

text: Protestantism and Catholicism are the most practiced religions in California. A smaller population are Jews, Muslims, Hindus, and Buddhists.


title: California

text: Californian cuisine is influenced by Spanish cuisine, Mexican cuisine, and Asian cuisine. Mexican food is very popular in California.


title: California

text: California is popular for its tourism. Hollywood and Disneyland are popular tourist destinations in California. Most tourists in Los Angeles come from Mexico, China, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Japan, Vietnam, South Korea, France, Germany, Scandinavia, Middle East, and most recently, India, Spain, Italy, and Southeast Asia.


title: California

text: On November 4, 1992, Dianne Feinstein became one of California's United States senators. On January 3, 2017, Kamala Harris became the other one. In the 2020 presidential election, Kamala Harris was elected as the first woman and person of color to be Vice President of the United States.


title: California

text: In January 2021, Alex Padilla became the next U.S. Senator, replacing Harris, and became the first Hispanic U.S. Senator from the state.


title: California

text: California was more conservative during the 1960s and 1980s when its former governor, Ronald Reagan, ran for president as a Republican. Today, California is more liberal and less conservative.


title: California

text: The people in Coastal California were Native Americans. The original Californians were a diverse population, separated by language into as many as 135 distinct dialects. Tribes included the Karok, Maidu, Cahuilleno, Mojave, Yokuts, Pomo, Paiute, and Modoc. In the past, the area that was called "California" was not just today's California. This area covered the Mexican lands south of it, as well as Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona and Wyoming. The Spanish called the part of the land that later became part of the United States "Alta California" (Upper California) when it was split from what became "Baja California" (Lower California). In these early times, the borders of the Sea of Cortez and the Pacific coast were not well known, so the old maps wrongly showed California to be an island. The name comes from "Las sergas de Espladián" (Adventures of Spladian), a 16th-century book by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo, where there is an island paradise called California.


title: California

text: The first European who visited parts of the coast, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, came from Portugal in 1542. The first European who saw the entire coast was Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, and he decided that the British owned it. But starting in the late 1700s, Spanish religious leaders of the Roman Catholic Church ("missionaries") got large gifts of land in the area north of Baja California, from the Spanish king and queen. These religious people set up small towns and villages, the famous California Missions. When Mexico was no longer controlled by Spain, the Mexican government took over the villages, and they soon became empty.


title: California

text: In 1846, as the Mexican-American War was starting, some Americans in California hoped to create a California Republic. These men flew a "Bear flag" that had a golden bear with a star on it. This Republic ended suddenly, however, when Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into San Francisco Bay. He said that California was now part of the United States. After the war with Mexico ended, California was split between the two countries. The Mexican portion became the Mexican states of Baja California Norte (north) and Baja California Sur (south). ("Baja" means "lower" in Spanish.) The western part of the part given to the United States became today's state of California.


title: California

text: In 1848, there were about 4,000 Spanish-speaking people in today's California on the American side. (Today the state has a total of nearly 40,000,000 people.) In 1849, gold was suddenly found and the number of people went up very fast as the Gold Rush took hold. Slavery also spread there as people hoping to find gold brought African slaves and either forced them to work in gold mines or hired them out for other work. In 1850, California became a state in the Union (the United States).


title: California

text: During the American Civil War (1861-1865), many people in California, especially in the southern part of California, thought the South was right and slavery should be protected. Some people in Southern California even wanted Southern California to leave the rest of the state and join the Confederate States of America. However, this did not happen. California joined the war to and helped the North (the Union) and sent many troops east to fight the Confederacy.


title: California

text: At first, travel between the far west and the east coast of the United States was dangerous and took a lot of time. Going by land was very difficult, because there were no roads and no trains, and many Native Americans were attacking American people heading West in wagons. The only other way was to travel by boat around the Cape Horn, at the southern end of South America. This took months, since the trip was thousands of miles long and the Panama Canal had not yet been built either. But in 1869, the connection got better quickly, because the first railroad across the continent was finished. Meanwhile, more people in California were learning that the land there was very good to grow fruit and other crops. Oranges were grown in many parts of California. This was the beginning of the huge farming business that California has today.


title: California

text: The economy of the State of California is the largest in the United States. It has a gross state product (GSP) of US$3.0 trillion as of 2020. It has many sectors. The most dominant are finance, business services, government and manufacturing. If California were a sovereign nation, according to 2019 statistics, it would rank as the world's fifth largest economy, lying between Germany and India. Over 10% of the Fortune 1000 companies were based in California in 2018.


title: California

text: In 1900, there were only a million people in California and 105,000 in Los Angeles. Today, California has more people than any other U.S. state. Starting in 1965, the variety of people became much greater as many different people from around the world came to the United States and often decided to live in California. California is thought to be a very liberal state, but there are still a lot of people who are Republicans and view Ronald Reagan as a hero. Technology is very advanced and many new cultural trends begin there. Engineering and computers play a big part in the state's life. For over a hundred years, film has been one of the most important businesses in California. By the 1950s, television had also become an important business in California. Many Latinos especially Mexicans and Salvadorans live in the state.


title: California

text: In the twenty-first century, droughts and frequent wildfires attributed to climate change have occurred in the state. From 2011 to 2017, a persistent drought was the worst in its recorded history. The 2018 wildfire season was the state's deadliest and most destructive, most notably Camp Fire.


title: California

text: California has a growing Hispanic and Asian population. White people are the second largest ethnic group in California. Hispanics surpassed the white population in the 2010s.


title: California

text: In 2021, the number of Hispanic and Latino residents in California had surpassed the number of white residents, with about 15.75 million Hispanics compared to 13.4 million white residents.


title: Asatru

text: Asatru (Icelandic: Ásatrú) is a religion which involves the worship of ancient Germanic and Scandinavian Viking spirits and gods. It received official legal establishment in 1970s in Iceland through the efforts of and other Icelanders, who rejected Christianity and performed "Launblót" (secret offering) to pre-"Kristnitaka" (Christianization of Iceland) Nordic gods and goddesses. The current recognized national organization of Asatru in Iceland is Ásatrúarfélagið. The name is derived from two Old Norse words. It means "faith in the Æsir," the Germanic and Viking gods.


title: Asatru

text: A person who practices Asatru is called an "Asatruar", and is sometimes referred to as a Heathen. Asatru is also called Wodanism, Wotanism or Germanic paganism.


title: Asatru

text: In the United States, Asatruar parents often choose not to have their children circumcised, though some subgroups, including the Asatru Teutsch, that do not strongly support or oppose the practice.


title: Asatru

text: Asatru is a polytheistic religion in which various goddesses and gods are worshiped. The most prominent are Thor, Odin, Freyja, Frigg, Freyr, Tyr, Loki, and Heimdall.


title: Asatru

text: Major holidays revolve around the changing seasons with Yule being the most important. It is celebrated in late December and continues for twelve days. Holidays also vary greatly between different groups.


title: Asatru

text: 4. AsatruTeutsch modern belief book https://acrobat.adobe.com/link/review?uri=urn:aaid:scds:US:46eecc48-d413-476c-a506-0ff22a6acc31


title: Art

text: Art is a creative activity that expresses imaginative or technical skill. It produces a product, an object. Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a work of art, for others to experience.


title: Art

text: Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a "craft".


title: Art

text: Those who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity.


title: Art

text: "The arts" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre.


title: Art

text: Art is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content.


title: Art

text: Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired.


title: Art

text: The first and broadest sense of "art" means "arrangement" or "to arrange." In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors next to each other in a painting to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting design.


title: Art

text: Art may express emotion. Artists may feel a certain emotion and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them. Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an audience. However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion as well, then the art work may become publicly successful.


title: Art

text: All of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome and Persia had works and styles of art. In the Middle Ages, most of the art in Europe showed people from the Bible in paintings, stained glass windows, and mosaic tile floors and walls.


title: Art

text: Islamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic calligraphy, and architecture. In India and Tibet, painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included jade carving, bronze, pottery, poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty.


title: Art

text: In Europe, after the Middle Ages, there was a "Renaissance" which means "rebirth". People rediscovered science and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented perspective where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used nudity regularly in their art.


title: Art

text: In the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism. The history of twentieth century art includes Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Minimalism.


title: Art

text: In some societies, people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her "talent" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the property of the artist, protected by copyright.


title: Art

text: In other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its social capital into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: The structure of the Earth is divided into layers. These layers are both physically and chemically different. The Earth has an outer solid layer called the crust, a highly viscous layer called the mantle, a liquid layer that is the outer part of the core, called the outer core, and a solid center called the inner core. The shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid, because it is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: The boundaries between these layers were discovered by seismographs which showed the way vibrations bounced off the layers during earthquakes. Between the Earth's crust and the mantle is a boundary called the moho. It was the first discovery of a major change in the Earth's structure as one goes deeper.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: A full explanation of these effects is not yet clear. It seems that the high temperature and pressure cause changes in the crystallization of minerals, so that the composition might be a kind of changing mixture of liquid and crystals.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: The moho, properly called the Mohorovičić discontinuity, is the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle. It was discovered by Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909. He discovered that seismograms of earthquakes showed two kinds of seismic waves. There is a shallow slower wave which arrives first, and a deep faster wave which arrives second. He reasoned that the deeper wave changed speed as it got just below the mantle. The reason it went faster was that the material of the mantle was different from that of the crust.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: The discontinuity lies 3040 km below the surface of continents, and less deep below the ocean floors.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: Geologists have been trying to get at the Moho for decades. During the late 1950s and early 1960s "Project Mohole" did not get enough support, and was cancelled by the United States Congress in 1967. Efforts were also made by the Soviet Union. They reached a depth of over 15 years, the world's deepest hole, before abandoning the attempt in 1989.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: Reaching the discontinuity is still an important scientific target. One proposal considers a self-descending tungsten capsule. The idea is that the capsule would be filled with radioactive material. This would give off enough heat to melt the surrounding rock, and the capsule would be pulled down by gravity.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: The Japanese project Chikyū Hakken ("Earth discovery") plans to use a drilling shop to drill down through the thinner ocean crust. On 6 September 2012 Scientific deep sea drilling vessel Chikyu set a new world record by drilling down and obtaining rock samples from deeper than 2,111 metres below the seafloor off the Shimokita Peninsula of Japan in the northwest Pacific Ocean.


title: Structure of the Earth

text: Macquarie Island, off Tasmania, is at the meeting-point of two huge oceanic plates: the Pacific Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate. The island is made of material pushed up from deep in the Earth's mantle. It is thought that the green ophiolite rock was formed at the moho, and was brought up by a mid-oceanic ridge. Now it comes to the surface because the two plates are scrunching together. It is the only place on Earth where this is happening at present. There are other places where ophiolite is found, but they were brought up many millions of years ago. Ophiolites are found in all the major mountain belts of the world.


title: School

text: A school is a educational environment where children go to learn from a teacher. Topics such as reading, writing and mathematics are central to education.


title: School

text: Most of a student's time is spent in a classroom. This is where 10 to 30 people sit to take part in educational discussion. In the United States, the average number of students per classroom in primary schools is 23.1.


title: School

text: The term "school" is used for many educational environments--particularly in North America. There are different types of schools: elementary schools (primary in the UK), middle schools (secondary in the UK), and so on.


title: School

text: In many places around the world, children must go to school for a certain number of years. Learning may take place in the classroom, in outside environments or on visits to other places. Colleges and universities are places to learn for students over 17 or 18 years of age. Vocational schools teach skills people need for jobs.


title: School

text: Some people attend school longer than others. This is because some jobs require more training than others, like for example becoming a doctor takes about 10-14 years of education. For young children, one teacher may teach all subjects. Teachers for older students are more specialized, and they only teach a few subjects. Common subjects taught include science, arts such as music, humanities, like geography and history, and languages.


title: School

text: Children with mental health problems, and problems such as autism and other conditions, usually do not go to regular schools. These children are given other ways to get schooling, like special schools. There also are special schools which teach things which regular schools do not.


title: School

text: Graduate schools are in universities. They are for students who have graduated with a first degree from colleges and universities. The aim is to offer Masters and PhD courses to the best students.


title: School

text: Education for all is quite modern. In England, for example, most people could not read or write, even early in the 19th century. We know this because when they got married, those who could not write put an 'X' on the certificate, and someone else wrote their name. Widespread education for reading and writing began in the 19th century.


title: School

text: Long ago, most schools were run by religious denominations. That is because clerics were once almost the only people who were literate: they were able to read and write.


title: School

text: In most countries boys were taught differently to girls, and separately from girls. Today, many countries have schools which accept both boys and girls, though some places still have separate schools for girls. Some parents believe that girls do better in single-sex schools.


title: School

text: Pedagogy is the science of teaching children. Different schools use different ways of teaching. There is quite a lot of disagreement about what and how students should be taught. Many countries solve this by allowing different types of school, so parents and children have some choice. Choices may include home education, which is a controversial idea.


title: School

text: A British term which means roughly "a secondary school for all children in a particular neighbourhood". It includes the idea of taking both boys and girls in one school, and the idea of taking children of all abilities. In practice it has many of the problems which are endemic in American high schools. Among its main faults are said to be: putting girls and boys together at the sensitive time of puberty, and the behavioural problems associated with having such a wide range of young people in a large school. Evidence for lowered standards for examinations are disputed, but widely believed to be true.


title: Tempo

text: Tempo (Italian for 'time, movement') is the speed of a song or piece of music. It is measured in beats per minute, or BPM. For example, if a song has 4 beats per bar at 100 BPM, there will be 25 bars per minute.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's (series)

text: Five Nights at Freddy's is an American horror multimedia franchise created by Scott Cawthon, which began with the eponymous 2014 video game.


title: Five Nights at Freddy's (series)

text: The original game ("Five Nights at Freddy's"), was followed by the sequels "Five Nights at Freddy's 2" (2014), "Five Nights at Freddy's 3" (2015), "Five Nights at Freddy's 4" (2015), "" (2016), "Freddy Fazbear's Pizzeria Simulator" (2017), "Ultimate Custom Night" (2018), "" (2019), "" (2021).


title: Five Nights at Freddy's (series)

text: The franchise has been expanded into four spin-off series, "Five Nights at Candy's", "One Night at Flumpty's," "The Joy of Creation", "Popgoes", an upcoming spin-off game; "Into Madness", an upcoming AAA game, an upcoming remake of the first game; "Five Nights at Freddy's Plus", a mobile game; "Special Delivery", novels, comic books, short films, a television series; "Freddy & Friends: On Tour"tive fanbase, known for its production of fan art and fangames, and merchandise for the games is available internationally. A horror attraction based on the franchise was featured in The Fright Dome for Halloween in 2016, and it also appeared in "Guinness World Records 2017: Gamer's Edition", where it set a record for the largest amount of sequels released in a year.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born American scientist. He worked on theoretical physics. He developed the theory of relativity. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for theoretical physics.


title: Albert Einstein

text: His famous equation is formula_1 (E = energy, m = mass, c = speed of light (energy = mass × speed of light²).


title: Albert Einstein

text: At the start of his career, Einstein didn't think that Newtonian mechanics was enough to bring together the laws of classical mechanics and the laws of the electromagnetic field. Between 1902–1909 he made the theory of special relativity to fix it.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein also thought that Isaac Newton's idea of gravity was not completely correct. So, he extended his ideas on special relativity to include gravity. In 1916, he published a paper on general relativity with his theory of gravitation.


title: Albert Einstein

text: In 1933, Einstein was visiting the United States but in Germany, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power (this is before World War II). Einstein, being of Jewish ethnicity, did not return to Germany due to Hitler’s anti-Semitic policies. He lived in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the beginning of World War II, he sent a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt explaining to him that Germany was in the process of making a nuclear weapon; so Einstein recommended that the U.S. should also make one. This led to the Manhattan Project, and the U.S. became the first nation in history to create and use the atomic bomb (not on Germany but on Japan). Einstein and other physicists like Richard Feynman who worked on the Manhattan Project later regretted that the bomb was used on Japan.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein lived in Princeton and was one of the first members invited to the Institute for Advanced Study, where he worked for the remainder of his life.


title: Albert Einstein

text: His contributions helped lay the foundations for all modern branches of physics, including quantum mechanics and relativity.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein was born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany, on 14 March 1879. His family was Jewish, but was not very . However, later in life Einstein became very interested in his Judaism. Einstein did not begin speaking until he was 3 years old. According to his younger sister, Maja, "He had such difficulty with language that those around him feared he would never learn". When Einstein was around 4 years old, his father gave him a magnetic compass. He tried hard to understand how the needle could seem to move itself so that it always pointed north. The needle was in a closed case, so clearly nothing like wind could be pushing the needle around, and yet it moved. So in this way Einstein became interested in studying science and mathematics. His compass gave him ideas to the world of science.


title: Albert Einstein

text: When he became older, he went to school in Switzerland. After he graduated, he got a job in the patent office there. While he was working there, he wrote the papers that first made him famous as a great scientist.


title: Albert Einstein

text: In 1917, Einstein became very sick with an illness that almost killed him, fortunately he survived. His cousin Elsa Löwenthal nursed him back to health. After this happened, Einstein divorced Mileva in 14 February 1919, and married Elsa on 2 June 1919.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein's first daughter was Lieserl Einstein. She was born in Novi Sad, Vojvodina, Austria-Hungary on January 27, 1902. She spent her first years in the care of Serbian grandparents because her father Albert did not want her to be brought to Switzerland, where he had a job offer at the patent office. Some historians believe she died from scarlet fever.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein's two sons were Hans Albert Einstein and Eduard Tete Einstein. Hans Albert was born in Bern, Switzerland in May 1904. He became a professor in Berkeley (California). Eduard was born in Zürich, Switzerland in July 1910. He died at 55 years old of a stroke in the Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich "Burghölzli" . He had spent his life in and out of hospitals due to his schizophrenia.


title: Albert Einstein

text: In spring of 1914, he moved back to Germany, and became ordinary member of the Prussian Academy and director of a newly established institute for physics of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft. He lived in Berlin and finished the General Theory of Relativity in November 1915. In the Weimar Republic, he was politically active for socialism and Zionism. In 1922, he received the Nobel prize for Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905. He then tried to formulate a general field theory uniting gravitation and electromagnetism, without success. He had reservations about the quantum mechanics invented by Heisenberg (1925) and Schrödinger (1926). In spring of 1933, Einstein and Elsa were traveling in the USA when the Nazi party came to power. The Nazis were violently antisemitic. They Einstein's relativity theory "Jewish physics," and some German physicists started polemics against his theories. Others, like Planck and Heisenberg, defended Einstein.


title: Albert Einstein

text: After their return to Belgium, considering the threats from the Nazis, Einstein resigned from his position in the Prussian Academy in a letter from Oostende. Einstein and Elsa decided not to go back to Berlin and moved to Princeton, New Jersey in the United States, and in 1940 he became a United States citizen.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Before World War II, in August 1939, Einstein at the suggestion of Leó Szilárd wrote to the U.S. president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, to say that the United States should invent an atomic bomb so that the Nazi government could not beat them to the punch. He signed the letter. However, he was not part of the Manhattan Project, which was the that created the atomic bomb.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein, a Jew but not an Israeli citizen, was offered the presidency in 1952 but turned it down, stating "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it." Ehud Olmert was reported to be considering offering the presidency to another non-Israeli, Elie Wiesel, but he was said to be "very not interested".


title: Albert Einstein

text: He did his research on gravitation at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey until his death on 18 April 1955 of a aortic aneurysm. He was still writing about quantum physics hours before he died.


title: Albert Einstein

text: In 1905 he came up with a theory that light was made of small particles called photons . Using this theory he was able to explain the photoelectric effect. The formula relating the energy and frequency of a photon is formula_2. This means that higher frequency light has more energy per photon.


title: Albert Einstein

text: The photoelectric effect happens when light shining on a metal surface causes it to emit electrons. The difficulty for the classical wave theory was to explain why this effect only seems to occur for high frequency light such as UV, but not lower frequency such as red or infrared.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein showed that, since higher frequency light has photons with more energy, it has a greater chance of forcing electrons out of the metal.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein was also able to explain other phenomena with photons, such as fluorescence and ionization. In 1921 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery.


title: Albert Einstein

text: The theory of special relativity was published by Einstein in 1905, in the paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". It says that both distance measurements and time measurements change near the speed of light. This means that as one get closer to the speed of light (nearly 300,000 kilometres per second), lengths appear to get shorter, and clocks tick more slowly. Einstein said that special relativity is based on two ideas. The first is that the laws of physics are the same for all observers that are not moving in relation to each other.


title: Albert Einstein

text: People in the same "frame" measure how long something takes to happen. Their clocks keep the same time. But in another "frame" their clocks move at a different rate. The reason this happens is as follows. No matter how an observer is moving, if he measures the speed of the light coming from that star it will always be the same number.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Imagine an astronaut were all alone in a different universe. It just has an astronaut and a spaceship. Is he moving? Is he standing still? Those questions do not mean anything. Why? Because when we say we are moving we mean that we can measure our distance from something else at various times. If the numbers get bigger we are moving away. If the numbers get smaller we are moving closer. To have movement you must have at least two things. An airplane can be moving at several hundred kilometers per hour, but passengers say, "I am just sitting here."


title: Albert Einstein

text: Suppose some people are on a spaceship and they want to make an accurate clock. At one end they put a mirror, and at the other end they put a simple machine. It shoots one short burst of light toward the mirror and then waits. The light hits the mirror and bounces back. When it hits a light detector on the machine, the machine says, "Count = 1," it simultaneously shoots another short burst of light toward the mirror, and when that light comes back the machine says, "Count = 2." They decide that a certain number of bounces will be defined as a second, and they make the machine change the seconds counter every time it has detected that number of bounces. Every time it changes the seconds counter it also flashes a light out through a porthole under the machine. So somebody outside can see the light flashing every second.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Every grade school child learns the formula d=rt (distance equals rate multiplied by time). We know the speed of light, and we can easily measure the distance between the machine and the mirror and multiple that to give the distance the light travels. So we have both d and r, and we can easily calculate t. The people on the spaceship compare their new "light clock" with their various wrist watches and other clocks, and they are satisfied that they can measure time well using their new light clock.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Now this spaceship happens to be going very fast. They see a flash from the clock on the space ship, and then they see another flash. Only the flashes do not come a second apart. They come at a slower rate. Light always goes at the same speed, d = rt. That is why the clock on the spaceship is not flashing once a second for the outside observer.


title: Albert Einstein

text: E=mc, also called the "mass-energy equivalence", is one of the things that Einstein is most famous for. It is a famous equation in physics and math that shows what happens when mass changes to energy or energy changes to mass. The "E" in the equation stands for energy. Energy is a number which you give to objects depending on how much they can change other things. For instance, a brick hanging over an egg can put enough energy onto the egg to break it, but a feather can not.


title: Albert Einstein

text: There are three basic forms of energy: potential energy, kinetic energy, and rest energy. Two of these forms of energy can be seen in the examples given above, and in the example of a pendulum.


title: Albert Einstein

text: A cannonball hangs on a rope from an iron ring. A horse pulls the cannonball to the right side. When the cannonball is released it will move back and forth as diagrammed. It would do that forever except that the movement of the rope in the ring and rubbing in other places causes friction, and the friction takes away a little energy all the time. If we ignore the losses due to friction, then the energy provided by the horse is given to the cannonball as potential energy. (It has energy because it is up high and can fall down.) As the cannonball swings down it gains more and more speed, so the nearer the bottom it gets the faster it is going and the harder it would hit you if you stood in front of it. Then it slows down as its kinetic energy is changed back into potential energy. "Kinetic energy" just means the energy something has because it is moving. "Potential energy" just means the energy something has because it is in some higher position than something else.


title: Albert Einstein

text: When energy moves from one form to another, the amount of energy always remains the same. It cannot be made or destroyed. This rule is called the "conservation law of energy". For example, when you throw a ball, the energy is transferred from your hand to the ball as you release it. But the energy that was in your hand, and now the energy that is in the ball, is the same number. For a long time, people thought that the conservation of energy was all there was to talk about.


title: Albert Einstein

text: When energy transforms into mass, the amount of energy does not remain the same. When mass transforms into energy, the amount of energy also does not remain the same. However, the amount of matter and energy remains the same. Energy turns into mass and mass turns into energy in a way that is defined by Einstein's equation, E = mc.


title: Albert Einstein

text: The "m" in Einstein's equation stands for mass. Mass is the amount of matter there is in some body. If you knew the number of protons and neutrons in a piece of matter such as a brick, then you could calculate its total mass as the sum of the masses of all the protons and of all the neutrons. (Electrons are so small that they are almost negligible.) Masses pull on each other, and a very large mass such as that of the Earth pulls very hard on things nearby. You would weigh much more on Jupiter than on Earth because Jupiter is so huge. You would weigh much less on the Moon because it is only about one-sixth the mass of Earth. Weight is related to the mass of the brick (or the person) and the mass of whatever is pulling it down on a spring scale – which may be smaller than the smallest moon in the solar system or larger than the Sun.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Mass, not weight, can be transformed into energy. Another way of expressing this idea is to say that matter can be transformed into energy. Units of mass are used to measure the amount of matter in something. The mass or the amount of matter in something determines how much energy that thing could be changed into.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Energy can also be transformed into mass. If you were pushing a baby buggy at a slow walk and found it easy to push, but pushed it at a fast walk and found it harder to move, then you would wonder what was wrong with the baby buggy. Then if you tried to run and found that moving the buggy at any faster speed was like pushing against a brick wall, you would be very surprised. The truth is that when something is moved then its mass is increased. Human beings ordinarily do not notice this increase in mass because at the speed humans ordinarily move the increase in mass is almost nothing.


title: Albert Einstein

text: As speeds get closer to the speed of light, then the changes in mass become impossible not to notice. The basic experience we all share in daily life is that the harder we push something like a car the faster we can get it going. But when something we are pushing is already going at some large part of the speed of light we find that it keeps gaining mass, so it gets harder and harder to get it going faster. It is impossible to make any mass go at the speed of light because to do so would take infinite energy.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Sometimes a mass will change to energy. Common examples of elements that make these changes we call radioactivity are radium and uranium. An atom of uranium can lose an "alpha particle" (the atomic nucleus of helium) and become a new element with a lighter nucleus. Then that atom will emit two electrons, but it will not be stable yet. It will emit a series of alpha particles and electrons until it finally becomes the element Pb or what we call lead. By throwing out all these particles that have mass it has made its own mass smaller. It has also produced energy.


title: Albert Einstein

text: In most radioactivity, the entire mass of something does not get changed to energy. In an atomic bomb, uranium is transformed into krypton and barium. There is a slight difference in the mass of the resulting krypton and barium, and the mass of the original uranium, but the energy that is released by the change is huge. One way to express this idea is to write Einstein's equation as:


title: Albert Einstein

text: The c in the equation stands for the speed of light squared. To square something means to multiply it by itself, so if you were to square the speed of light, it would be 299,792,458 meters per second, times 299,792,458 meters per second, which is approximately


title: Albert Einstein

text: About 60 terajoules were released by the atomic bomb that exploded over Hiroshima. So about two-thirds of a gram of the radioactive mass in that atomic bomb must have been lost (changed into energy), when the uranium changed into krypton and barium.


title: Albert Einstein

text: The idea of a Bose-Einstein condensate came out of a collaboration between S. N. Bose and Prof. Einstein. Einstein himself did not invent it but, instead, refined the idea and helped it become popular.


title: Albert Einstein

text: When Einstein generalized classical physics to include the increase of mass due to the velocity of the moving matter, he arrived at an equation that predicted energy to be made of two components. One component involves "rest mass" and the other component involves momentum, but momentum is not defined in the classical way. The equation typically has values greater than zero for both components:


title: Albert Einstein

text: A photon has no rest mass, but it has momentum. (Light reflecting from a mirror pushes the mirror with a force that can be measured.) In the case of a photon, because its m = 0, then:


title: Albert Einstein

text: The energy of a photon can be computed from its frequency ν or wavelength λ. These are related to each other by Planck's relation, E = hν = hc/λ, where h is the Planck constant (6.626×10 joule-seconds). Knowing either frequency or wavelength, you can compute the photon's momentum.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Therefore, the quantity "m" used in Einstein's equation is sometimes called the "rest mass." (The "0" reminds us that we are talking about the energy and mass when the speed is 0.) This famous "mass-energy relation" formula (usually written without the "0"s) suggests that mass has a large amount of energy, so maybe we could convert some mass to a more useful form of energy. The nuclear power industry is based on that idea.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein said that it was not a good idea to use the classical formula relating momentum to velocity, p = mv, but that if someone wanted to do that, he would have to use a particle mass m that changes with speed:


title: Albert Einstein

text: The General Theory of Relativity was published in 1915, ten years after the special theory of relativity was created. Einstein's general theory of relativity uses the idea of spacetime. Spacetime is the fact that we have a four-dimensional universe, having three spatial (space) dimensions and one temporal (time) dimension. Any physical event happens at some place inside these three space dimensions, and at some moment in time. According to the general theory of relativity, any mass causes spacetime to curve, and any other mass follows these curves. Bigger mass causes more curving. This was a new way to explain gravitation (gravity).


title: Albert Einstein

text: General relativity explains gravitational lensing, which is light bending when it comes near a massive object. This explanation was proven correct during a solar eclipse, when the sun's bending of starlight from distant stars could be measured because of the darkness of the eclipse.


title: Albert Einstein

text: General relativity also set the stage for cosmology (theories of the structure of our universe at large distances and over long times). Einstein thought that the universe may curve a little bit in both space and time, so that the universe always had existed and always will exist, and so that if an object moved through the universe without bumping into anything, it would return to its starting place, from the other direction, after a very long time. He even changed his equations to include a "cosmological constant," in order to allow a mathematical model of an unchanging universe. The general theory of relativity also allows the universe to spread out (grow larger and less dense) forever, and most scientists think that astronomy has proved that this is what happens. When Einstein realized that good models of the universe were possible even without the cosmological constant, he called his use of the cosmological constant his "biggest blunder," and that constant is often left out of the theory. However, many scientists now believe that the cosmological constant is needed to fit in all that we now know about the universe.


title: Albert Einstein

text: A popular theory of cosmology is called the Big Bang. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe was formed 15 billion years ago, in what is called a "gravitational singularity". This singularity was small, dense, and very hot. According to this theory, all of the matter that we know today came out of this point.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Einstein himself did not have the idea of a "black hole", but later scientists used this name for an object in the universe that bends spacetime so much that not even light can escape it. They think that these ultra-dense objects are formed when giant stars, at least three times the size of our sun, die. This event can follow what is called a supernova. The formation of black holes may be a major source of gravitational waves, so the search for proof of gravitational waves has become an important scientific pursuit.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Many scientists only care about their work, but Einstein also spoke and wrote often about politics and world peace. He liked the ideas of socialism and of having only one government for the whole world. He also worked for Zionism, the effort to try to create the new country of Israel.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Prompted by his colleague L. E. J. Brouwer, Einstein read the philosopher Eric Gutkind's book "Choose Life", a discussion of the relationship between Jewish revelation and the modern world. On January 3, 1954, Einstein sent the following reply to Gutkind: "The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honourable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. ... For me the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions." In 2018 his letter to Gutkind was sold for $2.9 million.


title: Albert Einstein

text: Even though Einstein thought of many ideas that helped scientists understand the world much better, he disagreed with some scientific theories that other scientists liked. The theory of quantum mechanics discusses things that can happen only with certain probabilities, which cannot be predicted with more precision no matter how much information we might have. This theoretical pursuit is different from statistical mechanics, in which Einstein did important work. Einstein did not like the part of quantum theory that denied anything more than the probability that something would be found to be true of something when it was actually measured; he thought that it should be possible to predict anything, if we had the correct theory and enough information. He once said, "I do not believe that God plays dice with the Universe."


title: Albert Einstein

text: Because Einstein helped science so much, his name is now used for several different things. A unit used in photochemistry was named for him. It is equal to Avogadro's number multiplied by the energy of one photon of light. The chemical element Einsteinium is named after the scientist as well. In slang, we sometimes call a very smart person an "Einstein."


title: Albert Einstein

text: Most scientists think that Einstein's theories of special and general relativity work very well, and they use those ideas and formulas in their own work. Einstein disagreed that phenomena in quantum mechanics can happen out of pure chance. He believed that all natural phenomena have explanations that do not include pure chance. He spent much of his later life trying to find a "unified field theory" that would include his general relativity theory, Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, and perhaps a better quantum theory. Most scientists do not think that he succeeded in that attempt.


title: Nudity

text: Evolution explains why humans are basically hairless, but other primates have fur. During the many thousands of years of prehistory humans were naked because they lived where it was hot and humid. Before clothing, humans decorated their bodies with jewelry, paint, tatoos and scars. They made belts and bags to carry tools. They made masks and disguises to be less visible while hunting. Migrating out of Africa, people used the same crafts to make body coverings, not only to protect from cold but the dust and sun of the desert.


title: Nudity

text: Humans wear decorations and clothes as nonverbal communication, showing both individuality and group membership. In the world today, there are widely different norms, or rules about nudity. Traditional Jewish, Christian, and Muslim peoples observe the greatest degree of modesty. They are never without proper clothes where anyone else can see, except for spouses or close relations of the same gender. Naturists believe social nudity is good for health and well-being. Naturism is a normal part of everyday life in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and Germany.


title: Nudity

text: With so many ways of thinking about nudity, there are also many words to use. In English, "nude" and "naked" are often synonyms for being unclothed. However, there are different meanings in different contexts. "Nude" comes from Norman French. "Naked" is from Anglo-Saxon. Being naked may mean not being fully dressed. "Stark naked" means to have no clothes at all. Being nude is less about the physical facts, more about the social meanings. There are euphemisms for nudity that communicate these social meanings such as "birthday suit", "in the altogether" and "in the buff". Partial nudity is usually not covering parts of the body thought of as sexual. This includes the buttocks and the female breasts.


title: Nudity

text: There are terms for nudity or partial nudity that happens in places lacking the usual amount of privacy. "Functional nudity" is when a person is nude by necessary, such as communal bathing or changing clothes in a locker room. A similar idea is called "contextual nudity", that nudity may be normal only in a particular time and place, such as during medical treatment.


title: Nudity

text: "The Nude" is used to talk about unclothed people in works of art. In 1956 art historian Kenneth Clark wrote a book "The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form" in which he says the nude in art is beautiful, but being naked in real life is embarrassing. In 1972 artist and art critic John Berger said almost the opposite, that the nude in art is voyeurism, but being naked in real life is to be ones true self.


title: Nudity

text: The loss of body hair was one of a group of adaptations that are part of human evolution. Modern humans evolved in Africa from hunter-gatherers in terrain different from where hominins had lived before. There were fewer trees and more exposure to the sun. Sweat drying on bare skin cooled the body better when hunting for food, so less hairy hominins survived. Because the brain produces a lot of heat, better cooling the body favored an increase in brain size. In adapting to running and carrying weapons, humans became fully upright. Another push towards being upright was that mothers had to carry their babies, who no longer had fur to cling to. Being smarter and having their hands free, humans could also make better tools. Being upright also reduced sun exposure except for the top of the head, which remained covered with hair. Longer head hair also covered the shoulders. Skin became darker as protection from the sun.


title: Nudity

text: Humans with modern bodies first existed between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago. They were large-brained, walked upright, had dark skin, and were naked. Modern human behaviors, such as making art, burying the dead and wearing clothes began at least 100,000 years later. These behaviors were the beginnings of human culture.


title: Nudity

text: One of the earliest works of art known is the Venus of Willendorf, a small statuette of a nude woman. The face of the woman is not visible. The belly of the woman as well as her breasts are exaggerated. It is not known what the statuette meant to the people who made it, or what importance it had.


title: Nudity

text: There are many unanswered questions about the prehistory of nudity and clothing, because little remains of the plant and animal products used for clothing many thousands of years ago. What has been found are the stone and bones tools and some of the things made with them. An example is the shells with holes made to string into a necklace. Making string and a tool to make a small hole are some of the same technology needed to make clothing.


title: Nudity

text: Humans migrated out of Africa during periods of warmer weather. During the last ice age, clothing was needed to survive in some of these places. Close-fitting clothes that hold in the heat of the body could not be made until people had the tools needed. The first sewing needles were found with the remains of cro-magnon people who lived about 40,000 years ago.


title: Nudity

text: Another way of dating the origin of clothing is based upon the genetic difference between human head lice and the lice that live in clothing. A study shows that the habitual wearing of clothing may have begun between 83,000 years ago and 170,000 years ago. This could mean that the use of clothing began before migration out of Africa, allowing humans to do so.


title: Nudity

text: Clothing has become the customary covering for humans, but not for everyone at all times. In prehistory, clothes were only worn most of the time when the weather was colder. Humans who remained in tropical places continued to be naked most of the time, and the hunter-gatherers of today do the same.


title: Nudity

text: Before clothing, people had ornamented their bodies with jewelry, scarification, tattoos, and body painting. Different ornaments and clothing showed both individuality and group membership. More and better clothing and ornaments were worn by people in higher positions in society. For many thousands of years, humans lived in tribes of about 150 individuals. They rarely met strangers. When populations grew, people began living in contact with larger groups. They met others that they did not know. The difference between private and public space began. Clothing and ornamentation worn in public space became important to show others who they were and their place in society. In private space, which included only others they knew, people did not to wear clothing when it was not needed. They bathed, slept, and worked together naked.


title: Nudity

text: At the end of prehistory, between 7 and 9 thousand years ago, people began to settled in one place, becoming the first civilizations. As civilizations became larger, clothing became more important to show social position. A Roman citizen wore a toga in public, but was nude at the public baths. Not dressing properly might be socially uncomfortable, but not shameful. Only by members of the Abrahamic religions; Judaism, Christianity, and Islam


title: Nudity

text: Early civilizations valued the naked body. Many made images of their deities as perfect humans without clothing. In Ancient Greek mythology, although male gods ruled, goddesses were the source of life. Gaia was mother of the titan Prometheus who created man out of mud, and the goddess Athena breathed life into his creation. The creation story of the Abrahamic religions begins with nudity as innocence that becomes shame with knowledge of good and evil. In present Western cultures, with both the Greek and Abrahamic history, nudity is thought of as shameful by some but by others as natural, innocent and beautiful.


title: Nudity

text: In the earliest civilizations with warm climates, only people of high social position would be clothed at all times in public. The average person in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt owned a single piece of cloth that was wrapped or tied to cover the genitals. Both men and women would be bare-chested and barefooted. Herders, fisherman and others would be naked while doing work that was hot, dirty, or wet. Those of low social position and slaves might have no clothing. Children would be naked until about age 12. It was not until the New Kingdom of Egypt that upper-class women wore dresses and ornamentation which covered their breasts. This later clothing is often shown in movies and television as representing ancient Egypt in all periods.


title: Nudity

text: Many think the ancient Greeks were often nude, but public nudity was only for religious events. Most famous are the Ancient Olympics, at which the male athletes were nude. It was not until the 5th Century BCE that Spartan women were also nude for sports.


title: Nudity

text: In stories written in China as early as the fourth century BCE, nudity is an insult to human dignity. The belief was that "humanness" in Chinese society is earned by correct behavior.


title: Nudity

text: Colonialism and racism began when Christian and Muslim people more often had contact with Indigenous peoples of the tropics. In his diaries, Christopher Columbus writes that the people of Guanahaní in the Bahamas were entirely naked, and gentle. He also thought that they were less than fully human, and could be exploited. This lead to the stereotype of the "naked savage".


title: Nudity

text: At first Islam had little influence beyond large towns. In other areas paganism continued. Traveling in Mali in the 1350s, Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta was shocked by the public nudity of female slaves and servants at the court of Sultans.


title: Nudity

text: European explorers in the 17th century viewed the lack of clothing they found in Africa and Oceania as showing a lower state of nature. Although they admired the nudity of Greek statues, Indigenous nakedness made them feel superior. Colonizers valued nudity in art but thought nakedness in daily life was evidence of racial inferiority. Depictions of naked savages entered European popular culture in the 18th century in stories of tropical islands. Europeans focused on images of Pacific island woman with bare breasts.


title: Nudity

text: Non-western peoples during the period were naked only by Western standards, the genitals and sometimes the entire lower body of adults were covered most of the time. However, lacking the idea of shame, clothing might be removed in public for useful or symbolic purposes. Children and sometimes women until marriage might be naked as having "nothing to hide". Indigenous peoples of North America also did not think of sexuality or nudity with shame. European colonizers became aware that Natives believed premarital and extramarital sex, homosexuality, and cross-dressing were normal. This furthered their efforts to convert Natives to Christianity. However, thinking of others as less than human could be used to justify conquest and removal.


title: Nudity

text: Gender differences in nudity are shown from the beginning of history. In the first civilizations, male gods and heroes were naked. Female deities and goddesses were nude or clothed, depending upon the religious meaning they represented. In Ancient Greek art and in life, the male nude was celebrated as in no other society. Male athletic nudity represented freedom, maleness, privilege, and physical virtues. In the later Hellenistic period, nude women began appearing on vases in passive activities, such as bathing. With the beginning of the Christian era, women's bodies became a threat to civilized behavior that must be covered. Male nudity was of lesser importance, and might be necessary for hard labor.


title: Nudity

text: With the assumption of female modesty, more of the female body is covered than the male. However, it is only in modern times that nudity included the female breasts. Breasts were thought of first for feeding children, and were symbolic of loving kindness in many cultures. It was not until the 17th century in Europe that women always had to cover their breasts in public.


title: Nudity

text: Women breastfeeding in public is the norm in many countries and is protected as a legal right. In others it is forbidden. In Western cultures where public breastfeeding is unregulated or legal, mothers might not do so because other people may object. Soon after his elevation, Pope Francis supported women's right to breastfeed in church.


title: Nudity

text: In Western countries, nudity was the norm in many male-only activities until the last decades of the 20th century. It was thought of as unmanly not to do so. This followed a long history of poor and working class men and boys taking off their clothes to go swimming in any river, pond, or lake. Women and girls either did not swim or were dressed because it was thought that they were more modest than men. When they were first built in the 1890s, men and boys swam nude in indoor pools. Swimmers were also required to take fully nude showers with soap prior to enter the pool. During women's weekly swim hours, one-piece suits were allowed and sometimes supplied by the facility to insure cleanliness; towels were also supplied. In the 1960s, women-only days were added. Some of the first indoor pools were built by the YMCA, with male nudity required.


title: Nudity

text: At the same time, behavior in public beaches where women and men were together was very different. From 1860 to 1937 men in the US and UK wore bathing suits that covered the chest in places where women were present.


title: Nudity

text: Each culture, or "way of life" of a group of people is unique. However, there are things that are shared by all humans but in different ways. Anthropology studies different cultures side by side, showing both what they have in common and how they differ. These common things and their differences are the "dimensions of culture". An example is the value placed on individuals or groups. Some cultures place a high value on individuality, while other cultures place a high value on community. This is the cultureal dimension of "individualism and collectivism". Cultures are usual somewhere between the two ends of a dimensiom.


title: Nudity

text: In thinking about nudity, an important dimension of culture is "private-public" and the behavior that is normal in each.


title: Nudity

text: People wear different amounts of clothing in private places than in public. Semi-public nudity may be necessary, such as when changing clothes or showering after work or exercise. Usual behavior when nude with others include respect for personal space and the separation of genders. In the 21st century, this everyday, non-sexual nudity has become uncomfortable. Changing ideas of gender and sexuality threaten the idea of separating the sexes. Digital photography threatens keeping any behavior private. At the same time, modern media contain more images of sexualized nudity. There are fewer ways to learn that nudity is not always sexual. There are fewer places to see ordinary people naked and learn what is normal.


title: Nudity

text: People vary in their comfort with private nudity. A 2018 survey in the US found that 65% of millennials slept in the nude. Thirty-nine percent of baby boomers slept in the nude. In a 2014 UK survey, 51% of men and 31% of women felt comfortable nude. 26% of men and 17% of women walked about the house nude when no one else was home.


title: Nudity

text: Body image is the thoughts and feelings of a person has about their own body. In Western cultures, women often want to be thinner, men more muscular. In non-western cultures, body image has a different meaning. In some societies people think of themselves as part of a group, not as individuals. Where getting enough food is a problem growing thinner is seen as unhealthy. Westernization of cultures has resulted in an increase in body dissatisfaction worldwide.


title: Nudity

text: Naturists have long claimed social nudity leads to a better body image. Naturism has not often been studied objectively, but psychologist Keon West of Goldsmiths, University of London found that social nudity reduced body anxiety and increased well-being. People with a poor body image improved after a nude social activity.


title: Nudity

text: In research by Gordon and Schroeder many differences in parental nudity were found from family to family. According to them, "there is nothing (..) wrong with bathing with children or otherwise appearing naked in front of them". Bath time can be a chance for parents to teach children about their bodies and the bodies of others. They say that by ages five to six, children begin to become modest, and recommend being sensitive to their children's wishes. Barbara Bonner recommends against nudity in the home if children are showing troublesome sexual behaviour. In a 1995 Paul Okami found nothing negative in parental nudity. Three years later, his team found that, if anything, seeing parents nude had some good effects, especially for boys.


title: Nudity

text: Most of the places were people are nude with others are semi-private. Access is limited usually by gender (men or women only), by age (as in schools), or other factors. Most of the places for practicing naturism are semi-private, limited by membership or entry fee. There are both written rules and informal expectations that must be observed. When an entire society understands naturism, as in Germany, clothing-optional areas within public space become semi-private.


title: Nudity

text: In places so isolated that there is little chance of being seen it has been understood to be safe for nudity. This includes "skinny dipping" in any body of water, and hiking in the wild. In the United States there is no federal (national) law against nudity in national parks. When locations become a problem new laws have been passed.


title: Nudity

text: Until recently, it was thought children had no sexual feelings, and that the nudity of children was innocent.


title: Nudity

text: Very young children want to be nude, not only at home but where others can see. They touch their own bodies, and look at the bodies of others. This is part of growing up, with normal behavior at each age. Parents and caregivers need to understand these changes as normal to set boundaries on behavior without teaching shame. Signs of problems include children of very different age touching. Children need to be taught that it is never okay for an older person to touch some of their body parts. A 2018 study of Danish childcare found disagreement between caregivers who wanted to continue allowing normal childhood nudity and administrators who have begun to worry about charges of sexual abuse being made.


title: Nudity

text: It is normal for children to be naked at home, including outdoors, when visitors are present. Parents who see nothing wrong with this may allow it, accepting that most children become more modest as they near puberty. In the United States other adults may not approve, creating problems. Problems include the nude child's playmates also removing their clothes, which the other parents might not want.


title: Nudity

text: In northern Europe, children play outdoors nude in public parks and fountains. Travel writer Rick Steves writes "When the sun's out, Scandinavian parks are packed. ...American visitors will notice a lot of nudity — topless women and naked kids." In sub-Saharan Africa, it is normal for boys and girls in rural areas to play together nude until puberty.


title: Nudity

text: The naturist point of view is that children are "nudists at heart" and that naturism provides the healthiest environment for growing up. Modern psychology agrees that children can benefit from an open environment where the bodies of others their own age of both sexes are not a mystery. However, there is less agreement regarding children and adults other than parents being nude together.


title: Nudity

text: Until the 1990s in the United States, public swimming pools such as at the YMCA allowed parents to bring young children into the changing rooms. The children could see adults and other childen of either sex nude. There was sometimes no specific age limit for the children, but in some places up to age 6. Soon after, rules were changed allowing only same-sex use of changing rooms. At some places today, family changing rooms have been added.


title: Nudity

text: In the United States, male nudity was required when indoor pools were first built at the end of the 19th century. Some were built by city governments, others by the YMCA. In the 20th century, schools began to build pools. Indoor pools were more common in northern states than in the south. Boys and girls had separate classes, so the boys swam nude while the girls usually wore suits. Male nudity was nationwide due to rules from public health organizations about indoor pools. Cleanliness of the pool water was given as the reason. Women's suits were made of cotton, which could be boiled to kill germs. Men's suits were made of wool, which would shrink if boiled. In the early years, fibers from wool suits clogging pool filters was also given as a reason. Bathing suits were allowed only for public competitions. Young boys might compete nude while competing in public. Clothed girls and women sometimes attended boys' team practices. Women sometimes coached boy's teams. Male nudity continued until mixed-gender classes were allowed, and slowly stopped in the US when gender equality became law with Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. In the 21st century, public male nude swimming is largely forgotten, or denied having ever existed.


title: Nudity

text: Bathing is known for its benefits to health and well-being. Many societies also bathe for purification before or after other activities. Nude bathing in natural hot springs, steam rooms, and sweat lodges have existed since the Stone Age, and are found worldwide. Public bathing is not always "open to the general public". There are fees, and rules that are understood before entry. Often there is separation by gender, but not always. In Japan, Finland and Germany, mixed gender bathing or using a sauna nude is a social activity. The Japanese idea of hadaka no tsukiai, or spending time together naked, means classmates, teammates, fellow employees, families or neighbors spend time together naked for social bonding. Usually, this is while bathing at a bathhouse or onsen. As the 21st century proceeds, fewer bathhouses in Japan are mixed gender. South Korean bathhouses (Jjimjilbang) have always been gender-segregated, but nudity is required. Although there may be local differences, in the United States, it is generally understood that nudity is not allowed in public saunas. This includes being wrapped only in a towel. Instead, the rules are only about what to wear, bathing suits or loose clothing. This is true even though most US saunas are in the single-sex areas.


title: Nudity

text: Until recently in Western cultures, showering after sports with others of the same sex was expected or required. In the 21st century, students in the US and UK avoid showering with their classmates. Locker rooms in American fitness clubs are installing private showers and changing rooms for millennials.


title: Nudity

text: In different counties and localities, public nudity is a matter of common understanding of proper behavior. More often, prohibitions regarding exposing the body are written into law. The basic prohibition is outlawing exposure of the genitals in public except where it is specifically allowed. The violation is often called indecent exposure or public indecency. Public exposure of breasts, or specifically the nipples, is often included in the legal definition. Most violations are considered minor, but may be serious crimes when there is intent to cause distress or harm to the person viewing the nudity. Serious crime is assumed when the target of the exposure is a child. Intent is difficult to establish, but is assumed when a single individual exposes their genitals suddenly to strangers in a public place. This is often called "flashing". Such exposure may be a sign of exhibitionism, a mental disorder marked by feelings of pleasure in exposing oneself.


title: Nudity

text: Some counties permit nudity for recreation. People swim nude at "clothing optional" beaches. Often the beaches are public property owned by local or national government. It is not as common in the United States and Canada as in Europe. There are other types of nude recreation. There are some nude bicycle tours, and nude hiking. Nude hiking in the Alps is popular with German tourists. In 2009, Appenzell Innerrhoden, a small Swiss canton, voted to stop nude hiking, imposing a fine.


title: Nudity

text: Nudity in public may also be allowed depending upon the openness of a society to individual expression. Exceptions are limited to specific times, places, or other factors. Nudity that is part of artistic performance, political protest, or events such as Carnival may have their own rules.


title: Nudity

text: The brief public exposure of parts of the body as a form of expression has a long history. Running through a public area naked is called "streaking". Streaking was popular in the 1970s, and has become a tradition at a few university events. Exposing the buttocks or "mooning" an enemy before battle was recorded in ancient Rome.


title: Nudity

text: "Naturism" (or "nudism") is a cultural and political movement which began at the end of the 19th century. Followers of this movement think that nudity, both in public as well as in private, has many benefits. Some naturist activists seek opening public recreation areas to nudity. Others groups practice naturism within privately owned camping grounds or resorts. Private places might only allow certain people to enter. It is common to only let families join, making for a safer environment for children.


title: Nudity

text: The International Naturist Federation (INF) has members in forty countries. The INF definition of naturism is "Naturism is a way of life in harmony with nature characterised by the practice of communal nudity with the intention of encouraging self-respect, respect for others and for the environment." This definition has been basically the same since the INF began in 1974.


title: Nudity

text: Some people use nudity as a form of direct protest, or to attract attention to a cause not related to nudity.


title: Nudity

text: In the United States, a direct protest has been women seeking the same right to be bare-chested as men. Advocates call this "topfreedom" rather than being topless. In a few local cases, this has succeeded in changing laws to allow topfree sunbathing as non-sexual, but have failed to gain full equality with men.


title: Nudity

text: When the city of San Francisco, California banned nudity after many years of allowing it, there were nude protesters.


title: Nudity

text: People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) had a protest for animal rights, "I'd rather go naked than wear fur." which was so effective in reducing the use of fur in fashion that it ended after 30 years, declaring victory. At first there were naked people protesting in front of clothing stores, but changed to ads by famous people. The Femen group demonstrates topless to call attention to a number of feminist issues. The World Naked Bike Rides are done annually in many cities in the world to protest dependence on automobiles and fossil fuels.


title: Nudity

text: In any culture where being naked is shameful, being deprived of clothing can be used as punishment or torture. An example happened during the invasion of Iraq in 2003 by the United States and its allies. Members of the United States Army Reserve tortured prisoners at Abu Ghraib. Photographs were circulated that showed prisoners nude and in degrading positions.


title: Nudity

text: Cultural differences are based upon thoughts and behaviors that operate below the level of awareness. Emotions about being nude or seeing others nude are one set of responses. People from another culture think only in terms of their own culture, and find it difficult to understand any other way of thinking. This occurs not only for distant cultures, but also those with much in common. Americans define privacy in terms of visual space. Private, or personal space means not being seen by others. Americans think anyone nude where they can be seen has "no reasonable expectation of privacy". Americans think seening someone nude in their own home through a window is "public indecency" subject to legal action. For Europeans, privacy is defined by a personal sense of dignity that each individual carries with them. Europeans can keep this dignity and the privacy that goes with it while nude on a crowded beach.


title: Nudity

text: Between Western and non-Western cultures, differences are greater. Many members of Western societies think that all humans feel shame when naked, or should. The unashamed behavior of children and indigenous peoples shows that shame is learned. Living in a climate perfectly suited to humans means growing up with few clothes or none, learning they have nothing to be ashamed of. Adults in these societies dress, but are nude when it make sense to them. Colonialism continues in other ways. Religious people seek to change other cultures to live according Western beliefs. Other western travelers visit tropical counties to see people living in what they think of as simple ways of the past.


title: Nudity

text: In counties that follow Islamic law, modesty (Hijab) is demanded. There are five schools of Islamic law. In the least strict women in public must cover their bodies except hands and face. Clothing must also be loose and solid, showing nothing of the body. The belief is that men cannot control sexual thoughts when seeing any part of a woman's body. Rules of modesty include men, but they need only cover themselves from navel to knees. Not doing so may be thought badly of, but it is not a crime. In some Arabic countries, women wear the Niqāb, which also covers the face, leaving only a slit for the eyes. A woman's hands are also kept out of sight as much as possible. Worn mostly in Afghanistan, the burqa adds a screen over the slit, hiding the eyes. Being fully covered is based on a belief that women shoud never be seen in public. Muslim women who are against these rules may be imprisoned. In Iran, a woman not covering her hair correctly died while being held by "morality police", which was followed by months of protests against the government.


title: Nudity

text: Western countries may not allow Islamic dress in public places where everyone needs to show their faces. There is also fear that clothes that cover completely may be worn by men and used to hide guns. Some Christians have rules of dress close to Islam, but dresses need only reach below the knees.


title: Nudity

text: The cultures and peoples of Africa are divided between north and south by the Sahara desert. Humanity originated in Southern Africa.


title: Nudity

text: North Africa is mainly desert, hot and dry. The indigenous clothing is light, loose fabric covering the entire body, protecting it from sun and blowing sand, but allowing for cooling breezes. This style of dress has not changed for thousands of years. Most of the peoples in the region are Muslim. The style of dress also matches the Islamic rules of modesty.


title: Nudity

text: Sub-Saharan Africa is more varied in climate. Present day clothing is highly influenced by colonialism, both Christian and Islamic. Islamic counties in the south, Somalia, Djibouti, Comoros and Mauritania observe the rules of modesty.


title: Nudity

text: Dressing Africans in European clothes to cover their nakedness was part of converting them to Christianity.<ref name="Hansen/2004"></ref> In Christian countries today, European dress is normal in cities. Indigenous styles have been adapted for Western modesty, especially for women.


title: Nudity

text: In rural areas, some tribes continue to be nude according to tradition. Some tribes are returning to pre-colonial dress for some events. In certain Togolese tribal areas, it is common for big families to not wear any clothes at all for certain festivities. Others do not wear any clothes below the waist. This makes it possible for young men to see women and girls whom they may marry. Stick-fighting tournaments are very popular places to do this. The Ugandan Kavirondo tribes are a mix of Bantu and Nilotic immigrants. Traditionally, they went mostly naked. Over time, the men began wearing clothing similar to men in western culture.


title: Nudity

text: In much of Asia, traditional clothing covers as much of the body as in Europe. However, the emotion felt in being improperly dressed is social embarrassment, not shame about sex.


title: Nudity

text: The mixed gender bathing culture of Japan is not thought of as public nudity, but private in the context of a communal culture. In world surveys of how likely people are to be nude on a beach, Japan is lowest at 4%. During the Meiji era (1868–1912) there had been attempts to eliminate Japan's normal states of undress due to leader's concerned with Japan's international reputation. Although often ignored, the law against public undress had the effect of sexualizing the body where it had not been erotic.


title: Nudity

text: In India, some members of the Hindu and Jain religions reject all worldly possessions, including clothing.


title: Nudity

text: For a thousand years after the fall of the Roman Empire, proper behavior in Europe was defined by the Catholic Church. The church disapproved of sexual behavior outside of marriage, but was more tolerant of nudity than other Abrahamic religions. Sexual segregation was expected, but not required. Everyone other than the upper classes lived in close quarters and had more tolerance for functional nudity, sleeping and bathing without privacy. Until the Carolingian era Christians were baptized naked to show that they emerged without sin. Small groups of Christians held worship services in the nude, reclaiming the innocence of man before the fall.


title: Nudity

text: The nude had been a subject of European art since the ancient Greeks, which continued in the Roman era. With the rise of Christianity, nudity almost disappeared from art during the Middle Ages except for Biblical stories such as Adam and Eve. Symbolic nudity in the fine arts increased in the Renaissance with paintings and sculpture based upon classical mythology and Biblical scenes. The rediscovery of ancient Greek culture had increased the conflicting views of nudity as good or bad.


title: Nudity

text: It was leaders of the Protestant Reformation that thought nudity itself was sinful as a temptation for sexual behavior. Renaissance nude art was destroyed, or genitals were covered.


title: Nudity

text: The cultural division between northern and southern Europe can be traced to the sauna. Various methods of cleaning the body by wet or dry heat (causing sweating) are found worldwide. In Finland, almost everyone has access to a sauna. Sharing a sauna with others of all sexes and ages widens the definition of private nudity. Communal bathing breaks the connection between nudity and sexual activity, which is assumed by other cultures. Instead, modesty is in behavior, such as not calling attention to one's own body, and not staring at others.


title: Nudity

text: In the United Kingdom, nudity may be allowed if there is no sexual display intended to cause alarm to the viewer, or create a public disturbance.


title: Nudity

text: Southern Europe views nudity differently than the north. Catholic attitudes did not eliminating classical Greek and Roman history. Mediterranean beaches were the first to adopt the bikini, and soon the topless fashion. Bathing suits for men are also minimal. Nude beaches also followed, but with a different attitude than the north. Sexuality is less suppressed, part of the enjoyment of being naked. Clothing optional recreation is less widespread than in Northern Europe.


title: Nudity

text: In modern European art, the nude became a symbol that could be used to express all parts of the human condition. The images of nude women that had been created for hundreds of years by male artists are seen by many feminists as degrading to women.


title: Nudity

text: Officially public nudity is disorderly conduct without a "lawful excuse". However, there is another law that a charge of nudity can only be made with the approval of the attorney general. The result is nudity by itself is rarely charged, only when there is another violation involved. There is also the context; nudity at a festival for example is not the same as in ordinary conditions. A women's right to be top-free has been established in Ontario and British Columbia.


title: Nudity

text: America has the greatest disapproval of nudity among Western cultures, and resistance to seeing it as non-sexual. German immigrants brought naturism to the US in the 1930s, but it was limited to "nudist camps" and not widely accepted. Finnish immigrants brought the sauna and mixed nudity to some rural areas, but this became gender segregated.


title: Nudity

text: Nudity was more acceptable during the "counter-culture" of the 1960s-70s. Public nudity became part of music events such as the Woodstock Festival and political events such as Vietnam War protests. There were many unofficially clothing-optional places to swim, but few legal as in Europe. In the more conservative 21st century, many swimming places are again banning nudity.


title: Nudity

text: Including Australia, New Zealand and all of the Pacific islands, Oceania has both European colonial culture and many indigenous peoples. Similar to other tropical climates, clothing was minimal and removed for both work and play. Colonialism changed this, but not always as expected. The Pacific islands were colonized later than Africa and South America, and the people and cultures more romanticized.


title: Nudity

text: For centuries, clothing indigenous people was part of conversion to Christianity. Rarely, traditional clothing is allowed, as on Yap island where the Catholic Church includes in some celebrations women dancing in costumes that do not cover their breasts.


title: Nudity

text: The Awá people of the Amazon rainforest were isolated until recently, first contact being at the beginning of the 21st century. Although now wearing Western clothing at some times, men hunting in the jungle are naked except for a decoration of bird feathers tied to the end of their penises.


title: Charminar

text: The Charminar is a monument and mosque in Hyderabad, India. The structure was built in 1591 AD. It is the most famous building of Hyderabad and also one of the most famous buildings in India. It was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shahi to celebrate the end of a deadly plague. The Charminar lies near the bank of the river Musi. It is close to Laad Bazaar and Makkah Masjid. Charminar is taken from two words "Char" and "Minar" which translate as "Four Towers" in English.


title: Charminar

text: Some people say that Charminar was the first structure to be constructed in the newly built city of Hyderabad. It is said that Quli Qutab Shah prayed for the end of the plague and vowed to build a mosque if it was eradicated. Mir Momin Astarabadi, the prime minister of Qutb Shah played an important role in the design and layout of Charminar and the city of Hyderabad. The structure is of Indo-Islamic architecture with some Persian elements.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Tipu Sultan (1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), is also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the ruler of the Mysore from 1782 to 1799. He was also a scholar, soldier and poet. Tipu was the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali and his wife Fathima Fakhr-un-Nisar. Tipu Sultan was born in Devanahalli in 1751. The birthplace of Tipu Sultan, located very close to the Devanahalli Fort is just a small pillared closed place with a stone tablet which declares the place to be the birthplace of Tipu Sultan. The area around the place is known as Khas Bagh.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Tipu sultan introduced several new laws, including new coinage, a new lunisolar calendar and a new land revenue system. He(Tipu sultan) started the growth of the silk industry in Mysore. At the request of the French, he built a church, the first in Mysore. With French help, Tipu Sultan fought against the British to keep Mysore's independence.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: Tipu sultan was born in the Bangalore area of devanto Hyder Ali, a military officer and practical ruler of the kingdom of Mysore in the year 1751. Hyder Ali and his wife Fatima Fakhr Un Nisa named their baby Fateh Ali but often called him Tipu after the local saint Tipu Mastan Aulia. Tipu Sultan’s full name was Sultan Fateh Ali Khan Shahab. Soon, Hyder Ali’s career progressed and in 1761 he became the ruler of Mysore. Hyder Ali had a political alliance with the French, and Tipu studied military tactics and strategies from the French.


title: Tipu Sultan

text: He had some of the best tutors to teach him various subjects like shooting, riding and swordsmanship and joined his father in the 1766 invasion of Malabar. Tipu at age 15 with a force of only two to three thousand men captured the family of the Malabar chief. The Malabar ruler surrendered to Hyder Ali because of Tipu’s successful invasion.