title: Tarragon

text: Tarragon ("Artemisia dracunculus"), also known as estragon, is a perennial herb in the family Asteraceae. It is native to a wide area of the Northern Hemisphere from the easternmost parts of Europe to across central and eastern Asia and India, western North America, and south to northern Mexico. Tarragon grows to 120–150 cm tall, with slender branched stems.


title: Lua

text: Lua is an open source programming language. It was created in 1993 by Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, and Waldemar Celes. Lua is used for many different things, especially in video games such as World of Warcraft, SimCity 4 and Transformice. It is also used in the popular virtual world sharing website Roblox under a dialect called Luau. In June 2010, Apple Inc. changed the terms of use for the software development kit of its iOS operating system to allow the use of Lua. This led to Lua being used to make iPhone applications such as Angry Birds. In June 2011, Lua was ranked the tenth most popular programming language by the TIOBE Index.


title: Hawaii (island)

text: The Big Island has more than half (~62%) of the total land area of State of Hawaii. It is part of County of Hawaii.


title: Herpetology

text: "Herp" is a vernacular term for reptiles and amphibians. It is derived from the old term "herpetile". Linnaeus grouped reptiles and amphibians together in the same class, and that is where the term comes from. The term has persisted, particularly in the names of herpetology, the scientific study of reptiles and amphibians, and herpetoculture, the captive care and breeding of reptiles and amphibians. There are over 6700 species of amphibians and over 9000 species of reptiles.


title: Hawaii (island)

text: The island is seven separate shield volcanos that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other. These are (from oldest to youngest): Kohala (extinct), Mauna Kea (dormant), Hualalai (dormant), Mauna Loa (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and Kilauea (very active). The volcanos were caused by the Pacific oceanic tectonic plate moving over a hotspot. There lava from the Earth's lower mantle or upper core is close to the surface.


title: Herpetology

text: Batrachology is the study of amphibians. Batrachology can also mean that a person enjoys amphibians and are among their favorite pets.


title: Hawaii (island)

text: The largest city on the island is Hilo. Hilo has many historic buildings, interesting shops, parks, many performances, festivals and events. It is on the rainy, east side of the island. The city of Kailua-Kona is on the dry, west side of Hawaii, and is popular with tourists.


title: Lisp (programming language)

text: Lisp (used to be called LISP) is a programming language. It is among the oldest programming languages that are still used today. Only Fortran is one year older. Lisp was designed by John McCarthy in 1958. The best-known versions of LISP are Common Lisp, Scheme and Clojure. Many concepts that are used in modern programming languages were first created in Lisp.


title: Lisp (programming language)

text: The basic concepts behind Lisp are easy to learn. Logo is another version of Lisp that was made for children. Logo can help young children develop skills and become efficient within the programming language.


title: Lisp (programming language)

text: In Lisp, operations are written in prefix notation, and they start and end with parentheses. For example, the formula formula_1 is written as:


title: Lisp (programming language)

text: Because Lisp is a functional language, Lisp programs often use recursion to solve problems. Here is a Scheme program that finds the factorial of a number. The function (factorial n) starts by testing if formula_2 or not. If formula_3, then (factorial 0) is 1. If formula_4, then (factorial n) returns the product of formula_5 and the factorial of formula_6.


title: Lisp (programming language)

text: Linked lists are an important idea in Lisp. The list without any things in it is known as the "empty" or "nil list", and is written as '(). A list that has things in it is written as '(dog cat).


title: Structuralism

text: Structuralism is an idea in many sciences, especially social sciences. Structuralism says that when looking at the way culture works, it is important to look at the structure. For example, structuralism is important in the study of languages and how they affect culture. The word structuralism comes from "structure." It has been in use since the 19th century.


title: Angina pectoris

text: Angina pectoris (angina of the heart) is pain which is due to ischaemia of the heart muscle. A common cause of angina pectoris is when the heart is working harder than normal e.g. during exercise.


title: Dative case

text: In grammar, the dative case is the grammatical case used to show the object of an action (the thing the verb acts on).


title: Dative case

text: For example, "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this example, Jacob is the dative as he is being given the drink, he is what the verb ("gave") is acting upon.


title: Lilian Thuram

text: Lilian Thuram (born 1 January 1972) is a former French football player. He has played for France national team.


title: Tonsil

text: The tonsils are areas of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat. An infection of the tonsils is called tonsillitis or tonsilitis. Most commonly, the term "tonsils" refers to the palatine tonsils that can be seen in the back of the throat.


title: Tonsil

text: Like other organs of the lymphatic system, the tonsils act as part of the immune system to help protect against infection. In particular, they are believed to be involved in helping fight off pharyngeal and upper respiratory tract infections.


title: Leonard Bernstein

text: Leonard Bernstein (August 25, 1918 – October 14, 1990) was an American composer and conductor. He was born Louis Bernstein in Lawrence, Massachusetts to Ukrainian Jewish parents. He is best known for conducting the New York Philharmonic and composing "West Side Story" and "Candide".


title: Aardwolf

text: The aardwolf ("Proteles cristata") is a small, insectivorous mammal, native to East Africa and Southern Africa. Its name means "earth wolf" in the Afrikaans / Dutch language. It is also called "maanhaar jackal" in Afrikaans, or "civet hyena", based on the secretions (civet) from their anal glands.


title: Aardwolf

text: The aardwolf is in the same family as the hyenas. Unlike many of its relatives in the order Carnivora, the aardwolf does not hunt large animals, or even eat meat on a regular basis; instead it eats insects, mainly termites – one aardwolf can eat about 250,000 termites during a single night by using its long, sticky tongue to capture them.


title: Aardwolf

text: The aardwolf lives in the scrublands of eastern and southern Africa – these are open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. The aardwolf is nocturnal, resting in burrows during the day and coming out at night to eat.


title: Aardwolf

text: Anal gland scent-marking plays an important role in mating-season in both sexes as it is the primarily communication method.


title: Freddie Ljungberg

text: Karl Fredrik Ljungberg (born 16 April 1977) is a Swedish former professional footballer who played as a winger. He is also a football manager. He was the former assistant coach of Arsenal F.C.


title: Potassium carbonate

text: Potassium carbonate, also known as potash or pearl ash, is a chemical compound. It is made of potassium and carbonate ions. Its chemical formula is KCO.


title: Potassium carbonate

text: Potassium carbonate is a white solid. It dissolves in water. It is similar to sodium carbonate. It reacts with acids to make carbon dioxide and a potassium salt. It does not dissolve in alcohol. It is basic. It is a mild drying agent.


title: Potassium carbonate

text: It is used to soften water (remove some of the ions from water) and make soap. It is used to put out fires. It can be used as an electrolyte to electrolyze water.


title: San (letter)

text: San (uppercase/lowercase Ϻ ϻ) was an old letter in the Greek alphabet that was used in some Greek cities before the alphabet got its classical standard form. It looked like the letter Mu (M), but was spoken like S. In the 6th century BC, people stopped using it and wrote Sigma (Σ) instead.


title: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation is an American crime drama television series that was created by Anthony E. Zuiker. "CSI: Crime Scene Investigation" debuted on October 6, 2000 on CBS. The series takes place in Las Vegas, Nevada. Filming for the series takes place in Universal City, California. The show has had three spin-offs: "", "", and "".


title: Yamaha Corporation

text: Yamaha is a Japanese multinational company that makes different products, including musical instruments such as keyboards.


title: CeeLo Green

text: Thomas DeCarlo Callaway (born May 30, 1975), known professionally as CeeLo Green (or Cee Lo Green), is an American singer, songwriter, rapper, record producer, and actor. He performed at the Grammy Awards in 2011. He has made music as a solo artist, and also as a part of the groups Goodie Mob and Gnarls Barkley.


title: Yamaha Corporation

text: Yamaha was founded in 1887 by "Torakusu Yamaha." Yamaha started when the founder "Torasku Yamaha when" he successfully completed the first reed organ It was named Nippon Gakki Company, Limited and produced pianos and reed organs at that time. In October 1987, on the 100th anniversary, its name was changed to The Yamaha Corporation. Yamaha produces several musical instruments including keyboards, flutes, guitars and things in a band. Yamaha also produces motorbikes, as well as the voice synthesizer Vocaloid. Yamaha is a big corporation and was founded 125 years ago.


title: CeeLo Green

text: Among Green's solo hits are "Closet Freak" (2002), "I'll Be Around" (2003), produced by Timbaland, and "Fuck You" (2010), co-written and produced by Bruno Mars.


title: CeeLo Green

text: In "Hotel Transylvania" (2012), Green is the voice of Murray. Green's first Christmas album "Cee Lo's Magic Moment" has been nominated for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album at the 2014 Grammy Awards.


title: Stade

text: Stade is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the seat of the district which is named the same as the city.


title: Buoy

text: A buoy is a floating device that can have many uses. It is usually anchored in a certain place. The word is most commonly said () (as in "buoyant"), but in American English it is often pronounced .


title: Stade

text: The city was founded in 994 when it was called "Stethu". A city on the banks of the Lower Elbe it became an important market town, and a port. It was given a town charter in 1209. From 1645 to 1712, the Stade was controlled by Sweden, who made it an important military town. On May 26, 1659, the "Great Fire" destroyed more than half the city.


title: Buoy

text: Buoys are used by ships to navigate or sail safely from place to place. They are used to mark a safe channel on a river, lake or harbour. They are used to mark dangerous rocks and other items which ships have to keep clear of. They can also be used to mark a shipwreck, pipelines or swimming areas.


title: Buoy

text: Buoys are used as marker for fishing, moorings for boats, yacht or dinghy racing, diving or weather stations and may be marked on charts as "Superbuoys".


title: Emile Heskey

text: Emile William Ivanhoe Heskey (born 11 January 1978) is an English footballer. He currently plays for Bolton Wanderers in the Football League Championship.


title: Gabe Newell

text: Gabe Logan Newell (born November 3, 1962) is an American businessman. He is the co-founder and president of video game development and online distribution company Valve Corporation. He co-founded Valve with fellow Microsoft employee Mike Harrington. He is also known for founding online video gaming distributor Steam.


title: Faith Hill

text: Faith Hill (born Audrey Faith Perry; September 21, 1967 in Ridgeland, Mississippi) is an American country singer-songwriter, who has had many hit songs and records. She is married to country music singer and actor, Tim McGraw. She is of Cornish, Dutch, English, French, German, Irish, Northern Irish (Scotch-Irish), Scottish and Welsh descent.


title: Despicable Me 3

text: Despicable Me 3 is a 2017 American 3D computer-animated action comedy movie produced by Illumination Entertainment for Universal Pictures.


title: Emile Heskey

text: At the pinnacle of his career, he played for Leicester City, Liverpool and Birmingham City. he later he played for Wigan Athletic and Aston Villa, then Newcastle Jets in the Australian A-League. For a while he was a regular member of the England national team, striking up a good partnership with fellow forward Michael Owen, where he was often deployed as a 'Target Man' due to his immense strength, good first touch and passing skills.


title: Gabe Newell

text: Newell was born in Colorado. He is married to Lisa Newell (née Mennet) and has two children. He is a financial supporter of the Democratic Party. He suffered from Fuchs' dystrophy, a congenital disease which affects the cornea, but was cured by two cornea transplants in 2006 and 2007.


title: Despicable Me 3

text: It is the third main installment, fourth overall movie in the "Despicable Me" movie series and the sequel to "Despicable Me 2" (2013). The movie is directed by Pierre Coffin and Kyle Balda, co-directed by Eric Guillon and written by Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio.


title: Despicable Me 3

text: It stars Steve Carell, Kristen Wiig, Trey Parker, Miranda Cosgrove, Steve Coogan, Jenny Slate, Dana Gaier, and Julie Andrews.


title: Despicable Me 3

text: "Despicable Me 3" was released on June 14, 2017, at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival, and had a theatrical release in the United States on June 30, 2017, by Universal Pictures in 3D, RealD 3D, Dolby Cinema and IMAX 3D.


title: Dieter Bohlen

text: Dieter Gunther Bohlen is a German musician, born on 7 February 1954. He was born in Berne, Lower Saxony. He was a member of Modern Talking, but now appears in the TV programme "Germany Searches for a Superstar" , which is the German version of Pop Idol and American Idol.


title: Metis

text: Metis is the goddess of wisdom in Greek mythology. She is one of the Titans and is the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. She was the mother of Athena.


title: Leviathan (book)

text: Leviathan is a famous book by Thomas Hobbes. Its full name is Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil. Hobbes wrote the book in 1651. The name of the book comes from a sea monster called "Leviathan" in the Book of Job (one of the books in the Old Testament of the Bible). In "Leviathan", Hobbes writes about the structure of society and what makes a good government. It was a very early book on social contract theory. It influenced many other writers. He also wrote a version of the book in Latin in 1668.


title: Metis

text: When she was inside Zeus, Metis made a helmet and a robe for her baby. The hammering noise caused Zeus to have a headache. To try and help Zeus with the pain, Prometheus, Hephaestus, Hermes, or Palaemon (depending on the myth) cut his head open with a Minoan axe. Athena then came out of Zeus's head. She was fully grown and had her armour on.


title: 2013 Formula One World Championship

text: The 2013 Formula One season was the 64th season of the Formula One World Championship. Eleven teams and twenty-two drivers competed in nineteen Grands Prix. The season started in Australia on 17 March and ended in Brazil on 24 November.


title: 2013 Formula One World Championship

text: At the 2012 Malaysian Grand Prix, Bernie Ecclestone said that the "majority" of teams in the 2012 season agreed to compete in 2013.


title: 2013 Formula One World Championship

text: In November 2012, the owners of HRT F1 placed the team for sale. The team needed to find a buyer by 30 November to remain in the sport. HRT failed to find a buyer and the team was not included in the 2013 entry list.


title: 2013 Formula One World Championship

text: In September 2012, seven-time World Champion Michael Schumacher said that he was retiring from the sport for a second time. World Champion Lewis Hamilton agreed to take Schumacher's place. The move ended his fourteen-year career with McLaren.


title: 2013 Formula One World Championship

text: Driver Sergio Pérez left Sauber to join McLaren. Nico Hülkenberg filled the vacant seat at Sauber. Hülkenberg was joined by Esteban Gutiérrez, who was Sauber's testing and reserve driver in and .


title: 2013 Formula One World Championship

text: The following nineteen races appeared on the 2013 race schedule. The number of races on the Formula One calendar is dictated by the Concorde Agreement.


title: 2013 Formula One World Championship

text: The calendar was originally meant to host twenty races. This would add the new Grand Prix of Jersey. The race in New Jersey was delayed to 2014.


title: Ross Lynch

text: Ross Shor Lynch (born on December 29, 1995) is an actor, singer, instrumentalist and dancer U.S. of Littleton, Colorado. He is most recognised for playing Austin Moon in the musical comedy of Disney Channel, "Austin & Ally". He is a the key vocalist in his family band, R5 , which includes his two older brothers Rocky, Riker and only sister Rydel. His brother, Riker Lynch, has a minor recurring character in the hit series "Glee".


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Ravensbrück concentration camp (pronounced "RAW-vins-brook") was a concentration camp for women, run by Nazi Germany during World War II. It was in northern Germany, near the town of Ravensbrück.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Alberto Santos-Dumont (July 20, 1873 – July 20, 1932) was a Brazilian pilot and early aviator. He built and flew some of the first airplanes and made some of the first good steering systems for hot air balloons. He is called the "Father of Aviation" in Brazil.


title: Ross Lynch

text: Ross Lynch was born and raised in Littleton, Colorado and is the fourth son of Mark and Stormie Lynch. He, with his brothers and sister, are members of the hit band R5. He was educated at home from the fourth grade and only attended a music/singing class in which they found their fifth and final member of the band, Ellington Ratliff. After his oldest brother had taken a liking to the bass guitar, He decided to also practice and thus the band had formed. He grew up imitating the songs of the movie "Grease" and former band 'N Sync with his brothers. The Teen heart-throb is one of five children, with three brothers and a sister (Riker, Ryland, Rocky, Rydel). In 2007, he moved with his family to California to pursue his career, which is where he gained his Disney career and later met his girlfriend, Courtney Eaton, an Australian model and actress.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In November 1938, Himmler gave the order to start building the camp at Ravensbrück. By 1939, Ravensbrück was the biggest women's concentration camp in Nazi Germany.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: According to the First Flight Society, he was the third person in the world to fly an airplane, after only Wilbur and Orville Wright. He was the first person in Europe to fly an airplane.


title: Ross Lynch

text: Ross Lynch has appeared in over 20 national commercials and several national campaigns and print advertising. R5 has also been featured in a series of music videos such as" Hannah Montana" on Disney Channel ,"Kidz Bop" and" Kung Fu Panda". Ross can play piano, drums, guitar and the violin. In his Disney days he danced for The Rage Boyz Crew


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Over time, the Nazis made Ravensbrück much bigger. By 1944, Ravensbrück had become a complex (a group of many concentration camps).


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Alberto Santos-Dumont was born in a village named Cabangu in Minas Gerais, Brazil. He was the sixth of his parents' eight children. Santos-Dumont's father had been born in France and trained to be an engineer. He liked to use machines on the family's large coffee farm and became rich. He taught Alberto Santos-Dumont how to use machines too.


title: Ross Lynch

text: , a group founded by a dance company in the Southern California. He has appeared in" So You Think You Can Dance" and has had guest appearances on the series "Moises Rules!", And can even be see in the movie" Grapple! " Anton Troy.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: After Heinrich Himmler decided that Ravensbrück should be built, the SS brought about 500 male prisoners from Sachsenhausen concentration camp to the area. The SS forced these prisoners to build Ravensbrück. SS records say that Ravensbruck was designed to hold 3,000 prisoners.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: For a while, Alberto Santos-Dumont studied at the Colégio Culto à Ciência in Brazil, but when he was 18, his father had an accident that left him unable to move parts of his body. The Santos-Dumont family moved to Europe, and his parents sent Alberto Santos-Dumont to Paris. In Paris, he learned physics and other sciences.


title: Ross Lynch

text: Ross Lynch starred in the Disney Channel Original Series, "Austin & Ally", in which he played a confident and charismatic singer Austin Moon, half of a musical duo that became a teen sensation (and heart-throb) on the Internet.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Ravensbrück opened in May 1939. The camp's first prisoners were a group of about 900 women sent from Lichtenburg concentration camp. Ravensbrück very quickly became full. From 1939 to 1945, the Nazis were constantly making the camp bigger to hold more and more prisoners.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: At first, Santos-Dumont worked with hot air balloons. One problem with hot air balloons was that they were very difficult to steer. After making a few hot air balloons that could go up and down well, Alberto Santos-Dumont decided to build a good steering system. He built eleven hot air balloons that could be steered, called dirigibles, between 1898 and 1905. His third balloon in this project, "Santos Dumont No. 3", worked. He was able to steer it around the Eiffel Tower and land where he meant to land. His "Santos Dumont No. 6" won the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize.


title: Ross Lynch

text: Ross plays rhythm guitar in his family band R5 and has written Many original songs with his brothers, sister and family friend.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, the Nazis made Ravensbrück much larger. They expected to send many Polish people to concentration camps, and they wanted Ravensbrück to be able to fit more prisoners. However, by May 1940 (just eight months after World War II started), Ravensbrück was full of prisoners.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Santos-Dumont liked to fly his dirigibles around Paris. He became famous and popular, and people copied his clothes and style. United States President Theodore Roosevelt invited him to visit the White House. The French nicknamed him "le petit Santos," or "little Santos," and he became a folk hero in Brazil.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in summer 1941, there were about 5,000 prisoners at Ravensbrück. By the end of 1942, the camp held 10,000 prisoners (including many Soviet prisoners of war).


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Then Santos-Dumont decided to work on heavier-than-air flying machines, which people call airplanes or aeroplanes today. In the fall of 1906, he tried to fly his biplane, the "Santos-Dumont 14-bis" in a field outside Paris. Experts disagree on exactly what counts as flying and what is only a hop in the air, so perhaps his first flight was on September 13 when the "14-bis" stayed in the air for a short distance or perhaps it was in October when it flew for 50 meters, but everyone agrees that Santos-Dumont did fly in the fall of 1906. On November 12, 1906, outside Paris, he flew the "14-Bis" biplane for 220 meters (722 feet) outside Paris, 6 meters up in the air. The 14-bis used a 50-horsepower internal combustion engine, meaning an engine that burned its own fuel inside itself instead of using steam.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In April 1941, the Nazis added a concentration camp for men next to the women's camp. The SS forced the male prisoners to build the new camps in the Ravensbrück complex, and to work on making the women's camp bigger.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Because many people had come out to watch him fly, because he was already famous, and because the Wright Brothers had not told many people about their own flight at Kitty Hawk in 1903, many people thought Alberto Santos-Dumont was the first person to fly an airplane at all.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In June 1942, a "juvenile protective custody camp" called "Uckermark" was built next to the men's camp. This was a camp just for teenage girls and young women.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Alberto Santos-Dumont made his last flight in 1910. Some time after that, doctors told him he had multiple sclerosis. He committed suicide in Brazil in 1932. Some sources say this was because he was sad that airplanes had become weapons in World War I and other wars.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: By 1944, the SS had forced prisoners to build over 40 smaller camps (called sub-camps). These sub-camps held over 70,000 prisoners, mostly women. The original Ravensbrück camp became the office for these sub-camps. However, women prisoners were still kept there, and male prisoners had to keep making the camp bigger to fit more prisoners.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Alberto Santos-Dumont is part of the First Flight Society's shrine at Kitty Hawk and listed in the Brazilian Air Ministry Almanac.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Male SS members were in charge of Ravensbrück. However, the camp had over 150 female SS members who guarded the prisoners.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: Some people in Brazil believe Alberto Santos-Dumont was the first person to fly an airplane, before the Wright Brothers. This is for two reasons: First, some people think the Wright Brothers' flight at Kitty Hawk did not count. They believe the Wright Brothers "Flyer" got off the ground but not long enough to count as flying. Others say that the winds at Kitty Hawk helped the "Flyer" too much for the flight to count. Others say that the Kitty Hawk flight did not count because the Wright Brothers used a catapult to get the "Flyer" started. However, the Wright Brothers did not really use a catapult that day, though they did use one with later planes. Second, some people they think the Wright Brothers did fly, but not in 1903 when they said they did. One reason for this is that Alberto Santos-Dumont performed almost all his tests and experiments publicly. Anyone who wanted could watch him work. He often tested his planes with many people watching. The Wright Brothers kept much of their work a secret because they did not want other inventors to steal their ideas. They hoped to patent their work and make money. However, when the Wright Brothers flew their first true plane at Kitty Hawk, they asked five people from the local town and life saving station to come watch and take a photograph. By 1906, the Wright Brothers had flown many of their planes many times, for as far as 39 kilometers. Today, most aviation historians believe that Alberto Santos-Dumont was not the first person to fly.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Ravensbrück was also a training camp for SS women. They learned how to be concentration camp guards at Ravensbrück. Then they would stay and work there, or go work at another camp. Over 4,000 SS women trained at Ravensbrück.


title: Alberto Santos-Dumont

text: By flying his dirigible around the Eiffel Tower and landing on purpose, Alberto Santos-Dumont helped convince people that flying machines were not only interesting inventions but that they could be useful in real life. He also invented the "Desmoiselle", a monoplane. That means it was a plane with one set of wings instead of two sets of wings like a biplane. The "Desmoiselle" flew so well that it helped monoplanes become the most common type of plane.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: When prisoners first got to Ravensbrück, their hair was usually shaved off. The SS took away their personal things, including their clothes. Prisoners had to wear striped uniforms, which included a dress and a head scarf. Later on in the war, when there were not enough uniforms, women were sometimes allowed to wear their own clothes. However, they had to mark a big white "X" on the back of their clothes to show that they were prisoners.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Every prisoner was given a serial number. The SS never called them by their names - only by their numbers.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Prisoners had to sew their serial numbers onto their clothes. They also had to wear colored triangles which showed why they were sent to Ravensbrück. In the middle of the triangle, they had to sew a letter saying what country they were from. For example, Polish prisoners had to sew a red triangle with the letter "P" (for Poland) onto their clothes. (A red triangle showed that a person was a political enemy of Nazi Germany.)


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: When Ravensbrück first opened, and the camp was not too crowded, living conditions were not too bad. However, during the winter of 1939 to 1940, the camp got more crowded, and the SS reacted by giving the prisoners less food. After 1941, the food got much worse, and prisoners got much less of it.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: The women's camp at Ravensbrück had twelve barracks where the prisoners lived. They slept on wooden bunks which had three rows, one on top of the other. Each barrack had a washroom and three toilets with no doors. There was very little sanitation. After 1943, sanitation in the barracks got much worse. This made it easier for diseases to spread.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Towards the end of World War II, the camp was so crowded that 1,500 to 2,000 women were packed into barracks meant to hold only 250 people. Many women had to sleep on the floor, without even a blanket. In 1945, the barracks were so crowded and sanitation was so bad that an epidemic of typhus spread through the camp. The disease killed many prisoners.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Every morning, the prisoners had to get up at 4:00 in the morning for roll call. This meant they had to stand in line while the SS counted them.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: After roll call, prisoners went to work. Every prisoner at Ravensbrück was forced to work. If a person could not work, they would be killed.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Many prisoners worked at a Siemens Electric Company factory next to the women's camp. The prisoners worked as slaves, making parts for Nazi V-1 and V-2 rockets (flying bombs). Other prisoners worked at important German companies like Daimler-Benz (now Mercedes-Benz) and AEG (a German electrical company).


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Some women had to work outside. They built roads and buildings. Sometimes these women were used like animals. For example, sometimes twelve to fourteen women would have to pull a huge roller to pave the streets.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Women who were too sick or injured to do other jobs - usually because of medical experiments - knitted things like socks for the German Army, or cleaned the barracks and latrines.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Prisoners usually worked for twelve hours a day. Some worked from 7:00 in the morning to 7:00 at night. Others worked from 7:00 at night to 7:00 in the morning.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Starting in 1942, Nazi doctors did medical experiments on 86 women prisoners. The doctors did two types of experiments.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In the first type, the doctors cut the women's legs, muscles, and nerves, or broke their leg bones. Then they infected these wounds with bacteria. Sometimes they rubbed wood or glass into the wounds. Then they gave the women sulfanilamide antibiotics to see if they would work.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In the second type of experiment, the doctors studied whether bones could be taken from one person and put into another person. They amputated some women's arms or legs to do these experiments.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In January 1945, Nazi doctors sterilized about 120 to 140 Roma women and children. The doctors were trying to find a quick, easy way to sterilize people.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Some women died from these experiments. The SS killed some other women who had wounds that did not heal.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Starting in 1942, the SS created brothels in eight other concentration camps, like Buchenwald and Dachau. Women from Ravensbrück were forced to work as prostitutes in these brothels.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Nobody agrees on how many people died or were murdered at Ravensbrück. Estimates range from 52,200, to 90,000, to 117,000.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Unlike many other concentration camps, Ravensbrück did not have its own gas chamber until early 1945. The SS used other ways of killing prisoners.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: Regularly, the SS would perform "selections." They would pick out prisoners who looked too sick or weak to work. Then they would kill these prisoners.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: At first, the SS killed prisoners by shooting them or giving them lethal injections in the camp's "hospital." Then, starting in 1942, they began sending prisoners to other places that did have gas chambers, like Hartheim Euthanasia Centre, so they could be killed there. Between 1942 and 1944, the SS sent about 60 groups of prisoners to Hartheim to be gassed to death. Each group had 60 to 1,000 prisoners in it.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In early 1945, the SS made prisoners build a gas chamber at Ravensbrück. By this time, the Nazis knew that the Soviet Red Army was getting close. They wanted to kill as many prisoners as possible before the Red Army arrived. In its last few months, Ravensbrück became an extermination camp (a death camp). The SS started sending children and prisoners from Ravensbrück's sub-camps to the main camp, so they could be gassed to death. In just a few months, the SS killed 5,000 to 6,000 prisoners in the gas chamber.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: In March 1945, the Red Army was very close to Ravensbrück. The SS did not want to leave any witnesses to tell the Soviets what had happened at Ravensbrück. In March, they sent about 8,000 prisoners to other concentration camps.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: On April 27, the SS forced about 20,000 female prisoners and about 3,000 male prisoners to march towards the middle of Germany. This was a death march. The SS guards had been ordered to kill anyone who could not keep up. However, Soviet soldiers found the route of the march and freed the prisoners who had survived the death march.


title: Ravensbrück concentration camp

text: On April 29, the SS guards that were still at Ravensbrück ran away from the camp. The next day, the Red Army arrived at Ravensbrück and freed the camp. They found only about 3,000 very sick prisoners. These were the prisoners that the SS had left behind because they were too sick to march.


title: Trey Parker

text: Randolph Severn "Trey" Parker III (born October 19 1969) is an American animator, screenwriter, film director, voice actor, actor, musician and Academy Award nominated lyricist. He and Matt Stone worked on the animated series "South Park".


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: Julian Nagelsmann (born 23 July 1987) is a German professional football manager and former player who is currently head coach of Bayern Munich.


title: Kiwix

text: Kiwix is a free and open-source offline web browser created by Emmanuel Engelhart and Renaud Gaudin in 2007. It was first launched to allow offline access to Wikipedia. But it has expanded to include other projects from the Wikimedia Foundation as well as public domain texts from Project Gutenberg. It is available in more than 100 languages. Kiwix has been included in several high-profile projects, from smuggling operations in North Korea and encyclopedic access in Cuba to Google Impact Challenge's recipient Bibliothèques Sans Frontières.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: Known for his flexibility with formations, maintaining possession, and developing "gegenpress", Nagelsmann is widely known as one of the best young managers in world football.


title: Kiwix

text: Founder Emmanuel Engelhart sees Wikipedia as a common good, saying "The contents of Wikipedia should be available for everyone! Even without Internet access. This is why I have launched the Kiwix project."


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: Nagelsmann was born on 23 July 1987 in Landsberg am Lech, Bavaria. He played for FC Augsburg and 1860 Munich at youth level, and was the captain of Munich's U17 team. In the 2006–07 season, he was part of the second team but could not play a single match due to injuries. Nagelsmann returned to Augsburg for the 2007–08 season coached by Thomas Tuchel, but injured his knee and meniscus for the second time, damaging the cartilage. As a result, he decided to end his footballing career at the age of 20. He had already assisted his head coach Thomas Tuchel as a scout in the first half of 2008. He studied business administration in university for four semesters until he transferred to sports science. Then he focused on coaching, returning to his previous club 1860 Munich as an assistant to Alexander Schmidt for Munich's U17 team from 2008 to 2010.


title: Kiwix

text: After becoming a Wikipedia editor in 2004, Engelhart became interested in developing offline versions of Wikipedia. A , initiated in 2003, was a trigger for the project.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: Nagelsmann joined the 1899 Hoffenheim youth academy in 2010 and coached numerous youth teams in the following years. He was an assistant coach during Hoffenheim's 2012–13 season, and up until 11 February 2016, was coaching the club's U19 team. He coached Hoffenheim's U19 "junior team" to win the 2013–14 Under 19 Bundesliga title. During his time as assistant coach, goalkeeper Tim Wiese referred to Nagelsmann as "Mini-Mourinho."


title: Kiwix

text: In 2012 Kiwix won a grant from Wikimedia France to build kiwix-plug, which was deployed to universities in eleven countries known as the Afripedia Project. In February 2013 Kiwix won SourceForge's Project of the Month award and an Open Source Award in 2015.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: Nagelsmann was appointed head coach of 1899 Hoffenheim on 27 October 2015. He was expected to begin his tenure at the start of the 2016–17 season. He was given a three-year contract. At the time of his appointment, Nagelsmann was 28, and the youngest coach in Bundesliga history. He was to be the successor for Huub Stevens, who had replaced Markus Gisdol the previous day. On 10 February 2016, Stevens resigned as head coach due to health problems, and Nagelsmann's term as head coach was introduced by the Hoffenheim board a day later.


title: Kiwix

text: The software is designed as an offline reader for a web content. It can be used on computers without an internet connection, computers with a slow or expensive connection, or to avoid censorship. It can also be used while travelling (e.g. on a passenger plane or a train).


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: When Nagelsmann took over the club in February 2016, Hoffenheim were 17th in the table, 7 points from the safety of 15th spot and facing relegation. Under Nagelsmann they avoided relegation by winning 7 of their remaining 14 matches and finished a point above the relegation playoff spot. Their good form continued into the 2016–17 Bundesliga season, where they finished 4th in the table and qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time in their history.


title: Kiwix

text: Users first download Kiwix. Then they download content for offline viewing with Kiwix. Compression saves disk space and bandwidth. All of English-language Wikipedia, with pictures, fits on a large USB stick or external media (82 GB as of march 2021, or 43 GB with no pictures).


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: On 9 June 2017, Hoffenheim extended the contract of Nagelsmann until 2021. On 21 June 2018, Hoffenheim announced that Nagelsmann would be leaving the club at the end of the 2018–19 season. He oversaw his 100th league game as manager of Hoffenheim on 19 January 2019, in a 3–1 defeat to Bayern Munich. In doing so, he became the youngest ever Bundesliga manager to reach the 100–match mark.


title: Kiwix

text: All content files are compressed in ZIM format. It makes them smaller, but leaves them easy to index, search, and selectively decompress.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: On 21 June 2019, RB Leipzig announced that Nagelsmann would be their coach from the 2019–20 season and signed a four-year contract which would expire in 2023. Nagelsmann won his first Bundesliga match as RB Leipzig coach against FC Union Berlin 4–0, he also led Leipzig to a 1–1 draw against FC Bayern Munich. On match-day 10 Leipzig won against Mainz 8–0. Nagelsmann faced his former club Hoffenheim on match-day 14 and won 3–1 against them.


title: Kiwix

text: The ZIM files are then opened with Kiwix, which looks and behaves like a web browser. Kiwix offers full text search, tabbed navigation, and the option to export articles to PDF and HTML.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: On 10 March 2020, following Leipzig's 4–0 win against Tottenham Hotspur, Nagelsmann became the youngest coach in history to win a UEFA Champions League knockout tie.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: On 13 August 2020, RB Leipzig defeated Spanish side Atlético Madrid 2–1 in the quarter-finals, meaning Leipzig would progress to the Champions League semi-finals for the first time in their history. Nagelsmann became the youngest coach in history, therefore, to coach a side in the semi-finals.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: On 18 August 2020, RB Leipzig played against Paris Saint-Germain in the Champions League semi-finals, where Nagelsmann faced his former boss during his time at Augsburg, Thomas Tuchel. However, RB Leipzig lost 3–0 to Paris Saint-Germain.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: In the 2020–21 season, RB Leipzig finished second in the Bundesliga and lost the DFB-Pokal Final 4–1 against Borussia Dortmund.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: On 27 April 2021, Bayern Munich appointed Nagelsmann as head coach on a five-year contract, effective from 1 July 2021, replacing Hansi Flick for a world record manager transfer fee of 25 million Euros. Nagelsmann's first match as Bayern coach was a 1–1 draw against Borussia Mönchengladbach in the Bundesliga.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: In Nagelsmann's first win as Bayern coach he won his first title as a coach in Bayern's 3-1 victory over Borussia Dortmund in the 2021 DFL-Supercup.


title: Julian Nagelsmann

text: On 24 August 2021, Nagelsmann led Bayern to a 12–0 victory against Bremer SV during the first round of the 2021–22 DFB-Pokal. The scoreline was their biggest win in 24 years, since their 16–1 victory against DJK Waldberg in the DFB Cup in August 1997.


title: Hel (realm)

text: Hel is one of the nine worlds of Norse mythology. It is where the mortal dead gather after life if their death was dishonourable. Its ruler is the goddess Hel. Hel is located under the roots of the tree Yggdrasil. It can be reached via the river Gjöll. A bridge spans this river which is guarded by the giantess Modgrudr. Garm, a dog, guards the entrance to the castle of Hel. He only lets the dead souls enter however they cannot leave. A rooster is the companion of Garm. Its purpose in the realm of the gods is to wake them for Ragnarök, this rooster will also wake the souls of the dead.


title: Hel (realm)

text: The dragon Nidhögg eats from the corpses of deceased criminals. The wolf Fenrir also joins in on this feast.


title: Bobby Darin

text: Walden Robert Cassotto (May 14, 1936 – December 20, 1973), better known as Bobby Darin, was an American pop singer, most famous during the 1950s. His hits included "Mack the Knife", "Dream Lover", "If I Were a Carpenter", "Splish Splash", and "Beyond the Sea". He also helped Wayne Newton begin his musical career.


title: Radiata

text: The Radiata is a superphylum which includes both the echinoderms and the ctenophores. It is not part of the usual classification system, and is not used by all biologists.


title: Bobby Darin

text: Allen Klein, an accountant who became an artist manager, first came to public attention when he audited Darin's royalty payments, and discovered Darin had been underpaid. His record company paid up, and Darin split the money with Klein.


title: Radiata

text: The group includes the radially symmetric animals of the Eumetazoa. The echinoderms, however, are members of the Bilateria, because they exhibit bilateral symmetry in their developing stages. Their radial symmetry is secondary.


title: Bobby Darin

text: Darin was married to actress Sandra Dee from 1960 to 1967. They had a son, named Dodd. Darin died late in 1973 after heart surgery.


title: Radiata

text: Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 1983 defined a subkingdom called Radiata consisting of the phyla Porifera, Myxozoa, Placozoa, Cnidaria and Ctenophora in Radiata, that is, all the animals that are not in Bilateria.


title: Bobby Darin

text: In 2004, a movie, "Beyond the Sea", was made about Darin's life and career. Actor Kevin Spacey, a longtime Darin fan, produced and starred in the movie, with Kate Bosworth as Sandra Dee.


title: Radiata

text: The "Five Kingdom" classification of Lynn Margulis and K.V. Schwartz keeps only Cnidaria and Ctenophora in Radiata.


title: Radiata

text: Cladistic classifications do not recognize Radiata as a clade. The radiata, in this sense, are diploblastic, meaning they have two primary germ layers: endoderm and ectoderm. Cavalier-Smith's use of the term Radiata includes animals with a single germ layer such as sponges.


title: Radiata

text: Although radial symmetry is usually given as a defining characteristic of radiates, a few members of the class Anthozoa, which are now considered as the most basal and oldest group of cnidarians, are actually bilaterally symmetric.


title: Radiata

text: Newer research strongly indicates that bilateral symmetry evolved before the split between Cnidaria and Bilateria: the radially symmetrical cnidarians have evolved radial symmetry secondarily. This means the bilaterism in species like "N. vectensis" has a primary origin. Also the free-swimming planula larvae of cnidarians exhibit bilateral symmetry. Ctenophores show biradial symmetry.


title: Hydrostatic equilibrium

text: Hydrostatic equilibrium happens when the pull of gravity is balanced by a pressure gradient which creates a pressure-gradient force in the other direction. The balance of these two forces is known as the hydrostatic balance. It flattens the surface of undisturbed liquids.


title: Movie projector

text: A movie projector is a machine that shows moving pictures by projecting them on a projection screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination and sound devices, are present in movie cameras.


title: Insult

text: An insult is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be true. It is called "derogatory" language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's mind is not quick or smart.


title: Insult

text: Ritual insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and military training. They are also very common in jargons. For example, the word "newbie" is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting.


title: Insult

text: Usually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power (influence) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting.


title: Insult

text: When someone is insulted, their pride is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older.


title: Creodont

text: The Creodonta are, traditionally, an extinct order of mammals which lived from the Palaeocene to the Miocene epoch. They are distant relatives of the Carnivora. However, the carnassial teeth of modern carnivores and both groups of creodonts are not formed from the same teeth. This evolutionary convergence suggests the creodonts are "not" the ancestors of modern carnivores.


title: Chevrolet Impala

text: The Chevrolet Impala was a full size car made from the Chevrolet network of General Motors. The name "Impala" comes from the southern African antelope. The car was first produced in 1957, discontinued around 1985 and then resumed for the 1994 model year. From 2000 to 2005, the Impala was a mid-sized sedan and succeeded Chevrolet's dwindling Lumina. The 2006 to present Impala is a full-sized sedan and is sold to the public, the previous generation is restricted to fleet and commercial buyers and is dubbed Impala Ltd. The Impala limited is set to conclude production in 2016. Its final generation, introduced in 2012, went on sale in May 2014 until General Motors discontinued the vehicle in March 2020.


title: Creodont

text: Also, they are perhaps not a natural group. However, a phylogenetic analysis of Paleocene mammals published in 2015 supported the monophyly of Creodonta, and put the group as relatives of pangolins. There is an extensive literature on the subject.


title: Creodont

text: Creodonts were the dominant group of carnivorous mammals from 55 to 35 million years ago (mya) in the ecosystems of Africa, Eurasia and North America. They competed with the Mesonychids and the Entelodonts and ultimately outlasted them. In Oligocene Africa, they were the dominant predatory group.


title: Creodont

text: At last, they lost ground to the Carnivora. The Carnivora are the only group to survive today. The last creodont genus went extinct eight million years ago, and modern carnivores now occupy their ecological niches.


title: Creodont

text: The first creodont fossils were in the Palaeocene, about 60 million years ago (mya), and the last "Dissopsalis", perhaps eight mya. So, the creodonts lasted for at least 50 million years.


title: Creodont

text: Creodonts show various adaptations to their carnivorous life-style, and show convergent evolution with modern carnivores. They share, for example, the carnassial shear, a modification of teeth that sliced meat like scissors.


title: Creodont

text: The Carnivora also developed larger brains and more efficient running. Once forest and woodland was partly replaced by grassland, in the Miocene, the true carnivores had the advantage, and the creodonts lost ground and eventually became extinct.


title: Constitutional Convention (United States)

text: The Constitutional Convention (also known as the Philadelphia Convention) was held from May 25 to September 17, 1787 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, it became clear from the beginning that many members, including James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, intended to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the United States Constitution. This makes the meeting one of the most significant events in the history of the United States.


text: Most of the disputes were about the makeup and election of the Senate. Other disagreements concerned how "proportional representation" was to be defined (whether to include slaves or other property). They needed to decide whether to divide the executive power between three persons or invest the power into a single president. They also had to work out how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could stand for reelection. There were issues over what offenses should be impeachable. Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues, while the powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary were not heavily disputed. Once the Convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention, then they agreed on Madison's Virginia Plan and began to modify it. A Committee of Detail assembled during the July 4 recess and produced a rough draft. Most of this rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution. After the final issues were resolved, the Committee on Style produced the final version, and it was voted on and sent to the states.


text: James Madison had spent the winter of 1787 making a study of various confederations throughout history. He came to Philadelphia armed with a wealth of knowledge and an idea for what the United States government should be. His plan was presented to the Convention by Edmund Randolph, the Governor of Virginia. It became the broad outline of what would be a new government under the U.S. Constitution. His plan called for three branches of government with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from abusing their power. Madison's idea for a legislature had two houses. One would feature members elected by the people for a three-year term. The other would have its members elected by the state legislatures and would serve for 7 years. Both would have the seats determined by the population of the country.


text: After debating the Virginia plan for two weeks, William Patterson presented his plan called variously, the New Jersey Plan, the Patterson Plan and the Small State Plan. It was very similar to the Articles of Confederation and featured a unicameral (one house) legislature. All states would have one vote. He had one idea that was kept; that state laws that ran counter to federal laws would be voided.


text: A third plan was offered by Alexander Hamilton. It was a copy of the British Constitution. It also was bicameral with an upper house and a legislature in which members served on their good behavior.


text: Finally they worked out a compromise between all three plans. The new government would have an upper house, having an equal number of delegates from each state, and a lower house with representation based on population. The executive branch would have most of the responsibilities of foreign affairs while other important powers, like ratifying treaties, would be the responsibility of the legislative branch. After the new Constitution was ratified by the states, it went into effect in 1789.


title: Animal trapping

text: Animal trapping, or simply trapping, is the use of a device to catch an animal. Animals may be trapped for a variety of purposes, including food, wildlife management, hunting and pest control. Each year, over 5 million wild animals, including coyotes, foxes and bobcats, are caught and killed in wild traps, mainly in the US, Canada and Russia, although trapping does occur in other countries too on a smaller scale. Traps are indiscriminate, catching the first animal to step on them. Countless dogs and cats, deer, birds and other animals—including threatened and endangered animals—are also injured and killed each year by the traps. Trap checking times range from once every 24 hours to once every 14 days. The regulations on trapping are weak and extremely difficult to enforce, which means untold amounts of animal suffering goes undocumented and uninvestigated.


title: Vellum

text: Vellum is a high-quality form of parchment. Originally, it meant calf skin, but in English the term is used more widely.


title: Animal trapping

text: Many animals die trying to free themselves, next to dehydration, blood loss and hypothermia. Often animals become so desperate, they resort to chewing or wringing off their own trapped limb in order to escape, breaking teeth and bones in the process. Some may die from blood loss or shock but most animals will be trapped for days before the trapper returns to kill them.


title: Vellum

text: Like parchment, the skin is prepared to take writing in ink. It was one of the standard writing surfaces used in Europe before paper became available. It continued to be used for high-status documents. The vellum was used for single pages, scrolls, codices or books.


title: Animal trapping

text: There are many kinds. For a deadfall trap, a trapper digs a deep hole in the ground and hides it so the animal falls in the hole and can not get out. A snare is a noose that tightens around the neck or other part of the animal.


title: Vellum

text: To manufacture vellum, the skin is cleaned, then bleached, stretched on a frame called a "herse", and scraped with a knife. When vellum is scraped, it is by turns wet and dry to create tension. A final finish is got by rubbing the surface with pumice, and treating it with lime or chalk. Then it is ready to accept ink.


title: Animal trapping

text: Over 100 countries, including the EU and China, have prohibited the use of the steel-jaw leghold trap. But in the United States, steel-jaw traps are not only legal, they are the go-to tool for trappers who capture and kill millions of wild animals a year for the global fur market. In September 2019, California became the first state in the US to ban trapping for commercial and recreational purpose.


title: Vellum

text: Modern "paper vellum" (sometimes called vegetable vellum) is made out of synthetic material instead of mammal skin, but is used for the same purpose as normal vellum.


title: Vellum

text: In ancient Europe, vellum meant good quality prepared animal skin. Calves, sheep, goat and even camel are known to have been used to make vellum. The very best vellum was made from unborn animals. It can be hard to identify the animal used to make old vellum without using a science lab.


title: Vellum

text: French sources defined velum (or velin in French) as made from calves only. This has remained true in modern times.


title: Vellum

text: Most of the best sort of medieval manuscripts were written on vellum. Some Buddhist texts were written on vellum, and all Sifrei Torah texts are written on vellum or something similar.


title: Vellum

text: A quarter of the 180 copy edition of Johannes Gutenberg's first Bible printed in 1455 was also printed on vellum, presumably because his costumers expected this for a high-quality book. Paper was used for most book-printing at the time.


title: Vellum

text: In art, vellum was used for paintings, especially if they needed to be sent long distances, before canvas became widely used in about 1500, and continued to be used for drawings, and watercolours. Old master prints were sometimes printed on vellum, especially for presentation copies, until at least the seventeenth century.


title: Vellum

text: Limp vellum or limp-parchment bindings was used frequently in the 16th and 17th centuries, and were sometimes gilt. In later centuries vellum has been more commonly used like leather. Vellum can be stained virtually any color but mainly it is not, as many people like its faint grain and hair markings.


title: Vellum

text: Many documents that needed to last long were written in vellum as it was able to last longer than paper. Some vellum-written documents are more than a thousand years old.


title: Vellum

text: British Acts of Parliament are still printed on vellum for archival purposes, as are those of the Republic of Ireland. It is still used for Jewish scrolls, for luxury book covers, memorial books, and for various documents in calligraphy.


title: Vellum

text: Today, because of low demand and complicated manufacturing process, animal vellum is expensive and hard to find. Only one UK company still supplies them. A modern vellum-like alternative is made out of cotton. Known as paper vellum, this material is cheaper than animal vellum and can be found in most art and crafting supply stores. Some brands of writing paper and other sorts of paper use the term "vellum" to suggest quality.


title: Vellum

text: In the artistic crafts of writing, illuminating, lettering, and bookbinding, "vellum" is normally reserved for calfskin, while any other skin is called "parchment".


title: Vellum

text: Paper vellum is made from cotton. Usually translucent, paper vellum in various sizes is often used in applications where tracing is required, such as architectural plans. Like natural vellum, the paper vellum is more stable than paper, which is frequently critical in the development of large drawings and plans such as blueprints.


title: Vellum

text: Vellum is typically stored in a stable environment with a stable temperature. If vellum is stored in an environment with less than 11% relative humidity, it becomes fragile, brittle, and susceptible to mechanical stresses; if it is stored in an environment with greater than 40% relative humidity, it becomes vulnerable to mold or fungus growth. The best temperature for the preservation of vellum is 20 ± 1.5 °C (68 ± 3 °F)


title: Federalist Papers

text: The Federalist Papers were a series of essays about the United States Constitution. In total, there were 85 articles, 77 of them appeared in newspapers between October of 1787 and August 1788. Many talked about how the Constitution would solve America's political problems. Most of them were published in newspapers in New York and Virginia, states where it was not clear whether or not the Constitution would pass (it did). Most were written by Alexander Hamilton or James Madison, though a few were written by John Jay.


title: Federalist Papers

text: One of the most famous of the Papers is Federalist No. 10. It was written by Madison and says that the Constitution would keep the United States from being run by small groups called "factions". The collection of all papers was also published as a book.


title: Federalist Papers

text: The papers were published using a false name, "Publius". This name was used in reference to Publius Valerius Publicola, a Roman Consul and one of the aristocrats who overthrew the Roman Kingdom in the 5th century BC.


title: Federalist Papers

text: The papers are often thought of as one of the most important works of American political thought. Sometimes they are used by Supreme Court justices to try to say what the founders were thinking.


title: Vickers machine gun

text: The Vickers machine gun (also known as the Vickers gun) was a machine gun that was used by the British Army from 1912 to 1968. It was made by Vickers Limited. The gun was very reliable. It was one of the most commonly used weapons in the first world war.


title: Henri Coandă

text: Henri Marie Coandă (7 June 1886 – 25 November 1972) was an inventor, aerodynamics pioneer and builder of an experimental aircraft from Romania. The Coandă-1910, made by Coanda is sometimes considered to be first jet. This information has also created controversies. He invented a number of devices, he also designed "flying saucer" and discovered the Coandă effect of fluid dynamics. During World War 2, he lived in occupied France.


title: Henri Coandă

text: In 1969, he got back to Romania, he served as director of the Institute for Scientific and Technical Creation (INCREST), in 1971 he recorganized with professor Elie Carafoli, "the Department of Aeronautical Engineering of the Polytechnic University of Bucharest".


title: G major

text: G major (or the key of G) is a major scale based on G, with the pitches G, A, B, C, D, E,F, and G. Its key signature has one sharp, F.


title: Pentene

text: Pentene is the name of alkenes with the formula CH. They are hydrocarbons. In total, there are five different pentenes. Pentens occur in cracking processes and in natural gas. Pentenes are used for polymerization, and for the synthesis of isoprene, amyl alcohols and Alkylphenols. Amyl alcohols are used as stabilizers in the production of Chloroform and Dichloromethane to stop phosgene from being made.


title: WebCite

text: WebCite is a service that archives web pages. A user asks WebCite to archive a certain URL, and then WebCite will make a copy of what the page looks like at that time. Authors use this when writing citations. If the webpage changes or is removed ("link rot"), there is still a copy on WebCite. This is very important when writing papers for academic journals or for school. Using the WebCite service is free (it costs no money.)


title: WebCite

text: It also saves some information ("metadata") about the original content. This information includes the time it was saved, the MIME type, and how long it is. This information is useful because it can prove that the archive version is authentic.


title: Great Train Robbery (1963)

text: The Great Train Robbery was a £2.6 million train robbery that took place on 8 August 1963 at Bridego Railway Bridge, Ledburn, Buckinghamshire. The gang was led by Bruce Reynolds (1931–2013). Other members of the gang included Buster Edwards (1931–1994), Brian Field (1934–1979), Charlie Wilson (1932–1990), Ronnie Biggs (1929–2013), and Gordon Goody (1930–2016).


title: Winchester College

text: Winchester College is a well-known boys' school. It is an example of a British public school. The school is located in the city of Winchester in Hampshire, England. Its official name is Collegium Sanctae Mariae prope Wintoniam (or Collegium Beatae Mariae Wintoniensis prope Winton), or St Mary's College near Winchester. The school is commonly just called "Winchester". Winchester has existed for over six hundred years. It has the longest unbroken history of any school in England. It is the oldest of the original nine English public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. 37% of students go to Cambridge or Oxford.


title: Randy Travis

text: Randy Travis (born May 4, 1959 in Marshville, North Carolina) is an American country music singer and actor. 1978 was the first time he had a song on Billboard's Hot Country Songs music chart. As late as 2014 he had an album on Billboard's Top Country Albums music chart.


title: Connie Talbot

text: Connie Victoria Elizabeth Talbot (born 20 November 2000) is an English singer-songwriter. She became famous after competing in "Britain's Got Talent". She lost at the finals.


title: .357 Magnum

text: The .357 Magnum cartridge is a pistol cartridge. It has a high stopping power and enough penetration power to shoot through many kinds of body armor. It was based on the .38 Special. Revolvers that shoot the .357 Magnum can also shoot the .38 Special.


title: Winchester College

text: Winchester College was founded in 1382 by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor to Richard II. The first seventy students entered the school in 1394. It was founded with New College, Oxford. Winchester was built to get students ready to attend New College. This was the model for Eton College and King's College, Cambridge 50 years later and for Westminster School, Christ Church, Oxford and Trinity College, Cambridge in Tudor times.


title: Randy Travis

text: He first went into mainstream in the mid to late 1980s, having a number of hits. He acted in several movies, including "The Rainmaker" (1997).


title: Connie Talbot

text: In "Britain's Got Talent", she sang "Somewhere Over the Rainbow". This led her to the semi-finals. She then competed in but was defeated at the finals.


title: .357 Magnum

text: It was first made to stop criminals wearing body armor and hiding in cars. It was the fastest handgun cartridge made until the .44 Magnum.


title: Connie Talbot

text: After her success, Talbot began posting Youtube videos since 2008. Most of them were videos of her singing. Some gained over 10 million views.


title: .357 Magnum

text: It is popular for hunting and self-defense. Most guns that shoot the .357 Magnum are revolvers or lever-action rifles, but there are also some semi-automatic pistols that can shoot .357 Magnums, such as the Desert Eagle.


title: Connie Talbot

text: Talbot released three albums, with the first one released in 2007, and the second and third ones in 2008 and 2009.


title: Alfa Romeo 166

text: The Alfa Romeo 166 is a car produced by Alfa Romeo. It replaced the Alfa Romeo 164 in late 1998 and facelifted in 2003 with right hand drive production ending in 2005. It was produced until 2007 with no direct successor.


title: Micropaleontology

text: Micropaleontology (also sometimes spelled as micropalaeontology) is the branch of paleontology that studies microfossils. Microfossils are fossils generally not larger than four millimeters, and commonly smaller than one millimeter. A microscope is used to study them. Every kingdom of organisms is represented in the microfossil record. Microfossils can provide important information about the ecology in the past.


title: Bocage

text: Bocage [boh-kahzh] is a Norman word which has found its way into both the French and English languages. It may refer to a small forest or a that includes leaves. But most often it refers to pastures bordered by thick forest or hedges. The trees and hedges around the pastures or fields are planted in earth . Between the planted mounds are sunken lanes. The word bocage forms part of the name for several towns in parts of Lower Normandy. The term Bocage Normandy refers to the area around Saint-Lô and Vire.


title: Baha-ud-din Naqshband

text: Bahá-ud-dín Shah an-Naqshband Muhammad al-Uwaysi al-Bukhárí () (1318–1389) was the founder of what would become one of the largest Sufi Sunni orders, the Naqshbandi.


title: Stuart McCall

text: Andrew Stuart Murray McCall (born 10 June 1964), usually known as Stuart McCall, is a former footballer who played in central midfield. He played a total of 763 league games during his career, the 13th highest of all British footballers. He is now a football manager, managing Scottish Premier League side Motherwell.


title: Pschent

text: The Pschent was the name of the Double Crown of Ancient Egypt. The Ancient Egyptians called it "sekhemti" meaning the Two Powerful Ones. The Pschent was made from the Red Deshret Crown of Lower Egypt and the White Hedjet Crown of Upper Egypt.


title: Richey Edwards

text: Richard James Edwards (born 22 December 1967 – missing since 1 February 1995; declared dead 23 November 2008) was a Welsh musician. He is best known as the lyricist and rhythm guitarist of the alternative rock band Manic Street Preachers. He gained cult status for his songwriting and appearance. Having been called a leading lyricist of his generation, he was part of a movement now known as Cool Cymru. Edwards was born in Blackwood, Monmouthshire.


title: Micropaleontology

text: People who study micropaleontology are called micropaleontologists. Taxonomy and statistics are important parts of micropaleontology.


title: Bocage

text: During World War II following the Allied Invasion of Normandy, the allies found themselves in 'hedgerow country' (bocage). It was ideal for German troops to hide in and not be seen until it was too late. The hedgerows were thick enough to hide tanks and artillery pieces. The final Allied of the bocage into open country took over eight weeks of fighting.


title: Baha-ud-din Naqshband

text: Bahá-ud-dín was born on 18 March 1318 CE (14 Muharram, 718 AH) in the village of Qasr-i-Hinduvan (later renamed Qasr-i Arifan) near Bukhara, in what is now Uzbekistan and it was there that he died in 1389.


title: Stuart McCall

text: McCall started his professional career with Bradford City, where he made his senior debut in 1982. He played six seasons at Valley Parade, during which time he won the Division Three championship, a title which was overshadowed by a fire at Bradford's stadium when 56 people died and his father Andy was injured. After missing out on promotion in 1987–88, McCall moved to Everton, for whom he scored twice but finished on the losing side in the 1989 FA Cup Final. In 1991, he moved to Rangers, with whom he spent seven seasons and won six league titles, three Scottish Cups and two Scottish League Cups. McCall returned to Bradford City as captain to take them into the top division of English football for the first time in 77 years. After four seasons he moved to Sheffield United, where he retired as a player in 2005.


title: Pschent

text: The Pschent was a symbol of the pharaoh's power over all Egypt. The design used two animals, a cobra and a vulture. The Egyptian cobra, known as the uraeus, ready to strike, was a symbol for the Lower Egyptian goddess Wadjet. The Egyptian vulture was a symbol for the Upper Egyptian goddess Nekhbet. These were placed on the front of the Pschent and called the "Two Ladies".


title: Richey Edwards

text: Edwards went missing on 1 February 1995 at the age of 27. His car was later found near the Severn Bridge, a known suicide spot. It is widely believed that Edwards had jumped from the bridge. He was declared dead "in absentia" on 23 November 2008.


title: Micropaleontology

text: Microfossils are most common in sediment that forms beneath water, particularly ocean water or lake water. Very old microfossils may be found in rock. Special techniques are used to separate microfossils from rock. For example, the shells of diatoms and some other organisms are made of silica; other materials in the rock can sometimes be removed with acid, leaving just the silica shells.


title: Baha-ud-din Naqshband

text: Harvard professor Annemarie Schimmel held the opinion of Bahauddin Naqshband being a descendant of Imam Hasan al Askari.


title: Stuart McCall

text: Despite being born in Leeds, England, McCall qualified to play for Scotland through his Scottish father. He won 40 caps for his country and scored one goal in the 1990 World Cup in Italy. He also played in two European Championships but his international career ended after he was left out of the 1998 World Cup squad.


title: Pschent

text: The First Dynasty pharaoh Menes is said to have invented the Pschent. The first pharoah to be shown wearing the Double Crown was Djet, in a rock inscription showing his Horus wearing it.


title: Micropaleontology

text: Micropaleontology can be divided into four areas of study. The different areas of study use different techniques to separate the microfossils. This is because the microfossils are made of different minerals:


title: Baha-ud-din Naqshband

text: He came into early contact with the Khwajagan (lit: the Masters), and was adopted as spiritual progeny by one of them, Baba Muhammad Sammasi, while still an infant. Sammasi was his first guide on the path, and more important was his relationship with Sammasi's principal khalifa (successor), Amir Kulal, the last link in the silsila, or chain of teachers, before Baha-ud-Din:


title: Stuart McCall

text: McCall was part of the coaching staff during his second spell at Bradford City, briefly serving as caretaker-player manager in 2000. He continued his coaching at Sheffield United and was assistant manager to Neil Warnock until May 2007, when he returned to Bradford City for a third time, this time as manager. He spent two-and-a-half seasons in charge of Bradford City, leaving in February 2010. Just before the end of the year, he took over as Motherwell manager.


title: Pschent

text: The list of kings on the Palermo Stone shows the Lower Egyptian pharaohs wearing the Red Crown. After Egypt is unified, the list shows all First Dynasty and later pharaohs wearing the Pschent. But the Cairo fragment, shows Lower Egyptian rulers wearing the Pschent.


title: Baha-ud-din Naqshband

text: As a youth, Naqshbandi was recognized as an exceptional Islamic scholar before he turned 20. He traveled to Mecca for the Islamic pilgrimage "Hajj" at least three times. He became a respected scholar in Central Asia and received many guests and pupils to Bukhara from other parts of Central Asia.


title: Pschent

text: None of the Egyptian crowns have survived (or been found yet). Like the Deshret and the Hedjet Crowns, the Pschent is known only from statues, paintings, inscriptions, and ancient stories.


title: Baha-ud-din Naqshband

text: Bahá-ud-dín was buried in his native village, Qasr-i Arifan, in 1389. In 1544, Khan Abd al-Aziz built over his grave a tomb and surrounding buildings. The Memorial complex is located 16 kilometers from Bukhara and is today a place of pilgrimage.


title: Pschent

text: Among the gods shown wearing the Double Crown are Horus and Atum. These both represented the pharaoh or had a special relationship to the pharaoh.


title: Canada convoy protest

text: Freedom Convoy () was a protest in Canada against COVID-19 vaccine requirements for truckers to re-enter the country by land. The protests began with many truck drivers from all provinces coming together against the vaccine mandate and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau on January 22, 2022. On January 29, 2022, truckers and other vaccine protestors started rally at Parliament Hill in Ottawa.


title: Antifa (United States)

text: The antifa (), short for anti-fascist, movement in the United States is a militant far-left-wing, anti-fascist political activist movement. It is made up of activist groups that protest with the use of direct action instead of policy changes.


title: Canada convoy protest

text: The protest continued into February. Protesters have stated that they will not leave until all COVID-19 restrictions and mandates have been removed with some wanting the federal government to be overthrown.


title: Antifa (United States)

text: The methods include protesting, digital activism, property damage, physical violence and harassment against those who they see as fascist, racist, or on the far-right.


title: Canada convoy protest

text: Some politicians and media sources raised concerns that organizers and groups involved with the protest have had connections with "white nationalism, racism, Islamophobia, the QAnon conspiracy theory, and far-right groups that support violence".


title: Antifa (United States)

text: The movement has anti-capitalist views and support anarchism, communism, liberalism, social democracy and socialism.


title: Canada convoy protest

text: On February 14, 2022 Prime Minister Trudeau announced he would use the Emergencies Act to stop the protests, making it the first time that the act has been used in Canadian history.


title: Antifa (United States)

text: It has been called a terrorist movement by President Donald Trump after the group took part in the George Floyd protests in 2020.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: Magical Mystery Tour is a 1967 television movie made by The Beatles. It is also the movie's title song, and the name of its soundtrack recording.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: Paul McCartney had the original idea for "Magical Mystery Tour", coming back from the Monterey Pop Festival in California, during the summer of 1967. He drew a clock face on a paper plate, and filled it with parts of the show he imagined. McCartney based the idea on Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters, who travelled the United States in a bus, and also "", which were low-budget weekend vacation trips taken in England.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: The other Beatles liked the idea for the show, and made plans to produce and direct it themselves. After they stopped giving concerts in 1966, they had started making their own promotional films (called "promos"), much like today's music videos. They had success with promos, and wanted to try making a whole programme, to appear on television during the Christmas holidays.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: Beatles manager Brian Epstein helped set up the production, and the Beatles asked friends, members of their staff, and some professional actors to ride with them in a rented bus over a holiday weekend, and film whatever happened, with magical elements to be added later. Making the movie was one of the first jobs of the Beatles's new company, Apple Corps.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: Epstein unfortunately died before filming began. Without him to look over business details, things ran into trouble. By the time things were set up, John Lennon and George Harrison had changed their minds about performing, and spent much of the bus trip asleep. There also was not much for scenery along the roads, or entertainment among the passengers.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: What turned into a bigger event than filming "Magical Mystery Tour" was the that began to surround the bus, wondering what the "tour" was all about. People followed the bus for miles, and caused . People who saw the bus go by expected a "happening" of some kind, but none had been planned. In trying to be , nobody had worked out a for the bus, or the trip. Most of the commotion ended after Lennon personally removed the MAGICAL MYSTERY TOUR lettering from the sides of the bus. Later a Beatles assistant said the traffic jams should have also been filmed.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: Spots for songs and performances were included in "Magical Mystery Tour", and so was a explaining what the trip was about. The songs featured in the show included "The Fool on the Hill", "I Am The Walrus", "Blue Jay Way", an instrumental song, "Flying", and "Your Mother Should Know", with a choreographed dance sequence. Another band, the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, played live during a striptease performance.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: "Magical Mystery Tour" appeared on British television on Boxing Day in 1967, and was a surprising flop. Part of the reason for its failure was because it was shown in black-and-white, while colour was an important feature. Another part was because most of the viewers did not understand what was supposed to be happening. Another part was that not much had happened on camera, for long parts of the programme, and it showed.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: Ringo Starr made a personal appeal to the BBC to show "Magical Mystery Tour" again, in full colour. The BBC gave it a second broadcast, but it did not change opinions. ABC in the United States cancelled plans to show "Magical Mystery Tour" in America. (It later appeared as a "midnight movie", shown in small cinemas and on college campuses.)


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: Even though "Magical Mystery Tour" was not a television success, its soundtrack still sold well. The show's songs were released as a double EP in England, with a storybook and pictures from the show. In America, Capitol Records added songs from recent Beatles singles to the show songs, and released a whole album. The American version outsold the EP in England, and in 1977 Parlophone Records released a British version of the album.


title: Magical Mystery Tour

text: All songs were written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, except "Flying" (by Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr) and "Blue Jay Way" (by George Harrison).


title: Preserved counties of Wales

text: Wales is split into eight preserved counties. They are areas used for the ceremonial purposes of lieutenancy and shrievalty.


title: Preserved counties of Wales

text: Seven of the eight preserved counties are now split into counties and principal areas. Powys is the only one that still exists.


title: Shelley Fabares

text: Michele Ann Marie Fabares (born January 19, 1944), better known through the stage name Shelley Fabares, is an American movie and television actress and pop singer. Her acting career started around 1947 at age three. She played Mary in "The Donna Reed Show". She played Christine Armstrong in the ABC sitcom "Coach".


title: Jessie James Decker

text: Jessica Rose "Jessie" James Decker (born April 12, 1988) is an Italian-American country-pop singer-songwriter. Her first album, "Jessie James", was released in August of 2009.


title: Alicja Bachleda-Curuś

text: Alicja Bachleda-Curuś (pron. ; born 12 May 1983) is a Mexican-born Polish actress and singer. She is known for her roles in "Trade", "Ondine" and "Pan Tadeusz". Bachleda-Curuś was born in Tampico, Mexico.


title: Shelley Fabares

text: Fabares was born in Santa Monica, California. She was married to Lou Adler from 1964 until they divorced in 1980. In 1984, she married Mike Farrell. Her aunt was actress Nanette Fabray.


The History of the United States (1789–1849), sometimes called the Antebellum period, is the history beginning with the Presidency of George Washington and ending just before the American Civil War. The first government, formed under the Articles of Confederation, had ended and a new government based on the United States Constitution began. In the early 19th century, the country went though a number of dramatic changes. The country expanded its borders, cities became industrial centers and the economy grew. Sections of the United States developed differently leading to conflicts and eventually up to a civil war.


title: Seaside resort

text: A seaside resort is a resort town that is along the coast. Usually, there are several resort hotels there. A resort with a beach may also be called a beach resort.


title: Chair of the Federal Reserve

text: The Chair of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System is the head of the central banking system of the United States. The job is known as "Chair of the Fed" or "Fed Chair". The chair is in charge of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.


title: History of the United States (1789–1849)

text: This is the period from 1789 to about 1801 when the Federalist Party controlled the American government.


title: Chair of the Federal Reserve

text: The chair is chosen by the President of the United States from among members of the Board of Governors; and serves for four-year-terms after appointment. A chair may be appointed for many terms. William Martin was the longest serving chair, holding the position from 1951 to 1970.


text: In 1789, Washington was elected the first President of the United States. The Constitution only gave a vague outline of what a president should be. Washington defined the position of President and left office after two terms. During Washington's term, there was a Whiskey Rebellion, where country farmers tried to stop the government from collecting taxes on whiskey. In 1795, Congress passed the Jay Treaty, which allowed for increased trade with Britain in exchange for the British giving up their forts on the Great Lakes. However, Great Britain was still interfering with the U.S., such as impressment (making American sailors join the British Royal Navy).


text: John Adams defeated Thomas Jefferson in the election of 1796 to become the second President of the United States. This was the first American election that was between two political parties. Under Adams, the United States Navy was created on April 30, 1798. It replaced the earlier Continental Navy which had been disbanded by 1785. By the end of 1798 the U.S. Navy had 14 ships with more being built. Adams pushed for and signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts.


text: In the election of 1800, Jefferson defeated Adams. One of the most important things he did as President was to make the Louisiana Purchase from France, which made the United States twice as big. By 1800 24 treaties had been signed with nine European powers.


text: This is the period from 1800 through 1815 which includes the administrations of two Democratic-Republican Party presidents, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. They are commonly called Jeffersonian Republicans. During this time the country nearly doubled in size with the Louisiana Purchase from France. This, in turn, was one of the causes behind the War of 1812, when Great Britain attempted to re-claim her former American colonies.<!Era of good feelings • http://www.ushistory.org/us/23a.asp -->


text: In 1816, the Federalist Party candidate Rufus King ran against the Democratic-Republican candidate James Monroe. Monroe received 183 electoral votes to King's 34. That was the last time the Federalist Party ran a candidate. The Congressional election of 1818 gave the Democratic-Republicans a majority of 85%. Monroe served for two terms from 1817 to 1825. Due to the dominance of one political party this is often called the "Era of Good Feelings". But the party was deeply divided by this time. Many of the Federalist policies of Alexander Hamilton were adopted during this time and Monroe continued many of the economic policies of Madison. Three in particular were a national bank, protective tariffs and federal funding of the infrastructure.


text: The one-party Era of Good Feelings system of cooperation between politicians lasted only about a decade. It was replaced by a new two-party system, which continues to today. Political parties took on the job of building coalitions between many different groups with different interests. This new system broke away from the patronage system based on personal loyalties. The Founding Fathers of the United States had never imagined a system based on political parties but by the 1830s they had become the main system of American politics.


text: The presidential election of 1824 had no Federalist party candidate. There were five candidates with Andrew Jackson winning the electoral college with 99 votes. Second to Jackson was John Quincy Adams with 84 votes and third was William H. Crawford who received 41 votes. Because nobody received a clear majority of electoral votes, following the Twelfth Amendment, the decision would be made by the House of Representatives.


text: The Speaker of the House was Henry Clay, another of the five candidates for President in 1824. Despite his state legislature instructing him to vote for Jackson, Clay formed a coalition to elect Adams president. On the first vote, Adams won the majority of votes. At first, Jackson accepted the decision gracefully. But after Adams became president he appointed Clay his Secretary of State. This brought cries of a "corrupt bargain" between Clay and Adams. Jackson's 1828 political campaign to end government corruption began immediately afterwards to make sure Adams would be a one-term president.


text: Andrew Jackson was elected president in 1828. He got nearly 70% of the electoral votes and over 60% participation in his election. This was largely due to Jackson's popularity as "Old Hickory", the hero of the Battle of New Orleans. His military career had included service in the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812 and the Seminole Wars. Jackson also benefited from the perceived "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay to expand his political base.


text: During his presidency, Jackson founded the party that began calling itself the "American Democracy". Changes in the electoral rules and political campaigns also contributed towards the feeling the country was becoming more democratic than it had been up to this point. For both reasons this era was called Jacksonian democracy. The period itself was from 1828 into the 1840s but its influence lasted much longer. It was a period of democratic reforms in voting and changes to the structure of the federal government. Some historians see it as a contradiction in terms since it also defended slavery, the pushing of Native Americans westward and white supremacy. Jackson's policies during his two terms were best described as "laissez-faire".


text: His Democratic Party stood for a smaller simpler government that did not involve itself in the economy or in regulating business. They opposed religious intrusion into government, especially in the forms of temperance, abolitionism and in officially keeping the Sabbath. Jackson and his Democrats wanted to keep government spending to a minimum.


text: The Democrats, under Jackson and his successor Martin Van Buren, became much better organized. They created a structure of local, state and national branches which controlled organizing membership as well as their caucuses and political conventions. They popularly claimed to be a grassroots party but were in fact controlled from Washington. They represented themselves as defending the common man against the "aristocrats" of the Whig Party. They started a spoils system of rewarding party loyalty with government jobs. After the War of 1812, Constitutional changes allowed more men to vote by erasing the requirement to own property. By Jackson's presidency, nearly all white men could vote. In 1812, only half of the states chose their electors in a presidential election by popular vote. By 1832, all states except South Carolina chose their presidential electors by popular vote. The Democrats were quick to take advantage of these changes.


text: Jacksonian Democrats fought against the Second Bank of the United States. They wanted to remove the political influence of bankers on the national economy. They helped farmers and planters by taking away the lands of Native Americans and making cheap land available for settlers. But this did not get them the support of all planters in the South. Mostly centered in South Carolina, some thought the Jacksonian egalitarianism might threaten the institution of slavery itself. This led to the Nullification Crisis of 1832-1833. Farmers and planters had hoped that when Jackson was elected, he would reduce the unpopular tariffs that benefited Northern manufacturers and hurt the economy of the South. South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Nullification which declared the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1838 illegal within the borders of South Carolina. They also began to raise funds for a military to defend themselves.


text: In November 1832, Jackson sent a fleet of seven navy ships and one warship to Charleston. He called the state act "insurrection and treason". While other states in the south may have sympathized with South Carolina, they called the state's actions unconstitutional. South Carolina finally gave in and removed their objections to the tariff. In response, in 1833, Henry Clay got a bill through Congress that reduced the tariff in stages for any that were over 20%. So in the end South Carolina had shown it could force its will on Congress by resisting a federal law.


text: A number of reform movements began during this period after 1815. The improved economy after the War of 1812 provided a new class of people who had the time and financial resources to become involved in social movements. New technologies in printing increased the number of publications including those about subjects such as abolition. Better transportation meant lecturers could move from place to place more easily. A temperance movement began about 1819. A religious movement, sometimes called the Second Great Awakening, swept through the country during this time. Common themes ran through most of these reform movements. One of the most important was the belief that people had the ability to choose between right and wrong. For example, slavery was wrong. The term "slave" was used to show anything that was held to be wrong in society. Drunkards were "slaves" to alcohol, workers were "slaves" to the factory owners, and women were "slaves" to men. It was also common for those who believed in anti-slavement movements to also believe in women's rights, religious reforms and temperance reforms. People were given to joining local organizations because there were no strong political leaders championing these causes. There were no national church organizations to lead these causes. Reform movements went around the political and religious systems, at least until the 1840s. The movements themselves, such as the abolitionist movement, were not completely unified and had internal disagreements over what should be done or how to go about it.


text: Slavery was mainly concentrated in the South by 1830. Slaves were used on small farms and large plantations. They were also used in towns as domestic workers and labor for various industries. Slaves were considered to be property because they were black. They were kept as slaves by the constant threat of violence. They were not allowed to forget they were slaves even though they lived with their masters. Many slaveowners genuinely cared about their slaves, but never saw them as their equal. But the largest percentage of Southerners did not own slaves. Most Southerners worked their own farms yet, curiously, they defended slavery as an institution. Many resented the wealth and power of the large plantation owners but at the same time held out the hope that someday they could join those ranks. Also, while poor Southerners were looked down on by rich plantation owners, they could themselves look down on blacks as an inferior group.


text: Cotton had become the largest cash crop. But plantations also grew corn, rice, sugarcane and tobacco. Slaves on plantations may have averaged 50 or less, but the largest plantations had hundreds of slaves. In addition to field work, slaves also were skilled in trades such as blacksmithing, carpentry and mechanics. Domestic slaves did the cooking for the family, raised their children and performed all the work in the household. They were always supervised and had to work at all times they were not sleeping. Domestic slaves had virtually no privacy. Young white children formed close attachment to their black nannies. But as they grew up they were educated as to how slaves were to be treated.


text: During this time period cotton plantations became very profitable in the South. Advances such as the cotton gin, power looms and the Sewing machine created a demand for cotton. It was exported from the South to New England and to England. Plantation owners needed more land and more slaves to grow more cotton. They were especially interested in expanding into new territories. They needed more slaves and after the ban on importing African slaves into the U.S., the prices went up. Small farmers found it profitable to sell their slaves to the large plantation owners. Wealth in the South often reflected how many slaves a planter owned. Slaves gave them political power and prestige.