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Surgery_Schwartz. to the SICU. In patients with abnormal findings on CT scans and GCS scores of ≤8, intracranial pres-sure (ICP) should be monitored using fiber-optic intraparenchy-mal devices or intraventricular catheters.33,81 Although an ICP of 10 mmHg is the upper limit of normal, therapy is targeted to maintain an ICP of <20 mmHg.33 The newest neurosurgery guidelines additionally recommend maintaining the cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) at >60 mmHg. Indications for opera-tive intervention to remove space-occupying hematomas are based on the clot volume, amount of midline shift, location of the clot, GCS score, and ICP.29 A shift of >5 mm typically is considered an indication for evacuation, but this is not an abso-lute rule. Smaller hematomas that are in treacherous locations, such as the posterior fossa, may require drainage due to brain stem compression or impending herniation. Removal of small hematomas may also improve ICP and cerebral perfusion in patients with elevated ICP that is


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Surgery_Schwartz. fossa, may require drainage due to brain stem compression or impending herniation. Removal of small hematomas may also improve ICP and cerebral perfusion in patients with elevated ICP that is refractory to medical therapy. Patients with diffuse cerebral edema resulting in excessive ICP may require a decompressive craniectomy, although a recent AAST multicenter trial questioned the benefits.82,83 Patients with open or depressed skull fractures, with or without sinus involvement, may require operative intervention. Penetrating injuries to the head may require operative intervention for hem-orrhage control, evacuation of blood, skull fracture fixation, or debridement.General surgeons in communities without emergency neu-rosurgical coverage should have a working knowledge of burr hole placement in the event that emergent evacuation is required for a life-threatening epidural hematoma (Fig. 7-52).84 The typi-cal clinical course of an epidural hematoma is an initial loss of consciousness, a


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Surgery_Schwartz. in the event that emergent evacuation is required for a life-threatening epidural hematoma (Fig. 7-52).84 The typi-cal clinical course of an epidural hematoma is an initial loss of consciousness, a lucid interval, and recurrent loss of conscious-ness with an ipsilateral fixed and dilated pupil. While decom-pression of subdural hematomas may be delayed, epidural hematomas require evacuation within 70 minutes.83 The final stages of this sequence are caused by blood accumulation that forces the temporal lobe medially, with resultant compression of the third cranial nerve and eventually the brain stem. The burr hole is made on the side of the dilated pupil to decompress the intracranial space. After stabilization, the patient is transferred to a facility with neurosurgical capability for formal craniotomy.In addition to operative intervention, postinjury care directed at limiting secondary injury to the brain is critical. The goal of resuscitation and management in patients with head


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Surgery_Schwartz. formal craniotomy.In addition to operative intervention, postinjury care directed at limiting secondary injury to the brain is critical. The goal of resuscitation and management in patients with head injuries is to avoid hypotension (SBP of <100 mmHg) and hypoxia (partial pressure of arterial oxygen of <60 or arterial oxygen saturation of <90%).33 Attention, therefore, is focused on maintaining cerebral perfusion rather than merely lowering Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 21710/12/18 6:20 PM 218BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IABCDFigure 7-51. Temporary closure of the abdomen entails covering the bowel with a fenestrated subfascial 45 × 60 cm sterile drape (A), placing Jackson-Pratt drains along the fascial edge (B), and then occluding with an Ioban drape (C, D).ICP. Resuscitation efforts aim for a euvolemic state and a SBP of >100 mmHg. Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) is equal to the mean arterial pressure minus the ICP, with a target range of >60 mmHg.33 CPP can be increased by


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. aim for a euvolemic state and a SBP of >100 mmHg. Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) is equal to the mean arterial pressure minus the ICP, with a target range of >60 mmHg.33 CPP can be increased by either lowering ICP or raising mean arterial pressure. Sedation, osmotic diuresis, paralysis, ventricular drainage, and barbiturate coma are used in sequence, with coma induction being the last resort. The role of decompressive craniectomy for refractory ICH remains contro-versial.82 The partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) should be maintained in a normal range (35–40 mmHg), but for tem-porary management of acute intracranial hypertension, induc-ing cerebral vasoconstriction by hyperventilation to a PCO2 of Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 21810/12/18 6:20 PM 219TRAUMACHAPTER 7<30 mmHg is occasionally warranted. Moderate hypothermia (32°–33°C [89.6°–91.4°F]) has been shown experimentally to improve neurologic outcomes, but clinical studies have not vali-dated this concept.33,85,86


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Surgery_Schwartz. is occasionally warranted. Moderate hypothermia (32°–33°C [89.6°–91.4°F]) has been shown experimentally to improve neurologic outcomes, but clinical studies have not vali-dated this concept.33,85,86 Patients with intracranial hemorrhage should be monitored for postinjury seizures, and prophylactic anticonvulsant therapy is indicated for 7 days after injury.33Maxillofacial Injuries. Maxillofacial injuries are common with multisystem trauma and require coordinated management by the trauma surgeon and the specialists in otolaryngology, plastic surgery, ophthalmology, and oral and maxillofacial surgery. Delay in addressing these systems that control vision, hearing, smelling, breathing, eating, and phonation may pro-duce dysfunction and disfigurement with serious psychological impact. The maxillofacial complex is divided into three regions; the upper face containing the frontal sinus and brain; the mid-face containing the orbits, nose, and zygomaticomaxillary com-plex; and the lower face


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. complex is divided into three regions; the upper face containing the frontal sinus and brain; the mid-face containing the orbits, nose, and zygomaticomaxillary com-plex; and the lower face containing the mandible. High-impact kinetic energy is required to fracture the frontal sinus, orbital rims, and mandible, whereas low-impact forces will injure the nasal bones and zygoma.The most common scenario, which at times may be life-threatening, is bleeding from facial fractures.87 Temporizing measures include nasal packing, Foley catheter tamponade of posterior nasal bleeding, and oropharyngeal packing. Prompt angioembolization will halt exsanguinating hemorrhage. Frac-tures of tooth-bearing bone are considered open fractures and require antibiotic therapy and semiurgent repair to preserve the Figure 7-52. A burr hole is made for decompression of an epidural hematoma as a life-saving maneuver. One or more branches of the external carotid artery usually must be ligated to gain access to the


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Surgery_Schwartz. Figure 7-52. A burr hole is made for decompression of an epidural hematoma as a life-saving maneuver. One or more branches of the external carotid artery usually must be ligated to gain access to the skull. No attempt should be made to control intracranial hemor-rhage through the burr hole. Rather, the patient’s head should be wrapped with a bulky absorbent dressing and the patient transferred to a neurosurgeon for definitive care.Figure 7-53. Three-dimensional computed tomography scan illustrating Le Fort II maxillary (L) and alveolar (A) fractures, and fracture of the mandible (M) at the midline and at the weaker con-dyle (C). (Used with permission from Vincent D. Eusterman, MD, DDS.)airway as well as the functional integrity of the occlusion (bite) and the aesthetics of the face. Orbital fractures may compro-mise vision, produce muscle injury causing diplopia, or change orbital volume to produce a sunken appearance to the orbit. Nose and nasoethmoidal fractures should be assessed


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Surgery_Schwartz. fractures may compro-mise vision, produce muscle injury causing diplopia, or change orbital volume to produce a sunken appearance to the orbit. Nose and nasoethmoidal fractures should be assessed carefully to identify damage to the lacrimal drainage system or to the cribriform plate producing cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea. After initial stabilization, a systematic physical examination of the head and neck should be performed that also includes cranial nerve examination and three-dimensional CT scanning of the maxillofacial complex (Fig. 7-53).Cervical InjuriesSpine. Treatment of injuries to the cervical spine is based on the level of injury, the stability of the spine, the presence of subluxation, the extent of angulation, the level of neurologic deficit, and the overall condition of the patient. In general, phy-sician-supervised axial traction, via cervical tongs or the more commonly used halo vest, is used to reduce subluxations and stabilize the injury. Immobilization of injuries


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Surgery_Schwartz. patient. In general, phy-sician-supervised axial traction, via cervical tongs or the more commonly used halo vest, is used to reduce subluxations and stabilize the injury. Immobilization of injuries also is achieved with spinal orthoses (braces), particularly in those with asso-ciated thoracolumbar injuries. Surgical fusion typically is performed in patients with neurologic deficit, those with angu-lation of >11° or translation of >3.5 mm, and those who remain unstable after halo placement. Indications for immediate opera-tive intervention are deterioration in neurologic function and fractures or dislocations with incomplete deficit. Historically, methylprednisolone was administered to patients with acute spi-nal cord injury after blunt injury, with clinical data suggesting a small benefit to initiating a 24-hour infusion if started within 3 hours and a 48-hour infusion if started within 3 to 8 hours.88 Current guidelines, however, no longer recommend steroids for acute injuries.89


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Surgery_Schwartz. to initiating a 24-hour infusion if started within 3 hours and a 48-hour infusion if started within 3 to 8 hours.88 Current guidelines, however, no longer recommend steroids for acute injuries.89 The role and timing of operative surgical decompression after acute spinal cord injury is debated, and Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 21910/12/18 6:20 PM 220BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART Ithe concept of damage control has been suggested. However, evidence supports urgent decompression of bilateral locked fac-ets in patients with incomplete tetraplegia or with neurologic deterioration. Performing surgery within 24 hours may decrease length of stay and complications.90 Complete injuries of the spi-nal cord remain essentially untreatable. Yet, approximately 3% of patients who present with flaccid quadriplegia have concus-sive injuries, and these patients represent the very few who seem to have miraculous recoveries.Vascular. Cervical vascular injuries due to either blunt or pen-etrating trauma


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Surgery_Schwartz. have concus-sive injuries, and these patients represent the very few who seem to have miraculous recoveries.Vascular. Cervical vascular injuries due to either blunt or pen-etrating trauma can result in devastating neurologic sequelae or exsanguination. Penetrating injuries to the carotid artery and internal jugular vein usually are obvious on operative neck exploration. The principles of vascular repair techniques (dis-cussed previously) apply to carotid injuries, and options for repair include end-to-end primary repair (often possible with mobilization of the common carotid), graft interposition, and transposition procedures. All carotid injuries should be repaired except in patients who present in coma with a delay in transport. Prompt revascularization of the internal carotid artery, using a temporary Pruitt-Inahara shunt, should be considered in patients arriving in profound shock. Otherwise, carotid shunting should be done selectively as in elective carotid endarterectomy, but


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Surgery_Schwartz. using a temporary Pruitt-Inahara shunt, should be considered in patients arriving in profound shock. Otherwise, carotid shunting should be done selectively as in elective carotid endarterectomy, but the patient should be systemically anticoagulated. Currently, we administer heparin with an ACT target of 250 sec. Tangential wounds of the internal jugular vein should be repaired by lateral venorrhaphy, but extensive wounds are efficiently addressed by ligation. However, it is not advisable to ligate both jugular veins due to potential intracranial hypertension. Vertebral artery inju-ries due to penetrating trauma are difficult to control operatively because of the artery’s protected location within the foramen transversarium. Although exposure from an anterior approach can be accomplished by removing the anterior elements of the bony canal and the tough fascia covering the artery between the elements, typically the most efficacious control of such inju-ries is angioembolization. Fogarty


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Surgery_Schwartz. removing the anterior elements of the bony canal and the tough fascia covering the artery between the elements, typically the most efficacious control of such inju-ries is angioembolization. Fogarty catheter balloon occlusion, however, is useful for controlling acute bleeding if encountered during neck exploration.Blunt injury to the carotid or vertebral arteries may cause dissection, thrombosis, or pseudoaneurysm, typically in the surgi-cally inaccessible distal internal carotid (Fig. 7-54).91 Early recog-nition and management of these injuries is paramount because patients treated with antithrombotics have a stroke rate of <1% compared with stroke rates of 20% in untreated patients.92 Because treatment must be instituted during the latent period between injury and onset of neurologic sequelae, diagnostic imaging is performed based on identified risk factors (Fig. 7-55).92 After identification of an injury, antithrombotics are administered if the patient does not have


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Surgery_Schwartz. neurologic sequelae, diagnostic imaging is performed based on identified risk factors (Fig. 7-55).92 After identification of an injury, antithrombotics are administered if the patient does not have contraindications (intra-cranial hemorrhage, falling hemoglobin level with solid organ injury or complex pelvic fractures). Heparin, started without a loading dose at 15 units/kg per hour, is titrated to achieve a PTT between 40 and 50 seconds or antiplatelet agents are initiated (aspirin 325 mg/d or clopidogrel 75 mg/d). The types of 9Figure 7-54. The Denver grading scale for blunt cerebrovascular injuries. Grade I: irregularity of the vessel wall, dissection/intramural hematoma with <25% luminal stenosis. Grade II: visualized intraluminal thrombus or raised intimal flap, or dissection/intramural hematoma with 25% or more luminal narrowing. Grade III: pseudoaneurysm. Grade IV: vessel occlusion. CAI = carotid artery injury; VAI = vertebral artery injury.Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd


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Surgery_Schwartz. hematoma with 25% or more luminal narrowing. Grade III: pseudoaneurysm. Grade IV: vessel occlusion. CAI = carotid artery injury; VAI = vertebral artery injury.Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22010/12/18 6:20 PM 221TRAUMACHAPTER 7Yes Yes NoNoMulti-Slice CTA*Surgically Accessible?Grade I Injury Antithrombotic Therapy: Heparin (PTT 40–50 sec)or Antiplatelet Therapy**NoDiscontinue AntithromboticsRepeat CTA in 7–10 days***Injury Healed? Yes NoPositive Equivocal Finding or High Clinical Suspicion ArteriogramNoYes Negative Grade II–IV Injury Grade V Injury Operative Repair Endovascular Treatment Yes StopStop Surgically Accessible?Potential arterial hemorrhage from neck/nose/mouthCervical bruit in pt <50 yrs oldExpanding cervical hematomaFocal neurologic defect: TIA, hemiparesis, vertebrobasilar symptoms, Horner’s SyndromeNeurologic deÿcit inconsistent with head CTStroke on CT or MRISigns/Symptoms of BCVIThe Denver Health Medical Center BCVI screening guideline.High energy transfer


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Surgery_Schwartz. symptoms, Horner’s SyndromeNeurologic deÿcit inconsistent with head CTStroke on CT or MRISigns/Symptoms of BCVIThe Denver Health Medical Center BCVI screening guideline.High energy transfer mechanismDisplaced mid-face fracture (LeFort II or III)Mandible fractureComplex skull fracture/basilar skull fracture/occipital condyle fractureSevere Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) with GCS <6Cervical spine fracture, subluxation or ligamentous injury at any levelNear hanging with anoxic injury/ strangulations with LOCClothesline type injury or seat belt abrasion with signiÿcant swelling, pain, or altered MSTBI with thoracic injuriesScalp deglovingThoracic vascular injuriesBlunt cardiac ruptureUpper rib fractures (1–3)Risk Factors for BCVIAntithrombotics for 3–6 months and reimageConsider endovascular stenting for severe luminal narrowing, symptomatology, or markedly expanding pseudoaneurysm* CTA with multidetector-row CT, 64-channel optimal. If fewer than 16 channels, interpret CTA with caution;


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Surgery_Schwartz. stenting for severe luminal narrowing, symptomatology, or markedly expanding pseudoaneurysm* CTA with multidetector-row CT, 64-channel optimal. If fewer than 16 channels, interpret CTA with caution; digital subtraction arteriogra-phy is the gold standard.** Antiplatelet therapy is typically ASA 325 mg.*** If CC fistula and symptomatic, consider angiography and endovascular therapy. If asymptomatic CC fistula, reimage with CTA at 3–4 weeks.Figure 7-55. Screening and treatment algorithm for blunt cerebrovascular injuries (BCVIs). ASA = acetylsalicylic acid; BRB = bright red blood; CHI = closed head injury; C-spine = cervical spine; CT = computed tomography; DAI = diffuse axonal injury; GCS = Glasgow Coma Scale score; MRI = magnetic resonance imaging; MS = mental status; Neg = negative; pt = patient; PTT = partial thromboplastin time; TIA = transient ischemic attack.antithrombotic treatment appear equivalent in published studies to date, and the duration of treatment is empirically


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Surgery_Schwartz. pt = patient; PTT = partial thromboplastin time; TIA = transient ischemic attack.antithrombotic treatment appear equivalent in published studies to date, and the duration of treatment is empirically recommended to be 6 months.93,94 The role of carotid stenting for grade II or III internal carotid artery injuries remain controversial; current litera-ture suggests stenting be reserved for symptomatic patients or markedly enlarging pseudoaneurysms.95 Thrombosis of the internal jugular veins caused by blunt trauma can occur unilaterally or bilaterally and is often discovered incidentally because most patients are asymptomatic. Bilateral thrombosis can aggravate cerebral edema in patients with serious head injuries; stent placement should be considered in such patients if ICP remains elevated.Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22110/12/18 6:20 PM 222BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IAerodigestive. Fractures of the larynx and trachea may mani-fest as cervical emphysema. Fractures documented by


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Surgery_Schwartz. 22110/12/18 6:20 PM 222BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IAerodigestive. Fractures of the larynx and trachea may mani-fest as cervical emphysema. Fractures documented by CT scan are usually repaired. Common injuries include thyroid carti-lage fractures, rupture of the thyroepiglottic ligament, disrup-tion of the arytenoids or vocal cord tears, and cricoid fractures. After debridement of devitalized tissue, tracheal injuries are repaired end-to-end using a single layer of interrupted absorb-able sutures. Associated injuries of the esophagus are common in penetrating injuries due to its close proximity. After debride-ment and repair, vascularized tissue is interposed between the repaired esophagus and trachea, and a closed suction drain is placed. The sternocleidomastoid muscle or strap muscles are useful for interposition and help prevent postoperative fistulas.Chest InjuriesThe most common injuries from both blunt and penetrating thoracic trauma are hemothorax and pneumothorax. More than


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Surgery_Schwartz. are useful for interposition and help prevent postoperative fistulas.Chest InjuriesThe most common injuries from both blunt and penetrating thoracic trauma are hemothorax and pneumothorax. More than 85% of patients can be definitively treated with a chest tube. The indications for thoracotomy include significant initial or ongoing hemorrhage from the tube thoracostomy and specific imaging-identified diagnoses (Table 7-10). One caveat concerns the patient who presents after a delay. Even when the initial chest tube output is 1.5 L, if the output ceases and the lung is reexpanded, the patient may be managed nonoperatively if hemodynamically stable.Great Vessels. Over 90% of thoracic great vessel injuries are due to penetrating trauma, although blunt injury to the innomi-nate, subclavian, or descending aorta may cause a pseudoaneu-rysm or frank rupture.46,96,97 Simple lacerations of the ascending or transverse aortic arch can be repaired with lateral aortor-rhaphy. Repair of posterior


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Surgery_Schwartz. or descending aorta may cause a pseudoaneu-rysm or frank rupture.46,96,97 Simple lacerations of the ascending or transverse aortic arch can be repaired with lateral aortor-rhaphy. Repair of posterior aortic injuries, complex ascending or transverse injuries, or those requiring interposition grafting of the arch, require full cardiopulmonary bypass. Innominate artery injuries are repaired using the bypass exclusion tech-nique,97 which avoids the need for cardiopulmonary bypass. Bypass grafting from the proximal aorta to the distal innominate with a prosthetic tube graft is performed before the postinjury hematoma is entered. The PTFE graft is anastomosed end-to-side from the proximal undamaged aorta and anastomosed end-to-end to the innominate artery (Fig. 7-56). The origin of the ABCFigure 7-56. A. Angiography reveals a 1-cm pseudoaneurysm of the innominate artery origin. B. In the first stage of the bypass exclusion technique, a 12-mm polytetrafluoroethylene graft is anastomosed end


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Surgery_Schwartz. 7-56. A. Angiography reveals a 1-cm pseudoaneurysm of the innominate artery origin. B. In the first stage of the bypass exclusion technique, a 12-mm polytetrafluoroethylene graft is anastomosed end to side from the proximal undamaged aorta, tunneled under the vein, and anastomosed end to end to the innominate artery. C. The origin of the innominate is then oversewn at its base to exclude the pseudoaneurysm.Table 7-10Indications for operative treatment of thoracic injuries• Initial tube thoracostomy drainage of >1000 mL (penetrating injury) or >1500 mL (blunt injury)• Ongoing tube thoracostomy drainage of >200 mL/h for 3 consecutive hours in noncoagulopathic patients• Caked hemothorax despite placement of two chest tubes• Great vessel injury (endovascular techniques may be used in selected patients)• Pericardial tamponade• Cardiac herniation• Massive air leak from the chest tube with inadequate ventilation• Tracheal or main stem bronchial injury diagnosed by endoscopy or imaging• Open


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Surgery_Schwartz. patients)• Pericardial tamponade• Cardiac herniation• Massive air leak from the chest tube with inadequate ventilation• Tracheal or main stem bronchial injury diagnosed by endoscopy or imaging• Open pneumothorax• Esophageal perforation• Air embolisminnominate is then oversewn at its base to exclude the pseu-doaneurysm or other injury. Subclavian artery injuries can be repaired using lateral arteriorrhaphy or PTFE graft interposition; due to its multiple branches and tethering of the artery, end-to-end primary anastomosis is not advocated if there is a significant segmental loss.Descending BAI may require urgent intervention. How-ever, operative intervention for intracranial or intra-abdominal hemorrhage or unstable pelvic fractures takes precedence. To prevent aortic rupture, pharmacologic therapy with a selective β1-antagonist, esmolol, should be instituted in the trauma bay, with a target SBP of <100 mmHg and heart rate of <100/min.41,98 Endovascular stenting is now the mainstay of


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Surgery_Schwartz. therapy with a selective β1-antagonist, esmolol, should be instituted in the trauma bay, with a target SBP of <100 mmHg and heart rate of <100/min.41,98 Endovascular stenting is now the mainstay of treatment.99,100 While endograft sizing has improved, the major question is long-term outcome in younger patients. Open repair of the descending aorta is accomplished using partial left heart bypass to prevent spinal cord and splanchnic ischemia and reduce left ventricular afterload (Fig. 7-57).101 Nonoperative management for grade I Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22210/12/18 6:20 PM 223TRAUMACHAPTER 7LAFigure 7-57. When repairing a tear of the descending thoracic aorta, perfusion of the spinal cord while the aorta is clamped is achieved by using partial left heart bypass. The venous cannula is inserted into the left superior pulmonary vein because it is less prone to tearing than the left atrium (LA).Figure 7-58. A variety of techniques may be necessary to repair cardiac wounds.


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Surgery_Schwartz. cannula is inserted into the left superior pulmonary vein because it is less prone to tearing than the left atrium (LA).Figure 7-58. A variety of techniques may be necessary to repair cardiac wounds. Generally, pledget support is used for the relatively thin-walled right ventricle.intimal aortic injuries is accomplished with antiplatelet agents and blood pressure control.102Heart. Blunt and penetrating cardiac injuries have widely dif-fering presentations and therefore disparate treatments. Survivable penetrating cardiac injuries consist of wounds that can be repaired operatively; most are stab wounds. Before repair of the injury is attempted, hemorrhage should be controlled; injuries to the atria can be clamped with a Satinsky vascular clamp, whereas digital pressure is used to occlude the majority of ventricular wounds. Foley catheter occlusion of larger stellate lesions is described, but even minimal traction may enlarge the original injury. Temporary control of hemorrhage, and at


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Surgery_Schwartz. majority of ventricular wounds. Foley catheter occlusion of larger stellate lesions is described, but even minimal traction may enlarge the original injury. Temporary control of hemorrhage, and at times definitive repair, may be accomplished with skin staples for left ventricular lacerations; the myocardial edges of the laceration must coapt in diastole for stapling to be technically feasible. Definitive repair of cardiac injuries is performed with either running 3-0 polypropylene suture or interrupted, pledgeted 2-0 polypropylene suture (Fig. 7-58).103 Use of pledgets may be particularly important in the right ventricle to prevent sutures from pulling through the thinner myocardium. Injuries adjacent to coronary arteries should be repaired using horizontal mattress sutures because use of running sutures results in coronary occlu-sion and distal infarction. Gunshot wounds may result in stellate lesions or contused, extremely friable myocardium adjacent to the wound. When the edges of


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Surgery_Schwartz. running sutures results in coronary occlu-sion and distal infarction. Gunshot wounds may result in stellate lesions or contused, extremely friable myocardium adjacent to the wound. When the edges of such complex wounds cannot be fully approximated and hence the repair is not hemostatic, the authors have used surgical adhesive (BioGlue) to achieve hemo-stasis.104 Occasionally, interior structures of the heart may be damaged. Intraoperative auscultation or postoperative hemody-namic assessment usually identifies such injuries.105 ECHO can diagnose the injury and quantitate its effect on cardiac output. Immediate repair of valvular damage or septal defects rarely is necessary and would require cardiopulmonary bypass, but struc-tural intracardiac lesions may progress, and thus patients must have a follow-up ECHO.Patients with blunt cardiac injury typically present with persistent tachycardia or conduction disturbances, but occa-sionally present with tamponade due to atrial or right


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. must have a follow-up ECHO.Patients with blunt cardiac injury typically present with persistent tachycardia or conduction disturbances, but occa-sionally present with tamponade due to atrial or right ventricu-lar rupture. There are no pathognomonic ECG findings, and cardiac enzyme levels do not correlate with the risk of cardiac complications.25 Therefore, patients for whom there is high clinical suspicion of cardiac contusion and who are hemody-namically stable should be monitored for dysrhythmias for 24 hours by telemetry. Patients with hemodynamic instability should undergo ECHO to evaluate for wall motion abnormali-ties (particularly hypokinesis of the right ventricle), pericardial fluid, valvular dysfunction, chordae rupture, or diminished ejection fraction. If such findings are noted or if vasoactive agents are required, cardiac function can be continuously moni-tored using a pulmonary artery catheter and serial SICU trans-thoracic or transesophageal ECHO.Trachea, Bronchi, and


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Surgery_Schwartz. or if vasoactive agents are required, cardiac function can be continuously moni-tored using a pulmonary artery catheter and serial SICU trans-thoracic or transesophageal ECHO.Trachea, Bronchi, and Lung Parenchyma. Less than 1% of all injured patients sustain intrathoracic tracheobronchial Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22310/12/18 6:20 PM 224BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART Iinjuries, and only a small number require operative intervention. Although penetrating injuries may occur throughout the tracheo-bronchial system, blunt injuries most commonly occur within 2.5 cm of the carina. For patients with a massive air leak requir-ing emergent exploration, initial control of the injury to provide effective ventilation is obtained by passing an endotracheal tube either beyond the injury or into the contralateral mainstem bron-chus. Principles of repair are similar to those for repair of cervi-cal tracheal injuries. Devitalized tissue is debrided, and primary end-to-end anastomosis with 3-0 PDS


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Surgery_Schwartz. contralateral mainstem bron-chus. Principles of repair are similar to those for repair of cervi-cal tracheal injuries. Devitalized tissue is debrided, and primary end-to-end anastomosis with 3-0 PDS suture is performed. Dis-section should be limited to the area of injury to prevent disrup-tion of surrounding bronchial vasculature and ensuing ischemia and stricture. Suture lines should be encircled with vascularized tissue, either pericardium, intercostal muscle, or pleura. Expect-ant management is employed for bronchial injuries that are less than one-third the circumference of the airway and have no evi-dence of a persistent major air leak.11,12 In patients with periph-eral bronchial injuries, indicated by persistent air leaks from the chest tube and documented by endoscopy, bronchoscopically directed fibrin glue sealing may be useful.The majority of pulmonary parenchymal injuries are sus-pected based upon identification of a pneumothorax; the vast majority can be managed with a tube


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. directed fibrin glue sealing may be useful.The majority of pulmonary parenchymal injuries are sus-pected based upon identification of a pneumothorax; the vast majority can be managed with a tube thoracostomy. Identified parenchymal injuries encountered during thoracic exploration for a massive hemothorax are managed without resection as much as possible. Bronchovenous fistula is a constant threat and should be minimized by prompt control of a major air leak. Peripheral lacerations with persistent bleeding can be managed with stapled wedge resection. For central injuries, the current treatment is pulmonary tractotomy, which permits selective ligation of individual bronchioles and bleeders, pre-vents the development of an intraparenchymal hematoma or air embolism, and reduces the need for formal lobar resection (see Fig. 7-50).106,107 A stapling device, preferably the longest stapler available (e.g., GIA-100), is inserted directly into the injury track and positioned along the thinnest


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Surgery_Schwartz. lobar resection (see Fig. 7-50).106,107 A stapling device, preferably the longest stapler available (e.g., GIA-100), is inserted directly into the injury track and positioned along the thinnest section of overly-ing parenchyma. The injury track is thus filleted open, which allows direct access to the bleeding vessels and leaking bronchi. The majority of injuries are definitively managed with selective ligation, and the defect is left open. Occasionally, tractotomy reveals a more proximal vascular on bronchial injury that must be treated with formal lobectomy. Injuries severe enough to mandate pneumonectomy usually are fatal because of right heart decompensation.108One parenchymal injury that may be discovered during thoracic imaging is a posttraumatic pulmonary pseudocyst, col-loquially termed a pneumatocele.109 Traumatic pneumatoceles typically follow a benign clinical course and are treated with aggressive pain management, pulmonary toilet, and serial chest radiography to monitor


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Surgery_Schwartz. termed a pneumatocele.109 Traumatic pneumatoceles typically follow a benign clinical course and are treated with aggressive pain management, pulmonary toilet, and serial chest radiography to monitor for resolution of the lesion. If the patient has persistent fever or leukocytosis, however, chest CT is done to evaluate for an evolving abscess because pneumatoceles may become infected. CT-guided catheter drainage may be required in such cases because 25% of patients do not respond to anti-biotic therapy alone. Surgery, ranging from partial resection to anatomic lobectomy, is indicated for unresolving complex pneumatoceles or infected lesions refractory to antibiotic ther-apy and drainage.The most common complication after thoracic injury is development of an empyema. Management is based on CT diagnostic criteria.110 Percutaneous drainage is indicated for a single loculation without appreciable rind. While fibrinolytics are often used for empyema, there is a paucity of data to support


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Surgery_Schwartz. CT diagnostic criteria.110 Percutaneous drainage is indicated for a single loculation without appreciable rind. While fibrinolytics are often used for empyema, there is a paucity of data to support their use. Early decortication via video-assisted thoracic surgery should be done promptly in patients with multiple loculations or a pleural rind of >1 cm.111 Antibiotic treatment is based on definitive culture results, but presumptive antibiotics should cover MRSA in the SICU.Esophagus. Due to the proximity of the structures, esophageal injuries often occur with tracheobronchial injuries, particularly in cases of penetrating trauma. Operative options are based on the extent and location of esophageal injury. With sufficient mobilization, a primary single-layer end-to-end anastomosis may be performed after appropriate debridement. As with cer-vical repairs, if there are two suture lines in close approximation (trachea or bronchi and esophagus) interposition of a vascular-ized pedicle is


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. performed after appropriate debridement. As with cer-vical repairs, if there are two suture lines in close approximation (trachea or bronchi and esophagus) interposition of a vascular-ized pedicle is warranted to prevent fistula formation. Perfora-tions at the gastroesophageal junction may be treated with repair and Nissan fundoplication or, for destructive injuries, segmen-tal resection and gastric pull-up. Small esophageal injuries can be managed with stenting. With large destructive injuries or delayed presentation of injuries, esophageal exclusion with wide drainage, diverting loop esophagostomy, and placement of a gastrostomy tube should be considered.Chest Wall and Diaphragm. Virtually all chest wall injuries, consisting of rib fractures and laceration of intercostal vessels, are treated nonoperatively with pain control, pulmonary toilet or venti-latory management, and drainage of the pleural space as indicated. Early institution of effective pain control is essential. The


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. treated nonoperatively with pain control, pulmonary toilet or venti-latory management, and drainage of the pleural space as indicated. Early institution of effective pain control is essential. The authors advocate preemptive rib blocks with 0.25% bupivacaine hydrochlo-ride (Marcaine) in the trauma bay, followed by thoracic wall pain catheters.112 Epidural anesthesia is reserved for multiple segmen-tal fractures. Persistent hemorrhage from a chest tube after blunt trauma most often is due to injured intercostal arteries; for unusual persistent bleeding (see Table 7-10), thoracotomy with direct liga-tion or angioembolization may be required to arrest hemorrhage. In cases of extensive flail chest segments, markedly displaced bicortical rib fractures, or loss of 20% of the thoracic volume, open reduction and internal fixation of the fracture with plates may be warranted. Chest wall defects, particularly those seen with open pneumothorax, are repaired using local approximation of tissues


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. reduction and internal fixation of the fracture with plates may be warranted. Chest wall defects, particularly those seen with open pneumothorax, are repaired using local approximation of tissues or tissue transfer for coverage. Scapular and sternal fractures rarely require operative intervention but are markers for significant tho-racoabdominal force during injury; significant displacement may benefit from sternal plating (Fig. 7-59). Careful examination and imaging should exclude associated injuries, including blunt cardiac injury and descending BAI. On the other hand, clavicle fractures are often isolated injuries and should be managed with pain control and immobilization. The exception is posterior dislocation of the clavicular head, which may injure the subclavian vessels.Blunt diaphragmatic injuries usually result in a linear tear, and most injuries are large, whereas penetrating injuries are variable in size and location depending on the agent of injury. Regardless of the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. diaphragmatic injuries usually result in a linear tear, and most injuries are large, whereas penetrating injuries are variable in size and location depending on the agent of injury. Regardless of the etiology, acute injuries are usually repaired through an abdominal approach to manage potential associated visceral injury. After delineation of the injury, the chest should be evacuated of all blood and particulate matter, and a thora-costomy tube placed if not previously done. Allis clamps are used to approximate the diaphragmatic edges, and the defect is closed with a running No. 1 polypropylene suture. Occasionally, large avulsions or shotgun wounds with extensive tissue loss will require polypropylene or biologic mesh to bridge the defect. Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22410/12/18 6:20 PM 225TRAUMACHAPTER 7Alternatively, transposition of the diaphragm cephalad one to two intercostal spaces may allow repair without undue tension.73Abdominal InjuriesLiver and Extrahepatic


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Surgery_Schwartz. 6:20 PM 225TRAUMACHAPTER 7Alternatively, transposition of the diaphragm cephalad one to two intercostal spaces may allow repair without undue tension.73Abdominal InjuriesLiver and Extrahepatic Biliary Tract. The liver’s large size makes it the organ most susceptible to blunt trauma, and it is frequently involved in upper torso penetrating wounds. Nonop-erative management of solid organ injuries is pursued in hemo-dynamically stable patients who do not have overt peritonitis or other indications for laparotomy. Patients with >grade II injuries should be admitted to the SICU with frequent hemodynamic monitoring, determination of hemoglobin, and abdominal exam-ination. The only absolute contraindication to nonoperative management is hemodynamic instability from intraperitoneal hemorrhage. Factors such as high injury grade, large hemo-peritoneum, contrast extravasation, or pseudoaneurysms may predict complications or failure of nonoperative management. Angioembolization and endoscopic


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Factors such as high injury grade, large hemo-peritoneum, contrast extravasation, or pseudoaneurysms may predict complications or failure of nonoperative management. Angioembolization and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopan-creatography (ERCP) are useful adjuncts that can improve the success rate of nonoperative management.113,114 The indication for angiography to control hepatic hemorrhage is transfusion of 4 units of RBCs in 6 hours or 6 units of RBCs in 24 hours attributable to the liver.In the 15% of patients for whom emergent laparotomy is mandated, the primary goal is to arrest hemorrhage. Initial control of hemorrhage is best accomplished using perihepatic packing and manual compression. The edges of the liver laceration should be opposed for local pressure control of bleeding. Hemorrhage from most major hepatic injuries can be controlled with effec-tive perihepatic packing. The right costal margin is elevated, and the pads are strategically placed over and around the bleeding


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. from most major hepatic injuries can be controlled with effec-tive perihepatic packing. The right costal margin is elevated, and the pads are strategically placed over and around the bleeding site (see Fig. 7-37). Additional pads should be placed between the liver, diaphragm, and anterior chest wall until the bleeding has been controlled. Sometimes 10 to 15 pads may be required to control the hemorrhage from an extensive right lobar injury. Packing of injuries of the left lobe is not as effective because there is insufficient abdominal and thoracic wall anterior to the left lobe to provide adequate compression with the abdomen open. Fortunately, hemorrhage from the left lobe usually can be controlled by mobilizing the lobe and compressing it between the surgeon’s hands. With extensive injuries and major hemorrhage, a Pringle maneuver should be done immediately. Intermittent release of the Pringle is helpful to attenuate hepatic cellular loss. ABFigure 7-59. Significant sternal


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Surgery_Schwartz. injuries and major hemorrhage, a Pringle maneuver should be done immediately. Intermittent release of the Pringle is helpful to attenuate hepatic cellular loss. ABFigure 7-59. Significant sternal displacement (A; arrows) can be reduced and stabilized with sternal plating (B).If the patient has persistent bleeding despite packing, injuries to the hepatic artery, portal vein, and retrohepatic vasculature should be considered. A Pringle maneuver can help delineate the source of hemorrhage. Hemorrhage from hepatic artery and portal vein injuries will halt with the application of a vascular clamp across the portal triad, whereas bleeding from the hepatic veins and the retrohepatic vena cava will continue despite a Pringle maneuver.Injuries of the portal triad vasculature should be addressed immediately. In general, ligation from the celiac axis to the level of the common hepatic artery at the gastroduodenal arterial branch is tolerated due to extensive collaterals, but the proper hepatic


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. In general, ligation from the celiac axis to the level of the common hepatic artery at the gastroduodenal arterial branch is tolerated due to extensive collaterals, but the proper hepatic artery should be repaired. The right or left hepatic artery, or in urgent situations the portal vein, may be selectively ligated; occasionally, lobar necrosis will necessitate delayed anatomic resection. If the right hepatic artery is ligated, cholecystectomy also should be performed. If the vascular injury is a stab wound with clean transection of the vessels, primary end-to-end repair is done. If the injury is destructive, temporary shunting should be performed followed by interposition reversed saphenous vein graft (RSVG). Blunt avulsions of the portal structures are par-ticularly problematic if located at the hepatic plate, flush with the liver; hemorrhage control at the liver can be attempted with directed packing or Fogarty catheters. If injury to the portal triad vasculature is more proximal,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. at the hepatic plate, flush with the liver; hemorrhage control at the liver can be attempted with directed packing or Fogarty catheters. If injury to the portal triad vasculature is more proximal, at the superior border of the pancreatic body or even retropancreatic, the pancreas must be transected to gain access for hemorrhage control and repair.If massive venous hemorrhage is seen from behind the liver despite use of the Pringle maneuver, the patient likely has a hepatic vein or retrohepatic vena cava injury. If bleeding can be controlled with perihepatic packing, the packing should be left undisturbed and the patient observed in the SICU. Placement of a hepatic vein stent by interventional radiology may be considered. If bleeding continues despite repeated attempts at packing, then direct repair, with or without hepatic vascular isolation, should be attempted. Three techniques have been used to accomplish hepatic vascular isolation: (a) direct repair with suprahepatic and


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. then direct repair, with or without hepatic vascular isolation, should be attempted. Three techniques have been used to accomplish hepatic vascular isolation: (a) direct repair with suprahepatic and infrahepatic clamping of the vena cava and stapled assisted parenchymal resection115; (b) temporary shunting of the retrohe-patic vena cava; and (c) venovenous bypass (Fig. 7-60).116A number of methods for the definitive control of hepatic parenchymal hemorrhage have been developed. Minor lac-erations may be controlled with manual compression applied directly to the injury site. Topical hemostatic techniques include Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22510/12/18 6:20 PM 226BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART Ithe use of an electrocautery (with the device set at 100 watts), argon beam coagulator, microcrystalline collagen, thrombin-soaked gelatin foam sponge, fibrin glue, and BioGlue. Suturing of the hepatic parenchyma with a blunt tipped 0 chromic suture (e.g., a “liver suture”) can be an effective


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. collagen, thrombin-soaked gelatin foam sponge, fibrin glue, and BioGlue. Suturing of the hepatic parenchyma with a blunt tipped 0 chromic suture (e.g., a “liver suture”) can be an effective hemostatic technique. A running suture is used to approximate the edges of shal-low lacerations, whereas deeper lacerations are approximated using interrupted horizontal mattress sutures placed parallel to the edge of the laceration. When the suture is tied, tension is adequate when visible hemorrhage ceases or the liver blanches around the suture. Caution must be used to prevent hepatic necrosis. This technique of placing large liver sutures controls bleeding through reapproximation of the liver laceration rather than direct ligation of bleeding vessels. Aggressive finger frac-ture to identify bleeding vessels followed by individual clip or suture ligation was advocated previously but currently has a limited role in hemostasis. Hepatic lobar arterial ligation may be appropriate for patients with


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. vessels followed by individual clip or suture ligation was advocated previously but currently has a limited role in hemostasis. Hepatic lobar arterial ligation may be appropriate for patients with recalcitrant arterial hemorrhage from deep within the liver and is a reasonable alternative to a deep hepatotomy, particularly in unstable patients. Omen-tum can be used to fill large defects in the liver. The tongue of omentum not only obliterates potential dead space with viable tissue but also provides an excellent source of macrophages. Additionally, the omentum can provide buttressing support for parenchymal sutures.Translobar penetrating injuries are particularly challeng-ing because the extent of the injury cannot be fully visualized. As discussed in “Damage Control Surgery,” options include intraparenchymal tamponade with a Foley catheter or balloon occlusion (see Fig. 7-49).117 If tamponade is successful with either modality, the balloon is left inflated for 24 to 48 hours Figure


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. intraparenchymal tamponade with a Foley catheter or balloon occlusion (see Fig. 7-49).117 If tamponade is successful with either modality, the balloon is left inflated for 24 to 48 hours Figure 7-60. Venovenous bypass permits hepatic vascular isolation with continued venous return to the heart. IMV = inferior mesenteric vein; IVC = inferior vena cava; SMV = superior mesenteric vein.followed by sequential deflation and removal at a second lapa-rotomy. Hepatotomy with ligation of individual bleeders occa-sionally may be required; however, division of the overlying viable hepatic tissue may cause considerable blood loss in the coagulopathic patient. Finally, angioembolization is an effective adjunct in any of these scenarios and should be considered early in the course of treatment.Several centers have reported patients with devastat-ing hepatic injuries or necrosis of the entire liver who have undergone successful hepatic transplantation.118 Clearly this is dramatic therapy, and the


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Surgery_Schwartz. centers have reported patients with devastat-ing hepatic injuries or necrosis of the entire liver who have undergone successful hepatic transplantation.118 Clearly this is dramatic therapy, and the patient must have all other injuries delineated, particularly those of the central nervous system, and have an excellent chance of survival excluding the hepatic injury. Because donor availability will limit such procedures, hepatic transplantation for trauma will continue to be performed only in extraordinary circumstances.Cholecystectomy is performed for injuries of the gallblad-der and after operative ligation of the right hepatic artery. Inju-ries of the extrahepatic bile ducts are a challenge due to their small size and thin walls. Because of the proximity of other portal structures and the vena cava, associated vascular inju-ries are common. These factors may preclude primary repair. Small lacerations with no accompanying loss or devitalization of adjacent tissue can be treated by the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. vena cava, associated vascular inju-ries are common. These factors may preclude primary repair. Small lacerations with no accompanying loss or devitalization of adjacent tissue can be treated by the insertion of a T-tube through the wound or by lateral suturing using 6-0 monofila-ment absorbable suture. Virtually all transections and any injury associated with significant tissue loss will require a Roux-en-Y choledochojejunostomy. The anastomosis is performed using a single-layer interrupted technique with 5-0 monofilament absorbable suture. To reduce anastomotic tension, the jejunum should be sutured to the areolar tissue of the hepatic pedicle or porta hepatis. Injuries of the hepatic ducts are almost impos-sible to satisfactorily repair under emergent circumstances. One approach is to intubate the duct for external drainage and attempt a repair when the patient recovers or attempt stenting via ERC. Alternatively, the duct can be ligated if the opposite lobe is normal and


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. is to intubate the duct for external drainage and attempt a repair when the patient recovers or attempt stenting via ERC. Alternatively, the duct can be ligated if the opposite lobe is normal and uninjured.Patients undergoing perihepatic packing for extensive liver injuries typically are returned to the OR for pack removal 24 hours after initial injury. Earlier exploration may be indi-cated in patients with evidence of ongoing hemorrhage. Signs of rebleeding are usually conspicuous, and include a falling hemoglobin, accumulation of blood clots under the temporary abdominal closure device, and bloody output from drains; the magnitude of hemorrhage is reflected in ongoing hemodynamic instability and metabolic monitoring. Postoperative hemorrhage should be reevaluated in the OR once the patient’s coagulopa-thy is corrected. Alternatively, angioembolization is appropri-ate for complex injuries. Patients with hepatic ischemia due to prolonged intraoperative use of the Pringle maneuver have


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. coagulopa-thy is corrected. Alternatively, angioembolization is appropri-ate for complex injuries. Patients with hepatic ischemia due to prolonged intraoperative use of the Pringle maneuver have an expected elevation but subsequent resolution of transaminase levels, whereas patients requiring hepatic artery ligation may have frank hepatic necrosis. Although febrile patients should be evaluated for infectious complications, patients with complex hepatic injuries typically have intermittent “liver fever” for the first 5 days after injury.Aside from hemorrhage and hepatic necrosis, additional complications after significant hepatic trauma include bilomas, arterial pseudoaneurysms, and biliary fistulas (Fig. 7-61). Bilomas are loculated collections of bile, which may or may not be infected. If infected, they should be treated like an abscess via percutaneous drainage. Although small, sterile bilomas Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22610/12/18 6:20 PM 227TRAUMACHAPTER 7Figure


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Surgery_Schwartz. If infected, they should be treated like an abscess via percutaneous drainage. Although small, sterile bilomas Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22610/12/18 6:20 PM 227TRAUMACHAPTER 7Figure 7-61. Complications after hepatic trauma include bilomas (A; arrow), hepatic duct injuries (B), and hepatic necrosis after hepatic artery ligation or embolization (C).eventually will be reabsorbed, larger fluid collections should be drained. Biliary ascites, due to the disruption of a major bile duct, often requires reoperation and wide drainage. Primary repair of the injured intrahepatic duct is unlikely to be success-ful. Resectional debridement is indicated for the removal of peripheral portions of nonviable hepatic parenchyma.Pseudoaneurysms and biliary fistulas are rare complica-tions in patients with hepatic injuries. Because hemorrhage from hepatic injuries often is treated without isolating individ-ual bleeding vessels, arterial pseudoaneurysms may develop, with the potential for


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. patients with hepatic injuries. Because hemorrhage from hepatic injuries often is treated without isolating individ-ual bleeding vessels, arterial pseudoaneurysms may develop, with the potential for rupture. Rupture into a bile duct results in hemobilia, which is characterized by intermittent episodes of right upper quadrant pain, upper GI hemorrhage, and jaun-dice. If the aneurysm ruptures into a portal vein, portal venous hypertension with bleeding esophageal varices may occur. Either scenario is best managed with hepatic arteriography and embolization. Biliovenous fistulas, causing jaundice due to rapid increases in serum bilirubin levels, should be treated with ERCP and sphincterotomy. Rarely, a biliary fistulous commu-nication will form with intrathoracic structures in patients with associated diaphragm injuries, resulting in a bronchobiliary or pleurobiliary fistula. Due to the pressure differential between the biliary tract (positive) and the pleural cavity (negative), the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. associated diaphragm injuries, resulting in a bronchobiliary or pleurobiliary fistula. Due to the pressure differential between the biliary tract (positive) and the pleural cavity (negative), the majority require operative closure. Occasionally, endoscopic sphincterotomy with stent placement will be required to address the pressure differential, and the pleurobiliary fistula will close spontaneously.Spleen. Until the 1970s, splenectomy was considered manda-tory for all splenic injuries. Recognition of the immune function of the spleen refocused efforts on operative splenic salvage in the 1980s.119,120 After demonstrated success in pediatric patients, nonoperative management has become the preferred means of splenic salvage for all patients. The identification of contrast extravasation as a risk factor for failure of nonoperative man-agement led to liberal use of angioembolization. The role of selective angioembolization (SAE) continues to be defined, but appears warranted in high


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. as a risk factor for failure of nonoperative man-agement led to liberal use of angioembolization. The role of selective angioembolization (SAE) continues to be defined, but appears warranted in high grade injuries, particularly those with contrast blush.121 It is clear, however, that up to 15% to 20% of patients with splenic trauma warrant early splenectomy and that failure of nonoperative management often represents inappro-priate patient selection.122,123 Indications for early intervention in adults include initiation of blood transfusion within the first 12 hours and hemodynamic instability. Unlike hepatic injuries, which usually rebleed within 48 hours, delayed hemorrhage or rupture of the spleen can occur up to weeks after injury.Splenic injuries are managed operatively by splenectomy, partial splenectomy, or splenic repair (splenorrhaphy), based on the extent of the injury and the physiologic condition of the patient. Splenectomy is indicated for significant hilar injuries,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. partial splenectomy, or splenic repair (splenorrhaphy), based on the extent of the injury and the physiologic condition of the patient. Splenectomy is indicated for significant hilar injuries, pulverized splenic parenchyma, or any >grade II injury in a patient with coagulopathy or multiple life-threatening inju-ries. The authors use autotransplantation of splenic implants (Fig. 7-62) to achieve partial immunocompetence in younger patients who do not have an associated enteric injury. Drains are not used. Partial splenectomy can be employed in patients in whom only the superior or inferior pole has been injured. Hem-orrhage from the raw splenic edge is controlled with horizontal mattress sutures, with gentle compression of the parenchyma (Fig. 7-63). During splenorrhaphy hemostasis is achieved by topical methods (electrocautery; argon beam coagulation; appli-cation of thrombin-soaked gelatin foam sponges, fibrin glue, or BioGlue), envelopment of the injured spleen in absorbable mesh,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. by topical methods (electrocautery; argon beam coagulation; appli-cation of thrombin-soaked gelatin foam sponges, fibrin glue, or BioGlue), envelopment of the injured spleen in absorbable mesh, and pledgeted suture repair.After splenectomy or splenorrhaphy, postoperative hemor-rhage may be due to an improperly ligated or unrecognized short gastric artery, or recurrent bleeding from the splenic parenchyma if splenic repair was used. An immediate postsplenectomy Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22710/12/18 6:20 PM 228BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART Iincrease in platelets and WBCs is normal; however, beyond postoperative day 5, a WBC count above 15,000/mm3 and a platelet/WBC ratio of <20 are associated with sepsis and should prompt a thorough search for underlying infection.124 A com-mon infectious complication after splenectomy is a subphrenic abscess, which should be managed with percutaneous drain-age. Additional sources of morbidity include a concurrent or unrecognized iatrogenic injury


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. complication after splenectomy is a subphrenic abscess, which should be managed with percutaneous drain-age. Additional sources of morbidity include a concurrent or unrecognized iatrogenic injury to the pancreatic tail during rapid splenectomy resulting in pancreatic ascites or fistula, or gastric perforation during short gastric vessel ligation. Enthusiasm for splenic salvage was driven by the rare, but often fatal, compli-cation of overwhelming postsplenectomy sepsis. Overwhelm-ing postsplenectomy sepsis is caused by encapsulated bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Neis-seria meningitidis, which are resistant to antimicrobial treat-ment. In patients undergoing splenectomy, prophylaxis against these bacteria is provided via vaccines administered optimally at >14 days postinjury.125Stomach and Small Intestine. Little controversy exists regarding the repair of injuries to the stomach or small bowel because of a rich blood supply. Gastric wounds can be


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Surgery_Schwartz. at >14 days postinjury.125Stomach and Small Intestine. Little controversy exists regarding the repair of injuries to the stomach or small bowel because of a rich blood supply. Gastric wounds can be oversewn with a running single-layer suture line or closed with a stapler. If a single-layer closure is chosen, full-thickness bites should be taken to ensure hemostasis from the well-vascularized gastric Figure 7-63. Interrupted pledgeted sutures may effectively control hemorrhage from the cut edge of the spleen.Figure 7-62. Autologous splenic transplantation is performed by placing sections of splenic parenchyma, 40 × 40 × 3 mm in size, into pouches in the greater omentum.wall. The most commonly missed gastric injury is the posterior wound of a through and through penetrating injury. Injuries also can be overlooked if the wound is located within the mesen-tery of the lesser curvature or high in the fundus. To delineate a questionable injury, the stomach can be digitally occluded at the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. also can be overlooked if the wound is located within the mesen-tery of the lesser curvature or high in the fundus. To delineate a questionable injury, the stomach can be digitally occluded at the pylorus while methylene blue-colored saline is instilled via a nasogastric (NG) tube. Alternatively, air can be introduced via the NG tube with the abdomen filled with saline. Partial gastrectomy may be required for destructive injuries, with resec-tions of the distal antrum or pylorus reconstructed using a Bill-roth procedure. Patients with injuries that damage both Latarjet nerves or vagi should undergo a drainage procedure (see Chap-ter 26). Small intestine injuries can be repaired using a trans-verse running 3-0 PDS suture if the injury is less than one-third the circumference of the bowel. Destructive injuries or multiple penetrating injuries occurring close together are treated with segmental resection followed by end-to-end anastomosis using a continuous, single-layer 3-0


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. the bowel. Destructive injuries or multiple penetrating injuries occurring close together are treated with segmental resection followed by end-to-end anastomosis using a continuous, single-layer 3-0 polypropylene suture.55 Mesenteric injuries may result in an ischemic segment of intestine, which mandates resection.Following repair of GI tract injuries, patients may develop a postoperative ileus. Return of bowel function is indicated by a decrease in gastrostomy or nasogastric tube output. The topic of nutrition is well covered in other chapters (see Chapter 2), but a few issues warrant mention. Multiple studies have con-firmed the importance of early total enteral nutrition (TEN) in the trauma population, particularly its impact in reducing septic complications.126 The route of enteral feedings (stomach vs. small bowel) tends to be less important because gut toler-ance appears equivalent unless there is upper GI tract pathol-ogy. Although early enteral nutrition is the goal, evidence


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. (stomach vs. small bowel) tends to be less important because gut toler-ance appears equivalent unless there is upper GI tract pathol-ogy. Although early enteral nutrition is the goal, evidence of bowel function should be apparent before advancing to goal tube feedings. Overzealous jejunal feeding can lead to small bowel necrosis in the patient recovering from profound shock. Patients undergoing monitoring for nonoperative manage-ment of grade III or higher solid organ injuries should receive nothing by mouth for at least 48 hours in case they require an operation. Although there is general reluctance to initiate TEN in patients with an open abdomen, a recent multicenter trial demonstrates that TEN in the postinjury open abdomen is feasible.127 For those patients without a bowel injury, TEN was associated with higher fascial closure rates, decreased Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22810/12/18 6:21 PM 229TRAUMACHAPTER 7complications, and decreased mortality. TEN in patients with


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. TEN was associated with higher fascial closure rates, decreased Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22810/12/18 6:21 PM 229TRAUMACHAPTER 7complications, and decreased mortality. TEN in patients with bowel injuries does not appear to alter fascial closure rates, complications, or mortality; hence, EN appears to be neither advantageous nor detrimental in these patients. Once resuscita-tion is complete, initiation of TEN, even at trophic levels (20 mL/h), should be considered in all injured patients with an open abdomen.Duodenum and Pancreas. The spectrum of injuries to the duodenum includes hematomas, perforation (blunt blow-outs, lacerations from stab wounds, or blast injury from gunshot wounds), and combined pancreaticoduodenal injuries. The majority of duodenal hematomas are managed nonoperatively with nasogastric suction and parenteral nutrition. Patients with suspected associated perforation, suggested by clinical deterio-ration or imaging with retroperitoneal free air or contrast


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. with nasogastric suction and parenteral nutrition. Patients with suspected associated perforation, suggested by clinical deterio-ration or imaging with retroperitoneal free air or contrast extrav-asation, should undergo operative exploration. A marked drop in nasogastric tube output heralds resolution of the hematoma, which typically occurs within 2 weeks; repeat imaging to con-firm these clinical findings is optional. If the patient shows no clinical or radiographic improvement within 3 weeks, operative evaluation is warranted.Small duodenal perforations or lacerations should be treated by primary repair using a running single-layer suture of 3-0 monofilament.128 The wound should be closed in a direc-tion that results in the largest residual lumen. Challenges arise when there is a substantial loss of duodenal tissue. Extensive injuries of the first portion of the duodenum (proximal to the duct of Santorini) can be repaired by debridement and end-to-end anastomosis because of the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. loss of duodenal tissue. Extensive injuries of the first portion of the duodenum (proximal to the duct of Santorini) can be repaired by debridement and end-to-end anastomosis because of the mobility and rich blood supply of the distal gastric atrium and pylorus. In contrast, the second portion is tethered to the head of the pancreas by its blood supply and the ducts of Wirsung and Santorini; therefore, no more than 1 cm of duodenum can be mobilized away from the pancreas. Moreover, suture repair using an end-to-end anastomosis in the second portion often results in an unacceptably narrow lumen. Therefore, defects in the second portion of the duodenum should be “patched” with a Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy. Duodenal injuries with tissue loss distal to the papilla of Vater and proximal to the superior mesenteric vessels are best treated by Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy with the distal portion of the duodenum oversewn (Fig. 7-64). In particular, injuries in the distal third and fourth


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. the superior mesenteric vessels are best treated by Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy with the distal portion of the duodenum oversewn (Fig. 7-64). In particular, injuries in the distal third and fourth portions of the duodenum (behind the mesenteric vessels) should be resected, and a duodenojejunostomy should be per-formed on the D3 side of the superior mesenteric vessels.Optimal management of pancreatic trauma is determined by where the parenchymal damage is located and whether the intra-pancreatic common bile duct and main pancreatic duct remain intact. Patients with pancreatic contusions (defined as injuries that leave the ductal system intact) can be treated nonoperatively or with closed suction drainage if undergoing laparotomy for other indications. Patients with proximal pancreatic injuries, defined as those that lie to the right of the superior mesenteric vessels, are also managed with closed suction drainage.129 In contrast, distal pancreatic injuries are managed based upon


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. injuries, defined as those that lie to the right of the superior mesenteric vessels, are also managed with closed suction drainage.129 In contrast, distal pancreatic injuries are managed based upon ductal integrity. Pan-creatic duct disruption can be identified through direct exploration of the parenchymal laceration, operative pancreatography, ERCP, or magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography. Patients with distal ductal disruption undergo distal pancreatectomy, preferably with splenic preservation.Injuries to the pancreatic head add substantial complex-ity because the intrapancreatic portion of the common bile duct Figure 7-64. Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy is used to treat duo-denal injuries between the papilla of Vater and superior mesenteric vessels when tissue loss precludes primary repair.traverses this area and often converges with the pancreatic duct. In contrast to diagnosis of pancreatic duct injuries, identifica-tion of intrapancreatic common bile duct disruption is


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Surgery_Schwartz. repair.traverses this area and often converges with the pancreatic duct. In contrast to diagnosis of pancreatic duct injuries, identifica-tion of intrapancreatic common bile duct disruption is relatively simple. The first method is to squeeze the gallbladder and look for bile leaking from the pancreatic wound. Otherwise, cholan-giography, optimally via the cystic duct, is diagnostic. Definitive treatment of this injury entails division of the common bile duct superior to the first portion of the duodenum, with ligation of the distal duct and reconstruction with a Roux-en-Y choledochojeju-nostomy. For injuries to the head of the pancreas that involve the main pancreatic duct but not the intrapancreatic bile duct, there are few options. Distal pancreatectomy alone is rarely indicated due to the extended resection of normal gland and the resultant risk of pancreatic insufficiency. Central pancreatectomy pre-serves the common bile duct, and mobilization of the pancreatic body permits


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. to the extended resection of normal gland and the resultant risk of pancreatic insufficiency. Central pancreatectomy pre-serves the common bile duct, and mobilization of the pancreatic body permits drainage into a posterior wall pancreaticogas-trostomy or a Roux-en-Y pancreaticojejunostomy (Fig. 7-65). Although this approach avoids a pancreaticoduodenectomy (Whipple procedure), the complexity may make the pancre-aticoduodenectomy more appropriate in patients with multiple injuries and is usually done in a damage control scenario. Some injuries of the pancreatic head do not involve either the pancre-atic or common bile duct; if no clear ductal injury is present, drains are placed. Rarely, patients sustain destructive injuries to the head of the pancreas or combined pancreaticoduodenal inju-ries that require pancreaticoduodenectomy. Examples of such injuries include transection of both the intrapancreatic bile duct and the main pancreatic duct in the head of the pancreas, avul-sion of


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Surgery_Schwartz. that require pancreaticoduodenectomy. Examples of such injuries include transection of both the intrapancreatic bile duct and the main pancreatic duct in the head of the pancreas, avul-sion of the papilla of Vater from the duodenum, and destruction Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 22910/12/18 6:21 PM 230BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART Iof the entire second portion of the duodenum. In these cases of extensive injuries, damage control principles are often employed.In contrast to proximal injuries, pancreatic resection con-tinues to be advocated for major ductal disruption in the more distal pancreas. Several options exist for treating injuries of the pancreatic body and tail. In stable patients, spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy should be performed. An alternative, which preserves both the spleen and distal transected end of the pancreas, is either a Roux-en-Y pancreaticojejunostomy or pan-creaticogastrostomy. If the patient is physiologically compro-mised, distal pancreatectomy with


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Surgery_Schwartz. spleen and distal transected end of the pancreas, is either a Roux-en-Y pancreaticojejunostomy or pan-creaticogastrostomy. If the patient is physiologically compro-mised, distal pancreatectomy with splenectomy is the preferred approach. Regardless of the choice of definitive procedure, the pancreatic duct in the proximal edge of transected pancreas should be individually ligated or occluded with a TA stapler. Application of fibrin glue over the stump may be advantageous.Pyloric exclusion may be used to divert the GI stream after high-risk, complex duodenal repairs, particularly with adjacent pancreatic injuries (Fig. 7-66).130 If the duodenal repair breaks down, the resultant fistula is an end fistula, which is easier to manage and more likely to close than a lateral fistula. To per-form a pyloric exclusion, first a gastrostomy is made on the greater curvature near the pylorus. The pylorus is then grasped with a Babcock clamp, via the gastrostomy, and oversewn with an O polypropylene


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. a pyloric exclusion, first a gastrostomy is made on the greater curvature near the pylorus. The pylorus is then grasped with a Babcock clamp, via the gastrostomy, and oversewn with an O polypropylene suture. A gastrojejunostomy restores GI tract continuity. Vagotomy is not necessary because a risk of marginal ulceration has not been documented. Perhaps surpris-ingly, the sutures maintain diversion for only 3 to 4 weeks. Alternatively, the most durable pyloric closure is a double exter-nal staple line across the pylorus using a TA stapler.Complications should be expected after major pancre-aticoduodenal injuries.131 Delayed hemorrhage is rare but may Figure 7-65. For injuries of the pancreatic head that involve the pancreatic duct but spare the common bile duct, central pancreatic resection with Roux-en-Y pancreaticojejunostomy prevents pancreatic insufficiency.occur with pancreatic necrosis or abdominal infection; this usu-ally can be managed by angioembolization. If closed suction


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Surgery_Schwartz. with Roux-en-Y pancreaticojejunostomy prevents pancreatic insufficiency.occur with pancreatic necrosis or abdominal infection; this usu-ally can be managed by angioembolization. If closed suction drains have been inserted for major pancreatic trauma, these should remain in place until the patient is tolerating an oral diet or enteral nutrition. Pancreatic fistula is diagnosed after post-operative day 5 in patients with drain output of >30 mL/d and a drain amylase level three times the serum value. Pancreatic fistula develops in over 20% of patients with combined injuries and should be managed similar to fistulas after elective surgery (see Chapter 33). Similarly, a duodenal fistula, presumptively an end fistula if a pyloric exclusion has been done, will typi-cally heal in 6 to 8 weeks with adequate drainage and control of intra-abdominal sepsis. Pancreatic pseudocysts in patients man-aged nonoperatively suggest a missed injury, and ERCP should be done to evaluate the integrity of the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. adequate drainage and control of intra-abdominal sepsis. Pancreatic pseudocysts in patients man-aged nonoperatively suggest a missed injury, and ERCP should be done to evaluate the integrity of the pancreatic duct. Late pseudocysts may be a complication of operative management and are treated much like those in patients with pancreatitis (see Chapter 33). Intra-abdominal abscesses are common and rou-tinely managed with percutaneous drainage.Colon and Rectum. Currently, three methods for treating colonic injuries are used: primary repair, end colostomy, and primary repair with diverting loop ileostomy. Primary repairs include lateral suture repair or resection of the damaged seg-ment with reconstruction by ileocolostomy or colocolostomy. All suturing and anastomoses are performed using a running single-layer technique (Fig. 7-67).55 The advantage of defini-tive treatment must be balanced against the possibility of anas-tomotic leakage if suture lines are created under suboptimal


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Surgery_Schwartz. a running single-layer technique (Fig. 7-67).55 The advantage of defini-tive treatment must be balanced against the possibility of anas-tomotic leakage if suture lines are created under suboptimal conditions. Alternatively, although use of an end colostomy requires a second operation, an unprotected suture line with Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 23010/12/18 6:21 PM 231TRAUMACHAPTER 7Figure 7-66. A. Pyloric exclusion is used to treat combined injuries of the duodenum and the head of the pancreas as well as isolated duodenal injuries when the duodenal repair is less than optimal. B and C. The pylorus is oversewn through a gastrotomy, which is subsequently used to create a gastrojejunostomy. The authors frequently use operatively placed feeding jejunostomy tube feedings for these patients.Figure 7-67. Technique for bowel repair and anastomosis. A. The running, single-layer suture is started at the mesenteric border. B. Stitches are spaced 3 to 4 mm from the edge of the bowel and


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. 7-67. Technique for bowel repair and anastomosis. A. The running, single-layer suture is started at the mesenteric border. B. Stitches are spaced 3 to 4 mm from the edge of the bowel and advanced 3 to 4 mm, including all layers except the mucosa. C. The continuous suture is tied near the antimesenteric border.Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 23110/12/18 6:21 PM 232BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IFigure 7-68. Loop colostomy will completely divert the fecal flow, allowing the low rectal injury to heal. For extensive wounds, presacral drains are inserted through a perianal incision (box) and advanced along Waldeyer’s fascia (dashed line).the potential for breakdown is avoided. Numerous large ret-rospective and several prospective studies have now clearly demonstrated that primary repair is safe and effective in virtu-ally all patients with penetrating wounds.132 Colostomy is still appropriate in a few patients, but the current dilemma is how to select which patients should undergo the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. safe and effective in virtu-ally all patients with penetrating wounds.132 Colostomy is still appropriate in a few patients, but the current dilemma is how to select which patients should undergo the procedure. Cur-rently, the overall physiologic status of the patient, rather than local factors, directs decision making. Patients with devastating left colon injuries requiring damage control have a leak rate of over 40%, and may be candidates for temporary colostomy.133 Diverting ileostomy with colocolostomy is another option for these high-risk patients.Rectal injuries are similar to colonic injuries with respect to the ecology of the luminal contents, overall structure, and blood supply of the wall, but access to extraperitoneal injuries is limited due to the surrounding bony pelvis. Therefore, indirect treatment with intestinal diversion usually is required. The current options are loop ileostomy and sigmoid loop colostomy. The latter is preferred because it is quick and easy to


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Therefore, indirect treatment with intestinal diversion usually is required. The current options are loop ileostomy and sigmoid loop colostomy. The latter is preferred because it is quick and easy to perform, and provides essentially total fecal diversion. For sigmoid colostomy, technical elements include: (a) adequate mobilization of the sigmoid colon so that the loop will rest on the abdominal wall without tension, (b) maintenance of the spur of the colostomy (the common wall of the proximal and distal limbs after maturation) above the level of the skin with a one-half-inch Penrose drain or similar device, (c) longitudinal incision in the tenia coli, and (d) immediate matu-ration in the OR (Fig. 7-68). If the injury is accessible (e.g., in the posterior intraperitoneal portion of the rectum), repair of the injury should also be attempted. However, it is not necessary to explore the extraperitoneal rectum to repair a distal perforation. If the rectal injury is extensive, another


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Surgery_Schwartz. rectum), repair of the injury should also be attempted. However, it is not necessary to explore the extraperitoneal rectum to repair a distal perforation. If the rectal injury is extensive, another option is to divide the rectum at the level of the injury, oversew or staple the distal rec-tal pouch if possible, and create an end colostomy (Hartmann’s procedure). Extensive injuries may warrant presacral drainage with Penrose drains placed along Waldeyer’s fascia via a peri-anal incision (see Fig. 7-68), but routine presacral drainage and rectal washout is no longer practiced. In rare instances in which destructive injuries are present, an abdominoperineal resection may be necessary to avert lethal pelvic sepsis.Complications related to colorectal injuries include intra-abdominal abscess, fecal fistula, wound infection, and stomal complications. Intra-abdominal abscesses occur in approxi-mately 10% of patients, and most are managed with percu-taneous drainage. Fistulas occur in 1% to 3%


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. fistula, wound infection, and stomal complications. Intra-abdominal abscesses occur in approxi-mately 10% of patients, and most are managed with percu-taneous drainage. Fistulas occur in 1% to 3% of patients and usually present as an abscess or wound infection with subse-quent continuous drainage of fecal output; the majority will heal spontaneously with routine care (see Chapter 29). Stomal com-plications (necrosis, stenosis, obstruction, and prolapse) occur in 5% of patients and may require either immediate or delayed reoperation. Stomal necrosis should be carefully monitored because spread beyond the mucosa may result in septic compli-cations, including necrotizing fasciitis of the abdominal wall. Penetrating injuries that involve both the rectum and adjacent bony structures are prone to development of osteomyelitis. Bone biopsy is performed for diagnosis and bacteriologic analysis, and treatment entails long-term IV antibiotic therapy and occa-sionally debridement.Abdominal and


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Surgery_Schwartz. to development of osteomyelitis. Bone biopsy is performed for diagnosis and bacteriologic analysis, and treatment entails long-term IV antibiotic therapy and occa-sionally debridement.Abdominal and Pelvic Vasculature. Injury to the major arter-ies and veins in the abdomen can be a technical challenge.132-137 Although penetrating trauma indiscriminately affects all blood vessels, blunt trauma most commonly involves renal vasculature and occasionally the abdominal aorta. Patients with a penetrat-ing aortic wound who survive to reach the OR frequently have a contained hematoma within the retroperitoneum. Due to lack of mobility of the abdominal aorta, few injuries are amenable to primary repair. Supraceliac aortic wounds are particularly challenging due to the need for proximal control. Small lateral perforations may be controlled with 4-0 polypropylene suture or a PTFE patch, but end-to-end interposition grafting with a PTFE tube graft is the most common repair. Blunt injuries are


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Small lateral perforations may be controlled with 4-0 polypropylene suture or a PTFE patch, but end-to-end interposition grafting with a PTFE tube graft is the most common repair. Blunt injuries are typi-cally extensive intimal tears of the infrarenal aorta with resultant thrombosis, and are exposed via a direct approach; most require an interposition graft. To avoid future vascular-enteric fistulas, the vascular suture lines should be covered with omentum.Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 23210/12/18 6:21 PM 233TRAUMACHAPTER 7Penetrating wounds to the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) are typically encountered after exploration for a gun-shot wound, with “black bowel” and associated supramesocolic hematoma being pathognomonic. Blunt avulsions of the SMA are rare but should be considered in patients with a seat belt sign who have midepigastric pain or tenderness and associated hypotension. For injuries of the SMA, temporary damage con-trol with a Pruitt-Inahara shunt can prevent


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. in patients with a seat belt sign who have midepigastric pain or tenderness and associated hypotension. For injuries of the SMA, temporary damage con-trol with a Pruitt-Inahara shunt can prevent extensive bowel necrosis. For definitive repair, end-to-end interposition RSVG from the proximal SMA to the SMA past the point of injury can be performed if there is no associated pancreatic injury. Alterna-tively, if the patient has an associated pancreatic injury, the graft should be tunneled from the distal aorta beneath the duodenum to the distal SMA. For proximal SMV injuries, digital compres-sion for hemorrhage control is followed by attempted venorrha-phy; ligation is an option in a life-threatening situation, but the resultant bowel edema requires aggressive fluid resuscitation. Temporary abdominal closure and a second-look operation to evaluate bowel viability should be done.Transpelvic gunshot wounds or blunt injuries with associ-ated pelvic fractures are the most common scenarios in


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. closure and a second-look operation to evaluate bowel viability should be done.Transpelvic gunshot wounds or blunt injuries with associ-ated pelvic fractures are the most common scenarios in patients with iliac artery injuries. As with abdominal vascular injuries, a Pruitt-Inahara shunt can be used for temporary shunting of the vessel for damage control. Definitive interposition graft-ing with excision of the injured segment is appropriate (see “Vascular Repair Techniques”). Careful monitoring for distal embolic events and reperfusion injury necessitating fasciotomy is imperative.In general, outcome after pelvic vascular injuries is related to (a) the technical success of the vascular reconstruction and (b) associated soft tissue and nerve injuries. Vascular repairs rarely fail after the first 12 hours, whereas soft tissue infection is a limb threat for several weeks. Following aortic interposition grafting, the patient’s SBP should not exceed 120 mmHg for at least the first 72 hours


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. first 12 hours, whereas soft tissue infection is a limb threat for several weeks. Following aortic interposition grafting, the patient’s SBP should not exceed 120 mmHg for at least the first 72 hours postoperatively. Patients requiring ligation of an inferior vena cava injury often develop marked bilateral lower extremity edema. To limit the associated morbidity, the patient’s legs should be wrapped with elastic bandages from the toes to the hips and elevated. For superior mesenteric vein injuries, either ligation or thrombosis after venorrhaphy results in marked bowel edema; fluid resuscitation should be aggressive and abdominal pressure monitoring routine in these patients. Prosthetic graft infections are rare complications, but prevention of bacteremia is imperative82; administration of antibiotics perioperatively and treatment of secondary infections is indicated. Long-term arte-rial graft complications such as stenosis or pseudoaneurysms are uncommon, and routine graft


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Surgery_Schwartz. of antibiotics perioperatively and treatment of secondary infections is indicated. Long-term arte-rial graft complications such as stenosis or pseudoaneurysms are uncommon, and routine graft surveillance rarely is performed. Consequently, long-term administration of antiplatelet agents or antithrombotics is not routine.Genitourinary Tract. Historically, when undergoing lapa-rotomy for trauma, all penetrating wounds to the kidneys were explored; recently, routine exploration of Gerota’s fascia has been questioned.138,139 Parenchymal renal injuries are treated with hemostatic and reconstructive techniques similar to those used for injuries of the liver and spleen: topical methods (electrocautery; argon beam coagulation; application of thrombin-soaked gela-tin foam sponge, fibrin glue, or BioGlue) and pledgeted suture repair. However, two caveats are recognized: the collecting sys-tem should be closed separately, and the renal capsule should be preserved to close over the repair of the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. and pledgeted suture repair. However, two caveats are recognized: the collecting sys-tem should be closed separately, and the renal capsule should be preserved to close over the repair of the collecting system (Fig. 7-69). Renal vascular injuries are common after penetrat-ing trauma and may be deceptive due to tamponade by Gerota’s Figure 7-69. When renorrhaphy is undertaken, effective repair is assisted by attention to several key points: A. Vascular occlusion controls bleeding and permits adequate visualization. B. The renal capsule is carefully preserved. C. The collecting system is closed separately with absorbable suture. D. The preserved capsule is closed over the collecting system repair.Brunicardi_Ch07_p0183-p0250.indd 23310/12/18 6:21 PM 234BASIC CONSIDERATIONSPART Ifascia, which results in delayed hemorrhage. Arterial reconstruc-tion using graft interposition should be attempted within 5 hours of injury for renal preservation. For destructive parenchymal or irreparable


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. which results in delayed hemorrhage. Arterial reconstruc-tion using graft interposition should be attempted within 5 hours of injury for renal preservation. For destructive parenchymal or irreparable renovascular injuries, nephrectomy may be the only option; a normal contralateral kidney must be palpated because unilateral renal agenesis occurs in 0.1% of patients.Over 90% of blunt renal injuries are treated nonoperatively. Hematuria typically resolves within a few days with bed rest, although rarely bleeding is so persistent that bladder irrigation to dispel blood clots is warranted. Persistent gross hematuria may require embolization, whereas urinomas can be drained percutane-ously. Operative intervention after blunt trauma is limited to reno-vascular injuries and destructive parenchymal injuries that result in hypotension. The renal arteries and veins are uniquely susceptible to traction injury caused by blunt trauma. As the artery is stretched, the inelastic intima and media may


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Surgery_Schwartz. injuries that result in hypotension. The renal arteries and veins are uniquely susceptible to traction injury caused by blunt trauma. As the artery is stretched, the inelastic intima and media may rupture, which causes throm-bus formation and resultant stenosis or occlusion. The success rate for renal artery repair is limited, but an attempt is reasonable if the injury is <5 hours old or if the patient has a solitary kidney or bilat-eral injuries.140 Image-guided endoluminal stent placement is now employed for many of these injuries recognized by CT scanning. Reconstruction after blunt renal injuries may be difficult, however, because the injury is typically at the level of the aorta. If repair is not possible within this time frame, leaving the kidney in situ does not necessarily lead to the late sequelae of hypertension or abscess formation. The renal vein may be torn or completely avulsed from the vena cava due to blunt trauma. Typically, the large hematoma causes hypotension,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. to the late sequelae of hypertension or abscess formation. The renal vein may be torn or completely avulsed from the vena cava due to blunt trauma. Typically, the large hematoma causes hypotension, which leads to operative intervention. During laparotomy for blunt trauma, expanding or pulsatile perinephric hematomas should be explored. If necessary, emergent vascular control can be obtained by placing a curved vascular clamp across the hilum from an inferior approach. Techniques of repair and hemostasis are similar to those described earlier.Injuries to the ureters are uncommon but may occur in patients with pelvic fractures and penetrating trauma. An injury may not be identified until a complication (i.e., a urinoma) becomes apparent. If an injury is suspected during operative exploration but is not clearly identified, methylene blue or indigo carmine is administered IV with observation for extrava-sation. Injuries are repaired using 5-0 absorbable monofilament, and mobilization of


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Surgery_Schwartz. but is not clearly identified, methylene blue or indigo carmine is administered IV with observation for extrava-sation. Injuries are repaired using 5-0 absorbable monofilament, and mobilization of the kidney may reduce tension on the anas-tomosis. Distal ureteral injuries can be treated by reimplanta-tion facilitated with a psoas hitch and/or Boari flap. In damage control circumstances, the ureter can be ligated on both sides of the injury and a nephrostomy tube placed.Bladder injuries are subdivided into those with intraperito-neal extravasation and those with extraperitoneal extravasation. Ruptures or lacerations of the intraperitoneal bladder are opera-tively closed with a running, single-layer, 3-0 absorbable mono-filament suture. Laparoscopic repair is becoming common in patients not requiring laparotomy for other injuries. Extraperito-neal ruptures are treated nonoperatively with bladder decompres-sion for 2 weeks. Urethral injuries are managed by bridging the defect with a


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. not requiring laparotomy for other injuries. Extraperito-neal ruptures are treated nonoperatively with bladder decompres-sion for 2 weeks. Urethral injuries are managed by bridging the defect with a Foley catheter, with or without direct suture repair. Strictures are not uncommon but can be managed electively.Female Reproductive Tract. Gynecologic injuries are rare. Occasionally the vaginal wall will be lacerated by a bone frag-ment from a pelvic fracture. Although repair is not mandated, it should be performed if physiologically feasible. More impor-tant, however, is recognition of the open fracture, need for possible drainage, and potential for pelvic sepsis. Penetrating injuries to the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries are also uncommon, and routine hemostatic techniques are used. Repair of a transected fallopian tube can be attempted but prob-ably is unjustified because a suboptimal repair will increase the risk of tubal pregnancy. Transection at the injury site with


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Surgery_Schwartz. used. Repair of a transected fallopian tube can be attempted but prob-ably is unjustified because a suboptimal repair will increase the risk of tubal pregnancy. Transection at the injury site with proximal ligation and distal salpingectomy is a more prudent approach.Pelvic Fracture Hemorrhage ControlPatients with pelvic fractures who are hemodynamically unsta-ble are a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge for the trauma team. These injuries often occur in conjunction with other life-threatening injuries, and there is no universal agreement among clinicians on management. Current management algorithms in the United States incorporate variable time frames for bony stabilization and fixation, as well as hemorrhage control by preperitoneal pelvic packing and/or angioembolization. Early institution of a multidisciplinary approach with the involvement of trauma surgeons, orthopedic surgeons, interventional radiolo-gists, the director of the blood bank, and anesthesiologists is imperative


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of a multidisciplinary approach with the involvement of trauma surgeons, orthopedic surgeons, interventional radiolo-gists, the director of the blood bank, and anesthesiologists is imperative due to high associated mortality rates (Fig. 7-70).Evaluation in the ED focuses on identification of injuries mandating operative intervention (e.g., massive hemothorax or hemoperitoneum) and injuries related to the pelvic fracture that alter management (e.g., injuries to the iliac artery, rectum, ure-thra, or bladder). Immediate temporary stabilization with sheeting of the pelvis or application of commercially available compres-sion devices should be performed in hemodynamically unstable patients. In patients with profound shock who are at high risk based upon mechanism (e.g., autopedestrian accident), pelvic sta-bilization should be done before radiographic confirmation. If the patient’s primary source of bleeding is the fracture-related pelvic hematoma, several options exist for hemorrhage