Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. cardiac disease or arrhythmias. Intravenous hydrocortisone is indicated if the patient has associated adrenal or pituitary insufficiency but is probably not necessary in most patients with primary myxedema. Opioids and sedatives must be used with extreme caution.


Pharmacology_Katzung

C. Hypothyroidism and Pregnancy

Pharmacology_Katzung. C. Hypothyroidism and Pregnancy


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Hypothyroid women frequently have anovulatory cycles and are therefore relatively infertile until restoration of the euthyroid state. This has led to the widespread use of thyroid hormone for infertility, although there is no evidence for its usefulness in infertile euthyroid patients. In a pregnant hypothyroid patient receiving thyroxine, it is extremely important that the daily dose of thyroxine be adequate because early development of the fetal brain depends on maternal thyroxine. In many hypothyroid patients, an increase in the thyroxine dose (about 25–30%) is required to normalize the serum TSH level during pregnancy. It is reasonable to counsel women to take one extra dose of their current thyroxine tablet twice a week separated by several days as soon as they are pregnant. Thyroxine should also be administered apart from prenatal vitamins and calcium by at least 4 hours. Because of the elevated maternal TBG levels and, therefore, elevated total T4 levels, adequate maternal


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. should also be administered apart from prenatal vitamins and calcium by at least 4 hours. Because of the elevated maternal TBG levels and, therefore, elevated total T4 levels, adequate maternal thyroxine dosages warrant maintenance of TSH between 0.1 and 3.0 mIU/L (eg, first trimester, 0.1–2.5 mIU/L; second trimester, 0.2–3.0 mIU/L; third trimester, 0.3–3.0 mIU/L) and the total T4 at or above the upper range of normal.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. D. Subclinical Hypothyroidism Subclinical hypothyroidism, defined as an elevated TSH level and normal thyroid hormone levels, occurs in 4–10% of the general population and increases to 20% in women older than age 50. Levothyroxine should be individualized based on the risks and benefits of treatment. The consensus of expert thyroid organizations concluded that thyroid hormone therapy should be considered for patients with TSH levels greater than 10 mIU/L while close TSH monitoring is appropriate for those with lower TSH elevations. E. Drug-Induced Hypothyroidism Drug-induced hypothyroidism (Table 38–3) can be satisfactorily managed with levothyroxine therapy if the offending agent cannot be stopped. In the case of amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism, levothyroxine therapy may be necessary even after discontinuance because of amiodarone’s very long half-life.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis) is the clinical syndrome that results when tissues are exposed to high levels of thyroid hormone (Table 38–4). The most common form of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, or diffuse toxic goiter. The presenting signs and symptoms of Graves’ disease are set forth in Table 38–4.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The most common form of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, or diffuse toxic goiter. The presenting signs and symptoms of Graves’ disease are set forth in Table 38–4. Graves’ disease is considered to be an autoimmune disorder in which a defect in suppressor T lymphocytes stimulates B lymphocytes to synthesize antibodies (TSH-R Ab [stim]) to thyroidal antigens. The TSH-R Ab [stim] is directed against the TSH receptor in the thyroid cell membrane and stimulates growth and biosynthetic activity of the thyroid cell. Genetics, the postpartum state, cigarette smoking, and physical and emotional stress increase TSH-R Ab [stim] development. A genetic predisposition is shown by a high frequency of HLA-B8 and HLA-DR3 in Caucasians, HLA-Bw46 and HLA-B5 in Chinese, and HLA-B17 in African Americans. Spontaneous remission occurs but some patients require years of antithyroid therapy.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In most patients with hyperthyroidism, T3, T4, FT4, and FT3 are elevated and TSH is suppressed (Table 38–2). Radioiodine uptake is usually markedly elevated as well. Antithyroglobulin, thyroid peroxidase, and TSH-R Ab [stim] antibodies are usually present. Management of Graves’ Disease The three primary methods for controlling hyperthyroidism are antithyroid drug therapy, destruction of the gland with radioactive iodine, and surgical thyroidectomy. None of these methods alters the underlying pathogenesis of the disease. A. Antithyroid Drug Therapy Drug therapy is most useful in young patients with small glands and mild disease. Methimazole (preferred) or propylthiouracil is administered until the disease undergoes spontaneous remission. This is the only therapy that leaves an intact thyroid gland, but it does require a long period of treatment and observation (12–18 months), and there is a 50–60% incidence of relapse.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Methimazole is preferable to propylthiouracil (except in pregnancy and thyroid storm) because it has a lower risk of serious liver injury and can be administered once daily, which may improve adherence. Antithyroid drug therapy is usually begun with divided doses, shifting to maintenance therapy with single daily doses when the patient becomes clinically euthyroid. However, mild to moderately severe thyrotoxicosis can often be controlled with methimazole given in a single morning dose of 20–40 mg initially for 4–8 weeks to normalize hormone levels. Maintenance therapy requires 5–15 mg once daily. Alternatively, therapy is started with propylthiouracil, 100–150 mg every 6 or 8 hours until the patient is euthyroid, followed by gradual reduction of the dose to the maintenance level of 50–150 mg once daily. In addition to inhibiting iodine organification, propylthiouracil also inhibits the conversion of T4 to T3, so it brings the level of activated thyroid hormone down more quickly than


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. mg once daily. In addition to inhibiting iodine organification, propylthiouracil also inhibits the conversion of T4 to T3, so it brings the level of activated thyroid hormone down more quickly than does methimazole. The best clinical guide to remission is reduction in the size of the goiter. Laboratory tests most useful in monitoring the course of therapy are serum FT3, FT4, and TSH levels.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Reactions to antithyroid drugs have been described above. A minor rash can often be controlled by antihistamine therapy. Because the more severe reaction of agranulocytosis is often heralded by sore throat or high fever, patients receiving antithyroid drugs must be instructed to discontinue the drug and seek immediate medical attention if these symptoms develop. White cell and differential counts and a throat culture are indicated in such cases, followed by appropriate antibiotic therapy. Treatment should also be stopped if significant elevations in transaminases (two to three times the upper limit of normal) occur. B. Thyroidectomy


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. B. Thyroidectomy A near-total thyroidectomy is the treatment of choice for patients with very large glands or multinodular goiters. Patients are treated with antithyroid drugs until euthyroid (about 6 weeks). In addition, for 10–14 days prior to surgery, they receive saturated solution of potassium iodide, 5 drops twice daily, to diminish vascularity of the gland and simplify surgery. About 80–90% of patients will require thyroid supplementation following near-total thyroidectomy. C. Radioactive Iodine


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Radioiodine therapy (RAI) utilizing 131I is the preferred treatment for most patients over 21 years of age. In patients without heart disease, the therapeutic dose may be given immediately in a range of 80–120 μCi/g of estimated thyroid weight corrected for uptake. In patients with underlying heart disease or severe thyrotoxicosis and in elderly patients, it is desirable to treat with antithyroid drugs (preferably methimazole) until the patient is euthyroid. The medication is stopped for 2 to 3 days before RAI is administered so as not to interfere with RAI retention but can be restarted 3–5 days later, and then gradually tapered over 4–6 weeks as thyroid function normalizes. Iodides should be avoided to ensure maximal 131I uptake. Six to 12 weeks following the administration of RAI, the gland will shrink in size and the patient will usually become euthyroid or hypothyroid. A second dose may be required if there is minimal response 3 months post-RAI. Hypothyroidism occurs in about 80%


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. will shrink in size and the patient will usually become euthyroid or hypothyroid. A second dose may be required if there is minimal response 3 months post-RAI. Hypothyroidism occurs in about 80% of patients following RAI. Serum FT4 and TSH levels should be monitored regularly. When hypothyroidism develops, prompt replacement with oral levothyroxine, 50–150 mcg daily, should be instituted.


Pharmacology_Katzung

D. Adjuncts to Antithyroid Therapy

Pharmacology_Katzung. D. Adjuncts to Antithyroid Therapy


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. During the acute phase of thyrotoxicosis, β-adrenoceptor–blocking agents without intrinsic sympathomimetic activity are appropriate in symptomatic patients aged 60 years or more, in those with heart rates greater than 90 beats/min, and in those with cardiovascular disease. Propranolol, 20–40 mg orally every 6 hours, or metoprolol, 25–50 mg orally every 6–8 hours, will control tachycardia, hypertension, and atrial fibrillation. Beta-adrenoceptor–blocking agents are gradually withdrawn as serum thyroxine levels return to normal. Diltiazem, 90–120 mg three or four times daily, can be used to control tachycardia in patients in whom β blockers are contraindicated, eg, those with asthma. Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers may not be as effective as diltiazem or verapamil. Adequate nutrition and vitamin supplements are essential. Barbiturates accelerate T4 breakdown (by hepatic enzyme induction) and may be helpful both as sedatives and to lower T4 levels. Bile acid sequestrants (eg,


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. and vitamin supplements are essential. Barbiturates accelerate T4 breakdown (by hepatic enzyme induction) and may be helpful both as sedatives and to lower T4 levels. Bile acid sequestrants (eg, cholestyramine) can also rapidly lower T4 levels by increasing the fecal excretion of T4.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. These forms of hyperthyroidism occur often in older women with nodular goiters. Free thyroxine is moderately elevated or occasionally normal, but FT3 or T3 is strikingly elevated. Single toxic adenomas can be managed with either surgical excision of the adenoma or with radioiodine therapy. Toxic multinodular goiter is usually associated with a large goiter and is best treated by preparation with methimazole (preferable) or propylthiouracil followed by subtotal thyroidectomy.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. During the acute phase of a viral infection of the thyroid gland, there is destruction of thyroid parenchyma with transient release of stored thyroid hormones. A similar state may occur in patients with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. These episodes of transient thyrotoxicosis have been termed spontaneously resolving hyperthyroidism. Supportive therapy is usually all that is necessary, such as β-adrenoceptor–blocking agents without intrinsic sympathomimetic activity (eg, propranolol) for tachycardia and aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to control local pain and fever. Corticosteroids may be necessary in severe cases to control the inflammation.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Thyroid storm, or thyrotoxic crisis, is sudden acute exacerbation of all of the symptoms of thyrotoxicosis, presenting as a life-threatening syndrome. Vigorous management is mandatory. Propranolol, 60–80 mg orally every 4 hours, or intravenous propranolol, 1–2 mg slowly every 5–10 minutes to a total of 10 mg, or esmolol, 50–100 mg/kg per min, is helpful to control the severe cardiovascular manifestations. If β blockers are contraindicated by the presence of severe heart failure or asthma, hypertension and tachycardia may be controlled with diltiazem, 90–120 mg orally three or four times daily or 5–10 mg/h by intravenous infusion (asthmatic patients only). Release of thyroid hormones from the gland is retarded by the administration of saturated solution of potassium iodide, 5 drops orally every 6 hours starting 1 hour after giving thioamides. Hormone synthesis is blocked by the administration of propylthiouracil, 500–1000 mg as a loading dose, followed by 250 mg orally every 4 hours.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. every 6 hours starting 1 hour after giving thioamides. Hormone synthesis is blocked by the administration of propylthiouracil, 500–1000 mg as a loading dose, followed by 250 mg orally every 4 hours. If the patient is unable to take propylthiouracil by mouth, a rectal formulation * can be prepared and administered in a dosage of 400 mg every 6 hours as a retention enema. Methimazole may also be prepared for rectal administration in a dose of 60–80 mg daily. Hydrocortisone, 50 mg intravenously every 6 hours, will protect the patient against shock and will block the conversion of T4 to T3, rapidly reducing the level of thyroactive material in the blood.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Supportive therapy is essential to control fever, heart failure, and any underlying disease process that may have precipitated the acute storm. In rare situations, where the above methods are not adequate to control the problem, oral bile acid sequestrants (eg, cholestyramine), plasmapheresis, or peritoneal dialysis has been used to lower the levels of circulating thyroxine.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Although severe ophthalmopathy is rare, it is difficult to treat. A 15–20% risk of aggravating severe eye disease may occur following RAI, especially in those who smoke. Management requires effective treatment of the thyroid disease, usually by total surgical excision or 131I ablation of the gland plus oral prednisone therapy (see below). In addition, local therapy may be necessary, eg, elevation of the head to diminish periorbital edema and artificial tears to relieve corneal drying due to exophthalmos. Smoking cessation should be advised to prevent progression of the ophthalmopathy. For the severe, acute inflammatory reaction, prednisone, 60–100 mg orally daily for about a week and then 60–100 mg every other day, tapering the dose over 6–12 weeks, may be effective. If steroid therapy fails or is contraindicated, irradiation of the posterior orbit, using well-collimated high-energy X-ray therapy, will frequently result in marked improvement of the acute process. Threatened loss of


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. fails or is contraindicated, irradiation of the posterior orbit, using well-collimated high-energy X-ray therapy, will frequently result in marked improvement of the acute process. Threatened loss of vision is an indication for surgical decompression of the orbit. Eyelid or eye muscle surgery may be necessary to correct residual problems after the acute process has subsided.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Dermopathy or pretibial myxedema will often respond to topical corticosteroids applied to the involved area and covered with an occlusive dressing. * To prepare a water suspension propylthiouracil enema, grind eight 50-mg tablets and suspend the powder in 90 mL of sterile water.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Ideally, women in the childbearing period with severe disease should have definitive therapy with 131I or subtotal thyroidectomy prior to pregnancy in order to avoid an acute exacerbation of the disease during pregnancy or following delivery. If thyrotoxicosis does develop during pregnancy, RAI is contraindicated because it crosses the placenta and may injure the fetal thyroid. Propylthiouracil (fewer teratogenic risks than methimazole) can be given in the first trimester, and then methimazole can be given for the remainder of the pregnancy in order to avoid potential liver damage. The dosage of propylthiouracil must be kept to the minimum necessary for control of the disease (ie, <300 mg/d), because it may affect the function of the fetal thyroid gland. Alternatively, a subtotal thyroidectomy can be safely performed during the mid trimester. It is essential to give the patient a thyroid supplement during the balance of the pregnancy.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Graves’ disease may occur in the newborn infant, due either to passage of maternal TSH-R Ab [stim] through the placenta, stimulating the thyroid gland of the neonate, or to genetic transmission of the trait to the fetus. Laboratory studies reveal an elevated free T4, a markedly elevated T3, and a low TSH—in contrast to the normal infant, in whom TSH is elevated at birth. TSH-R Ab [stim] is usually found in the serum of both the child and the mother.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. If caused by maternal TSH-R Ab [stim], the disease is usually self-limited and subsides over a period of 4–12 weeks, coinciding with the fall in the infant’s TSH-R Ab [stim] level. However, treatment is necessary because of the severe metabolic stress the infant experiences. Therapy includes propylthiouracil at a dosage of 5–10 mg/kg daily in divided doses at 8-hour intervals; Lugol’s solution (8 mg of iodide per drop), 1 drop every 8 hours; and propranolol, 2 mg/kg daily in divided doses. Careful supportive therapy is essential. If the infant is very ill, oral prednisone, 2 mg/ kg daily in divided doses, will help block conversion of T4 to T3. These medications are gradually reduced as the clinical picture improves and can be discontinued by 6–12 weeks.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Subclinical hyperthyroidism is defined as a suppressed TSH level (below the normal range) in conjunction with normal thyroid hormone levels. Cardiac toxicity (eg, atrial fibrillation), especially in older persons and those with underlying cardiac disease, is of greatest concern. The consensus of thyroid experts concluded that hyperthyroidism treatment is appropriate in those with TSH less than 0.1 mIU/L, while close monitoring of the TSH level is appropriate for those with less TSH suppression.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In addition to those patients who develop hypothyroidism caused by amiodarone, approximately 3% of patients receiving this drug will develop hyperthyroidism instead. Two types of amiodaroneinduced thyrotoxicosis have been reported: iodine-induced (type I), which often occurs in persons with underlying thyroid disease (eg, multinodular goiter, Graves’ disease); and an inflammatory thyroiditis (type II) that occurs in patients without thyroid disease due to leakage of thyroid hormone into the circulation. Treatment of type I requires therapy with thioamides, while type II responds best to glucocorticoids. Since it is not always possible to differentiate between the two types, thioamides and glucocorticoids are often administered together. If possible, amiodarone should be discontinued; however, rapid improvement does not occur due to its long half-life.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Nontoxic goiter is a syndrome of thyroid enlargement without excessive thyroid hormone production. Enlargement of the thyroid gland is often due to TSH stimulation from inadequate thyroid hormone synthesis. The most common cause of nontoxic goiter worldwide is iodide deficiency, but in the United States, it is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Other causes include germ-line or acquired mutations in genes involved in hormone synthesis, dietary goitrogens, and neoplasms (see below). Goiter due to iodide deficiency is best managed by prophylactic administration of iodide. The optimal daily iodide intake is 150–200 mcg. Iodized salt and iodate used as preservatives in flour and bread are excellent sources of iodine in the diet. In areas where it is difficult to introduce iodized salt or iodate preservatives, a solution of iodized poppy-seed oil has been administered intramuscularly to provide a long-term source of inorganic iodine.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Goiter due to ingestion of goitrogens in the diet is managed by elimination of the goitrogen or by adding sufficient thyroxine to shut off TSH stimulation. Similarly, in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and dyshormonogenesis, adequate thyroxine therapy—150–200 mcg/d orally—will suppress pituitary TSH and result in slow regression of the goiter as well as correction of hypothyroidism.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Neoplasms of the thyroid gland may be benign (adenomas) or malignant. The primary diagnostic test is a fine needle aspiration biopsy and cytologic examination. Benign lesions may be monitored for growth or symptoms of local obstruction, which would mandate surgical excision. Levothyroxine therapy is not recommended for the suppression of benign nodules, especially in iodine sufficient areas. Management of thyroid carcinoma requires a total thyroidectomy, postoperative radioiodine therapy in selected instances, and lifetime replacement with levothyroxine. The evaluation for recurrence of some thyroid malignancies often involves withdrawal of thyroxine replacement for 4–6 weeks— accompanied by the development of hypothyroidism. Tumor recurrence is likely if there is a rise in serum thyroglobulin (ie, a tumor marker) or a positive 131I scan when TSH is elevated. Alternatively, administration of recombinant human TSH (Thyrogen) can produce comparable TSH elevations without discontinuing


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. (ie, a tumor marker) or a positive 131I scan when TSH is elevated. Alternatively, administration of recombinant human TSH (Thyrogen) can produce comparable TSH elevations without discontinuing thyroxine and avoiding hypothyroidism. Recombinant human TSH is administered intramuscularly once daily for 2 days. A rise in serum thyroglobulin or a positive 131I scan will indicate a recurrence of the thyroid cancer.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Levothyroxine (T4) Generic, Levoxyl, Levo-T, Levothroid, Levolet*, Novothyrox, Synthroid, Tirosint (capsule), Unithroid Liothyronine (T3) Generic, Cytomel, Triostat (IV) Liotrix (a 4:1 ratio of T4: T3) Thyrolar Radioactive iodine (131I) sodium Iodotope, Sodium Iodide I 131 Therapeutic Methimazole Generic, Tapazole Oral potassium iodide tablets IOSAT, Thyro-Block, Thyro-Safe American Thyroid Association: Professional Guidelines. Available at: www.thyroid. org/professionals/ata-professional-guidelines/. American Thyroid Association Task Force on Radiation Safety et al: Radiation safety in the treatment of patients with thyroid diseases by radioiodine 131I: Practice recommendations of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid 2011;21:335. Chen AY et al: American Thyroid Association Statement on Optimal Surgical Management of Goiter. Thyroid 2014;24:181.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Chen AY et al: American Thyroid Association Statement on Optimal Surgical Management of Goiter. Thyroid 2014;24:181. Cooper DS, Ladenson PW: The thyroid gland. In: Gardner DG, Shoback D (editors): Greenspan’s Basic & Clinical Endocrinology, 9th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2011. Haugen BR et al: 2015 American Thyroid Association Management Guidelines for Adult Patients with Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer: The American Thyroid Association Guidelines Task Force on Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer. Thyroid 2016;26:1. Rugge JB, Bougatsos C, Chou R: Screening and treatment of thyroid dysfunction: An evidence review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162:35. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Potassium iodide as a thyroid blocking agent in radiation emergencies. Available at: www.fda. gov/downloads/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ UCM080542.pdf.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Chatterjee VK et al: Thyroid in 2012: Advances in thyroid development, hormone action and neoplasia. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2013;9:74. Galli E, Pingitore A, Iervasi G: The role of thyroid hormone in the pathophysiology *Not available in United States. of heart failure: Clinical evidence. Heart Fail Rev 2010;15:155. Lin JZ et al: Gene specific actions of thyroid hormone receptor subtypes. PLoS One 2013;8:e52407. Porcu E et al: A meta-analysis of thyroid-related traits reveals novel loci and gender-specific differences in the regulation of thyroid function. PLoS Genet 2013;9:e1003266. Taylor PN, Peeters R, Dayan CM. Genetic abnormalities in thyroid hormone deiodinases. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2015;22:402. Warner A, Mittag J. Thyroid hormone and the central control of homeostasis. J Mol Endocrinol 2012;49:R29. Management of Hypothyroidism Cappola AR: Levothyroxine prescription not as simple as it seems. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:32.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Management of Hypothyroidism Cappola AR: Levothyroxine prescription not as simple as it seems. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:32. Escobar-Morreale HF et al: Treatment of hypothyroidism with levothyroxine or a combination of levothyroxine plus L-triiodothyronine. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;29:57. Gereben B et al: Scope and limitations of iodothyronine deiodinases in hypothyroidism. Nat. Rev Endocrinol 2015;11:642. Jonklaas B et al: American Thyroid Association Task Force on Thyroid Hormone Replacement: Guidelines for the Treatment of Hypothyroidism. Thyroid 2014;24:1670. Visser WE et al: Different causes of reduced sensitivity to thyroid hormone: Diagnosis and clinical management. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013;79:595. Wiersinga WM: Paradigm shifts in thyroid hormone replacement therapies for hypothyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2014;10:164. Blum MR et al: Subclinical thyroid dysfunction and fracture risk: A meta-analysis. JAMA 2015;313:2055.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Blum MR et al: Subclinical thyroid dysfunction and fracture risk: A meta-analysis. JAMA 2015;313:2055. Burns RB et al: Should we treat for subclinical hypothyroidism? Grand rounds discussion from Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. Ann Intern Med 2016;164:764. Hennessey JV, Espaillat R: Diagnosis and management of subclinical hypothyroidism in elderly adults: A review of the literature. J Am Geriatr Soc 2015;63:1663. Javed Z, Sathyapalan T: Levothyroxine treatment of mild subclinical hypothyroidism: A review of potential risks and benefits. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab 2016;7:12. Pasqualetti G et al: Subclinical hypothyroidism and cognitive impairment: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015;100:4240. Antithyroid Agents and Management of Hyperthyroidism Akmal A, Kung J: Propylthiouracil, and methimazole, and carbimazole-related hepatotoxicity. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2014;13:1397.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Antithyroid Agents and Management of Hyperthyroidism Akmal A, Kung J: Propylthiouracil, and methimazole, and carbimazole-related hepatotoxicity. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2014;13:1397. Bartalena L et al: Management of hyperthyroidism due to Graves’ disease: frequently asked questions and answers (if any). J Endocrinol Invest 2016;39:1105. Burch HB, Cooper DS. Management of Graves disease: A review. JAMA 2015;314:2544. Chiha M, Samarasinghe S, Kabaker AS: Thyroid storm: An updated review. J Intensive Care Med 2015;30:131 Ma C et al: Radioiodine therapy versus antithyroid medications for Graves’ disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016;2:CD010094. Ross DS et al: 2016 American Thyroid Association Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid 2016;26:1343. Sundaraesh V et al: Comparative effectiveness of therapies for Graves’ hyperthyroidism: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:367.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Sundaraesh V et al: Comparative effectiveness of therapies for Graves’ hyperthyroidism: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:367. Pearce EN: Thyroid disorders during pregnancy and postpartum. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2015;29:700. Stagnaro-Green A et al: Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the Diagnosis and Management of Thyroid Disease During Pregnancy and Postpartum. Thyroid 2011;21:1081. The Effects of Drugs on Thyroid Function Danzi S, Klein I: Amiodarone induced thyroid dysfunction. J Intensive Care Med 2015;30:179. Fallahi P et al: Thyroid dysfunctions induced by tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2014;13:723. Hamed SA: The effect of antiepileptic drugs on thyroid hormonal function: Causes and implications, Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2015:8:741. Haugen BR: Drugs that suppress TSH or cause central hypothyroidism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;23:793.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Haugen BR: Drugs that suppress TSH or cause central hypothyroidism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;23:793. Kibirige D et al: Spectrum of lithium induced thyroid abnormalities: A current perspective. Thyroid Res 2013;6:3. Kundra P, Burman KD: The effect of medications on thyroid function tests. Med Clin North Am 2012;96:283. Zimmermann MB, Boelaert K: Iodine deficiency and thyroid disorders. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2015;3:286.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The initial methimazole treatment was appropriate and preferable to propylthiouracil because of its longer duration of action allowing once daily dosing and its improved safety profile. JP presents with the typical signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism following RAI despite levothyroxine replacement. Either radioactive iodine or thyroidectomy are reasonable and effective strategies for definitive treat-ment of her hyperthyroidism, especially before becoming pregnant to avoid an acute hyperthyroid exacerbation during pregnancy or following delivery. Her hypothy-roid symptoms should have been easily corrected by the addition of levothyroxine dosed correctly at 1.7 mcg/kg/ day or 100 mcg daily. Because she is young and has no cardiac disease, full replacement doses were appropriate to start. However, her elevated TSH level indicates inad-equate levothyroxine replacement which may be related to nonadherence, or concomitant calcium and omeprazole co-administration. For optimal absorption,


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. However, her elevated TSH level indicates inad-equate levothyroxine replacement which may be related to nonadherence, or concomitant calcium and omeprazole co-administration. For optimal absorption, levothyroxine should be taken orally 60 minutes before meals on an empty stomach or at bedtime, and separated by 4 hours from her calcium administration. Lower thyroxine doses may also be sufficient if her omeprazole is stopped. Once weekly thyroxine injections may be effective in those with ongoing nonadherence. Thyroid function tests should be monitored after 6–8 weeks of therapy, obtained before thyroxine administration to avoid transient hormone alter-ations, and the dosage adjusted to achieve a normal TSH level and resolution of hypothyroid symptoms.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. George P. Chrousos, MD A 19-year-old man complains of anorexia, fatigue, dizziness, and weight loss of 8 months’ duration. The examining physician discovers postural hypotension and moderate vitiligo (depigmented areas of skin) and obtains routine blood tests. She finds hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, and acidosis and suspects Addison’s disease. She performs a standard ACTH 1–24 stimulation test, which reveals an insufficient plasma cortisol response compatible with primary adrenal insuf-ficiency. The diagnosis of autoimmune Addison’s disease is made, and the patient must start replacement of the hormones he cannot produce himself. How should this patient be treated? What precautions should he take?


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The natural adrenocortical hormones are steroid molecules produced and released by the adrenal cortex. Deficiency of the adrenocortical hormones results in the signs and symptoms of Addison’s disease. Excess production causes Cushing’s syndrome. Both natural and synthetic corticosteroids are used for the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of adrenal function. They are also used—more often and in much larger doses—for treatment of a variety of inflammatory and immunologic disorders.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Secretion of adrenocortical steroids, especially the glucocorticoids, is controlled by the pituitary release of corticotropin (ACTH) (see Chapter 37). Corticotropin is derived from a larger protein synthesized in the pituitary, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Secretion of the salt-retaining hormone aldosterone is primarily under the influence of circulating angiotensin and potassium. Corticotropin has some actions that do not depend on its effect on adrenocortical secretion. However, its pharmacologic value as an anti-inflammatory agent and its use in testing adrenal function depend on its secretory action. Its pharmacology is reviewed only briefly here. Inhibitors of the synthesis or antagonists of the action of the adrenocortical steroids are important in the treatment of several conditions. These agents are described at the end of this chapter.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The adrenal cortex releases a large number of steroids into the circulation. Some have minimal biologic activity and function primarily as precursors, and there are some for which no function has been established. The hormonal steroids may be classified as those having important effects on intermediary metabolism and immune function (glucocorticoids), those having principally salt-retaining activity (mineralocorticoids), and those having androgenic or estrogenic activity (see Chapter 40). In humans, the major glucocorticoid is cortisol and the most important mineralocorticoid is aldosterone. Quantitatively, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in its sulfated form (DHEAS) is the major adrenal androgen. However, DHEA and two other adrenal androgens, androstenedione and androstenediol, are weak androgens and androstenediol is a potent estrogen. Androstenedione can be converted to testosterone and estradiol in extra-adrenal tissues (Figure 39–1). Adrenal androgens constitute the major


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. weak androgens and androstenediol is a potent estrogen. Androstenedione can be converted to testosterone and estradiol in extra-adrenal tissues (Figure 39–1). Adrenal androgens constitute the major endogenous precursors of estrogen in women after menopause and in younger patients in whom ovarian function is deficient or absent.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. 17˛-Hydroxylase 17, 20-Lyase CH3 (P450c17) CH3 COO2AcetateCholesterol(ACTH?)NADPHHOCH3COOCH2OHCOOCH2OHCOOHOCorticosteroneCH2OHCOHOCHOAldosterone11-Deoxy-corticosteroneProgesteronePregnenoloneCOOHHO17-Hydroxy-pregnenoloneOHODehydroepi-androsteroneOO˜4-Androstene-3,17-dioneTestosteroneEstradiolAndrogen and estrogen pathway Glucocorticoid pathway Mineralocorticoid pathway CH3COOHO17-Hydroxy-progesteroneCOOHO11°-Deoxycortisol3°-Dehydrogenase ˜5,˜4-Isomerase NAD+ 11°-Hydroxylase (P450c11) 21˛-Hydroxylase (P450c21) CH2OHCOOHOHOCortisolCH2OH


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. FIGURE 39–1 Outline of major pathways in adrenocortical hormone biosynthesis. The major secretory products are underlined. Pregnenolone is the major precursor of corticosterone and aldosterone, and 17-hydroxypregnenolone is the major precursor of cortisol. The enzymes and cofactors for the reactions progressing down each column are shown on the left and across columns at the top of the figure. When a particular enzyme is deficient, hormone production is blocked at the points indicated by the shaded bars. (Reproduced, with permission, from Ganong WF: Review of Medical Physiology, 22nd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2005. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.)


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Cortisol (also called hydrocortisone, compound F) exerts a wide range of physiologic effects, including regulation of intermediary metabolism, cardiovascular function, growth, and immunity. Its synthesis and secretion are tightly regulated by the central nervous system, which is very sensitive to negative feedback by the circulating cortisol and exogenous (synthetic) glucocorticoids. Cortisol is synthesized from cholesterol (as shown in Figure 39–1). The mechanisms controlling its secretion are discussed in Chapter 37. The rate of secretion follows a circadian rhythm (Figure 39–2) governed by pulses of ACTH that peak in the early morning hours and after meals. In plasma, cortisol is bound to circulating proteins. Corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG), an α2 globulin synthesized by the liver, binds about 90% of the circulating hormone under normal circumstances. The remainder is free (about


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. FIGURE 39–2 Circadian variation in plasma cortisol throughout the 24-hour day (upper panel). The sensitivity of tissues to glucocorticoids is also circadian but inverse to that of cortisol, with low sensitivity in the late morning and high sensitivity in the evening and early night (lower panel). The sensitivity of tissues to glucocorticoids is inversely related to that of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) acetylation by the transcription factor CLOCK; the acetylated receptor has decreased transcriptional activity. (Adapted, with permission, from Nader N, Chrousos GP, Kino T: Interactions of the circadian CLOCK system and the HPA axis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2010;21:277. Copyright Elsevier.) 5–10%) or loosely bound to albumin (about 5%) and is available to exert its effect on target cells. When plasma cortisol levels exceed 20–30 mcg/dL, CBG is saturated, and the concentration of free cortisol rises rapidly. CBG is increased in pregnancy, with estrogen administration, and in


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. cells. When plasma cortisol levels exceed 20–30 mcg/dL, CBG is saturated, and the concentration of free cortisol rises rapidly. CBG is increased in pregnancy, with estrogen administration, and in hyperthyroidism. It is decreased by hypothyroidism, genetic defects in synthesis, and protein deficiency states. Albumin has a large capacity but low affinity for cortisol, and for practical purposes albumin-bound cortisol should be considered free. Synthetic corticosteroids such as dexamethasone are largely bound to albumin rather than CBG.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The half-life of cortisol in the circulation is normally about 60–90 minutes; it may be increased when hydrocortisone (the pharmaceutical preparation of cortisol) is administered in large amounts or when stress, hypothyroidism, or liver disease is present. Only 1% of cortisol is excreted unchanged in the urine as free cortisol; about 20% of cortisol is converted to cortisone by 11-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in the kidney and other tissues with mineralocorticoid receptors (see below) before reaching the liver. Most cortisol is metabolized in the liver. About one-third of the cortisol produced daily is excreted in the urine as dihydroxy ketone metabolites and is measured as 17-hydroxysteroids (see Figure 39–3 for carbon numbering). Many cortisol metabolites are conjugated with glucuronic acid or sulfate at the C3 and C21 hydroxyls, respectively, in the liver; they are then excreted in the urine.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In some species (eg, the rat), corticosterone is the major glucocorticoid. It is less firmly bound to protein and therefore metabolized more rapidly. The pathways of its degradation are similar to those of cortisol. A. Mechanism of Action


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Most of the known effects of the glucocorticoids are mediated by widely distributed intracellular glucocorticoid receptors. These proteins are members of the superfamily of nuclear receptors, which includes steroid, sterol (vitamin D), thyroid, retinoic acid, and many other receptors with unknown or nonexistent ligands (orphan receptors). All these receptors interact with the promoters of—and regulate the transcription of—target genes (Figure 39–4). In the absence of the hormonal ligand, glucocorticoid receptors are primarily cytoplasmic, in oligomeric complexes with chaperone heat-shock proteins (hsp). The most important of these are two molecules of hsp90, although other proteins (eg, hsp40, hsp70, FKBP5) are also involved. Free hormone from the plasma and interstitial fluid enters the cell and binds to the receptor, inducing conformational changes that allow it to dissociate from the heat shock proteins and dimerize. The dimeric ligand-bound receptor complex then is actively


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. the cell and binds to the receptor, inducing conformational changes that allow it to dissociate from the heat shock proteins and dimerize. The dimeric ligand-bound receptor complex then is actively transported into the nucleus, where it interacts with DNA and nuclear proteins. As a homodimer, it binds to glucocorticoid receptor elements (GREs) in the promoters of responsive genes. The GRE is composed of two palindromic sequences that bind to the hormone receptor dimer.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In addition to binding to GREs, the ligand-bound receptor also forms complexes with and influences the function of other transcription factors, such as AP1 and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), which act on non-GRE-containing promoters, to contribute to the regulation of transcription of their responsive genes. These transcription factors have broad actions on the regulation of growth factors, proinflammatory cytokines, etc, and to a great extent mediate the anti-growth, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Two genes for the corticoid receptor have been identified: one encoding the classic glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and the other encoding the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR). Alternative splicing of human glucocorticoid receptor pre-mRNA generates two highly homologous isoforms, termed hGRα and hGRβ. Human GRα is the classic ligand-activated glucocorticoid receptor, which, in the hormone-bound state, modulates the expression of glucocorticoid-responsive genes. In contrast, hGRβ does not bind glucocorticoids and is transcriptionally inactive. However, hGRβ is able to inhibit the effects of hormone-activated hGRα on glucocorticoid-responsive genes, playing the role of a physiologically relevant endogenous inhibitor of glucocorticoid action. It was recently shown that the two hGR alternative transcripts have eight distinct translation initiation sites—ie, in a human cell there may be up to 16 GRα and GRβ isoforms, which may form up to 256 homodimers and heterodimers with different


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. transcripts have eight distinct translation initiation sites—ie, in a human cell there may be up to 16 GRα and GRβ isoforms, which may form up to 256 homodimers and heterodimers with different transcriptional and possibly nontranscriptional activities. This variability suggests that this important class of steroid receptors has complex


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. FIGURE 39–3 Chemical structures of several glucocorticoids. The acetonide-substituted derivatives (eg, triamcinolone acetonide) have increased surface activity and are useful in dermatology. Dexamethasone is identical to betamethasone except for the configuration of the methyl group at C16: in betamethasone it is beta (projecting up from the plane of the rings); in dexamethasone it is alpha. stochastic activities. In addition, rare mutations in hGR may result in partial glucocorticoid resistance. Affected individuals have increased ACTH secretion because of reduced pituitary feedback and additional endocrine abnormalities (see below).


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The prototype GR isoform is composed of about 800 amino acids and can be divided into three functional domains (see Figure 2–6). The glucocorticoid-binding domain is located at the carboxyl terminal of the molecule. The DNA-binding domain is located in the middle of the protein and contains nine cysteine residues. This region folds into a “two-finger” structure stabilized by zinc ions connected to cysteines to form two tetrahedrons. This part of the molecule binds to the GREs that regulate glucocorticoid action on glucocorticoidregulated genes. The zinc fingers represent the basic structure by which the DNA-binding domain recognizes specific nucleic acid sequences. The amino-terminal domain is involved in the transactivation activity of the receptor and increases its specificity.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The interaction of glucocorticoid receptors with GREs or other transcription factors is facilitated or inhibited by several families of proteins called steroid receptor coregulators, divided into coactivators and corepressors. The coregulators do this by serving as bridges between the receptors and other nuclear proteins and by expressing enzymatic activities such as histone acetylase or deacetylase, which alter the conformation of nucleosomes and the transcribability of genes. Between 10% and 20% of expressed genes in a cell are regulated by glucocorticoids. The number and affinity of receptors for the hormone, the complement of transcription factors and coregulators, and post-transcription events determine the relative specificity of these hormones’ actions in various cells. The effects of glucocorticoids are mainly due to proteins synthesized from mRNA transcribed from their target genes.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Some of the effects of glucocorticoids can be attributed to their binding to mineralocorticoid receptors. Indeed, MRs bind aldosterone and cortisol with similar affinity. A mineralocorticoid effect of the higher levels of cortisol is avoided in some tissues (eg, kidney, colon, salivary glands) by expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, the enzyme responsible for biotransformation to its 11-keto derivative (cortisone), which has minimal action on aldosterone receptors.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The GR also interacts with other regulators of cell function. One such molecule is CLOCK/BMAL-1, a transcription factor dimer expressed in all tissues and generating the circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion (Figure 39–2) at the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. CLOCK is an acetyltransferase that acetylates the hinge region of the GR, neutralizing its transcriptional activity and thus rendering target tissues resistant to glucocorticoids. As shown in Figure 39–2, lower panel, the glucocorticoid target tissue sensitivity rhythm generated is in reverse phase to that of circulating cortisol concentrations, explaining the increased sensitivity of the organism to evening administration of glucocorticoids. The GR also interacts with NF-κB, a regulator of production of cytokines and other molecules involved in inflammation.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. pre-mRNA NucleusCytoplasm mRNA Protein Response GRE DNA (Editing) Transcription machinery (RNA poly-merase, etc) R R* R* R* R* R S (Unstable) S S S S S S S hsp90 hsp90 x CBG Steroid-receptor dimer (activated)


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. FIGURE 39–4 A model of the interaction of a steroid, S (eg, cortisol), and its receptor, R, and the subsequent events in a target cell. The steroid is present in the blood in bound form on the corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) but enters the cell as the free molecule. The intracellular receptor is bound to stabilizing proteins, including two molecules of heat-shock protein 90 (hsp90) and several others including FKBP5, denoted as “X” in the figure. This receptor complex is incapable of activating transcription. When the complex binds a molecule of cortisol, an unstable complex is created and the hsp90 and associated molecules are released. The steroid-receptor complex is now able to dimerize, enter the nucleus, bind to a glucocorticoid response element (GRE) on the regulatory region of the gene, and regulate transcription by RNA polymerase II and associated transcription factors. A variety of regulatory factors (not shown) may participate in facilitating (coactivators) or


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. region of the gene, and regulate transcription by RNA polymerase II and associated transcription factors. A variety of regulatory factors (not shown) may participate in facilitating (coactivators) or inhibiting (corepressors) the steroid response. The resulting mRNA is edited and exported to the cytoplasm for the production of protein that brings about the final hormone response. An alternative to the steroid-receptor complex interaction with a GRE is an interaction with and altering the function of other transcription factors, such as NF-κB in the nucleus of cells.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Prompt effects such as initial feedback suppression of pituitary ACTH occur in minutes and are too rapid to be explained on the basis of gene transcription and protein synthesis. It is not known how these effects are mediated. Among the proposed mechanisms are direct effects on cell membrane receptors for the hormone or nongenomic effects of the classic hormone-bound glucocorticoid receptor. The putative membrane receptors might be entirely different from the known intracellular receptors. For example, recent studies implicate G protein–coupled membrane receptors in the response of glutamatergic neurons to glucocorticoids in rats. Furthermore, all steroid receptors (except the MRs) have been shown to have palmitoylation motifs that allow enzymatic addition of palmitate and increased localization of the receptors in the vicinity of plasma membranes. Such receptors are available for direct interactions with and effects on various membrane-associated or cytoplasmic proteins without the


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. of the receptors in the vicinity of plasma membranes. Such receptors are available for direct interactions with and effects on various membrane-associated or cytoplasmic proteins without the need for entry into the nucleus and induction of transcriptional actions.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. B. Physiologic Effects The glucocorticoids have widespread effects because they influence the function of most cells in the body. The major metabolic consequences of glucocorticoid secretion or administration are due to direct actions of these hormones in the cell. However, some important effects are the result of homeostatic responses by insulin and glucagon. Although many of the effects of glucocorticoids are dose-related and become magnified when large amounts are administered for therapeutic purposes, there are also other effects—called permissive effects—without which many normal functions become deficient. For example, the response of vascular and bronchial smooth muscle to catecholamines is diminished in the absence of cortisol and restored by physiologic amounts of this glucocorticoid. Similarly, the lipolytic responses of fat cells to catecholamines, ACTH, and growth hormone are attenuated in the absence of glucocorticoids. C. Metabolic Effects


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. C. Metabolic Effects The glucocorticoids have important dose-related effects on carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. The same effects are responsible for some of the serious adverse effects associated with their use in therapeutic doses. Glucocorticoids stimulate and are required for gluconeogenesis and glycogen synthesis in the fasting state. They stimulate phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, glucose-6-phosphatase, and glycogen synthase and the release of amino acids in the course of muscle catabolism. Glucocorticoids increase serum glucose levels and thus stimulate insulin release but inhibit the uptake of glucose by muscle cells, while they stimulate hormone-sensitive lipase and thus lipolysis. The increased insulin secretion stimulates lipogenesis and to a lesser degree inhibits lipolysis, leading to a net increase in fat deposition combined with increased release of fatty acids and glycerol into the circulation.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The net results of these actions are most apparent in the fasting state, when the supply of glucose from gluconeogenesis, the release of amino acids from muscle catabolism, the inhibition of peripheral glucose uptake, and the stimulation of lipolysis all contribute to maintenance of an adequate glucose supply to the brain. D. Catabolic and Antianabolic Effects


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. D. Catabolic and Antianabolic Effects Although glucocorticoids stimulate RNA and protein synthesis in the liver, they have catabolic and antianabolic effects in lymphoid and connective tissue, muscle, peripheral fat, and skin. Supraphysiologic amounts of glucocorticoids lead to decreased muscle mass and weakness and thinning of the skin. Catabolic and antianabolic effects on bone are the cause of osteoporosis in Cushing’s syndrome and impose a major limitation in the long-term therapeutic use of glucocorticoids. In children, glucocorticoids reduce growth. This effect may be partially prevented by administration of growth hormone in high doses, but this use of growth hormone is not recommended. E. Anti-Inflammatory and Immunosuppressive Effects


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Glucocorticoids dramatically reduce the manifestations of inflammation. This is due to their profound effects on the concentration, distribution, and function of peripheral leukocytes and to their suppressive effects on inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and on other mediators of inflammation. Inflammation, regardless of its cause, is characterized by the extravasation and infiltration of leukocytes into the affected tissue. These events are mediated by a complex series of interactions of white cell adhesion molecules with those on endothelial cells and are inhibited by glucocorticoids. After a single dose of a short-acting glucocorticoid, the concentration of neutrophils in the circulation increases while the lymphocytes (T and B cells), monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils decrease. The changes are maximal at 6 hours and are dissipated in 24 hours. The increase in neutrophils is due both to increased influx into the blood from the bone marrow and to decreased migration from the


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The changes are maximal at 6 hours and are dissipated in 24 hours. The increase in neutrophils is due both to increased influx into the blood from the bone marrow and to decreased migration from the blood vessels, leading to a reduction in the number of cells at the site of inflammation. The reduction in circulating lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils is primarily the result of their movement from the vascular bed to lymphoid tissue.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Glucocorticoids also inhibit the functions of tissue macrophages and other antigen-presenting cells. The ability of these cells to respond to antigens and mitogens is reduced. The effect on macrophages is particularly marked and limits their ability to phagocytose and kill microorganisms and to produce tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 1, metalloproteinases, and plasminogen activator. Both macrophages and lymphocytes produce less interleukin 12 and interferon-γ, important inducers of Th1 cell activity, and cellular immunity.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In addition to their effects on leukocyte function, glucocorticoids influence the inflammatory response by inhibiting phospholipase A2 and thus reduce the synthesis of arachidonic acid, the precursor of prostaglandins and leukotrienes, and of platelet-activating factor. Finally, glucocorticoids reduce expression of cyclooxygenase 2, the inducible form of this enzyme, in inflammatory cells, thus reducing the amount of enzyme available to produce prostaglandins (see Chapters 18 and 36). Glucocorticoids cause vasoconstriction when applied directly to the skin, possibly by suppressing mast cell degranulation. They also decrease capillary permeability by reducing the amount of histamine released by basophils and mast cells.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids are largely due to the actions described above. In humans, complement activation is unaltered, but its effects are inhibited. Antibody production can be reduced by large doses of steroids, although it is unaffected by moderate doses (eg, 20 mg/d of prednisone). The anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects of these agents are widely useful therapeutically but are also responsible for some of their most serious adverse effects (see text that follows). F. Other Effects Glucocorticoids have important effects on the nervous system. Adrenal insufficiency causes marked slowing of the alpha rhythm of the electroencephalogram and is associated with depression. Increased amounts of glucocorticoids often produce behavioral disturbances in humans: initially insomnia and euphoria and subsequently depression. Large doses of glucocorticoids may increase intracranial pressure (pseudotumor cerebri).


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Glucocorticoids given chronically suppress the pituitary release of ACTH, growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone. Large doses of glucocorticoids have been associated with the development of peptic ulcer, possibly by suppressing the local immune response against Helicobacter pylori. They also promote fat redistribution in the body, with increase of visceral, facial, nuchal, and supraclavicular fat, and they appear to antagonize the effect of vitamin D on calcium absorption. The glucocorticoids also have important effects on the hematopoietic system. In addition to their effects on leukocytes, they increase the number of platelets and red blood cells. Cortisol deficiency results in impaired renal function (particularly glomerular filtration), augmented vasopressin secretion, and diminished ability to excrete a water load.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Cortisol deficiency results in impaired renal function (particularly glomerular filtration), augmented vasopressin secretion, and diminished ability to excrete a water load. Glucocorticoids have important effects on the development of the fetal lungs. Indeed, the structural and functional changes in the lungs near term, including the production of pulmonary surface-active material required for air breathing (surfactant), are stimulated by glucocorticoids.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Recently, glucocorticoids were found to have direct effects on the epigenetic regulation of specific target genes by altering the activities of DNA methyltransferases and other enzymes participating in epigenesis. This is of particular importance in the prenatal treatment of pregnant mothers or treatment of young infants and children, when the effects of glucocorticoids may be long-term or even permanent. These effects may predispose these patients to behavioral or somatic disorders, such as depression or obesity and metabolic syndrome. Glucocorticoids have become important agents for use in the treatment of many inflammatory, immunologic, hematologic, and other disorders. This has stimulated the development of many synthetic steroids with anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activity.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Pharmaceutical steroids are usually synthesized from cholic acid obtained from cattle or steroid sapogenins found in plants. Further modifications of these steroids have led to the marketing of a large group of synthetic steroids with special characteristics that are pharmacologically and therapeutically important (Table 39–1; Figure 39–3). The metabolism of the naturally occurring adrenal steroids has been discussed above. The synthetic corticosteroids (Table 39–1) are in most cases rapidly and completely absorbed when given by mouth. Although they are transported and metabolized in a fashion similar to that of the endogenous steroids, important differences exist.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Alterations in the glucocorticoid molecule influence its affinity for glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors as well as its protein-binding affinity, side chain stability, rate of elimination, and metabolic products. Halogenation at the 9 position, unsaturation of the Δ1–2 bond of the A ring, and methylation at the 2 or 16 position prolong the half-life by more than 50%. The Δ1 compounds are excreted in the free form. In some cases, the agent given is a prodrug; for example, prednisone is rapidly converted to the active product prednisolone in the body. The actions of the synthetic steroids are similar to those of cortisol (see above). They bind to the specific intracellular receptor proteins and produce the same effects but have different ratios of glucocorticoid to mineralocorticoid potency (Table 39–1).


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. A. Diagnosis and Treatment of Disturbed Adrenal Function 1. Adrenocortical insufficiency a. Chronic (Addison’s disease)—Chronic adrenocortical insufficiency is characterized by weakness, fatigue, weight loss, hypo-tension, hyperpigmentation, and inability to maintain the blood glucose level during fasting. In such individuals, minor noxious, TABLE 39–1 Some commonly used natural and synthetic corticosteroids for general use. See Table 61–2 for dermatologic corticosteroids. 1Potency relative to hydrocortisone. 2Outside United States. 3Triamcinolone acetonide: Up to 100. traumatic, or infectious stimuli may produce acute adrenal insufficiency with circulatory shock and even death.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. traumatic, or infectious stimuli may produce acute adrenal insufficiency with circulatory shock and even death. In primary adrenal insufficiency, about 20–30 mg of hydrocortisone must be given daily, with increased amounts during periods of stress. Although hydrocortisone has some mineralocorticoid activity, this must be supplemented by an appropriate amount of a salt-retaining hormone such as fludrocortisone. Synthetic glucocorticoids that are long-acting and devoid of salt-retaining activity should not be administered to these patients. b. Acute—When acute adrenocortical insufficiency is suspected, treatment must be instituted immediately. Therapy consists of large amounts of parenteral hydrocortisone in addition to correction of fluid and electrolyte abnormalities and treatment of precipitating factors.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Hydrocortisone sodium succinate or phosphate in doses of 100 mg intravenously is given every 8 hours until the patient is stable. The dose is then gradually reduced, achieving maintenance dosage within 5 days. The administration of salt-retaining hormone is resumed when the total hydrocortisone dosage has been reduced to 50 mg/d. 2. Adrenocortical hypoand hyperfunction a. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia—This group of disorders is characterized by specific defects in the synthesis of cortisol. In pregnancies at high risk for congenital adrenal hyperplasia, fetuses can be protected from genital abnormalities by administration of dexamethasone to the mother.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The most common defect is a decrease in or lack of P450c21 (21α-hydroxylase) activity. * As can be seen in Figure 39–1, this would lead to a reduction in cortisol synthesis and thus produce a compensatory increase in ACTH release. The adrenal becomes hyper-plastic and produces abnormally large amounts of precursors such as 17-hydroxyprogesterone that can be diverted to the androgen pathway, which leads to virilization and can result in ambiguous genitalia in the female fetus. Metabolism of this compound in the liver leads to pregnanetriol, which is characteristically excreted into the urine in large amounts in this disorder and can be used to make the diagnosis and to monitor efficacy of glucocorticoid substitution. However, the most reliable method of detecting this disorder is the increased response of plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone to ACTH stimulation.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. If the defect is in 11-hydroxylation, large amounts of deoxycorticosterone are produced, and because this steroid has mineralocorticoid activity, hypertension with or without hypokalemic alkalosis ensues. When 17-hydroxylation is defective in the adrenals and gonads, hypogonadism is also present. However, increased amounts of 11-deoxycorticosterone are formed, and the signs and symptoms associated with mineralocorticoid excess—such as hypertension and hypokalemia— also are observed. When first seen, the infant with congenital adrenal hyperplasia may be in acute adrenal crisis and should be treated as described above, using appropriate electrolyte solutions and an intravenous preparation of hydrocortisone in stress doses. Once the patient * Names for the adrenal steroid synthetic enzymes include the following: P450c11 (11β-hydroxylase), P450c17 (17α-hydroxylase), P450c21 (21α-hydroxylase).


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. is stabilized, oral hydrocortisone, 12–18 mg/m2 per day in two unequally divided doses (two thirds in the morning, one third in late afternoon) is begun. The dosage is adjusted to allow normal growth and bone maturation and to prevent androgen excess. Alternate-day therapy with prednisone has also been used to achieve greater ACTH suppression without increasing growth inhibition. Fludrocortisone, 0.05–0.2 mg/d, should also be administered by mouth, with added salt to maintain normal blood pressure, plasma renin activity, and electrolytes. b.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Cushing’s syndrome—Cushing’s syndrome is usually the result of bilateral adrenal hyperplasia secondary to an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma (Cushing’s disease) but occasionally is due to tumors or nodular hyperplasia of the adrenal gland or ectopic production of ACTH by other tumors. The manifestations are those associated with the chronic presence of excessive glucocorticoids. When glucocorticoid hypersecretion is marked and prolonged, a rounded, plethoric face and trunk obesity are striking in appearance. Protein loss may be significant and includes muscle wasting; thinning, purple striae, and easy bruising of the skin; poor wound healing; and osteoporosis. Other serious disturbances include mental disorders, hypertension, and diabetes. This disorder is treated by surgical removal of the tumor producing ACTH or cortisol, irradiation of the pituitary tumor, or resection of one or both adrenals. These patients must receive large doses of cortisol during and after the surgical


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. of the tumor producing ACTH or cortisol, irradiation of the pituitary tumor, or resection of one or both adrenals. These patients must receive large doses of cortisol during and after the surgical procedure. Doses of up to 300 mg of soluble hydrocortisone may be given as a continuous intravenous infusion on the day of surgery. The dose must be reduced slowly to normal replacement levels, since rapid reduction in dose may produce withdrawal symptoms, including fever and joint pain. If adrenalectomy has been performed, long-term maintenance is similar to that outlined above for adrenal insufficiency.


Pharmacology_Katzung

c.

Pharmacology_Katzung. c.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Primary generalized glucocorticoid resistance (Chrousos syndrome)—This rare sporadic or familial genetic condition is usually due to inactivating mutations of the glucocorticoid receptor gene. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hyperfunctions in an attempt to compensate for the defect, and the increased production of ACTH leads to high circulating levels of cortisol and cortisol precursors such as corticosterone and 11-deoxycorticosterone with mineralocorticoid activity, as well as of adrenal androgens. These increased levels may result in hypertension with or without hypokalemic alkalosis and hyperandrogenism expressed as virilization and precocious puberty in children and acne, hirsutism, male pattern baldness, and menstrual irregularities (mostly oligo-amenorrhea and hypofertility) in women. The therapy of this syndrome is high doses of synthetic glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone with no inherent mineralocorticoid activity. These doses are titrated to normalize the


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. in women. The therapy of this syndrome is high doses of synthetic glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone with no inherent mineralocorticoid activity. These doses are titrated to normalize the production of cortisol, cortisol precursors, and adrenal androgens.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. d. Aldosteronism—Primary aldosteronism usually results from the excessive production of aldosterone by an adrenal adenoma. However, it may also result from abnormal secretion by hyper-plastic glands or from a malignant tumor. The clinical findings of hypertension, weakness, and tetany are related to the continued renal loss of potassium, which leads to hypokalemia, alkalosis, and elevation of serum sodium concentrations. This syndrome can also be produced in disorders of adrenal steroid biosynthesis by excessive secretion of deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone, or 18-hydroxycorticosterone—all compounds with inherent mineralocorticoid activity.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In contrast to patients with secondary aldosteronism (see text that follows), these patients have low (suppressed) levels of plasma renin activity and angiotensin II. When treated with fludrocortisone (0.2 mg twice daily orally for 3 days) or deoxycorticosterone acetate (20 mg/d intramuscularly for 3 days—but not available in the United States), patients fail to retain sodium and the secretion of aldosterone is not significantly reduced. When the disorder is mild, it may escape detection if serum potassium levels are used for screening. However, it may be detected by an increased ratio of plasma aldosterone to renin. Patients generally improve when treated with spironolactone, an aldosterone receptor-blocking agent, and the response to this agent is of diagnostic and therapeutic value.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. 3. Use of glucocorticoids for diagnostic purposes—It is sometimes necessary to suppress the production of ACTH to identify the source of a particular hormone or to establish whether its production is influenced by the secretion of ACTH. In these circumstances, it is advantageous to use a very potent substance such as dexamethasone because the use of small quantities reduces the possibility of confusion in the interpretation of hormone assays in blood or urine. For example, if complete suppression is achieved by the use of 50 mg of cortisol, the urinary 17-hydroxycorticosteroids will be 15–18 mg/24 h, since one-third of the dose given will be recovered in urine as 17-hydroxycorticosteroid. If an equivalent dose of 1.5 mg of dexamethasone is used, the urinary excretion will be only 0.5 mg/24 h and blood levels will be low.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The dexamethasone suppression test is used for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome and has also been used in the differential diagnosis of depressive psychiatric states. As a screening test, 1 mg dexamethasone is given orally at 11 pm, and a plasma sample is obtained the following morning. In normal individuals, the morning cortisol concentration is usually <3 mcg/dL, whereas in Cushing’s syndrome the level is usually >5 mcg/dL. The results are not reliable in the patient with depression, anxiety, concurrent illness, and other stressful conditions or in the patient who is receiving a medication that enhances the catabolism of dexamethasone in the liver. To distinguish between hypercortisolism due to anxiety, depression, and alcoholism (pseudo-Cushing syndrome) and bona fide Cushing’s syndrome, a combined test is carried out, consisting of dexamethasone (0.5 mg orally every 6 hours for 2 days) followed by a standard corticotropinreleasing hormone (CRH) test (1 mg/kg given as a bolus


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. a combined test is carried out, consisting of dexamethasone (0.5 mg orally every 6 hours for 2 days) followed by a standard corticotropinreleasing hormone (CRH) test (1 mg/kg given as a bolus intravenous infusion 2 hours after the last dose of dexamethasone).


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In patients in whom the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome has been established clinically and confirmed by a finding of elevated free cortisol in the urine, suppression with large doses of dexamethasone will help to distinguish patients with Cushing’s disease from those with steroid-producing tumors of the adrenal cortex or with the ectopic ACTH syndrome. Dexamethasone is given in a dosage of 0.5 mg orally every 6 hours for 2 days, followed by 2 mg orally every 6 hours for 2 days, and the urine is then assayed for cortisol or its metabolites (Liddle’s test); or dexamethasone is given as a single dose of 8 mg at 11 pm, and the plasma cortisol is measured at 8 am the following day. In patients with Cushing’s disease, the suppressant effect of dexamethasone usually produces a 50% reduction in hormone levels. In patients in whom suppression does not occur, the ACTH level will be low in the presence of a cortisol-producing adrenal tumor and elevated in patients with an ectopic ACTH-producing


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. levels. In patients in whom suppression does not occur, the ACTH level will be low in the presence of a cortisol-producing adrenal tumor and elevated in patients with an ectopic ACTH-producing tumor.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. B. Corticosteroids and Stimulation of Lung Maturation in the Fetus Lung maturation in the fetus is regulated by the fetal secretion of cortisol. Treatment of the mother with large doses of glucocorticoid reduces the incidence of respiratory distress syndrome in infants delivered prematurely. When delivery is anticipated before 34 weeks of gestation, intramuscular betamethasone, 12 mg, followed by an additional dose of 12 mg 18–24 hours later, is commonly used. Betamethasone is chosen because maternal protein binding and placental metabolism of this corticosteroid is less than that of cortisol, allowing increased transfer across the placenta to the fetus. A study of more than 10,000 infants born at 23–25 weeks of gestation indicated that exposure to exogenous corticosteroids before birth reduced the death rate and evidence of neurodevelopmental impairment. C. Corticosteroids and Nonadrenal Disorders


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. C. Corticosteroids and Nonadrenal Disorders The synthetic analogs of cortisol are useful in the treatment of a diverse group of diseases unrelated to any known disturbance of adrenal function (Table 39–2). The usefulness of corticosteroids in these disorders is a function of their ability to suppress inflammatory and immune responses and to alter leukocyte function, as previously described (see also Chapter 55). These agents are useful in disorders in which host response is the cause of the major manifestations of the disease. In instances in which the inflammatory or immune response is important in controlling the pathologic process, therapy with corticosteroids may be dangerous but justified to prevent irreparable damage from an inflammatory response—if used in conjunction with specific therapy for the disease process.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Since corticosteroids are not usually curative, the pathologic process may progress while clinical manifestations are suppressed. Therefore, chronic therapy with these drugs should be undertaken with great care and only when the seriousness of the disorder warrants their use and when less hazardous measures have been exhausted.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. In general, attempts should be made to bring the disease process under control using mediumto intermediate-acting glucocorticoids such as prednisone and prednisolone (Table 39–1), as well as all ancillary measures possible to keep the dose low. Where possible, alternate-day therapy should be used (see the following text). Therapy should not be decreased or stopped abruptly. When prolonged therapy is anticipated, it is helpful to obtain chest x-rays and a tuberculin test, since glucocorticoid therapy can reactivate dormant tuberculosis. The presence of diabetes, peptic ulcer, osteoporosis, and psychological disturbances should be taken into consideration, and cardiovascular function should be assessed. TABLE 39–2 Some therapeutic indications for the use of glucocorticoids in nonadrenal disorders. Pulmonary diseases Aspiration pneumonia, bronchial asthma, prenatal prevention of infant respiratory distress syndrome, sarcoidosis


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Pulmonary diseases Aspiration pneumonia, bronchial asthma, prenatal prevention of infant respiratory distress syndrome, sarcoidosis Treatment for transplant rejection is a very important application of glucocorticoids. The efficacy of these agents is based on their ability to reduce antigen expression from the grafted tissue, delay revascularization, and interfere with the sensitization of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and the generation of primary antibody-forming cells. The benefits obtained from glucocorticoids vary considerably. Use of these drugs must be carefully weighed in each patient against their widespread effects. The major undesirable effects of glucocorticoids are the result of their hormonal actions, which lead to the clinical picture of iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome (see later in text).


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. When glucocorticoids are used for short periods (<2 weeks), it is unusual to see serious adverse effects even with moderately large doses. However, insomnia, behavioral changes (primarily hypo-mania), and acute peptic ulcers are occasionally observed even after only a few days of treatment. Acute pancreatitis is a rare but serious acute adverse effect of high-dose glucocorticoids. A. Metabolic Effects


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Most patients who are given daily doses of 100 mg of hydrocortisone or more (or the equivalent amount of synthetic steroid) for longer than 2 weeks undergo a series of changes that have been termed iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome. The rate of development is a function of the dosage and the genetic background of the patient. In the face, rounding, puffiness, fat deposition, and plethora usually appear (moon facies). Similarly, fat tends to be redistributed from the extremities to the trunk, the back of the neck, and the supraclavicular fossae. There is an increased growth of fine hair over the face, thighs and trunk. Steroid-induced punctate acne may appear, and insomnia and increased appetite are noted. In the treatment of dangerous or disabling disorders, these changes may not require cessation of therapy. However, the underlying metabolic changes accompanying them can be very serious by the time they become obvious. The continuing breakdown of protein and diversion of amino acids to


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. of therapy. However, the underlying metabolic changes accompanying them can be very serious by the time they become obvious. The continuing breakdown of protein and diversion of amino acids to glucose production increase the need for insulin and over time result in weight gain; visceral fat deposition; myopathy and muscle wasting; thinning of the skin, with striae and bruising; hyperglycemia; and eventually osteoporosis, diabetes, and aseptic necrosis of the hip. Wound healing is also impaired under these circumstances. When diabetes occurs, it is treated with diet and insulin. These patients are often resistant to insulin but rarely develop ketoacidosis. In general, patients treated with corticosteroids should be on high-protein and potassium-enriched diets.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. B. Other Complications Other serious adverse effects of glucocorticoids include peptic ulcers and their consequences. The clinical findings associated with certain disorders, particularly bacterial and mycotic infections, may be masked by the corticosteroids, and patients must be carefully monitored to avoid serious mishap when large doses are used. Severe myopathy is more frequent in patients treated with long-acting glucocorticoids. The administration of such compounds has been associated with nausea, dizziness, and weight loss in some patients. These effects are treated by changing drugs, reducing dosage, and increasing potassium and protein intake.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Hypomania or acute psychosis may occur, particularly in patients receiving very large doses of corticosteroids. Long-term therapy with intermediateand long-acting steroids is associated with depression and the development of posterior subcapsular cataracts. Psychiatric follow-up and periodic slit-lamp examination are indicated in such patients. Increased intraocular pressure is common, and glaucoma may be induced. Benign intracranial hypertension also occurs. In dosages of 45 mg/m2 per day or more of hydrocortisone or its equivalent, growth retardation occurs in children. Medium-, intermediate-, and long-acting glucocorticoids have greater growth-suppressing potency than the natural steroid at equivalent doses.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. When given in larger than physiologic amounts, steroids such as cortisone and hydrocortisone, which have mineralocorticoid effects in addition to glucocorticoid effects, cause some sodium and fluid retention and loss of potassium. In patients with normal cardiovascular and renal function, this leads to a hypokalemic, hypochloremic alkalosis and eventually to a rise in blood pressure. In patients with hypoproteinemia, renal disease, or liver disease, edema may also occur. In patients with heart disease, even small degrees of sodium retention may lead to heart failure. These effects can be minimized by using synthetic non-salt-retaining steroids, sodium restriction, and judicious amounts of potassium supplements. C. Adrenal Suppression


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. C. Adrenal Suppression When corticosteroids are administered for more than 2 weeks, adrenal suppression may occur. If treatment extends over weeks to months, the patient should be given appropriate supplementary therapy at times of minor stress (twofold dosage increases for 24–48 hours) or severe stress (up to tenfold dosage increases for 48–72 hours) such as accidental trauma or major surgery. If corticosteroid dosage is to be reduced, it should be tapered slowly. If therapy is to be stopped, the reduction process should be quite slow when the dose reaches replacement levels. It may take 2–12 months for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to function acceptably, and cortisol levels may not return to normal for another 6–9 months. The glucocorticoid-induced suppression is not a pituitary problem, and treatment with ACTH does not reduce the time required for the return of normal function.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. If the dosage is reduced too rapidly in patients receiving glucocorticoids for a certain disorder, the symptoms of the disorder may reappear or increase in intensity. However, patients without an underlying disorder (eg, patients cured surgically of Cushing’s disease) also develop symptoms with rapid reductions in corticosteroid levels. These symptoms include anorexia, nausea or vomiting, weight loss, lethargy, headache, fever, joint or muscle pain, and postural hypotension. Although many of these symptoms may reflect true glucocorticoid deficiency, they may also occur in the presence of normal or even elevated plasma cortisol levels, suggesting glucocorticoid dependence. A. Special Precautions Patients receiving glucocorticoids must be monitored carefully for the development of hyperglycemia, glycosuria, sodium retention with edema or hypertension, hypokalemia, peptic ulcer, osteoporosis, and hidden infections.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The dosage should be kept as low as possible, and intermittent administration (eg, alternate-day) should be used when satisfactory therapeutic results can be obtained on this schedule. Even patients maintained on relatively low doses of corticosteroids may require supplementary therapy at times of stress, such as when surgical procedures are performed or intercurrent illness or accidents occur. B. Contraindications Glucocorticoids must be used with great caution in patients with peptic ulcer, heart disease or hypertension with heart failure, certain infectious illnesses such as varicella and tuberculosis, psychoses, diabetes, osteoporosis, or glaucoma. Selection of Drug & Dosage Schedule Glucocorticoid preparations differ with respect to relative anti-inflammatory and mineralocorticoid effect, duration of action, cost, and dosage forms available (Table 39–1), and these factors should be taken into account in selecting the drug to be used. A. ACTH versus Adrenocortical Steroids


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. A. ACTH versus Adrenocortical Steroids In patients with normal adrenals, ACTH was used in the past to induce the endogenous production of cortisol to obtain similar effects. However, except when an increase in androgens is desirable, the use of ACTH as a therapeutic agent has been abandoned. Instances in which ACTH was claimed to be more effective than glucocorticoids were probably due to the administration of smaller amounts of corticosteroids than were produced by the dosage of ACTH. B. Dosage


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. B. Dosage In determining the dosage regimen to be used, the physician must consider the seriousness of the disease, the amount of drug likely to be required to obtain the desired effect, and the duration of therapy. In some diseases, the amount required for maintenance of the desired therapeutic effect is less than the dose needed to obtain the initial effect, and the lowest possible dosage for the needed effect should be determined by gradually lowering the dose until a small increase in signs or symptoms is noted. When it is necessary to maintain continuously elevated plasma corticosteroid levels to suppress ACTH, a slowly absorbed parenteral preparation or small oral doses at frequent intervals are required. The opposite situation exists with respect to the use of corticosteroids in the treatment of inflammatory and allergic disorders. The same total quantity given in a few doses may be more effective than that given in many smaller doses or in a slowly absorbed parenteral form.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Severe autoimmune conditions involving vital organs must be treated aggressively, and undertreatment is as dangerous as overtreatment. To minimize the deposition of immune complexes and the influx of leukocytes and macrophages, 1 mg/kg per day of prednisone in divided doses is required initially. This dosage is maintained until the serious manifestations respond. The dosage can then be gradually reduced. When large doses are required for prolonged periods of time, alternate-day administration of the compound may be tried. When used in this manner, very large amounts (eg, 100 mg of prednisone) can sometimes be administered with less marked adverse effects because there is a recovery period between each dose. The transition to an alternate-day schedule can be made after the disease process is under control. It should be done gradually and with additional supportive measures between doses.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. When selecting a drug for use in large doses, a mediumor intermediate-acting synthetic steroid with little mineralocorticoid effect is advisable. If possible, it should be given as a single morning dose. C. Special Dosage Forms Local therapy, such as topical preparations for skin disease, ophthalmic forms for eye disease, intra-articular injections for joint disease, inhaled steroids for asthma, and hydrocortisone enemas for ulcerative colitis, provides a means of delivering large amounts of steroid to the diseased tissue with reduced systemic effects. Beclomethasone dipropionate, and several other glucocorticoids—primarily budesonide, flunisolide, and mometasone furoate, administered as aerosols—have been found to be extremely useful in the treatment of asthma (see Chapter 20).


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Beclomethasone dipropionate, triamcinolone acetonide, budesonide, flunisolide, fluticasone, and others are available as nasal sprays for the topical treatment of allergic rhinitis. They are effective at doses (one or two sprays one, two, or three times daily) that in most patients result in plasma levels that are too low to influence adrenal function or have any other systemic effects. Corticosteroids incorporated in ointments, creams, lotions, and sprays are used extensively in dermatology. These preparations are discussed in more detail in Chapter 61. Recently, new timed-release hydrocortisone tablets were developed for the replacement treatment of Addisonian and congenital adrenal hyperplasia patients. These tablets produce plasma cortisol levels that are similar to those secreted normally in a circadian fashion. MINERALOCORTICOIDS (ALDOSTERONE, DEOXYCORTICOSTERONE, FLUDROCORTISONE)


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. MINERALOCORTICOIDS (ALDOSTERONE, DEOXYCORTICOSTERONE, FLUDROCORTISONE) The most important mineralocorticoid in humans is aldosterone. However, small amounts of deoxycorticosterone (DOC) are also formed and released. Although the amount is normally insignificant, DOC was of some importance therapeutically in the past. Its actions, effects, and metabolism are qualitatively similar to those described below for aldosterone. Fludrocortisone, a synthetic corticosteroid, is the most commonly prescribed salt-retaining hormone.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Aldosterone is synthesized mainly in the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex. Its structure and synthesis are illustrated in Figure 39–1. The rate of aldosterone secretion is subject to several influences. ACTH produces a moderate stimulation of its release, but this effect is not sustained for more than a few days in the normal individual. Although aldosterone is no less than one third as effective as cortisol in suppressing ACTH, the quantities of aldosterone produced by the adrenal cortex and its plasma concentrations are insufficient to participate in any significant feedback control of ACTH secretion.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Without ACTH, aldosterone secretion falls to about half the normal rate, indicating that other factors, eg, angiotensin, are able to maintain and perhaps regulate its secretion (see Chapter 17). Independent variations between cortisol and aldosterone secretion can also be demonstrated by means of lesions in the nervous system such as decerebration, which decreases the secretion of cortisol while increasing the secretion of aldosterone. A. Physiologic and Pharmacologic Effects


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. A. Physiologic and Pharmacologic Effects Aldosterone and other steroids with mineralocorticoid properties promote the reabsorption of sodium from the distal part of the distal convoluted renal tubule and from the cortical collecting tubules, loosely coupled to the excretion of potassium and hydrogen ion. Sodium reabsorption in the sweat and salivary glands, gastrointestinal mucosa, and across cell membranes in general is also increased. Excessive levels of aldosterone produced by tumors or overdosage with synthetic mineralocorticoids lead to hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, increased plasma volume, and hypertension.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Mineralocorticoids act by binding to the mineralocorticoid receptor in the cytoplasm of target cells, especially principal cells of the distal convoluted and collecting tubules of the kidney. The drug-receptor complex activates a series of events similar to those described above for the glucocorticoids and illustrated in Figure 39–4. It is of interest that this receptor has the same affinity for cortisol, which is present in much higher concentrations in the extracellular fluid. The specificity for mineralocorticoids in the kidney appears to be conferred, at least in part, by the presence— in the kidney—of the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, which converts cortisol to cortisone. The latter has low affinity for the receptor and is inactive as a mineralocorticoid or glucocorticoid in the kidney. The major effect of activation of the aldosterone receptor is increased expression of Na+/K+-ATPase and the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). B. Metabolism


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. B. Metabolism Aldosterone is secreted at the rate of 100–200 mcg/d in normal individuals with a moderate dietary salt intake. The plasma level in men (resting supine) is about 0.007 mcg/dL. The half-life of aldosterone injected in tracer quantities is 15–20 minutes, and it does not appear to be firmly bound to serum proteins. The metabolism of aldosterone is similar to that of cortisol, about 50 mcg/24 h appearing in the urine as conjugated tetrahydroaldosterone. Approximately 5–15 mcg/24 h is excreted free or as the 3-oxo glucuronide.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. DOC, which also serves as a precursor of aldosterone (Figure 39–1), is normally secreted in amounts of about 200 mcg/d. Its half-life when injected into the human circulation is about 70 minutes. Preliminary estimates of its concentration in plasma are approximately 0.03 mcg/dL. The control of its secretion differs from that of aldosterone in that the secretion of DOC is primarily under the control of ACTH. Although the response to ACTH is enhanced by dietary sodium restriction, due to adaptations, a low-salt diet does not increase DOC secretion. The secretion of DOC may be markedly increased in abnormal conditions such as adrenocortical carcinoma and congenital adrenal hyperplasia with reduced P450c11 or P450c17 activity.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. This compound, a potent steroid with both glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid activity, is the most widely used mineralocorticoid. Oral doses of 0.1 mg two to seven times weekly have potent salt-retaining activity and are used in the treatment of adrenocortical insufficiency associated with mineralocorticoid deficiency. These dosages are too small to have important anti-inflammatory or antigrowth effects.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The adrenal cortex secretes large amounts of DHEA and smaller amounts of androstenedione and testosterone. Although these androgens are thought to contribute to the normal maturation process, they do not stimulate or support major androgen-dependent pubertal changes in humans. Studies suggest that DHEA and its sulfate may have other important physiologic actions. If that is correct, these results are probably due to the peripheral conversion of DHEA to more potent androgens or to estrogens and interaction with androgen and estrogen receptors, respectively. Additional effects may be exerted through an interaction with the GABAA and glutamate receptors in the brain or with a nuclear receptor in several central and peripheral sites. The therapeutic use of DHEA in humans has been explored, but the substance has already been adopted with uncritical enthusiasm by members of the sports drug culture and the vitamin and food supplement culture.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. The results of a placebo-controlled trial of DHEA in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus have been reported as well as those of a study of DHEA replacement in women with adrenal insufficiency. In both studies a small beneficial effect was seen, with significant improvement of the disease in the former and a clearly added sense of well-being in the latter. The androgenic or estrogenic actions of DHEA could explain the effects of the compound in both situations. In contrast, there is no evidence to support DHEA use to increase muscle strength or improve memory. Inhibitors of steroid synthesis act at several different steps and one glucocorticoid antagonist acts at the receptor level.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Inhibitors of steroid synthesis act at several different steps and one glucocorticoid antagonist acts at the receptor level. Aminoglutethimide (Figure 39–5) blocks the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone (see Figure 39–1) and causes a reduction in the synthesis of all hormonally active steroids. It has been used in conjunction with dexamethasone or hydrocortisone to reduce or eliminate estrogen production in patients with carcinoma of the breast. In a dosage of 1 g/d it was well tolerated; however, with higher dosages, lethargy and skin rash were common effects. The use of aminoglutethimide in breast cancer patients has now been supplanted by tamoxifen or by another class of drugs, the aromatase inhibitors (see Chapters 40 and 54). Aminoglutethimide can be used in conjunction with metyrapone or ketoconazole to reduce steroid secretion in patients with Cushing’s syndrome due to adrenocortical cancer who do not respond to mitotane.


Pharmacology_Katzung

Pharmacology_Katzung. Aminoglutethimide also apparently increases the clearance of some steroids. It has been shown to enhance the metabolism of dexamethasone, reducing its half-life from 4–5 hours to 2 hours. Ketoconazole, an antifungal imidazole derivative (see Chapter 48), is a potent and rather nonselective inhibitor of adrenal and gonadal steroid synthesis. This compound inhibits the cholesterol side-chain cleavage, P450c17, C17,20-lyase, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, and P450c11 enzymes required for steroid hormone synthesis. The sensitivity of the P450 enzymes to this compound in mammalian tissues is much lower than that needed to treat fungal infections, so that its inhibitory effects on steroid biosynthesis are seen only at high doses.