To retain functioning tropical forests, adaptation will need to take place across many scales, from individual stands to interconnected landscapes, and upwards to regional and global policy changes. From a global perspective, the most effective adaptation and mitigation option is to reduce and reverse the loss of area in tropical forest ecosystems . Maximising tropical forest extent has well-described benefits in mitigating CO2 emissions and in the role of forests regulating global climate  . For nations with tropical forests, adaptation is largely achieved through sustainable management of forested areas, enforcing the land rights/land tenure of Indigenous Peoples, and through establishment of protected areas . Some of this is achieved through schemes incentivising landowners to retain tree cover for the express purpose of mitigating climate change impacts (e.g., PES- Payments for Ecosystem Services, REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report