This chapter assesses the current understanding of climate-induced drivers, ecological vulnerability and adaptability, risks to coastal and ocean ecosystems, and human vulnerability and adaptation to resulting changes in ocean benefits, now and in the future . It starts by assessing the biologically relevant outcomes of anthropogenic climate-induced drivers . Next, it sets out the mechanisms that determine the responses of ocean and coastal organisms to individual and combined drivers from the genetic to the ecosystem level . This supports a detailed assessment of the observed and projected responses of coastal and ocean ecosystems to these hazards, placing them in context using the paleorecord . These observed and projected impacts are used to quantify consequent risks to delivery of ecosystem services and the socioeconomic sectors that depend on them, with attention to the vulnerability, resilience and adaptive capacity of social- ecological systems . The chapter concludes by assessing the state of adaptation and governance actions available to address these emerging threats while also advancing human development . Abbreviations used repeatedly in the chapter are defined in Table 3.1.
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report