title: Middle-earth characters

text: Bilbo Baggins is a main character in the books "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Bilbo goes on an adventure with the dwarves, the Quest of Erebor. During this journey he finds the One Ring. He also gets a small sword which he names "Sting", and a small Mithril-shirt. Bilbo later adopts Frodo Baggins. On his 111th birthday, Bilbo leaves the Shire and goes to Rivendell, giving the Ring to Frodo.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: At the end of the Third Age, Bilbo left Middle-earth for Valinor, together with Frodo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Frodo Baggins is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". Frodo is adopted by his uncle Bilbo Baggins. He inherits Bilbo's home "Bag End" and the One Ring from Bilbo. Frodo is the Ring-Bearer and a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". With the Fellowship, Frodo goes on the quest to destroy the One Ring.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: At the end of the Third Age, Frodo left Middle-earth for the Undying Lands, together with Bilbo and the bearers of the Elven Rings.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Meriadoc Brandybuck, called Merry, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". At the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" he helps Éowyn kill the Witch-king of Angmar. He becomes a Knight of Rohan. After the war he marries Estella Bolger, and becomes Master of Buckland.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Samwise Gamgee, called Sam, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's gardener and servant. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring".


title: Middle-earth characters

text: When the Fellowship breaks at Amon Hen, Sam is the only one who goes on with Frodo on their journey to Mordor. If not for Samwise Gamgee, Frodo would not have made it into Mordor or destroyed the Ring. After the War of the Ring, Sam marries Rose Cotton and lives in Bag End.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Peregrin Took, called Pippin, is a main character in the book "The Lord of the Rings". He is Frodo's cousin. He is a member of the "Fellowship of the Ring". Pippin is a very crucial part in saving middle earth. For without his "small" mistakes the ring could not have been destroyed.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Gollum is an important character in "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings". Originally he was a river folk (similar to a hobbit) named Sméagol, who found the One Ring after Isildur lost it. Gollum went to live under the Misty Mountains; there he kept the Ring for over 500 years, and in that time the Ring changed him to look less like river folk. He often called the Ring his "precious". Gollum lost the One Ring, which was then found by Bilbo Baggins in "The Hobbit".


title: Middle-earth characters

text: In "The Lord of the Rings", it is told that after this Gollum left the Misty Mountains to search for the "thief Baggins" who had stolen his Ring. Sauron learned from Gollum that the One Ring was in the Shire and owned by a Baggins. Gollum was released by Sauron. Gollum then again went to search for his Ring. Gollum found the Fellowship in Moria and followed them. Frodo and Sam captured Gollum, and Gollum promised to lead them into Mordor. He later tried to trick them, leaving them with the spider Shelob. Gollum attacked Frodo on Mount Doom, and took back the Ring. But Gollum was careless and fell into the volcano, which killed him and destroyed the One Ring.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Ancalagon the Black is a dragon. He appears in the "Silmarillion". Ancalagon was made by Morgoth, and was the biggest and most powerful of all dragons. He was killed by Eärendil, in the War of Wrath in the First Age. When he fell, he crushed the Towers of Thangodrim, heralding the end of Morgoth's tyranny.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Glaurung is a dragon. He appears in the "Silmarillion". Glaurung was a dragon made by Morgoth. He was the first dragon ever created, and he was extremely powerful. He was killed in the First Age by Túrin Turambar.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Smaug is a dragon. He appears in "The Hobbit". Smaug attacked the Lonely Mountain, killed the dwarves living there, and took their treasure and home. Later in the book Smaug was killed by Bard the Bowman.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Beorn is a shape-shifter. He usually is like a big man, but he can change to become a bear. He lives between the Misty Mountains and Mirkwood. He helped at the "Battle of the Five Armies".


title: Middle-earth characters

text: The Nazgûl, Ringwraiths or Úlairi are servants of Sauron. They were human kings and leaders in the Second Age. Sauron gave to them nine of the Rings of Power. With time they became like undead ghosts. They are invisible, but their eyes can sometimes be seen as a red light. They wear black cloaks, and usually ride black horses. Later in the "Lord of the Rings" they ride winged creatures called "fell beasts". When riding a fell beast they are also called "Winged Nazgûl".


title: Middle-earth characters

text: The Witch-king of Angmar, also known as Lord of the Nazgûl or the Black Captain is the leader of the Nazgûl. He was the commander of Minas Morgul. He was killed in the "Battle of the Pelennor Fields" by Éowyn and Meriadoc Brandybuck.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Khamûl is one of the Ringwraiths, and the only Ringwraith whose name is given by Tolkien. He was called the Black Easterling, and was the commander of the fortress Dol Guldur.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Shelob is a giant spider-like creature. She appears in "The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers". Shelob stings Frodo Baggins, but is wounded by Samwise Gamgee.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: Treebeard is an "Ent", a tree-like being. He and other Ents live in the forest Fangorn. In the War of the Ring Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took come to Fangorn and meet Treebeard. This causes the Ents to go out and fight against the wizard Saruman in his fortress Isengard. The Ents are accompanied by an army of "Huorns" (normal trees that have come alive). After Isengard is conquered, the Huorns go to Helm's Deep, to help the Rohirrim there fight and win against Saruman's army.


title: Middle-earth characters

text: There have been many adaptations of Tolkien's books, for example films like The Lord of the Rings movie series. In them characters appear that were newly created and are not in Tolkien's works.


title: Meher Baba

text: Meher Baba (25 February 1894 31 January 1969) referred to himself as the Avatar of the Age. His birth name was Merwan Irani and his parents' names were Sheriar and Shireen Irani. His family lived in Poona (Pune) India, but they were of Persian descent. Today Persia is called Iran. They were not Hindus or Muslims, but were of the Zoroastrian religion.


title: Meher Baba

text: Merwan had a normal childhood and liked poetry and sports, especially cricket. When he was thirteen years old he started a boy's club with his best school friends called "The Cosmopolitan Club". The boys in the club kept up on the news, practiced public speaking at their clubhouse, and raised money to give to the poor. He graduated from St. Vincent's High School and attended Deccan College. In 1913, when Baba was nineteen, he was coming home from college riding a bicycle. A very old Muslim woman named Hazrat Babajan, referred to as a Perfect Master (God Realized), was sitting under a Neem tree, called for him to come over to her, he said he was drawn to her like iron to a magnet. He began spending time visiting with her and serving her. In 1914 she kissed him on the forehead, he then went home. Baba later said that he became so dazed after this kiss that he could barely find his way home, and that when Babajan kissed him, initially he lost all consciousness of the world, he then realized God within himself. He was so dazed he neither ate or slept for several weeks. Moving about semi-autonomously in 1915 Merwan was drawn to the other five Perfect Masters, beginning with Sai Baba of Shirdi who upon seeing Merwan called out to him "Parvardigar!" (Divine Sustainer). Upasni Maharaj, also a Perfect Master on seeing Merwan thru a stone, hitting him on the forehead where Babajan had kissed Merwan. He often went to live with Upasni at Sakori. The five Masters assisted Merwan in regaining his integration of the physical world of duality with the Divine Oneness that is the Avatar's natural state. Merwan served as their disciple while in fact he was already fully God Realized.


title: Meher Baba

text: The process of integration took 7 years during which Merwan often stayed at Upasni's ashram. He also visited with Babajan and stayed with his family, as his integration became more functional he began taking on jobs such as working at his father's toddy shop, and managing a group of performers. In 1921 Upasni told some of his followers that Merwan was the Avatar of the Age and that they should now follow Merwan. In 1921 one of these early disciples began calling Merwan "Meher Baba" which means "Compassionate Father". In 1922 Meher Baba and a group of male disciples walked from Ponna (Pune) to Bombay (Mumbai) where he established his first ashram, Manzil-e-Meem (House of the Master) where over the next year he trained them as his disciples, from then on Baba would be their spiritual guide. Baba eventually took these new followers to Ahmednagar, to a place now called Meherabad. There he gave discourses on spirituality, worked with the local poor villagers, established a dispensary and hospital, cared for the God-mad "masts", and started boarding school for children of all faiths and castes, all free of charge. Gradually his following grew.


title: Meher Baba

text: In 1925 Meher Baba began keeping silent and for the rest of his life Baba did not speak. He communicated first by writing on slates but then adapted an English alphabet board by pointing to letters painted on it. Years later he stopped using the alphabet board and used his own form of hand gestures. He kept silent until his death in 1969. Some people called him "The Silent Master" and there is a book by that title.


title: Meher Baba

text: Meher Baba traveled around the world many times. He visited many countries. He spent several months in England, Australia and the United States. Many thousands of people came to see him. Some of them became his followers.


title: Meher Baba

text: In 1954, when Baba was sixty years old, he said publicly for the first time that he was the Avatar. In the ancient language of Sanskrit, the word "Avatar" means one who has come down from God. Baba said that the Avatar is born on Earth every 700–1400 years, and comes to help others find God. Meher Baba said that in the past the Avatar had been on Earth as Zoroaster, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad.


title: Meher Baba

text: Meher Baba's most famous quote is "Don't Worry, Be Happy," partly because it appeared in a popular song. Others know of him because of the song "Baba O'Reilly" written by Pete Townshend who is a follower of his and named the song partly after Baba.


title: Meher Baba

text: Regarding publications, there are two of major significance. In "Discourses", messages that were given by Meher Baba concerning many areas of the spiritual life are clearly presented. In "God Speaks", Meher Baba dictated and explained the complete journey of the incarnate soul from stone to man, over thousands of years and many lifetimes, culminating in God Realization; the goal of life. He said, "Real happiness lies in making others happy." He showed his followers that the best path is to love God at all times by loving your fellow man, exemplified by his own life of Selfless Service.


title: Meher Baba

text: He also said he had not come to start a new religion—but to revitalize all religions: "I shall revitalize all religions and cults, and bring them together like beads on one string". His followers come from all religions: Zoroastrians, Christians, Jews, Hindus, Muslims, Sufis, Buddhists, and Sikhs, as well as from no religion, there are atheists and agnostics who may not necessarily believe in God, but who are attracted purely to his honest and loving way of life.


title: Emir

text: Emir (; female: '; emira; (Persian and Urdu: ') "commander" or "general", also "prince"; also transliterated as amir, aamir or ameer) is a high title of nobility or office. It is used throughout the Arab world and historically in some Turkic states and Afghanistan. Emirs are usually considered high-ranking sheiks, but in monarchical states the term is also used for princes; then "emirate" means more or less the same as principality in this context.


title: Emir

text: "Emir" is the most common spelling in English and many other languages (for example, United Arab Emirates). The spelling "amir", that is closer to the original Arabic, is more common for its compounds (e.g., admiral) and in individual names.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Friedrich Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher and writer. At first, he was a professor at the University of Basel. He worked in a part of classical studies called classical philology. He later wrote several books of philosophy, and is now known as one of the most important thinkers of modern times.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Nietzsche wrote a lot about how people make decisions and about how they live their lives. He attacked most of the moral ideas that were popular at the time because he did not believe that there are any real facts about what is right or wrong. He thought people should create their own facts about morality.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: He also often attacked the ideas of the Christian religion - he believed that the Christian idea that one should feel pity when one sees weakness was unhelpful. According to him, weak people rely on other people's love as a way of protecting themselves. Nietzsche believed that people should be stronger than that.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: He thought that people should be very aware of their body and of the real world in which they actually live. He told his readers not to live in a daydream or make decisions based on unrealistic thoughts. He believed that ideas of heaven came from an inability to cope with life in the world.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Nietzsche considered the world to be one connected thing, including mankind and nature. He invented the idea of the "will to power". This idea is that everyone and everything is trying to overcome itself, or defeat or take control from itself. Therefore, if the world is just one thing, this is the force that makes the world.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Nietzsche thought that human beings would be successful at overcoming themselves, and he thought that when they did, they would be different and better. He named the person who would do this someday a "superman" (or "Übermensch" in German). He thought that the supermen would be stronger than normal humans, and not restricted by other people's ideas of right and wrong.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Adolf Hitler, the German Chancellor and leader of the Nazis in World War II, read Nietzsche's work. Some people say that Hitler did not understand Nietzsche's ideas, but he used them to try to show that his actions were right. Hitler and Benito Mussolini used the term "Übermensch" to refer to the Aryan race. However he was not popular among all fascists.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Nietzsche wrote in a very fiery and exciting way. However, what he wrote later in his life became more and more odd. When he was forty years old, Nietzsche went insane. Supposedly, one day in the city of Turin, Italy, he saw a horse being whipped by its owner and ran to save it, hugging it around the throat. After this, Nietzsche never wrote again and could not look after himself. This illness may have been caused by the disease syphillis, or a brain tumour.


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: In the late 1880s Georg Brandes developed a philosophy called "aristocratic radicalism" inspired by Nietzsche's idea of the "overman."


title: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Nietzsche is associated with anarchism, but his writing seems to have a negative opinion of anarchists. Anarcha-feminist Emma Goldman was deeply influenced by his work.


title: John F. Kennedy International Airport

text: John F. Kennedy International Airport is an international airport. It is on Long Island, in Queens County, New York in southeastern New York City about 12 miles (19 km) from Lower Manhattan. More people who fly into or out of the United States fly though this airport than any other. Also, the most air cargo is brought into or out of the United States through this airport.


title: John F. Kennedy International Airport

text: The airport is run by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which also runs the two other major airports in the New York area, Newark Liberty International Airport and LaGuardia Airport. JFK airport is the base of operations for JetBlue Airways. It is also a major international airline hub for Delta Air Lines and American Airlines. Ninety airlines operate out of JFK.


title: Po (river)

text: The Po (Latin: "Padus", , ancient "Eridanus") is a river that flows 652 kilometers (405 miles) eastward across northern Italy, from Monviso (in the Cottian Alps) to the Adriatic Sea near Venice. It has a drainage area of 71,000 km² and is the longest river in Italy.


title: Po (river)

text: It goes through many important Italian towns, including Turin (Torino) and (indirectly) Milan (Milano), in Lombardy. It is connected to Milan through a net of channels called "navigli", which Leonardo da Vinci helped design. Near the end of its course, it creates a wide delta (with hundreds of small channels and five main ones, called "Po di Maestra", "Po della Pila", "Po delle Tolle", "Po di Gnocca" and "Po di Goro") at the southern part of which is Comacchio, an area famous for eels. The Po valley corresponds to the Roman Cisalpine Gaul, divided in Cispadane Gaul (South of the Po) and Transpadane Gaul (North of the Po).


title: Po (river)

text: The vast valley around the Po is called "Pianura Padana" and is so efficiently connected by the river that the whole valley became the main industrial area of the country. This river is subject to the authority of a special authority, the "Magistrato delle Acque".


title: Po (river)

text: In 2005, water from the Po was found to contain "staggering" amounts of benzoylecgonine, which is excreted by cocaine users in urine. Based on these figures, cocaine consumption was estimated to be about 4 kg daily, or 27 doses per day per thousand young adults in areas that feed into the river—a number nearly three times higher than previous estimates.


title: Po (river)

text: On May 4, 2007 The river dried up in spots completely. Italy declared a state of emergency in the northern and central regions. The Alps had reduced snowfall the previous winter. It was the Alps's warmest winter in 1300 years. Experts said this could have been part of global warming. There was some discussion about filling the river up by diverting water flows from large lakes and reservoirs in the Alps.


title: Po (river)

text: The Po showed the effects of drought again in 2017. By then, experts were even surer it was part of global warming, then called climate change.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Jasenovac concentration camp was the largest death camp and concentration camp in the Independent State of Croatia (ISC) during World War II. The camp was created by the Ustaše regime in August 1941 and destroyed in April 1945. Most of the people killed at Jasenovac were ethnic Serbs, who the ISC saw as their main racial enemy. The camp also held Jews, Roma, and a number of Croat and Bosniak Yugoslav Partisans and anti-Fascist civilians.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Jasenovac was a complex of five sub-camps covering over on both banks of the Sava River. The largest camp was at Jasenovac, about southeast of Zagreb. The complex included large grounds at Donja Gradina directly across the Sava River; a children's concentration camp in Sisak; and a Stara Gradiška concentration camp.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The camp's history website says, "We cannot be sure of the exact number of victims of the Ustasha camp in Jasenovac. According to research completed so far, the number can be estimated at between 80,000 and 100,000".


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: These orders were enforced through the regular court system, and through new special courts and mobile courts-martial with special powers. By July 1941, there were too many new prisoners to fit in the jails that existed. The Ustaše government began building the Jasenovac concentration camp.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Independent State of Croatia was created and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Because of this, the ISC took on their ideas about race and politics. Jasenovac had a role in the Nazis' "Final Solution." However, the ISC also used the camp for the ethnic cleansing of Romani and Serbian people in Croatia.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Nazis encouraged the Ustaše's anti-Jewish and anti-Roma actions and showed support for the anti-Serb policy. Soon, it became clear that the Nazis wanted to commit genocide. In a meeting on July 21, 1941, Hitler said to the Croatian military commander, Slavko Kvaternik:


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Jews are the bane of the human kind. If the Jews will be allowed to do as they will, like they are permitted in their Soviet heaven, than they will fulfill their most insane plans. And thus Russia became the center to the world's illness... if for any reason, one nation would endure the existence of a single Jewish family, that family would eventually become the center of a new plot. If there are no more Jews in Europe, nothing will hold the unification of the European nations... this sort of people cannot be integrated in the social order or into an organized nation. They are parasites on the body of a healthy society, that live off of expulsion of decent people. One cannot expect them to fit into a state that requires order and discipline. There is only one thing to be done with them: To exterminate them. The state holds this right since, while precious men die on the battlefront, it would be nothing less than criminal to spare these bastards. They must be expelled, or -- if they pose no threat to the public -- to be imprisoned inside concentration camps and never be released."


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Jasenovac complex was built between August 1941 and February 1942. The first two camps, Krapje and Bročica, were closed in November 1941.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The camp was built, managed and supervised by Department III of the "Ustaška Narodna Služba" or "UNS" (lit. "Ustaše People's Service"), a special police force of the ISC. Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić was head of the UNS. At different times, Miroslav Majstorović and Dinko Šakić managed the camp.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Ustaše interned, tortured and executed men, women and children in Jasenovac. The largest number of victims were Serbs, but other victims included Jews, Bosnian Muslims, Gypsies, and Croatian resistance members opposed to the ISC regime. When they got to the camp, the prisoners were marked with colors: blue for Serbs, and red for "communists" (non-Serbian resistance members). Gypsies had no marks (this was later changed).


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Most people who were sent to Jasenovac were killed at execution sites near the camp: Granik, Gradina, and other places. Prisoners who were kept alive were mostly people who had special skills (for example, doctors, pharmacists, electricians, shoemakers, and goldsmiths). They were forced to work at Jasenovac.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The living conditions in the camp were terrible, as was usual for Nazi death camps. Prisoners were fed very little, not given enough clothing or shelter to stay warm, had no health care, and were abused by the Ustaše guards. Also, as in many camps, conditions would be improved temporarily when special groups visited. For example, when members of the press visited in February 1942, and later when a Red Cross delegation visited in June 1944, the prisoners were treated better until the visitors left. Then the living conditions would go back to usual.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Like at all Nazi death camps, the food given to prisoners at Jasenovac was not enough to keep them alive. The kind of food they were given changed over time. In camp Brocice, inmates were given a "soup" made of hot water with starch for breakfast, and beans for lunch and dinner. (These "meals" were served at 6:00, 12:00 and 21:00.) Food in Camp No. III was better at first, with potatoes instead of beans. However, in January, prisoners started getting only one daily serving of thin "turnip soup". By the end of the year, the diet had been changed again, to three daily portions of thin gruel made of water and starch. More changes were made, but prisoners never got enough food to keep them from starving.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The water at Jasenovac was even worse than at most death camps. There was no clean water at the camp. Prisoners were forced to drink water from the Sava River, which was contaminated with "hren" (horseradish).


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: In the first camps, Brocice and Krapje, inmates slept in regular concentration-camp barracks. These were made of wood and had three tiers (levels) of bunks.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: In Camp No. III, which housed about 3,000 prisoners, there was not enough shelter for everyone. At first, inmates slept in the attics of the camp's workshops, in an open depot used as a railway "tunnel", or simply outside in the open. A short time later, eight barracks were built. Inmates slept in six of these barracks. The other two were used as a "clinic" and a "hospital." These were not places where inmates could get medical treatment and get better. They were places where sick inmates were put together to die or be killed.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: As in all concentration camps, prisoners at Jasenovac had to work about 11 hours a day. They did hard, forced labor, and were always watched by the Ustaše guards. These guards would execute inmates even for small reasons, and say the inmates were "sabotaging labor."


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Ustasas Hinko Dominik Picilli and Tihomir Kordić controlled the labor section. Picilli would personally whip inmates to make them work harder. He divided the "Jasenovac labor force" into 16 groups, including groups of construction workers, brick-workers, metal-works, and agricultural workers. Many inmates died from the hard work. Brick-working was especially hard and dangerous. Inmates working as blacksmiths were forced to make knives and other weapons for the Ustaše. Building dikes was the most feared job of all.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Inside the camp, there was no sanitation. Prisoners had no way to keep things clean, and had to live in terrible conditions. Blood, vomit and dead bodies filled the barracks. The barracks were also full of pests like lice and rats, which spread disease. The barracks smelled terrible because inmates had to use a bucket for a toilet during the evenings. The bucket often spilled.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: During breaks from work (from 5:00-6:00; 12:00-13:00, and 17:00-20:00), inmates were allowed to empty their bowels in public latrines. These were big pits that lay bare in the open field, covered with planks of wood. Inmates often fell inside and died. The Ustaše encouraged this by having prisoners separate the planks. Sometimes, the Ustaše would even drown inmates inside the pits. When it rained, these pits would overflow and drain into the lake. This meant that urine and feces would mix into the water which the prisoners had to drink.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Inmates were given rags and blankets, but they were very thin. The barracks were also not enough to keep inmates warm from the cold. Prisoners' clothes and blankets were rarely cleaned. Inmates were allowed to wash them quickly in the lake once a month, except during the winter, when the lake froze. Then, inmates were sometimes allowed to boil a few clothes, but not well enough to get them clean.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Because of these terrible living conditions, inmates suffered from illnesses that led to epidemics of typhus, typhoid, malaria, lung infections, influenza, dysentery, and diphtheria.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Ustaše took away all of the inmates' clothes and other things. They were given only prison uniforms, made out of rags. In winter, inmates were given thin "rain-coats," and they were allowed to make light sandals. Inmates were given a small personal food bowl, to hold the 0.4 litres of "soup" they were fed. An inmate whose bowl was missing (because another inmate had stolen it to use it as a toilet) would get no food.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: During delegation visits, inmates were given bowls twice as large as usual, with spoons. Also, during these visits, inmates were given colored tags.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Prisoners were affected by a constant fear of death, and terrible stress of being in a situation in which the living and dead are very close together.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: When they first arrived at the camp, inmates would be shocked by the terrible conditions on the trip to the camp, and in the camp itself. The Ustaše would increase this shock by murdering a number of inmates as soon as they got to the camp, and by temporarily housing new-arrivals in warehouses, attics, in the train tunnel and outdoors.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: After the inmates grew familiar with life in camp, they would have to get used to living through the hardships, abuse, torture, and deaths of other prisoners. The danger of death was greatest during "public performances for public punishment," also called selections. Inmates would be lined up in groups, and individuals would be randomly pointed out to be killed while facing the rest. The Ustaše would make this worse by making the process take a long time. They would walk around and ask questions; gaze at inmates; choose one person, then change their mind and choose another.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Inmates reacted to being in Jasenovac in two basic ways. Some became activists. They formed resistance movements (groups who tried to fight the Ustaše in different ways, like stealing food, planning escapes and revolts, and trying to get in touch with people outside the camp). But most of the inmates reacted by just trying to survive, and get through the day unharmed. This was not "going in line to slaughter," but rather another strategy to try to survive.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: All inmates suffered from some kind of mental health problems. Some could not stop thinking about food; others became paranoid; some had delusions; some lost control of themselves. Others seemed to lose their sense of hope. Some inmates reacted by trying to write about what was happening to them. For example, Nikola Nikolić, Djuro Schwartz, and Ilija Ivanović all tried to memorize and even write about events, dates and details. This was very dangerous, since writing was punishable by death and tracking dates was hard.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Most of the executions of Jews at Jasenovac occurred before August 1942. After that, the ISC started to deport Jewish prisoners to the Auschwitz concentration camp. In general, Jews were first sent to Jasenovac from all parts of Croatia after being gathered in Zagreb, and from Bosnia and Herzegovina after being gathered in Sarajevo. Some, however, were sent directly to Jasenovac from other cities and smaller towns.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Many inmates sent to Jasenovac were scheduled to be murdered. Strong men who could do hard work, and were sentenced to less than 3 years in prison, were allowed to live. However, anyone who was sentenced to 3 years in prison or longer was immediately scheduled for execution.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Ustaše used many different kinds of systematic extermination (killing many people at once, using a system). However, they liked using manual methods of killing - killing prisoners with their hands, using tools like knives, saws, and hammers.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Ustaše cremated living inmates. Some were given drugs, but others were fully awake. They also cremated dead bodies.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: When the Ustaše first started cremating people in January 1942, they used brick factory ovens. An engineer named Hinko Dominik Picilli made cremation much easier for them by creating seven better-working crematories.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Crematories were also placed in Gradina, across the Sava River. The State Commission says "there is no information that [the Gradina crematory] ever went into operation." Later testimony, however, says this crematory was used.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Nazis had used poison gas to kill many prisoners in their concentration camps. Following this example, the Ustaše tried to use poison gas to kill inmates that arrived in Stara-Gradiska. At first, they tried to gas the women and children that arrived from camp Djakovo with gas-vans that Simo Klaić called "green Thomas". Later, they built gas chambers and used Zyklon-B and sulphur monoxide to kill prisoners.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Granik was a ramp used to unload goods from boats on the Sava River. In winter 1943-44, prisoners who did farming work had no jobs to do, since the ground was frozen. Meanwhile, large numbers of new prisoners arrived. By this time, the Axis powers were expected to lose World War II, and the Ustaše wanted to kill as many people as possible before that happened. They decided to execute people on the ramp, so that after they were killed, their bodies could be dumped into the river.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Every night for about 20 days, Ustaše officers brought in lists of prisoners who they planned to execute. They stripped, chained, and beat these prisoners. Then they took them to the Granik. There, weights were tied to them; their intestines and necks were cut; they were hit in the head; and then they were thrown into the river. Over time, the Ustaše changed this method, so that inmates were tied in pairs, back to back, and their bellies were cut open before they were tossed into the river alive.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Gradina and Ustice were villages around Jasenovac. The Ustaše chose some empty areas near these villages, and used wire to mark off an area for a massacre and mass graves. They gathered many prisoners there and killed them with knives or by smashing their skulls with hammers.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: When Roma people (Gypsies) arrived in the camp, they did not undergo selection, because they were all scheduled to be killed. They were taken to Gradina. In between massacres, the men would be forced to work on the dike, and the women would be forced to work in the cornfields in Ustice. Eventually, they would all be killed. Thus Gradina and Ustice became Roma mass grave sites. The Ustaše killed more and more people Gradina, until it became the main killing-ground in Jasenovac. Grave-sites were also located in nearby Ustica and in Draksenic.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Mlaka and Jablanac were used as camps where women and children were held and forced to work. However, many women, children, and men were killed at the Sava River bank between the two camps.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: According to the State Commission, as many as 50,000 people were killed here in the winter of 1941 to 1942. Evidence says that more people were also killed here after that winter.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: In the late summer of 1942, the ISC sent tens of thousands of Serbian villagers were to Jasenovac. The villagers had lived in the Kozara mountain area (in Bosnia), where ISC soldiers were fighting against the Yugoslav Partisans. The women villagers were sent to do forced labor in Germany. Children were taken from their mothers and either killed or sent to Catholic orphanages. However, most of the men were killed at Jasenovac.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: On the night of August 29, 1942, the camp's guards made bets about who could kill the most prisoners. One of the guards, Petar Brzica, reportedly cut the throats of about 1,360 of the new prisoners, using a butcher knife that became known as "srbosjek" ("Serb-cutter"). Other guards who admitted taking part in the bet included Ante Zrinušić, who killed about 600 inmates, and Mile Friganović, who gave a detailed and consistent report of what happened. Friganović admitted to killing 1,100 inmates. He specifically talked about how he tortured an old man named Vukasin. He ordered the man to bless the Ustaše leader, Ante Pavelić. The old man refused, even though Friganović cut off his ears, nose, and tongue every time he refused. Eventually, he cut out the old man's eyes, tore out his heart, and cut his throat. Dr. Nikola Nikolić saw this happen.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: In April 1945, as Yugoslav Partisan units neared the camp, the Ustaše guards tried to get rid of evidence of their crimes and the people who knew what they had done. They tried to kill as many prisoners as possible, as fast as they could. On April 22, 600 prisoners revolted; 520 were killed and 80 escaped. Not long after the prisoners revolted, the Ustaše abandoned the camp. However, first, they killed the prisoners who were still alive. They also blew up and destroyed the buildings, guardhouses, torture rooms, crematoriums, and other parts of the camp. When they entered the camp, the Partisans found only ruins, soot, smoke, and dead bodies.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Historians have had difficulty figuring out exactly how many people died at Jasenovac. Today, the most common estimate is that tens of thousands of people died at the camp. Before the 1990s, the most common estimate was that hundreds of thousands had died.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: These estimates are very different for many reasons. The Ustaše did not keep accurate records. Different people use different ways of estimating deaths. Sometimes, the people making estimates have political biases. In some cases, entire families were killed at the camp, leaving no one to submit their names to lists of the dead. On the other hand, the lists sometimes include the names of people who died in other places; people who survived; or people who are on more than one list.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Yad Vashem center claims that over 500,000 Serbs were killed in the Independent State of Croatia. This includes Serbs who were killed at Jasenovac. The Simon Wiesenthal Center estimates the same.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Jasenovac's victims included "between 45,000 and 52,000 Serb residents of the so-called Independent State of Croatia; between 12,000 and 20,000 Jews; between 15,000 and 20,000 Roma (Gypsies); and between 5,000 and 12,000 ethnic Croats and Muslims, who were political and religious opponents of the regime."


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: There are many different documents from the time that Jasenovac existed, written by many different people. At the time, the Germans and Italians were fighting Yugoslav Partisans for control of Yugoslavia. People from both sides of that fight wrote about Jasenovac. The Ustaše themselves also wrote about the camp; so did the Vatican. Comparing all of these different accounts can help with estimates of how many people died at the camp.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: As the war went on, German generals wrote reports on the number of Serbs, Jews, and others killed in the Independent State of Croatia. In 1943, three different generals estimated that 300,000 to 400,000 Serbs had been killed. By March 1944, Ernst Fick wrote that 600,000 to 700,000 Serbs had been killed. Hermann Neubacher wrote:


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: "When prominent Ustashi [Ustaše] leaders claimed that they slaughtered a million Serbs (including babies, children, women and old men), that is, in my opinion, a boastful exaggeration. On the basis of the reports submitted to me, I believe that the number of defenseless victims slaughtered to be three quarters of a million. (Neubacher, Dr. Hermann. Special Assignment in the Southeast, p. 18-30.)


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Italian generals reported similar figures to their commanders. The Vatican's sources also wrote of similar figures. For example, Eugen Tisserant reported that 350,000 Serbs had been killed by the end of 1942. Godfried Danneels estimated that a total of "over 500,000 people" were killed.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Ustaše themselves claimed that they had killed many more people. Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, commander-in-chief of all the Croatian camps, once bragged about Jasenovac's "efficiency." At a ceremony on October 9, 1942 - just a year after the camp was created - he said: "We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe." The Ustaše general headquarters once published a pamphlet that said: "the concentration and labor camp in Jasenovac can receive an unlimited number of internees [prisoners]." Finally, Miroslav Filipovic-Majstorovic, once captured by Yugoslav forces, tried to minimize the crimes committed in Jasenovac by saying that during the three months that he ran the camp, 20,000 to 30,000 people died. In other sources, that three months' death toll is displayed as 40,000.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: In 1945, the new Yugoslavian government, led by Tito, paid for a report by the National Committee of Croatia. The report looked into the crimes committed by the Ustaše and their allies. The report, dated November 15, 1945, stated that 500,000 to 600,000 people were killed at the Jasenovac complex. These figures were used by researcher Israel Gutman in the "Encyclopedia of the Holocaust"; by the Simon Wiesenthal Center; and by others.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: Also, crematories were built in Jasenovac as far back as January 1942, because the Ustaše were having trouble burying all of the camp's dead bodies. This suggests that many people were already dying at the camp. In addition, later that year, prisoners were being killed with poison gas in Stara-Gradiska, in both gas chambers and vans.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: The Jasenovac Memorial Museum was temporarily abandoned during the Yugoslav wars. In November 1991, Simo Brdar, a former associate director of the Memorial, collected the documentation from the museum and brought it to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Brdar kept the documents until 2001, when he gave them to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, with the help of SFOR and the government of Republika Srpska.


title: Jasenovac concentration camp

text: With the help of former U.S. Congressman Anthony Weiner, the New York City Parks Department, the Holocaust Park Committee, and the Jasenovac Research Institute created a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 (on the sixtieth anniversary of the camp's liberation). Ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors were there, along with diplomats from Serbia, Bosnia, and Israel. It is the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside of the Balkans. Ceremonies are held there every April.


title: Pneumonia

text: Pneumonia is a disease of the lungs and the respiratory system. The lung contains many small bulbs, or sacs, called alveoli. These help to take out oxygen from the air. In the case of pneumonia, these bulbs become inflamed. They fill up with a fluid which is called pus, and can no longer absorb as much oxygen as before. This makes it hard for the person with pneumonia to breathe. They may feel out of breath, or like they are drowning. They may also feel pain when they breathe. Sometimes people die of pneumonia, even when they go to a hospital and take medicine.


title: Pneumonia

text: Pneumonia can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. It can also be caused by chemical or physical damage done to the lungs. Other illnesses, like alcohol abuse or lung cancer, can also result in pneumonia.


title: Pneumonia

text: People with pneumonia usually have difficulty breathing. They may also cough, or have pains in the chest area. The treatment of pneumonia depends on how the illness was caused. If it was caused by bacteria, antibiotics can be used to treat it.


title: Pneumonia

text: People of all ages can have pneumonia. The disease is dangerous. Many people die from pneumonia, especially old people, or people with a weak immune system.


title: Pneumonia

text: According to some research in 2010, in some parts of the world where people are very poor like India, Nigeria, and Pakistan, pneumonia was the cause of death for more children under the age of five than any other disease. Statistically, however, for every 2,000 children in the developing world who die of pneumonia, only one child in the developed world dies from the disease. This is because of differences in health care and because of differences in rates of breastfeeding, not because of differences in children. Breastfeeding newborn babies greatly increases their ability to survive pneumonia, but some cultures think of breastfeeding as taboo.


title: Kapil Dev

text: Kapil Dev is a former Indian cricket player. He was an all rounder, a right hand batsman and right arm fast bowler. He captained the Indian cricket team when it won the 1983 World Cup.


title: Kapil Dev

text: Kapil Dev Ramlal Nikhanj was born on 6 January 1959 in Chandigarh, Punjab, India. As a technical bowler, he was known as the "Haryana hurricane". He got a joint man of the match with the Australian cricketer Dean Jones.


title: Kapil Dev

text: Kapil Dev was the captain who led the Indian team to its first World Cup win in 1983. He got 434 wickets and scored 5248 runs with 8 centuries and 27 fifties in test cricket. He got 253 wickets and 3783 runs in ODIs. He is the only player in the history of cricket to have taken more than 400 wickets (434 wickets) and scored more than 5,000 runs in Tests.


title: Parliament of India

text: The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body of the Republic of India. The Parliament is composed of the President of India and the houses. It is bicameral with two houses: the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People).The Rajya Sabha is also known as the Upper house and the Lok Sabha is known as the lower house.But this does not mean that Lok Sabha is less powerful than Rajya Sabha.In fact,the Lok Sabha is much more powerful than the Rajya Sabha.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: The Bahá'í Faith is an Abrahamic religion started in the 1800s by an Iranian person called Bahá'u'lláh who was born in Tehran, Iran. Followers of this religion call themselves Bahá'ís. The name Bahá'u'lláh is Arabic for "The Glory of God". "Glory" is a word that means "importance", "power", and "beauty". Bahá'ís believe Bahá'u'lláh is a representation of God, or speaks for God, and he shows people God's importance, beauty, and brightness.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Bahá'ís are monotheists, which means that they believe in one God. They believe Bahá'u'lláh carried a message from God. Bahá'u'lláh said he was not the only person to carry a message from God, and he was not the last to carry a message from God. He taught that the people who started the other major religions also represented and carried messages from God, such as Jesus, Moses, Krishna, Abraham, Muhammad, the Buddha and others. He called these people "Manifestations of God." They believe the messages from the Manifestations of God get more and more difficult to understand. They say the ones that came earlier on had a more simple message than the ones that came later. Because God is greater than the whole universe, Bahá'u'lláh said that human beings cannot completely know God. He said that God wants people to know as much about him as they can. Bahá'u'lláh wrote God sends special people to manifest (show) himself to ordinary humans. Without the Manifestations of God we could not know God. Bahá'ís believe the God they pray to is the same God Abraham spoke to, Jesus talked about, and Krishna said in Gita. Since Bahá'u'lláh was born in a Muslim family, Bahá'ís are sometimes mistaken as Muslims. Bahá'u'lláh is considered the prophet/manifestation of the present day. Bahá'ís say that he is not the last prophet/manifestation of God. They think there will not be another prophet for 1,000 years after Baha'u'llah's death.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: The Bahá'í Faith began on 1844 when a man called the Báb said he had a message from God. He said that it was his job to make sure that people were ready for the most important message from God who would be sent soon. This started a religion, followers of this religion were called Bábís. Many people became Bábís in the country of Iran, which was called Persia at the time, and this made the government of Persia and the Muslim priests angry. They arrested and killed the Bab and his followers. Even though this happened, people still followed this religion.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Before Bahá'u'lláh said he had a message from God, he was a member of the religion that was started by the Báb. He became very famous among the Bábís. When the Báb was killed, some Bábís got very angry and tried to kill the king of Persia, even though Bahá'u'lláh told them not to kill him. When the Babis were caught, the government put many Bábís in jail, including Bahá'u'lláh. While in jail at Tehran, Bahá'u'lláh said he saw an angel that he called the "maid of heaven". The angel told him that he had to teach a message from God to the people of the world. The angel said that God would rescue and protect him so that he could teach this message. Eventually, he was released from jail and the government of Persia made him move to Baghdad, which was then controlled by the king of the Ottoman Empire.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: While Baha'u'llah was in Baghdad, he had many problems, but he also made many friends. The government of Persia was unhappy that he seemed to be doing well in Baghdad, and so they asked the Ottoman Empire to move him further away from Persia. When he was about to leave, in 1863, he held a festival for 12 days on a small island in the Tigris river, which he called Ridvan, which means paradise. There he told some of his closest friends and family that he was the promised one of all of the major religions, and that eventually the whole world would know his message.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Eventually the Ottoman Empire sent him to many different cities, including Constantinople, Adrianople, Alexandria, and eventually Akka. He was in different jails this whole time, and the city of Akka had a big wall around it, and it was one big jail. While he was in Baghdad, and after, he wrote many books and letters to answer questions that his friends and followers asked him. At one point he was poisoned, so that he could not write anymore because his hands shook so badly. After that, he had someone write down what he said. When he was even older, his oldest son, `Abdu'l-Bahá arranged to have him move into a house near Mount Carmel, and he stayed there until he finally died in 1892.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: After he died, people followed `Abdu'l-Bahá. Bahá'u'lláh had written that `Abdu'l-Bahá had special powers, and that God would make sure that if `Abdu'l-Bahá explained anything that Bahá'u'lláh said, then the Bahá'ís should believe that explanation. `Abdu'l-Bahá also wrote a lot of letters and gave talks, and eventually visited Paris, London, Montreal, New York City, San Francisco and other cities in the west. This helped the Bahá'í Faith to spread in Europe and North America. He died in 1921. He left a will, where he told the Bahá'ís to follow his grandson, Shoghi Effendi.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Shoghi Effendi was born in 1900 and was only a young man when his grandfather died and he became the leader of the Bahá'ís. He helped make the different agencies and councils that run the Bahá'í Faith today, and organized the religion in many ways. He also wrote many books and letters to explain the teachings of his grandfather and great-grandfather. He lived until 1957 and died in England.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: After Shoghi Effendi died, the Bahá'ís did not have leaders for six years, because Shoghi Effendi had not left a will. Shoghi Effendi did have helpers, who did not think they were allowed to lead the Bahá'ís, so they helped the Bahá'í Community follow the last plan that Shoghi Effendi left them, and at the end of that plan, in 1963, they organized an election to form the Universal House of Justice, which Bahá'u'lláh wrote about. The Universal House of Justice has led the Bahá'ís ever since.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Bahá'u'lláh wrote many books and letters, and `Abdu'l-Bahá (whose name means "Servant of Glory") also wrote many books and letters which Bahá'ís see as special. Finally, Bahá'u'lláh's great-grandson Shoghi Effendi wrote lots of books and letters which Bahá'ís use to better understand the writings of Bahá'u'lláh and `Abdu'l-Bahá. The most important of these books is the Aqdas.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Bahá'ís also believe that the Bible, the Qur'an, the Gita and other books from other religions are special.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: There are eight or nine million Bahá'ís in the world, of all peoples and languages. The Bahá'í Faith looks different in different countries, because there are few rituals, so Bahá'ís can include their own culture in the way they celebrate Bahá'í events, say prayers, etc.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Bahá'ís meet every nineteen (19) days in a meeting called a "Feast". There does not have to be food, but there usually is. These meetings start with prayers and usually someone reads aloud some holy writings. Sometimes there is music and song, sometimes plays, sometimes just quiet time or meditation. After this time, which Bahá'ís call the "devotional" time in a feast, they have a community discussion. All sorts of topics can be discussed here that are important to the members. Bahá'ís say that this is a "consultative" time, where Bahá'ís can consult with each other. After this, there is a social time, where people can share food, drink (not alcohol), and sometimes here there is also music, or plays, or presentations, or other entertainment. This time is just so that the Bahá'ís in that city can get to know each other and become better friends.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Bahá'ís often do not have one place they get together, except in large cities. In smaller places they usually get together in each other's houses. Some larger cities have "Bahá'í Centers" which can be used for community meetings, classes, or for meetings of committees and other councils. (see Institutions below)


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: Bahá'ís are organized in a worldwide community. They do not have priests. Everyone is responsible for their own prayers. Bahá'ís are also responsible for reading their holy books for themselves and for learning about their religion. Baha'is elect leaders for their community, to help organize their activities, and to deal with problems between members, and to decide things that are not obvious from the scriptures. These are called Spiritual Assemblies, but will one day be called Houses of Justice.


title: Bahá'í Faith

text: There is one House of Justice, which Bahá'ís call the Universal House of Justice, which leads the whole worldwide Bahá'í community. Bahá'ís elect this House of Justice every five years, but only once each year for National and Local Spiritual Assemblies.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: The Anglo-Saxons were the dominant people living in England from the mid-5th century AD until the Norman conquest in 1066. They spoke Germanic languages and are identified by Bede as the descendants of three powerful tribes. These were the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Their language, "Anglo-Saxon" or Old English, came from West Germanic dialects. It changed into Middle English from about the 11th century. Old English was divided into four main dialects: West Saxon, Mercian, Northumbrian and Kentish.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: The Anglo-Saxon culture replaced the Celtic culture in the area that is now England. Modern historians do not think that the Anglo-Saxons drove the Celts away, but instead that they became an upper class to the Celts in England, and the Celts then became part of the Anglo-Saxon culture. They never conquered Wales but Anglo-Saxon kings did claim overlordship from time to time. Some Anglo-Saxons came to Britain as warriors, but others came peacefully to become farmers or to raise families.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: It is not known how many Anglo-Saxons actually came to Britain between the 4th and 6th century AD. Many sources say large numbers of Anglo-Saxon settlers arrived. Because of this, some of the native Britons moved west, towards Wales and Cornwall. Others went to Armorica and became the Bretons. The language of the Anglo-Saxons, Old English, became the main language in southern Britain. A few Celtic and Latin words were borrowed into Old English.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: In the areas such as Kent, Sussex, Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, many of the native Britons may have been driven out. In other areas, some Britons likely remained and were absorbed into Anglo-Saxon society. In 2011, a historian suggested that about 1 or 2 Anglo-Saxons came to England for every 10 Celts that were already there.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: It was Bede who identified the invaders as Angles, Saxons and Jutes. But he sometimes used the names "Angli" and "Saxones" for the same people in different parts of his writings. In Book I, Chapter 15 he said that by invitation of King Vortigern "Angles "or" Saxons" came to Britain in three longships. Modern authorities confirm that Angles, Saxons, Frisians and some Jutes did come to England during this migration time period. The differences between the tribes that moved to England were not significant. Kent was different in culture from other parts of England, mostly because it had close contact with parts of Europe such as Gaul.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: Certain styles of jewellery are recognized by archaeologists as being typical of Anglian, Saxon and Jutish areas in Northern Europe. But why the name England came to be used for the country and English for the language is not clear. In Old English the people called themselves "Engle," and in Latin they were called "Angli," but nothing suggests the Angles made up the largest percentage of the Germanic peoples in Britain. The name "Englaland", which became 'England' was regularly used by the 11th century.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: The native British people, who wrote in both Latin and Welsh (a Celtic language), referred to these invaders as "Saxones" or "Saeson". The latter name is still used today in the Welsh word for English people, "Saeson", the English language, "Saesneg", and things related to England, "Seisnig". In the Scottish Gaelic language the word for an English person is "sasannach" and in Irish the word is s"asanach".


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: Anglo-Saxon art before the time of Alfred (who ruled from 871–899) is a mixture of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic techniques and styles. The Sutton Hoo treasure is an excellent example of very early Anglo-Saxon metalwork and jewellery. It came from a royal grave of the early 7th century. The period between Alfred and the Norman Conquest saw a distinct Anglo-Saxon style in art. This was due in part to the revival of the English economy and culture after the end of the Viking raids. This later style appears to have been in touch with trends in western Europe.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts. Manuscripts were not the only Anglo-Saxon art form, but they have survived in much greater numbers than other types of objects. People in Europe at the time regarded Anglo-Saxon goldsmithing and embroidery as especially fine. The most common examples of Anglo-Saxon art are coins. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked in fresco, ivory, stone carving, metalwork and enamel, but few of these pieces have survived.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: Old English literary works include epic poetry, biography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period.


title: Anglo-Saxons

text: A very famous work from this period is the poem "Beowulf". It has achieved national epic status in Britain. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" is a collection of important early English history. "Cædmon's Hymn" from the 7th century is the earliest attested literary text in (Old) English. One of the most valuable and important sources on Anglo-Saxon history is Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation".


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: Sir James Douglas (also known as Good Sir James and James the Black Douglas), (died 1330), was a Scottish soldier, knight and leader during the Wars of Scottish Independence. He is considered one of Scotland's greatest heroes. He was a follower and close friend of king Robert I of Scotland (also called Robert the Bruce).


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: James Douglas was the oldest son of William, Lord of Douglas and Elizabeth Stewart. His father, William, had refused to support king Edward I of England who had taken over Scotland in 1290. The English king put William in prison and took his lands. This left young James with no land and no father. Douglas then went to France where he lived a simple life for three years. On hearing of his father's death he returned to Scotland and went to see William of Lamberton, Bishop of St. Andrews. The bishop took James in and in due time Bishop Lamberton took James to see King Edward I of England. When the bishop asked for the lands of Douglas to be returned to James, the king grew angry and said no. The lordship of Douglas had been given to Robert Clifford and the king would hear no more of the matter. Douglas remained in the service of the bishop and did nothing to rebel against the king of England. He hoped to get his family's lands returned to him. But in 1306 Robert the Bruce claimed the crown of Scotland as king Robert I. Now Douglas had a choice between two kings who might restore his lands.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: In 1307 Douglas joined king Robert against the English king, Edward I That spring James Douglas with some of his men attacked his father's castle of Douglas and defeated the English soldiers there. Douglas then burned his castle and destroyed all stores of wine and grain. He poisoned the wells and executed the English soldiers they . This event became known as Douglas' larder. Even though Douglas did not yet possess his father's lands he had influence in that region. He and his men of Douglas harried the English forces in the region all that summer. The tactics used by Bruce and his followers including Douglas were limited to surprise attacks and quick escapes. They burned enemy lands and rendered castles they captured useless to the English. On learning the Earl of Pembroke was moving a large army into Scotland, Douglas went to warn Robert Bruce. Bruce and Douglas split up and agreed to meet at another place. When they rejoined their forces they attacked the English and defeated them.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: In several raids in 1307 and 1308 James Douglas provided support to King Robert in the south of Scotland. On the night of Tuesday 19 February 1314 James Douglas and his men wearing black coats to cover their armor attacked Roxbrugh Castle. Roxbrugh was the main English stronghold in south central Scotland. It was defended by 100 English soldiers. The fall of Roxbrugh Castle caused many in the area to flee back to England. Now held by Douglas it was the beginning of his reputation as "the Black Douglas". To the people of Scotland he was "the Good Sir James". He was now one of the king's greatest supporter and a model of chivalry. But James had black hair and a reputation so feared by the English they named him "the Black Douglas." They said his evil success against them was because he was a demon himself. His son and grandson also used the feared name themselves continuing the family reputation.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: Edward II of England had kept up the wars against the Bruce and his followers. He was growing more and more angry with each victory of Robert the Bruce and his followers. Determined to put an end to Bruce once and for all he assembled a very large army. It consisted of mounted knights, archers, crossbow-men, and foot soldiers led by Edward himself. the exact size of his army is unknown, but it was several times larger than that of Robert the Bruce. King Robert chose the place for the upcoming battle at Bannockburn very carefully He chose a position with several natural defenses many of which prevented heavy cavalry or large mass formations to operate. He formed his army into four 'battles' or Battalions, three of which consisted of 'hedgehog' or schiltrons Just before the battle began king Robert knighted Sir James Douglas, his cousin Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland, and many others. James and Walter were joint leaders of the left battalion.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: When the English army was still approaching, king Robert sent Douglas and Sir Robert Keith, Marischal of Scotland to observe the English and report back to him. Douglas and Keith reported king Edward was approaching with a very large army. During the battle most of the fighting was directed at the other two battalions. When the center battalion led by Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray was in trouble, Douglas went to their rescue of his close friend. But the English retreated before Douglas could help. Finally the Scots won the battle and the English fell back in confusion, king Edward with 500 mounted knights fled the field. James Douglas with a small mounted force gave chase to the English king. They chased them all the way to Dunbar, but Edward escaped back to England.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: After English defeat at Bannockburn the northern border of England was very lightly defended. In August of 1314 James Douglas, along with Edward Bruce (the king's brother), and John of Soules led a large raid into England. From 1314 to 1319 Douglas was raiding northern England at least once a year. When Edward Bruce left for Ireland in 1317 Douglas took his place as leader in the south of Scotland. These raids were not just to frighten the English but to get cash payment for king of Scotland for not attacking that village. It was also to prove to the English that their king Edward II could not protect them. Douglas was the one of the main leader in the wars on the English border until the final peace in 1328.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: Two times, in 1319 and in 1322, when Douglas raided into Yorkshire he tried to capture King Edward II and his wife Queen Isabella of France. While he did not succeed this only added to his reputation by the English as "the Black Douglas." On 25 December 1319 the Scots and English signed a two year truce. In 1320, James Douglas put his seal on the Declaration of Arbroath. This declaration of Scottish independence was in the form of a letter to Pope John XXII.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: During this period Douglas was rewarded many times with grants of lands. One grant was not of land but of privileges. Called the Emerald Charter, it gave James Douglas and his heirs freedom from many obligations to the king. It also made Douglas and his heirs a judge in their own lands. In giving James Douglas this special grant the king took an emerald ring from his finger and placed it on Douglas' finger. His importance to King Robert and to Scotland was increasing as time went on.


title: James Douglas, Lord of Douglas

text: In 1328 Robert the Bruce was in poor health and was dying. One thing he had not been able to do was to go on a crusade. He asked his friend Sir James Douglas to take his heart to the Holy Land. The king died on 7 June 1329. After the king's death James Douglas had a silver casket made and placed in it the heart of Robert the Bruce. He kept it safe on a chain around his neck. In 1330 he and six knights set out in a ship with royal banners. This is so all who saw it would know the heart of Robert, King of Scotland was on its way to Jerusalem in the Holy Land. The ship waited at Sluys, Flanders for other knights to join them before continuing on their voyage. They sailed to Spain where they stopped at Seville. They were welcomed by Alfonso XI, King of Castile and Leon as well as many English knights who had come to Spain to fight against the Moors. In August 1330 outside the walls of the Moorish town of Teba de Ardales Douglas and his knights joined the king's army. King Alfonso asked Douglas if he would lead the vanguard and placed all the English and Scottish knights under his command. Douglas ordered the charge and the fighting began right away. When the moors pretended to retreat, Douglas and ten of his knights chased after them. But it was a trick and the Moors turned and surrounded them. Trying to rescue a fellow knight Douglas and all his knights were killed. Sir James Douglas was found with the silver casket still around his neck. His body was made ready for the trip home. The silver casket containing the heart of Bruce never reached the Holy Land. It was buried at the Abbey of Melrose. Sir James Douglas was buried at the Kirk of Douglas.


title: Weaboo

text: A weaboo (often shortened to weeb) is a Japanophile-like person that is mostly obsessed with manga and anime, sometimes superiorizing it over other cultures. The terms have been thought to be from the webcomic "The Perry Bible Fellowship." The shortened term has also seen increased usage on the Internet in recent years. The terms, while originally derogatory, have also been reclaimed by those to whom they originally referred, seeing increased usage by fans of Japanese media to refer to themselves in an ironic or self-deprecating fashion.


title: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: SpongeBob SquarePants is an Nickelodeon animated comedy television series. It is made by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg. The series began on July 1, 1999.


title: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: It is by far, Nickelodeon's most popular program. It has been made into many pieces of merchandise. The main character, SpongeBob is an adult sea sponge that acts like a child. He lives in a pineapple under the ocean. The series has three spin-offs: "", "The Patrick Star Show" and one with Squidward Tentacles.


title: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: The series gets its name from its main character, SpongeBob SquarePants, a male sponge. He looks more like a yellow kitchen sponge used for cleaning dishes than a sea sponge. His best friend is a starfish named Patrick Star. His grumpy neighbor is an octopus named Squidward Tentacles.


title: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: SpongeBob and Squidward work as employees at a restaurant called the Krusty Krab in the underwater town of Bikini Bottom. The Krusty Krab, which is run by a greedy red crab named Mr. Krabs, is famous for its Krabby Patty burgers. The recipe for Krabby Patties is top secret. The owners of a competing restaurant called the Chum Bucket, Plankton and Karen, often try to steal the recipe.


title: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: Within its first month on air, "SpongeBob SquarePants" overtook "Pokémon" as the highest rated Saturday-morning children's series on television. It held an average national Nielsen rating of 4.9 among children aged two through eleven, denoting 1.9 million viewers. Two years later, the series had firmly established itself as Nickelodeon's second highest-rated children's program, after "Rugrats". "SpongeBob SquarePants" was credited with helping Nickelodeon take the "Saturday-morning ratings crown" for the fourth straight season in 2001. The series had gained a significant adult audience by that point—nearly 40 percent of its 2.2 million viewers were aged 18 to 34. In response to its weekend success, Nickelodeon gave "SpongeBob SquarePants" time slots at 6:00 PM and 8:00 PM, Monday through Thursday, to increase the series' exposure. By the end of 2001, "SpongeBob SquarePants" boasted the highest ratings for any children's series, on all of television. Weekly viewership of the series had reached around fifteen million, at least five million of whom were adults.


title: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: In 2009, several groups, including the American Family Foundation, attacked SpongeBob for being homosexual. The character had recently appeared on a music video with other kids' show characters to promote diversity and tolerance. However, the creator said in 2002 that SpongeBob is asexual, meaning that he does not seek sexual partners at all.


title: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: Many fans and critics believe that after season 11 and the first movie, the series started to decline in quality. This was because many writers from the first three seasons seasons left (although Doug Lawrence, Aaron Springer, Erik Wiese and C.H. Greenblatt still stayed). Some of the later episodes were poorly received because the characters did not act the way they acted in the first three seasons. However, apparently, the show's quality improved once more after the second movie, when Stephen Hillenburg returned, until his death in 2018.


title: Caligula

text: Caligula (Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 31 August 12 – 24 January 41) was the third Roman Emperor. He reigned from AD 37. After only four years, he was assassinated by members of his bodyguard and the Roman Senate. During his reign, many innocent people were killed without fair trials. Even with all that, he was popular with the Roman public in his time.


title: Caligula

text: Caligula's father Germanicus was the nephew and adoptive son of emperor Tiberius. He was a very successful general. He was one of Rome's most beloved public figures.


title: Caligula

text: When Germanicus died at Antioch in 19 AD, his mother Agrippina the Elder returned to Rome with her six children. She had a bitter feud with Tiberius. That eventually led to the destruction of her family. Caligula was the only male survivor. In 31, he joined the emperor on the island of Capri. Tiberius had gone there five years earlier. When Tiberius died in 37, Caligula became emperor.


title: Caligula

text: There are few surviving sources on Caligula's reign. He is described as a noble and moderate ruler during the first two years of his rule. After this, the sources focus upon his cruelty, extravagance, and sexual perversity, presenting him as an insane tyrant.


title: Caligula

text: Caligula worked to give more authority to the emperor. He put a lot of his effort into ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself. He started the construction of two new aqueducts in Rome: the "Aqua Claudia" and the "Anio Novus". During his reign, the empire took over the Kingdom of Mauretania and made it into a province.


title: Caligula

text: In early 41, Caligula was assassinated. There was a conspiracy involving officers of the Praetorian Guard, members of the Roman Senate and members of the imperial court. After Caligula's death, the conspirators' tried to bring back the Roman Republic, but they were unsuccessful. The Praetorian Guard declared Caligula's uncle Claudius emperor in his place.


title: Caligula

text: There are stories about Caligula that show cruelty and insanity. He was accused of killing just for amusement. He was accused of committing incest with his sisters and prostituting them with other men. He was accused of turning the palace into a brothel.


title: Caligula

text: Caligula appeared in public dressed as various gods. He demanded to be worshipped as a god. There was a legend that he appointed a horse to the priesthood.


title: Caligula

text: It is difficult to know anything for certain about Caligula. Only two sources from his time still exist. Those are the works of Philo and Seneca. They give mostly anecdotes. At one time, there were detailed histories on Caligula. Now they are lost. Caligula's sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography which certainly had a lot of information about Caligula's reign. It is also lost. No surviving source paints Caligula in a favorable light. It is not known whether Caligula was insane.


title: Nightingale

text: The nightingale ("Luscinia megarhynchos") is a small bird. It used to be put in the thrush family Turdidae. Now it is put on the Old World flycatchers, a group often called the chats or chat-thrushes. Its resemblance to thrushes is an example of convergent evolution.


title: Nightingale

text: It is a migratory insectivorous species. It breeds in forests and scrubs in Europe and south-west Asia. The distribution is more southerly than the very closely related thrush nightingale "Luscinia luscinia". It nests on the ground in or next to dense bushes. It passes the winter southern Africa. Studies have shown that nightingales seem to choose places to breed that meet certain criteria (Wink 1973):


title: Nightingale

text: The Nightingale is slightly larger than the robin, at around 15-16.5 cm length. It is plain brown above except for the reddish tail. It is buff to white below. Sexes are similar.


title: Nightingale

text: Nightingales are named so because they frequently sing at night as well as during the day. The name has been used for well over 1,000 years, being highly recognizable even in its Anglo-Saxon form - 'nihtingale'. It means 'night songstress'. Early writers assumed the female sang; in fact, it is the male.


title: Nightingale

text: The song is loud, with an impressive range of whistles, trills and gurgles. Its song is particularly noticeable at night because few other birds are singing. This is why its name (in several languages) includes "night". Only unpaired males sing regularly at night, and nocturnal song is likely to serve attracting a mate. Singing at dawn, during the hour before sunrise, is assumed to be important in defending the bird's territory. Nightingales sing even more loudly in urban or near-urban environments, in order to overcome the background noise. The most characteristic feature of the song is a loud whistling crescendo, absent from the song of thrush nightingale. It has a frog-like alarm call.


title: Cartoonist

text: A cartoonist is a person who draws cartoons. Cartoons can be pictures on a printed page (also called comics or comic strips) or moving pictures on film (also called animation). Both kinds of cartoons can be found on the internet. Examples of some famous cartoonists are:


title: Nicki Minaj

text: Onika Tanya Maraj-Petty (born December 8, 1982), known professionally as Nicki Minaj (), is a Trinidadian-born American rapper, singer, songwriter, actress and model from Queens, New York.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: Minaj became the first and only female rapper to be listed on "Forbes"' Hip Hop Cash Kings list. She is known for her strange style, funny voices, colorful wigs and costumes, and characters she uses in her music.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: In August 2009, Minaj signed to Young Money Entertainment with distribution from Universal Motown. Her debut album, "Pink Friday", was released on November 9, 2010. It climbed to number one on the US "Billboard" 200 album chart and contained the singles "Your Love", "Moment 4 Life" (featuring Canadian rapper Drake), "Super Bass", "Did It on 'Em", and "Fly" (featuring Barbadian singer Rihanna). The first, second, and fifth singles reached the top 20 in the US, while "Super Bass" managed to peak at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and peaked in the top ten around the world. The song has been certified 8× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for combined shipments and streams of 8 million copies in the US alone. Minaj was also featured with Kesha on a remix of Britney Spears' song "Till the World Ends".


title: Nicki Minaj

text: Nicki Minaj has been instrumental in challenging the patriarchal norms of the music industry, as a Black female rapper. Additionally, in Nicki Minaj's early career she used sexuality as a way to gain fans and relate to audiences. She was able to gather a large female and LGBT+ identifying audience through her implying that she was bisexual herself. Through her wigs, costumes, and bold designs she attracted fans from the LGBT+ community, who found themselves to be able to identify with her boldness and expressivity.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: Minaj released a single, "Starships", on Valentine's Day of 2012, before releasing her second studio album, "", on April 3, 2012. This album contained more pop- and dance-leaning songs, with some songs produced by RedOne (known for working with Jennifer Lopez and Lady Gaga) and Dr. Luke. "Starships" reached number one in Scotland and the top five in the US, UK, and Canada. Minaj released two more singles from the album, "Pound the Alarm" and "Va Va Voom", which both reached the top 25 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. She was featured on David Guetta's single "Turn Me On", which reached the top ten worldwide. Minaj re-released "Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded" later in the year as "Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded – The Re-Up" that contained songs like "Va Va Voom" and "Freedom".


title: Nicki Minaj

text: From 2012 to 2013, she was featured as a judge on the music competition series "American Idol" alongside Keith Urban, Mariah Carey, and Randy Jackson.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: In 2014, she was featured in the film "The Other Woman". She released her third studio album, "The Pinkprint, "in December of that year. It was preceded by the singles ""Anaconda"", which samples the 1992 hit single "Baby Got Back" by Sir Mix-a-Lot, and "Only". ""Anaconda"" reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Minaj's highest-peaking song in the United States up until 2022. Minaj performed "Anaconda" at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards.""


title: Nicki Minaj

text: She was featured on Guetta's single "Hey Mama" alongside Bebe Rexha and Afrojack, along with Ariana Grande's "Side to Side".


title: Nicki Minaj

text: On March 10, 2017, Minaj released three singles: "No Frauds", "Regret in Your Tears", and "Changed It". "No Frauds" became a top 20 hit in the US. Minaj took a break from social media at the end of the year to focus on new songs.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: On April 13, 2018, Minaj released two singles: "Chun-Li" and "Barbie Tingz". The first reached number 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and was picked as the lead single from Minaj's fourth studio album, "Queen". "Barbie Tingz" reached number 25 in the US but was later removed from the track list for "Queen", except as a Target edition bonus track. The promotional single "Rich Sex", featuring American rapper Lil Wayne, was also released from the album. Minaj was featured on the single “Fefe” by rapper 6ix9ine which reached number three on the Hot 100 in both the US and Canada.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: After a social media hiatus, Minaj returned to Twitter and Instagram on January 30, 2020. The following day she appeared in the music video for Meghan Trainor's single, “Nice to Meet Ya” which also featured Minaj. On February 7, Minaj released her first single of 2020, titled “Yikes”.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: Minaj was featured in two remixes of the song “Say So” by American rapper Doja Cat. The song would go on to become her first US number-one hit. On June 12 Minaj featured on the song “Trollz” by rapper 6ix9ine. The song went on to become Minaj’s second US number one.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: In 2022, Minaj released her first greatest-hits album, "Queen Radio: Volume 1". It featured the single "Super Freaky Girl", which became her third US number-one single when it debuted atop the Hot 100.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: Minaj moved to Queens, New York City at age five. Her father went to rehab for alcoholism in 2012. Minaj claimed he burned down their house in her youth. As a teenager, Minaj had an abortion, which is referenced in her song "All Things Go" from "The Pinkprint".


title: Nicki Minaj

text: In 2011, her cousin Nicholas Telemaque was murdered in Brooklyn, New York. In November 2017 her brother Jelani Maraj was convicted of raping a child. In January 2020, he was sentenced to 25 years in prison.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: Minaj had dated Safaree Samuels for 12 years and later dated rapper Meek Mill from 2015 till 2017. In November 2018, Minaj began dating Kenneth "Zoo" Petty. She has known him since her teenage years. Petty is a registered sex offender. They married in October 2019, after just one year of dating. After the marriage, Minaj changed her surname to Maraj-Petty.


title: Nicki Minaj

text: On July 20, 2020, Minaj announced that she is expecting a child. On October 16, 2020, Minaj announced that her child with Petty, a boy, had been born last September 30. The son was named Papa Bear.


title: Nose

text: A nose is a body part which allows animals to smell things. The nose also helps animals breathe. It has parts that make it work and send messages to the brain. The nose's parts include smell receptors and nerve connectors to receptors. In humans, the nose is on the front of the face. The power of the nose varies for animals. For example, dogs have a stronger sense of smell than humans do. It is part of the respiratory system which is the system in animals that help them to breathe. Your nose is very powerful and can remember up to 50,000 different scents.


title: Nose

text: The nose is important to health. It filters the air breathed in, removing dust, germs, and irritants. It warms and moistens the air to keep the lungs and tubes that lead to them from drying out. The nose also contains nerve cells that help the sense of smell. When there is a problem with the nose, the whole body can suffer. For example, the stuffy nose of the common cold can make it hard to breathe, sleep, or get comfortable.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The nucleus is the center of an atom. It is made up of nucleons called protons and neutrons and is surrounded by the electron cloud. The size (diameter) of the nucleus is between 1.6 fm (10 m) (for a proton in light-weight hydrogen) to about 15 fm (for the heaviest atoms, such as uranium). These sizes are much smaller than the size of the atom itself by a factor of about 23,000 (uranium) to about 145,000 (hydrogen). Although it is only a very small part of the atom, the nucleus has most of the mass. Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Only a small amount of mass is from the orbiting electrons.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Neutrons have no electric charge and protons are positively charged. Because the nucleus is only made up of protons and neutrons it is positively charged. Things that have the same charge repel each other: this repulsion is part of what is called electromagnetic force. Unless there was something else holding the nucleus together it could not exist because the protons would push away from each other. The nucleus is actually held together by another force known as the strong nuclear force.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The word "nucleus" is from 1704, meaning “kernel of a nut”. In 1844, Michael Faraday used nucleus to describe the “central point of an atom”. The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The use of the word "nucleus" in atomic theory, however, did not happen immediately. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis wrote in his famous article "The Atom and the Molecule" that "the atom is composed of the "kernel" and an outer atom or "shell"".


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) joined by the nuclear force. These baryons are further made up of sub-atomic fundamental particles known as quarks joined by the strong interaction. The nucleus is more or less a spheroid and may be somewhat prolate (long) or oblate (flat) or otherwise not entirely round.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: If the nucleus can be considered to have a radius of the order of 5 fm (= 10 × 10 m), this means its cross-section is of the order of 10 m, and its volume is about 10 m.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The isotope of an atom is based on the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Different isotopes of the same element have very similar chemical properties. Different isotopes in a sample of a chemical can be separated by using a centrifuge or by using a mass spectrometer. The first method is used in producing enriched uranium from regular uranium, and the second is used in carbon dating.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The number of protons and neutrons together determine the nuclide (type of nucleus). Protons and neutrons have nearly equal masses, and their combined number, the mass number, is about equal to the atomic mass of an atom. The combined mass of the electrons is very small when compared to the mass of the nucleus; protons and neutrons weigh about 2000 times more than electrons.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first sign that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays. The problem would later lead to the discovery of the neutrino (see below).


title: Atomic nucleus

text: In 1906 Ernest Rutherford published "Radiation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through Matter". Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing α particles through air, aluminum foil and gold foil. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger, In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Around the same time that this was happening (1909) Ernest Rutherford performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. He was shocked to discover that a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. The discovery, beginning with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge. As an example, in this model nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons, and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14 the 14 protons and six of the electrons should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final electron should have left the nucleus with a spin of 1/2. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 has a spin of one.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: In 1930 Wolfgang Pauli was unable to attend a meeting in Tübingen, and instead sent a famous letter with the classic introduction "Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen". In his letter Pauli suggested that perhaps there was a third particle in the nucleus which he named the "neutron". He suggested that it was very light (lighter than an electron), had no charge, and that it did not readily interact with matter (which is why it had not yet been detected). This desperate way out solved both the problem of energy conservation and the spin of nitrogen-14, the first because Pauli's "neutron" was carrying away the extra energy and the second because an extra "neutron" paired off with the electron in the nitrogen-14 nucleus giving it spin one. Pauli's "neutron" was renamed the neutrino (Italian for little neutral one) by Enrico Fermi in 1931, and after about thirty years it was finally demonstrated that a neutrino really is emitted during beta decay.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a massive particle that he called the neutron. In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons and that there were no electrons in it, and Francis Perrin suggested that neutrinos were not nuclear particles but were created during beta decay. To cap the year off, Fermi submitted a theory of the neutrino to "Nature" (which the editors rejected for being "too remote from reality"). Fermi continued working on his theory and published a paper in 1934 which placed the neutrino on solid theoretical footing. In the same year Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: With Fermi and Yukawa's papers the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).


title: Atomic nucleus

text: The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the most important of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: A nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of American footballs) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons.


title: Atomic nucleus

text: If a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, nitrogen-16 atoms (7 protons, 9 neutrons) beta decay to oxygen-16 atoms (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron by the weak nuclear force. The element of the atom changes because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen). Many elements have multiple isotopes which are stable for weeks, years, or even billions of years.