- Many birds bred in captivity are hand-reared. Hand-rearing allows a
greater number of birds to be reared (initial clutches may be removed and hand-reared,
with the birds re-laying). The abnormal rearing environment may, however adversely
affect later behaviour. One potential problem is that birds reared in an abnormal
environment may not themselves exhibit normal parental behaviour as adults.
- A well-recognised problem, of more concern in some species than in
others, is that hand-reared birds may become imprinted on humans and not later recognise
their conspecifics as appropriate mates. This is less likely to occur if the birds are
reared alongside others of their own species. If reared together with chicks of another
species, they may preferentially mate with that species.
- Hand-reared birds may be less wary than parent-reared birds. This may be
useful or detrimental depending on the circumstances. It may increase vulnerability to
predation in birds intended for release, but may be useful in producing birds which are
less stressed in a captive situation, and therefore more likely to breed: this may be very
important in breeding endangered species.
- Hand-rearing also requires suitable equipment in the form of brooder
boxes, runs, heat lamps etc. and requires a considerable input of time and effort. Not all
species are easy to hand-rear and some require considerable experience and expertise.
- Hand rearing has the advantages of allowing good control over temperature
and food availability.
- Success with rearing, particularly of duck species, may be greatly increased with
hand-rearing. Losses due to predation and abandonment, in particular, may be decreased.
- Once downies have hatched and dried, they should be transferred from the hatching
incubator to a heated broody box. Broody boxes should have solid sides and a mesh top to
prevent active birds from jumping or climbing out.
- The most common method of providing heat is by an infra-red heat lamp. This is
usually suspended over the brooder box by means of a chain, allowing the lamp to be raised
or lowered as required to adjust the temperature inside the box. Incandescent bulbs may
also be used to provide heat, but are more vulnerable if knocked or splashed with water
(and may shatter), and do not allow for a period of darkness, which is important for all
except Arctic-breeding waterfowl.
- A thermal gradient should be present from directly under the lamp (warmest) to
the far end of the box, allowing the downies to chose for themselves the most comfortable
area. A sturdy thermometer may be placed inside the box to monitor the temperature, which
should initially be about 90-99F (32.2-37.2C) directly under the lamp, reducing to 65-70F
(18.3-21.1C) (or ambient temperature if higher) by about three weeks old.
- N.B. thermometer temperatures are a useful guide, but
behavioural monitoring should be used also: if the downies are all underneath the
lamp and huddling together, they are too cold and the lamp needs to be lowered. If they
are staying in the far corners of the box, as far away from the lamp as possible, panting
and appearing stressed, they are too hot and the lamp needs to be raised.
Substrate and Cleaning:
- Suitable substrates for young waterfowl should stay dry to avoid wetting and
chilling and a non-slip surface is preferred to avoid splay-leg. Newspaper is not very
suitable as it quickly becomes sodden and is also slippery when dry. Towels may be used
initially but quickly become soiled and wet. Hay and straw should be avoided as they may
be a source of Aspergillus spp. spores. Wood shavings, hay, straw and paper might
be eaten, which may lead to Impaction.
Rubber mats with a stippled surface have been used successfully, as has synthetic turf.
Plastic-covered weldmesh or stiff plastic mesh on a frame may be used and has the
advantage that spilled feed, water and droppings can fall though to a gutter area
underneath to be washed away. Good hygiene is very important and brooder boxes should be
cleaned daily to avoid bacterial and fungal growth and associated diseases.
- There are two main approaches to the provision of water for downy waterfowl.
Downies may be kept with full access to water for swimming from the first or second day.
In such conditions it is important to watch the birds carefully for the first few days and
ensure they are kept warm and dry when out of the water, as there is a risk of the birds
becoming too wet with resultant Chilling. It
is particularly important for the diving ducks (especially seaducks and stifftails) to
have access to water for swimming and diving from an early age (B29).
- Alternatively, downies may be maintained with only drinking water, provided in
small vessels or in shallow bowls partially filled with stones to prevent swimming; this
may be safer and requires less constant watching, and is often used for dabbling ducks and
geese, particularly for small delicate duck species. The amount of water is gradually
increased to allow paddling, and full access to water is allowed only after the first full
plumage of contour feathers has grown.
- If full water access is provided from an early age, a constant flow with
surface-level drainage should be used, and an area of stippled rubber matting or mesh must
be provided under the brooder lamp.
- If waterfowl have been reared without full access to water they must be watched
carefully when first let onto water as they may become water-logged and sink (see:
they are also at greater risk of Chilling
until the first plumage has become waterproof.
- Food should be provided once the birds are out of the hatcher. For most species
which normally peck at food, dry crumbs or small pellets may be provided in a bowl close
to water. For species which would sieve their food, food should be finely ground and made
up into a wet slurry. Initially, crumbs with a protein level of 19-20% may be given, with
this being changed to pellets of about 15-16% from two to three weeks old onwards. Fine
grit should also be provided.
- Some waterfowl are difficult to get feeding initially, and may fail to gain
weight and die, usually during their second week (see: Starveout). A
variety of techniques have been developed to encourage waterfowl downies to feed; see:
Stimulating Feeding of
- N.B. It is important to ensure that downies are actually eating,
not just appearing to eat. Daily weighing is a useful indication, although weights
normally decreases in the first two or three days as the yolk sac is absorbed. Careful
observation is required to ensure that food is actually being ingested, and tube feeding
may be required for some very difficult birds which are slow to begin to feed.
- For goslings and other grazing species access to growing grass (i.e. turf, not
just cut grass) is important.
- The number of hours of light provided should mimic the normal daylight hours of
the natural environment where the birds are reared. In the case or Arctic-breeding geese,
this would be constant daylight. Tropical species may be best maintained on a cycle of 13
hours daylight, 11 hours dark, while temperate species require something in between, such
as 16 hours of light, 8 hours dark. Temperate species given too many hours of daylight are
prone to overfeeding, with the attendant risk of the development of Angel Wing.
- Young waterfowl should be given access to an outside run in suitable weather as
young as possible, and may normally be moved outside at least in daytime by as early as
one to two weeks old, depending on the weather.
- The run should be placed on clean short grass in an area not used by waterfowl
(adults or juveniles) the previous year.
- Runs should provide sunny areas (weather permitting) and shade to avoid
sunstroke/heatstroke, and should be designed to exclude mice. Thought should be given to
the fact that the direction of the sun moves during the day, so that a board giving
adequate shade in the morning may need to be moved in order to continue to provide shade
later in the day.
- The young birds should be shut away at night until the down is being replaced by
the first proper feathers. Depending on climate, some heat may be required at night at
- Until birds are both fully feathered and waterproof it is advisable to ensure
that either the birds are shut in at night or the whole run is covered at night, to avoid
the risk of birds becoming soaked during a nightime downpour.
- Once fully feathered, juveniles may be placed in larger pens, with a good-sized
pool. At this stage, birds which have previously been maintained off water must be watched
and may need to be dried if they become to wet; waterproofing usually develops properly
within a couple of days. These pens should provide sun, dry spots for resting and shelter
from rain, as well as areas in sunshine.
- Ideally, birds are raised in broods of the same age and species. Juveniles of
different species but the same age and size may be reared together also; however some
birds reared with a different species may be prone to choose a bird of the wrong species
as a mate when adult. Every effort should be made to avoid rearing a youngster
without other waterfowl for company (except for Biziura
lobata - Musk duck ducklings).
B7, B13.46.w1, B29,
B41, B95, B97,