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Surgery_Schwartz. pos-sible structure alterations in fibroblasts caused by the toxicity of cigarette components, resulting in uncontrolled production of fibrous matrix in the lamina propria, thus preventing complete vocal recovery.41Laryngeal granulomas typically occur in the posterior lar-ynx on the arytenoid mucosa (Fig. 18-14). These lesions are typically multifactorial: chronic throat clearing, phonotrauma, endotracheal intubation, compensatory supraglottic squeeze from vocal fold paralysis, and LPR.42 The majority of these lesions (82%) disappear within 48 weeks with conservative measures such as voice therapy, vocal rest, oral steroids, inhaled steroids, and proton pump inhibitors.42 Botulinum toxin of thy-roarytenoid and lateral cricoarytenoid muscles can be used as first-line treatment in patients who prefer a chemically activated voice rest regiment.42 LPR appears to be the most important contributing factor,42 and when aggressive conservative and medical therapy has failed, a Nissen


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Surgery_Schwartz. patients who prefer a chemically activated voice rest regiment.42 LPR appears to be the most important contributing factor,42 and when aggressive conservative and medical therapy has failed, a Nissen fundoplication may be indicated. Surgery is rarely required for patients with laryngeal granulomas because it does not address the underlying etiol-ogy and is frequently associated with recurrence. Nonetheless, excision is sometimes required in patients with airway obstruc-tion or the suspicion of malignancy. Careful preservation of the arytenoid perichondrium intraoperatively is required to assist with reepithelialization and to decrease the risk of recurrence postoperatively.Recurrent respiratory papillomatosis (RRP) is pathophysi-ologically associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) within the mucosa of the upper aerodigestive tract. The glottis and supra-glottis are the two most common involved subsites. HPV 6 and 11 are the most often implicated types; however, LPR and herpes simplex


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. the mucosa of the upper aerodigestive tract. The glottis and supra-glottis are the two most common involved subsites. HPV 6 and 11 are the most often implicated types; however, LPR and herpes simplex virus (HSV) type-2 are risk factors of adult-onset RRP.43 The disorder typically presents in early childhood (juvenile-onset RR; JoRRP) secondary to HPV acquisition during vaginal deliv-ery; however, children born by caesarean section are also at risk for the disease. JoRRP usually resolves around puberty but can progress into adulthood. Adult-onset RRP is less severe and is more likely to involve extralaryngeal subsites. There is no cure for RRP. Surgery excision is used to improve voice and airway symptoms in a palliative fashion. Surgical excision in the operat-ing room involves microlaryngoscopy with the use of the laser (CO2 for bulky disease or KTP for more superficial disease) or the use of a microdebrider. The microdebrider has been dem-onstrated to have superior voice outcomes in


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Surgery_Schwartz. with the use of the laser (CO2 for bulky disease or KTP for more superficial disease) or the use of a microdebrider. The microdebrider has been dem-onstrated to have superior voice outcomes in JoRRP; however, CO2 laser is the most commonly used operative ablative tech-nique used in adults.44 Recent advances have made it possible to treat a select group of adult RRP patients in the office using the KTP laser, typically for those with a lower disease burden.45 Several adjuvant treatments are used to increase the intersurgical interval, including intralesional cidofovir injection, oral indole-3-carbinol, oral methotrexate, and retinoic acid. In addition to preventing RRP in some patients, the HPV vaccine has also been demonstrated to increase the intersurgical interval in the most aggressive JoRRP patients.46,47Leukoplakia is a white patch seen on mucosa that can be wiped off on physical examination. This can be seen anywhere in the upper aerodigestive tract. In the larynx, this is


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Surgery_Schwartz. JoRRP patients.46,47Leukoplakia is a white patch seen on mucosa that can be wiped off on physical examination. This can be seen anywhere in the upper aerodigestive tract. In the larynx, this is typically seen on the superior surface of the true vocal cords and may represent squamous hyperplasia, dysplasia, and/or carcinoma with an associated risk of malignant transformation of 1% to 3% in hyperplastic lesions and 10% to 30% in dysplastic lesions. Lesions that are not overtly suspicious for malignancy, particularly in patients without a strong smoking or alcohol history, can be managed conservatively (increased hydration, elimination of poor vocal habits, phonotrauma, and manage-ment of LPR) for 1 month before reevaluation with fiberoptic laryngoscopy. Any lesions that progress, persist, or recur could have microlaryngoscopy with complete excision. Similarly, because erythroplasia and ulceration are more suggestive of malignancy, these lesions also require an excisional biopsy in the


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Surgery_Schwartz. or recur could have microlaryngoscopy with complete excision. Similarly, because erythroplasia and ulceration are more suggestive of malignancy, these lesions also require an excisional biopsy in the operating room.The most common cause of unilateral vocal cord paresis is iatrogenic in origin, following surgery to the thyroid, parathy-roid, carotid, spine through an anterior approach,48 or cardiotho-racic structures.49 It is therefore very important that all patients undergoing thyroid surgery receive preoperative visualization of the larynx, usually in the form of fiberoptic nasolaryngos-copy, although an indirect mirror exam can be used if adequate visualization is possible.50 Postthyroidectomy visualization may also be required to document normal vocal cord move-ment. Less common causes include malignancy of structures near the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) from the skull base jugular foramen to the mediastinum. In the pediatric population, there can be neurologic causes, the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. include malignancy of structures near the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) from the skull base jugular foramen to the mediastinum. In the pediatric population, there can be neurologic causes, the most common of which is the Arnold-Chiari malformation.51 Overall, the left vocal cord is more commonly involved secondary to the longer course of the RLN on that side. Other rare etiologies include trauma, intu-bation injury, atypical infections, and neurotoxic medications. Patients typically present with a weak breathy voice and may have aspiration secondary to diminished supraglottic sensa-tion if the proximal vagal nerve or superior laryngeal nerve is involved. RLN injury is also associated with delayed relaxation Figure 18-14. Laryngeal granuloma.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62501/03/19 5:23 PM 626SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIof the cricopharyngeus muscle that can lead to dysphagia and decreased sensation in the hypopharynx, which can cause pool-ing of secretions. In children,


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Surgery_Schwartz. 5:23 PM 626SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIof the cricopharyngeus muscle that can lead to dysphagia and decreased sensation in the hypopharynx, which can cause pool-ing of secretions. In children, stridor, weak cry, and airway com-promise may be presenting symptoms, whereas in adults this is rarely the case unless there is bilateral vocal cord paralysis. When an obvious cause is not identified after a thorough history and physical examination including fiberoptic nasolaryngos-copy, then a more comprehensive workup is required. A workup should not include autoimmune serology as a screen because this is low yield, but this can be included if there is a suspicion of autoimmune disorders. Imaging, in the form of a CT scan, is the mainstay of the workup and should include the skull base to the mediastinum. Repeat imaging is beneficial in this population within a 2-year period because many patients have undiagnosed small malignancies as the primary cause of their paralysis that are too


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Surgery_Schwartz. the mediastinum. Repeat imaging is beneficial in this population within a 2-year period because many patients have undiagnosed small malignancies as the primary cause of their paralysis that are too small to detect on initial imaging.52 Laryngeal electro-myography can assist with identifying whether the paresis is a result of a paralysis or cricoarytenoid joint fixation/disloca-tion. It can also help prognosticate a paralysis. This is, however, rarely used in practice. Despite an extensive workup, 20% to 35% of cases are idiopathic.The management of bilateral vocal cord paralysis almost always requires a tracheotomy because the cords are left in a paramedian position leaving a slit light glottic aperture. If the paralysis is permanent, then a cordectomy with or without ary-tenoidectomy can be used to open up the airway in an attempt to eventually decannulate the patient. However, this has obvi-ous implications for voice with a weak and breathing voice. Many patients with a unilateral


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. be used to open up the airway in an attempt to eventually decannulate the patient. However, this has obvi-ous implications for voice with a weak and breathing voice. Many patients with a unilateral paralysis compensate when the cord is in the paramedian position using supraglottic structure and the contralateral cord on their own or with speech therapy. However, in patients with a less than adequate voice-related quality of life, four techniques have been used to surgically manage patients with a unilateral vocal cord paralysis: injection laryngoplasty, medialization thyroplasty, arytenoid adduction, and laryngeal reinnervation. Injection laryngoplasty involves injecting a temporary filler medial to the vocalis into the liga-ment at the posterior and midmembranous vocal cord. This can be performed in the office or in the operating room, depend-ing on the comfort of the surgeon and patient characteristics. Materials used include autologous (fat, collagen) or alloplastic


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Surgery_Schwartz. This can be performed in the office or in the operating room, depend-ing on the comfort of the surgeon and patient characteristics. Materials used include autologous (fat, collagen) or alloplastic (hydroxyapatite, hyaluronic acid, micronized cadaveric human collagen) compounds. Early medialization is recommended in patients with mediastinal and thoracic malignancies because it is safe and has been shown to improve quality of life in a palli-ative setting.53 Teflon is historic and is no longer used because of its granulomatous side effects on the larynx. A more per-manent medialization can be performed using a medialization thyroplasty, during which a small window is created in the inferolateral aspect of the thyroid cartilage and a submucosal-carved silastic block is placed in the operating room with the patient under neurolept anesthetic so that vocalization and flex-ible laryngoscopic visualization of the larynx can be improved (Fig. 18-15). In some cases, this is not enough of a


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Surgery_Schwartz. room with the patient under neurolept anesthetic so that vocalization and flex-ible laryngoscopic visualization of the larynx can be improved (Fig. 18-15). In some cases, this is not enough of a medialization due to a large posterior glottic chink, and an arytenoid adduction is required to provide better closure of the posterior glottis and supraglottis with ensuing improved vocal outcomes. This is a technically challenging procedure that is rarely required, but in select patients it is associated with significant improvements in voice. Lastly, laryngeal reinnervation, typically with the ansa cervicalis that supplies motor function to the strap muscles, can also be performed. This is the best approach in patients who have had a recurrent laryngeal nerve severed during a central or upper mediastinal neck procedure because it is in the field.54 Multiple studies demonstrate favorable outcomes; however, no significant differences between treatment arms has been demon-strated based on


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Surgery_Schwartz. mediastinal neck procedure because it is in the field.54 Multiple studies demonstrate favorable outcomes; however, no significant differences between treatment arms has been demon-strated based on perceptual, acoustic, quality of life, and laryn-goscopic outcomes.55Vascular LesionsVascular lesions can be broadly classified into two groups: hem-angiomas and vascular malformations.56Hemangiomas. Hemangiomas are the most common vascular lesion present in infancy and early childhood. Infantile heman-giomas present largely within the first few weeks of life. Initially they proliferate (2 weeks to 1 year), and then they begin to invo-lute (1–7 years) until they have fully involuted, leaving the child with redundant skin, scar, or a fatty lesion. Children with large facial infantile hemangiomas benefit from regular neurological examinations and brain MRI to rule out PHACES syndrome (Posterior fossa malformations, Hemangiomas, Arterial lesions, Cardiac abnormalities/aortic coarctation, Eye


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. benefit from regular neurological examinations and brain MRI to rule out PHACES syndrome (Posterior fossa malformations, Hemangiomas, Arterial lesions, Cardiac abnormalities/aortic coarctation, Eye abnormalities). Only 10% of these lesions require early intervention because of impairment of vision or swallowing, or airway compromise. Early intervention can include medical management, such as systemic steroids, intralesional steroids, intralesional interferon α-2a, or photocoagulation therapy, and surgical management, including excision with CO2 laser/microdebrider and tracheot-omy. Systemic steroids assist with rapidly proliferating lesions until the child reaches approximately one year of age; however, it is associated with growth retardation and immune suppres-sion. Intralesional interferon α-2a has been largely abandoned because it is a daily subcutaneous injection and is associated Figure 18-15. Hand carved silastic block for thyroplasty.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd


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Surgery_Schwartz. interferon α-2a has been largely abandoned because it is a daily subcutaneous injection and is associated Figure 18-15. Hand carved silastic block for thyroplasty.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62601/03/19 5:23 PM 627DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18with significant neurological side effects, including spastic diplegia. Photocoagulation therapy with either the flashlamp-pumped pulsed-dye laser (FPDL), the potassium titanyl phos-phate (KTP) laser, or the neodymium yttrium-aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, is repeated every 4 to 6 weeks until the lesion disappears. A randomized trial recently demonstrated that pro-pranolol was effective at a dose of 3mg/kg per day for 5 months in the treatment of infantile hemangioma with a very acceptable and low side-effect profile.57 Other groups have had success at discontinuing propranolol at 1 year of age with excellent out-comes.58 For patients who do not require early intervention, the lesion is observed every 3 months for involution


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Surgery_Schwartz. have had success at discontinuing propranolol at 1 year of age with excellent out-comes.58 For patients who do not require early intervention, the lesion is observed every 3 months for involution after the pro-liferative phase has ended. Surgery is considered if regression has not occurred by 5 years of age because the cosmetic result is less likely to be satisfactory.Congenital hemangiomas differ from infantile heman-giomas in that they reach their maximal size at birth and do not have a proliferative phase. There are two subtypes: rapidly involuting (RICH), which typically disappears by 1 of age with minimal fatty appearance upon resolution, and noninvoluting (NICH). The management is similar to infantile hemangiomas with the exception that medical management is not typically necessary.Vascular Malformations. Vascular malformations, in contrast to infantile hemangioma, are always present at birth, although they may not be apparent for a few months. Although they do not have a


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Malformations. Vascular malformations, in contrast to infantile hemangioma, are always present at birth, although they may not be apparent for a few months. Although they do not have a proliferative phase, they grow with the patient, have hormonal growth spurts and do not involute.59 Vascular mal-formations can be classified as low flow (capillary, venous, lymphatic, and mixed), which comprise approximately two-thirds of all vascular malformations, or high flow (arteria and arteriovenous).Capillary malformations arise from the cutaneous super-ficial plexus and are made up of capillary and postcapillary venules with a pink, red, or purple macular-papular appearance. Venous malformations arise from dilated vascular channels lined by normal endothelium; therefore, they are soft, compress-ible, and nonpulsatile. If they are superficial, they will increase in size with Valsalva or dependent positioning. They can grow suddenly with trauma or in association with hormonal changes. Lymphatic


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. and nonpulsatile. If they are superficial, they will increase in size with Valsalva or dependent positioning. They can grow suddenly with trauma or in association with hormonal changes. Lymphatic malformations typically present at birth with the majority (90%) being identified by 2 years of age. They can be macrocystic (>2 cm), microcystic (≤2 cm), or a combina-tion. They are most commonly found in the head and neck, particularly on the neck, and on physical examination they are soft and doughy with normal overlying skin. Infrahyoid lesions tend to be macrocystic, well circumscribed, and discrete and can be totally excised, whereas suprahyoid lesions are typically microcystic, infiltrative, and excision is usually incomplete. On MRI, the best imaging modality for this malformation, a sep-tated mass with low-intensity signal on T1 and high-intensity signal on T2 is noted. They grow slowly with the patient but can have a sudden increase in size with hemorrhage or infection. Rarely, they


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. mass with low-intensity signal on T1 and high-intensity signal on T2 is noted. They grow slowly with the patient but can have a sudden increase in size with hemorrhage or infection. Rarely, they cause airway compromise, feeding difficulties, and failure to thrive.Treatment of vascular malformations is based on depth, size, and growth pattern. Capillary malformations are typically treated with the pulsed dye laser (585 nm). Venous lesions can be treated with the KTP laser (532 nm) or the Nd:YAG laser (1064 nm), sclerotherapy, and, in select cases, complete surgi-cal excision is possible. Arteriovenous malformations are rare but typically require surgical excision with negative margins often after embolization. Lymphatic malformations are typically treated at least in part with surgical excision, although this is less successful for microcystic lesions. OK-432 is lyophilized low virulence S pyogenes cultured in penicillin. It is used as a sclerotherapy agent for lymphatic malformations


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Surgery_Schwartz. although this is less successful for microcystic lesions. OK-432 is lyophilized low virulence S pyogenes cultured in penicillin. It is used as a sclerotherapy agent for lymphatic malformations and has a 94% response rate in macrocystic lesions, a 63% response rate in mixed macromicrocystic lesions, and no response in micro-cystic lesions.60TRAUMA OF THE HEAD AND NECKSoft TissueSoft tissue trauma of the head and neck is managed with the same general surgical principles as any other body subsite with a few particularities. Most lacerations can be closed primarily if there is not soft tissue loss; even some devitalized soft tis-sue should be preserved because of the excellent blood sup-ply to head and neck tissue that allows it to recover at a higher rate. Thus, minimal debridement is usually required. Thor-ough irrigation to remove foreign bodies and clean the tissue is required. This is followed by a careful layered closure. On the face, the deep layers are usually closed with a 3-0 or


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Surgery_Schwartz. required. Thor-ough irrigation to remove foreign bodies and clean the tissue is required. This is followed by a careful layered closure. On the face, the deep layers are usually closed with a 3-0 or 4-0 Vicryl/Polysorb after a minimal amount of undermining, and interrupted 5-0 or 6-0 Prolene or Nylon is used for the skin. These sutures are removed at 5 days on the face. Antibiotics are reserved for through-and-through mucosal lacerations, con-taminated wounds, bite injuries, and when delayed closure is performed (>72 hours). The chosen antibiotic should cover S aureus. Patients are instructed to avoid sunlight because this can cause pigmentary abnormalities in the suture line as it heals and matures over the first year.Eyelid lacerations are closed in layers with careful reap-proximation of the orbicularis oculi as a separate layer. Another important layer to reapproximate separately is the gray line (con-junctival margin) so as to avoid height mismatch or lid notching. Lip injuries


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Surgery_Schwartz. of the orbicularis oculi as a separate layer. Another important layer to reapproximate separately is the gray line (con-junctival margin) so as to avoid height mismatch or lid notching. Lip injuries follow the same principle with a three-layer closure involving the orbicularis oris, which is the strength layer, fol-lowed by careful reapproximation of the vermillion border to avoid a step-deformity (Fig. 18-16). Of course, a mucosal layer closure may also be required for through-and-through defects. Rarely, locoregional flaps or grafts are required for closure when greater than one-fourth of the eyelid width or one-third of the lip width is missing. Auricular hematoma is managed with prompt incision and drainage followed by bolstering technique; anteriorly and posteriorly placed dental pledgets secured with through-and-through sutures. These are to remain in place for at least 4 days to prevent reaccumulation of the hematoma and to prevent a cauliflower ear deformity. Auricular


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. pledgets secured with through-and-through sutures. These are to remain in place for at least 4 days to prevent reaccumulation of the hematoma and to prevent a cauliflower ear deformity. Auricular lacerations are typically closed primarily with perichondrial sutures to preserve the precarious cartilage blood supply followed by a primary clo-sure of the skin, making sure to cover the cartilage to prevent chondritis. Given the rich vascular supply to the face and neck, many soft-tissue components that appear devitalized will indeed survive, and therefore minimal debridement of devitalized tissue is required.Facial lacerations resulting in facial nerve injury are not explored if they are anterior to a vertical line dropped from the lateral cantus as there is excellent collateral innervation in the anterior midface. Posterior to this line, the nerve should be repaired, primarily if possible, using 8-0 to 10-0 monofila-ment suture to approximate the epineurium under the operative


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. in the anterior midface. Posterior to this line, the nerve should be repaired, primarily if possible, using 8-0 to 10-0 monofila-ment suture to approximate the epineurium under the operative Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62701/03/19 5:23 PM 628SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IImicroscope. If primary reapproximation is not possible due to a missing segment, cable nerve grafts can be performed using the sural nerve or the greater auricular nerve. If the buccal branch is injured, this raises suspicion regarding injury to the parotid duct, which lies along an imaginary line drawn from the tragus to the midline upper lip. The duct should be repaired over a 22-gauge stent or marsupialized into the oral cavity.Facial FracturesThe most common facial fracture involves the mandible. Fig. 18-17 demonstrates the most common sites of fracture, which include the condyle (36%), body (35%), and angle (20%). In most cases, more than one site is involved due to reciprocating forces. The vector


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. demonstrates the most common sites of fracture, which include the condyle (36%), body (35%), and angle (20%). In most cases, more than one site is involved due to reciprocating forces. The vector forces from the muscles of mastication, vertical from the masseter and horizontal from the pterygoid muscles, can cause a fracture to be favorable or unfavorable depending on the angle of the fracture line. After taking a history and performing a physical examination, imaging is performed in the form of a Panorex or a CT scan. Where closed reduction can be achieved, patients are placed in maxillomandibular fixation (MMF) with arch bars applied via circumdental wiring, and these are left in place for 4 to 6 weeks depending on patient factors and the fracture location. In elderly patients, this is kept in for 6 to 8 weeks. In children and patients with condylar fractures only 2 to 3 weeks is required, and this is important to prevent condylar ankylosis. During this time, patients are placed on


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Surgery_Schwartz. in for 6 to 8 weeks. In children and patients with condylar fractures only 2 to 3 weeks is required, and this is important to prevent condylar ankylosis. During this time, patients are placed on a liquid diet and are provided with wire cutters in case of aspiration or airway emergency. Open reduction and fixation is indicated in patients with open, comminuted, displaced, or unfavorable fractures. In these patients, MMF is usually only temporary with a soft diet starting almost immediately in the postoperative setting. Because the MMF is temporary with rigid fixation, it is per-formed usually using the 4-point fixation technique, where the maxilla and mandible are held in occlusion by wires attached to intraoral cortical bone screws, with two screws above and below the occlusal line anteriorly. This is a benefit of open reduction and internal fixation because prolonged MMF is associated with gingival and dental disease, as well as with significant weight loss and malnutrition, during


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. This is a benefit of open reduction and internal fixation because prolonged MMF is associated with gingival and dental disease, as well as with significant weight loss and malnutrition, during the fixation period. After fixation, the fracture is exposed, more commonly from a transcervical compared to a transoral approach. Care is made not to injure the marginal mandibular branch of the facial nerve during this exposure. A rigid, locking, load-bearing mandibular plate is used. In edentulous patients, determining the baseline occlusion is of less significance because dentures may be refashioned once healing is complete.Midface fractures are rarely isolated and include multiple subsites. However, isolated zygoma fractures are typically dis-placed inferior inferiorly and medially with disruption of the suture lines between the temporal, frontal, and maxillary bones and the zygoma. If multiple zygoma fractures are present or if the zygomatic arch is significantly displaced, a coronal


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Surgery_Schwartz. of the suture lines between the temporal, frontal, and maxillary bones and the zygoma. If multiple zygoma fractures are present or if the zygomatic arch is significantly displaced, a coronal incision is required to perform the reduction and fixation. However, if it is an isolated depressed fracture, a Gilles reduction can be achieved inferiorly (transorally) or superiorly (along temporalis muscle). The pathophysiology of orbital blow-out fractures is (a) hydraulic from increased intraocular pressure or (b) buckling from direct bone conduction. This requires surgical intervention if there is a defect of >2 cm2 or >50% of the floor with herniation.61 A forced duction test, where the muscular attachment of the inferior oblique is grasped with forceps and manipulated to determine passive ocular mobility, is performed to ensure that there is not inferior rectus entrapment. If there is entrapment, this would also result in diploplia with upward gaze. Blowout fractures demonstrating


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Surgery_Schwartz. ocular mobility, is performed to ensure that there is not inferior rectus entrapment. If there is entrapment, this would also result in diploplia with upward gaze. Blowout fractures demonstrating significant entrapment or enophthal-mos are treated by orbital exploration and reinforcement of the floor with titanium mesh, hydroxyapatite, or split calvarial bone grafts. Sometimes, the anterior maxillary bone that has been fractured and is accessed in the process of repairing other factures can also be used.62There are three classic patterns of more extensive mid-face fractures: Le Fort I, II, and III. However, fractures rarely follow this exact pattern, and the two sides of the face may have different Le Fort fractures. Nonetheless, a full under-standing of midface buttresses is central in understanding these fractures (Fig. 18-18). There are three vertical buttresses: the nasofrontal-maxillary, the frontozygomaticomaxillary, and Key stitchFigure 18-16. Approximation of the vermilion


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Surgery_Schwartz. understanding these fractures (Fig. 18-18). There are three vertical buttresses: the nasofrontal-maxillary, the frontozygomaticomaxillary, and Key stitchFigure 18-16. Approximation of the vermilion border is the key step in the repair of lip lacerations.3%3%36%2%20%21%14%Figure 18-17. Sites of common mandible fractures.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62801/03/19 5:23 PM 629DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18pterygomaxillary. There are five horizontal buttresses: the fron-tal bone, nasal bones, upper alveolus, zygomatic arches, and the infraorbital region.63 Signs of midface fractures include subcon-junctival hemorrhage, ocular signs/symptoms, malocclusion, facial asymmetry, midface hypoesthesia (V2), hematoma, and a mobile maxillary complex. Transverse maxillary alveolus frac-tures above the teeth are Le Fort I fractures, which may result in a mobile hard palate. When this fracture extends superiorly to include the nasofrontal buttress, medial orbital wall, and even as


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Surgery_Schwartz. above the teeth are Le Fort I fractures, which may result in a mobile hard palate. When this fracture extends superiorly to include the nasofrontal buttress, medial orbital wall, and even as high as the infraorbital rim and zygomaticomaxillary articula-tion laterally, it is considered a Le Fort II. Mobility includes the palate, nasal dorsum, which is separated from the upper face, and the inferomedial aspect of the orbital rim. When the frac-ture disrupts the frontozygomaticomaxillary, frontomaxillary, and frontonasal suture line, there craniofacial disjunction, a Le Fort III fracture. Of note, all of the Le Fort fractures involve the pterygoid plates posteriorly (Fig. 18-19).Temporal Bone FracturesTemporal bone fractures occur in approximately one fifth of skull fractures. Temporal bone fractures were previously clas-sified as longitudinal or transverse describing the path along the temporal bone of the fracture line, but this has been largely replaced by the more relevant otic


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Surgery_Schwartz. bone fractures were previously clas-sified as longitudinal or transverse describing the path along the temporal bone of the fracture line, but this has been largely replaced by the more relevant otic capsule sparing or involv-ing classification given that most fractures are oblique.64 Otic capsule sparing fractures present with conductive hearing loss, ossicular injury, bloody otorrhea, and labyrinthine concussion.65 The facial nerve is rarely injured nor cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak common with this fracture pattern. However, in patients with otic capsule involving temporal bone fractures, typically caused by occipitomastoid impact, sensorineural hearing loss, vestibular dysfunction, facial nerve paralysis, and CSF leak are far more common.65 Regardless of the fracture pattern, when CSF leak is suspected, it usually resolves with conservative measures including bed rest, elevation of the head of the bed, stool softeners, and avoiding sneezing or straining. In some cases, a CSF


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Surgery_Schwartz. CSF leak is suspected, it usually resolves with conservative measures including bed rest, elevation of the head of the bed, stool softeners, and avoiding sneezing or straining. In some cases, a CSF drain can be placed if there is a delay in spontane-ous resolution. Rarely will surgical repair be required. Unlike CSF leaks with temporal bone fractures, the facial nerve needs to be assessed and managed urgently. An incomplete or delayed facial nerve paralysis almost always resolves spontaneously with conservative measures, including oral steroids. An imme-diate complete paralysis that does not recover within 1 week should be prognosticated to consider nerve decompression. Electroneurography (ENoG), EMG, and nerve stimulation tests have been used to help determine which patients with delayed-onset complete paralysis will benefit from surgical decompres-sion. The finding of >90% degeneration more than 72 hours after the onset of complete paralysis is considered an indica-tion for


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Surgery_Schwartz. delayed-onset complete paralysis will benefit from surgical decompres-sion. The finding of >90% degeneration more than 72 hours after the onset of complete paralysis is considered an indica-tion for surgery.66 A nerve excitability test, where thresholds are increased to elicit visible muscle contraction on each side, can indicate advanced degeneration when there is a difference of >3.0 to 3.5 mA between sides. Whether surgical intervention is indicated or not for facial nerve paresis, it is crucial to pro-tect the eye because a corneal drying and abrasion can lead to blindness in the abscess of eye closure and a blink reflex. This requires application of ocular lubricant at night with the eye taped shut, frequent artificial tears application while awake, and a humidity chapter.67TUMORS OF THE HEAD AND NECKSquamous cell carcinoma (SCC) comprises >90% of all of the malignant pathology of the mucosal lining of the upper aerodi-gestive tract. Naturally, a discussion of tumors of the head


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Surgery_Schwartz. THE HEAD AND NECKSquamous cell carcinoma (SCC) comprises >90% of all of the malignant pathology of the mucosal lining of the upper aerodi-gestive tract. Naturally, a discussion of tumors of the head and neck typically focuses on this pathology presenting from the lips and oral cavity to the larynx and hypopharynx. Management of these tumors requires a systematic approach.The ideal treatment protocol varies by subsite, stage, patient comorbidity, and center preference/experience. Given the relative rarity of these tumors, multidisciplinary management is of the utmost importance to provide the patient with a balanced perspective. This can be performed in the form of a multidisciplinary clinic where radiation and surgical oncologists simultaneously see the patient or through a tumor board where a new patient’s history, physical examination findings, imaging, and prior pathology Frontal barLateralzygomatico-maxillarybuttressesMedial nasomaxillary buttressesFigure 18-18. Major buttresses


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Surgery_Schwartz. a new patient’s history, physical examination findings, imaging, and prior pathology Frontal barLateralzygomatico-maxillarybuttressesMedial nasomaxillary buttressesFigure 18-18. Major buttresses of the midface.IIIIIIFigure 18-19. Classic Le Fort fracture patterns.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62901/03/19 5:23 PM 630SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIspecimens are reviewed. This encourages discussion from multiple points of view concerning the most appropriate treatment options available. In addition to radiation and surgical oncology, medical oncology, dentistry, speech language pathologists, radiologists, and pathologists contribute to the decision-making in this patient population. Some of the greatest advances in head and neck oncology over the last several decades include the development of standardized organ preservation protocols, advances in free flap reconstruction with microvascular techniques, and vaccinations. The future of head and neck oncology is bright with advances


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Surgery_Schwartz. of standardized organ preservation protocols, advances in free flap reconstruction with microvascular techniques, and vaccinations. The future of head and neck oncology is bright with advances in molecular biology, immunotherapy, and preventative methods with vaccination. These have the potential of significantly decreasing incidence rates and improving survival and quality of life for those with the disease.Etiology and EpidemiologyThe main etiological factors associated with head and neck cancers are tobacco products and alcohol. Overall, there has been a decline in incidence of head and neck cancers of the oral cavity and larynx/hypopharynx subsites,68 likely related to public health campaigns and government taxation policies as it relates to cigarette consumption.69 Similarly, the incidence of head and neck cancer between countries varies widely and is strongly associated with the incidence of cigarette smok-ing. Cigarette smoking triples the likelihood of developing an oral


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Surgery_Schwartz. incidence of head and neck cancer between countries varies widely and is strongly associated with the incidence of cigarette smok-ing. Cigarette smoking triples the likelihood of developing an oral cavity cancer, while the addition of alcohol synergistically increases the likelihood by 10to 15-fold.70 The risk increases as the number of years smoking and number of cigarettes smoked per day increases. Individuals who both smoke (two packs per day) and drink (four units of alcohol per day) had a 35-fold increased risk for the development of a carcinoma compared to controls.71The preoperative and perioperative periods are excellent opportunities for head and neck oncologists to pursue a smok-ing cessation intervention. Continued smoking after completion of treatment is associated with a 3to 4-fold increased risk of developing a second primary or recurrent tumor.72-74 A study assessing patients diagnosed with a new head and neck cancer demonstrated that of the patients that were smoking


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Surgery_Schwartz. 4-fold increased risk of developing a second primary or recurrent tumor.72-74 A study assessing patients diagnosed with a new head and neck cancer demonstrated that of the patients that were smoking at diagno-sis, only 54% were able to quit, highlighting the difficulty this population has with smoking cessation.75Betel nut/quid chewing, which is a product of the areca catechu tree, is endemic to some parts of Asia and India, and in these regions oral cavity cancer is one of the most common can-cers.76,77 Betel nut when chewed acts as a mild stimulant similar to that of coffee but can be associated with submucous fibrosis that adds an additional challenge in the management of patients who present with a concurrent oral cavity cancer.77 These prod-ucts are associated with particular subsites secondary to direct contact (e.g., buccal mucosa) as well as subsites with depen-dent saliva drainage (e.g., floor of mouth, mandibular alveolus, and wet lip). Reverse smoking, where the lighted


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Surgery_Schwartz. secondary to direct contact (e.g., buccal mucosa) as well as subsites with depen-dent saliva drainage (e.g., floor of mouth, mandibular alveolus, and wet lip). Reverse smoking, where the lighted portion of the tobacco product is placed within the mouth during inhalation is also associated with oral cavity cancer, specifically hard palate carcinoma. The risk for this cancer is 47 times greater in patients that exhibit this behavior compared to nonsmokers.78In Europe and North America there has been an increas-ing interest in decriminalizing marijuana smoking. There is a strong correlation between this activity and head and neck can-cers (OR 2.5; 95% CI 1.1–6.6) when compared to nonusers.79 Furthermore, there is a dose-response relationship that is stron-ger in young patients (55 years of age or less). Ultraviolet light VermilionBuccal mucosaHard palateSoft palateRetromolar trigoneCircumvallate papillaeLower gingivaPalatine raphePalatine tonsilFigure 18-20. Oral cavity


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Surgery_Schwartz. (55 years of age or less). Ultraviolet light VermilionBuccal mucosaHard palateSoft palateRetromolar trigoneCircumvallate papillaeLower gingivaPalatine raphePalatine tonsilFigure 18-20. Oral cavity landmarks.exposure is associated with cutaneous malignancies of the head and neck as well as lip cancer. The lower lip is at a higher risk due to its increased anterior-posterior projection, and the major-ity of squamous cell carcinomas of the lip arise along the ver-milion border of the lower lip. Immunocompromised patients, particularly those who have received solid organ and bone mar-row transplants are at an increased risk of head and neck can-cers.80 Similarly, HIV-infected patients have a higher incidence of head and neck cancers, and despite aggressive treatment have poorer results compared to HIV-negative patients.81,82 Other conditions associated with oral cancer include Plummer-Vinson syndrome (iron-deficiency anemia, dysphagia, glossitis, cheilo-sis, and esophageal webs),


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Surgery_Schwartz. compared to HIV-negative patients.81,82 Other conditions associated with oral cancer include Plummer-Vinson syndrome (iron-deficiency anemia, dysphagia, glossitis, cheilo-sis, and esophageal webs), dyskeratosis congenita,83,84 Bloom’s syndrome,85,86 and Fanconi anemia.87HPV is a double stranded DNA virus that is transmitted through sexual contact. Over the last two decades, this virus, specifically the 16 and 18 subtypes,88 has been associated with an epidemic rise in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma.89,90 The p16 protein is a surrogate for HPV positivity. HPV status in oropharynx cancer has prognostic and therefore treatment-related implications.91,92Anatomy and HistopathologyThe upper aerodigestive tract is divided into several distinct sites that include the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and nasal cav-ity/paranasal sinuses. Each of these sites has separate subsites as alluded to earlier with specific etiological, pathological, prog-nostic, and treatment-related peculiarities.


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Surgery_Schwartz. larynx, and nasal cav-ity/paranasal sinuses. Each of these sites has separate subsites as alluded to earlier with specific etiological, pathological, prog-nostic, and treatment-related peculiarities. Locoregional tumor spread is determined by weaknesses in the framework, fascial planes, and the course of neurovascular and lymphatic channels.The oral cavity extends from the vermilion border of the lip to the hard-palate/soft-palate junction superiorly, to circumval-late papillae inferiorly, and to the anterior tonsillar pillars later-ally. It is divided into eight subsites including the (a) mucosal lip, (b) the mandibular alveolus, (c) floor of mouth, (d) tongue (ante-rior two-thirds), (e) buccal mucosa, (f) retromolar trigone, (g) maxillary alveolus, and (e) hard palate (Fig. 18-20). Advanced oral cavity cancer can present with mandibular and/or maxillary invasion requiring resection, at least in part, of these structures. Oral cavity cancers typically metastasize to the submental,


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Surgery_Schwartz. oral cavity cancer can present with mandibular and/or maxillary invasion requiring resection, at least in part, of these structures. Oral cavity cancers typically metastasize to the submental, sub-mandibular, and upper jugular lymph nodes (levels I-III).Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63001/03/19 5:23 PM 631DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18The pharynx is divided into three regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx (Fig. 18-21). The nasopharynx extends from the posterior nasal septum and choana to the skull base and includes the fossa of Rosenmüller and torus tubarius of the Eustachian tubes laterally. The inferior margin of the nasopharynx is the superior surface of the soft palate. In adults, the adenoids are typically absent secondary to invo-lution during late adolescence, but these can be seen in some adults in the posterior aspect of this subsite. Isolated posterior triangle (level V) lymphadenopathy in an adult should be con-sidered nasopharyngeal carcinoma


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Surgery_Schwartz. but these can be seen in some adults in the posterior aspect of this subsite. Isolated posterior triangle (level V) lymphadenopathy in an adult should be con-sidered nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) until proven other-wise. Due to its midline location, bilateral regional metastatic spread is common in nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Given the epi-demic rise oropharyngeal cancers, isolated level V adenopathy in an adult may also represent oropharyngeal cancer, although cancers at this site typically drain to the upper and lower cervi-cal nodes (levels II–IV) as well as the retropharyngeal nodes. The oropharynx has a number of subsites including the tonsillar region, base of tongue, soft palate, and posterolateral pharyn-geal walls. The hypopharynx extends from the vallecula to the lower border of the cricoid posterior and lateral the larynx. It includes several subsites as well including the pyriform fossa, the postcricoid space, and the posterior pharyngeal wall. Lym-phatic drainage is to the


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Surgery_Schwartz. cricoid posterior and lateral the larynx. It includes several subsites as well including the pyriform fossa, the postcricoid space, and the posterior pharyngeal wall. Lym-phatic drainage is to the mid and lower cervical nodes (levels III–IV); however, usually the upper cervical nodes (level II) are addressed at the same time for tumors at this site.The larynx is divided into three regions: the supraglottis, glottis, and subglottis (Fig. 18-22). The supraglottis includes sev-eral subsites: the epiglottis, false vocal cords, medial surface of the aryepiglottic folds, and the upper half of the laryngeal ventri-cles. The glottic larynx includes the true vocal cords, the anterior and posterior commissure, and the lower half of the laryngeal ventricles. The subglottis extends from below the true vocal SoftpalateHardpalateUvulaNasopharynxOropharynxLaryngopharynxPalatinetonsilsLingualtonsilsEpiglottisOesophagusTracheaLarynxHyoid boneFigure 18-21. Sagittal view of the head and neck


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Surgery_Schwartz. the true vocal SoftpalateHardpalateUvulaNasopharynxOropharynxLaryngopharynxPalatinetonsilsLingualtonsilsEpiglottisOesophagusTracheaLarynxHyoid boneFigure 18-21. Sagittal view of the head and neck demonstrating the distinction between the nasopharynx, oropharynx and larynx/hypopharynx including the boundaries of each.SupraglottisGlottisHyoid boneLarynxSubglottisCricoidcartilageArytenoidcartilageFalse cordVocal cordPre-epiglotticspaceThyroid cartilageVentricle of MorganiFigure 18-22. Sagittal view of the larynx with the divisions of the supraglottis, glottis, and subglottis demonstrated.cords to the superior cricoid border from within. The supraglottis has a high rate of bilateral metastatic spread secondary to its rich lymphatic drainage, whereas isolated glottic cancers rarely have lymphatic spread. Laryngeal cancers, in addition to having the propensity for lymphatic spread, particularly in advanced cases, can have preepiglottic and paraglottic invasion as well as inva-sion of the


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Surgery_Schwartz. spread. Laryngeal cancers, in addition to having the propensity for lymphatic spread, particularly in advanced cases, can have preepiglottic and paraglottic invasion as well as inva-sion of the laryngeal framework (thyroid and cricoid cartilage). Furthermore, glottic and subglottic lesions, in addition to poten-tial spread to the upper and lower cervical nodes (levels II–IV), have the propensity for spread to the central neck (level VI) in the paralaryngeal and paratracheal region.Second Primary Tumors in the Head and NeckPatients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) are at increased risk for the development of a second primary malignancy (SPM), which is defined as a second malignancy that presents either simultaneously or after the diagnosis of an index tumor. A synchronous SPM is diagnosed simultaneously or within 6 months of the index tumor, while a metachronous SPM is diagnosed >6 months after the index tumor. SPMs need to be distinguished from local recurrences or


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Surgery_Schwartz. SPM is diagnosed simultaneously or within 6 months of the index tumor, while a metachronous SPM is diagnosed >6 months after the index tumor. SPMs need to be distinguished from local recurrences or metastasis of the primary tumor. The incidence of SPM ranges from 2% to 7% per year,93-95 and this risk remains constant from the time of initial diagnosis throughout the lifetime of the patient.93 Sec-ond primary malignancies represent the second leading cause of death in patients with HNSCC.96 One-quarter to one-third of deaths in these patients are attributable to SPM,96-98 highlight-ing the importance of SPM in the successful management of HNSCC.The classic criteria for defining second primary malig-nancy (SPM) were proposed by Warren and Gates and are: (a) histologic confirmation of malignancy in both the index and secondary tumors; (b) two malignancies that are anatomically Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63101/03/19 5:23 PM 632SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIseparated by normal


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Surgery_Schwartz. in both the index and secondary tumors; (b) two malignancies that are anatomically Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63101/03/19 5:23 PM 632SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIseparated by normal mucosa; and (c) the possibility of the SPM being a metastasis from the index tumor must be excluded. Most investigators use these criteria to define an SPM. However, dis-agreement exists regarding the application of the second and third criteria. For example, when both tumors appear in the same anatomic subsite, there is no agreement on the distance that should exist between the tumors, with some investigators favoring 1.5 cm99 and others requiring 2 cm.100 Furthermore, when the tumors occur in the same anatomic subsite, some investigators add that the SPM must present at least three years after the diagnosis of the index tumor,100 while others require that the SPM present at least five years after the index tumor.101 Others suggest that molecular analysis is required to classify a tumor as an


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Surgery_Schwartz. diagnosis of the index tumor,100 while others require that the SPM present at least five years after the index tumor.101 Others suggest that molecular analysis is required to classify a tumor as an SPM.102Treatment of SPMs of the upper aerodigestive tract is site specific. In general, the SPM should be treated as a sep-arate entity, in the same manner as a primary index tumor at the anatomic subsite. In many cases, particularly in metachro-nous SPMs, patients have already received a full complement of treatment, including primary or adjuvant radiation and/or chemoradiation treatment. In these cases, surgical treatment of the SPM is often indicated when feasible. Reirradiation is an option in carefully selected cases when salvage surgery is not possible. Proper patient selection for reirradiation is criti-cal, and only patients with minimal comorbidity and toxicity of previous radiation treatment should be considered.103 Patients at high risk for local recurrence after salvage surgery


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Surgery_Schwartz. is criti-cal, and only patients with minimal comorbidity and toxicity of previous radiation treatment should be considered.103 Patients at high risk for local recurrence after salvage surgery may benefit from increased locoregional control from adjuvant reirradiation, although there is no survival advantage compared with salvage surgery alone.103 Survival in patients with SPM depends upon the stage and location of the primary site of the SPM. Patients with SPM arising in the head and neck have significantly improved survival when compared with patients with SPM aris-ing in the lung and esophagus.104StagingStaging for upper aerodigestive tract malignancies is defined by the American Joint Committee on Cancer and follows the TNM (primary tumor, regional nodal metastases, distant metastasis) staging format which was recently updated in the 8th edition in 2017.105 The T stage for each subsite incorporates relevant anatomy; for instance, T3 lesions of the glottis are associated with vocal


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Surgery_Schwartz. staging format which was recently updated in the 8th edition in 2017.105 The T stage for each subsite incorporates relevant anatomy; for instance, T3 lesions of the glottis are associated with vocal cord immobility. Recent changes have incorporated HPV/P16 status for oropharynx cancer (Tables 18-1 and 18-2) and depth of invasion for oral cavity cancers (Table 18-3).The N classification for head and neck sites is nearly uni-form for all sites (Tables 18-4 and 18-5) except for the nasophar-ynx and for HPV-associated (p16-positive) oropharynx cancer. Recent changes have also incorporated extracapsular extension into this nodal staging to improve the discrimination and prog-nostication of the classification.Upper Aerodigestive TractThere are similarities in the initial assessment and manage-ment of all patients with a newly diagnosed upper aerodiges-tive tract malignancy. The frequently reviewed clinical practice guidelines (National Comprehensive Cancer Network; NCCN) provide valuable


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Surgery_Schwartz. of all patients with a newly diagnosed upper aerodiges-tive tract malignancy. The frequently reviewed clinical practice guidelines (National Comprehensive Cancer Network; NCCN) provide valuable information by site and stage with regard to workup and management and should be used to direct care.106 After a thorough history that should include assessment of the previously discussed risk factors, a comprehensive physical examination should follow. A full head and neck examination including inspection and palpation is critical for nearly all head and neck cancers. Oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers should be palpated when possible to provide additional tactile informa-tion regarding depth of invasion, mobility, and invasion into adjacent structures. A cranial nerve (CN) examination with a focus on the assessment of trigeminal (V2/V3) parasthesia/Table 18-1Clinical and pathologic T category for HPV-associated (p16-positive) oropharyngeal cancerT CATEGORYT CRITERIAT0No primary


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Surgery_Schwartz. with a focus on the assessment of trigeminal (V2/V3) parasthesia/Table 18-1Clinical and pathologic T category for HPV-associated (p16-positive) oropharyngeal cancerT CATEGORYT CRITERIAT0No primary identifiedT1Tumor 2 cm or smaller in greatest dimensionT2Tumor larger than 2 cm but not larger than 4 cm in greatest dimensionT3Tumor larger than 4 cm in greatest dimension or extension to lingual surface of epiglottisT4Moderately advanced local diseaseTumor invades the larynx, extrinsic muscle of tongue, medial pterygoid, hard palate, or mandible or beyond**Mucosal extension to lingual surface of epiglottis from primary tumors of the base of the tongue and vallecula does not constitute invasion of the larynx.Used with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Table 18-2Clinical and pathologic T category for non–HPV-associated (p16-negative) oropharyngeal cancerT CATEGORYT


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Surgery_Schwartz. Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Table 18-2Clinical and pathologic T category for non–HPV-associated (p16-negative) oropharyngeal cancerT CATEGORYT CRITERIATXPrimary tumor cannot be assessedTisCarcinoma in situT1Tumor 2 cm or smaller in greatest dimensionT2Tumor larger than 2 cm but not larger than 4 cm in greatest dimensionT3Tumor larger than 4 cm in greatest dimension or extension to lingual surface of epiglottisT4Moderately advanced or very advanced local disease T4aModerately advanced local diseaseTumor invades the larynx, extrinsic muscle of tongue, medial pterygoid, hard palate, or mandible* T4bVery advanced local diseaseTumor invades lateral pterygoid muscle, pterygoid plates, lateral nasopharynx, or skull base or encases carotid artery*Mucosal extension to lingual surface of epiglottis from primary tumors of the base of the tongue and vallecula does not constitute invasion of the larynx.Used with the permission of the


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Surgery_Schwartz. artery*Mucosal extension to lingual surface of epiglottis from primary tumors of the base of the tongue and vallecula does not constitute invasion of the larynx.Used with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63201/03/19 5:23 PM 633DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18anesthesia, CN VII, CN XI, and CN XII function. Flexible fiber-optic nasolaryngoscopy should be carried out to better charac-terize tumor extent, assess vocal cord mobility in laryngeal cancers, assess airway patency, and rule out any synchronous second primary tumors, as previously discussed.Investigations should include a diagnostic laryngoscopy and esophagoscopy to rule out second primaries and obtain tis-sue of any concerning lesions. A pathologic specimen is nearly always required before initiation of treatment. A metastatic work up including a CT of the neck


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Surgery_Schwartz. rule out second primaries and obtain tis-sue of any concerning lesions. A pathologic specimen is nearly always required before initiation of treatment. A metastatic work up including a CT of the neck and chest with contrast is indicated in all patients with a newly diagnosed head and neck cancer. In certain jurisdictions, a positron emission tomography (PET)-CT is used to rule out any distant metastases; however, this approach does lead to a high false positive rate.107Patients are then assessed in a multidisciplinary manner with radiation and surgical oncology. A dental evaluation is initiated before treatment because many patients undergoing primary or adjuvant radiotherapy require dental extraction to decrease the risk of osteoradionecrosis in the posttreatment period. Assessment by speech language pathology in the pre-operative period is imperative in all patients, but it is especially important in patients with laryngeal/hypopharyngeal pathology because speech and swallowing


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Surgery_Schwartz. speech language pathology in the pre-operative period is imperative in all patients, but it is especially important in patients with laryngeal/hypopharyngeal pathology because speech and swallowing dysfunction needs to be charac-terized and often helps drive management. Smoking cessation is initiated as early as possible.Lip. The lips starting at the vermillion border represent a tran-sition between external skin to internal mucosa. The sphincter function of the lip is created by activation of the circumferen-tial musculature of the orbicularis oris, a critical structure in lip form and function. Lip cancers are most common in men and are often seen in those with fairer complexions. In addition to tobacco use and immunosuppression, UV exposure is an addi-tional important risk factor unique to this head and neck subsite. The majority (>90%) of lip cancers present on the lower lip due to its increased protrusion and increased sun exposure.108 Although the vast majority of lip cancers


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Surgery_Schwartz. to this head and neck subsite. The majority (>90%) of lip cancers present on the lower lip due to its increased protrusion and increased sun exposure.108 Although the vast majority of lip cancers are SCC, other cuta-neous malignancies such as basal cell carcinoma and malignant melanoma are not uncommon at this subsite.Basal cell carcinoma presents more frequently on the upper lip than lower.Negative prognostic factors for lip cancers include peri-neural invasion, invasion into bone (maxilla or mandible), upper Table 18-3Clinical and pathologic T category for oral cavity cancerT CATEGORYT CRITERIATXPrimary tumor cannot be assessedTisCarcinoma in situT1Tumor ≤2 cm, ≤5 mm depth of invasion (DOI)DOI is depth of invasion and not tumor thickness.T2Tumor ≤2 cm, DOI >5 mm and ≤10 mmor tumor >2 cm but ≤4 cm, and DOI ≤10 mmT3Tumor >4 cmor any tumor with DOI >10 mm but ≤20 mmT4Moderately advanced or very advanced local disease T4aModerately advanced local diseaseTumor invades adjacent structures


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Surgery_Schwartz. but ≤4 cm, and DOI ≤10 mmT3Tumor >4 cmor any tumor with DOI >10 mm but ≤20 mmT4Moderately advanced or very advanced local disease T4aModerately advanced local diseaseTumor invades adjacent structures only (e.g., through cortical bone of the mandible or maxilla, or involves the maxillary sinus or skin of the face) or extensive tumor with bilateral tongue involvement and/or DOI >20 mm.Note: Superficial erosion of bone/tooth socket (alone) by a gingival primary is not sufficient to classify a tumor as T4. T4bVery advanced local diseaseTumor invades masticator space, pterygoid plates, or skull base and/or encases the internal carotid arteryUsed with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Table 18-4Clinical N category for non–HPV-associated (p16-negative) oropharyngeal cancerN CATEGORYN CRITERIANXRegional lymph nodes cannot be assessedN0No regional lymph node


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Surgery_Schwartz. Springer New York, 2017.Table 18-4Clinical N category for non–HPV-associated (p16-negative) oropharyngeal cancerN CATEGORYN CRITERIANXRegional lymph nodes cannot be assessedN0No regional lymph node metastasisN1Metastasis in a single ipsilateral lymph node, 3 cm or smaller in greatest dimension and ENE(-)N2Metastasis in a single ipsilateral node larger than 3 cm but not larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or metastases in multiple ipsilateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or in bilateral or contralateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-) N2aMetastasis in a single ipsilateral node larger than 3 cm but not larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-) N2bMetastasis in multiple ipsilateral nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-) N2cMetastasis in bilateral or contralateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-)N3Metastasis in a lymph node larger


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Surgery_Schwartz. larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-) N2cMetastasis in bilateral or contralateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-)N3Metastasis in a lymph node larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or metastasis in any node(s) and clinically overt ENE(+) N3aMetastasis in a lymph node larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-) N3bMetastasis in any node(s) and clinically overt ENE(+)ENE = extranodal extension.Used with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63301/03/19 5:23 PM 634SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIlip or oral commissure involvement, positive regional metasta-sis, and young age at diagnosis.The primary management of lip cancer is a surgical resection of the primary site with an adequate margin (1 cm). This provides margin analysis and additional pathologic information that can


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Surgery_Schwartz. diagnosis.The primary management of lip cancer is a surgical resection of the primary site with an adequate margin (1 cm). This provides margin analysis and additional pathologic information that can help stratify which patients may benefit from adjuvant treatment. The primary regional nodal drainage basin for lip cancers is the submandibular, submental, and perifacial nodes (level I), and metastases occur in <10% of patients with a higher incidence in those with upper lip cancers.109 When there are clinical evident notes, a neck dissection is indicated. Otherwise, in the clinically and radiographically negative neck observation is acceptable.109 Unfortunately, many lip cancers are not appropriately staged, and advanced regional failure is not infrequently seen. Adjuvant (postoperative) radiotherapy is indicated in patients with close (<5 mm) or positive margins, lymph node metastases, tumors with perineural invasion, and in thick (>4 mm) tumors.110 The overall 10-year survival rate


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Surgery_Schwartz. radiotherapy is indicated in patients with close (<5 mm) or positive margins, lymph node metastases, tumors with perineural invasion, and in thick (>4 mm) tumors.110 The overall 10-year survival rate is 84% to 92% for early stage disease but drops precipitously (11%–28%) for advanced stage disease predicted by regional and distant metastases.111The goals of lip reconstruction include providing oral competence, maintaining dynamic function, and achieving acceptable cosmesis, while avoiding severe microstomia. The proportion of the lip excised and whether the defect involves the oral commissure determines the reconstructive options. Regardless of the reconstructive technique, realignment of the vermilion border and reapproximation of the orbicularis oris are critical steps to a successful outcome. Defects of less than one-third of the lip are closed primarily, while defects between one-third and two-thirds of the lip borrow tissue from surrounding regions, mainly the upper lip and cheek


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Surgery_Schwartz. Defects of less than one-third of the lip are closed primarily, while defects between one-third and two-thirds of the lip borrow tissue from surrounding regions, mainly the upper lip and cheek to recreate the lip. This can be accomplished using an Abbe (lip switch) (Fig. 18-23) or Karapandzic flap (Fig. 18-24), if the commissure is preserved, or an Estlander flap (lip switch) if the commissure is resected. If there is insufficient lip tissue, rectangular excisions can be closed using upper Burrow’s triangles in combination with bilateral advancement flaps made possible by mental crease relaxing incisions; this technique is called Bernard-Burrow (Fig. 18-25).112 When more than two-thirds of the lip is excised, the Karapandzic can still be used when the defect is up to 80% as this provides a sensate lip with sphincter-like function; however, microstomia becomes a serious concern, and larger defects require free flap reconstruction. This typically does not achieve sphincter function even


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Surgery_Schwartz. sensate lip with sphincter-like function; however, microstomia becomes a serious concern, and larger defects require free flap reconstruction. This typically does not achieve sphincter function even when a sling is used. Microstomia can be a problem in patients that are edentulous who then cannot insert their dentures and in the dentulous who may not be able to get dental work performed with significant negative impact on their dental health.Oral Cavity. As previously mentioned, the oral cavity is com-posed of several sites. The anatomy of each subsite can uniquely impact the aggressiveness of disease, the function after resec-tion, and the surgical approach. We therefore in this next section briefly review each subsite with a focus on the relevant anatomy and treatment options.The preferred approach to management of these tumors is a surgical resection with adequate (1 cm) surgical margins with management of the regional nodal basin. In general, tumors of the oral cavity metastasize


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Surgery_Schwartz. approach to management of these tumors is a surgical resection with adequate (1 cm) surgical margins with management of the regional nodal basin. In general, tumors of the oral cavity metastasize to the submandibular, submental, and upper cervical nodes and are almost always treated with a supra-omohyoid neck dissection at the time of primary resection with a few rare exceptions (T1 oral tongue lesions that have less than 4 mm depth of invasion). In the “Neck” section of this chapter, we will discuss this in more detail. Adjuvant radiotherapy is indicated in patients with close margins, regional lymphade-nopathy, advanced stage tumors (T3/T4), perineural invasion, and lymphovascular invasion, while adjuvant chemoradiother-apy is reserved for those with positive margins or extracapsular invasion.113,114Oral Tongue The oral tongue is a muscular structure composed of intrinsic (longitudinal, vertical, and transverse muscle fibers) and extrinsic (genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus,


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Surgery_Schwartz. invasion.113,114Oral Tongue The oral tongue is a muscular structure composed of intrinsic (longitudinal, vertical, and transverse muscle fibers) and extrinsic (genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus, and pala-toglossus) muscles separated by a midline raphe and has overly-ing nonkeratinizing squamous epithelium. The posterior limit of the oral tongue is the circumvallate papillae beyond which the oropharynx begins while the ventral portion is contiguous with the anterior floor of mouth.Table 18-5Clinical N category for oral cavity, larynx, and hypopharynx cancerN CATEGORYN CRITERIANXRegional lymph nodes cannot be assessedN0No regional lymph node metastasisN1Metastasis in a single ipsilateral lymph node, 3 cm or smaller in greatest dimension ENE(-)N2Metastasis in a single ipsilateral node larger than 3 cm but not larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or metastases in multiple ipsilateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or in bilateral


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. larger than 3 cm but not larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or metastases in multiple ipsilateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or in bilateral or contralateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension, and ENE(-) N2aMetastasis in a single ipsilateral node larger than 3 cm but not larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension, and ENE(-) N2bMetastasis in multiple ipsilateral nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension, and ENE(-) N2cMetastasis in bilateral or contralateral lymph nodes, none larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension, and ENE(-)N3Metastasis in a lymph node larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-); or metastasis in any node(s) and clinically overt ENE(+) N3aMetastasis in a lymph node larger than 6 cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-) N3bMetastasis in any node(s) and clinically overt ENE(+)ENE = extranodal extension.Used with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB,


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Surgery_Schwartz. cm in greatest dimension and ENE(-) N3bMetastasis in any node(s) and clinically overt ENE(+)ENE = extranodal extension.Used with the permission of the American College of Surgeons. Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al. (Eds.) AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, 8th Ed. Springer New York, 2017.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63401/03/19 5:23 PM 635DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18Tumors of the tongue typically start along the epithelial surface and can be endophytic or exophytic with or without ulceration (Fig. 18-26) and are typically seen on the lateral and ventral surfaces of the tongue. Lesions on the dorsal aspect of the tongue, particularly along the midline, are less likely to be malignant. What is seen on the surface is typically the tip of the iceberg, and palpation can provide further information regarding the depth of invasion of the tumor. These tumors can be extensive, and when they cross the midline and start to involve the base of tongue an extensive surgical resection


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. information regarding the depth of invasion of the tumor. These tumors can be extensive, and when they cross the midline and start to involve the base of tongue an extensive surgical resection including a total glossectomy may be required. However, most tumors present at an early stage due to significant pain, otal-gia, voice change secondary to difficulties with articulation, and dysphagia, which may lead to weight loss. On history and physical examination, ipsilateral paresthesias and deviation of the tongue protrusion with fasciculations or atrophy may indicate lingual nerve and hypoglossal nerve tumor invasion respectively (Fig. 18-27).Early lesions (T1–T2) can be closed primarily, allowed to heal by secondary intention, or reconstructed with a split thickness ACBDFigure 18-23. Estlander flap. A. Intra-operative image of lower lip squamous cell carcinoma with buccal and cutaneous extension pre-excision; B. Intra-operative defect and Estlander flap design. C. Immediate


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Estlander flap. A. Intra-operative image of lower lip squamous cell carcinoma with buccal and cutaneous extension pre-excision; B. Intra-operative defect and Estlander flap design. C. Immediate post-operative flap. D. One year post-operative image.ABCFigure 18-24. A-C. Karapandzic labiaplasty for lower lip carcinoma.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63501/03/19 5:23 PM 636SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIskin graft after partial glossectomy. This procedure allows rea-sonable speech and swallowing function as long as there is not significant tethering in the floor of the mouth if this has been resected. Articulation is determined by premaxillary contact of the tongue, and dental appliances can be used in the postoperative setting to improve this. Tongue protrusion and lateral movement predicts a patient’s ability to swallow, and this is less difficult to repair secondarily. Therefore, many patients, even with small tongue cancers that require significant floor of mouth resection,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. predicts a patient’s ability to swallow, and this is less difficult to repair secondarily. Therefore, many patients, even with small tongue cancers that require significant floor of mouth resection, receive soft pliable fasciocutaneous free flap reconstruction to improve these functional outcomes.115 Advanced lesions that require a more radical resection require free flaps, which obliter-ate the oral cavity dead space while creating bulk in the posterior oropharynx to improve the pharyngeal swallowing phase.116ABFigure 18-25. Bernard burrow flap reconstruction for a total lower lip defect involving upper and lip advancement rotation flap and cheek advancement.Figure 18-26. Oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma.ABSubmandibular glandDigastric m.(anterior belly)Myohyoid m.Stylopharyngeus,stylohyoid andstyloglossus mm.Digastric muscle(posterior belly)Styloid processHypoglossal n.Middleconstrictor m.External carotid a.Hyoid boneHyoglossus m.Lingual n.Deep lingual a.Dorsal lingual


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Surgery_Schwartz. andstyloglossus mm.Digastric muscle(posterior belly)Styloid processHypoglossal n.Middleconstrictor m.External carotid a.Hyoid boneHyoglossus m.Lingual n.Deep lingual a.Dorsal lingual a.Genioglossus m.Geniohyoid m.Sublingual a.Lingual n.Hyoid boneHypoglossal n.Figure 18-27. A and B. Anatomy of the floor of mouth and submandibular space. a. = artery; m. = muscle; n. = nerve.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63601/03/19 5:24 PM 637DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18Floor of Mouth The floor of mouth is a mucosal-covered semilu-nar area that extends from the anterior tonsillar pillar posteriorly to the frenulum anteriorly, and from the inner surface of the mandible to the ventral surface of the oral tongue. The ostia of the submax-illary and sublingual glands are contained in the anterior floor of mouth. The muscular floor of mouth is composed of the sling-like genioglossus, mylohyoid, and hyoglossus muscles, which serve as a barrier to the spread of disease. Invasion into these


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. floor of mouth. The muscular floor of mouth is composed of the sling-like genioglossus, mylohyoid, and hyoglossus muscles, which serve as a barrier to the spread of disease. Invasion into these muscles can result in decreased tongue mobility and poor articulation.The floor of mouth begins just below the lingual surface of the mandibular alveolus and ends at the ventral tongue where the frenulum connects the floor of mouth to the tongue along the mid-line and at the anterior tonsillar pillars posteriorly. Just deep to the floor of mouth mucosa is the submandibular (Wharton’s) duct and sublingual minor salivary glands followed by the genio-glossus, hyoglossus, and mylohyoid muscles. Direct invasion of these structures is not uncommon and can result in direct spread to the sublingual and submandibular spaces as well as decreased tongue mobility, leading to articulation complaints. The lingual nerve (a branch of V3) provides sensory innerva-tion to this subsite and is in close proximity


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. spaces as well as decreased tongue mobility, leading to articulation complaints. The lingual nerve (a branch of V3) provides sensory innerva-tion to this subsite and is in close proximity to it, often requir-ing resection of this structure. The contiguity of the floor of mouth mucosa with the lingual surface of the mandible can lead to mandibular invasion. This needs to be carefully examined bimanually on physical examination and using imaging (CT, MRI, or Panorex) because a marginal or segmental mandibu-lectomy may be required to excise these tumors (Fig. 18-28). If the lesion is not fixed to the mandibular cortex on physical examination, then a mandible-sparing procedure is feasible.117 Extension to the sublingual and submandibular ducts and spaces requires that the neck dissection specimen be removed en bloc with the primary tumor. Invasion of the intrinsic tongue muscu-lature requires a partial glossectomy. In our experience, except for the smallest (T1) very superficial floor of


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. be removed en bloc with the primary tumor. Invasion of the intrinsic tongue muscu-lature requires a partial glossectomy. In our experience, except for the smallest (T1) very superficial floor of mouth lesions, cancers at this subsite nearly always require a reconstructive procedure to separate the floor of mouth from the neck and to avoid tethering of the tongue using a pliable fasciocutaneous flap. If a segmental resection is performed, the vascularized osteocutaneous free flap is used. Given the anterior location of this tumor, a lip-splitting incision is rarely used unless resection of lip and chin skin is required as part of the resection in a select group of T4a tumors with through-and-through involvement.Mandibular Alveolus and Gingiva The alveolar mucosa overlies the bone of the mandible and extends from the gin-givobuccal sulcus to the mucosa of the floor of mouth to the second and third molar, which is the anterior border of the ret-romolar trigone subsite. Treatment of these


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. and extends from the gin-givobuccal sulcus to the mucosa of the floor of mouth to the second and third molar, which is the anterior border of the ret-romolar trigone subsite. Treatment of these lesions requires at the very least marginal resection of the mandibular bone given the proximity and early invasion of the periosteum in this region. A marginal resection is acceptable if there is only very early bony invasion (Fig. 18-29). If the inferior alveolar canal or the medullary cavity is invaded on physical examination or preoperative imaging, a negative locoregional prognostic fac-tor, a segmental resection is recommended with appropriate reconstruction.118,119Retromolar Trigone The retromolar trigone (RMT) is bor-dered medially by the anterior tonsillar pillar, anteriorly by the ABIncisionTissue excisedFigure 18-28. A and B. Differences in the transoral resection of a floor of mouth and alveolar ridge lesion.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63701/03/19 5:24 PM 638SPECIFIC


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. excisedFigure 18-28. A and B. Differences in the transoral resection of a floor of mouth and alveolar ridge lesion.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63701/03/19 5:24 PM 638SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIsecond or third molar, posteriorly by the maxillary tuberosity, inferiorly by the posterior mandibular alveolus, superiorly by the coronoid process of the mandible, and laterally by the buc-cal mucosa. Negative margin resection often requires a mar-ginal shave mandibulectomy, even when there is no evidence of mandibular cortical invasion, because of the close proxim-ity to the mandibular periosteum. This is typically achieved through a transoral approach while carefully protecting the lips and cheek.120 Extension to adjacent subsites including the buccal mucosa, maxillary tuberosity, floor of mouth, and posterolateral tongue often requires these structures be resected as part of the margin. Trismus at this and other subsites is an advanced indica-tion of involvement of the muscles


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of mouth, and posterolateral tongue often requires these structures be resected as part of the margin. Trismus at this and other subsites is an advanced indica-tion of involvement of the muscles of mastication in the masti-cator space, which can extend to the skull base. These tumors are aggressive. Infiltration into the masticator space and bony invasion (maxilla more often than mandible) significantly wors-ens the prognosis.121Buccal Mucosa The buccal mucosa includes all of the mucosal lining from the inner surface of the lips to the line of attachment of mucosa of the alveolar ridges and pterygomandibular raphe. The mucosa includes the parotid (Stenson’s) duct opening adja-cent to the first and second maxillary molars. An understanding of the layers of the cheek from medial to lateral is important because these layers are very closely adherent to the buccal mucosa. Therefore, tumors in this region have a high propensity for early deep invasion and early lymphatic spread. The layers


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. important because these layers are very closely adherent to the buccal mucosa. Therefore, tumors in this region have a high propensity for early deep invasion and early lymphatic spread. The layers of the cheek from medial to lateral are: (a) buccal mucosa, (b) pharyngobasilar fascia, (c) buccinator muscle, (d) buccopha-ryngeal fascia, (e) buccinator fat pad, (f) masseter muscle, (g) muscles of facial expression and the superficial muscular apo-neurotic system (SMAS), (h) subcutaneous tissue, and (i) facial skin. It is not uncommon for tumors with deep invasion into the cheek to require a through-and-through resection. Reconstruc-tion aimed at providing both an internal and external lining may be accomplished with a folded fasciocutaneous free flap or a combination of a local flap for the external component and a free flap for the internal component. Marginal bone resection is often required in tumors that extend to the mandibular or maxil-lary alveolus.Maxillary Alveolus and Hard


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Surgery_Schwartz. the external component and a free flap for the internal component. Marginal bone resection is often required in tumors that extend to the mandibular or maxil-lary alveolus.Maxillary Alveolus and Hard Palate The hard palate and maxillary alveolus have classically been considered two sepa-rate subsites, but due to their anatomic contiguity and the simi-larities in their oncologic outcomes these two subsites should be discussed together.122 The junction between the hard palate and soft palate is the posterior border, while the maxillary tuberos-ity is the posterolateral border separating the retromolar trigone from the maxillary alveolus. The periosteum is at this subsite is closely adherent to the mucosa, and as such, superficial lesions require resection of the bone to achieve a clear margin. An infrastructure maxillectomy may be required for larger lesions involving the palate or maxillary antrum. The greater palatine nerve and foramen can be a pathway for neuropathic spread, and it


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. An infrastructure maxillectomy may be required for larger lesions involving the palate or maxillary antrum. The greater palatine nerve and foramen can be a pathway for neuropathic spread, and it is important to identify perineural invasion on these tumors in the biopsy specimen.Although SCC continues to be the primary malignant pathology at this subsite, minor salivary gland tumors such as adenoid cystic carcinoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma can also present in this location. Minor sali-vary gland tumors tend to arise at the junction of the hard and soft palate.Nonmalignant pathology includes necrotizing sialometa-plasia, which appears as a butterfly-shaped ulcer on the hard palate that otherwise looks like a neoplasm. Treatment is symp-tomatic as these lesions typical disappear with time; however, a biopsy is warranted to confirm the diagnosis. A torus palatini is a benign bony outgrowth seen on midline of the hard palate. This does not require biopsy to confirm the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. with time; however, a biopsy is warranted to confirm the diagnosis. A torus palatini is a benign bony outgrowth seen on midline of the hard palate. This does not require biopsy to confirm the diagnosis and only requires treatment to relieve symptoms.Reconstruction of the maxillectomy defect depends on a number of variables, including patient preference, dentition, patient comorbidity, and extent of defect. A partial palatectomy or partial infrastructure palatectomy can often be reconstructed with a dental obturator or a soft tissue flap alone to separate the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and maxillary sinus. More extensive suprastructure maxillectomies can be reconstructed with a free flap composed only of soft tissue, although this will leave the patient with a significant malar asymmetry over an osseous free flap. The layered fibular free flap and the scapular tip have been recently popularized to reconstruct more extensive orbitomaxillary reconstruction.123,124 Supporting the


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Surgery_Schwartz. over an osseous free flap. The layered fibular free flap and the scapular tip have been recently popularized to reconstruct more extensive orbitomaxillary reconstruction.123,124 Supporting the orbital floor when it is resected is critical in supporting the orbital contents and avoiding eventual diploplia because there can be a drop in these contents when they are not supported.Oropharynx The borders of the oropharynx start at the soft pal-ate superiorly, the hyoid (vallecular root) inferiorly, the anterior tonsillar pillar anterolaterally, and the cricumvallate papilla at the junction between the anterior two-thirds and posterior third of the tongue. There are five subsites in the oropharynx: the tonsillar region that includes the anterior and posterior tonsillar pillars, the soft palate, the posterior pharyngeal wall, the lateral pharyngeal wall, and the base of tongue. Tumors at this subsite can have direct extension laterally in the parapharyngeal space, posteriorly into the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. the posterior pharyngeal wall, the lateral pharyngeal wall, and the base of tongue. Tumors at this subsite can have direct extension laterally in the parapharyngeal space, posteriorly into the retropharyngeal space, anteriorly into the oral cavity, superiorly into the nasopharynx, or inferiorly into Figure 18-29. Anterior mandibulotomy with mandibular swing to approach a posterior lesion.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63801/03/19 5:24 PM 639DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18the supraglottic larynx. Laterally, through the superior con-strictor, invasion of the jugular vein, carotid artery, and cranial nerves IX to XII, as well as the sympathetic chain, is possible. The pharyngobasilar fascia (resectable) deep to the constrictor muscles is a natural barrier from invasion into the prevertebral fascia (unresectable). The ascending ramus of the mandible can be involved when tumors invade the medial pterygoid muscle.Although SCC is the predominant pathology, minor sali-vary


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Surgery_Schwartz. the prevertebral fascia (unresectable). The ascending ramus of the mandible can be involved when tumors invade the medial pterygoid muscle.Although SCC is the predominant pathology, minor sali-vary gland tumors can present as submucosal lesions in the soft palate or tongue base, and lymphoma can present in the tonsils as an asymmetric enlargement, underlying the importance of a tissue diagnosis before treatment.Oropharyngeal cancers, other than those on the soft palate or tonsils, are often not obvious on oral cavity exam inspection; therefore, a high degree of suspicion should exist in patients with a muffled voice as would be experienced in tongue base tumors, patients with dysphagia and weight loss, or referred otalgia from the tympanic branches of CN IX and X. Trismus may indicate advanced disease with pterygoid involvement. As previously mentioned, because of the epidemic rise in incidence of oropharyngeal cancers, secondary to HPV-associated tumors, and the high regional


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. advanced disease with pterygoid involvement. As previously mentioned, because of the epidemic rise in incidence of oropharyngeal cancers, secondary to HPV-associated tumors, and the high regional metastatic rate for these tumors, the pre-senting symptom is often a nontender cervical lymphadenopa-thy, which should be investigated with a fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy. Approximately 50% of patients have metastases at the time of diagnosis. Bilateral metastases are common in patients with soft palate and base of tongue tumors. Treatment of the neck should include the upper jugulodigastric nodes to which these tumors most commonly metastasize to, followed by levels II, IV, V, and the retropharyngeal lymph nodes.A discussion about oropharyngeal cancer cannot be had without discussing the important prognostic information pro-vided by the HPV status of these tumors. The incidence of oro-pharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma has increased significantly over the last four decades secondary


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. important prognostic information pro-vided by the HPV status of these tumors. The incidence of oro-pharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma has increased significantly over the last four decades secondary to HPV-16 related develop-ment of this tumor.125 HPV infection can induce the production of two viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7, which inactivate tumor suppressors p53 and Rb leading to tumor promotion.126 HPV-positive tumors are more common in younger male patients and are associated with a history of a higher lifetime number of sexual partners and oral sex.127 Ang et al demonstrated that oropharyngeal cancers can be stratified on overall survival into low risk (HPV-positive tumors in patients with ≤10 pack years of smoking or >10 pack years of smoking but N0-N2a), intermediate risk (HPV-positive tumors with >10 pack years of smoking and N2b-N3 or HPV-negative tumors in patients with ≤10 pack years of smoking and T2-T3 tumors), and high risk (HPV-negative tumors in patients with ≤10 pack


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Surgery_Schwartz. tumors with >10 pack years of smoking and N2b-N3 or HPV-negative tumors in patients with ≤10 pack years of smoking and T2-T3 tumors), and high risk (HPV-negative tumors in patients with ≤10 pack years of smok-ing and T4 tumors or HPV-negative tumors in patients with >10 pack years of smoking).92 The rate of distant metastases in the HPV-positive and HPV-negative tumors does not differ, and therefore the survival benefit in the HPV-positive group is due to improved locoregional control.Management of squamous cell cancers of this region includes single modality (surgery or radiotherapy alone) treat-ment for early stage disease (stage I/II) and multimodality treatment for advanced stage (stage III/IV) disease (surgery followed by postoperative radiotherapy or concurrent chemora-diotherapy).106 Historically, from 1971 to 2000, oropharyngeal cancers, at the time mostly HPV-negative, were treated hetero-geneously with surgery followed by radiotherapy or primary radiotherapy similar survival


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Historically, from 1971 to 2000, oropharyngeal cancers, at the time mostly HPV-negative, were treated hetero-geneously with surgery followed by radiotherapy or primary radiotherapy similar survival until Parsons et al demonstrated in a meta-analysis similar survival rates between the two treatment groups with improved locoregional control in the radiation-alone group and much higher complication rates in the surgery group (32% severe complications, 3.5% mortality) compared to the radiotherapy group (3.8% severe complications, 0.4% mortal-ity).128 For this reason, for many years, advanced-stage tumors were treated with primary concurrent chemoradiotherapy. How-ever, this is now a moving target given the excellent results in early and some intermediate-stage HPV-positive disease regardless of treatment. More recently, there has been a push to study de-escalation, particularly in the aforementioned low and intermediate risk groups given the excellent survival rates. The standard of care,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. treatment. More recently, there has been a push to study de-escalation, particularly in the aforementioned low and intermediate risk groups given the excellent survival rates. The standard of care, regardless of HPV status, for advanced tumors (T3/T4 or N2b-N3 or evidence of gross ECE) continues to be concurrent chemoradiotherapy.129The high complication and mortality rate in the surgi-cal group analyzed by Parsons et al was associated not just with HPV-negative tumors but also with open resections for advanced tumors that necessitated a lip-splitting mandibulotomy approach. More recently, particularly for early stage tumors (T1, T2, N0-N2a), there has been a push towards minimally invasive transoral robotic surgery (TORS) using the da Vinci Surgical System. Oncologic outcomes are similar between surgery and radiotherapy in this group, and TORS has been demonstrated to be cost-effective in this setting.130-132 Functional outcomes related to swallowing (G-tube dependency) and airway


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Surgery_Schwartz. between surgery and radiotherapy in this group, and TORS has been demonstrated to be cost-effective in this setting.130-132 Functional outcomes related to swallowing (G-tube dependency) and airway (tra-cheotomy dependency) are also similar between the groups.130 These outcomes are heavily dependent on the surgeon’s abil-ity to achieve negative margins, which can be challenging, and on good preoperative predictive value of imaging to stage the neck, given that advanced nodal disease, particularly with ECE, continues to benefit from adjuvant chemoradiotherapy. Positive margins or ECE ultimately leads to adjuvant chemoradiother-apy. This results in triple modality treatment with its associated higher morbidity. Therefore, clinical recommendations based on these favorable early retrospective poorly controlled studies with small sample sizes is not yet possible. Meanwhile, clinical trial evidence is pending to help elucidate in which settings and patients this new approach may be


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. poorly controlled studies with small sample sizes is not yet possible. Meanwhile, clinical trial evidence is pending to help elucidate in which settings and patients this new approach may be beneficial.133Extensive oropharyngeal cancers that fail concurrent chemoradiotherapy are treated with resection. If the mandible is involved, a marginal mandibulectomy or segmental man-dibulectomy may be required depending on the extent of bony invasion. Tongue base resection may necessitate total glossec-tomy depending on the contralateral extent of the tumor and the ability to save the lingual artery and to a lesser extent the hypo-glossal nerve on that side. When the larynx is preserved many patients, if careful reconstruction is performed, 90% of patients can be decannulated and have acceptable voice outcomes.134 However, it is not uncommon to have to perform a total laryn-gectomy at the same time as the total glossectomy for tumors with supraglottic extent, and this is associated with poor


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. voice outcomes.134 However, it is not uncommon to have to perform a total laryn-gectomy at the same time as the total glossectomy for tumors with supraglottic extent, and this is associated with poor quality of life. Generally, these patients also have poorer survival.135-137The primary goal of oropharyngeal reconstruction is swal-lowing rehabilitation. For soft palate defects, palatal obturators may assist in providing a seal between the nasopharynx and the posterior pharyngeal wall. The modified Gehanno technique sutures the posterior wall of the remaining soft palate to the remaining incised pharyngeal mucosa to close off the ipsilateral hemi-nasopharyngeal port.138,139 A flap can then be inset overly-ing this defect, which has effectively separated the nasopharynx from the oropharynx. This prevents nasal regurgitation of air Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 63901/03/19 5:24 PM 640SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIand liquids, therefore impacting both speech and swallowing.