The greatest benefits are obtained from large, long-established, no- take MPAs , yet most MPAs in Europe are partially protected or multi-use areas, and existing no-take areas tend to be very small . No-take areas account, in total, for less than 0.4% of the area of European waters  and are often nested within multi-use MPAs. In some partially protected MPAs, local stressors, such as fishing, are higher than adjacent unprotected areas  . Despite evidence for climate mitigation benefits of no-take zones , the efficacy of partially protected MPAs is debated and dependent on local management (Zupan
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report