Rural areas provide ecosystem services that benefit cities directly, including through reducing hazards  and through carbon storage, and can be maintained through urban markets and other inputs . Most urban areas extend into dispersive peri-urban areas where urban and rural land uses co-exist  and/or suburban areas which are lower density and primarily residential in function. Moreover, the urban and rural differentiation creates normative expectations at the heart of planning conflicts and constraints of urban governance . Expanding peri-urban areas pose specific structural constraints to addressing risks. In Bogotá, Colombia, a study found marked inequalities as more impoverished families had restricted access to peri-urban forests, trees and tree services . Factors such as limited land ownership and tenure insecurity in peri-urban areas hinder people's ability to invest in permanent infrastructure to buffer themselves from flood events, as witnessed in the slums in Nairobi . Building resilience and adaptation via community mobilisation may not be effective in peri-urban areas shaped by migration, agricultural intensification and industrialisation .
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report