title: Piano Concerto No. 20 (Mozart)

text: The Piano Concerto in D minor is a moody, chromatic work of passionate, troubled, and dramatic outbursts. The work was a favorite of 19th century musiciansin spite of its 75-measure "happy ending" in D major. Nineteenth century musicians typically did not like "happy endings" in intensely dramatic, turbulent works such as this concerto. The Piano Concerto in D minor is the first of only two concertos Mozart wrote in minor keys. The other is the Piano Concerto in C minor.


title: 2015 Canadian federal election

text: The Liberal Party, led by Justin Trudeau, won 184 seats, allowing it to form a majority government with Trudeau becoming the next Prime Minister. Trudeau was sworn in on November 4, 2015.


title: Conspiracy (criminal)

text: Conspiracy law usually does not need proof of specific intent by defendants to hurt any specific person to establish an illegal agreement.


title: Piano Concerto No. 20 (Mozart)

text: The Piano Concerto in D minor is written for solo piano, flute, 2 oboes, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, 2 trumpets, timpani, and strings. This was the first time Mozart used trumpets and drums in a piano concerto.


title: Piano Concerto No. 20 (Mozart)

text: Mozart did not write cadenzas for the concerto. His son, Franz Xavier Wolfgang Mozart, was a pianist-composer who had the concerto in his repertory, and wrote cadenzas for it.


title: Piano Concerto No. 20 (Mozart)

text: Beethoven also had the D minor concerto in his repertory though he did not usually perform the compositions of other composers. He did however perform the Piano Concerto in D minor several times. He wrote cadenzas for the first and third movements. In his cadenza for the first movement, Beethoven plunges the listener into a world of powerful, frightening, and intense drama.


title: Hank Williams Jr.

text: Randall Hank Williams (born May 26, 1949) is an American musician and songwriter. He is the son of country music legend Hank Williams. His nickname is "Bocephus", given to him by his father. He has a half-sister, named Jett Williams.


title: Undertow (Tool album)

text: Undertow is Tool's first full-length album, released in 1993. When this album was released, grunge music was at its most popular, and pop punk was slowly beginning to become popular. "Undertow" helped heavy metal music continue as a leading mainstream musical style, and allowed several later bands to break through to the mainstream. Allmusic saw the album's success in the "striking, haunting visuals that complemented the album's nihilistic yet wistful mood." It was eventually certified double platinum by the RIAA on May 14, 2001.


title: Character actor

text: A character actor is an actor who plays a particular kind of character in a play, movie, television program, opera or ballet. The character actor is not the main part. He is not the lover or hero. He has a character which helps to support the main characters and therefore the story.


title: Mug shot

text: A mug shot, or booking photograph, is a photographic portrait taken after someone is arrested. The mug shot is taken to allow law enforcement to have a photographic record of the arrested person to allow for identification by victims and investigators. Most mug shots are two-part, with one side-view photo, and one front-view.


title: Abbottabad District

text: Abbottabad District is a district in the Hazara Division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The district has an area of 1,969 km, with the city of Abbottabad being the capital. Neighbouring districts are Mansehra to the north, Muzaffarabad to the east, Haripur to the west, and Rawalpindi to the south.


title: Gene Pitney

text: Gene Francis Alan Pitney (17 February 1940 – 5 April 2006) was an American rock singer and songwriter. He was born in Hartford, Connecticut. Some of his most well-known songs are "Town Without Pity", "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" and "Twenty Four Hours From Tulsa". He died of a heart attack in Cardiff in 2006 while on tour in the UK.


title: Nordstrom

text: Nordstrom Inc. () is an American chain of luxury department stores. It also operates in Canada and headquartered in Seattle, Washington. It was founded in 1901 by Swedish American John W. Nordstrom and Carl F. Wallin. Nordstrom has 380 stores operating in 40 US states, Puerto Rico and Canada.


title: Nicole Beharie

text: Nicole Beharie (born January 3, 1985) is an American actress. The first movie Beharie acted in was "American Violet". Beharie was nominated for Best Actress at the 2010 Black Reel Awards for her acting in "American Violet". Beharie played Rachel Robinson in the 2013 movie "42". In 2013, Beharie started playing Lt. Abbie Mills in the television series "Sleepy Hollow".


title: Helicopter parent

text: The terminology began appearing around 1969. It was not until late 2002 or 2003, however, that the term became very popular via media and cell phone use. This was at exactly the same time the millennials begin turning 18 and moving into college. The rising of mobile phones is often blamed for the rise of helicopter parent-style teaching over the years. The phone enables the mother to keep in touch at all times, which was almost impossible before. What caused most notice was parents following up children as far as college and early employment. Sports coaches, college teachers and employers have had the experience of parents turning up to complain and argue in support of their children.


title: Bugsy Malone

text: Bugsy Malone is a British criminal comedy musical movie from 1976. It was directed by Alan Parker. It is set in 1929 in New York City. The story is very loosely based on events in New York City from the early 1920s to 1931 in the Prohibition Era. It is about gangsters like Al Capone and Bugs Moran. The movie feature only child actors. The singing voices are provided by adults. It was aimed at an audience of children. Jodie Foster and Scott Baio acted in the movie.


title: Anika Noni Rose

text: Anika Noni Rose (born September 6, 1972) is an American singer and actress. She is best known for her Tony Award-winning role in the Broadway production of "Caroline, or Change". She is also known for her starring roles in movies such as "Dreamgirls" (2006), "The Princess and the Frog" (2009) and "For Colored Girls" (2010).


title: Val Demings

text: Valdez Venita "Val" Demings (née Butler; March 12, 1957) is an American police officer and politician.


title: Glossopteris

text: Glossopteris is the largest and best-known genus of the extinct seed ferns. They were typical plants of the coal forests or coal swamps which lasted from the Pennsylvanian (later Carboniferous) to the end of the Permian.


title: Mountain States

text: The Mountain States (also known as the Mountain West or the Interior West) form one of the nine geographic subregions of the United States that are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau. It is a subregion of the Western United States.


title: Hardik Pandya

text: Hardik Pandya is an Indian cricketer who plays at international level for India national cricket team. Rised in Gujarat, Hardik culminated in his captaincy to the newly debuted franchise Gujarat Titans that won the first ever title in the 2022 edition of Indian Premier League, world's largest league.


title: Burslem

text: Burslem is one of the towns that is part of the city of Stoke-on-Trent in Staffordshire, England. The 2011 census revealed the ward had a population of 11,314 people.


title: Pokémon Scarlet and Violet

text: Pokémon Scarlet and Pokémon Violet are "Pokémon" video games. They are part of the ninth generation of the "Pokémon" game series. They released on the Nintendo Switch on November 18, 2022.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The history of the Catholic Church is the formation, events, and change of the Catholic Church through time.


title: Stephanie Murphy

text: Stephanie Murphy (born Đặng Thị Ngọc Dung; September 16, 1978) is a Vietnamese-born American politician. She has represented Florida's 7th congressional district since 2017. Murphy is the first Vietnamese-American woman to serve in Congress. She is the second overall, after Joseph Cao. She is a Democrat and used to be an Independent.


title: Hank Williams Jr.

text: From his boyhood, Hank Jr., performed his father's music publicly, because many people were still interested in it, and Hank Sr.'s career was cut short by alcohol and drug abuse. Young Williams wanted to perform music of his own, and to have his own musical career apart from his father's, but it was hard to "get out from his father's shadow", and be recognized for his own talents.


title: Undertow (Tool album)

text: The album was recorded between October and December 1992 at Grand Master Studios, Hollywood, California, and includes songs that the band decided to not release on their previous EP, "Opiate".


title: Character actor

text: Character roles may be roles such as: the faithful servant, the maid, the villain, the mother-in-law, the priest etc. They may or may not be comic characters.


title: Abbottabad District

text: According to the 1981 census data for Abbottabad tehsil, 95% of the population have Hindko as their first language, while Punjabi and Urdu account for 1.7% and 0.9% respectively.


title: Nordstrom

text: The company began as a shoe retailer and expanded its inventory to include clothing, accessories, handbags, jewelry, cosmetics, and fragrances. Some Nordstrom stores also include wedding and home furnishings departments. The company also has in-house cafes, restaurants and espresso bars.


title: Val Demings

text: She serves as the member of the United States House of Representatives from . She served as Chief of the Orlando Police Department, the first woman to hold the position. She was the Democratic nominee in both 2012 and 2016 to represent Florida's 10th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives, the latter of which Demings won.


title: Glossopteris

text: The coal swamps were world-wide because, for that long time, the continents were close together in Gondwana. Therefore they had similar wet, tropical climates.


title: Mountain States

text: The Mountain States usually include: Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.


title: Burslem

text: It is a very old town. The Domesday Book shows Burslem (then known as "Bacardeslim") as a small farming hamlet. Even as far back as the late 12th century, there was a pottery industry in the town.


title: Pokémon Scarlet and Violet

text: "Pokémon Scarlet" and "Violet" has the same gameplay of other "Pokémon" video games. People can catch creatures called Pokémon. Pokémon can be used in fights. In the games, Pokémon can do some fights without being told what to do. This is called "Let's Go". Pokémon can also be given to other people. There are many new Pokémon in the games.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Catholic Church began with Jesus Christ and his teachings. It is a continuation of the early Christian community established by the Disciples of Jesus. The Church believes its bishops to be the successors to Jesus's apostles and the Church's leader, the Bishop of Rome (also known as the Pope), to be the only successor to Saint Peter who ministered in Rome in the first century AD after his appointment by Jesus as head of the Church.


title: Stephanie Murphy

text: Murphy announced her candidacy for the United States House of Representatives for Florida's 7th congressional district in the 2016 elections. She ran against then-incumbent Republican John Mica. She was supported by President Barack Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, and former congresswoman Gabby Giffords. Murphy won the election, beating Mica with 51% of the vote.


title: Hank Williams Jr.

text: In time, Williams met musicians who liked him for his own ideas, and helped him to develop his own kind of music. He was able to become an original writer and performer, while still being proud to be Hank Sr.'s son. Some of his father's fans were sad that he wanted to do this, but others understood. He also gained new fans, performing his new music.


title: Undertow (Tool album)

text: "Disgustipated" is track 69 on most pressings in North America (causing most CD players upon reaching the end of track 9 to advance through tracks 10-68, which contain no data, at a rate of about 2 per second until track 69 is reached). It also appears as track 39, track 10 (mostly in Europe) or as a hidden track following "Flood" on track 9.


title: Character actor

text: For example, in "The Wizard of Oz" the main character is Dorothy. The Scarecrow, the Lion and the Tin Man are character roles.


title: Abbottabad District

text: Abbottabad district is divided into four tehsils, Abbottabad , Lora Hazara , Nosherwan Lower Tanawal and Havelian as well as one urban administration area - Nawanshehr.


title: Val Demings

text: In June 2020, Demings became one of the final four finalists for Joe Biden's running mate for the 2020 election.


title: Glossopteris

text: The Glossopteridales arose in the Southern Hemisphere around the beginning of the Permian (~300 million years ago). Their distribution across several continents led Eduard Suess to suggest the southern continents were once together in a single supercontinent – Gondwana.


title: Mountain States

text: The words "Mountain States" generally refer to the U.S. States which cover the U.S. Rocky Mountains. These are oriented north-south through parts of the states of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. Arizona and Nevada, as well as other parts of Utah and New Mexico, have other smaller mountain ranges and scattered mountains located in them as well. Sometimes, the Trans-Pecos area of West Texas is considered part of the region. The land area of the eight states together is some 855,767 square miles (2,216,426 square kilometers).


title: Burslem

text: The Trent & Mersey Canal flows through the west and south of the town centre. It was used as the main way pottery was moved from the factories. Heavy goods are most economically transported by water.


title: Pokémon Scarlet and Violet

text: The games have an open world. There are cities in the open world. There is also wilderness. People can choose three stories to complete in the games. The stories are called "Path of Legends", "Victory Road", and "Starfall Street". People can play in the world and do the stories with up to three other people.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Christianity spread throughout the early Roman Empire, with all persecutions due to conflicts with the pagan state religion. In 313, the persecutions were lessened by the Edict of Milan with the legalization of Christianity by the Emperor Constantine I. In 380, under Emperor Theodosius, Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire by the Edict of Thessalonica.


title: Stephanie Murphy

text: After Democrats won the House majority in 2018, Murphy became a member of the United States House Committee on Ways and Means.


title: Hank Williams Jr.

text: Some of Williams's songs are "Eleven Roses", "Family Tradition", "Whiskey Bent and Hell Bound", "All My Rowdy Friends", and "A Country Boy Can Survive". Even though he had hit records and many fans, it took years for people in country music to accept him and his chosen style. Williams lost out on many awards he could have earned. Finally in the 1980s, he began to win awards as a country performer.


title: Undertow (Tool album)

text: On certain Japanese imports, "Disgustipated" is track 70, with a short live version of "Flood" as track 71.


title: Character actor

text: Some actors or singers prefer character roles to main roles. It may be because this kind or role suits their personality or their singing voice. Some people nearly always play the same kind of character role. We say that people like that are "typecast". Some actors are happy to remain typecast. Others may wish to broaden their repertoire and take on different roles.


title: Abbottabad District

text: There are fifty-one Union Councils in the district, 35 in Abbottabad tehsil and 16 in Havelian. These are:


title: Val Demings

text: In May 2021, Demings announced her plans to run for the United States Senate, challenging Republican incumbent Marco Rubio in the 2022 election. She won the Democratic nomination in the August 2022 primaries. She lost the election to Rubio in November 2022.


title: Glossopteris

text: These plants went on to become the dominant elements of the southern flora through the rest of the Permian but disappeared in almost all places at the end of the Permian (~250mya).


title: Burslem

text: The football club Port Vale F.C. is based in the town. It plays home games at Vale Park. Professional darts player Phil Taylor is from Burslem.


title: Pokémon Scarlet and Violet

text: The games take place in the Paldea region. The Paldea region is based off of the Iberian Peninsula, which is made from mostly Spain and Portugal. In the middle of Paldea is a crater. Inside the crater is a place called Area Zero.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The battles of Toulouse preserved the Christian west against the Umayyad Muslim army, even though Rome itself was destroyed in 850, and Constantinople attacked. In the 11th century, already difficult relations between the mostly Greek church in the East, and the Latin church in the West, developed into the East-West Schism, partially due to conflicts over the Pope's authority. Before and during the 16th century, the Church started a process of reform and renewal. Reform during the 16th century is known as the Counter-Reformation. In later centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world even though it experienced a reduction of European believers due to the growth of Protestantism and also because of religious doubt and distrust during and after the Enlightenment. The Second Vatican Council in the 1960s introduced the most big changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent four centuries before.


title: Stephanie Murphy

text: On January 7, 2021, Murphy wanted President Donald Trump to be removed from office under the 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution. She voted in favor of Trump's second impeachment on January 13, 2021.


title: Hank Williams Jr.

text: In the 1990s, Williams recorded a duet with his father, by using an old recording, and the two appeared together in a music video through electronic editing.


title: Glossopteris

text: The only convincing Triassic records are very earliest Triassic leaves from Nidpur, India. Even these records are somewhat questionable owing to faulting and complex juxtapositioning of Permian and Triassic strata at Nidpur.


title: Pokémon Scarlet and Violet

text: In the games, people attend a school called the Naranja or Uva Academy. The school has a "Treasure Hunt". In the Treasure Hunt, people are told to explore the region and find things they treasure. The protagonist has three friends that tell them to do something different. In "Victory Road", they fight eight Pokémon Gyms. Then, they can fight the strongest trainers. If they win, they can become a Champion. Then, they can fight their friend Nemona. In "Starfall Street", they want to stop Team Star. Team Star has caused school bullying. They can win against the Team Star bosses. This makes the bosses leave the group. When they do, their friend Penny says she is the person who made Team Star. She also wants to stop Team Star. But the school director lets Team Star continue. In "Path of Legends", Arven helps them battle Titan Pokémon. The Titan Pokémon guard Herba Mystica. Arven wants the Herba Mystica to heal his pet Pokémon dog. After completing all three stories, the protagonist goes to Area Zero with Arven, Nemona, and Penny. They meet the professor, who says they are an AI substitute for the real professor because the real professor died. The protagonist fights them to break a time machine to the past or future. They win the fight.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: According to Catholic tradition, the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ. The New Testament narrates about Jesus' activities, teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles, and his instructions to them to continue his work. The Catholic Church teaches that Pentocost signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church. In this event, the Holy Spirit came upon the apostles.


title: Stephanie Murphy

text: In March 2019, Murphy supported Beto O'Rourke's presidential candidacy in the 2020 Democratic party presidential primaries. After O'Rourke dropped out of the race, Murphy supported Michael Bloomberg in January 2020 and became his campaign's national co-chair. After Bloomberg dropped out in March 2020, Murphy supported Joe Biden's presidential campaign.


title: Glossopteris

text: Some textbooks cite the continuation of glossopterids into later parts of the Triassic and, in some cases into the Jurassic. These are mistakes based on misidentification of similar leaves, such as those of "Gontriglossa", "Sagenopteris", or "Mexiglossa".


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: According to the Catholic Church, Christ desginated Peter as the "rock" upon which he would build his church. Catholics hold that Saint Peter was Rome's first bishop. He started the unbroken line which includes the current pontiff, Pope Francis. That is, the Catholic Church maintains the apostolic succession of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, who is the successor to Saint Peter.


title: Stephanie Murphy

text: Murphy was born "Đặng Thị Ngọc Dung" in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Her family fled Communist-controlled Vietnam in 1979 when she was six months old. Their boat ran out of fuel and they were rescued by the United States Navy at sea. She was raised in Virginia and Winter Park, Florida.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's network of roads and waterways allowed easier travel. Also, the Pax Romana made it safe to travel from one region to another. The government had encouraged inhabitants to learn Greek. Having a common language allowed ideas to be more easily expressed. Jesus's apostles gained converts in Jewish communities around the Mediterranean Sea. They established over 40 Christian communities by 100. Although most of these were in the Roman Empire, notable Christian communities were also established in Armenia, Iran and along the Indian Malabar Coast. The new religion was most successful in urban areas and it spread first among slaves and people of low social standing, and then among aristocratic women.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers. However, twenty years after Jesus's death, Sunday was being regarded as the primary day of worship.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Christianity established itself as a separate religion when preachers such as Paul of Tarsus began converting Gentiles . To solve doctrinal differences, around year 50 the apostles gathered in the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem. This council affirmed that Gentiles could become Christians without adopting all of the Mosaic Law.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The early Christian Church was not very organized. This resulted in diverse interpretations of Christian beliefs. To have more consistency, by the end of the 2nd century Christian communities had developed a more structured hierarchy. The organization of the Church began to mimic that of the Empire. The churches in Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome were the most important. To solve problems about doctrine or policy, bishops often congregated in regional synods. This happened from the beginning of the 2nd century. By the 3r century, the bishop of Rome began to be asked about problems that other bishops could not resolve.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Influential theologians, named Church Fathers, refined the doctrine. From the year 100, some teachers such as Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching. This was done by opposing them to opposed them to Gnosticism.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Theological apologists consolidated teachings and traditons. Among them we can find Pope Clement I and Augustine of Hippo.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods. This was adopted from Judaism and was different from most religions in the Roman Empire.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: As Christians refuse to join pagan celebrations, they weren't able to take part in much of public life. This caused non-Christians to fear that Christians were angering the gods (this meant a threat to the peace and prosperity of the Empire).


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In the 3rd century, Christians were persecuted by order of the emperors. They hold them responsible for the Empire's crises. All residents were ordered to give sacrifices or be punished. Jews were exempted as long as they paid the Jewish Tax. Estimates of the number of Christians who were executed ranges from a few hundred to 50,000. Many fled or renounced their beliefs.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In spite of these persecutions, evangelization efforts persisted. This led to the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity in 313. By 380, Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: When Constantine became emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 312, he attributed his victory to the Christian God. Many soldiers in his army were Christians, and his army was his base of power. With Licinius, (Eastern Roman emperor), he issued the Edict of Milan which mandated toleration of all religions in the empire. The edict had little effect on the attitudes of the people. New laws were issued to codify some Christian beliefs and practices.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: These gifts and later ones combined made the Church the largest landowner in the West by the 6th century.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In a reflection of their increased power in the Empire, clergy began to adopt the dress of the royal household.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: During Constantine's reign, more or less half of the Christians Christian did not subscribe to the official church. Constantine feared that disunity would displease God, so he eliminated some sects. To resolve other disputes, Constantine began the practice of calling ecumenical councils. These councils determined obligatory interpretations of Church doctrine.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Decisions made at the Council of Nicea (325) about the divinity of Christ led to a schism. The new religion, Arianism flourished outside the Roman Empire. Partially to distinguish themselves from Arians, Catholic devotion to Mary became more important. This was the cause to further schisms.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In 380, mainstream Christianity (as opposed to Arianism) became the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity became more associated with the Empire. This was the reason why Christians living outside of the empire were persecuted, becasuse their rulers feared they would revolt in favor of the Emperor. In 385, capital punishment was first used upon a Christian 'heretic', namely Priscillian.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: During this period, the Bible as we know it today was first officially arranged in Church Councils or Synods. This was done through the process of official 'canonization'. Prior to these Councils or Synods, the Bible had already reached a form that was nearly identical to its current one:


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Council of Ephesus in 431 declared that Jesus was both fully man and fully God. Two decades later, the Council of Chalcedon solidified Roman papal primacy. This added to continuing breakdown in relations between Rome and Constantinople, the seat of the Eastern Church. The Monophysite disagreements over the precise nature of the incarnation of Jesus led to the first of the various Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, trinitarian Christianity and Arian Christianity competed for the conversion of the barbarian tribes. The 496 conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks, saw the beginning of a steady rise of the faith in the West.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his Rule of St Benedict as a practical guide for monastic community life. Its message spread to monasteries throughout Europe. Monasteries became major conduits of civilization. They preserved craft and artistic skills and maintained intellectual culture. They functioned as spiritual , agricultural, economic and production centers. During this period the Visigoths and Lombards moved away from Arianism for Catholicism. Pope Gregory the Great reformed the ecclesiastical structures and administration. Then, he launched renewed missionary efforts. Missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, who was sent to begin the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons, others took Christianity into northern Europe. They spread Catholicism among the Germanic, and Slavic peoples. The Synod of Whitby of 664 was decisive for the reintegration of the Celtic Church of the British Isles into the Roman hierarchy. And in Italy, the 728 Donation of Sutri and the 756 Donation of Pepin left the papacy in charge a sizable kingdom. The Donation of Constantine further consolidated the papal position over the western part of the former Roman Empire.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In the early 8th century, Byzantine iconoclasm became a major source of conflict between the Eastern and Western parts of the Church. Byzantine emperors prohibited the creation and veneration of religious images. They saw them as violations of the Ten Commandments. Pope Gregory III vehemently disagreed. A new Empress Irene siding with the pope, called for an Ecumenical Council. In 787, the fathers of the Second Council of Nicaea "warmly received the papal delegates and his message". At the conclusion, 300 bishops, who were led by the representatives of Pope Hadrian I "adopted the Pope's teaching", in favor of icons.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The papacy acquired a new protector in the West with the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800 and the handing over of the keys to the Tomb of Saint Peter. This freed the pontiffs from the power of the emperor in Constantinople. However, it also led to a schism, because the emperors and patriarchs of Constantinople interpreted themselves as the true descendants of the Roman Empire. Pope Nicholas I had refused to recognize Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople, who in turn had attacked the pope as a heretic. This was because he kept the filioque in the creed, which referred to the Holy Spirit emanating from God the Father and the Son. The papacy was strengthened through this new alliance, which in the long term created a new problem for the Popes. This was that, in the Investiture controversy, succeeding emperors sought to appoint bishops and even future popes. After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire and repeated incursions of Islamic forces into Italy, the papacy, without any protection, entered a phase of major weakness.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Cluniac reform of monasteries that began in 910 placed abbots under the direct control of the pope rather than the secular control of feudal lords. This eliminated a major source of corruption and sparked a great monastic renewal. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated all schools and libraries. They also often functioned as credit establishments promoting economic growth. After 1100, some older cathedral schools were divided into:


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: During the 11th century, the East–West schism divided Christianity forever. It started with a dispute on whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily. This led to mutual excommunications in 1054. The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church. The Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the Orthodox Church. The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) both failed to heal the schism. Some Eastern churches have since reunited with the Catholic Church, and others claim never to have been out of communion with the pope. Officially, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The 11th century saw the Investiture controversy between Emperor and Pope over the right to make church appointments. This was the first major phase of the struggle between Church and state in medieval Europe. The Papacy were the initial victors. However, Italians divided between Guelphs and Ghibellines in factions that lasted until the end of the Middle Ages. The dispute gradually weakened the Papacy, not least by drawing it into politics.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Pope Urban II started the First Crusade in 1095 when he received an appeal from Byzantine emperor Alexius I to help repel a Turkish invasion. Urban believed that a Crusade might help bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity. Encouraged by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians, a series of military campaigns began in 1096. They were known as the Crusades. They were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. The goal was not permanently realized. Also, the Crusades left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians. The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade left Eastern Christians resentful. In 2001, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Two new orders of architecture emerged from the Church of this era. The earlier Romanesque style combined massive walls, rounded arches and ceilings of masonry. To compensate for the absence of large windows, interiors were painted with scenes from the Bible and the lives of the saints. Later, the Basilique Saint-Denis marked a new trend in cathedral building when it utilized Gothic architecture. In other developments, the 12th century saw the founding of eight new monastic orders. Many of them functioned as Military Knights of the Crusades. Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux had great influence over the new orders and produced reforms to ensure purity of purpose. His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law. In the following century, new mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Catharism grew in Languedoc in the 12th-century. The Inquisition originated during the period of struggle against this heresy. After the Cathars were accused of murdering a papal legate in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade. Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future massacres and root out the remaining Cathars. Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height. Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers. Its main objectives were to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of Moorish invasion or for political purposes. The accused were encouraged to renounce their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment or execution by burning.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. To escape instability in Rome, Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside in the fortified city of Avignon in southern France. This period was known as the Avignon Papacy. The papacy returned to Rome in 1378 at the urging of Catherine of Siena and others who felt the See of Peter should be in the Roman church. With the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was disputed between supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates. This led to the Western Schism. For 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third compromise pope was elected in 1409. The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance. There, the cardinals asked all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European missionaries and explorers spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI, in the papal bull Inter caetera, awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal. Under the patronato system, state authorities controlled clerical appointments and no direct contact was allowed with the Vatican. In December 1511, the Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos openly rebuked the Spanish authorities governing Hispaniola for their mistreatment of the American natives, telling them "... you are in mortal sin ... for the cruelty and tyranny you use in dealing with these innocent people". King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. Enforcement was lax, and while some blame the Church for not doing enough while others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples. The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In 1521, through the leadership and preaching of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, the first Catholics were baptized in what became the first Christian nation in Southeast Asia, the Philippines. The following year, Franciscan missionaries arrived in what is now Mexico, and sought to convert the Indians and to provide for their well-being by establishing schools and hospitals. They taught the Indians better farming methods, and easier ways of weaving and making pottery. Because some people questioned whether the Indians were truly human and deserved baptism, Pope Paul III in the papal bull Veritas Ipsa or Sublimis Deus (1537) confirmed that the Indians were deserving people. Afterward, the conversion effort gained momentum. Over the next 150 years, the missions expanded into southwestern North America. In India, Portuguese missionaries and the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized among non-Christians and a Christian community which claimed to have been established by Thomas the Apostle.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In Europe, the Renaissance marked a period of renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. It also brought a re-examination of accepted beliefs. Cathedrals and churches had long served as picture books and art galleries for millions of the uneducated. The Church sponsored great Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Although Church leaders were able to promote Renaissance humanism, there were also conflicts between clerics and humanists. In 1509, a well known scholar of the age, Erasmus, wrote The Praise of Folly, a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church. The Papacy itself was questioned by conciliarism expressed in the councils of Constance and the Basel. Real reforms during these ecumenical councils and the Fifth Lateran Council were attempted several times but prevented. They were seen as necessary but did not succeed in large measure because of internal feuds, ongoing conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and Saracenes and the simony and nepotism practiced in the Renaissance Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries. As a result, rich, powerful and worldly men like Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were able to win election to the papacy.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Fifth Lateran Council issued some but only minor reforms in March 1517. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses in public, hoping to spark debate. His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences. Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others also criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges, supported by powerful political forces in the region, developed into the Protestant Reformation. During this era, many people emigrated from their homes to areas which tolerated or practiced their faith.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In Germany, the Reformation led to war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. The first nine-year war ended in 1555 . However, continued tensions produced a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, which broke out in 1618. In the Netherlands, the wars of the Counter-Reformation were the Dutch Revolt and the Eighty Years' War.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion was fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League. A series of popes sided with and became financial supporters of the Catholic League. This ended under Pope Clement VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants. In 1565, several hundred Huguenot shipwreck survivors surrendered to the Spanish in Florida, believing they would be treated well. Although a Catholic minority in their party was spared, all of the rest were executed for heresy, with active clerical participation.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The English Reformation was based on Henry VIII's desire for annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon. It was initially more of a political, and later a theological dispute. The Acts of Supremacy made the English monarch head of the English church thereby establishing the Church of England. Then, beginning in 1536, some 825 monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated.When he died in 1547 all monasteries, friaries, convents of nuns and shrines were destroyed or dissolved. Mary I of England reunited the Church of England with Rome and persecuted Protestants during the Marian Persecutions. After some provocation, the following monarch, Elizabeth I enforced the Act of Supremacy. This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions, holding public office, voting or educating their children. Executions of Catholics and dissenting Protestants under Elizabeth I, who reigned much longer, then surpassed the Marian persecutions and persisted under the following English monarchs. Elizabeth I also executed other Penal laws were also enacted in Ireland but were less effective than in England. In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity, they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Council of Trent (1545–1563) became the driving-force of the Counter-Reformation, and reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation, and the need for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation. It also reformed many other areas of importance to the Church. It did so by improving the education of the clergy and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The criticisms of the Reformation were among factors that sparked new religious orders including the Jesuits, which became the great missionary order of later years. Spiritual renewal and reform were inspired by many new saints like Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri. Their writings spawned distinct schools of spirituality within the Church (Oratorians, Carmelites, Salesian), etc. Improvement to the education of the laity was another positive effect of the era. To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style. Baroque religious expression was stirring and emotional, created to stimulate religious fervor.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Elsewhere, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier introduced the Catholic Church in Japan. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun Toyotomi Hideyoshi who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians. Japanese were forbidden to leave the country and Europeans were forbidden to enter. Despite this, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century when Japan opened more to outside influence, and they continue to the present day.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Council of Trent generated a revival of religious life and Marian devotions in the Catholic Church. During the Reformation, the Church had defended its Marian beliefs against Protestant views.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Pope Paul V and Gregory XV ruled in 1617 and 1622 to be inadmissible to state, that the virgin was conceived non-immaculate. Supporting the belief that the virgin Mary, in the first instance of her conception was preserved free from all stain of original sin (aka Immaculate Conception) Alexander VII declared in 1661, that the soul of Mary was free from original sin. Pope Clement XI ordered the feast of the Immaculata for the whole Church in 1708. The feast of the Rosary was introduced in 1716, the feast of the Seven Sorrows in 1727. The Angelus prayer was strongly supported by Pope Benedict XIII in 1724 and by Pope Benedict XIV in 1742. Popular Marian piety was even more colourful and varied than ever before: Numerous Marian pilgrimages, Marian Salve devotions, new Marian litanies, Marian theatre plays, Marian hymns, Marian processions. Marian fraternities, today mostly defunct, had millions of members.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Enlightenment constituted a new challenge of the Church. Unlike the Protestant Reformation, the enlightenment questioned Christianity as a whole. Generally, it elevated human reason above divine revelation. It also and down-graded religious authorities such as the papacy based on it.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Pope Innocent XI saw increasing Turkish attacks against Europe as a threat for the Church. He built a Polish-Austrian coalition for the Turkish defeat at Vienna in 1683. Innocent X and Clement XI fought against Jansenism and Gallicanism. Both supported Conciliarism, and rejected papal primacy. This weakened the Church's ability to respond to gallicanist thinkers such as Denis Diderot, who challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In 1685 gallicanist King Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending a century of religious toleration. France forced Catholic theologians to support conciliarism and deny Papal infallibility. The king threatened Pope Innocent XI with a general council and a military take-over of the Papal state. The absolute French State used Gallicanism to gain control of virtually all major Church appointments as well as many of the Church's properties. State authority over the Church became popular in other countries as well. In Belgium and Germany, Gallicanism appeared in the form of Febronianism. Emperor Joseph II of Austria (1780–1790) practiced Josephinism. He regulated Church life, appointments, and massive confiscation of Church properties. The 18th century is also the time of the Catholic Enlightenment, a multi-faceted reform movement.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The anti-clericalism of the French Revolution promoted the nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church. Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the National Assembly, leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason" but it never gained popularity. In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed. When Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The 82-year-old pope was taken as a prisoner to France in February 1798 and soon died. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801. The church lands were never returned, however the priests and other religious were given salaries by the government, which maintained church properties through tax revenues. Catholics were allowed to continue some of their schools. The end of the Napoleonic wars, signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States to the pope; the Jesuits were restored.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: France remained basically Catholic. The Revolution failed to destroy the Catholic Church, and Napoleon's concordat of 1801 restored its status. The return of the Bourbons in 1814 brought back many rich nobles and landowners who supported the Church. However, few new priests were trained in the 1790–1814 period, and many left the church. The result was that the number of parish clergy plunged from 60,000 in 1790 to 25,000 in 1815, many of them elderly. Entire regions, especially around Paris, were left with few priests. On the other hand, some traditional regions held fast to the faith, led by local nobles and historic families. The comeback was slow—very slow in the larger cities and industrial areas. With systematic missionary work and support from Napoleon III, there was a comeback. Conservative Catholics held control of the national government, 1820–1830. However, most often played secondary political roles or had to fight the assault from republicans, liberals, socialists and seculars.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic there were battles over the status of the Catholic Church. The French clergy and bishops were linked to the Monarchists. Republicans were based in the anticlerical middle class who saw the Church as a political threat to republicanism and progress. The Republicans detested the church for its political and class affiliations; for them, the church represented outmoded traditions, superstition and monarchism. The Republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support. Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. Napoleon's 1801 Concordat continued in operation but in 1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The 1882 school laws of Republican Jules Ferry set up a national system of public schools that taught strict puritanical morality but no religion. For a while privately funded Catholic schools were tolerated. Civil marriage became compulsory, divorce was introduced and chaplains were removed from the army.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: When Leo XIII became pope in 1878 he tried to calm Church-State relations. In 1884 he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner to the State. In 1892 he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and defend the Church by participating in Republican politics. This attempt at improving the relationship failed. Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by the Dreyfus Affair. Catholics were for the most part anti-dreyfusard. The Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their journal La Croix. This infuriated Republican politicians, who were eager to take revenge. Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges. The Waldeck-Rousseau Ministry (1899–1902) and the Combes Ministry (1902–05) fought with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops. Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals (1903–04), and soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs (1904). Combes as Prime Minister in 1902, was determined to thoroughly defeat Catholicism. He closed down all parochial schools in France. Then he had parliament reject authorisation of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty four orders were dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain.[190] In 1905 the 1801 Concordat was abrogated; Church and State were finally separated. All Church property was confiscated. Public worship was given over to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. In practise, Masses and rituals continued. The Church was badly hurt and lost half its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomy—for the State no longer had a voice in choosing bishops and Gallicanism was dead.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Before the council, in 1854 Pope Pius IX proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The majority of Catholic Bishops supported this decision. Eight years earlier, in 1846, the Pope declared the Immaculata the patron of the USA.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: During First Vatican Council, some 108 council fathers requested to add the words "Immaculate Virgin" to the Hail Mary. Some fathers asked to includethe dogma of the Immaculate Conception in the Creed of the Church. This was opposed by Pius IX. It was also strongly opposed by some council fathers, especially from Germany. Many French Catholics wished that the Council declared Papal infallibility and the assumption of Mary dogma. In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility. Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a very small breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Industrial Revolution brought many concerns about the deteriorating conditions of urban workers. In 1891 Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum novarum. It was set in context Catholic social teaching: it rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions. Rerum novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Quadragesimo anno was issued by Pope Pius XI, on 15 May 1931, 40 years after Rerum novarum. Unlike Leo, who addressed mainly the condition of workers, Pius XI concentrated on the ethical implications of the social and economic order. He called for the reconstruction of the social order based on the principle of solidarity and subsidiarity. He noted major dangers for human freedom and dignity, arising from unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The social teachings of Pope Pius XII repeat these teachings. He applies them not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions and all aspects of life. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in other areas such as medicine, psychology, sport, television, science, law and education. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the space age at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites asking for a new sense of community and solidarity.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Popes have always highlighted the link between the Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the full acceptance of Jesus Christ as Son of God. Since the 19th century, they were very important for the development of mariology to explain the veneration of Mary. Before the 19th century, Popes promulgated Marian veneration in different ways such as authorizing new Marian feast days, prayers, initiatives, the acceptance and support of Marian congregations. Since the 19th century, Popes begin to use encyclicals more frequently. Thus Leo XIII, the Rosary Pope issued eleven Marian encyclicals. Recent Popes promulgated the veneration of the Blessed Virgin with two dogmas:


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Pius XII also promulgated the new feast Queenship of Mary celebrating Mary as Queen of Heaven and he introduced the first ever Marian year in 1954, a second one was proclaimed by John Paul II. Pius IX, Pius XI and Pius XII facilitated the veneration of Marian apparitions such as in Lourdes and Fátima. Later Popes such from John XXIII to Benedict XVI promoted the visit to Marian shrines (Benedict XVI in 2007 and 2008). The Second Vatican Council highlighted the importance of Marian veneration in Lumen gentium. During the Council, Paul VI proclaimed Mary to be the Mother of the Church.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The 20th century saw the rise of various politically radical and anti-clerical governments. The 1926 Calles Law separating church and state in Mexico led to the Cristero War. In it, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated, churches desecrated, services mocked, nuns raped and captured priests shot. In the Soviet Union following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, persecution of the Church and Catholics continued well into the 1930s. In addition to the execution and exiling of clerics, monks and laymen, the confiscation of religious implements and closure of churches was common. During the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War, the Catholic hierarchy supported Francisco Franco's rebel Nationalist forces against the Popular Front government. This was due to the Republican violence directed against the Church.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: After the Second World War began in September 1939, the Church condemned the invasion of Poland and the following 1940 Nazi invasions. In the Holocaust, Pope Pius XII directed the Church hierarchy to help protect Jews and Gypsies from the Nazis. While Pius XII has been credited with helping to save hundreds of thousands of Jews, the Church has also been accused of antisemitism. Other commentators have accused Pius of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities. Debate over the validity of these criticisms continues to this day.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Catholic Church started a reformation process after the Second Vatican Council (1962–65). Intended as a continuation of Vatican I, under Pope John XXIII the council developed into an engine of modernisation. Its main task was double:


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In June 2004, the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I's visited Rome. This happened on the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul (29 June). Its scope was another personal meeting with Pope John Paul II, for conversations with the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Patriarch's partial participation in the Eucharistic liturgy followed the program of the past visits of Patriarch Dimitrios (1987) and Patriarch Bartholomew I himself:


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The Patriarch did not fully participate in the Liturgy of the Eucharist involving the consecration and distribution of the Eucharist itself.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: In accordance with the Catholic Church's practice of including the Filioque clause when reciting the Creed in Latin, but not when reciting the Creed in Greek, Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI have recited the Nicene Creed jointly with Patriarchs Demetrius I and Bartholomew I in Greek without the Filioque clause.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: The declaration of Ravenna in 2007 re-asserted these beliefs, and re-stated the notion that the bishop of Rome is indeed the protos, although future discussions are to be held on the concrete ecclesiological exercise of papal primacy.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: With the election of Pope Benedict XVI in 2005, the Church largely saw a continuation of the policies of his predecessor, Pope John Paul II. However, there were some notable exceptions: Benedict decentralized beatifications and reverted the decision of his predecessor regarding papal elections. In 2007, he set a Church record by approving the beatification of 498 Spanish Martyrs. His first encyclical Deus caritas est discussed love and sex in continued opposition to several other views on sexuality.


title: History of the Catholic Church

text: Following the resignation of Benedict, Pope Francis was elected pope 2013. He is the current and first Jesuit pope, the first pope from the Americas, and the first from the Southern Hemisphere. Since his election to the papacy, he has displayed a simpler and less formal approach to the office, choosing to reside in the Vatican guesthouse rather than the papal residence.


title: René Lévesque

text: René Lévesque (August 24, 1922 – November 1, 1987) was a Minister of the Provincial Government of Quebec from 1960-1966. He was born in New Brunswick and raised in Quebec. He was the founder of the Parti Québécois. The Parti Québécois have twice tried to get Quebec to leave Canada and become a separate country.


title: Joseph-Armand Bombardier

text: Joseph-Armand Bombardier (April 16, 1907 – February 18, 1964) was a Canadian inventor famous for inventing the snowmobile. In 2000, Joseph-Armand Bombardier was honnoured by the government of Canada with his image on a postage stamp.


title: Turntablism

text: Turntablism is the art of changing sounds to create music using phonograph turntables and a DJ mixer.


title: Volvo S40

text: Volvo S40 is a car produced by Volvo from 1995 to 2012 in two generations. Both generations had an estate versions. For the first generation it was called V40 (1995-2004), for the second generation it was called V50 (2004-2012)


title: Bridesmaid

text: A bridesmaid is a member of the bride's group in a wedding. A bridesmaid is usually a young woman, and often a close friend or sister. She helps the bride on the day of a wedding or marriage ceremony. Traditionally, bridesmaids were chosen from unmarried young women who were old enough to be married.


title: Elf Aquitaine

text: Total S.A. is a French multinational integrated oil and gas company and one of the seven "Supermajor" oil companies in the world. Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from crude oil and natural gas exploration and production to power generation, transportation, refining, petroleum product marketing, and international crude oil and product trading.


title: Northern Isles

text: The group includes Shetland, Fair Isle and Orkney. Sometimes Stroma is included, which is part of Caithness.


title: Fugue state

text: A fugue state (dissociative fugue or psychogenic fugue) is a rare psychiatric disorder. It involves temporary loss of memory (amnesia). It usually only lasts a short time (from hours to days), but can last months or longer. In a fugue state, the person not only forgets all about who they are, but may suddenly adopt a new identity. They may leave home and wander, settle in another area with a new name. Fugue occurs to avoid stress and anxiety. After the fugue state comes to an end, the person recovers the memories they lost, but usually forgets all that happened during the fugue.


title: Hidetaka Miyazaki

text: After university, Miyazaki would be an account manager for the US company Oracle Corporation until he was 29. This was because after playing the game "Ico", he decided to quit his job to become a game designer. Due to his age and lack of experience, very few companies would hire him. However, he got a job from FromSoftware and became the leading designer for some of the "Armored Core" games. While FromSoftware had ideas for "Demon's Souls", the idea was put away because no one thought the game would be popular. However, Miyazaki liked the idea and lead the development team. "Demon's Souls" would become so popular that FromSoftware would become a well-known video game company, and Miyazaki would later take over the company.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Lionel Charles Jeffries (June 10, 1926 – February 19, 2010) was an English actor, screenwriter, and director who is known for his roles in "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang", "Camelot", "The Railway Children", "The Amazing Mr Bluden", "First Men in the Moon", "Two-Way Stretch", and "The Trails of Oscar Wilde".


title: Otto Wichterle

text: Otto Wichterle (27 October 1913  now in the Czech Republic – 18 August 1998) was a Czech chemist known for his invention of modern soft contact lenses.


title: James MacArthur

text: James Gordon MacArthur (December 8, 1937 – October 28, 2010) was an American actor. He appeared in four Walt Disney movies including "Swiss Family Robinson" and "Kidnapped". He played Danny "Danno" Williams in the television series "Hawaii Five-O".


title: Human Nature (Madonna song)

text: "Human Nature" is a single from American singer-songwriter Madonna. It is from her album "Bedtime Stories", which was released in Autumn 1994. The song was written and produced by Madonna and released in June 1995. The song is about humor, sex and sarcasm. It was written in response to the huge backlash to her 1992 record "Erotica" and her coffee table book "Sex".


title: HR 5171

text: HR 5171 is a yellow hypergiant star, and the largest of its type. Its size is over 1,300 (or 1,500) times larger and 630,000 times brighter than the Sun. It is orbited by a smaller yellow hypergiant and a blue star.


title: Samsung Galaxy (original)

text: Samsung Galaxy i7500 also know as Samsung Galaxy is a Mobile device created by Samsung, announced on April 27, 2009 and released on June of 2009. This device is one of the first smartphones that use Operative system Android and the first Samsung phone in use this Operative System. His successor is the Galaxy i5700.


title: René Lévesque

text: Lévesque was a member of the Liberal Party of Canada from 1960 until 1967. He had the position of Minister of Natural Resources.


title: Joseph-Armand Bombardier

text: Joseph-Armand was born in 1907 in Valcourt, Quebec. As a child he loved to take things apart and put them back together. He was very good at building mechanical things. He built his first moving toy at the age of 13. His father had to hide the family car from him because he liked to take apart and re-build the motor. To keep him away from the family car, his father gave him an old car that didn't work. Joseph-Armand fixed the motor, and put it on old sleds and created the first snow vehicle.


title: Bridesmaid

text: The main bridesmaid may be called the chief bridesmaid or maid of honor if she is unmarried, or the matron of honor if she is married. A junior bridesmaid is a girl who is clearly too young to get married, but who is included as an honorary bridesmaid.


title: Elf Aquitaine

text: Total has its head office in the Tour Total in La Défense district in Courbevoie, west of Paris. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index.


title: Northern Isles

text: The Northern Isles are usually separated for political purposes, but they come under the Orkney and Shetland parliamentary constituency in Westminster.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Jeffries was born on June 10, 1926 in Forest Hill, London, England. He studied at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School. He was married to Eileen Mary Walsh from 1951 until his death in 2010. They had three children.


title: Otto Wichterle

text: He decided to be a chemist after his father, which co-owned a farm machine factory. He graduated from high school in and then he studied at the of the . After he got his diploma he wanted to continue in his studies, but the Protectorate regime didn't let him do so. Fortunately, he could continue in his scientific work because he was able to take part in the research institute at 's works in Zlín. His team made the first Czechoslovak  called "silon." He was arrested by the Gestapo in 1942 but was released few months later. After World War II he returned to the university and started teaching and inorganic chemistry. He wrote an inorganic chemistry textbook and German and Czech organic chemistry textbook. In 1952 he was made the dean of the I in Prague.


title: Human Nature (Madonna song)

text: This single got mixed reviews by the critics, although it was a moderate hit in America, Australia and the United Kingdom. There are many versions of this song.


title: Samsung Galaxy (original)

text: This device is a smartphone. It offers GSM with a tri-band HSDPA, the versions of the pages of Danish, Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish only have dual band UTS 900/2100.


title: René Lévesque

text: The goal of the Parti was to give Quebec its own Sovereignty, or to make it a separate country outside of Canada. The Parti Québécois won the 1976 Quebec provincial election. Soon after coming to power, Bill 101 was made a law. This law says that French is the only official language of Quebec. At this time, Canada had two official languages; English and French. In 1980 a vote was held. This vote was a referendum where the citizens of Quebec were asked if they wish to leave Canada and become a new country. 60% of the voters wanted to stay in Canada.


title: Joseph-Armand Bombardier

text: When he was 17 years old he convinced his father to let him quit college and become a mechanic. He continued to study mechanics and electrical engineering at night school.


title: Elf Aquitaine

text: Elf Aquitaine was a French oil company. They merged with TotalFina to form TotalFinaElf. The new company changed its name to Total in 2003. The name Elf has been kept as a brand of Total.


title: Northern Isles

text: Due to their history, the islands have a Norse, rather than a Gaelic flavour, and have historic links with the Faroes, Iceland, and Norway.


title: Otto Wichterle

text: Otto studied the synthesis of hydrophilous gels. He wanted to find a perfect material that can be in permanent contact with living tissues. His colleague  helped him and together they prepared a gel. This gel absorbed up to 40% of water and was transparent. This new material is the Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate). They patented it in 1953. Wichterle thought that it might be a good material for contact lenses and gained his first patent for soft contact lenses. In 1957 Wichterle produced around 100 soft lenses. The problem was that the edges tore when the lens was getting removed. He wanted to find a better way to make them. Unfortunately, he was forced to leave the because of its Communist leadership in 1958. So the research at the Institute came to an end, but he did the important experiments to transform into a good shape of a contact lens by himself at home.


title: Samsung Galaxy (original)

text: This phone have a AMOLED touchscreen of 3.2-inch, a 5 megapixel camera with LED flash, a digital compass, a headphone jack of 3.5 mm, and a directional pad.


title: René Lévesque

text: For most of his life, René smoked cigarettes. On November 1, 1987 he started having chest pains. He died of a heart attack later that day while in hospital in Quebec.


title: Joseph-Armand Bombardier

text: His first patent was for a sprocket wheel and track system in 1937. This system would help him to make the first snowmobile the B7. These first snowmobiles were used by doctors, veterinarians, innkeepers and funeral directors to get around in the winter. Bombardier went on to design bigger snowmobiles that would carry up to 12 people.


title: Elf Aquitaine

text: Elf Aquitaine's came from three French oil companies: Régie Autonome des Pétroles (RAP), Société Nationale des Pétroles d'Aquitaine (SNPA), and Bureau de Recherches de Pétroles (BRP). The three companies were formed after the discovery of a gas field in Saint-Marcet in the Aquitaine region of south-western France. In December 1965 RAP and BRP merged to form Entreprise de Recherches et d'Activités Pétrolières (ERAP).


title: Northern Isles

text: Orkney and Shetland were given to Scotland as a deposit on the dowry of Margaret of Denmark when she married James III of Scotland in 1469.


title: Otto Wichterle

text: By late 1961 produced the first four hydrogel contact lenses on a home-made apparatus built from children's building kit (Merkur). All the glass tubing was also made by himself. On Christmas afternoon he finally made a contact lens in his apparatus. He tried the lenses in his own eyes. He said that they were comfortable. He built more new prototype machines using Merkur toys  with stronger motor taken from his gramophone. With these devices he made 5,500 lenses.


title: Samsung Galaxy (original)

text: This smartphone includes the Operative system Android in the version 1.5, but in a some countries can be upgraded to Android 1.6, in other countries users can install manually these version.


title: Elf Aquitaine

text: On April 28, 1967 the company's different brand names and products were combined under the Elf brand. Elf stood for Essence Lubricants France. In 1976 Elf-ERAP merged with Antar Pétroles de l'Atlantique and became Société Nationale Elf Aquitaine (SNEA). Later it became known as Elf Aquitaine. Elf Aquitaine was listed on the NYSE in 1991. In 2000 Elf Aquitaine merged with Total Fina to form TotalFinaElf. In 2003, the name was changed to Total.


title: Otto Wichterle

text: Wichterle was well-known all around the world not only because of his achievements but also because of his activities in international organizations. He is the author of a large number of studies. He is the author or co-author of approximately 180 patents and of over 200 publications.


title: Elf Aquitaine

text: The Elf scandal came to light in 1994 in France. According to "The Guardian", it was 'the biggest fraud inquiry in Europe since the Second World War... Elf became a private bank for executives who spent £200 million on political favors, mistresses, jewellery, fine art, villas and apartments'. Iraqi-born Nadhmi Auchi, received a 15-month suspended sentence and a £1.5m fine for his involvement taking illegal commissions.


title: Otto Wichterle

text: In 1970, Wichterle was expelled again from his position in the institute, this time for signing "" . Full recognition did not come until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. In 1990, he was made president of the and was the honorary president of the  after that. Wichterle was a member of a number of foreign academies of science, he received many awards and honorary doctorates from several universities.


title: Elf Aquitaine

text: From its beginnings, Elf used motor racing as a means of promotion. It had four-year deal with Matra starting in the French Formula 3 series. In 1969 the combination won the Formula One World Championship with Tyrrell and Jackie Stewart. By this time, Elf was owned by the French government. They began a new long-term relationship with Renault, which was also owned by the French government at the time. The Renault F1 racing cars carried Elf sponsorship until 2009. The Elf logos were replaced with Total logos.


title: Otto Wichterle

text: The asteroid number 3899 was named after Wichterle in 1993. A high school in Ostrava was named after him on September 1, 2006.


title: Infant baptism

text: Infant baptism is the baptism (or "christening") of young children or infants. In theology, the practice is sometimes called paedobaptism or pedobaptism.


title: Kemal Sunal

text: Kemal Sunal (1944–2000) was a Turkish actor. He played Şaban, a character, in several movies. Generally his characters comes from middle-working class so the audience can understand how the working class lived when the movie was made. He died in 2000 of a heart attack on a plane in Turkey. He has a daughter named Ezo Sunal and a son named Ali Sunal who is an actor too.


title: Business class

text: Business class (also known as executive class or upper class) is a high quality second-tier travel class available on some commercial airlines and rail lines. Its level of accommodation is higher than economy class and domestic first class but lower than international first class. However, many airlines offer only business class as the highest level of international service.


title: Mansehra District

text: Mansehra District is a district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The city of Mansehra is the capital.


title: Stem (music)

text: Stems are the lines which extend from the notehead. Stems may point up or down. Different-facing stems indicate the voice for polyphonic music written on the same staff. For single-note melodies, the stems usually point down for notes on the middle line or higher, and up for those below. If the stem points up from a notehead, the stem starts at the right-hand side of the note, but if it points down, it starts from the left. The exception to this rule is when a chord contains a second, in which case the stem runs between the two notes, the higher being placed on the left of the stem and the lower on the right. The length of a stem is usually that of an octave on the staff, going to either an octave higher or lower than the notehead, depending on which way the stem is pointing.


title: Medical abortion

text: A medical abortion is an abortion where drugs are used to induce the abortion. In the 1970s, such abortions became an option to end the pregnancy during its first trimester. The drugs most often used in 2009 were mifepristone and methotrexate, either alone or in combination with a prostaglandin.


title: Chris Chelios

text: Christos Kostas Tselios (born January 25, 1962 in Chicago, Illinois) is an American retired professional ice hockey defenceman that played his playing career for the Chicago Blackhawks, Montreal Canadiens, Detroit Red Wings and Atlanta Thrashers of the National Hockey League (NHL). Chelios won the Stanley Cup in 2008 and was also the captain of the Chicago Blackhawks from 1995 to 1999. He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on July 9, 2013.


title: James Cotton

text: James "Jimmy" Cotton (July 1, 1935 – March 16, 2017), was an American blues harmonica player, singer, and songwriter. He was an orphan.


title: Samgyetang

text: Samgyetang is Korean ginseng chicken soup. It’s a food commonly eaten during the summer, especially on the three days called ‘bok day’s.


title: Social choice theory

text: Social choice theory, which is also called theory of collective choice, is a theory that looks at how a group of people reach a decision. Usually this is done by combining and aggregating the opinion of each member of the group. A classic problem of social choice theory is that of holding an election or a popular vote.


title: Refresh rate

text: A refresh rate is the number of times a new image is shown on a screen (such as a television or computer monitor) per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), which is a measurement of frequency. This means that a screen with a refresh rate of 60 Hz will show 60 images per second. The refresh rate is related to another measurement, the frame rate or frames per second (fps). In relation to a screen, the frame rate is how many images a device (such as a computer) is sending to the screen per second to be shown on the screen.


title: Singles (movie)

text: Singles is a 1992 romantic comedy-drama movie. It was written and directed by Cameron Crowe. The movie stars Bridget Fonda, Campbell Scott, Kyra Sedgwick, and Matt Dillon. The movie was distributed by Warner Bros. studios.


title: Mehmed Orhan

text: Mehmed Orhan (11 July 1909 5/12 March 1994) was the 42nd head of the Ottoman dynasty. He succeeded as head of the dynasty on 9 December 1983, after the death of Ali Vâsib. If reigning, he would be Sultan Orhan VII.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: Bradley John Walsh (born 4 June 1960) is an English actor, comedian, singer, and television presenter.


title: Nair

text: According to some theories, the Nair have Indo-Scythian ancestry. During British rule, Nair were known as Nayarkutti and were important in politics, government, medicine, education, and law.


title: Stimulus (psychology)

text: A stimulus in psychology is an energy change (such as light or sound) which is received by the senses. The usage changes somewhat according to which school of psychology is using it:


title: Phonograph cylinder

text: They were commonly known simply as "records" in their era of greatest popularity (c. 1896–1915). They were hollow cylindrical objects with an audio recording engraved on the outside surface. The sound can be reproduced when they are played on a mechanical cylinder phonograph. In the 1910s, the competing disc record system became the more popular commercial audio medium.


title: Relish

text: Relish originated in India, and has spread worldwide. Although it is used as an ingredient in many different dishes in India, it is mainly used as a condiment in most other countries. This use has made it one of the world's largest selling condiments. It is mainly used on hot dogs and hamburgers.


title: United States courts of appeals

text: The United States courts of appeals (or circuit courts) are the appellate courts of the Federal judiciary of the United States. A court of appeals decides appeals from the district courts within its federal judicial circuit. In some cases it decides appeals from other designated federal courts and administrative agencies.


title: Shahzadpur

text: Shahzadpur is a town in Shahzadpur Tehsil in the Ambala District of Haryana State, India. It belongs to Ambala Division. It is located towards East from District head quarters Ambala. It is a Tehsil head quarter. Shahzadpur Pin code is 134202, and the postal head office is Shahzadpur.


title: Rachel Hunter

text: Rachel Hunter (born 8 September 1969) is a fashion model and an actress from New Zealand. She worked in France, Australia, UK (London) and New Zealand. in She currently lives in the United States. She has been in the "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Edition" many times and has posed for other magazines. Hunter posed Playboy in 2004.


title: Summary execution

text: A summary execution is when a person is accused of a crime, and killed immediately, without a full and fair trial. Very often, summary executions happen in wartime. Under international law, a person is able to surrender. People who have surrendered may not be killed using summary execution. Killing a person who has surrendered is also seen as summary execution, and usually treated like murder and a war crime.


title: USS Enterprise (CVN-80)

text: USS "Enterprise" (CVN-80) will be the third to be built for the United States Navy. She will be the ninth United States naval vessel to bear the name, and is scheduled to be in operation by 2027. Her construction began in August 2017 with a steel-cutting ceremony.


title: Stem (music)

text: Stems are the individual parts of a mix, separately saved (usually to disc) for the purposes of use in a remix.


title: Medical abortion

text: Medical abortion is both safe and effective in many situations. In the United States, the mortality rate for medical abortion is 14 times lower than the mortality rate for childbirth. In the first trimester, the patient can the drugs used for medical abortion can take the drugs safely at home, without assistance. Starting with the second trimester, it is recommended to take the second drug in a clinic or provider's office.


title: James Cotton

text: Cotton first became interested in playing music when he heard Sonny Boy Williamson on the radio. He left his home to find Sonny Boy Williamson, and when he found him (in West Helena, Arkansas), Williamson took him in and raised him. Blues singer Bobby Bland was his half-brother.


title: Samgyetang

text: Samgyetang is made of a whole young chicken stuffed with sticky rice, ginseng, jujube, garlic, and ginger. The chicken is “closed” shut and cooked in a soup. The richness of the broth depends on the style of the cook, as is the added ingredients that may be added. Some Samgyetang broths are cooked for hours. This broth is added to the chicken cooking separately to create a very rich soup. Other broths are lighter and clear.


title: Refresh rate

text: If a device is running at 30 frames per second, and the screen has a refresh rate of 60 Hz, then 30 images per second will be shown to the viewer. Even though the screen can display more images per second, it is only getting 30 images per second from the device. However, the device runs at 120 frames per second, then only 60 images per second will be shown on the screen. This is because the screen can not display more than 60 images per second (its refresh rate).


title: Singles (movie)

text: "Singles" tells the story of the romantic lives of a group of young Gen X'ers in Seattle, Washington, during the 1990s grunge music scene. Most of the characters live in a block of apartments. A sign in front of the building advertises "Singles" for rent (single bedroom apartments for one or two people).


title: Mehmed Orhan

text: He was born at Serencebey Palace or at Kisil Toprak, Turkey. He was the son of HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Abdul Kadir Efendi, Captain of the Ottoman Army, by second wife HH Mihriban Hanımefendi. The marriage was not recognised by the Imperial House. On his 13 birthday he was ceremoniously circumcised in the Dolmabahce Palace.


title: Bradley Walsh

text: People know him for his roles as Danny Baldwin in "Coronation Street", DS Ronnie Brooks in "", and Graham O'Brien in "Doctor Who". Walsh also hosts the ITV game shows "The Chase" and "Cash Trapped".


title: United States courts of appeals

text: The United States courts of appeals are considered among the most and courts in the United States. They have the ability to set legal precedent that affect millions of Americans. The United States courts of appeals have strong influence on U.S. law. The U.S. Supreme Court chooses to review less than 1% of the more than 10,000 cases filed with it ly. This means the United States courts of appeals makes the final decision in most federal cases. The Ninth Circuit in particular is very influential. It covers 20% of the American population.


title: Shahzadpur

text: Shahzadpur is a Town in Naraingarh of Ambala district, Haryana with total 1356 families residing. Shahzadpur has population of 7,278 of which 3,888 are males while 3,390 are females as per Population Census 2011.


title: Summary execution

text: In nearly all civilian jurisdictions, summary execution is illegal, as it violates the right of the accused to a fair trial. Almost all constitutions or legal systems based on common law have prohibited execution without the decision and sentence of a competent judge, and the UN's International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) has declared the same:


title: USS Enterprise (CVN-80)

text: On 1 December 2012, during the presentation of a pre-recorded speech at the inactivation ceremony for , then-Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus announced that CVN-80 would be named "Enterprise". She will be the ninth ship and the third aircraft carrier in the history of the United States Navy to bear the name. CVN-80 will also be the first American supercarrier not to be named in honor of a person since the was commissioned in 1966. In December 2016, Mabus chose Olympic gold medalists Katie Ledecky and Simone Biles to sponsor the ship.


title: James Cotton

text: Cotton first began playing the blues harp in Williamson's band, called Howlin Wolf's. After one gig, Sonny Boy quit the band to live with his wife in Milwaukee. He left the band in Cotton's hands. Cotton said, "He just gave it to me. But I couldn't hold it together 'cause I was too young and crazy in those days an' everybody in the band was grown men, so much older than me."


title: Samgyetang

text: Samgyetang is usually served with salt and pepper, which is put in a small separate dish to dip the meat. Some people like to add the seasoning directly into the soup. It is usually served with kkakdugi (radish kimchi) and some restaurants will offer regular kimchi as well.


title: Refresh rate

text: As the refresh rate of a screen increases, the amount of images shown also increases. This can make the picture shown on the screen clearer, avoiding motion blur. (Motion blur is when something moves very fast, and it looks blurry. If a screen can not show images fast enough to keep up with an object, motion blur might happen.) Many televisions and computer monitors run at 60 Hz. This is a very common refresh rate. Because 60 frames per second is a common frame rate, 60 Hz monitors can show most things very clearly. However, some people want to have a higher refresh rate, because they use things like video games or very high quality videos, which can have much higher frame rates. Many screens have 120 Hz, 144 Hz, or 240 Hz refresh rates for this reason.


title: Singles (movie)

text: The movie includes cameos from popular bands in the Seattle music scene, such as Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, and Soundgarden. Stone Gossard, Jeff Ament, and Eddie Vedder, all in Pearl Jam, appear as members of Matt Dillon's band Citizen Dick. Their parts were made when Pearl Jam was still named Mookie Blaylock and had not yet released an album.


title: Mehmed Orhan

text: In January 1933, Prince Mehmed Orhan married the Egyptian Princess HH Nafiye Yeghen Hanım Efendi. This marriage was annulled in 1947. In Paris in 1944, he got a Morganatic marriage with the French American Marguerite Irma Fournier. He had a daughter with his first wife and a stepson with his second wife.


title: United States courts of appeals

text: There are currently 179 judges on the United States courts of appeals. These judges are d by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. They have lifetime tenure, earning an annual salary of $213,300. There are thirteen United States courts of appeals. There are other tribunals that have "Court of Appeals" in their titles, such as the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces. They hear appeals in court-martial cases. The United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims reviews final decisions by the Board of Veterans' Appeals in the Department of Veterans Affairs.


title: Shahzadpur

text: In Shahzadpur population of children with age 0-6 is 841 which makes up 11.56 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Shahzadpur is 872 which is lower than Haryana state average of 879. Child Sex Ratio for the Shahzadpur as per census is 730, lower than Haryana average of 834.


title: Summary execution

text: In practice, though, extrajudicial killings have been performed by police and domestic forces in various countries and times, sometimes under martial law. It is also performed by armed bands fighting against governments and common citizens.


title: USS Enterprise (CVN-80)

text: CVN-80 will be built by Huntington Ingalls Industries-Newport News Shipbuilding in Newport News, Virginia. "Enterprise" is scheduled to begin active construction around 2018 and be delivered by 2025. However, in an effort to save costs, the Congressional Research Service indicates that the Department of the Navy is reviewing the possibility of extending the length of time used to build both and "Enterprise" by two years. If approved, the ship would not enter service until 2027 and prevent any instance of 12 carriers being in service at any one time. The steel from CVN-65 will be recycled and used to construct CVN-80. The ship is currently scheduled to replace . The first cut of steel ceremony, marking the beginning of fabrication of the ship's components, was held on 21 August 2017, with ship's sponsors Katie Ledecky and Simone Biles present. Construction began in advance of the purchase contract and construction award, in early 2018. In the spring of 2018, a piece of steel from CVN-65 was melted down and remade into a keel plate for CVN-80.


title: James Cotton

text: Cotton started working with the Muddy Waters Band in 1955. He performed songs like "I Got My Mojo Working" and "She's Nineteen Years Old". After leaving Muddy's band in 1966, Cotton toured with Janis Joplin. Alone, Cotton wrote classic songs like "Cotton Crop Blues", "Rocket 88" and "Hold Me In Your Arms". He formed the James Cotton Blues Band in 1967. They performed all of Cotton's classics and more.


title: Singles (movie)

text: The movie was made at some popular places around Seattle. It includes scenes at Pike Place Fish Market, Gas Works Park, Capitol Hill, and Jimi Hendrix's grave at Greenwood Memorial Park in Renton. The coffee shop that is in many scenes is the now-closed OK Hotel. The apartment building is on the northwest corner of the intersection of East Thomas Street and 19th Ave East.


title: Mehmed Orhan

text: "Eligibility note: A male person born to parents who are not married to each other at the time of birth is not included in the line of succession and passes no rights to their descendants."


title: United States courts of appeals

text: Decisions of the United States courts of appeals have been published by the private company West Publishing in the "Federal Reporter" series since the courts were established. Only decisions that the courts choose for publication are included. The "unpublished" opinions (of all but the Fifth and Eleventh Circuits) are published separately in West's "Federal Appendix". They are also available in on-line databases like LexisNexis or Westlaw. More recently, court decisions are also available electronically on the official court websites. However, there are also a few federal court decisions that are classified for national security reasons.


title: Shahzadpur

text: In 2011, literacy rate of Shahzadpur village was 85.41 % compared to 75.55 % of Haryana. In Shahzadpur Male literacy stands at 90.68 % while female literacy rate was 79.51 %.


title: James Cotton

text: Cotton played harmonica on Muddy Water's Grammy Award winning 1977 album "Hard Again". James Cotton's band would also get nominated for two Grammy Awards. The first one was for his 1984 release, "Live From Chicago: Mr. Superharp Himself!". His second for "Take Me Back".


title: Singles (movie)

text: Ament made up a list of 'pretend' song titles for the fictional band, Citizen Dick. Chris Cornell then wrote songs for the movie using those titles, and "Spoonman" was one of them. An early acoustic version of the song was made. It can be heard in the background during a scene of the movie. Citizen Dick's song name "Touch Me, I'm Dick" is a parody on the song "Touch Me, I'm Sick" by the Seattle band, Mudhoney.


title: Mehmed Orhan

text: Mehmed Selim Orhan de Turquie was born before his parents married in 1944. At the time of his birth, his stepfather was not divorced by his first wife.


title: United States courts of appeals

text: There are eleven ed circuits which are numbered one through eleven. The D.C. Circuit is the twelfth. The thirteenth court of appeals is the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. It has nationwide jurisdiction over certain appeals based on their subject matter. All of the courts of appeals also hear appeals from some government agency decisions and rulemaking. The largest share of these cases heard by the D.C. Circuit. The Federal Circuit hears appeals from specialized trial courts. These are primarily the United States Court of International Trade and the United States Court of Federal Claims. They also hear appeals from the district courts in patent cases and certain other specialized matters.


title: Shahzadpur

text: As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raaj Act, Shahzadpur is administrated by Sarpanch who is elected representative of town.


title: Mehmed Orhan

text: Marcos Alberto Alcalai- born in Brazil in 1962 Mehemed Orhan's only biological child born of a relationship with a divorced woman, legitimized in Turkey in 1992 was not deprived of the title of HIH Şehzade


title: Shahzadpur

text: Shahzadpur, is a very old town in Ambala District of Haryana. The town came under Sikh Rule in January 1764, after the Sikh forces took Sirhind, the Sikhs also established their rule in this area of Shahzadpur Town, Sardar Karam Singh a Sikh Sandhu Jatt of Marahka Village in Sheikhupura District of Punjab (Now Pakistan), became the first Sikh ruler of Shahzadpur. He ruled for 20 years until his death in 1784. He never used to stay at Shahzadpur. Karam Singh spent the majority of his time at Talwandi Sabo Village in Bathinda District of Punjab which was one of the holiest Sikh religious centers.


title: Shahzadpur

text: Karam Singh was succeeded by his elder son Gulab Singh, who ruled until 1844. In 1844 he was succeeded by his son Sardar Shiv Kirpal Singh Sandhu, the Shahzadpur Sikh Rulers became extinct in 1809, after the Cis-Sutlej states had accepted the protection of the British East India Company.


title: Shahzadpur

text: Their descendants ruled on until 1947 with power and were given Jagirs (land) by the British Government.


title: Shahzadpur

text: In the absence of real Raja Sardar Karam Singh of Shahzadpur & Ambala (Gurbakhsh Singh, Daya Kaur 1786 – 1808) was ruled by Gurbakhsh Singh After his death, his widow, Daya Kaur, gained control over the estate in 1786. She ruled over the territory very well for over 37 years. In November 1808, Maharaja Ranjit Singh attacked Shahzadpur and take Naraingarh in his control and put pressure on Shahzadpur state then ruler of Shahzadpur asked for help from British Government. And Maharaja Ranjit Singh was forced to leave back.


title: Shahzadpur

text: In 1809, the property was taken over by the British Government. After the Cis Sutlej Sikh States had accepted the protection of the British East India Company. Later Ambala Cantt built on land of Shahzadpur.


title: Shahzadpur

text: Sardar Gulab Singh, 4th Misldhar of Shahidan misl and Jagirdar of Shahzadpur 1784/1844, who ruled Shahzadpur until 1844,


title: Shahzadpur

text: Sardar Shiv Kirpal Singh, Jagirdar of Shahzadpur, born 1838, he succeeded to his father’s estates, and was the guardian of the Sri Damdama Sahib Shrine, married and had issue. He died before 1891.


title: Shahzadpur

text: Sardar Jiwan Singh C.S.I., Jagirdar of Shahzadpur, born 1860, he was Honorary Magistrate of AMBALA, and as a Honorary Civil Judge holds the powers of a Munsif and married in 1884 to daughter of Maharaja of Patiala, and had issue.


title: Shahzadpur

text: There are a number of high Schools in Shahzadpur, providing both English and Hindi education. Among these are the Government Senior Secondary School (which has both a boys only and a girls only students) and, M.R.S.D Senior Secondary School,