Despite storm-induced erosion prevailing along some shoreline sections, recent studies reaffirmed the contribution of TC and ETC waves to coastal and reef island vertical building through massive reef- to-island sediment transfer . For example, TC Ophelia  and Category 5 TC Fantala , which eroded the islands of Jaluit Atoll, Marshall Islands , and Farquhar Atoll, Seychelles , respectively, also contributed to island and beach expansion. Likewise, tropical depressions can have constructional effects, as reported on Fakarava Atoll, French Polynesia . On Saint-Martin/Sint Maarten and Saint-Barthelemy, the 2017 hurricanes, which caused marked shoreline retreat at most beach sites, also enabled beach formation and beach ridge development along some natural coasts . Similarly, El Niño and La Niña were involved in rapid and highly contrasting shoreline changes , including reef island accretion in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan , beach shifts on Maiana and Aranuka atolls, Kiribati , and beach erosion on Hawaii, USA . These contrasting shoreline responses were, respectively, due to coral reef degradation from past bleaching events providing material to islands, wave directional shifts, and increased wave energy. The role of bleaching events in increasing short-term sediment generation in atoll contexts was confirmed by a study conducted on Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll, Maldives, which reported an increase of sediment production from ~0.5 kg CaCO3 m-2 yr1 to ~3.7 kg CaCO3 m-2 yr1 between 2016  and 2019  .
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report