Cities are deploying a broad range of strategies to adapt infrastructure to flooding, with hard engineering approaches  increasingly complementing soft approaches, including planning and use of nature-based solutions, that emphasise natural and social capital . The infrastructure can alter downstream risks and lead to increased residual risk by encouraging more floodplain construction . Physical infrastructure is highly cost effective for large settlements, but not always for small settlements  and can be inaccessible to poorer communities . It is often inflexible once installed but new designs and adaptive pathways are emerging .
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report