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Gynecology_Novak. cryopreservation (oocyte and ovarian tissue preservation are not routine). In women with cervical cancer, radical trachelectomy allows for retention of the uterus, those with uterine cancer may respond to progestin therapy in lieu of hysterectomy, and some ovarian tumors are amenable to unilateral oophorectomy if future fertility is desired. In men, cancer directly affects gametogenesis, and cancer treatments cause more fertility damage when given at younger ages. Semen and sperm cryopreservation prior to cancer treatment are often recommended for fertility preservation in men (416) .


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Gynecology_Novak. 376. Urman B, Balaban B, Yakin K. Impact of fresh-cycle variables on the implantation potential of cryopreserved-thawed human embryos. Fertil Steril 2007;87:310–315. 377. Glujovsky D, Pesce R, Fiszbajn G, et al. Endometrial preparation for women undergoing embryo transfer with frozen embryos or embryos derived from donor oocytes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;1:CD006359: 378. Kumbak B, Oral E, Karlikaya G, et al. Serum oestradiol and beta-HCG measurements after day 3 or 5 embryo transfers in interpreting pregnancy outcome. Reprod Biomed Online 2006;13:459–464. 379. Van Voorhis BJ. Outcomes from assisted reproductive technology. Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:183–200. 380. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007 Assisted reproductive technology success rates. Available online at: http://www. cdc.gov/art/ART2007/PDF/COMPLETE 2007 ART.pdf 381.


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Gynecology_Novak. 380. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2007 Assisted reproductive technology success rates. Available online at: http://www. cdc.gov/art/ART2007/PDF/COMPLETE 2007 ART.pdf 381. Banerjee P, Choi B, Shahine LK, et al. Deep phenotyping to predict live birth outcomes in in vitro fertilization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107:13570–13575. 382. Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Fertility treatment when the prognosis is very poor or futile. Fertil Steril 2009;92:1194–1197. 383. Marina S, Marina D, Marina F, et al. Sharing motherhood: biological lesbian co-mothers, a new IVF indication. Hum Reprod 2010;25:938–941. 384. Practice Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine; Practice Committee of Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology. Ovarian tissue and oocyte cryopreservation. Fertil Steril 2008;90:S241–S246. 385.


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Gynecology_Novak. 385. Krieg SA, Henne MB, Westphal LM. Obstetric outcomes in donor oocyte pregnancies compared with advanced maternal age in in vitro fertilization pregnancies. Fertil Steril 2008;90:65–70. 386. Paulson RJ, Boostanfar R, Saadat P, et al. Pregnancy in the sixth decade of life: obstetric outcomes in women of advanced reproductive age. JAMA 2002;288:2320–2323. 387. Antinori S, Gholami GH, Versaci C, et al. Obstetric and prenatal outcome in menopausal women: a 12-year clinical study. Reprod Biomed Online 2003;6:257–261. 388. Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Financial compensation of oocyte donors. Fertil Steril 2007;88:305–309. 389. Sharpe K, Karovitch AJ, Claman P, et al. Transvaginal oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilization complicated by ovarian abscess during pregnancy. Fertil Steril 2006;86:219.e11–e13. 390.


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Gynecology_Novak. 389. Sharpe K, Karovitch AJ, Claman P, et al. Transvaginal oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilization complicated by ovarian abscess during pregnancy. Fertil Steril 2006;86:219.e11–e13. 390. Evans MI, Kaufman MI, Urban AJ, et al. Fetal reduction from twins to a singleton: a reasonable consideration? Obstet Gynecol 2004;104:102–109. 391. Ulug U, Jozwiak EA, Mesut A, et al. Survival rates during the first trimester of multiple gestations achieved by ICSI: a report of 1448 consecutive multiples. Hum Reprod 2004;19:360–364. 392. Leondires MP, Ernst SD, Miller BT, et al. Triplets: outcomes of expectant management versus multifetal reduction for 127 pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:454–459. 393. Brambati B, Tului L, Camurri L, et al. First-trimester fetal reduction to a singleton infant or twins: outcome in relation to the final number and karyotyping before reduction by transabdominal chorionic villus sampling. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;191:2035– 2040. 394.


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Gynecology_Novak. 394. Fernandez H, Gervaise A. Ectopic pregnancies after infertility treatment: modern diagnosis and therapeutic strategy. Hum Reprod Update 2004;10:503–513. 395. Barrenetxea G, Barinaga-Rementeria L, Lopez de Larruzea A, et al. Heterotopic pregnancy: two cases and a comparative review. Fertil Steril 2007;87:417.e9–e15. 396. Kamath MS, Aleyamma TK, Muthukumar K, et al. A rare case report: ovarian heterotopic pregnancy after in vitro fertilization. Fertil Steril 2010;94:1910.e9–e11. 397. Golan A, Weissman A. Symposium: update on prediction and management of OHSS. A modern classification of OHSS. Reprod Biomed Online 2009;19:28–32. 398. Practice Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Fertil Steril 2008;90:S188–S193. 399. Papanikolaou EG, Tournaye H, Verpoest W, et al. Early and late ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome: early pregnancy outcome and profile. Hum Reprod 2005;20:636–641. 400.


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Gynecology_Novak. 399. Papanikolaou EG, Tournaye H, Verpoest W, et al. Early and late ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome: early pregnancy outcome and profile. Hum Reprod 2005;20:636–641. 400. Delvigne A. Symposium: update on prediction and management of OHSS. Epidemiology of OHSS. Reprod Biomed Online 2009;19:8– 13. 401. Humaidan P, Quartarolo J, Papanikolaou EG. Preventing ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome: guidance for the clinician. Fertil Steril 2010;94:389–400. 402. Aboulghar M. Symposium: update on prediction and management of OHSS. Prevention of OHSS. Reprod Biomed Online 2009;19:33– 42. 403. Siristatidis CS, Maheshwari A, Bhattacharya S. In vitro maturation in subfertile women with polycystic ovarian syndrome undergoing assisted reproduction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;1:CD006606. 404. Brinton LA, Scoccia B, Moghissi KS, et al. Breast cancer risk associated with ovulation-stimulating drugs. Hum Reprod 2004;19:2005– 2013. 405.


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Gynecology_Novak. 404. Brinton LA, Scoccia B, Moghissi KS, et al. Breast cancer risk associated with ovulation-stimulating drugs. Hum Reprod 2004;19:2005– 2013. 405. Brinton LA, Lamb EJ, Moghissi KS, et al. Ovarian cancer risk after the use of ovulation-stimulating drugs. Obstet Gynecol 2004;103:1194–1203. 406. Silva Idos S, Wark PA, McCormack VA, et al. Ovulation-stimulation drugs and cancer risks: a long-term follow-up of a British cohort. Br J Cancer 2009;100:1824–1831. 407. Van den Broeck U, D’Hooghe T, Enzlin P, et al. Predictors of psychological distress in patients starting IVF treatment: infertility-specific versus general psychological characteristics. Hum Reprod 2010;25:1471–1480. 408. Domar AD, Smith K, Conboy L, et al. A prospective investigation into the reasons why insured United States patients drop out of in vitro fertilization treatment. Fertil Steril 2010;94:1457–1459. 409.


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Gynecology_Novak. 409. Practice Committee of Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology; Practice Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Preimplantation genetic testing: a Practice Committee opinion. Fertil Steril 2008;90:S136–S143. 410. Simpson JL. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis at 20 years. Prenat Diagn 2010;30:682–695. 411. Munne S, Howles CM, Wells D. The role of preimplantation genetic diagnosis in diagnosing embryo aneuploidy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2009;21:442–449. 412. Schoolcraft WB, Katz-Jaffe MG, Stevens J, et al. Preimplantation aneuploidy testing for infertile patients of advanced maternal age: a randomized prospective trial. Fertil Steril 2009;92:157–162. 413. Hardarson T, Hanson C, Lundin K, et al. Preimplantation genetic screening in women of advanced maternal age caused a decrease in clinical pregnancy rate: a randomized controlled trial. Hum Reprod 2008;23:2806–2812. 414.


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Gynecology_Novak. 414. Mersereau JE, Plunkett BA, Cedars MI. Preimplantation genetic screening in older women: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Fertil Steril 2008;90:592–598. 415. Garrisi JG, Colls P, Ferry KM, et al. Effect of infertility, maternal age, and number of previous miscarriages on the outcome of preimplantation genetic diagnosis for idiopathic recurrent pregnancy loss. Fertil Steril 2009;92:288–295. 416. Knopman JM, Papadopoulos EB, Grifo JA, et al. Surviving childhood and reproductive-age malignancy: effects on fertility and future parenthood. Lancet Oncol 2010;11:490–498. 417. Bisharah M, Tulandi T. Laparoscopic preservation of ovarian function: an underused procedure. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:367– 370. 418. Dovey S, Sneeringer RM, Penzias AS. Clomiphene citrate and intrauterine insemination: analysis of more than 4100 cycles. Fertil Steril 2008;90:2281–2286. 419.


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Gynecology_Novak. 418. Dovey S, Sneeringer RM, Penzias AS. Clomiphene citrate and intrauterine insemination: analysis of more than 4100 cycles. Fertil Steril 2008;90:2281–2286. 419. Bedaiwy MA, Shokry M, Mousa N, et al. Letrozole co-treatment in infertile women 40 years old and older receiving controlled ovarian stimulation and intrauterine insemination. Fertil Steril 2009;91:2501–2507. 420. Serour G, Mansour R, Serour A, et al. Analysis of 2386 consecutive cycles of in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection using autologous oocytes in women aged 40 years and above. Fertil Steril 2010;94:1707–1712. 421. Klipstein S, Regan M, Ryley DA, et al. One last chance for pregnancy: a review of 2,705 in vitro fertilization cycles initiated in women age 40 years and above. Fertil Steril 2005;84:435–445. 422. Costello MF. Systematic review of the treatment of ovulatory infertility with clomiphene citrate and intrauterine insemination. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2004;44:93–102. 423.


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Gynecology_Novak. 422. Costello MF. Systematic review of the treatment of ovulatory infertility with clomiphene citrate and intrauterine insemination. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2004;44:93–102. 423. Malizia BA, Hacker MR, Penzias AS. Cumulative live-birth rates after in vitro fertilization. N Engl J Med 2009;360:236–243. Ruth B. Lathi Danny J. Schust Isolated spontaneous pregnancy loss is remarkably common. Recurrent pregnancy loss affects between 1 in 300 and 1 in 100 couples. After several pregnancy losses, there remains a greater chance of having a viable birth than another loss, even without treatment. Prognosis can improve dramatically with treatment of a known underlying etiology for recurrent pregnancy loss. Parental chromosomal abnormalities and the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) are the only undisputed causes of recurrent pregnancy loss. Other well-described causes include anatomic, endocrine, thrombotic, and possibly other immunologic factors.


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. The state of coagulability is a fine balance between pro-and antithrombotic pathways. The hypercoagulability of pregnancy can be attributed to increases in pro-thrombotic factors and decreases in those that inhibit coagulation. The immunologic interactions at the maternal–fetal interface reﬂect the presence of unique cellular constituents combined with the actions of steroid hormones, protein hormones, and metabolic factors. Evaluation of patients with recurrent pregnancy loss should include a detailed patient and family history, an examination focused on endocrine and anatomic abnormalities, and laboratory studies limited to evaluation of treatable etiologies. Monitoring early pregnancies in recurrent pregnancy loss patients should include ultrasound, β-human chorionic gonadotropin levels if indicated, frequent visits with psychological support, and the karyotypic analysis of tissues from any pregnancy losses.


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. In treating recurrent pregnancy loss, evidence supports repairing anatomic abnormalities, correcting preexisting endocrine disorders, and treating APS and other thrombophilic disorders. Advances in the ability to document and diagnose early pregnancy reveal that spontaneous pregnancy loss is a common event. Spontaneous pregnancy loss is, in fact, the most common complication of pregnancy. Approximately 70% of human conceptions fail to achieve viability, and an estimated 50% are lost before the first missed menstrual period (1). Most of these pregnancy losses are unrecognized. Studies using sensitive assays for human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) indicate that the actual rate of pregnancy loss after implantation is 31% (2). Loss occurs in 15% of pregnancies that are clinically recognized before 20 weeks of gestation from last menstrual period (3,4).


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. Traditionally, recurrent abortion has been defined as the occurrence of three or more clinically recognized pregnancy losses before 20 weeks from the last menstrual period. Using this definition, recurrent pregnancy loss occurs in approximately 1 in 300 pregnancies (2). Clinical investigation of pregnancy loss, however, may be initiated after two consecutive spontaneous abortions, especially when fetal heart activity is identified before any of the pregnancy losses, when the women is older than 35 years of age, or when the couple has had difficulty conceiving (5). A study of over 1,000 patients with recurrent pregnancy loss reported no difference in the prevalence of abnormal results for evidence-based and investigative diagnostic tests when the diagnostic workup was initiated after two versus three or more losses (6). If clinical intervention is undertaken in the form of investigation after two spontaneous abortions, approximately 1% of pregnant women will require evaluation (3).


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. versus three or more losses (6). If clinical intervention is undertaken in the form of investigation after two spontaneous abortions, approximately 1% of pregnant women will require evaluation (3). Even with a history of recurrent pregnancy loss, a patient is more likely to carry her next pregnancy successfully to term than to miscarry. For patients with a history of recurrent pregnancy loss, the risk of subsequent pregnancy loss is estimated to be 24% after two clinically recognized losses, 30% after three losses, and 40% to 50% after four losses (7). These data make clinical study of recurrent pregnancy loss and its treatment difficult because very large groups of patients must be studied to demonstrate the effects of any proposed therapeutic intervention.


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. Parental chromosomal abnormalities and thrombotic complications of the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS) are the only undisputed causes of recurrent abortion. However, collectively these abnormalities account for less than 10% to 15% of recurrent pregnancy losses. Although the exact proportion of patients diagnosed with a particular abnormality may vary among the populations studied, other associations have been made with anatomic abnormalities (12%–16%), endocrine problems (17%–20%), infections (0.5%–5%), and immunologic factors, including those associated with the APS (20%–50%). Other miscellaneous factors have been implicated and account for approximately 10% of cases. Among women aged 35 or greater who experience recurrent pregnancy loss, spontaneous fetal chromosomal abnormalities are likely to be responsible for the vast majority of losses (8). Even after a thorough evaluation, the potential cause remains unexplained in about one-third to one-half of all cases of


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. are likely to be responsible for the vast majority of losses (8). Even after a thorough evaluation, the potential cause remains unexplained in about one-third to one-half of all cases of recurrent loss (Table 33.1) (3,6,9).


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. The timing of fetal demise provides etiologic clues and its documentation is important in investigations into causes and treatments for recurrent pregnancy loss. The vast majority of preclinical and early clinical pregnancy losses are the result of de novo fetal aneuploidy (10). This is also thought to be the cause of anembryonic pregnancy losses, whereas pregnancy losses occurring after 10 weeks of fetal development are much less likely to derive from fetal aneuploidy. Pregnancy losses resulting from de novo fetal aneuploidy, whether early and undocumented or documented through evaluation of chromosomal content in fetal tissues, cloud the results of many published studies. Their presence or absence must be documented in all investigations on recurrent pregnancy loss patients and their potential as a confounding factor discussed. The timing of fetal demise and tissue chromosomal analysis of any collected fetal tissues should be carefully weighed when diagnostic and therapeutic


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. potential as a confounding factor discussed. The timing of fetal demise and tissue chromosomal analysis of any collected fetal tissues should be carefully weighed when diagnostic and therapeutic investigations into causes of recurrent pregnancy loss are being considered.


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. Genetic Factors The most common inborn parental chromosomal abnormalities contributing to recurrent abortion are balanced translocations (11–14), in which one parent carries an overall normal gene content, but has a piece of one chromosome inappropriately attached to another. Table 33.1 Proposed Etiologies for Recurrent Spontaneous Abortion Table 33.1 (Continued ) TH, T helper; MTHFR, methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase; APS, antiphospholipid antibody syndrome.


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. Table 33.1 Proposed Etiologies for Recurrent Spontaneous Abortion Table 33.1 (Continued ) TH, T helper; MTHFR, methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase; APS, antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Depending on the nature of the translocation (reciprocal or Robertsonian), the gametes produced by the translocation carrier will be normal (reciprocal only), balanced, or unbalanced for the translocated DNA. When fertilized by a chromosomally normal gamete, the resulting embryos may be chromosomally normal (reciprocal only) or may be balanced or unbalanced carriers of the translocation. Most gametes and embryos with abnormal chromosomal status will not survive. Of those that do, live offspring will either be carriers of a balanced translocation or, for Robertsonian translocations, be monosomic or trisomic for the translocated chromosomal DNA.


Gynecology_Novak

Gynecology_Novak. Among the possible chromosomal monosomies, only that of the X chromosome typically permits viable offspring. On careful examination, however, many of these offspring may, in fact, exhibit mosaicism. Embryonic chromosomal monosomy may be particularly prevalent among patients with histories of recurrent pregnancy loss who are undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) (15). Compared with monosomies, chromosomal trisomies (e.g., trisomy 13, 18, and 21) appear to be tolerated a bit more readily, although mosaicism also may be implicated with these abnormalities.