Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. instruments, and a high trocar allows retraction of the lung away from the esophagus. In a three-field approach, the esophagus is dissected along its length to include division of the azygos vein and harvesting of the LNs in the upper, middle, and lower posterior mediastinum. Hilar, and posterior mediastinal nodes are all removed and sent with the specimen or individually. The thoracic duct is divided at the level of the diaphragm and removed with the specimen.Following complete intrathoracic dissection, the patient is placed in the supine position and five laparoscopic ports are placed as with the MIS transhiatal esophagectomy. The abdominal portions of the operation are identical to those described previously in the section entitled “Minimally Invasive Transhiatal Esophagectomy,” and the gastric conduit is then sewn to the tip of the fully mobilized GEJ and lesser curvature sleeve. A feeding tube is placed, and the pyloroplasty may be performed laparoscopically. A transverse


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. and the gastric conduit is then sewn to the tip of the fully mobilized GEJ and lesser curvature sleeve. A feeding tube is placed, and the pyloroplasty may be performed laparoscopically. A transverse cervical incision and dissection between the sternocleidomastoid and the anterior strap muscles allows access to the cervical esophagus. Great care is made to avoid stretching the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The esophagus and proximal stomach is then pulled up into the neck with the gastric conduit following. Cervical anastomosis is then performed.The MIS transthoracic two-field esophagectomy is slightly different. In this operation, the abdominal portions of the operation are done first, including placement of the feeding tube, the creation of the conduit, and the sewing of the tip of the conduit to the fully dissected GEJ. The patient is then rolled into the left lateral decubitus position and, through right thoracoscopy, the esophagus is dissected and divided 10 cm above the tumor. Once


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. to the fully dissected GEJ. The patient is then rolled into the left lateral decubitus position and, through right thoracoscopy, the esophagus is dissected and divided 10 cm above the tumor. Once freed, the specimen is pulled out through the mini-thoracotomy, and an end-to-end anastomosis stapler is introduced through the high corner of the gastric conduit and out a stab wound along the greater curvature. The anvil of the stapler is placed in the proximal esophagus and held with a purse-string, the stapler is docked, the anastomosis is created, and a gastrotomy is then closed with another firing of the GIA stapler. The three-field esophagectomy has the advantage of placing the anastomosis in the neck where leakage is unlikely to create a severe systemic consequence. On the other hand, placement of the anastomosis in the high chest minimizes the risks of injury to structures in the neck, particularly the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Although the leak of the intrathoracic anastomosis may


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of the anastomosis in the high chest minimizes the risks of injury to structures in the neck, particularly the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Although the leak of the intrathoracic anastomosis may be more likely to bear septic consequences, the incidence of leak is diminished. Other complications of this approach relate to pulmonary and cardiac status. In many series, the most common complication is pneumonia, the second is atrial fibrillation, and the third is anastomotic leak.Ivor Lewis (En Bloc) Esophagectomy. The theory behind radical transthoracic esophagectomy is that greater removal of LNs and periesophageal tissues diminishes the chance of a posi-tive radial margin and LN recurrence. Although there are no ran-domized data demonstrating this to be superior to other forms of esophagectomy, there are many retrospective data demonstrat-ing improved survival with greater numbers of LNs harvested. A recent study from Sloan-Kettering demonstrates a direct rela-tionship between the number


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. there are many retrospective data demonstrat-ing improved survival with greater numbers of LNs harvested. A recent study from Sloan-Kettering demonstrates a direct rela-tionship between the number of negative nodes harvested and long-term survival. Although such a survival advantage may be related to the completeness of resection, extended radical resec-tions may also be a surrogate for experienced surgeons working in great institutions. As a time-honored operation, there is no doubt that en bloc esophagectomy is the standard to which less radical techniques must be compared.Generally, this operation is started in the abdomen with an upper midline laparotomy and extensive LN dissection in and about the celiac access and its branches, extending into the porta hepatis and along the splenic artery to the tail of the pan-creas. All LNs are removed en bloc with the lesser curvature of the stomach. Unless the tumor extends into the stomach, recon-struction is performed with a greater


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. artery to the tail of the pan-creas. All LNs are removed en bloc with the lesser curvature of the stomach. Unless the tumor extends into the stomach, recon-struction is performed with a greater curvature gastric tube. For GEJ cancers extending significantly into the gastric cardia or fundus, the proximal stomach is removed, and reconstruction is performed with an isoperistaltic section of left colon between the upper esophagus and the remnant stomach, or the colon is connected to a Roux-en-Y limb of jejunum, if total gastrectomy is necessary. In the majority of cases, colon interposition is unnecessary, and a gastric conduit is used.Following closure of the abdominal incision, the patient is placed in the left lateral decubitus position and an anterolateral thoracotomy is performed through the sixth intercostal space. The azygos vein is divided and the posterior mediastinum is entirely cleaned out to include the thoracic duct, all periaor-tic tissues, and all tissue in the upper


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. the sixth intercostal space. The azygos vein is divided and the posterior mediastinum is entirely cleaned out to include the thoracic duct, all periaor-tic tissues, and all tissue in the upper mediastinum along the course of the current laryngeal nerves and in the peribronchial, Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107601/03/19 6:05 PM 1077ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25hilar, and tracheal LN stations. The proximal stomach is pulled up into the thorax where a conduit is created (if not performed previously) and a handsewn or stapled anastomosis is made between the upper thoracic esophagus and the gastric conduit or transverse colon. Chest tubes are placed, and the patient is taken to the intensive care unit.Because this is the most radical of dissections, com-plications are most common, including pneumonia, respira-tory failure, atrial fibrillation, chylothorax, anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, gastrocutaneous fistula, and, if dissection is too near the recurrent


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. are most common, including pneumonia, respira-tory failure, atrial fibrillation, chylothorax, anastomotic leak, conduit necrosis, gastrocutaneous fistula, and, if dissection is too near the recurrent laryngeal nerves, hoarseness will occur with an increased risk of aspiration. Tracheobronchial injury resulting in fistulas between the bronchus and conduit may also occur, however rarely. Although this procedure and three-field esophagectomy are fraught with the highest complica-tion rate, the long-term outcome of this procedure provides the greatest survival in many single-center series and retrospective reviews.Three-Field Open Esophagectomy. Three-field open esoph-agectomy is very similar to a minimally invasive three-field except that all access is through open incisions. This proce-dure is preferred by certain Japanese surgeons and LN counts achieved through this kind of operation may run from 45 to 60 LNs. Most Western surgeons question the benefit of such radical surgery when it


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. is preferred by certain Japanese surgeons and LN counts achieved through this kind of operation may run from 45 to 60 LNs. Most Western surgeons question the benefit of such radical surgery when it is hard to define a survival advantage. Nonetheless, high intrathoracic cancers probably deserve such an aggressive approach if cure is the goal.Salvage Esophagectomy. Salvage esophagectomy is the nomenclature applied to esophagectomy performed after failure of definitive radiation and chemotherapy. The most frequent scenario is one in which distant disease (bone, lung, brain, or wide LN metastases) renders the patient nonoperable at initial presentation. Then, systemic chemotherapy, usually with radiation of the primary tumor, destroys all foci of metastasis, as demonstrated by CT and CT-PET, but the primary remains present and symptomatic. Following a period of observation, to make sure no new disease will become evident, salvage esophagectomy is performed, usually with an open two-field


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. but the primary remains present and symptomatic. Following a period of observation, to make sure no new disease will become evident, salvage esophagectomy is performed, usually with an open two-field approach. Surprisingly, the cure rate of salvage esophagectomy is not inconsequential. One in four patients undergoing this operation will be disease free 5 years later, despite the presence of residual cancer in the operative specimen. Because of the dense scarring created by radiation treatment, this procedure is the most technically challenging of all esophagectomy techniques.Comparative Studies of Esophagectomy TechniqueTransthoracic vs. Transhiatal Esophagectomy. There has been a great debate as to whether en bloc esophagectomy will provide a greater long-term benefit and cure rate in esophageal cancer than transhiatal esophagectomy. In a recent 7-year fol-low-up of a Dutch study addressing GEJ and lower esophageal cancers, there does not appear to be any benefit to the more


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. in esophageal cancer than transhiatal esophagectomy. In a recent 7-year fol-low-up of a Dutch study addressing GEJ and lower esophageal cancers, there does not appear to be any benefit to the more extensive dissection despite higher morbidity and mortality. In a subgroup analysis of those with one to eight positive LNs, it did appear that the en bloc transthoracic resection may add to longevity. In another large database analysis of the Surveil-lance, Epidemiology, and End Results database, transthoracic and transhiatal esophagectomy were compared. In this study, the transhiatal esophagectomy had a greater long-term survival, but when adjusted by cancer stage, this survival benefit disap-peared. The mortality and morbidity after transhiatal esopha-gectomy appeared to be less. Suffice it to say that this debate over the best procedure for esophagectomy remains an open question.The role of the minimally invasive surgical procedures for a cancer cure will require further study and longer


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. say that this debate over the best procedure for esophagectomy remains an open question.The role of the minimally invasive surgical procedures for a cancer cure will require further study and longer follow-up. It would appear from preliminary analysis that the transhiatal esophagectomy, like its open cousin, may be performed with less morbidity and mortality than the VATS procedure. Long-term survival analyses will require careful follow-up for at least 5 to 10 years after cancer treatment. A recent European multi-center randomized trial comparing open and minimally invasive approaches revealed a highly significant reduction in pulmo-nary complications in the patients who underwent the minimally invasive approach. There was no difference in procedure-related mortality between the approaches.Alternative TherapiesRadiation Therapy. Primary treatment with radiation ther-apy does not produce results comparable with those obtained with surgery. Currently, the use of radiotherapy is


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. TherapiesRadiation Therapy. Primary treatment with radiation ther-apy does not produce results comparable with those obtained with surgery. Currently, the use of radiotherapy is restricted to patients who are not candidates for surgery, and it is usually combined with chemotherapy. Radiation alone is used for pal-liation of dysphagia, but the benefit is short lived, lasting only 2 to 3 months. Furthermore, the length and course of treatment are difficult to justify in patients with a limited life expectancy. Radiation is effective in patients who have hemorrhage from the primary tumor.Adjuvant Chemotherapy. The proposal to use adjuvant che-motherapy in the treatment of esophageal cancer began when it became evident that most patients develop postoperative sys-temic metastasis without local recurrence. This observation led to the hypothesis that undetected systemic micrometasta-sis had been present at the time of diagnosis, and if effective systemic therapy was added to local regional


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. recurrence. This observation led to the hypothesis that undetected systemic micrometasta-sis had been present at the time of diagnosis, and if effective systemic therapy was added to local regional therapy, survival should improve.Recently, this hypothesis has been supported by the obser-vation of epithelial tumor cells in the bone marrow in 37% of patients with esophageal cancer who were resected for cure. These patients had a greater prevalence of relapse at 9 months after surgery compared to those patients without such cells. Such studies emphasize that hematogenous dissemination of viable malignant cells occurs early in the disease, and that sys-temic chemotherapy may be helpful if the cells are sensitive to the agent. On the other hand, systemic chemotherapy may be a hindrance, because of its immunosuppressive properties, if the cells are resistant. Unfortunately, current technology is not able to test tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs. This requires that the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. because of its immunosuppressive properties, if the cells are resistant. Unfortunately, current technology is not able to test tumor cell sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs. This requires that the choice of drugs be made solely on the basis of their clinical effectiveness against grossly similar tumors.The decision to use preoperative rather than postopera-tive chemotherapy was based on the ineffectiveness of chemo-therapeutic agents when used after surgery, and animal studies suggesting that agents given before surgery were more effec-tive. The claim that patients who receive chemotherapy before resection are less likely to develop resistance to the drugs is unsupported by hard evidence. The claim that drug delivery is enhanced because blood flow is more robust before patients undergo surgical dissection is similarly flawed, due to the fact that if enough blood reaches the operative site to heal the wound or anastomosis, then the flow should be sufficient to


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. patients undergo surgical dissection is similarly flawed, due to the fact that if enough blood reaches the operative site to heal the wound or anastomosis, then the flow should be sufficient to Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107701/03/19 6:05 PM 1078SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIdeliver chemotherapeutic drugs. There are, however, data sup-porting the claim that preoperative chemotherapy in patients with esophageal carcinoma can, if effective, facilitate surgical resection by reducing the size of the tumor. This is particularly beneficial in the case of squamous cell tumors above the level of the carina. Reducing the size of the tumor may provide a safer margin between the tumor and the trachea and allow an anastomosis to a tumor-free cervical esophagus just below the cricopharyngeus. Involved margin at this level usually requires a laryngectomy to prevent subsequent local recurrence.Preoperative Chemotherapy. Eight randomized prospec-tive studies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs.


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Involved margin at this level usually requires a laryngectomy to prevent subsequent local recurrence.Preoperative Chemotherapy. Eight randomized prospec-tive studies of neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. surgery alone have demonstrated mixed results. For adenocarcinomas of the distal esophagus and proximal stomach, preoperative neoadju-vant 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and cisplatin chemotherapy has been shown to provide a survival advantage over surgery alone in a well-powered study from the United Kingdom (MRC trial). This trial is one of the few to include enough patients (800) to detect small differences. The trial had a 10% absolute survival benefit at 2 years for the neoadjuvant chemotherapy group. In a second trial from the United Kingdom (MAGIC trial) of distal esopha-geal and proximal gastric adenocarcinomas, the use of epirubi-cin in combination with cisplatin and 5-FU also demonstrated a survival advantage for the induction chemotherapy arm with 4 years median follow-up. As a result of


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. adenocarcinomas, the use of epirubi-cin in combination with cisplatin and 5-FU also demonstrated a survival advantage for the induction chemotherapy arm with 4 years median follow-up. As a result of these two trials, stan-dard treatment of locally advanced adenocarcinoma in Europe calls for neoadjuvant chemotherapy with one of these two regi-mens. Most failures are due to distant metastatic disease, under-scoring the need for improved systemic therapy. Postoperative septic and respiratory complications may be more common in patients receiving chemotherapy.Preoperative Combination Chemoand Radiotherapy. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy using cisplatin and 5-FU in combination with radiotherapy has been reported by several investigators to be beneficial in both adenocarcinoma and squa-mous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. There have been 10 randomized prospective studies (Table 25-13). A recent meta-analysis of these trials demonstrates a 13% survival advantage for neoadjuvant


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. cell carcinoma of the esophagus. There have been 10 randomized prospective studies (Table 25-13). A recent meta-analysis of these trials demonstrates a 13% survival advantage for neoadjuvant chemoradiation therapy, which is more pro-nounced for patients with adenocarcinoma than for those with squamous carcinoma (Table 25-14). It was also observed that the benefit for chemotherapy alone (7%) was not as dramatic as for chemoradiotherapy used in the neoadjuvant setting. Addi-tionally, other work has demonstrated the importance of obtain-ing an R0 (tumor-free) resection as the most important variable determining long-term survival. Although there are no direct, randomized comparisons between chemotherapy and chemora-diation therapy, it appears that the addition of radiation may improve local response of the tumor and may allow a greater opportunity for the surgeon to obtain an R0 resection.The timing of surgery after chemoradiation induction is generally felt to be optimal between 6 and 8


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of the tumor and may allow a greater opportunity for the surgeon to obtain an R0 resection.The timing of surgery after chemoradiation induction is generally felt to be optimal between 6 and 8 weeks following the completion of induction therapy. Earlier than this time, active inflammation may make the resection hazardous, and the patients have not had time to recover fully from the chemoradia-tion. After 8 weeks, edema in the periesophageal tissue starts to turn to scar tissue, making dissection more difficult.With chemoradiation, the complete response rates for ade-nocarcinoma range from 17% to 24% (Table 25-15). No tumor is detected in the specimen after esophagectomy. Patients dem-onstrating a complete response to chemoradiation have a better survival rate than those without complete response, but distant failure remains common.At present, the strongest predictors of outcome of patients with esophageal cancer are the anatomic extent of the tumor at diagnosis and the completeness of


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. but distant failure remains common.At present, the strongest predictors of outcome of patients with esophageal cancer are the anatomic extent of the tumor at diagnosis and the completeness of tumor removal by surgical resection. After incomplete resection of an esophageal cancer, the 5-year survival rates are 0% to 5%. In contrast, after com-plete resection, independent of stage of disease, 5-year sur-vival ranges from 15% to 40%, according to selection criteria and stage distribution. The importance of early recognition and adequate surgical resection cannot be overemphasized. Figure 25-70 is a global algorithm for the management of esophageal carcinoma.SARCOMA OF THE ESOPHAGUSSarcomas and carcinosarcomas are rare neoplasms, account-ing for approximately 0.1% to 1.5% of all esophageal tumors. They present with the symptom of dysphagia, which does not differ from the dysphagia associated with the more common epithelial carcinoma. Tumors located within the cervical or high thoracic


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. tumors. They present with the symptom of dysphagia, which does not differ from the dysphagia associated with the more common epithelial carcinoma. Tumors located within the cervical or high thoracic esophagus can cause symptoms of pulmonary aspiration secondary to esophageal obstruction. Large tumors originating at the level of the tracheal bifurcation can produce symptoms of airway obstruction and syncope by direct com-pression of the tracheobronchial tree and heart (Fig. 25-71). The duration of dysphagia and age of the patients affected with these tumors are similar to those with carcinoma of the esophagus.A barium swallow usually shows a large polypoid intralu-minal esophageal mass, causing partial obstruction and dilata-tion of the esophagus proximal to the tumor (Fig. 25-72). The smooth polypoid nature of the lesion, although not diagnostic, is distinctive enough to suggest the presence of a sarcoma rather than the more common ulcerating, stenosing carcinoma.Esophagoscopy


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. The smooth polypoid nature of the lesion, although not diagnostic, is distinctive enough to suggest the presence of a sarcoma rather than the more common ulcerating, stenosing carcinoma.Esophagoscopy commonly shows an intraluminal necrotic mass. When biopsy is attempted, it is important to remove the necrotic tissue until bleeding is seen on the tumor’s surface. When this is not done, the biopsy specimen will show only tis-sue necrosis. Even when viable tumor is obtained on biopsy, it has been these authors’ experience that it cannot be defini-tively identified as carcinoma, sarcoma, or carcinosarcoma on the basis of the histology of the portion biopsied. Biopsy results cannot be totally relied on to identify the presence of sarcoma, and it is often the polypoid nature of the lesion that arouses sus-picion that it may be something other than carcinoma.Polypoid sarcomas of the esophagus, in contrast to infil-trating carcinomas, remain superficial to the muscularis propria and are less


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. arouses sus-picion that it may be something other than carcinoma.Polypoid sarcomas of the esophagus, in contrast to infil-trating carcinomas, remain superficial to the muscularis propria and are less likely to metastasize to regional LNs. In one series of 14 patients, local extension or tumor metastasis would have prevented a potentially curative resection in only five. Thus, the presence of a large polypoid tumor should not deter the surgeon from resecting the lesion.Sarcomatous lesions of the esophagus can be divided into epidermoid carcinomas with spindle cell features, such as car-cinosarcoma, and true sarcomas that arise from mesenchymal tissue, such as leiomyosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and rhabdo-myosarcoma. Based on current histologic criteria for diagno-sis, fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma of the esophagus are extremely rare lesions.Surgical resection of polypoid sarcoma of the esophagus is the treatment of choice because radiation therapy has little


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyosarcoma of the esophagus are extremely rare lesions.Surgical resection of polypoid sarcoma of the esophagus is the treatment of choice because radiation therapy has little Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107801/03/19 6:05 PM 1079ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Table 25-13Randomized trials of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy vs. surgery, or neoadjuvant chemotherapy vs. surgeryYEAR ACTIVATEDTREATMENT SCHEDULE (RADIOTHERAPY)TREATMENT SCHEDULE (CHEMOTHERAPY)CONCURRENT OR SEQUENTIALTUMOR TYPESAMPLE SIZEMEDIAN FOLLOWUP (MO)Chemoradiotherapy198335 Gy, 1.75 Gy/fraction over 4 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; bleomycin 5 mg/m2 d 1–5SequentialSCC7818a198640 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 4 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–4ConcurrentSCC6912a198820 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 12 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 600 mg/m2 d 2–5, 22–25SequentialSCC8612a198945 Gy, 1.5 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles:


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. d 1–4ConcurrentSCC6912a198820 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction over 12 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 600 mg/m2 d 2–5, 22–25SequentialSCC8612a198945 Gy, 1.5 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; 5-fluorouracil 300 mg/m2 d 1–21; vinblastine 1 mg/m2 d 1–4ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma10098198937 Gy, 3.7 Gy/fraction over 2 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 0–2SequentialSCC29355199040 Gy, 2.7 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 75 mg/m2 d 7; 5-fluorouracil 15 mg/kg d 1–5ConcurrentAdenocarcinoma11324199040 Gy, 2.7 Gy/fraction over 3 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 75 mg/m2 d 7; 5-fluorouracil 15 mg/kg d 1–5ConcurrentSCC6110199435 Gy, 2.3 Gy/fraction over 3 wkOne cycle: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 800 mg/m2 d 2–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma25665200650.4 Gy, 1.8 Gy/fraction over 5.6 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma5660199945.6 Gy, 1.2 Gy/fraction over 28 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 60


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Gy, 1.8 Gy/fraction over 5.6 wkTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC and adenocarcinoma5660199945.6 Gy, 1.2 Gy/fraction over 28 dTwo cycles: cisplatin 60 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 3–5ConcurrentSCC10125Chemotherapy1982—Two cycles: cisplatin 120 mg/m2 d 1; vindesine 3 mg/m2 d 1, 8; bleomycin 10 U/m2 d 3–6—SCC39201983—Two cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; bleomycin 5 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC10618a1988c—Three cycles: cisplatin 20 mg/m2 d 1–5; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC46751988—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; bleomycin 10 mg/m2 d 3–8; vinblastine 3 mg/m2 d 1, 8—SCC4617a1989—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC147171990—Two cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; etoposide 200 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC16019a1990—Three cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 days 1–5—SCC and adeno-carcinoma467561992—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC96241992—Two cycles:


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 days 1–5—SCC and adeno-carcinoma467561992—Two cycles: cisplatin 100 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–5—SCC96241992—Two cycles: cisplatin 80 mg/m2 d 1; 5-fluorouracil 1000 mg/m2 d 1–4—SCC and adeno-carcinoma80237aEstimated as median survival.bUnpublished thesis.cYear of activation not reported, but imputed.dOnly available as an abstract.SCC = squamous cell carcinoma.Reproduced with permission from Gebski V, Burmeister B, Smithers BM, et al: Survival benefits from neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy or chemotherapy in oesophageal carcinoma: a meta-analysis, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Mar;8(3):226-234.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 107901/03/19 6:05 PM 1080SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-14Results of the meta-analysis applied to effects of preoperative chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy on 2-y survival for patients with various levels of riskRISK GROUP2-Y SURVIVAL RATE (%)EXPECTED 2-Y MORTALITYCONTROL (%)TREATEDa (%)ARR


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Surgery_Schwartz. effects of preoperative chemoradiotherapy and chemotherapy on 2-y survival for patients with various levels of riskRISK GROUP2-Y SURVIVAL RATE (%)EXPECTED 2-Y MORTALITYCONTROL (%)TREATEDa (%)ARR (%)NNTChemoradiotherapyHigh208064.815.27Medium356552.712.38Low505040.59.510ChemotherapyHigh208072.012.08Medium356558.56.515Low505045.05.020aBased on a 19% relative mortality reduction for those receiving concurrent chemoradiotherapy and a 10% relative mortality reduction for those receiving chemotherapy.ARR = absolute risk reduction; NNT = number needed to treat to prevent one death.Reproduced with permission from Gebski V, Burmeister B, Smithers BM, et al: Survival benefits from neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy or chemotherapy in oesophageal carcinoma: a meta-analysis, Lancet Oncol. 2007 Mar;8(3):226-234.success and the tumors remain superficial, with local invasion or distant metastases occurring late in the course of the disease. As with carcinoma, the absence of both wall penetration and


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. and the tumors remain superficial, with local invasion or distant metastases occurring late in the course of the disease. As with carcinoma, the absence of both wall penetration and LN metastases is necessary for curative treatment, and surgi-cal resection is consequently responsible for the majority of the reported 5-year survivals. Resection also provides an excellent means of palliating the patient’s symptoms. The surgical tech-nique for resection and the subsequent restoration of the GI con-tinuity is similar to that described for carcinoma.In these authors’ experience, four of the eight patients with carcinosarcoma survived for 5 years or longer. Even though this number is small, it suggests that resection produces better Table 25-15Results of neoadjuvant therapy in adenocarcinoma of the esophagusINSTITUTIONYEARNO. OF PATIENTSREGIMENCOMPLETE PATHOLOGIC RESPONSE (%)SURVIVALMD Anderson199035P, E, 5-FU342% at 3 ySLMC199218P, 5-FU, RT1740% at 3 yVanderbilt199339P, E, 5-FU, RT1947%


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. the esophagusINSTITUTIONYEARNO. OF PATIENTSREGIMENCOMPLETE PATHOLOGIC RESPONSE (%)SURVIVALMD Anderson199035P, E, 5-FU342% at 3 ySLMC199218P, 5-FU, RT1740% at 3 yVanderbilt199339P, E, 5-FU, RT1947% at 4 yMichigan199321P, VBL, 5-FU, RT2434% at 5 yMGH199416P, 5-FU042% at 4 yMGH199422E, A, P558% at 2 yA = doxorubicin; E = etoposide; 5-FU = 5-fluorouracil; MGH = Massachusetts General Hospital; P = cisplatin; RT = radiation therapy; SLMC = St. Louis University Medical Center; VBL = vinblastine.Reproduced with permission from Wright CD, Mathisen DJ, Wain JC, et al: Evolution of treatment strategies for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastroesophageal junction, Ann Thorac Surg. 1994 Dec;58(6):1574-1578.results in epithelial carcinoma with spindle cell features than in squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Similarly, with leiomyosarcoma of the esophagus, the same scattered reports exist with little information on survival. Of seven patients with leiomyosarcoma, two died from their


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of the esophagus. Similarly, with leiomyosarcoma of the esophagus, the same scattered reports exist with little information on survival. Of seven patients with leiomyosarcoma, two died from their disease—one in 3 months and the other 4 years and 7 months after resection. The other five patients were reported to have survived more than 5 years.It is difficult to evaluate the benefits of resection for leio-myoblastoma of the esophagus because of the small number of reported patients with tumors in this location. Most leiomyo-blastomas occur in the stomach, and 38% of these patients suc-cumb to the cancer in 3 years. Fifty-five percent of patients with extragastric leiomyoblastoma also die from the disease, within an average of 3 years. Consequently, leiomyoblastoma should be considered a malignant lesion and apt to behave like a leiomyosarcoma. The presence of nuclear hyperchromatism, increased mitotic figures (more than one per high-power field), tumor size larger than 10 cm, and


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. a malignant lesion and apt to behave like a leiomyosarcoma. The presence of nuclear hyperchromatism, increased mitotic figures (more than one per high-power field), tumor size larger than 10 cm, and clinical symptoms of longer than 6 months’ duration are associated with a poor prognosis.BENIGN TUMORS AND CYSTSBenign tumors and cysts of the esophagus are relatively uncom-mon. From the perspectives of both the clinician and the patholo-gist, benign tumors may be divided into those that are within the muscular wall and those that are within the lumen of the esophagus.Intramural lesions are either solid tumors or cysts, and the vast majority are leiomyomas. They are made up of varying por-tions of smooth muscle and fibrous tissue. Fibromas, myomas, fibromyomas, and lipomyomas are closely related and occur rarely. Other histologic types of solid intramural tumors have been described, such as lipomas, neurofibromas, hemangiomas, osteochondromas, granular cell myoblastomas, and glomus


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. related and occur rarely. Other histologic types of solid intramural tumors have been described, such as lipomas, neurofibromas, hemangiomas, osteochondromas, granular cell myoblastomas, and glomus tumors, but they are medical curiosities.Intraluminal lesions are polypoid or pedunculated growths that usually originate in the submucosa, develop mainly into the lumen, and are covered with normal stratified squamous epi-thelium. The majority of these tumors are composed of fibrous tissue of varying degrees of compactness with a rich vascular supply. Some are loose and myxoid (e.g., myxoma and myxo-fibroma), some are more collagenous (e.g., fibroma), and some contain adipose tissue (e.g., fibrolipoma). These different types of tumor are frequently collectively designated fibrovascular Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108001/03/19 6:05 PM 1081ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Barium swallow, endoscopyTumor staging(CT chest and abdomen,endoscopic ultrasonography)Late disease


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Surgery_Schwartz. 108001/03/19 6:05 PM 1081ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Barium swallow, endoscopyTumor staging(CT chest and abdomen,endoscopic ultrasonography)Late disease orsignificant comorbidityDistant organ metastasisImminent cardiac pulmonary or hepatic failureSevere debilityAdvanced diseaseSupportive careCurativeen bloc resectionPalliative surgeryLocal recurrenceNo metastasesComplete excisionpossibleUnresectable proximalor bleeding tumorLaser ablative therapyStentAirway fistula orunresectable primarytumor or localrecurrenceChemotherapyEarly diseaseTumor suspected notto be through the wall and/or less than8 lymph nodes involvedThrough the wall and multiplelymph node metastasisAdvanced diseaseChemoradiationPreoperative chemoradiation followed by en bloc resectionClinical evaluationTreatment failure orrecurrenceDistant metastasisNo local recurrenceFigure 25-70. Suggested global algorithm for the management of carcinoma of the esophagus. CT = computed tomography.polyps, or simply


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Surgery_Schwartz. failure orrecurrenceDistant metastasisNo local recurrenceFigure 25-70. Suggested global algorithm for the management of carcinoma of the esophagus. CT = computed tomography.polyps, or simply as polyps. Pedunculated intraluminal tumors should be removed. If the lesion is not too large, endoscopic removal with a snare is feasible.LeiomyomaLeiomyomas constitute more than 50% of benign esophageal tumors. The average age at presentation is 38, which is in sharp contrast to that seen with esophageal carcinoma. Leiomyomas are twice as common in males. Because they originate in smooth muscle, 90% are located in the lower two-thirds of the esophagus. They are usually solitary, but multiple tumors have been found on occasion. They vary greatly in size and shape. Actually, tumors as small as 1 cm in diameter and as large as 10 lb have been removed.Typically, leiomyomas are oval. During their growth, they remain intramural, having the bulk of their mass protruding toward the outer wall of the


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Surgery_Schwartz. in diameter and as large as 10 lb have been removed.Typically, leiomyomas are oval. During their growth, they remain intramural, having the bulk of their mass protruding toward the outer wall of the esophagus. The overlying mucosa is freely movable and normal in appearance. Dysphagia and pain are the most common complaints, the two symptoms occurring more frequently together than separately. Bleeding directly related to the tumor is rare, and when hematemesis or melena occur in a patient with an esophageal leiomyoma, other causes should be investigated.A barium swallow is the most useful method to demon-strate a leiomyoma of the esophagus (Fig. 25-73). In profile, the tumor appears as a smooth, semilunar, or crescent-shaped filling defect that moves with swallowing, is sharply demarcated, and is covered and surrounded by normal mucosa. Esophagoscopy should be performed to exclude the reported observation of a coexistence with carcinoma. The freely movable mass, which bulges into the


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Surgery_Schwartz. and is covered and surrounded by normal mucosa. Esophagoscopy should be performed to exclude the reported observation of a coexistence with carcinoma. The freely movable mass, which bulges into the lumen, should not be biopsied because of an increased chance of mucosal perforation at the time of surgical enucleation. Endoscopic ultrasound is also a useful adjunct in the workup of leiomyoma and provides detail related to the ana-tomic extent and relationship to surrounding structures.Despite their slow growth and limited potential for malig-nant degeneration, leiomyomas should be removed unless there are specific contraindications. The majority can be removed by simple enucleation. If, during removal, the mucosa is inadver-tently entered, the defect can be repaired primarily. After tumor removal, the outer esophageal wall should be reconstructed by closure of the muscle layer. The location of the lesion and the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108101/03/19 6:05 PM 1082SPECIFIC


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Surgery_Schwartz. removal, the outer esophageal wall should be reconstructed by closure of the muscle layer. The location of the lesion and the Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108101/03/19 6:05 PM 1082SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABFigure 25-71. A. Computed tomographic scan of a leiomyosarcoma (black arrow) that caused compression of the heart and symptoms of syncope. B. Surgical specimen of leiomyosarcoma shown in A with a pedunculated luminal lesion (white arrow) and a large extraesophageal component (black arrow). There was no evidence of lymph node metastasis at the time of operation.ABFigure 25-72. A. Barium swallow showing a large polypoid intraluminal esophageal mass causing partial obstruction and dilation of the proximal esophagus. B. Operative specimen showing 9-cm polypoid leiomyoblastoma.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108201/03/19 6:05 PM 1083ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25extent of surgery required will dictate the approach. Lesions of the proximal and middle


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Surgery_Schwartz. 108201/03/19 6:05 PM 1083ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25extent of surgery required will dictate the approach. Lesions of the proximal and middle esophagus require a right thoracotomy, whereas distal esophageal lesions require a left thoracotomy. Vid-eothoracoscopic and laparoscopic approaches are now frequently used. The mortality rate associated with enucleation is low, and success in relieving the dysphagia is near 100%. Large lesions or those involving the GEJ may require esophageal resection.Esophageal CystCysts may be congenital or acquired. Congenital cysts are lined wholly or partly by columnar ciliated epithelium of the respiratory type, by glandular epithelium of the gastric type, by squamous epithelium, or by transitional epithelium. In some, epithelial lining cells may be absent. Confusion over the embry-ologic origin of congenital cysts has led to a variety of names, such as enteric, bronchogenic, duplication, and mediastinal cysts. Acquired retention


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Surgery_Schwartz. cells may be absent. Confusion over the embry-ologic origin of congenital cysts has led to a variety of names, such as enteric, bronchogenic, duplication, and mediastinal cysts. Acquired retention cysts also occur, probably as a result of obstruction of the excretory ducts of the esophageal glands.Enteric and bronchogenic cysts are the most common, and they arise as a result of developmental abnormalities dur-ing the formation and differentiation of the lower respiratory tract, esophagus, and stomach from the foregut. During its embryologic development, the esophagus is lined successively with simple columnar, pseudostratified ciliated columnar, and, finally, stratified squamous epithelium. This sequence probably accounts for the fact that the lining epithelium may be any or a combination of these; the presence of cilia does not necessarily indicate a respiratory origin.Cysts vary in size from small to very large, and they are usually located intramurally in the middleto lower-third


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Surgery_Schwartz. of these; the presence of cilia does not necessarily indicate a respiratory origin.Cysts vary in size from small to very large, and they are usually located intramurally in the middleto lower-third of the esophagus. Their symptoms are similar to those of a leio-myoma. The diagnosis similarly depends on radiographic, endoscopic, and endosonographic findings. Surgical excision by enucleation is the preferred treatment. During removal, a fistulous tract connecting the cysts to the airways should be sought, particularly in patients who have had repetitive bron-chopulmonary infections.ESOPHAGEAL PERFORATIONPerforation of the esophagus constitutes a true emergency. It most commonly occurs following diagnostic or therapeutic pro-cedures. Spontaneous perforation, referred to as Boerhaave’s syndrome, accounts for only 15% of cases of esophageal per-foration, foreign bodies for 14%, and trauma for 10%. Pain is a striking and consistent symptom and strongly suggests that an esophageal rupture


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Surgery_Schwartz. accounts for only 15% of cases of esophageal per-foration, foreign bodies for 14%, and trauma for 10%. Pain is a striking and consistent symptom and strongly suggests that an esophageal rupture has occurred, particularly if located in the cervical area following instrumentation of the esophagus, or sub-sternally in a patient with a history of resisting vomiting. If sub-cutaneous emphysema is present, the diagnosis is almost certain.Spontaneous rupture of the esophagus is associated with a high mortality rate because of the delay in recognition and treat-ment. Although there usually is a history of resisting vomiting, in a small number of patients, the injury occurs silently, without any antecedent history. When the chest radiogram of a patient with an esophageal perforation shows air or an effusion in the pleural space, the condition is often misdiagnosed as a pneumo-thorax or pancreatitis. An elevated pleural amylase caused by the extrusion of saliva through the perforation may fix


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. an effusion in the pleural space, the condition is often misdiagnosed as a pneumo-thorax or pancreatitis. An elevated pleural amylase caused by the extrusion of saliva through the perforation may fix the diag-nosis of pancreatitis in the mind of an unwary physician. If the chest radiogram is normal, a mistaken diagnosis of myocardial infarction or dissecting aneurysm is often made.Spontaneous rupture usually occurs into the left pleural cavity or just above the GEJ. About 50% of patients have concomitant GERD, suggesting that minimal resistance to the transmission of abdominal pressure into the thoracic esophagus is a factor in the pathophysiology of the lesion. During vomiting, high peaks of intragastric pressure can be recorded, frequently exceeding 200 mmHg, but because extragastric pressure remains almost equal to intragastric pressure, stretching of the gastric wall is minimal. The amount of pressure transmitted to the esophagus varies considerably, depending on the position of


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. remains almost equal to intragastric pressure, stretching of the gastric wall is minimal. The amount of pressure transmitted to the esophagus varies considerably, depending on the position of the GEJ. When it is in the abdomen and exposed to intra-abdominal pressure, the pressure transmitted to the esophagus is much less than when it is exposed to the negative thoracic pressure. In the latter situation, the pressure in the lower esophagus will frequently equal intragastric pressure if the glottis remains closed. Cadaver studies have shown that when this pressure exceeds 150 mmHg, rupture of the esophagus is apt to occur. When a hiatal hernia is present and the sphincter remains exposed to abdominal pressure, the lesion produced is usually a Mallory-Weiss mucosal tear, and bleeding rather than perforation is the problem. This is due to the stretching of the supradiaphragmatic portion of the gastric wall. In this situation, the hernia sac represents an extension of the abdominal cavity,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. perforation is the problem. This is due to the stretching of the supradiaphragmatic portion of the gastric wall. In this situation, the hernia sac represents an extension of the abdominal cavity, and the GEJ remains exposed to abdominal pressure.DiagnosisAbnormalities on the chest radiogram can be variable and should not be depended upon to make the diagnosis. This is because the abnormalities are dependent on three factors: (a) the time interval between the perforation and the radiographic examination, (b) the site of perforation, and (c) the integrity of the mediastinal pleura. Mediastinal emphysema, a strong indica-tor of perforation, takes at least 1 hour to be demonstrated and is present in only 40% of patients. Mediastinal widening second-ary to edema may not occur for several hours. The site of perfo-ration also can influence the radiographic findings. In cervical perforation, cervical emphysema is common and mediastinal emphysema rare; the converse is true for thoracic


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Surgery_Schwartz. hours. The site of perfo-ration also can influence the radiographic findings. In cervical perforation, cervical emphysema is common and mediastinal emphysema rare; the converse is true for thoracic perforations. Figure 25-73. Barium esophagogram showing a classical, smooth, contoured, punched-out defect of a leiomyoma.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108301/03/19 6:05 PM 1084SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFrequently, air will be visible in the erector spinae muscles on a neck radiogram before it can be palpated or seen on a chest radiogram (Fig. 25-74). The integrity of the mediastinal pleura influences the radiographic abnormality in that rupture of the pleura results in a pneumothorax, a finding that is seen in 77% of patients. In two-thirds of patients, the perforation is on the left side; in one-fifth, it is on the right side; and in one-tenth, it is bilateral. If pleural integrity is maintained, mediastinal emphy-sema (rather than a pneumothorax) appears rapidly. A pleural


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Surgery_Schwartz. left side; in one-fifth, it is on the right side; and in one-tenth, it is bilateral. If pleural integrity is maintained, mediastinal emphy-sema (rather than a pneumothorax) appears rapidly. A pleural effusion secondary to inflammation of the mediastinum occurs late. In 9% of patients, the chest radiogram is normal.The diagnosis is confirmed with a contrast esophagram, which will demonstrate extravasation in 90% of patients. The use of a water-soluble medium such as Gastrografin is preferred. Of concern is that there is a 10% false-negative rate. This may be due to obtaining the radiographic study with the patient in the upright position. When the patient is upright, the passage of water-soluble contrast material can be too rapid to demonstrate a small perforation. The studies should be done with the patient in the right lateral decubitus position (Fig. 25-75). In this, the contrast material fills the entire length of the esophagus, allow-ing the actual site of perforation and its


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Surgery_Schwartz. done with the patient in the right lateral decubitus position (Fig. 25-75). In this, the contrast material fills the entire length of the esophagus, allow-ing the actual site of perforation and its interconnecting cavities to be visualized in almost all patients.ManagementThe key to optimum management is early diagnosis. The most favorable outcome is obtained following primary closure of the perforation within 24 hours, resulting in 80% to 90% survival. Figure 25-76 is an operative photograph taken through a left thoracotomy of an esophageal rupture following a pneumatic dilation for achalasia. The most common location for the injury is the left lateral wall of the esophagus, just above the GEJ. Figure 25-74. Chest radiogram showing air in the deep muscles of the neck following perforation of the esophagus (arrow). This is often the earliest sign of perforation and can be present without evidence of air in the mediastinum.Figure 25-75. Radiographic study of a patient with a


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Surgery_Schwartz. perforation of the esophagus (arrow). This is often the earliest sign of perforation and can be present without evidence of air in the mediastinum.Figure 25-75. Radiographic study of a patient with a perforation of the esophagus using water-soluble contrast material. The patient is placed in the lateral decubitus position with the left side up to allow complete filling of the esophagus and demonstration of the defect.Figure 25-76. Left thoracotomy in a patient with an esophageal rupture at the gastroesophageal junction following forceful dila-tion of the lower esophagus for achalasia (the surgical clamp is on the stomach, and the Penrose drain encircles the esophagus). The injury consists of a mucosal perforation and extensive splitting of the esophageal muscle from just below the Penrose drain to the stomach.To get adequate exposure of the injury, a dissection similar to that described for esophageal myotomy is performed. A flap of stomach is pulled up and the soiled fat pad at the


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Surgery_Schwartz. drain to the stomach.To get adequate exposure of the injury, a dissection similar to that described for esophageal myotomy is performed. A flap of stomach is pulled up and the soiled fat pad at the GEJ is removed. The edges of the injury are trimmed and closed pri-marily (Fig. 25-77). The closure is reinforced with the use of a pleural patch or construction of a Nissen fundoplication.Mortality associated with immediate closure varies between 8% and 20%. After 24 hours, survival decreases to <50%, and is not influenced by the type of operative therapy (i.e., drainage alone or drainage plus closure of the perforation). If the time delay before closing a perforation approaches 24 hours and the tissues are inflamed, division of the cardia and resection of the diseased portion of the esophagus are recommended. The remainder of the esophagus is mobilized, and as much normal esophagus as pos-sible is saved and brought out as an end cervical esophagostomy. In some situations, the retained


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Surgery_Schwartz. are recommended. The remainder of the esophagus is mobilized, and as much normal esophagus as pos-sible is saved and brought out as an end cervical esophagostomy. In some situations, the retained esophagus may be so long that Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108401/03/19 6:05 PM 1085ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25it loops down into the chest. The contaminated mediastinum is drained and a feeding jejunostomy tube is inserted. The recov-ery from sepsis is often immediate, dramatic, and reflected by a marked improvement in the patient’s condition over a 24-hour period. On recovery from the sepsis, the patient is discharged and returns on a subsequent date for reconstruction with a substernal colon interposition. Failure to apply this aggressive therapy can result in a mortality rate in excess of 50% in patients in whom the diagnosis has been delayed.Nonoperative management of esophageal perforation has been advocated in select situations. The choice of conserva-tive


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Surgery_Schwartz. rate in excess of 50% in patients in whom the diagnosis has been delayed.Nonoperative management of esophageal perforation has been advocated in select situations. The choice of conserva-tive therapy requires skillful judgment and necessitates care-ful radiographic examination of the esophagus. This course of management usually follows an injury occurring during dila-tion of esophageal strictures or pneumatic dilations of achalasia. Conservative management should not be used in patients who have free perforations into the pleural space. Cameron proposed three criteria for the nonoperative management of esophageal perforation: (a) the esophagram must show the perforation to be contained within the mediastinum and drain well back into the esophagus (Fig. 25-78), (b) symptoms should be mild, and (c) there should be minimal evidence of clinical sepsis. If these Figure 25-77. The technique of closure of an esophageal perfora-tion through a left thoracotomy. A. A tongue of stomach is pulled


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Surgery_Schwartz. and (c) there should be minimal evidence of clinical sepsis. If these Figure 25-77. The technique of closure of an esophageal perfora-tion through a left thoracotomy. A. A tongue of stomach is pulled up through the esophageal hiatus, and the gastroesophageal fat pad is removed; the edges of the mucosal injury are trimmed and closed using interrupted modified Gambee stitches. B. Reinforcement of the closure with a parietal pleural patch.conditions are met, it is reasonable to treat the patient with hyper-alimentation, antibiotics, and cimetidine to decrease acid secre-tion and diminish pepsin activity. Oral intake is resumed in 7 to 14 days, dependent on subsequent radiographic examinations.MALLORY-WEISS SYNDROMEIn 1929, Mallory and Weiss described four patients with acute upper GI bleeding who were found at autopsy to have mucosal tears at the GEJ. This syndrome, characterized by acute upper GI bleeding following vomiting, is considered to be the cause of up to 15% of all severe


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. who were found at autopsy to have mucosal tears at the GEJ. This syndrome, characterized by acute upper GI bleeding following vomiting, is considered to be the cause of up to 15% of all severe upper GI bleeds. The mechanism is similar to spontaneous esophageal perforation: an acute increase in intra-abdominal pressure against a closed glottis in a patient with a hiatal hernia.Mallory-Weiss tears are characterized by arterial bleeding, which may be massive. Vomiting is not an obligatory factor, as there may be other causes of an acute increase in intra-abdominal pressure, such as paroxysmal coughing, seizures, and retching. The diagnosis requires a high index of suspicion, par-ticularly in the patient who develops upper GI bleeding follow-ing prolonged vomiting or retching. Upper endoscopy confirms the suspicion by identifying one or more longitudinal fissures in the mucosa of the herniated stomach as the source of bleeding.In the majority of patients, the bleeding will stop


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. endoscopy confirms the suspicion by identifying one or more longitudinal fissures in the mucosa of the herniated stomach as the source of bleeding.In the majority of patients, the bleeding will stop sponta-neously with nonoperative management. In addition to blood replacement, the stomach should be decompressed and anti-emetics administered, as a distended stomach and continued vomiting aggravate further bleeding. A Sengstaken-Blakemore tube will not stop the bleeding, as the pressure in the balloon is not sufficient to overcome arterial pressure. Endoscopic injec-tion of epinephrine may be therapeutic if bleeding does not stop spontaneously. Only occasionally will surgery be required to stop blood loss. The procedure consists of laparotomy and high gastrotomy with oversewing of the linear tear. Mortality is uncommon, and recurrence is rare.Figure 25-78. Barium esophagogram showing a stricture and a contained perforation following dilation. The injury meets Cameron criteria: It is


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Surgery_Schwartz. tear. Mortality is uncommon, and recurrence is rare.Figure 25-78. Barium esophagogram showing a stricture and a contained perforation following dilation. The injury meets Cameron criteria: It is contained within the mediastinum and drawn back into the esophagus, the patient had mild symptoms, and there was no evidence of clinical sepsis. Nonoperative management was successful.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108501/03/19 6:05 PM 1086SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IITable 25-16Endoscopic grading of corrosive esophageal and gastric burnsFirst degree: Mucosal hyperemia and edemaSecond degree: Limited hemorrhage, exudate ulceration, and pseudomembrane formationThird degree: Sloughing of mucosa, deep ulcers, massive hemorrhage, complete obstruction of lumen by edema, charring, and perforationTable 25-17Location of caustic injury (n = 62)Pharynx10%Esophagus70% Upper15% Middle65% Lower2% Whole18%Stomach20% Antral91% Whole9%Both stomach and esophagus14%CAUSTIC INJURYAccidental caustic


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Surgery_Schwartz. 25-17Location of caustic injury (n = 62)Pharynx10%Esophagus70% Upper15% Middle65% Lower2% Whole18%Stomach20% Antral91% Whole9%Both stomach and esophagus14%CAUSTIC INJURYAccidental caustic lesions occur mainly in children, and, in general, rather small quantities of caustics are taken. In adults or teenagers, the swallowing of caustic liquids is usually deliberate, during a suicide attempt, and greater quantities are swallowed. Alkalis are more frequently swallowed accidentally than acids, because strong acids cause an immediate burning pain in the mouth.PathologyThe swallowing of caustic substances causes an acute and a chronic injury. During the acute phase, care focuses on con-trolling the immediate tissue injury and the potential for per-foration. During the chronic phase, the focus is on treatment of strictures and disturbances in pharyngeal swallowing. In the acute phase, the degree and extent of the lesion are dependent on several factors: the nature of the caustic substance,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. is on treatment of strictures and disturbances in pharyngeal swallowing. In the acute phase, the degree and extent of the lesion are dependent on several factors: the nature of the caustic substance, its con-centration, the quantity swallowed, and the time the substance is in contact with the tissues.Acids and alkalis affect tissue in different ways. Alkalis dissolve tissue, and therefore penetrate more deeply, while acids cause a coagulative necrosis that limits their penetration. Animal experiments have shown that there is a correlation between the depth of the lesion and the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution. When a solution of 3.8% comes into contact with the esophagus for 10 seconds, it causes necrosis of the mucosa and the submucosa but spares the muscular layer. A concentration of 22.5% penetrates the whole esophageal wall and into the periesophageal tissues. Cleansing products can contain up to 90% sodium hydroxide. The strength of esophageal contractions varies


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Surgery_Schwartz. of 22.5% penetrates the whole esophageal wall and into the periesophageal tissues. Cleansing products can contain up to 90% sodium hydroxide. The strength of esophageal contractions varies according to the level of the esophagus, being weakest at the striated muscle–smooth muscle interface. Consequently, clearance from this area may be somewhat slower, allowing caustic substances to remain in contact with the mucosa longer. This explains why the esophagus is preferentially and more severely affected at this level than in the lower portions.The lesions caused by lye injury occur in three phases. First is the acute necrotic phase, lasting 1 to 4 days after injury. During this period, coagulation of intracellular proteins results in cell necrosis, and the living tissue surrounding the area of necrosis develops an intense inflammatory reaction. Second is the ulcer-ation and granulation phase, starting 3 to 5 days after injury. During this period, the superficial necrotic tissue sloughs,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of necrosis develops an intense inflammatory reaction. Second is the ulcer-ation and granulation phase, starting 3 to 5 days after injury. During this period, the superficial necrotic tissue sloughs, leav-ing an ulcerated, acutely inflamed base, and granulation tissue fills the defect left by the sloughed mucosa. This phase lasts 10 to 12 days, and it is during this period that the esophagus is the weakest. Third is the phase of cicatrization and scarring, which begins the third week following injury. During this period, the previously formed connective tissue begins to contract, result-ing in narrowing of the esophagus. Adhesions between granulat-ing areas occur, resulting in pockets and bands. It is during this period that efforts must be made to reduce stricture formation.Clinical ManifestationsThe clinical picture of an esophageal burn is determined by the degree and extent of the lesion. In the initial phase, complaints consist of pain in the mouth and substernal region,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. ManifestationsThe clinical picture of an esophageal burn is determined by the degree and extent of the lesion. In the initial phase, complaints consist of pain in the mouth and substernal region, hypersali-vation, pain on swallowing, and dysphagia. The presence of fever is strongly correlated with the presence of an esopha-geal lesion. Bleeding can occur, and, frequently, the patient vomits. These initial complaints disappear during the quiescent period of ulceration and granulation. During the cicatrization and scarring phase, the complaint of dysphagia reappears and is due to fibrosis and retraction, resulting in narrowing of the esophagus. Of the patients who develop strictures, 60% do so within 1 month, and 80% within 2 months. If dysphagia does not develop within 8 months, it is unlikely that a stricture will occur. Serious systemic reactions such as hypovolemia and acidosis resulting in renal damage can occur in cases in which the burns have been caused by strong acids.


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Surgery_Schwartz. is unlikely that a stricture will occur. Serious systemic reactions such as hypovolemia and acidosis resulting in renal damage can occur in cases in which the burns have been caused by strong acids. Respiratory com-plications such as laryngospasm, laryngoedema, and occasion-ally pulmonary edema can occur, especially when strong acids are aspirated.Inspection of the oral cavity and pharynx can indicate that caustic substances were swallowed, but does not reveal that the esophagus has been burned. Conversely, esophageal burns can be present without apparent oral injuries. Because of this poor correlation, early esophagoscopy is advocated to establish the presence of an esophageal injury. To lessen the chance of perfo-ration, the scope should not be introduced beyond the proximal esophageal lesion. The degree of injury can be graded according to the criteria listed in Table 25-16. Even if the esophagoscopy is normal, strictures may appear later. Radiographic examina-tion is not a


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Surgery_Schwartz. lesion. The degree of injury can be graded according to the criteria listed in Table 25-16. Even if the esophagoscopy is normal, strictures may appear later. Radiographic examina-tion is not a reliable means to identify the presence of early esophageal injury, but it is important in later follow-up to iden-tify strictures. The most common locations of caustic injuries are shown in Table 25-17.TreatmentTreatment of a caustic lesion of the esophagus is directed toward management of both the immediate and late consequences of the injury. The immediate treatment consists of limiting the burn by administering neutralizing agents. To be effective, this must be done within the first hour. Lye or other alkali can be neutralized with half-strength vinegar, lemon juice, or orange juice. Acid can be neutralized with milk, egg white, or antacids. Sodium bicarbonate is not used because it generates carbon dioxide, Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108601/03/19 6:05 PM 1087ESOPHAGUS AND


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Surgery_Schwartz. can be neutralized with milk, egg white, or antacids. Sodium bicarbonate is not used because it generates carbon dioxide, Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108601/03/19 6:05 PM 1087ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25which might increase the danger of perforation. Emetics are contraindicated because vomiting renews the contact of the caustic substance with the esophagus and can contribute to perforation if too forceful. Hypovolemia is corrected, and broad-spectrum antibiotics are administered to lessen the inflammatory reaction and prevent infectious complications. If necessary, a feeding jejunostomy tube is inserted to provide nutrition. Oral feeding can be started when the dysphagia of the initial phase has regressed.In the past, surgeons waited until the appearance of a stric-ture before starting treatment. Currently, dilations are started the first day after the injury, with the aim of preserving the esophageal lumen by removing the adhesions that occurred in the


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Surgery_Schwartz. a stric-ture before starting treatment. Currently, dilations are started the first day after the injury, with the aim of preserving the esophageal lumen by removing the adhesions that occurred in the injured segments. However, this approach is controversial in that dilations can traumatize the esophagus, causing bleed-ing, and perforation, and there are data indicating that exces-sive dilations cause increased fibrosis secondary to the added trauma. The use of steroids to limit fibrosis has been shown to be effective in animals, but their effectiveness in human beings has not been established.Extensive necrosis of the esophagus frequently leads to perforation, and it is best managed by resection. When there is extensive gastric involvement, the esophagus is nearly always necrotic or severely burned, and total gastrectomy and near-total esophagectomy are necessary. The presence of air in the esopha-geal wall is a sign of muscle necrosis and impending perforation and is a strong


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Surgery_Schwartz. severely burned, and total gastrectomy and near-total esophagectomy are necessary. The presence of air in the esopha-geal wall is a sign of muscle necrosis and impending perforation and is a strong indication for esophagectomy.Management of acute injury is summarized in the algo-rithm in Fig. 25-79. Some authors have advocated the use of an intraluminal esophageal stent (Fig. 25-80) in patients who are operated on and found to have no evidence of extensive esophagogastric necrosis. In these patients, a biopsy of the posterior gastric wall should be performed to exclude occult injury. If, histologically, there is a question of viability, a second-look operation should be done within 36 hours. If a stent is inserted, it should be kept in position for 21 days, and removed after a satisfactory barium esophagogram. Esopha-goscopy should be done, and if strictures are present, dilations initiated.Once the acute phase has passed, attention is turned to the prevention and management of


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Surgery_Schwartz. barium esophagogram. Esopha-goscopy should be done, and if strictures are present, dilations initiated.Once the acute phase has passed, attention is turned to the prevention and management of strictures. Both antegrade dilation with a Hurst or Maloney bougie and retrograde dila-tion with a Tucker bougie have been satisfactory. In a series of 1079 patients, early dilations started during the acute phase gave excellent results in 78%, good results in 13%, and poor results in 2%. During the treatment, 55 patients died. In contrast, of 333 patients whose strictures were dilated when they became symptomatic, only 21% had excellent results, 46% good, and 6% poor, with three dying during the process. The length of time the surgeon should persist with dilation before consideration of esophageal resection is problematic. An adequate lumen should be re-established within 6 months to 1 year, with progressively longer intervals between dilations. If, during the course of treat-ment, an adequate


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Surgery_Schwartz. resection is problematic. An adequate lumen should be re-established within 6 months to 1 year, with progressively longer intervals between dilations. If, during the course of treat-ment, an adequate lumen cannot be established or maintained (i.e., smaller bougies must be used), operative intervention should be considered. Surgical intervention is indicated when there is (a) complete stenosis in which all attempts from above and below have failed to establish a lumen, (b) marked irregu-larity and pocketing on barium swallow, (c) the development of a severe periesophageal reaction or mediastinitis with dilatation, (d) a fistula, (e) the inability to dilate or maintain the lumen above a 40F bougie, or (f) a patient who is unwilling or unable to undergo prolonged periods of dilation.Ingestion of caustic agentObservation24–48 hoursExploratorylaparotomySecond lookat 36 hoursIntraluminal esophageal stentPosterior gastric wall biopsyJejunostomy1° burn2° & 3° burnEsophagogastric


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Surgery_Schwartz. of caustic agentObservation24–48 hoursExploratorylaparotomySecond lookat 36 hoursIntraluminal esophageal stentPosterior gastric wall biopsyJejunostomy1° burn2° & 3° burnEsophagogastric resectionCervical esophagostomyJejunostomyResection of adjacent involved organsFull thicknessnecrosisof esophagusand stomachViableesophagusandstomachQuestionableesophagusandstomach Esophagoscopy(Within 12 hours)Figure 25-79. Algorithm summarizing the management of acute caustic injury.Figure 25-80. The use of an esophageal stent to prevent stricture. The stent is constructed from a chest tube and placed in the esopha-gus at the time of an exploratory laparotomy. A Penrose drain is placed over the distal end as a flap valve to prevent reflux. The stent is supported at its upper end by attaching it to a suction catheter that is secured to the nares. Continuous suction removes saliva and mucus trapped in the pharynx and upper esophagus.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108701/03/19 6:05 PM 1088SPECIFIC


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Surgery_Schwartz. catheter that is secured to the nares. Continuous suction removes saliva and mucus trapped in the pharynx and upper esophagus.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108701/03/19 6:05 PM 1088SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIThe variety of abnormalities seen requires that creativity be used when considering esophageal reconstruction. Skin tube esophagoplasties are now used much less frequently than they were in the past, and are mainly of historical interest. Currently, the stomach, jejunum, and colon are the organs used to replace the esophagus, through either the posterior mediastinum or the retrosternal route. A retrosternal route is chosen when there has been a previous esophagectomy or there is extensive fibrosis in the posterior mediastinum. When all factors are considered, the order of preference for an esophageal substitute is (a) colon, (b) stomach, and (c) jejunum. Free jejunal grafts based on the supe-rior thyroid artery have provided excellent results. Whatever method is


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Surgery_Schwartz. of preference for an esophageal substitute is (a) colon, (b) stomach, and (c) jejunum. Free jejunal grafts based on the supe-rior thyroid artery have provided excellent results. Whatever method is selected, it must be emphasized that these procedures cannot be taken lightly; minor errors of judgment or technique may lead to serious or even fatal complications.Critical in the planning of the operation is the selection of cervical esophagus, pyriform sinus, or posterior pharynx as the site for proximal anastomosis. The site of the upper anastomosis depends on the extent of the pharyngeal and cervical esophageal damage encountered. When the cervical esophagus is destroyed and a pyriform sinus remains open the anastomosis can be made to the hypopharynx (Fig. 25-81). When the pyriform sinuses are completely stenosed, a transglottic approach is used to perform an anastomosis to the posterior oropharyngeal wall (Fig. 25-82). This allows excision of supraglottic strictures and elevation and


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Surgery_Schwartz. are completely stenosed, a transglottic approach is used to perform an anastomosis to the posterior oropharyngeal wall (Fig. 25-82). This allows excision of supraglottic strictures and elevation and anterior tilting of the larynx. In both of these situations, the patient must relearn to swallow. Recovery is long and difficult and may require several endoscopic dilations—and often reop-erations. Sleeve resections of short strictures are not successful because the extent of damage to the wall of the esophagus can be greater than realized, and almost invariably the anastomosis is carried out in a diseased area.The management of a bypassed damaged esophagus after injury is problematic. If the esophagus is left in place, ulcer-ation from gastroesophageal reflux or the development of carcinoma must be considered. The extensive dissection neces-sary to remove the esophagus, particularly in the presence of marked periesophagitis, is associated with significant morbidity. Leaving the esophagus


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Surgery_Schwartz. be considered. The extensive dissection neces-sary to remove the esophagus, particularly in the presence of marked periesophagitis, is associated with significant morbidity. Leaving the esophagus in place preserves the function of the Figure 25-82. Anastomosis of the bowel to the posterior orophar-ynx. The anastomosis is done through an inverted trapezoid incision above the thyroid cartilage (dotted line). A triangle-shaped piece of the upper half of the cartilage is resected. Closure of the oropharynx is done so that the larynx is pulled up (sagittal section).Figure 25-81. Anastomosis of the bowel to a preserved pyriform sinus. To identify the site, a finger is inserted into the free pyriform sinus through a suprahyoid incision (dotted line). This requires removing the lateral inferior portion of the thyroid cartilage as shown in cross-section.vagus nerves, and, in turn, the function of the stomach. On the other hand, leaving a damaged esophagus in place can result in multiple blind


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Surgery_Schwartz. of the thyroid cartilage as shown in cross-section.vagus nerves, and, in turn, the function of the stomach. On the other hand, leaving a damaged esophagus in place can result in multiple blind sacs and subsequent development of medias-tinal abscesses years later. Most experienced surgeons recom-mend that the esophagus be removed unless the operative risk is unduly high.ACQUIRED FISTULAThe esophagus lies in close contact with the membranous por-tion of the trachea and left bronchus, predisposing to the for-mation of fistula to these structures. Most acquired esophageal fistulas are to the tracheobronchial tree and secondary to either esophageal or pulmonary malignancy. Traumatic fistulas and those associated with esophageal diverticula account for the remainder. Fistulas associated with traction diverticula are usu-ally due to mediastinal inflammatory disease, and traumatic fistulas usually occur secondary to penetrating wounds, lye ingestion, or iatrogenic injury.These fistulas are


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Surgery_Schwartz. traction diverticula are usu-ally due to mediastinal inflammatory disease, and traumatic fistulas usually occur secondary to penetrating wounds, lye ingestion, or iatrogenic injury.These fistulas are characterized by paroxysmal cough-ing following the ingestion of liquids, and by recurrent or chronic pulmonary infections. The onset of cough immediately after swallowing suggests aspiration, whereas a brief delay (30–60 seconds) suggests a fistula.Spontaneous closure is rare, owing to the presence of malignancy or a recurrent infectious process. Surgical treat-ment of benign fistulas consists of division of the fistulous tract, resection of irreversibly damaged lung tissue, and closure of the esophageal defect. To prevent recurrence, a pleural flap should be interposed. Treatment of malignant fistulas is difficult, par-ticularly in the presence of prior irradiation. Generally, only palliative treatment is indicated. This can best be done by using a specially designed esophageal


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Surgery_Schwartz. malignant fistulas is difficult, par-ticularly in the presence of prior irradiation. Generally, only palliative treatment is indicated. This can best be done by using a specially designed esophageal endoprosthesis that bridges and occludes the fistula, allowing the patient to eat. A salivary tube is also a good option for proximal esophageal fistulas. This tube has a proximal “lip” that rests on the cricopharyngeal muscle and thereby directs the saliva into the tube and past the fis-tula. Rarely, esophageal diversion, coupled with placement of a feeding jejunostomy, can be used as a last resort.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108801/03/19 6:05 PM 1089ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25of the internal mammary artery and the internal mammary or innominate vein. Removal of the sternoclavicular joint aids in performing the vascular and distal esophageal anastomosis (Fig. 25-83).Reconstruction After Total EsophagectomyNeither the intrathoracic stomach nor the intrathoracic


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Surgery_Schwartz. sternoclavicular joint aids in performing the vascular and distal esophageal anastomosis (Fig. 25-83).Reconstruction After Total EsophagectomyNeither the intrathoracic stomach nor the intrathoracic colon functions as well as the native esophagus after an esophagogas-trectomy. The choice between these organs will be influenced by several factors, such as the adequacy of their blood supply and the length of resected esophagus that they are capable of bridging. If the stomach shows evidence of disease, or has been contracted or reduced by previous gastric surgery, the length available for esophageal replacement may not be adequate. The presence of diverticular disease, unrecognized carcinoma, or colitis prohibits the use of the colon. The blood supply of the colon is more affected by vascular disease than the blood supply of the stomach, which may prevent its use. Of the two, the colon provides the longest graft. The stomach can usually reach to the neck if the amount of lesser curvature


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Surgery_Schwartz. disease than the blood supply of the stomach, which may prevent its use. Of the two, the colon provides the longest graft. The stomach can usually reach to the neck if the amount of lesser curvature resected does not interfere with the blood supply to the fundus. Gastric interposition has the advantage that only one anastomosis is required. On the other hand, there is greater potential for aspiration of gastric juice or stricture of the cervical anastomosis from chronic reflux when stomach is used for replacement.Following an esophagogastrectomy, patients may have discomfort during or shortly after eating. The most common symptom is a postprandial pressure sensation or a feeling of being full, which probably results from the loss of the gastric reservoir. This symptom is less common when the colon is used as an esophageal substitute, probably because the distal third of the stomach is retained in the abdomen and the interposed colon provides an additional reservoir function.King and


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Surgery_Schwartz. the colon is used as an esophageal substitute, probably because the distal third of the stomach is retained in the abdomen and the interposed colon provides an additional reservoir function.King and Hölscher have reported a 40% and 50% inci-dence of dysphagia after reestablishing GI continuity with the stomach following esophagogastrectomy. This incidence is similar to Orringer’s results after using the stomach to replace the esophagus in patients with benign disease. More than one-half of the patients experienced dysphagia postoperatively; TECHNIQUES OF ESOPHAGEAL RECONSTRUCTIONOptions for esophageal substitution include gastric advance-ment, colonic interposition, and either jejunal free transfer or advancement into the chest. Rarely, combinations of these grafts will be the only possible option. The indications for esopha-geal resection and substitution include malignant and end-stage benign disease. The latter includes refluxor drug-induced stricture formation that cannot be


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Surgery_Schwartz. option. The indications for esopha-geal resection and substitution include malignant and end-stage benign disease. The latter includes refluxor drug-induced stricture formation that cannot be dilated without damage to the esophagus, a dilated and tortuous esophagus secondary to severe motility disorders, lye-induced strictures, and multiple previous antireflux procedures. The choice of esophageal substitution has significant impact upon the technical difficulty of the procedure and influences the long-term outcome.Partial Esophageal ResectionDistal benign lesions, with preserved proximal esophageal func-tion, are best treated with the interposition of a segment of prox-imal jejunum into the chest and primary anastomosis. A jejunal interposition can reach to the inferior border of the pulmonary hilum with ease, but the architecture of its blood supply rarely allows the use of the jejunum proximal to this point. Because the anastomosis is within the chest, a thoracotomy is necessary.The


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Surgery_Schwartz. hilum with ease, but the architecture of its blood supply rarely allows the use of the jejunum proximal to this point. Because the anastomosis is within the chest, a thoracotomy is necessary.The jejunum is a dynamic graft and contributes to bolus transport, whereas the stomach and colon function more as a conduit. The stomach is a poor choice in this circumstance because of the propensity for the reflux of gastric contents into the proximal remaining esophagus following an intratho-racic esophagogastrostomy. It is now well recognized that this occurs and can lead to incapacitating symptoms and esophageal destruction in some patients. Short segments of colon, on the other hand, lack significant motility and have a propensity for the development of esophagitis proximal to the anastomosis.Replacement of the cervical portion of the esophagus, while preserving the distal portion, is occasionally indicated in cervical esophageal or head and neck malignancy, and follow-ing the ingestion of


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Surgery_Schwartz. of the cervical portion of the esophagus, while preserving the distal portion, is occasionally indicated in cervical esophageal or head and neck malignancy, and follow-ing the ingestion of lye. Free transfer of a portion of jejunum to the neck has become a viable option and is successful in the majority of cases. Revascularization is achieved via use Figure 25-83. A. The portion of the thoracic inlet to be resected to provide space for a free jejunal graft and access to the internal mammary artery (shaded area). B. Cross-section showing the space available after resection of the sternoclavicular joint and one-half of the manubrium. (Reproduced with permission from Shields TW: General Thoracic Surgery, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1989.)Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 108901/03/19 6:06 PM 1090SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IItwo-thirds of this group required postoperative dilation, and one-fourth had persistent dysphagia and required home dilation. In contrast, dysphagia


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Surgery_Schwartz. 6:06 PM 1090SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IItwo-thirds of this group required postoperative dilation, and one-fourth had persistent dysphagia and required home dilation. In contrast, dysphagia is uncommon, and the need for dilation is rare following a colonic interposition. Isolauri reported on 248 patients with colonic interpositions and noted a 24% incidence of dysphagia 12 months after the operation. When it occurred, the most common cause was recurrent mediastinal tumor. The high incidence of dysphagia with the use of the stomach is prob-ably related to the esophagogastric anastomosis in the neck and the resulting difficulty of passing a swallowed bolus.Another consequence of the transposition of the stomach into the chest is the development of postoperative duodenogastric reflux, probably due to pyloric denervation, and adding a pyloroplasty may worsen this problem. Following gastric advancement, the pylorus lies at the level of the esophageal hiatus, and a distinct pressure


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Surgery_Schwartz. probably due to pyloric denervation, and adding a pyloroplasty may worsen this problem. Following gastric advancement, the pylorus lies at the level of the esophageal hiatus, and a distinct pressure differential develops between the intrathoracic gastric and intra-abdominal duodenal lumina. Unless the pyloric valve is extremely efficient, the pressure differential will encourage reflux of duodenal contents into the stomach. Duodenogastric reflux is less likely to occur following colonic interposition because there is sufficient intra-abdominal colon to be compressed by the abdominal pressure and the pylorus and duodenum remain in their normal intra-abdominal position.Although there is general acceptance of the concept that an esophagogastric anastomosis in the neck results in less post-operative esophagitis and stricture than one at a lower level, reflux esophagitis following a cervical anastomosis does occur, albeit at a lower rate than when the anastomosis is at a lower level. Most


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Surgery_Schwartz. esophagitis and stricture than one at a lower level, reflux esophagitis following a cervical anastomosis does occur, albeit at a lower rate than when the anastomosis is at a lower level. Most patients undergo cervical esophagogastrostomy for malignancy; thus, the long-term sequelae of an esophagogastric anastomosis in the neck are not of concern. However, patients who have had a cervical esophagogastrostomy for benign dis-ease may develop problems associated with the anastomosis in the fourth or fifth postoperative year that are severe enough to require anastomotic revision. This is less likely in patients who have had a colonic interposition for esophageal replace-ment. Consequently, in patients who have a benign process or a potentially curable carcinoma of the esophagus or cardia, a colonic interposition is used to obviate the late problems associ-ated with a cervical esophagogastrostomy. Colonic interposition for esophageal substitution is a more complex procedure than gastric


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Surgery_Schwartz. colonic interposition is used to obviate the late problems associ-ated with a cervical esophagogastrostomy. Colonic interposition for esophageal substitution is a more complex procedure than gastric advancement, with the potential for greater perioperative morbidity, particularly in inexperienced hands.Composite ReconstructionOccasionally, a combination of colon, jejunum, and stomach is the only reconstructive option available. This situation may arise when there has been previous gastric or colonic resection, when dysphagia has recurred after a previous esophageal resec-tion, or following postoperative complications such as ischemia of an esophageal substitute. Although not ideal, combinations of colon, jejunum, and stomach used to restore GI continuity function surprisingly well and allow alimentary reconstruction in an otherwise impossible situation.Vagal Sparing Esophagectomy With Colon InterpositionTraditional esophagectomy typically results in bilateral vagot-omy and its


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Surgery_Schwartz. and allow alimentary reconstruction in an otherwise impossible situation.Vagal Sparing Esophagectomy With Colon InterpositionTraditional esophagectomy typically results in bilateral vagot-omy and its attendant consequences. It is likely that symptoms such as dumping, diarrhea, early satiety, and weight loss seen in 15% to 20% of patients postesophagectomy are at least in part, if not completely, due to vagal interruption. The technique of vagal sparing esophagectomy with colon interposition has been described in an effort to avoid the morbidities associated with standard esophagectomy.Through an upper midline abdominal incision, the right and left vagal nerves are identified, circled with a tape, and retracted to the right. A limited, highly selective proximal gas-tric vagotomy is performed along the cephalad 4 cm of the lesser curvature. The stomach is divided with an Endo-GIA stapler just below the GEJ. The colon is prepared to provide an interposed segment as previously described.


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Surgery_Schwartz. along the cephalad 4 cm of the lesser curvature. The stomach is divided with an Endo-GIA stapler just below the GEJ. The colon is prepared to provide an interposed segment as previously described. A neck incision is made along the anterior border of the left sternocleidomastoid muscle, and the strap muscles are exposed. The omohyoid muscle is divided at its pulley, and the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles are divided at their manubrial insertion. The left carotid sheath is retracted laterally and the thyroid and trachea medially. The left inferior thyroid artery is ligated laterally as it passes under the left common carotid artery. The left recurrent laryngeal nerve is identified and protected. The esophagus is dissected circumfer-entially in an inferior direction, from the left neck to the apex of the right chest, to avoid injury to the right recurrent laryngeal nerve. The esophagus is divided at the level of the thoracic inlet, leaving about 3 to 4 cm of cervical esophagus.


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Surgery_Schwartz. to the apex of the right chest, to avoid injury to the right recurrent laryngeal nerve. The esophagus is divided at the level of the thoracic inlet, leaving about 3 to 4 cm of cervical esophagus. The proximal esophagus is retracted anteriorly and to the right with the use of two sutures to keep saliva and oral contents from contaminating the neck wound.Returning to the abdomen, the proximal staple line of the gastric division is opened, and the esophagus is flushed with povidone-iodine solution. A vein stripper is passed up the esophagus into the neck wound. The distal portion of the esophagus in the neck is secured tightly around the stripping cable with “endoloops” and an umbilical tape for a trailer. The tip of the stripper is exchanged for a mushroom head, and the stripper is pulled back into the abdomen, inverting the esopha-gus as it transverses the posterior mediastinum. This maneuver strips the branches of the esophageal plexus off the longitudi-nal muscle of the esophagus,


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Surgery_Schwartz. back into the abdomen, inverting the esopha-gus as it transverses the posterior mediastinum. This maneuver strips the branches of the esophageal plexus off the longitudi-nal muscle of the esophagus, preserving the esophageal plexus along with the proximal vagal nerves and the distal vagal nerve trunks. In patients with end-stage achalasia, only the mucosa is secured around the stripping cable, so that it alone is stripped and the dilated muscular wall of the esophagus, with its enriched blood supply, remains. The resulting medi-astinal tunnel, or in the case of achalasia the muscular tube, is dilated with a Foley catheter containing 90 mL of fluid in the balloon. The previously prepared interposed portion of the transverse colon is passed behind the stomach and up through the mediastinal tunnel into the neck. An end-to-end anastomo-sis is performed to the cervical esophagus using a single layer technique. The colon is pulled taut and secured to the left crus with four or five


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Surgery_Schwartz. tunnel into the neck. An end-to-end anastomo-sis is performed to the cervical esophagus using a single layer technique. The colon is pulled taut and secured to the left crus with four or five interrupted sutures. Five centimeters below the crura an opening is made in the mesentery adjacent to the colon along its mesenteric border, through which an Endo-GIA stapler is passed and the colon is divided. The proximal end, which is the distal end of the interposed colon, is anasto-mosed high on the posterior fundic wall of the stomach, using a triangular stapling anastomotic technique. This is done by stapling longitudinally the stomach and colon together with a 75-mm Endo-GIA stapler, spreading the base of the incision apart, and closing it with a T-55 stapler. Colonic continuity is reestablished by bringing the proximal right colon to the dis-tal staple line in the left colon and performing an end-to-end anastomosis using a double-layer technique.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd


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Surgery_Schwartz. by bringing the proximal right colon to the dis-tal staple line in the left colon and performing an end-to-end anastomosis using a double-layer technique.Brunicardi_Ch25_p1009-p1098.indd 109001/03/19 6:06 PM 1091ESOPHAGUS AND DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIACHAPTER 25Although conceptually appealing, preservation of vagal nerve integrity or the gastric reservoir function after vagal spar-ing esophagectomy only recently has been validated. Banki and associates compared patients undergoing vagal sparing esopha-gectomy to those with conventional esophagectomy and colon or gastric interposition. This study showed that vagal sparing esophagectomy preserved gastric secretion, gastric emptying, meal capacity, and body mass index, compared to esophagogas-trectomy with colon interposition or standard esophagectomy with gastric pull-up. Vagal sparing esophagectomy patients functioned, for the most part, similarly to normal subjects, allowing them to eat a normal meal, free of dumping or diarrhea. These


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Surgery_Schwartz. with gastric pull-up. Vagal sparing esophagectomy patients functioned, for the most part, similarly to normal subjects, allowing them to eat a normal meal, free of dumping or diarrhea. These results indicate that the vagal-sparing esophagectomy procedure does indeed preserve the vagal nerves, and it may be considered in the treatment of benign and early malignant lesions requiring esophagectomy.BIBLIOGRAPHYEntries highlighted in bright blue are key references.General ReferencesBalaji B, Peters JH. Minimally invasive surgery for esophageal motor disorders. Surg Clin North Am. 2002;82:763-782.Bremner CG, DeMeester TR, Bremner RM. Esophageal Motility Testing Made Easy. St. Louis: Quality Medical Publishing, 2001.Castel DW, Richter J, eds. The Esophagus. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1999.DeMeester SR, Peters JH, DeMeester TR. Barrett’s esophagus. Curr Probl Surg. 2001;38:549-640.Demeester SR, ed. Barrett’s esophagus. Problems in General Surgery. Vol. 18, no. 2. Hagerstown, MD:


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Surgery_Schwartz. 1999.DeMeester SR, Peters JH, DeMeester TR. Barrett’s esophagus. Curr Probl Surg. 2001;38:549-640.Demeester SR, ed. Barrett’s esophagus. Problems in General Surgery. Vol. 18, no. 2. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001.DeMeester TR, Peters JH, Bremner CG, et al. Biology of gastro-esophageal reflux disease; pathophysiology relating to medical and surgical treatment. Annu Rev Med. 1999;50:469-506.Hunter JG, Pellagrini CA. Surgery of the esophagus. Surg Clin North Am. 1997;77:959-970.McFadyen BV, Arregui ME, Eubanks S, et al. Laparoscopic Surgery of the Abdomen. New York: Springer, 2003.Surgical AnatomyDaffner RH, Halber MD, Postlethwait RW, et al. CT of the esopha-gus. II. Carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1979;133:1051-1055.Gray SW, Rowe JS Jr, Skandalakis JE. Surgical anatomy of the gastroesophageal junction. Am Surg. 1979;45:575-587.Liebermann-Meffert D. The pharyngoesophageal segment: anat-omy and innervation. Dis Esophagus. 1995;8:242-251.Liebermann-Meffert D,


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Surgery_Schwartz. anatomy of the gastroesophageal junction. Am Surg. 1979;45:575-587.Liebermann-Meffert D. The pharyngoesophageal segment: anat-omy and innervation. Dis Esophagus. 1995;8:242-251.Liebermann-Meffert D, Siewert JR. Arterial anatomy of the esopha-gus: a review of the literature with brief comments on clinical aspects. Gullet. 1992;2:3-10.Liebermann-Meffert DM, Meier R, Siewert JR. Vascular anat-omy of the gastric tube used for esophageal reconstruction. Ann Thorac Surg. 1992;54(6):1110-1115.Liebermann-Meffert DM, Walbrun B, Hiebert CA, et al. Recurrent and superior laryngeal nerves: a new look with implications for the esophageal surgeon. Ann Thorac Surg. 1999;67:217-223.PhysiologyBarlow AP, DeMeester TR, Ball CS, et al. The significance of the gastric secretory state in gastroesophageal reflux disease. Arch Surg. 1989;124:937-940.DeMeester TR, Lafontaine E, Joelsson BE, et al. The relation-ship of a hiatal hernia to the function of the body of the esophagus and the gastroesophageal