permitted uses . The extent of MPAs has been increasing in Europe, albeit with strong regional variations . These MPAs provide protection from local stressors, such as commercial exploitation, and enhance the resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems, thus lessening the impacts of climate change  ; however, climate-change risk reduction is only a limited MPA objective . The implementation of the legal frameworks, such as the EC Habitats Directive and EC Birds Directive, allows for enabling adaptation  as does the incorporation of climate considerations in management of Natura 2000 sites . There is evidence that better international cooperation is required to increase the effectiveness of the MSFD , and the Good Environmental Status is currently not effectively monitored .
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report