title: Fermi paradox

text: In our Galaxy, the time it takes for signals to travel is very large. Vast eras of time would pass before a reply could be received. There are theories about "worm-holes" in space in which communication could be sent through space more quickly, but these are just theories now. There is still a desire for space travel. Locally in the Solar System, the main goal is to get minerals which are scarce on Earth.


title: Francisco Franco

text: Francisco Franco (Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco Bahamonde Salgado Pardo de Andrade, 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish military leader who ruled as fascist dictator of Spain from 1939 until his death. His song was called Cara al Sol.


title: Francisco Franco

text: He was a leader of a coup d'état against the Spanish Second Republic in 1936. After this uprising the Spanish Civil War started. Franco was supported by fascists, big businesses, the church, conservative people and Spanish nationalists. The Spanish Republic had a socialist government that wanted to make businesses and the church less powerful. The Republic also set up local parliaments in the regions of Spain. Nationalists thought this was wrong and would make Spain weak.


title: Francisco Franco

text: Three of the leaders of the coup died. Franco led the Army of Africa, the best part of the Spanish Army. He became the only leader.


title: Francisco Franco

text: Franco remained neutral during World War II as Hitler did not accept his conditions for Spain to take part in it with the fascist and nazi regimes. He let a group of volunteer soldiers join the German Army to fight the Russians between 1941 and 1943. They were called the "División Azul" (Blue Division)


title: Francisco Franco

text: Franco died in Madrid on November 20, 1975, just after midnight of heart failure. Relatives, such as his daughter Carmen, had asked doctors to remove his life support systems. After Franco's death, Juan Carlos became king.


title: Nipin Niravath

text: Nipin Niravath is an Indian mentalist and entertainer based in Kerala, India. Nipin is best known for demonstrations of extrasensory perception and mentalism.


title: Nipin Niravath

text: In 2003, Nipin joined the USAID's social awareness programme and started his career as a street magician. Nipin appeared on several TV series including "Onnum Onnum Moonu", "Comedy Supernite", "Ugram Ujjwalam", "Comedy Stars", which earned him popularity among the Malayali people.


title: Nipin Niravath

text: According to Times of India, Nipin performed in one episode of "Comedy Stars", "where he made the entire audience including TV host and singer Rimi Tomy draw fish on the paper they were given, just by projecting his thoughts".


title: Nipin Niravath

text: In 2018, it was announced Nipin will appear as a guest speaker for the CADD Arabia talk show "Connecting Dots".


title: Family Guy

text: Family Guy is an American adult animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane. It first was shown on FOX in 1999. The series did not become popular until shown again on Adult Swim and TBS, and episodes were sold on DVD & Blu-ray. Fox chose to cancel the series because it was not very popular. After many DVDs were sold, Fox started showing it again on May 1, 2005. It is aimed at adults.


title: Family Guy

text: The series is about the lives of Peter Griffin, his wife Lois, and their three children: 18-year old Meg, 16-year old Chris, and very smart 1-year-old Stewie; and also their dog, 8-year old Brian, who talks and acts like a human. The Griffins live in a fictional city named Quahog, which is in the real state of Rhode Island. The show puts humor into common everyday situations, and is famous for their style of comedy that always makes fun of past American culture. These scenes are called "cutaway gags", because they have unrelated stories, and they do not affect the show's stories in any way. The show also uses a lot of profanity and sex scenes.


title: Family Guy

text: In 2009, a spin off show from "Family Guy" was created called "The Cleveland Show" with Cleveland Brown as the main character.


title: Family Guy

text: The series was nominated for many Emmy Awards. Family Guy is the first animated series to be nominated for an Emmy Award for Best Comedy Series since "The Flintstones" in 1961.


title: Swaraj (TV series)

text: Swaraj is an Indian historical TV serial. It aired on DD National every Sunday at 9PM from 14 August 2022. With this serial, Doordarshan has once again tried to bring alive the tales of courage of more than 550 freedom fighters. It is a Government of India project and produced by Contiloe Pictures.


title: Tunnel

text: A tunnel is an underground passage. Some tunnels are used for cars, and others are used for trains. Sometimes, a tunnel is used for movement of ships. Some tunnels are built for communication cables and some are built for electricity cables. Other tunnels are built for animals.


title: Tunnel

text: Tunnels are dug in different kinds of grounds, from soft sand to hard rock. The way of digging is chosen by the type of ground. There are two additional ways of digging : quarry and 'cut and cover'. In quarry, the tunnel path is drilled in a horizontal way.


title: Tunnel

text: This system requires a deep tunnel that's built in a firm rock. In the 'cut and cover' system, a tunnel is dug in the ground and, afterwards, a roof is built above the tunnel. This system fits tunnels that are close to the ground like road tunnels and infrastructure.


title: Tunnel

text: Building tunnels is a large civil engineering project that could cost very high sums of money. The planning and building of a long tunnel may take many years.


title: Tunnel

text: The Channel Tunnel between France and England is one of the longest tunnels in the world. It is 50 kilometers long. The longest tunnel in the world, the "Gotthard Base Tunnel", is being dug in Switzerland.


title: Tunnel

text: Cut-and-cover is a simple way of making hollow tunnels where a trench is hollowed out and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to be built above the tunnel.


title: Habitat

text: A habitat is the area in which an organism lives. It is a summary term for all the resources, physical and living which are present in an area. It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, and the physical environment which surrounds a population.


title: Habitat

text: Most animals live in one type of environment because they are best suited to it. We say they are 'adapted to this environment'. For example, animals such as frogs, newts, and ducks have webbed feet to help them swim in the water. There are many different types of habitats and many kinds of adaptations to each habitat.


title: Habitat

text: If the habitat changes, it may no longer be suitable for the animals and plants that live there. Climate change is making some habitats warmer, and so many animal species are moving to cooler areas. However some species are not able to move and the populations are getting smaller. Scientists think that 10% of species may become extinct because of these changes. Other habitats have been cleared to make them into farm land. In Australia for example, 80% of the eucalypt forests have been cleared for farming over the last 210 years. This is threatening the survival of forest animals such as the koala.


title: Habitat

text: Just as animals adapt to the places they live, so do plants. Plants are adapted to a wide variety of habitats. As a result, each plant has certain characteristics. Some are adapted to living on land while others live in water. Plants that grow on land usually have stiff stems to hold them upright, while water plants tend to have less rigid stems because the water supports them.


title: Habitat

text: Plants that live in dry climates like the desert have few or no leaves. Many, such as cacti, store water when rain occurs. Their adaptations save water. Plants that grow in shaded areas have large leaves to capture as much sunlight as possible, or they climb towards the light.


title: Girls' Generation

text: Girls' Generation (Hangul: 소녀시대; Hanja: 少女時代) is a pop group made up of nine members that was formed by SM Entertainment in 2007. Girls' Generation members are Yoona, Tiffany, Yuri, Hyoyeon, Sooyoung, Seohyun, Taeyeon (who is the group's leader), and Sunny. Jessica was a member, but in 2014, she left the group. Fans usually call the group SNSD, which is a short-form of the group's Korean name, So Nyeo Shi Dae (or So Nyuh Shi Dae). Their fans are called "S♡NE" (소원), and is pronounced as "So-won", which means "wish" in Korean.


title: Girls' Generation

text: Each member of the group was trained in singing and dancing before their debut, while some others were trained in acting and modelling. Some girls had already appeared in television advertisements, music videos of other music groups and acted in dramas as well, before Girls' Generation started.


title: Girls' Generation

text: Girls' Generation first performed on M.net "M! Countdown" in July 2007. Even though their performances were never played on television, videos of their performances were posted on the Internet. The girls performed "Into the New World"(), which became their single. "M.Net's Girls Go To School" was filmed during this time, to show how the girls made their debut. The show ended after 9 episodes, when they finally appeared on another show, "School of Rock".


title: Girls' Generation

text: In August 2007, the single "Into the New World" was released. This single included two other songs, "Beginning" and "Perfect for You" (), later renamed as Honey for their debut album "Girls' Generation". An instrumental of "Into the New World" was also put in the album.


title: Girls' Generation

text: After the single was released, the group started to promote it. Girls' Generation performed their single on SBS's "Inkigayo", MBC's "Show! Music Core", and on KBS's "Music Bank".


title: Girls' Generation

text: After a short break, the group's first full album was released in late autumn 2007, with the lead single "Girls' Generation" (), a cover of Lee Seung-Chul ()'s hit song in the 1980s. Promotion for the single started in early November. "Girls' Generation" was became popular, and the album has sold 121,143 copies to date, placing 8th in the year-end charts. In early 2008, Girls' Generation began promoting their third single, "Kissing You". The music video featured Donghae from Super Junior. This song achieved the #1 spot in the three main TV music rankings—SBS "Inkigayo", M.net "M.Countdown!" and KBS "Music Bank".


title: Girls' Generation

text: In March 2008, the album was re-released and re-titled "Baby Baby". A third single, "Baby Baby", was used to promote the album. A digital EP featuring Jessica, Tiffany, and Seohyun was released on April 2008, titled "Roommate". The single from the mini-album is "Oppa Nappa" (, lit."Bad Brother", although contextually it refers to an older male friend).


title: Girls' Generation

text: Girls' Generation, along with fellow artists such as BoA, TVXQ, Super Junior, CSJH the Grace, Zhang Liyin, SHINee, and other SM artists participated in SM Town Live '08. The tour went on to South Korea, Thailand, and China.


title: Girls' Generation

text: In 2008, M.net announced that the group would be starring in a reality TV show called "Factory Girl", in which the girls work as interns at fashion megazine ""Elle"", writing articles for the magazine.


title: Girls' Generation

text: During their break from music, they appeared in many television advertisements for MapleStory and Mabinogi.


title: Girls' Generation

text: A teaser video was released in January 2009 and the first single "Gee" was released soon after. People became interested in the song rose after the digital release, and the song became #1 Cyworld's hourly music chart on the release day. The song also went #1 on all major digital music charts within two days.


title: Girls' Generation

text: The group began to promote the album in January 2009 on MBC "Show! Music Core". They sang their new single, "Gee", and "Him Nae/Way To Go", another track from the Gee mini-album. This song is a remake of the song "Haptic Motion" that was used in cellphone advertisements and is a mix of bubblegum pop and punk rock. However, the group did not appear on KBS's "Music Bank" with "Gee", even after winning #1 on the music chart show.


title: Girls' Generation

text: "Gee" is the record holder for the longest-running #1 on music portal M.net (for 8 weeks), surpassing the previous record of 6 weeks set by the Wonder Girls' "Nobody".


title: Girls' Generation

text: They also broke the record on KBS's music show "Music Bank" by being #1 for 9 consecutive weeks, previously set by Jewelry's "One More Time", which had 7 wins. They won the award for best-selling song for the first half of 2009 for "Gee". The group stopped promoting the song at the end of March 2009.


title: Girls' Generation

text: After a short break, SM Entertainment announced that the girls would be back with a new single and showing a "Marine Girl" concept; the song, titled "Sowoneul Malhaebwa (Genie)" (, lit. "Tell Me Your Wish"), the mini album was released digitally on June 22, 2009. The mini-album includes a duet between Jessica and Shinee member Onew called "One Year Later". During the group's promotion, the girls would be seen wearing marine uniforms as part of the album's concept.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On May 3, 2009, Girls Generation starred in their new reality show "SNSD Horror Movie factory", with the premier episode receiving a viewership rating of 3.3%. The show was then cancelled after 6 episodes due to low ratings from the public.


title: Girls' Generation

text: From June 23 to November 17, 2009, Girls' Generation starred in a Cable TV program called "Girls' Generation's Hello Baby" of KBS Joy, where they are taking care of a child and somewhat experience how motherhood is like. In that show, they take care of a boy name "Cho Kyungsan" (), and each week they (or fathers, male guests who come out from time to time) select "The Best Mom" and "the Worst Mom" among the members according to their work for the day. The show ended after 22 episodes.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On June 26, 2009, Girls' Generation's comeback performance was recorded on KBS's "Music Bank". The group then had their return performances on MBC's "Music Core" and SBS's "Inkigayo" on June 27 and 28, 2009. Girls' Generation's 2nd mini-album "Genie" was released on June 29, 2009.


title: Girls' Generation

text: "Sowoneul Malhaebwa (Genie)" won its first #1 spot at the July 10, 2009 episode of KBS "Music Bank". Their second award was claimed at the July 12, 2009 episode of SBS "Inkigayo". The group finished promotions for "Sowoneul Malhaebwa (Genie)" in August 2009.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On January 23, 2010, the group released a teaser of their new single "Oh!". This was a precursor to their upcoming album "Oh!", a full album to be released on 28 January, 2010. The concept of the new album channels cheerleading.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On March 17, 2010, a re-packaged version of the album was released, featuring a "Dark" concept for the girls. The lead single, entitled Run Devil Run, was released one day before its music video.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On August 25, the group held their first showcase in Tokyo Ariake Colliseum and on September 7th, Girls' Generation released their debut Japanese single, "GENIE", followed by "GEE" on October 20th.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On October 27, 2010, the girls released their third mini album, "Hoot" (훗). The music video for "Hoot" was released the next day, and on the 29th, they had their comeback performance on Music Bank.


title: Girls' Generation

text: By the end of the year, Girls' Generation had won various awards, including the prestigious "Disk Daesang Award" at the Golden Disk Awards. They became the first female group to win both the Daesang and Digital Daesang (which they won in 2009). At the "Melon Music Awards", Girls' Generation won Best Dressed Singer award, Hot Trend Song award for their latest song, "Hoot", as well as the Artist of the Year award. This was the 2nd year in a row that they won the Artist of the Year award. They also got first in the Hanteo annual Singer Award chart for 2010. Girls' Generation was also named "Artist of the Year" by Dosirak, Soribada, Korea Gallup, Hanteo and Sport Korea.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On January 20, at the 20th Seoul Music Awards, the group received an Artist of the Year award, a Bonsang prize, a Popularity award and a Hallyu award. By winning all of these, Girls' Generation became one of four artists in Korean music history (the others being Seo Taiji, Jo Sungmo and H.O.T.) to win two consecutive Artist of the Year awards at the Seoul Music Awards, they are the only girl group to receive Artist of the Year awards for Seoul Music Awards, Melon Music Awards and Golden Disk Awards for two years in a row.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On April 9, the Japanese music video of Run Devil Run was released. Girls' Generation fully released their third Japanese single, "Mr. Taxi/Run Devil Run", on April 27.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On June 1st, 2011, they released their first Japanese studio album Girls' Generation. This album has 12 songs including the singles "Genie", “Gee”, "Run Devil Run", "Mr. Taxi" and a Japanese version of "Hoot". The album's sales surpassed 100,000 within only two days after release, breaking fellow Korean girl group Kara's record, Kara having surpassed sales of 100,000 in Japan in 2010 after a week with their first original Japanese studio album Girl's Talk. [82]


title: Girls' Generation

text: On September 30, 2014, Jessica announced that she had been forced out of Girls' Generation by SM and the other 8 members.


title: Girls' Generation

text: On October 10, 2017, Seohyun, Sooyung, and Tiffany left SM Entertainment to pursue new careers. They still remain members of Girls' Generation.


title: Bukkake

text: Bukkake is when multiple people ejaculate with their penises on a person's face or body at the same time. It comes from the Japanese verb "bukkakeru" which means "to flood".


Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization is a landmark decision by the US Supreme Court that ruled that abortion in the United States is not a protected right in the country. The Court heard the case in December 2021 and decided that the law, passed by Mississippi in 2018, is constitutional. It made all abortions after the first 15 weeks of pregnancy illegal.


title: Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization

text: On May 2, 2022, "Politico" published a leaked draft opinion. Someone found Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito's notes and gave them to Politico. The notes looked like a majority opinion and so they would probably match the final decision. In the draft, Alito decided to overturn "Roe v. Wade" and "Planned Parenthood v. Casey" and rejected those earlier Supreme Court cases. Those court cases made abortion legal in the United States. With those decisions gone, each state would decide for itself whether it would make abortion legal or not.


text: On June 24, 2022, the Supreme Court ruled in a 5-4 decision that abortion is not a protected right in the United States.


text: Justices Samuel Alito, Clarence Thomas, Brett Kavanaugh, Neil Gorsuch, and Amy Coney Barrett wrote the majority opinion. Stephen Breyer, Elena Kagan and Sonia Sotomayor wrote the dissenting opinion. Chief Justice John Roberts wrote a concurring opinion, which declared the law constitutional but did not overturn "Roe v. Wade", which allowed abortion.


text: After the leak, members of the US Senate tried to make a new law to allow abortion in the whole country. The law would stop any states from making abortion illegal, but it did not pass.


text: On May 14, protesters marched and held up signs in more than 380 cities across the United States, and 20,000 people marched in Washington, DC. That was called the "Bans off Our Bodies" protests.


text: US President Joe Biden said, "It's a sad day for the Court and for the country," and that "the health and life of women in this nation are now at risk." In a statement, former President Donald Trump took credit for the decision and called it "the biggest WIN for LIFE in a generation.”


text: Many world leaders and diplomats are against the decision and support abortion as a human right like UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson, Belgian Prime Minister Alexander De Croo, French President Emmanuel Macron, Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen, New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern, and Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis.


text: Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker, a Republican, signed an executive order protecting abortion rights in the state. Democrat Governors Jay Inslee, Kate Brown, and Gavin Newsom, respectively of Washington State, Oregon, and California, also announced a creation of the "West Coast offense," a joint policy to allow and protect abortion rights.


text: In Florida, a new law restricts abortions to 15 weeks of pregnancy, down from 24, with no exceptions for rape or incest.


title: Fraction (mathematics)

text: A fraction is a number that shows how many equal parts there are. When we write fractions, we show one number with a line above (or a slash next to) another number. For example, formula_1, and 1/4.are different ways of writing the same fraction (in this case a quarter). The top number tells us how many parts there are, and the bottom number tells us the total number of parts.


title: Fraction (mathematics)

text: The top part of the fraction is called a numerator. The bottom part of the fraction is called a denominator. For example, for the fraction formula_1, the 1 is the numerator, and the 4 is the denominator.


title: Fraction (mathematics)

text: A fraction is a mathematical expression relating two quantities or numbers, where one divides the other. When the two quantities are whole numbers (or integers), this is called a rational number (such as the fraction formula_6). When the two quantities are polynomials, this is called a rational function.


title: Fraction (mathematics)

text: Mathematically, a fraction is a quotient of numbers, representing the number's value when the numerator (upper number) is divided by the denominator (lower number). Thus formula_6 means one divided by two, or, in decimals, 0.5.


title: Fraction (mathematics)

text: To find formula_6 of formula_6, the denominators are multiplied, and because denominator 2 multiplied by 2 equals 4, we have that formula_6 x formula_6 = formula_1, or 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25.


title: Fraction (mathematics)

text: To find formula_6 "divided by" formula_6, multiply formula_6 by the reciprocal of formula_6, which is 2. That answer is 1.


title: Fraction (mathematics)

text: To multiply two fractions, the first numerator is multiplied by the other numerator, and the first denominator is multiplied by the other denominator. For example. ' x ' = '. One can simplify this by dividing both numbers by a common factor. This would be ' after the simplication.


title: Communist Party of China

text: The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), (spelled as 中国共产党/中國共產黨 in Simplified/Traditional Chinese, is the dominant political party and founder of the People's Republic of China, and is the only ruling party in People's Republic of China now. Originally, the party was led by Chen Duxiu, who was the General Secretary of the Central Committee. In the early stage, the CPC got help from the , and worked with Kuomintang until 1927. After the victory of World War II, the CPC led its own army called People's Liberation Army to fight with Kuomintang. Their fight is called The Chinese Communist Revolution. The CPC won the war. In 1949, the CPC drove Kuomintang out from mainland China and established (formed) the People's Republic of China. Ideologically, it is an communist Marxist-Leninist party.


title: Communist Party of China

text: From 1943 to 1982 the most powerful position in the party was Chairman. In 1982, members of the Central Committee voted to name the leader of the party General Secretary again. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping.


title: Communist Party of China

text: The CPC tries to keep good relationships(how good or bad they feel with each other) with other communist parties. Other communist parties also send people to have meets with the CPC. For example, the chairman of Portuguese Communist Party, Jeronimo de Sousa, met with Liu Qibao, a member of the Central Politburo in 2007. For another example, Pierre Laurent, the National Secretary of the French Communist Party (FCP), met with Liu Yunshan, a Politburo Standing Committee member.


title: Communist Party of China

text: Also, the CPC gives help to the communist party of Cuba in a wide range and a deep degree. After the disintegration of the USSR (USSR was not a whole country anymore), the CPC became the only major helpers of Cuba.


title: Communist Party of China

text: Communism had fallen in the Western Europe. The CPC began to make good party-to-party relations with other non-communist parties. The CPC also used this way to learn.


title: Communist Party of China

text: The relationships between the CPC and the Kuomintang and other parties in Taiwan, has loosened since Jiang Zemin’s time.


title: Pitchblende

text: Pitchblende is a radioactive, uranium-rich mineral and ore. It has a chemical composition that is largely UO, but also contains UO and oxides of lead, thorium, and rare earth elements. It is known as pitchblende due to its black color and high density. It is also commonly referred to as Uraninite. The mineral has been known at least since the 15th century from silver mines in the Ore Mountains, on the German/Czech border. Pitchblende found in Germany was used by M. Klaproth in 1789 to discover the element uranium.


title: Pitchblende

text: Pitchblende contains a small amount of radium as a radioactive decay product of uranium. Because the uranium isotopes U and U will decay to form the lead isotopes Pb and Pb, pitchblende also always contains small amounts of lead. Small amounts of helium are also present in pitchblend as a result of alpha decay. Helium was first found on Earth in pitchblende after having been discovered in the Sun's atmosphere.


title: Pitchblende

text: Pitchblende is a major ore of uranium. Some of the highest grade uranium ores in the world were found in the Shinkolobwe mine in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the initial source for the Manhattan Project) and in the Athabasca Basin in northern Canada. Another important source of pitchblende is at Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories of Canada, where it is found in large quantities associated with silver. It also occurs in Australia, Germany, England, and South Africa. In the United States it can be found in the states of New Hampshire, Connecticut, North Carolina, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico.


title: Pitchblende

text: Uranium ore is generally processed close to the mine into yellowcake, which is an intermediate step in the processing of uranium.


title: Negative number

text: The counting numbers (1, 2, 3, and so on) are all positive numbers. The positive numbers, negative numbers, and the number zero, taken together, are called "signed numbers" or integers.


title: Negative number

text: The number zero is neither positive nor negative. Zero is its own opposite; so +0 = −0. That is, zero steps to the right is the same as zero steps to the left.


title: Negative number

text: A negative number is written by putting a minus sign, "−", in front of a positive number. For example, 3 is a positive number, but −3 is a negative number. It is read "negative three" or "minus three"; it means the opposite of 3.


title: Negative number

text: Negative numbers are left of zero on a number line. A number and its opposite are always the same distance from zero. The negative number −3 is just as far to the left of zero as 3 is to the right of zero:


title: Negative number

text: A number and its opposite always add to zero. So the sum of −3 and +3 is 0. We can write this either as −3 + 3 = 0 or as 3 + (− 3) = 0. In addition, a number and its opposite are said to "cancel each other out".


title: Negative number

text: When a person got a debt, people sometimes say that they have a negative amount of money. Negative numbers are used in accounting and science.


title: Comic strip

text: A comic strip is a series of panels with cartoon drawings in them that make a story. Sometimes comic strips are humorous, and sometimes they are serious. Famous examples of comic strips are:


title: Comic strip

text: There are comic strips in newspapers and on the web. Comic strips on the web are called webcomics. Penny Arcade and xkcd are famous webcomics.


title: Windows Vista

text: Windows Vista is the 6th version of the Microsoft Windows operating system from Microsoft. It is the successor to Windows XP. While it was being made, it was called Longhorn. On July 28, 2005, Microsoft gave out its real name, which was Windows Vista. The original release of Windows Vista was supported until April 13, 2010; every user of Windows Vista needs to install a Service Pack 2 in order to receive security patches and support after that date. With Service Pack 2 installed on Windows Vista, Microsoft ended mainstream support on April 10, 2012 and then stopped supporting Windows Vista as a whole on April 11, 2017.


title: Windows Vista

text: Microsoft had worked on Vista for more than five years, so it came with many new features, such as improved graphics, new built-in programs, and stronger defenses against malware. Windows Vista received mixed reviews. However, Windows Vista introduced many changes to the way the operating system worked, which caused some older programs to stop working.


title: Windows Vista

text: Vista was released in November 2006 for computer makers and January 30, 2007 for home users. The six main editions of Windows Vista are:


title: Windows Vista

text: Some editions are meant for home use, while others are made mainly for businesses. Starter Edition is similar to Windows XP Starter Edition, as it is a low-budget edition that was only released in countries where computers were not as common. Enterprise Edition is for big companies that need computers that have good performance.


title: Windows Vista

text: Windows Vista needs at least 512 MB of RAM to run on all computers. Some new parts of Vista need 1 GB of RAM to work and for better stability and performance.


title: Windows Vista

text: At first, a major version of Windows code-named "Blackcomb" was planned as the successor to Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Features planned for Blackcomb included the Sidebar, an emphasis on looking for data, and an advanced storage system named WinFS. However, a minor release code-named "Longhorn" was announced for 2003, delaying the making of Blackcomb. By the middle of 2003, Longhorn had gotten some of the features meant for Blackcomb. After three major viruses exploited flaws in Windows operating systems within a short time in 2003, Microsoft changed its development priorities, putting some of Longhorn's major development work on hold while they made new service packs for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Development of Longhorn was reset in September 2004, and it was renamed to Windows Vista. A number of features were cut from Windows Vista as it was being remade.


title: Windows Vista

text: After Windows Vista was released, Microsoft announced a new plan for the next version of Windows, code-named "Windows 7", in 2007.


title: Windows Vista

text: Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (SP1) was released on February 4, 2008 alongside Windows Server 2008 to OEM partners, after a five-month beta test period. The first use of the service pack caused a number of machines to continually reboot, making them unusable. This caused Microsoft to temporarily stop release of the service pack until the problem was resolved. The same release date of the two operating systems showed the merging of the workstation and server kernels back into a single code base for the first time since Windows 2000. MSDN subscribers were able to download SP1 on February 15, 2008. SP1 became available to current Windows Vista users on Windows Update and the Download Center on March 18, 2008. Initially, the service pack only supported 5 languages - English, French, Spanish, German and Japanese. Support for the remaining 31 languages was released on April 14, 2008.


title: Windows Vista

text: Service Pack 2 for Windows Vista was released to manufacturing on April 28, 2009, Windows Vista SP2 RTM + Windows Vista SP1 Blocker Tool Removed and released to Microsoft Download Center and Windows Update on May 26, 2009. In addition to security and other fixes, a number of new features were added. However, it did not include Internet Explorer 8.


title: River delta

text: A river delta is a landform shaped like a triangle. It is where the mouth of a river flows into an ocean, or even into a desert. It is formed by sediment carried by the river being deposited in the wider mouth. This happens because the water moves less quickly there.


title: River delta

text: Over time, the delta forms a series of fingers: places where the water flows, and places above water where plants grow. As time passes, these "fingers" change their position. The landform is typical of the tropical rivers of the past as well as the present.


title: River delta

text: The word "delta" comes from the Greek letter delta, Δ , because the deltas are shaped like the letter. A river delta can cover just a few square miles, or an area of hundreds or thousands of square miles of land.


title: River delta

text: There have been times in the past when the tropical rivers were larger than today. The South of England was, in the Jurassic period, part of a larger continent. There is today just a remnant of this huge tropical river. The mud from this river is like huge fingers, with gravel between the fingers. This can be seen in quarries where building materials are sorted for sale.


title: Terry Crews

text: Terrence Alan Crews (born July 30, 1968) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, voice artist, and comedian. He is known for appearing in "Everybody Hates Chris", "The Expendables", "White Chicks", "The 6th Day", "Norbit", "Brooklyn Nine-Nine", and other movies and television series. He is a retired NFL player. Crews is from Flint, Michigan. Crews was the host of "Who Wants to be a Millionaire" on September 2014 until May 2015 due to his busy schedule. He was replaced by Chris Harrison in September 2015.


title: Terry Crews

text: Terrence Alan Crews grew up in a strict Christian household in Flint. His mother raised him, because his farther was an alcoholic. His great aunt gave him a flute, so Terrence took lessons for eight years. He played football at Western Michigan University (WMU) in Kalamazoo, Michigan.


title: Amino acid

text: Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. In eukaryotes, there are 20 "standard" amino acids out of which almost all proteins are made.


title: Amino acid

text: In biochemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that has both amine (NH+R) and carboxyl (C=O) functional groups. In biochemistry, this term refers to alpha-amino acids with the general formula HNCHRCOOH, where R is one of many side groups (see diagram).


title: Amino acid

text: Across all forms of life, about 500 amino acids are known. The most important thing that amino acids do is to be part of proteins, which are long chains of amino acids. Every protein has its own sequence of amino acids, and that sequence makes the protein take different shapes, and have different functions. Amino acids are like the alphabet for proteins; even though you only have a few letters, if you connect them, you can make many different sentences.


title: Amino acid

text: Nine of the 20 standard amino acids are "essential" amino acids for humans. They cannot be built (synthesised) from other compounds by the human body. They must be taken in as food. Others may be essential for some ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species. Herbivores have to get their essential amino acids from their diet, which for some is almost entirely grass. Ruminants such as cows get some amino acids via microbes in the first two stomach chambers.


title: Amino acid

text: An amino acid is an organic chemical. It consists of an α-carbon atom that is covalently bonded to four groups.


title: Amino acid

text: These are the proteinogenic amino acids, which are the building blocks for proteins. They are produced by cellular machinery coded for in the genetic code of any organism.


title: Amino acid

text: ‡ An essential amino acid cannot be synthesized in humans. It must be supplied in the diet. Conditionally essential amino acids are not normally required in the diet, but must be supplied to populations which do not make enough of it.


title: Amino acid

text: To these α-amino acids further in biosynthesis processes appearing non-essential ones are structurally (here by using SMILES notation) related:


title: Chimpanzee

text: The common chimpanzee ("Pan troglodytes"), or robust chimpanzee, is a species of great ape. The common chimpanzee is often called the chimpanzee (or "chimp"), but this can refer to both species in the genus "Pan": the common chimpanzee and the closely related bonobo.


title: Chimpanzee

text: Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing show both species of chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to modern humans.


title: Chimpanzee

text: The common chimpanzee is more robust than the bonobo, weighing between and measuring approximately . Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old, but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several more years; it reaches puberty at the age of eight to 10, and its lifespan in captivity is about 50 years.


title: Chimpanzee

text: The common chimpanzee lives in groups which range from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a male-dominated strict hierarchy. Disputes can generally be settled without the need for violence.


title: Chimpanzee

text: Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been seen using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass, and leaves. They use them for getting honey, termites, ants, nuts, and water. The species has also been seen making sharpened sticks to spear Senegal bushbabies out of small holes in trees. So although it is mainly a herbivore, it does eat other animals to some extent.


title: Chimpanzee

text: The common chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. There are between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals. They live in the forests and savannahs of West and Central Africa. The biggest threats to the common chimpanzee are habitat destruction, poaching and disease.


title: Chimpanzee

text: Jane Goodall discovered that chimps hunt and eat smaller primates such as "Colobus" monkeys. Goodall watched a hunting group isolate a monkey high in a tree, block all possible exits. Then one chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the monkey. The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours. The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as "one-third of the "Colobus" population" in the park each year. This was a major scientific discovery: it challenged previous ideas of chimp diet and behavior.


title: Chimpanzee

text: Also startling, and disturbing, was the tendency for aggression and violence "within" chimpanzee troops. Goodall observed dominant females deliberately killing the young of other females in the troop in order to maintain their dominance, sometimes going as far as cannibalism.


title: Chimpanzee

text: She says of this revelation, "During the first ten years of the study I had believed […] that the Gombe chimpanzees were, for the most part, rather nicer than human beings. […] Then suddenly we found that chimpanzees could be brutal—that they, like us, had a darker side to their nature". These findings revolutionized our knowledge of chimpanzee behaviour. They were further evidence of the social similarities between humans and chimpanzees, albeit in a much darker manner.


title: Chimpanzee

text: If they can, male chimpanzees try to kill the male members of neighbouring groups. Males work together when they spot a chance to make a lightning raid on an isolated male from the other group. They kill him. In Gombe, Tanzania, a group in the 1970s was seen to kill seven of their neighbours one by one, until all were gone. It can take years for this to happen but, when it does, the remaining females and the neighbouring territory are added to the now larger group. Attacks like this are carefully planned, done only when success is likely, and carried out in silence. Their behaviour is quite different from any other behaviour known in chimpanzees:


title: Chimpanzee

text: The advantage for the males that win is to breed more children. Their tribe also holds a larger territory, and so has access to more food. Several authors have drawn a connection between this behaviour and the origins of human warfare.


title: Extermination camp

text: Extermination camps (also known as death camps) were built by Nazi Germany during World War II. The goal of the death camps was to kill millions of people as quickly as possible. At the death camps, people were murdered mostly by being given poison gas in gas chambers. However, the Nazis also killed many people in other ways at the death camps. They killed some in mass executions (for example, by shooting many people at once). They killed others through "extermination through labor." This was by making prisoners do very hard forced labor without giving them the food, medical care, or other basic things they needed to survive. Many other people died at the death camps from starvation, illness, and freezing to death.


title: Extermination camp

text: The Nazis sent many different kinds of people to the death camps. However, about 90% of the people killed in the death camps were Jewish. Nazi Germany wanted to 'exterminate' the Jewish people (they wanted to kill all of the Jews, so they would not exist any more). This plan was called the Final Solution. It is now called the Holocaust.


title: Extermination camp

text: The fascist Ustaše government in the Independent State of Croatia also set up death camps during World War II. At death camps like Jasenovac, they murdered many Serbs, Jews, and other people. As many as 750,000 Serbs may have been killed at these death camps.


title: Extermination camp

text: The Nazis believed that some groups of people were better than others. They thought that the Aryan race was the best of all. They believed that people who were not "Aryan" were "inferior". They also believed that non-Ayrans were the cause of Germany's problems. They thought that some groups of people did not even deserve to live. These groups included people with disabilities. The Nazis called these people "Lebensunwertes Leben" - "life unworthy of life."


title: Extermination camp

text: In 1939, the Nazi "Schutzstaffel" (SS) started a program to kill everyone who was "unworthy of life." They called this secret program the Action T4 euthanasia program. As part of this program, they killed 70,000 people with disabilities, using carbon monoxide gas. This was the first time the Nazis had used poison gas to kill people.


title: Extermination camp

text: Two years later, the Nazis built the first death camps. Using the things they learned by gassing people with disabilities, the Nazis had decided to start the Final Solution - killing all of the Jewish people, mostly by gassing them. Before the Nazis were ready to kill large numbers of people in gas chambers, the SS "Einsatzgruppen" started killing many people at a time by shooting them.


title: Extermination camp

text: At the Wannsee Conference in January 1942, the Nazis made it clear that they planned to kill all the Jews in Europe. Adolf Eichmann was put in charge of this program. After this, the Nazis built more death camps, with the goal of killing millions of Jewish people with poison gas.


title: Extermination camp

text: The Nazis used death camps and concentration camps for different things. The goal of the death camps was genocide. Their purpose was to kill people who were sent to the camps on trains, thousands at a time. At death camps like Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, people were usually killed within a few hours after they got to the camps.


title: Extermination camp

text: Concentration camps were different from death camps. Some of the more infamous concentration camps were Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, Dachau, and Ravensbrück. These were prison camps which the Nazis set up before World War II started. The Nazis sent people who they did not want in their society to these concentration camps. The Nazis forced millions of people to do forced labor in the concentration camps. Prisoners in concentration camps made up about 25% of the workers in Nazi Germany. Even though the concentration camps were not designed for mass murder, over 75% of the people sent to these camps died because of starvation, illness, exhaustion, executions, and physical abuse.


title: Extermination camp

text: In the early years of World War II, the Jews were mostly sent to concentration camps. However, from 1942 onward, they were mostly deported to the death camps. They were told they were being "resettled" - sent to other places to live. The Nazis built many of the death camps in Poland, which the Nazis controlled. They did this because most of the people they wanted to kill lived in Poland. Poland had the most Jewish people in the parts of Europe that the Nazis controlled. Also, since these death camps were not in Germany, the Nazis could hide what they were doing from the German people.


title: Extermination camp

text: The Nazis created two types of death camps. Some were "pure extermination camps." Their only purpose was to kill people. Others were a combination of concentration camps and death camps. At these camps, the Nazis would kill some people right away. They would force others to work as slaves until they died.


title: Extermination camp

text: The first death camps were Treblinka, Bełżec, and Sobibór. They were built during Operation Reinhard (October 1941 – November 1943), whose goal was to kill all of Poland's Jews. Trains full of people were sent to these camps, and were murdered as soon as they got there. At first, the camp's guards used carbon monoxide to kill the prisoners. They then buried their bodies in mass graves. Later, when there were too many bodies to bury, they started burning the bodies. So they could kill people and get rid of their bodies more quickly, the Nazis built gas chambers and crematoria in Treblinka and Bełżec. At Bełżec, they also started using Zyklon-B poison gas to kill people.


title: Extermination camp

text: On December 8, 1941, the Nazis opened another death camp called Chełmno. At first, they killed prisoners at Chelmno inside vans, using carbon monoxide exhaust fumes. Later, like at the other death camps, the Nazis built gas chambers so they could kill more people at a time. Almost all of the prisoners sent to Chelmno were killed right away. However, the Nazis forced a few strong men into work units called "Sonderkommando". These prisoners were forced to help take dead bodies out of the gas chambers and burn them.


title: Extermination camp

text: The death camps were small (only several hundred meters long and wide). They also had very little housing or other buildings. Because of this, the Nazis were able to trick the prisoners when they arrived. The Nazis told them they would only be staying at the camp for a short time, before continuing to a work camp farther east. This kept the prisoners from panicking or fighting back.


title: Extermination camp

text: After they decided to start the "Final Solution," the Nazis built gas chambers and crematoria inside some of the concentration camps that already existed, like Auschwitz and Majdanek.


title: Extermination camp

text: When people arrived at these camps, they would go through a process called "selection." Nazi guards would choose which prisoners would be kept to work as slaves, and which would be sent right to the gas chambers to be killed. Usually, the Nazis sent elderly people, sick people, and very young children right to the gas chambers. Healthy people were often kept for slave labor, and were forced to work until they were too sick or starved to work as fast as the Nazis wanted. Then the Nazis would "select" them for the gas chambers.


title: Extermination camp

text: With the support of Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, the Independent State of Croatia (ISC) was created on 10 April 1941. It was ruled by the fascist Ustaše government, which agreed with the Nazis' ideas about race and politics. The Ustaše agreed with the idea that all Jews and Roma people should be killed. They also agreed with the Nazis that socialists and communists were political enemies.


title: Extermination camp

text: The Ustaše built death camps in the Independent State of Croatia and helped with the Nazis' "Final Solution" by killing many Jews and Roma. However, their main goal was to kill all of the Serbian people in the ISC. The Ustaše treated the Serbian people so cruelly that even the Germans were shocked.


title: Extermination camp

text: The first Ustaše camp was Jadovno concentration camp. It held thousands of Serbs and Jews from May to August 1941. Prisoners were usually killed by being pushed into deep ravines near the camp.


title: Extermination camp

text: The Jasenovac concentration camp replaced Jadovno. Jasenovac was a very large group of many camps. Many prisoners who arrived at Jasenovac were immediately scheduled to be killed. Strong men who could work, and were sentenced to less than three years in the camp, were allowed to live. However, all prisoners sentenced to three years or more were immediately scheduled for execution.


title: Extermination camp

text: Some prisoners at Jasenovac were killed with poison gas or in mass shootings. However, the Ustaše guards killed many prisoners using their hands, or tools like knives and hammers.


title: Extermination camp

text: In 1941, top Nazi official Heinrich Himmler went to see a group of "Einsatzgruppen" perform a mass shooting. The group's commanding officer told him that shooting so many people was psychologically harming the soldiers doing the shootings. Himmler decided the Nazis needed to find another way of killing people. After the war, the diary of Auschwitz's Commandant, Rudolf Höss, showed that many "Einsatzkommandos" – the killers – either went mad or killed themselves. He wrote that they did this because they were psychologically "unable to endure wading through blood any longer."


title: Extermination camp

text: The Nazis had learned from their T-4 program that they could kill people using carbon monoxide. However, they thought sending carbon monoxide to the death camps would be too expensive.


title: Extermination camp

text: In August 1941, Höss' deputy, Karl Fritzsch, tested out an idea. At Auschwitz, clothes infected with lice were treated with crystals of prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide). The crystals' brand name was Zyklon-B. They were made to order by the IG Farben chemicals company. Once their container was opened, the Zyklon-B crystals in the air released a deadly cyanide gas. Fritzch thought this gas could be used to kill prisoners. To try out the effects, he locked some Soviet prisoners of war in the basement of a bunker and gassed them. They died.


title: Extermination camp

text: Gassing with Zyklon-B became Auschwitz's way to exterminate people. It would also be used at Majdanek and other camps. Besides gassing, the camp guards continued to kill prisoners through mass shootings, starvation, torture, and abuse.


title: Extermination camp

text: During the war, Nazi official Kurt Gerstein told a Swedish diplomat about life in a death camp. On 19 August 1942, Gerstein arrived at Bełżec extermination camp, which had carbon monoxide gas chamber. At the time 45 railroad cars, filled with 6,700 Jews, were being unloaded. Many of the Jews had died on the trip. The rest were marched naked to the gas chambers. There Gerstein said:


title: Extermination camp

text: To keep people from panicking and fighting back, the Nazis told the prisoners they were going to shower and get deloused (get lice removed). Prisoner "Sonderkommando" were forced to help in and around the gas chambers. They encouraged the Jews to undress without a hint of what was about to happen. (If the "Sonderkommando" warned the prisoners, they too would be killed.) The gas chambers were designed to look like shower rooms (with fake water nozzles, and tile walls). The "Sonderkommando" talked to the victims about life in the camp to keep people from getting suspicious. They also helped the elderly and the very young to undress. The "Sonderkommando" also comforted older children who might cry "because of the strangeness of being undressed in this fashion".


title: Extermination camp

text: Once the gas chamber was full of people and the door was sealed, Nazi guards dropped Zyklon B through special holes in the roof.


title: Extermination camp

text: As part of their training, some high-ranked Nazi Party leaders and SS officers were sent to Auschwitz–Birkenau to watch the gassings. Höss reported that "all were deeply impressed by what they saw ... [but some] ... who had previously spoken most loudly, about the [need] for this extermination, fell silent once they had actually seen the 'final solution of the Jewish problem'."


title: Extermination camp

text: After the gassings, the "Sonderkommando" removed the corpses from the gas chambers, then took gold teeth out of the bodies. At first, the victims were buried in mass graves. Later, victims' bodies were cremated. The ashes were either buried, scattered, or dumped in a nearby river.


title: Extermination camp

text: Hess wrote that he was impressed by how hard the "Sonderkommando" worked, even though they knew they would also be killed eventually.


title: Extermination camp

text: Eventually, the Nazis were killing so many people at Auschwitz-Birkenau that they had three buildings with crematoria designed by specialists from Topf und Söhne. At Auschwitz, prisoners worked every hour of the day to destroy corpses. However, people were being gassed so quickly that not every body could be destroyed in the crematoria. Some corpses were also burned in an open air fire pit.<ref name="B/G-199"></ref>


title: Extermination camp

text: When they realized they were going to lose World War II, the Nazis tried to destroy the death camps in order to hide the evidence of what they had done. They wanted to hide evidence that so many people had been killed. This meant they needed to destroy the camps, and also hide the corpses of their many victims. The Nazis forced prisoners to destroy the camps and their records, and to dig up mass graves.


title: Extermination camp

text: Some extermination camps were liberated (taken over and freed) by Soviet soldiers before the Nazis could destroy evidence of their war crimes. For example, Majdanek was captured nearly intact before the Nazis were able to destroy very much. This happened because the Soviet Red Army got to the camp very quickly, which prevented the SS from destroying most of the camp.


title: Cosmological argument

text: The cosmological argument is an attempt to prove the existence of God by the fact that things exist. It assumes that things must have a cause, and that the chain of causes can only end by a supernatural event. Other names for the argument are argument from universal causation, argument from first cause, causal argument and argument from existence.


title: Cosmological argument

text: The universe exists, so there must be something that caused the universe. The first cause is claimed to be God. Thomas Aquinas said that God is the only thing that was not caused by something else, and that God created the cause of existence. The idea has been popular with many theologians and philosophers.


title: Raspberry

text: A raspberry is an aggregate fruit, meaning it has many parts joined together. It is similar to a blackberry, but the fruit is hollow on the inside. There are many different species of raspberry plants, but only a few of them have fruit that are sold in stores. Leaves of the raspberry plant are also used fresh or dried in herbal teas. The raspberry is red when ripe, and is also a source of nectar for juices. Raspberries are a popular fruit in some parts of the world.


title: Raspberry

text: A raspberry plant typically grows in fields or in forest clearings where fire or wood-cutting has produced open space. As a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions, it is easy to grow. It has a tendency to spread unless cut back.


title: Raspberry

text: Two types of raspberry plants can be bought in stores: the older summer-bearing type and double- or "ever"-bearing plants. Raspberry plants make stalks each year. The fruit grows on these stalks. These stalks last for 2 years. Both the summer and everbearing plants create the fruit in the summer of the second year of the stalk. The stalks of the everbearing plant also creates fruit in the fall of the first year.


title: Raspberry

text: The raspberry fruit that are sold in stores come from plants that are hybrids between two species, "Rubus idaeus", European red raspberry, and "Rubus strigosus", American red raspberry. Fruit from "Rubus occidentalis", black raspberry, are sometimes available, and hybrids with red fruit exist. These three species are in the same subgenus, "Rubus" subgenus "Idaeobatus".


title: Tzuyu

text: Chou Tzu-yu (, born June 14, 1999), known mononymously as Tzuyu (, ; ), is a Taiwanese singer based in South Korea. She is known for being the youngest member of K-pop girl group TWICE, as well as being the only Taiwanese member in the group.


title: Beige

text: The name comes from "beige cloth", a woolen fabric left in its natural color. It then came to be used for a range of light tints of yellow chosen for their neutral or pale warm colored appearance.


title: Beige

text: In the 1920s, the meaning of the term "beige" expanded to the point where it is now also used for not only for pale yellows but also for a wide range of pale brown shades.


title: Swansea

text: Swansea (Welsh: Abertawe), officially the City and County of Swansea (Welsh: Dinas a Sir Abertawe), is a city and county in Wales. It is Wales' second largest city and the largest in Cardiff. It is in the country's south coast. It has a temperate oceanic climate, with the most rain of any city in the United Kingdom. The city has a population of around 240,000.


title: Swansea

text: Swansea was built in the early 12th century by the Normans. A castle was built here and a town started to form around it.


title: Embassy

text: A foreign embassy is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the ambassador and other representatives of the home country work. Much of the diplomacy (talk) between the two governments happens there. They represent their country to the host government. The embassy represents the interests of the entire country and is fully responsible for the relationship between the two countries.


title: Embassy

text: The head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it.


title: Crown dependencies

text: A British crown dependency is a special type of state. The head of state is the British monarch, who is represented by a Lieutenant-Governor. Each dependency has a parliament, government and prime minister to make all laws, except laws about defence and foreign affairs. Defence and foreign affairs are looked after by the British Government.


title: Crown dependencies

text: But the British government in London has no power in the dependencies, unless the government of the dependency agrees.


title: Crown dependencies

text: British Overseas Territories, which were British colonies, also have a government, parliament and prime minister and can make laws, except laws about defence and foreign affairs; but they were created by the British government and can be taken over by the British government, without the agreement of the British Overseas Territory.


title: Gorilla

text: Gorilla is a genus of African apes commonly known as gorillas. They are divided into two species, the western gorilla ("Gorilla gorilla") and the eastern gorilla ("Gorilla beringei").


title: Gorilla

text: Gorillas may be aggressive when attacked or provoked, but they are naturally gentle. They are generally herbivores, which means that they eat plants. But they also eat insects.


title: Gorilla

text: A gorilla's lifespan in the wild is between 35 and 40 years, although zoo gorillas may live for 50 years or more because they have more food and health care.


title: Gorilla

text: Gorillas are large apes. They can be strong like chimpanzees, orangutans and humans. An adult male gorilla can weigh up to 225 kilograms and stand 1.8 meters in height. Gorillas live in family groups called troops. They have a broad chest, wide shoulders, short legs, and long strong arms. They have black skin and hair. Adult male gorillas' hair becomes silver/grey on their backs as they become older. Because of that, older males are called "silverbacks".


title: Gorilla

text: Gorillas live in the rainforests in central Africa. They mostly live on the ground, but they can also climb. When on the ground, they walk on their feet and finger knuckles. Troops of gorillas wander slowly through the forests of Central Africa. For about half of their day they search for leaves, vines, and bamboo shoots to eat. Sometimes they also eat ants or termites. For the rest of the day, they lay in the sun and play with their children. If another gorilla threatens them, the troop's leader, the silverback, protects them by rearing up and beating his chest. Although mostly vegetarian, they have long canine teeth or fangs that the adult males sometimes use to fight each other for the troop leadership.


title: Gorilla

text: Gorillas sleep in nests that they build on the ground. At the end of each day, each adult gorilla spends a few minutes putting together a soft, flat bed made of leaves, branches, and moss. The young gorillas sleep with their mothers.


title: Gorilla

text: The gestation period (when a baby grows inside the mother) of a gorilla lasts between eight and ten months. Gorillas almost always produce one offspring - twins are rare. Gorilla babies begin to hang onto their mothers when they are only a few hours old and will continue to do so for the next three years. Gorillas live up to 50 years in the wild and up to 54 years in captivity.


title: Scuba diving

text: Scuba diving is an activity where people (called "scuba divers", or simply "divers") can swim underwater. They can be underwater a long time by having a tank filled with compressed air. The tank is a large metal cylinder made of steel or aluminum.


title: Scuba diving

text: In the 1600s, a diving bell would be lowered that had trapped air in it. A diving bell is like a large heavy upside-down bucket that holds air inside when lowered into the water. A diver would breathe that air and swim in an and out of the bell to work until the air became bad. Later fresh air was pumped to the diving bell through a hose, so the diver could stay longer.


title: Scuba diving

text: The first diving suits used a heavy copper diving helmet with windows and a hose from an air pump. The helmet was clamped to a waterptoof diving suit. Divers would wear heavy weghts and walk on the seafloor as it was not safe to swim. The air hose would send air to the helmet from a pump on land or on a boat above the diver. The air would pass trough the helmet and out into the water through a valve, and the diver would breathe from the air in the helmet. This wasted a lot of air, but there was no way to only supply air when the diver needed it. This is called a free-flow system.


title: Scuba diving

text: Jacques Cousteau was a Frenchman who developed several important parts of the scuba system and made it useful. One part was a better regulator that only sent air when the diver breathed in. This let the divers go farther on one tank. It was made with a mouthpiece on a rubber hose, so a heavy helmet was not needed. It was light enough to use with fins and easily swim. He also took many underwater movies and showed people what was under the water and why it needed to be protected.


title: Scuba diving

text: Divers face dangers that can hurt or kill them if they don't know what to do. They can use up all their air, or get decompression sickness or nitrogen narcosis. A person must be trained to use the equipment and dive safely. When they show that they can dive safely they get a certification card. The biggest organization for certifying divers is PADI - Professional Association of Diving Instructors - but there are many others, depending on the country. Some tourist places have a short course without certification and then the instructor will lead the diver in a shallow dive, all in one day.


title: Scuba diving

text: Because of special dangers, there are advanced classes for things like diving in or around underwater shipwrecks, cave diving, and deep diving (more than 60 feet or 18 meters).


title: Cannabis

text: Cannabis is a genus of plant. There are three species: "Cannabis sativa", "Cannabis indica", and "Cannabis ruderalis".


title: Cannabis

text: The cannabis plant's flowers contain a chemical or drug known as THC (short for "tetra-hydro-cannabinol"). Smoking or eating the flower can make a person feel euphoric (very good) or sleepy. The plant is also used to make hemp fibre, and for its seeds and seed oil.


title: Cannabis

text: In its natural environment, THC's purpose was to protect itself against being eaten. There are many varieties of cannabis, and those low on THC production are selected for producing hemp and seeds.


title: Cannabis

text: Since the 19th century, Cannabis has become an illegal drug in many countries. In the 21st century, some countries have made cannabis legal again. Others allow cannabis to be used as medicine when people have certain medical conditions.


title: Cannabis

text: Scientists believe that cannabis first grew somewhere in the Himalayas. Evidence of people smoking cannabis goes as far back as prehistory: archaeologists have found burnt hemp seeds at a burial site in what is now Romania.


title: Cannabis

text: The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus, who called it "ganjika" in Sanskrit ("ganja" in modern Indian languages). According to legend, the Indian god Shiva told his followers to worship the plant. The ancient drug soma was sometimes associated with cannabis.


title: Cannabis

text: People in the Persian Empire (what is now Iran) would light giant campfires made of cannabis, exposing themselves to the smoke. The ceremony was known as "the booz-rooz."


title: Cannabis

text: Cannabis was also known in ancient Greece, where magicians would burn its flowers in order to cause strange thoughts in the audience members' minds. Historians think that the cult of Dionysus also began in ancient Greece and involved inhaling cannabis smoke."


title: Cannabis

text: When a person inhales cannabis smoke or consumes cannabis, he or she may get a feeling called "getting high" or "getting stoned". Cannabis's most common effects include feeling happy, relaxed, tired, silly or scared; having many ideas about what to do; not being able to think clearly (or remember some things at all); and getting hungry (also called getting "the munchies"). Smoking cannabis changes how people think and feel, making it either harder or easier to solve some problems. Some people who take cannabis feel strange or paranoid (worried that something bad is going to happen).


title: Cannabis

text: Hashish (dried resin) is much more concentrated than cannabis (it includes both leaves and flowers). Because of this, people who take large amounts of hashish may feel even stronger effects. They may also see things or hear things that do not exist (these are called hallucinations). They may also have strange thoughts. Some hashish users like the feeling of these visions and thoughts, while others may find them scary. However, people rarely get hallucinations after smoking or eating cannabis.


title: Cannabis

text: In the 2010s many countries and some states in the United States made it legal for people with certain medical problems to use cannabis as a medicine. Medical use of cannabis is legal in Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Finland, Greece, Israel, the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom. In March 2017 Germany legalised cannabis for medical use with treatment of pain and symptoms by chronic diseases. Only a few companies and doctors in Germany willingly prescribe cannabis for medical uses. Not much known about the broad spectrum of medical cannabis efficacy as the drug is still listed under the German narcotics act (in German "Betäubungsmittelgesetz" or abbr. "BtMG").


title: Cannabis

text: In the United States, as of February 2018, 30 states, plus Washington, D.C. and Guam, had legalized medical cannabis. However, using cannabis for any reason is still illegal under federal law.


title: Cannabis

text: According to a 1999 report by the Institute of Medicine, cannabis (especially THC) can decrease pain; control nausea and vomiting; and improve appetite. As of June 2016, according to the National Conference of State Legislatures, "Further studies have found that cannabis [helps] some of the symptoms of HIV/AIDS, cancer, glaucoma, and multiple sclerosis.


title: Cannabis

text: On December 11, 2013, Uruguay was the first country in the world to make it legal to grow, sell, and use cannabis for personal (or recreational) use. Other countries that allow people to have small amounts of cannabis (just enough for them to use personally) include Colombia, Ecuador, Jamaica, the Netherlands, Peru, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland. In the United States, on January 1, 2014, the states of Washington and Colorado made it legal for people aged 21 or older to buy cannabis. In November 2016, California did the same thing, and has been selling cannabis in stores since January 2018. As of October 17th, 2018, Canada has become the first G7 nation to make cannabis legal. Each province of Canada has its own legal minimum age to buy and use (either 18-years-old and older, 19-years-old and older, or 21-years-old and older) and how much of it is allowed to have at one time.


title: Cannabis

text: Cannabis is one of the least dangerous of the commonly used illegal drugs. It is almost impossible to overdose on cannabis. A person would have to smoke their entire body weight in five minutes in order to overdose.


title: Cannabis

text: As of 1995, scientists had not shown that smoking cannabis causes lung cancer, even in people who smoke a lot of cannabis for a long time.


title: Cannabis

text: It is a common, yet false, belief that people who use cannabis are less interested in life and may not want to go to school or work (scientists call this "amotivational syndrome"). However, many reports show that people who use cannabis do just as well as non-users.


title: Cannabis

text: A person who is intoxicated ("high" or "stoned") from cannabis could get hurt or killed in an accident if they drive a car. It is not safe to drive under the influence of any intoxicant. However, drivers who are "stoned" are much less likely to get into car accidents than drunk drivers and in some cases, sober drivers.


title: Cannabis

text: "Hard drugs", such as heroin, meth, and cocaine, are chemically addictive. This means that if a person starts taking heroin, meth, or cocaine, that person's body will physically need to keep taking the drug. If they try to stop using the drug, they may become very sick. Cannabis and hashish are not "chemically" addictive, but they can be "psychologically" or habitually addictive. This means that people can get so used to the pleasure cannabis causes that they feel as if they need the drug. Unlike with alcohol, tobacco, and hard drugs, most people who use cannabis can stop taking it when they want, while experiencing only minor withdrawal symptoms. However, while cannabis may not be as addictive as other drugs, people can still become very much addicted to the pleasure of cannabis.


title: Book of Revelation

text: The Book of Revelation, which is sometimes called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John, or Revelation of Jesus Christ is the last book of the New Testament in the Bible.


title: Book of Revelation

text: The last book of the New Testament is usually called the "Book of Revelation" or simply "Revelation". While some of the earliest manuscripts are entitled "The Revelation of John" (), later manuscripts are usually entitled "The Revelation of the Theologian" (). For this reason, the Authorized King James Version calls Revelation the "Revelation of Saint John the Divine" ("divine" was a seventeenth century word for "theologian".)


title: Book of Revelation

text: Over the course of Revelation, which many regard as the most difficult book in the Bible, the author has two visions. There are many different ways to interpret these visions, and there has been substantial disagreement over which is right.


title: Book of Revelation

text: The person writing Revelation, who called himself "John", claims he was on the island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea when he saw his first vision. But there is disagreement over whether he is the same person as the Bible's other two Johns: the author of the letters of John and the author of The Gospel of John.


title: Book of Revelation

text: Revelation begins by introducing John as its author, and has letters to seven churches of that day. Some think these churches also represent periods of history. Various visions follow that are highly symbolic, allow many different interpretations, and are often thought to represent past and future events. Some believe that many of these prophecies have already been fulfilled, some believe they will be fulfilled at the end of time, and some believe they do not refer to any specific events but instead describe the victory of Christ over all enemies.


title: Book of Revelation

text: Parts of the book seem to use symbols and codes in order to hide their meaning from outsiders, including the mysterious "number of the beast," or 666. The book ends with a vision of faithful souls in the next life rejoicing around the throne of God.


title: Book of Revelation

text: Christians often discuss topics from the book of Revelation, including the Millennium, a 1000-year period when Christ will rule the earth. Revelation also describes a final war between good and evil known as the Battle of Armageddon, though the word "Armageddon" is also sometimes used to describe any large war that ends the world. Both of these events are thought to be literal by some and figurative by others. While virtually all Christians agree that there will be a Second Coming of Christ, it is the subject of conflicting accounts in Revelation and therefore much disagreement about its details.


title: Book of Revelation

text: Throughout history, Revelation has been especially important to Christians who were suffering persecution and felt parts of the book could have been referring to them. Some verses that mention the afterlife have also traditionally been used at funerals.


title: Totemism

text: Totemism is a belief about the relationship between people and nature. The term totem comes from an Ojibwe word meaning “a relative of mine”. It was first written about in 1791 by a trader, James Long. It has been recorded across native tribes of America, Africa and Australia. It has been the subject of much research into ethnic groups. Usually, totems of a kinship group will be animals or plants. They will be represented in sacred objects and will belong exclusively to them.


title: Totemism

text: Totemism was considered a primitive religion by many European thinkers in the 1800s. It was thought to be related to beliefs about food and incest taboos. In 1869, John Ferguson McLennan said that "there is no race of men that has not come through this primitive stage of speculative belief". Early thinkers had the idea that beliefs in totemism came from indiginous clans being uneducated about the difference between humans and animals. This is not still talked about as true in modern discussions on totemism.


title: Totemism

text: Totem poles are carved with symbols on large trees, mostly cedar or spruce, by native northwest North American clans. Totem poles are also found in Alaska. They are not for worship, but early missionaries had them burned down. This was a mistake because the poles just tell stories about the clan they belong to. Eagles or ravens are carved at the highest level. Lower down the pole are carved beavers, foxes, bears and frogs. A carving of a person is located on top. He is the watchman, who warns about approaching danger in the village.


title: Totemism

text: Émile Durkheim said in 1915 that totemism was just a way of thinking about groups in society. Durkheim decided this because he spent time working with Aboriginal Australian clans. Each clan had its own totem, which could be any natural feature such as animals, plants or rivers. These totems and symbols of them were worshiped and protected. This was because only as long as the totem was healthy would the clan stay healthy. Durkheim decided that the worship of the totems was a type of self-worship for the clan.


title: Totemism

text: Claude Lévi-Strauss published "Totemism" in 1962. In this book he says that totemism is a way that humans tend to classify people into similar groups. Once a population has made rules like exogamy (marrying outside the group) it becomes important to keep the clan different from others. But humans themselves do not have different features like wolves or birds do, so giving the identity of an animal to the clan makes its member distinctly different. This makes social boundaries.


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: The Bill of Rights is the name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, which limit the power of the federal government and guarantee citizens of the United States certain rights. The amendments were written in 1789 by James Madison, and were based on important ideas about personal rights. The Bill of Rights went into effect in 1791, when 3/4 of the states agreed that they were fair. Originally, the Bill of Rights had 12 different amendments, but the first two were not passed by enough states. The second amendment that was not passed was eventually added to the Constitution in 1992, becoming the 27th amendment in the Constitution.


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house he consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""The right of the people to be secure in their, houses, writing papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated...""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""...and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the people or things to be seized.""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger...""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb...""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where in the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law...""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""...and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor...""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.""


title: United States Bill of Rights

text: ""The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.""


title: Whip (politics)

text: A whip is a person in a political party whose job is to make sure the party's members vote with the party. This happens in a legislature. Whips are a party's "enforcers", who talk to each member of the party to make sure that they vote according to the official party policy.


title: Whip (politics)

text: A whip must also make sure that the elected representatives of their party are in attendance when important votes are taken. The usage comes from the hunting term "whipping in", which means to stop hounds from wandering away from the pack.


title: Coptic language

text: Coptic or Coptic Egyptian is an Egyptian language. It was spoken by many people in Egypt until at least the 17th century. Now, only a few people speak the language.


title: Coptic language

text: Egyptian began to be written using the Greek alphabet in the 1st century. The new writing system became the Coptic script, an adapted Greek alphabet with the addition of six or seven signs from the demotic script to represent Egyptian sounds the Greek language did not have. The two most common dialects are Sahidic and Bohairic.


title: Coptic language

text: Coptic and demotic Egyptian are very similar to the earlier Egyptian language written in the hieroglyphic script. Coptic flourished as a literary language from the 2nd to 13th centuries, and its Bohairic dialect continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. It was supplanted by Egyptian Arabic as a spoken language toward the early modern period. The Copts have tried to revive the language since the 19th century.


title: Town square

text: A town square is a large open area in the center of a town. Town squares were traditionally places where people came together to meet, or to sell and buy things, or to be entertained. They often had markets, lynchings, or they were used for concerts. They are often surrounded by shops or cafés.


title: Town square

text: Other names for town square are civic center, city square, urban square, market square, public square, Platz (from German), plaza (from Spanish), piazza (from Italian), and place (from French).


title: Town square

text: Many town squares in the 20th century became used as car parks. In recent years cars have been banned from some town squares so that people can enjoy the open space once more, free from traffic and pollution.


title: Town square

text: In other parts of towns there are often smaller open spaces which are called “squares”. They are often square in shape, but some are different shapes.


title: Town square

text: Some famous squares include: Red Square in Moscow, Beijing's Tiananmen Square in Beijing, Times Square in New York City and Trafalgar Square in London.


title: Scorpion

text: Scorpions are eight legged venomous arachnids. They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting. The average adult scorpion is about 3 inches in length. The longest scorpion is the African scorpion, which can be 69 inches long. There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.


title: Scorpion

text: The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica. There are 13 living families. Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.


title: Scorpion

text: They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws). The tail is narrow, with segments. It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.


title: Scorpion

text: Their body is in three parts. The front section is the "cephalothorax"; the abdomen is called the "mesosoma", and the tail is the "metasoma". The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.


title: Scorpion

text: Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert. They can slow down their metabolism. This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year. This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen.


title: Scorpion

text: Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution. Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.


title: Scorpion

text: Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them. This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface. This also warns them of possible dangers, such as other bigger hunters.


title: Scorpion

text: The scorpion’s most feared and recognized feature is its sting. The sting contains a neurotoxin, which the scorpion uses to paralyze the victim, so it would be easier to kill and eat. They also stay hidden under rocks and that makes their body temperature cool.


title: Scorpion

text: The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws. After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender. After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore. Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her. The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot. Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual. A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.


title: Form-based interface

text: A form-based interface is a kind of user interface. In it, the user interacts with the application by selecting one of a number of possible values, and by entering text into the fields that accept it. A word processor which is used to write documents, might offer settings for the font size, the font to use, and the alignment of the paragraph on the page. Many databases support a technology called query by example: Users who do not know SQL can easily select database records which are similar to the information entered.


title: Field hockey

text: Field Hockey is a well-liked sport for both men and women. It is played in many countries all around the world. In Asian countries like Pakistan and Republic of India, it is considered the "National sport." The game is played between two teams and each team is made up of 11 players. There are four 15-minute quarters with a 15-minute break at halftime and a 2-minute break after the 1st and 3rd quarters. Field hockey is played with a ball on natural grass, or on sand-based or water based artificial turfs with a small hard ball. The field has a goal at each end. A semi-circle about 15 meters from the goal is known as the shooting circle. Goals can only be scored when the ball is in the shooting circle.


title: Field hockey

text: Players use a hockey stick to move the ball. The stick is in the shape of a J and is made out of wood, glass and fibre. The players each play a position like fullbacks, halfbacks, forwards and goalkeepers.


title: Dixie Carter

text: Dixie Virginia Carter (May 25, 1939, McLemoresville, Tennessee – April 10, 2010, Houston, Texas), was an American movie, television and stage actress. She was best known for playing Julia Sugarbaker in the television series "Designing Women" (1986-1993). She competed in Miss Tennessee pageants in 1959.


title: Dixie Carter

text: Carter was born in McLemoresville, Tennessee, and spent many of her early years in Memphis. She attended college at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville and Southwestern at Memphis (now Rhodes College). She was a graduate of Memphis State with a degree in English.


title: Dixie Carter

text: She divorced Arthur Carter in 1977, and married Broadway and TV actor George Hearn the same year. Two years later, in 1979, she divorced Hearn. She married for the third time on May 27, 1984, to Hal Holbrook (14 years her senior), who is most noted for his appearances as Mark Twain. Carter renovated her old family home in McLemoresville with the designs of architect Hoyte Johnson of Atlanta.


title: Dixie Carter

text: She and Holbrook divided their time between their homes in Beverly Hills, California, and McLemoresville, Tennessee, where Carter's elderly father, Halbert, resided until his death in early 2007, at age 96.


title: Dixie Carter

text: Carter died on April 10, 2010, in Houston, Texas. Her death was announced by her husband, actor Hal Holbrook, who stated the cause as complications from endometrial cancer which was diagnosed earlier in 2010. In addition to Holbrook, she is survived by her daughters from her first marriage: Ginna Carter (of Los Angeles) and Mary Dixie Carter (of Brooklyn) as well as a sister, Melba Helen Heath (of San Anselmo, California) and several nephews and nieces. In addition to family, her funeral, held on April 15, 2010, was attended by "Designing Women" co-stars Delta Burke, Annie Potts and Jean Smart. Dixie Carter was interred in her hometown, McLemoresville, Tennessee.


title: Electromagnetism

text: Electromagnetism is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. The others are gravity, and the the strong and weak interactions of particle physics.


title: Electromagnetism

text: The electromagnetic force pushes or pulls anything that has an electric charge, like electrons and protons. It includes the electric force, which pushes all charged particles, and the magnetic force, which only pushes moving charges.


title: Electromagnetism

text: There are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. The electric force pulls opposite charges (positive and negative) towards each other. It pushes similar charges (both positive, or both negative) away from each other.


title: Electromagnetism

text: The electromagnetic force comes from something called an electromagnetic field. In physics, a field is how we keep track of things that might change in space and time. It is like a set of labels for every point in space. For instance, the air temperature in a room could be described by a field, where the labels are just numbers saying how hot it is at that point in the room. We could have more complicated labels as well. On a map of wind speeds, the label could be a number saying how strong the wind is and also an arrow saying which way it is blowing. We call this a vector field because each label is a vector - it has a direction (the arrow) and a magnitude (its strength).


title: Electromagnetism

text: Electric and magnetic fields are also fields. Instead of keeping track of temperature or wind speed, they tell us how much push or pull a charged particle will feel at that point in space, and which direction it will be pushed. Like wind speeds, electric fields are also vector fields, so they can be drawn as arrows. The arrows point which way a positive particle, like a proton, will be pushed if it is in the field. Negative particles, like electrons, will go in the opposite direction as the arrows. In an electric field, arrows will point away from positive particles and towards negative ones. So a proton in an electric field would move away from another proton, or towards an electron. Similar charges repel (push away from each other), while opposite charges attract (are pulled together).


title: Electromagnetism

text: Magnetic fields are a little different. They only push on moving charges, and they push more on charges that are moving faster. But they do not push at all on charges that are sitting still. However, a changing magnetic field can produce an electric field, and an electric field can push on any charges. This idea, called electromagnetic induction, is used to make electric generators, induction motors, and transformers work. Together, electric and magnetic fields make up the electromagnetic field.


title: Electromagnetism

text: Before 1800, people thought that electricity and magnetism were two different things. However, this changed during the 19th century when scientists like Hans Christian Ørsted and Michael Faraday proved that electricity and magnetism are actually connected. In 1820, Ørsted found that when he turned the electric current from a battery on and off, it moved the needle on a nearby compass. When he studied this effect more carefully, he discovered that the electric current was producing a magnetic field. That is, when electric charges are moving, they can produce a force that pushes on magnets. Ørsted had found one of the first connections between electricity and magnetism.


title: Electromagnetism

text: Faraday continued studying this connection, running tests with loops of wire and magnets. He found that if he set up two loops of wire and ran electricity through just one of them, he could (for a little while) produce an electric current in the other loop as well. Faraday also discovered that he could produce a current by moving a magnet through a loop of wire, or by moving the wire over a magnet. What Faraday had shown was that magnets could push back on moving electric charges, and that moving magnets could push on charges sitting still. This was like what Ørsted had found, but in reverse.


title: Electromagnetism

text: in 1873, James Clerk Maxwell summed up these connections in his theory of "classical electromagnetism," electricity and magnetism together. This theory was based on a set of four equations called Maxwell's equations, and the Lorentz force law. Maxwell's equations told us how to relate electricity and magnetism. They said that charges sitting still could push on other charges, but moving charges could produce magnetic fields that push on magnets. On the other hand, magnets sitting still can only push on moving charges, but moving magnets can push on any electric charges.


title: Electromagnetism

text: What's more, Maxwell's studies showed that light could be described as a ripple in the electromagnetic field. That is, light moves like a wave. However, Maxwell's work did not agree with classical mechanics, the description of forces and motion originally developed by Newton. Maxwell's equations predicted that light always moves through empty space at the same speed. This was a problem because in classical mechanics, velocities are "additive"-- if a person A on a train moving at speed X throws a ball with speed Y, then a person B on the ground sees the ball moving with speed X+Y. According to Maxwell, if person A turns on a flashlight, they will see the light moving away from them at speed "c". But person B on the ground must also see the light moving at speed "c", not "c"+X. This led to the development of the theory of special relativity by Einstein, which explained how the speed of light could be the same for everyone, and why classical mechanics does not work for things moving very fast.


title: Electromagnetism

text: Albert Einstein's work with the photoelectric effect and Max Planck's work with blackbody radiation did not work with the traditional view of light as a continuous wave. This problem would be solved after the development of quantum mechanics in 1925. This development led to the development of quantum electrodynamics which was developed by Richard Feynman and Julian Schwinger. Quantum electrodynamics was able to describe the interactions particles in detail.


title: Electromagnetism

text: Electromagnetic radiation is thought to be both a particle and a wave. This is because it sometimes acts like a particle and sometimes acts like a wave. To make things easier we can think of an electromagnetic wave as a stream of photons (symbol γ).


title: Electromagnetism

text: A photon is an elementary particle, meaning that it cannot be broken down into smaller particles. It is the particle that light is made up of. Photons also make up all other types of electromagnetic radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays, and UV rays. The idea of photons was thought up by Einstein. Using his theory for the photoelectric effect, Einstein said that light existed in small "packets" or parcels which he called photons.