While coastal adaptation has largely been viewed as the responsibility of governments, private finance is increasingly recognised as necessary to help close the coastal adaptation funding gap . Financial arrangements for coastal adaptation measures that align public-actor and private-investor interests are suitable for a range of budgets, from USD 10,000 to 100 million . Private equity instruments that involve real estate development companies have already been successfully implemented and are most effective in urban areas with high-value real estate development . Public-private partnership equity instruments that engage construction and real estate developers have been successful for small- to medium-scale infrastructural projects. While public-private partnership bonds and public bonds have the potential to align public actors and private investors, such instruments require de-risking of coastal adaptation through enabling economic policy instruments, such as concessional loans .
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report