ICZM measures are generally more cost-effective than 'hard engineering' measures , but implementation pose barriers, especially in low-income countries . ICZM implementation requires strong institutional frameworks, where all relevant stakeholders  are part of decision-making processes . This aspect is mentioned as a key challenge in developing countries . Similarly, explicitly incorporating gender considerations into ICZM is generally recommended, mainly because women are key knowledge holders in coastal communities; however, this is rarely done in practice, which may lead to sub-optimal or unequal outcomes . The perception that building 'hard' infrastructure  is a more efficient way of reducing coastal risk than the implementation of 'soft' or nature-based solutions  measures has been challenged in recent studies .
IPCC
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
IPCC Report