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Surgery_Schwartz. Med. 377(2): 122-131. 363. Chan A, Delaloge S, Holmes FA, et al. Neratinib after trastuzumab-based adjuvant therapy in patients with HER2-positive breast cancer (ExteNET): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(3):367-377. 364. Bose R, Kavuri SM, Searleman AC, et al. Activating HER2 mutations in HER2 gene amplification negative breast cancer. Cancer Discov. 2013;3(2):224-237. 365. Lien HC, Chen YL, Juang YL, Jeng YM. Frequent alterations of HER2 through mutation, amplification, or overexpression in pleomorphic lobular carcinoma of the breast. Breast Can-cer Res Treat. 2015;150:447-455. 366. Ben-Baruch NE, Bose R, Kavuri SM, Ma CX, Ellis MJ. HER2-mutated breast cancer responds to treatment with single-agent neratinib, a second-generation HER2/EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2015;13:1061-1064. 367. Gandhi L, Bahleda R, Tolaney SM, et al. Phase I study of neratinib in combination with temsirolimus in


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Surgery_Schwartz. HER2/EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor. J Natl Compr Canc Netw. 2015;13:1061-1064. 367. Gandhi L, Bahleda R, Tolaney SM, et al. Phase I study of neratinib in combination with temsirolimus in patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-dependent and other solid tumors. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(2):68-75. 368. Robinson DS, Sundaram M, et al. Carcinoma of the breast in pregnancy and lactation. In: Bland KI, Copeland EMI, eds. The Breast: Comprehensive Management of Benign and Malignant Diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998:1433. 369. Giordano SH, Buzdar AU, Hortobagyi GN: Breast cancer in men. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:678-687. 370. Wilhelm MC. Cancer of the male breast. In: Bland KI, Cope-land EMI, eds. The Breast: Comprehensive Management of Benign and Malignant Diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998:1416. 371. Khan SA, Badve S. Phyllodes tumors of the breast. Curr Treat Options Oncol. 2001;2:139-147. 372. Chittoor SR, Swain SM. Locally advanced breast cancer: Role of medical


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Surgery_Schwartz. WB Saunders; 1998:1416. 371. Khan SA, Badve S. Phyllodes tumors of the breast. Curr Treat Options Oncol. 2001;2:139-147. 372. Chittoor SR, Swain SM. Locally advanced breast cancer: Role of medical oncology. In: Bland KI, Copeland EMI, eds. The Breast: Comprehensive Management of Benign and Malignant Diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998:1403. 373. Mies C. Mammary sarcoma and lymphoma. In: Bland KI, Copeland EMI, eds. The Breast: Comprehensive Management of Benign and Malignant Diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998:307. 374. Stewart FW, Treves N. Lymphangiosarcoma in postmas-tectomy lymphedema; a report of six cases in elephantiasis chirurgica. Cancer. 1948;1:64-81.Brunicardi_Ch17_p0541-p0612.indd 61201/03/19 5:06 PM


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Surgery_Schwartz. Disorders of the Head and NeckAntoine Eskander, Stephen Y. Kang, Michael S. Harris, Bradley A. Otto, Oliver Adunka, Randal S. Weber, and Theodoros N. Teknos 18chapterCOMPLEX ANATOMY AND FUNCTIONThe anatomy of the head and neck is complex because of the proximity of vital structures such as framework, nerves, and arteries. Functionally, these structures afford most of the human senses: vision, taste, smell, and hearing. Even more fundamental, the upper aerodigestive tract is critical for breathing, speech, and swallowing. Otolaryngology—head and neck surgery is the field that predominantly deals with disorders of the head and neck; however, a multidisciplinary approach is required to achieve optimal outcomes. The multidisciplinary team can include audi-ology, speech language pathology, allergy/immunology, neurol-ogy, neurosurgery, radiation, and medical oncology. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the most common diseases pre-senting to and treated by the otolaryngologist—head


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Surgery_Schwartz. neurol-ogy, neurosurgery, radiation, and medical oncology. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the most common diseases pre-senting to and treated by the otolaryngologist—head and neck surgeon. It reviews benign conditions, trauma, malignancies, reconstruction, tracheotomy, and rehabilitation.BENIGN CONDITIONS OF THE HEAD AND NECKOtologyInfectious. Infectious processes of the ear may be consid-ered by their location (external, middle, or inner ear), their time course (acute or chronic), and the presence of complications. The external ear or pinna consists of a cartilaginous frame-work, perichondrium, and a relatively thin layer of skin. Ery-sipelas (St Anthony’s Fire) or impetigo are causes of external ear infection affecting the dermis or hypodermis of the auricle, typically caused by Streptococcus pyogenes or Staphylococcus aureus, respectively, that may be encountered posttraumatically or related to ear piercing. Treatment is oral antibiotic therapy targeting these


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Surgery_Schwartz. caused by Streptococcus pyogenes or Staphylococcus aureus, respectively, that may be encountered posttraumatically or related to ear piercing. Treatment is oral antibiotic therapy targeting these organisms. History and clinical features such as presence of bullae and golden crusting distinguish erysipelas and impetigo from other benign entities causing erythema and edema of the auricle, such as relapsing polychondritis, which is typically diffuse, lobule-sparing, and steroid-responsive.Acute otitis externa, often referred to as “swimmer’s ear,” denotes infection of the skin of the external auditory canal.1 Typically, the pathology is incited by moisture within the canal leading to skin maceration and pruritus. Subsequent trauma to the canal skin by scratching (i.e., instrumentation with a cot-ton swab or fingernail), erodes the normally protective skin/cerumen barrier. Hearing aid use and comorbid dermatologic conditions such as eczema or other forms of dermatitis may similarly serve


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Surgery_Schwartz. cot-ton swab or fingernail), erodes the normally protective skin/cerumen barrier. Hearing aid use and comorbid dermatologic conditions such as eczema or other forms of dermatitis may similarly serve as predisposing factors. The milieu of the exter-nal ear canal—dark, warm, humid—is ideal for rapid microbial proliferation. The most common offending organism is Pseu-domonas aeruginosa, although other bacteria and fungi may also be involved. Symptoms and signs of otitis externa include itching during the initial phases and pain with marked swelling of the canal soft tissues as the infection progresses. Treatment involves removal of debris under otomicroscopy and applica-tion of appropriate ototopical antimicrobials, such as neomycin/polymyxin or quinolone-containing eardrops. The topical ste-roid component of these drops (e.g., hydrocortisone or dexa-methasone) addresses swelling and, as a result, decreases the often intense pain associated with this infection. In cases of marked ear


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Surgery_Schwartz. ste-roid component of these drops (e.g., hydrocortisone or dexa-methasone) addresses swelling and, as a result, decreases the often intense pain associated with this infection. In cases of marked ear canal edema, the use of an otowick is required to facilitate delivery of ototopical medication medially into the ear canal. Fungal infections may call for the addition of 2% acetic acid to reestablish the premorbid pH balance. Patients with otitis externa should also be instructed to keep the ear dry. Systemic antibiotics are reserved for those with severe infections, diabet-ics, and immunosuppression.Complex Anatomy and Function 613Benign Conditions of the Head and Neck 613Otology / 613Sinonasal Inflammatory Disease / 617Pharyngeal and Adenotonsillar Disease / 622Benign Conditions of the Larynx / 624Vascular Lesions / 626Trauma of the Head and Neck 627Soft Tissue / 627Facial Fractures / 628Temporal Bone Fractures / 629Tumors of the Head and Neck 629Etiology and Epidemiology /


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Surgery_Schwartz. of the Larynx / 624Vascular Lesions / 626Trauma of the Head and Neck 627Soft Tissue / 627Facial Fractures / 628Temporal Bone Fractures / 629Tumors of the Head and Neck 629Etiology and Epidemiology / 630Anatomy and Histopathology / 630Second Primary Tumors in the Head and Neck / 631Staging / 632Upper Aerodigestive Tract / 632Nose and Paranasal Sinuses / 643Nasopharynx / 644Ear and Temporal Bone / 645Neck / 646Salivary Gland Tumors / 650Reconstruction 651Local Flaps and Skin Grafts / 651Regional Flaps / 651Free Tissue Transfer / 651Tracheotomy 652Indications and Timing / 652Technique and Complications / 652Speech with Tracheotomy and Decannulation / 653Long Term Management and Rehabilitation 654Palliative Care / 654Follow-Up Care / 654Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61301/03/19 5:22 PM 614Figure 18-1. Acute otitis media.Malignant otitis externa, a fulminant necrotizing infec-tion of the soft tissues of the external ear canal combined with osteomyelitis of the temporal bone, is


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Surgery_Schwartz. PM 614Figure 18-1. Acute otitis media.Malignant otitis externa, a fulminant necrotizing infec-tion of the soft tissues of the external ear canal combined with osteomyelitis of the temporal bone, is a potentially life-threatening form of otitis externa seen most commonly among elderly patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus or immunodeficiency.2,3 The classic physical finding is granulation tissue along the floor of the external auditory canal near the bony cartilaginous junction. Symptoms include persistent otalgia for longer than one month and purulent otorrhea. Biopsy is called for in order to exclude malignancy. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) define the extension of disease. Technetium 99-m scans are useful in gauging extend of bony involvement in early disease. Gallium-67 scans are valu-able for monitoring disease during the course of treatment and for determining duration of antibiotic therapy. These patients require aggressive medical


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Surgery_Schwartz. in early disease. Gallium-67 scans are valu-able for monitoring disease during the course of treatment and for determining duration of antibiotic therapy. These patients require aggressive medical therapy including ototopical and IV antibiotics targeting Pseudomonas. Other gram-negative bacteria and fungi are occasionally implicated, necessitating culturedirected therapy. Patients who do not respond to medical management require surgical debridement. This condition may progress to involvement of the adjacent skull base and soft tissues, meningitis, brain abscess, and death.Acute otitis media (AOM) typically implies a bacterial infec-tion of the middle ear.4 This diagnosis accounts for 25% of pedi-atric antibiotic prescriptions and is the most common bacterial infection of childhood. Most cases occur before 2 years of age and are secondary to immaturity of the Eustachian tube. Well-recog-nized contributing factors include upper respiratory viral infection and daycare attendance, as


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Surgery_Schwartz. cases occur before 2 years of age and are secondary to immaturity of the Eustachian tube. Well-recog-nized contributing factors include upper respiratory viral infection and daycare attendance, as well as craniofacial conditions affect-ing Eustachian tube function, such as cleft palate.It is important to distinguish between acute otitis media and otitis media with effusion (OME). The later denotes unin-fected serous fluid accumulation within the middle ear space. In children not already considered “at risk” for developmen-tal difficulties, OME is generally observed for resolution for a period of 3 months.5 Age-appropriate hearing testing should be performed when OME persists for ≥3 months or at any time when language delay, learning problems, or a significant hear-ing loss is suspected. In the absence of these factors, the child with OME should be reexamined at 3to 6-month intervals until the effusion is no longer present or until significant hear-ing loss is identified or structural


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Surgery_Schwartz. the absence of these factors, the child with OME should be reexamined at 3to 6-month intervals until the effusion is no longer present or until significant hear-ing loss is identified or structural abnormalities of the eardrum or middle ear are suspected. When hearing, speech, or structural concerns exist, myringotomy with tympanostomy tube place-ment is indicated.Signs and symptoms of infectious otitis media occurring for <3 weeks denote AOM. In this phase, otalgia and fever are the most common symptoms and physical exam reveals a bulging, opaque tympanic membrane (Fig. 18-1). If the process lasts 3 to 8 weeks, it is deemed subacute. Chronic otitis media, lasting more than 8 weeks, usually results from an unresolved acute otitis media. The most common organisms responsible are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis.In order to minimize antibiotic resistance and obviate complications of antimicrobial therapy such as allergic reaction and diarrhea,


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Surgery_Schwartz. pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis.In order to minimize antibiotic resistance and obviate complications of antimicrobial therapy such as allergic reaction and diarrhea, guidelines have been established for the treatment of AOM.6,7 Pain associated with AOM should be recognized and treated with oral analgesics. In children older than 6 months who are not otherwise considered “high risk” for complications (e.g., immunocompromised, previous cochlear implantation, developmental anomalies of the inner ear) with symptoms con-sistent with unilateral AOM without otorrhea, an initial period of observation is offered. If initial observation is selected by the physician and family, a mechanism for reexamination in 48 to 72 hours to evaluate for clinical improvement must be in place. When these criteria are not met, or clinical improvement is not observed within 48 to 72 hours, oral antibiotics are begun. First-line therapy is high-dose amoxicillin or


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Surgery_Schwartz. must be in place. When these criteria are not met, or clinical improvement is not observed within 48 to 72 hours, oral antibiotics are begun. First-line therapy is high-dose amoxicillin or amoxicillin-clavulanate, for β-lactamase coverage. Chronic otitis media is frequently Key Points1 One of the most common benign head and neck disorders includes sinonasal inflammatory disease which can present as acute or chronic rhinosinusitis.2 Acute adeno-tonsillitis is a major cause of morbidity in children and adenotonsillectomy can significantly improve symptoms of both sleep disordered breathing and of symp-toms during acute infections.3 Squamous cell carcinoma comprises >90% of all of the malignant pathology of the mucosal lining of the upper aerodigestive tract.4 The ideal treatment protocol for these cancers varies by subsite, stage, patient comorbidity, and center preference/experience. Early stage disease is treated with unimodality and late stage disease is treated with multiple


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Surgery_Schwartz. for these cancers varies by subsite, stage, patient comorbidity, and center preference/experience. Early stage disease is treated with unimodality and late stage disease is treated with multiple modalities in the form of primary surgery with adjuvant radiotherapy or primary concurrent chemoradiotherapy.5 Free flap reconstruction of head and neck defects is integral to help improve patient-reported quality of life and to re-establish form and function.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61401/03/19 5:22 PM 615DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18treated with myringotomy and tube placement (Fig. 18-2). This treatment is indicated for frequent acute episodes and in the set-ting of COME as discussed previously. The purpose of this pro-cedure is to remove the effusion and provide a route for middle ear ventilation. Episodes of AOM following tube placement are still possible. Myringotomy tubes, however, allow for preven-tion of painful tympanic membrane distension, risk of perfora-tion


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Surgery_Schwartz. middle ear ventilation. Episodes of AOM following tube placement are still possible. Myringotomy tubes, however, allow for preven-tion of painful tympanic membrane distension, risk of perfora-tion and other complications, and permit delivery of ototopicals into the middle ear space, in most cases obviating the need for systemic antibiotic therapy.Spontaneous tympanic membrane perforation during acute otitis media provides for drainage of purulent fluid and middle ear ventilation and frequently results in immediate resolution of severe pain. In the majority of cases, these perforations will heal spontaneously after the infection has resolved.8 Chronic otitis media, however, may be associated with nonhealing tympanic membrane perforations. Patients may have persistent otorrhea, which is treated with topical drops. Preparations containing ami-noglycoside are avoided because this class of drugs is toxic to the inner ear. Solutions containing alcohol or acetic acid may be irritating or


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Surgery_Schwartz. treated with topical drops. Preparations containing ami-noglycoside are avoided because this class of drugs is toxic to the inner ear. Solutions containing alcohol or acetic acid may be irritating or caustic to the middle ear and are also avoided in the setting of a perforation. Nonhealing perforation requires surgical closure (tympanoplasty) after medical treatment of any residual acute infection.Chronic inflammatory changes from otitis media intersect with and share common etiological factors with cholesteatoma. Cholesteatoma is an epidermoid cyst of the middle ear and/or mastoid cavity that develops as result of Eustachian tube dysfunction. While several theories exist regarding causes of cholesteatoma, most cholesteatoma arises from squamous epi-thelium drawn into the middle ear via retraction pockets, most commonly in the pars flaccida.9 Squamous epithelium may also migrate into the middle ear via a perforation. Chronic mastoid-itis that fails medical management or is associated


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Surgery_Schwartz. pockets, most commonly in the pars flaccida.9 Squamous epithelium may also migrate into the middle ear via a perforation. Chronic mastoid-itis that fails medical management or is associated with cho-lesteatoma is treated by mastoidectomy. Chronic inflammation and destruction of middle ear structures by osteolytic enzymes of cholesteatoma matrix may also be associated with erosion of the ossicular chain, which can be reconstructed with various prostheses or autologous ossicular replacement techniques.Complications of otitis media with or without cholestea-toma may be grouped into two categories: intratemporal (oto-logic) and intracranial.10 Fortunately, complications are rare in the antibiotic era, but mounting antibiotic resistance necessitates an increased awareness of these conditions. Intratemporal com-plications include acute coalescent mastoiditis, petrositis, facial nerve paralysis, and labyrinthitis. In acute coalescing mastoid-itis, destruction of the bony lamellae by an acute


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Surgery_Schwartz. com-plications include acute coalescent mastoiditis, petrositis, facial nerve paralysis, and labyrinthitis. In acute coalescing mastoid-itis, destruction of the bony lamellae by an acute purulent pro-cess results in severe pain, fever, and fluctuance behind the ear. The mastoid air cells coalesce into one common space filled with pus. Mastoid infection may also spread to the petrous apex, causing retro-orbital pain and sixth-nerve palsy. These diagno-ses are confirmed by computed tomographic scan. Facial nerve paralysis may also occur secondary to an acute inflammatory process in the middle ear or mastoid.11Intratemporal complications of otitis media are managed by myringotomy tube placement in addition to appropriate IV antibiotics. In acute coalescent mastoiditis and petrositis, mas-toidectomy is also performed as necessary to drain purulent foci. Labyrinthitis refers to inflammation of the inner ear. Most cases are idiopathic or are secondary to viral infections of the


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Surgery_Schwartz. mas-toidectomy is also performed as necessary to drain purulent foci. Labyrinthitis refers to inflammation of the inner ear. Most cases are idiopathic or are secondary to viral infections of the endolymphatic space. The patient experiences vertigo together with sensorineural hearing loss, and symptoms may smolder over several weeks. Labyrinthitis associated with middle ear infection may be serous or suppurative. In the former case, bac-terial products and/or inflammatory mediators transudate into the inner ear via the round window membrane, establishing an inflammatory process therein. Total recovery is eventually pos-sible after the middle ear is adequately treated.Suppurative labyrinthitis, however, is a much more toxic condition in which the acute purulent bacterial infection extends into the inner ear and causes marked destruction of the sensory hair cells and neurons of the eighth-nerve ganglion. This con-dition may be a harbinger for meningitis and must be treated rapidly. The


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Surgery_Schwartz. into the inner ear and causes marked destruction of the sensory hair cells and neurons of the eighth-nerve ganglion. This con-dition may be a harbinger for meningitis and must be treated rapidly. The goal of management of inner ear infection, which occurs secondary to middle ear infection, is to “sterilize” the middle ear space with antibiotics and the placement of a myr-ingotomy tube.The most common intracranial complication of otitis media is meningitis. Otologic meningitis in children is most commonly associated with an H. influenzae type B infection. Other intra-cranial complications include epidural abscess, subdural abscess, brain abscess, otitic hydrocephalus, and sigmoid sinus thrombo-phlebitis. In these cases, the otogenic source must be urgently treated with antibiotics and myringotomy tube placement. Mas-toidectomy and neurosurgical consultation may be necessary.Facial Nerve Disorders. Bell’s palsy is the most common etiology of facial nerve weakness/paralysis and is


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Surgery_Schwartz. myringotomy tube placement. Mas-toidectomy and neurosurgical consultation may be necessary.Facial Nerve Disorders. Bell’s palsy is the most common etiology of facial nerve weakness/paralysis and is clinically dis-tinct from that occurring as a complication of otitis media in that the otologic exam is normal.12 Bell’s palsy is rapid, unilat-eral and, historically, considered idiopathic. It is now accepted, however, that the majority of these cases represent a viral neu-ropathy caused by herpes simplex. It is critical that clinicians distinguish Bell’s palsy from other causes of facial weakness/palsy. Alternative diagnoses are suggested by weakness/paraly-sis that arise gradually (rather than <72 hours), is bilateral, is accompanied by other neurological deficits, or does not show some recovery within 2 to 3 weeks and complete recovery at 3 to 4 months. Treatment includes oral steroids plus antiviral ther-apy (i.e., valacyclovir). Complete recovery is the norm, but it does not occur


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Surgery_Schwartz. within 2 to 3 weeks and complete recovery at 3 to 4 months. Treatment includes oral steroids plus antiviral ther-apy (i.e., valacyclovir). Complete recovery is the norm, but it does not occur universally, and selected cases may benefit from surgical decompression of the nerve within its bony canal. Elec-trophysiologic testing has been used to identify those patients in whom surgery might be indicated.13 The procedure involves decompression of the nerve via exposure in the mastoid and middle cranial fossa.Figure 18-2. Myringotomy and tube.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61501/03/19 5:22 PM 616SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIVaricella zoster virus may also cause facial nerve paraly-sis when the virus reactivates from dormancy in the nerve. This condition, known as Ramsay Hunt syndrome, is characterized by severe otalgia followed by the eruption of vesicles of the external ear and the soft palate. Treatment is similar to Bell’s palsy, but full recovery is only seen in approximately


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. is characterized by severe otalgia followed by the eruption of vesicles of the external ear and the soft palate. Treatment is similar to Bell’s palsy, but full recovery is only seen in approximately two-thirds of cases.Traumatic facial nerve injuries may occur secondary to accidental trauma or surgical injury. Iatrogenic facial nerve trauma most often occurs during mastoidectomy, most com-monly to the vertical segment of the nerve.14 Detailed knowl-edge of facial nerve anatomy and adjunctive use of nerve integrity monitoring systems are imperative in this context. When the facial nerve is injured during an operative procedure, it is explored. Injury to >50% of the neural diameter of the facial nerve is addressed either with primary reanastomosis or recon-structed with the use a nerve graft. Complete recovery of nerve function is uncommon in these cases.Lesions of the Internal Auditory Canal and Cerebello-pontine Angle. The most common lesion affecting the inter-nal auditory canal


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Surgery_Schwartz. graft. Complete recovery of nerve function is uncommon in these cases.Lesions of the Internal Auditory Canal and Cerebello-pontine Angle. The most common lesion affecting the inter-nal auditory canal (IAC) and the cerebellopontine angle (CPA) is vestibular schwannoma (formerly referred to as “acoustic neuroma”). Less commonly encountered lesions of the IAC and CPA include meningioma and epidermoid tumors. Vestibular schwannomas are benign tumors that comprise 60% to 92% of all CPA lesions and 6% to 10% of intracranial tumors. They demon-strate an average growth rate of 1 to 2 mm per year.15 Vestibular schwannomas are most commonly unilateral and sporadic; bilat-eral tumors are the hallmark of neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2), an autosomal dominant condition linked to mutation of a tumor suppressor gene mapped to chromosome 22. The most common presenting symptoms of vestibular schwannoma are asymmetric sensorineural hearing loss and speech perception deficits often out of proportion to


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Surgery_Schwartz. gene mapped to chromosome 22. The most common presenting symptoms of vestibular schwannoma are asymmetric sensorineural hearing loss and speech perception deficits often out of proportion to degree of hearing loss indicated by audiom-etry. Unilateral tinnitus is also frequently reported. Disequilib-rium or, less commonly, episodic vertigo may be present. Facial nerve weakness or paralysis is rare. Larger tumors may feature facial numbness and loss of the cornea reflex from compression of the trigeminal nerve. Very large lesions can lead to brainstem compression, obstructive hydrocephalus, and death.Gadolinium-enhancement on T1-weighted MRI is the gold standard for diagnosis and detects even very small tumors (Fig. 18-3) The conventional armamentarium for vestibular Figure 18-3. A. Axial T1 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) post-contrast showing left cerebellopontine angle tumor with avid gadolinium enhancement. Minimal internal auditory canal involvement is noted. B. Axial T2 MRI


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Surgery_Schwartz. T1 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) post-contrast showing left cerebellopontine angle tumor with avid gadolinium enhancement. Minimal internal auditory canal involvement is noted. B. Axial T2 MRI showing left cerebellopontine angle tumor with thin cerebrospinal fluid cleft between tumor and brainstem/cerebellum. C. Axial T1 MRI post-contrast showing left cerebellopontine angle tumor with avid gadolinium enhancement. The lesion is confined to the internal auditory canal with minimal cerebellopontine angle involvement. D. Intraoperative phono during microsurgical resection via translabyrinthine approach. Black arrow indicates cochlear nerve.ABCDBrunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61601/03/19 5:22 PM 617DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18schwannoma includes observation, microsurgical resection, and stereotactic radiation.16 Management of patients with ves-tibular schwannomas involves weighing a multitude of vari-ables particular to the tumor (location, size, growth pattern), the


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Surgery_Schwartz. resection, and stereotactic radiation.16 Management of patients with ves-tibular schwannomas involves weighing a multitude of vari-ables particular to the tumor (location, size, growth pattern), the patient (age, overall health, individual wishes), and the inter-action between tumor and patient (symptoms currently expe-rienced, symptoms likely to develop with lesion progression, degree of residual hearing). For patients who have hearing that may still benefit from acoustic amplification using a hearing aid, either a retrosigmoid or a middle fossa approach may be offered, depending on tumor location, size, patient preference, and provider experience. For patients without serviceable hear-ing preoperatively, a translabyrinthine approach is most com-monly offered.Sinonasal Inflammatory DiseaseRhinosinusitis. Rhinosinusitis is defined as symptomatic inflammation of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Rhi-nosinusitis is preferred over sinusitis because sinusitis almost always is


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Surgery_Schwartz. DiseaseRhinosinusitis. Rhinosinusitis is defined as symptomatic inflammation of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Rhi-nosinusitis is preferred over sinusitis because sinusitis almost always is accompanied by inflammation of the contiguous nasal mucosa. Rhinosinusitis is a significant health burden, affect-ing nearly 12% of the population.17 Rhinosinusitis is the fifth most common diagnosis responsible for antibiotic prescription and accounts for more than 20% of all antibiotics prescribed to adults. Rhinosinusitis may be broadly classified based on duration of symptomatology. Symptoms lasting <4 weeks may be classified as acute rhinosinusitis (ARS), while symptoms lasting >12 weeks may be classified as chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). Rhinosinusitis lasting between 4 and 12 weeks has his-torically been defined as “subacute,” although the current clini-cal practice guideline published by the American Academy of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery does not distinguish rhinosinusitis


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Surgery_Schwartz. been defined as “subacute,” although the current clini-cal practice guideline published by the American Academy of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery does not distinguish rhinosinusitis in this time frame, noting that this group likely represents crossover symptoms from one of the other two sub-classes. Hence, the decision on how to manage this group of patients must be individualized.18 Because common conditions such as atypical migraine headache, laryngopharyngeal reflux, and allergic rhinitis frequently mimic rhinosinusitis, diagno-sis of rhinosinusitis is based not only on symptomatic criteria but also on objective evaluation with either imaging and/or endoscopy.Acute Rhinosinusitis. Acute rhinosinusitis most commonly occurs in the setting of a viral upper respiratory tract infection (URI). Although it is believed that acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) typically follows a viral URI, it has been estimated that only up to 2% of viral URIs lead to ABRS.19 The most common


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Surgery_Schwartz. (URI). Although it is believed that acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) typically follows a viral URI, it has been estimated that only up to 2% of viral URIs lead to ABRS.19 The most common viruses involved in ARS include rhinovirus, influenza virus, and parainfluenza virus. It is not known whether the viral URI precedes or only occurs along with ABRS. Regardless, viral infection leads to mucosal edema with sinus ostium obstruction, mucus stasis, tissue hypoxia, ciliary dysfunction, and epithelial damage, which may enhance bacterial adherence.20 Other con-ditions that may contribute to ABRS should be investigated, especially in the setting of recurrent ABRS. Such conditions include foreign body, sinus fungal ball (with bacterial secondary infection), and periapical dental disease (Figs. 18-4 and 18-5).The symptomatic criteria used to define ABRS include up to 4 weeks of purulent nasal drainage accompanied by nasal obstruction, facial pain with pressure and fullness, or both.18


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Surgery_Schwartz. 18-4 and 18-5).The symptomatic criteria used to define ABRS include up to 4 weeks of purulent nasal drainage accompanied by nasal obstruction, facial pain with pressure and fullness, or both.18 ABFigure 18-4. A. Right periapical abscess (arrow) leading to acute bacterial rhinosinusitis. B. Follow-up scan of the same patients after administration of antibiotics demonstrating resolution of the sinonasal inflammatory changes. Therapy subsequently directed at the offending tooth will prevent recurrent symptoms.Figure 18-5. Computed tomography scan demonstrating a fungal ball of the right maxillary sinus, characterized by heterogeneous opacification of the sinus.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61701/03/19 5:22 PM 618SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIOther historical factors that may predict the development of ABRS include persistence of symptoms beyond 10 days, or worsening of symptoms, following initial improvement, within 10 days (“double worsening”). Although routine head and neck


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Surgery_Schwartz. the development of ABRS include persistence of symptoms beyond 10 days, or worsening of symptoms, following initial improvement, within 10 days (“double worsening”). Although routine head and neck examination may identify anteriorly or posteriorly draining purulent secretions, the utilization of a rigid endoscope may improve diagnostic sensitivity and may also facilitate culture acquisition (Fig. 18-6).The management of ABRS is heavily dependent on anti-biotics, either culture-directed or empirically chosen to cover the most common isolates of ABRS, including S pneumoniae, H influenza, and M catarrhalis. Nosocomial ABRS more com-monly involves P aeruginosa or S aureus. Methicillin-resistant S aureus (MRSA) has been isolated with increasing frequency.20 Other treatments include topical and systemic decongestants, nasal saline spray, topical nasal steroids, and oral steroids in selected cases. In the acute setting, surgery is reserved for com-plications or pending complications, which


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Surgery_Schwartz. systemic decongestants, nasal saline spray, topical nasal steroids, and oral steroids in selected cases. In the acute setting, surgery is reserved for com-plications or pending complications, which may include exten-sion to the eye (orbital cellulitis or abscess) or the intracranial space (meningitis or intracranial abscess).Chronic Rhinosinusitis. Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is characterized by symptomatic inflammation of the nose and paranasal sinuses lasting over 12 weeks. CRS has been clini-cally classified into two main groups: those with CRS with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) tend to exhibit a Th2-biased inflammatory profile, and those with CRS without nasal polyps (CRSsNP) tend to exhibit a Th1-biased profile. Although the etiology of CRS is unclear and the development of the clinical subtypes may be distinct, there exists significant overlap not only in phys-iologic manifestations but also in symptomatology. Hence, the sinonasal cavities of patients with both subtypes of CRS tend to


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. may be distinct, there exists significant overlap not only in phys-iologic manifestations but also in symptomatology. Hence, the sinonasal cavities of patients with both subtypes of CRS tend to exhibit mucosal edema, ostial obstruction, ciliary dysfunction, and an abhorrent inflammatory milieu.Two of the following symptomatic criteria must be pres-ent to diagnose CRS: purulent nasal drainage, nasal obstruc-tion, facial pain-pressure-fullness, and decreased sense of smell. These patients may also experience acute exacerbation, generally signified by an escalation of symptoms. Frequently, this is due to bacterial infection. However, patients with acute exacerbation of CRS may be distinguished from patients with recurrent acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (four or more episodes of ABRS per year) through baseline comparison: patients with CRS are symptomatic, even while at baseline, while patients with recurrent acute bacterial sinusitis are normal at baseline. As with ARS, the diagnosis of


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Surgery_Schwartz. through baseline comparison: patients with CRS are symptomatic, even while at baseline, while patients with recurrent acute bacterial sinusitis are normal at baseline. As with ARS, the diagnosis of CRS requires objective confirmation utilizing either nasal endoscopy, CT scans, or, less commonly, MRI.Nasal endoscopy is a critical element of the diagnosis of CRS. Abnormalities that may confirm the diagnosis of CRS include• Purulent mucus in the middle meatus or anterior ethmoid region• Edema in the middle meatus or ethmoid region• Polyps in nasal cavity or the middle meatusIn addition to establishing the diagnosis, nasal endoscopy can be valuable in antibiotic selection by facilitating specific culture acquisition. Furthermore, simple polypectomy or ste-roid injection can be performed under topical anesthesia in the appropriate clinical setting.Imaging is also an important clinical tool in the diagnosis of CRS. In general, CT is the modality of choice for diagno-sis and management of


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Surgery_Schwartz. topical anesthesia in the appropriate clinical setting.Imaging is also an important clinical tool in the diagnosis of CRS. In general, CT is the modality of choice for diagno-sis and management of CRS. Usual diagnostic criteria include mucosal thickening, sinus opacification, and bony remodeling (erosion or hyperostosis). It should be underscored, however, that CT scan is not the positive gold standard because many asymptomatic patients will demonstrate findings on a sinus CT scan, and many patients with presumed sinusitis will have negative findings.19 CT scan has excellent negative predic-tive value when performed in the setting of active symptoms. Thus, if a patient complains of rhinosinusitis-like symptoms but has no specific physical (endoscopic) findings, and the scan Figure 18-6. Nasal endoscopy is commonly performed in the clinic setting to aid in the diagnosis and management of rhinosinusitis.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61801/03/19 5:22 PM 619DISORDERS OF THE HEAD


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Surgery_Schwartz. Nasal endoscopy is commonly performed in the clinic setting to aid in the diagnosis and management of rhinosinusitis.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61801/03/19 5:22 PM 619DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18Figure 18-7. Point-of-care computed tomography system. All components can be fit within an 8′ × 10′ room in an outpatient office setting.Figure 18-8. Triplanar imaging revealing proximity to critical structures such as the orbital wall and skull base. This can be used for diag-nosis of sinus opacification as well as stereotactic intraoperative navigation, where endoscope view (lower right) can be radiologically cor-related with location in the three cardinal planes. This case reflects classic allergic fungal sinusitis where the opacified sinuses are filled with heterogeneous whitish material on computed tomography images. Polyps in the ethmoid cavity are seen on the endoscope image.is negative, other diagnoses (e.g., allergic rhinitis, migraine headache, tension


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Surgery_Schwartz. whitish material on computed tomography images. Polyps in the ethmoid cavity are seen on the endoscope image.is negative, other diagnoses (e.g., allergic rhinitis, migraine headache, tension headaches, and laryngopharyngeal reflux) should be sought. This has led to the utility of point-of-care CT (POC-CT) scan that can be performed in the physician’s office. POC-CT utilizes cone beam technology,21 which acquires the equivalent of >100 axial slices in approximately 1 minute at an effective resolution of 0.3 mm or less. The equipment occupies a room of 8’ × 10’ and can thus be accommodated in almost any office setting (Fig. 18-7). Perhaps most important, the radiation dosing for even the most sophisticated protocol is 0.17 mSv, which is <10% the dose of a conventional head CT and equivalent to approximately 20 days of background radia-tion. One theoretical shortcoming of this technology is that it does not permit soft tissue imaging. This is seldom a concern in sinonasal evaluation, as


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Surgery_Schwartz. to approximately 20 days of background radia-tion. One theoretical shortcoming of this technology is that it does not permit soft tissue imaging. This is seldom a concern in sinonasal evaluation, as this is typically undertaken in bone windows. The acquired data are immediately formatted into triplanar (axial, sagittal, coronal) reconstructions and is also compatible with devices used for intraoperative stereotactic navigation, which can be used to confirm relationships between the disease process, medial orbital wall, and skull base during surgery (Figs. 18-8 and 18-9).Medical management of CRS is heavily dependent on topical intranasal therapy. The reasons for this lie not only in established effectiveness but also in tolerability and safety—the chronic nature of CRS generally lends to requisite long-term medication administration despite other measures such as surgery. Nasal irrigation and topical nasal steroids are commonplace in the management of CRSwNP and CRSsNP. Oral steroids


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Surgery_Schwartz. requisite long-term medication administration despite other measures such as surgery. Nasal irrigation and topical nasal steroids are commonplace in the management of CRSwNP and CRSsNP. Oral steroids have demonstrated effectiveness in patients with CRSwNP, although the role in CRSsNP is less clear. Although otolaryngologists commonly utilize antibiotics in the man-agement of CRS, indications and administration practices are not uniform. Oral antibiotic therapy given for short duration (<4 weeks) is generally useful in the management of acute exac-erbation related to bacterial infection. Long-term utilization of antibiotics may be necessary in the setting of chronic infection or osteomyelitis. Additionally, long-term macrolide administra-tion may be utilized for anti-inflammatory effects in the appro-priate clinical setting.In most cases, patients considering endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) for CRS should have significant residual Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61901/03/19 5:22 PM


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Surgery_Schwartz. the appro-priate clinical setting.In most cases, patients considering endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) for CRS should have significant residual Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 61901/03/19 5:22 PM 620SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIsymptomatology despite medical therapy. However, there cur-rently exists no consensus regarding what constitutes a “maxi-mum” course of medical therapy. It should be noted that unless there is suspicion of neoplasm or pending complication of rhinosinusitis, the decision to proceed with surgery is highly individualized. This is because surgery for uncomplicated CRS is elective, and patients who “fail” medical management will exhibit significant variability in symptoms, physical signs, and CT findings. Furthermore, ESS is not necessarily curative—the intent of ESS is to remove the symptoms related to CRS rather than cure the underlying condition itself.Surgery is typically preformed endoscopically where the goals are to remove polyps, enlarge or remove


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of ESS is to remove the symptoms related to CRS rather than cure the underlying condition itself.Surgery is typically preformed endoscopically where the goals are to remove polyps, enlarge or remove obstruct-ing tissue surrounding the natural sinus ostia (Fig. 18-10), and remove chronically infected bone and mucosa to promote both ventilation and drainage of the sinus cavities. Inspissated mucin or pus is drained and cultured. Eventual resolution of the chronic inflammatory process can be attained with a com-bination of meticulous surgery and directed medical therapy, although the patient must understand that surgery may not alter the underlying immunologic pathophysiology. In cases where resection of inflammatory tissue and polyps are not required, recent trends have also included use of angioplasty-type balloons to dilate sinus ostia. The exact role for this tech-nology is unclear, but it appears to have promise in outpatient office management of patients with focal or limited


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Surgery_Schwartz. of angioplasty-type balloons to dilate sinus ostia. The exact role for this tech-nology is unclear, but it appears to have promise in outpatient office management of patients with focal or limited obstruc-tive pathology.Endoscopic Skull Base Surgery. Over the past three decades, the development and expansion of multidisciplinary skull base teams has become somewhat commonplace at large academic institutions. Facilitated mainly by growing cooperation between otolaryngologists and neurosurgeons, a variety of approaches that utilize the sinonasal corridor to treat a plethora of patho-logic processes of the anterior skull base have been developed.Technological advances in endoscopy, instrumentation, and imaging have also facilitated the development of endo-scopic endonasal approaches (EEAs), allowing team members to work simultaneously while maintaining optimal visualization of the relevant anatomy and freedom of movement within the corridor. Although historically the sphenoid sinus has


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Surgery_Schwartz. allowing team members to work simultaneously while maintaining optimal visualization of the relevant anatomy and freedom of movement within the corridor. Although historically the sphenoid sinus has been the common access route in the management of sellar pathology, a series of modular approaches of varied complexity have been developed that have broadened the reach of EEAs to address lesions at virtually all comportments of the ventral skull base, from the crista galli to the anterior arch of C2.22One of the key tenets of the EEA is that the sinonasal cor-ridor presents the most prudent and safest path to the lesion of interest. Accordingly, the EEA is generally chosen for lesions adjacent to the skull base, without intervening brain parenchyma, cranial nerves, major vessels, or other important anatomical structures. Currently, EEAs are utilized to treat a significant number of pathologic process involving the skull base, including: cerebrospinal fluid leaks, encephaloceles,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. other important anatomical structures. Currently, EEAs are utilized to treat a significant number of pathologic process involving the skull base, including: cerebrospinal fluid leaks, encephaloceles, meningoceles, pseudomeningoceles, benign intracranial tumors (Fig. 18-11), benign sinonasal tumors, malignant sinonasal tumors, and inflammatory or traumatic conditions leading to compression at the craniovertebral junction. Although EEAs tend to be considered “minimally invasive,” the corridor created in the sinonasal cavity is nonetheless comprehensive enough to Figure 18-9. Sphenoid sinus fungal ball. The sinus has been opened revealing cheesy material during this intraoperative endoscopic view (lower right). The crosshairs stereotactically confirm location within the sphenoid sinus radiologically in the cardinal planes.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62001/03/19 5:22 PM 621DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18ABFigure 18-10. A. Endoscopic view of the right nasal cavity


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Surgery_Schwartz. radiologically in the cardinal planes.Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62001/03/19 5:22 PM 621DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18ABFigure 18-10. A. Endoscopic view of the right nasal cavity demonstrating the uncinate process (U), ethmoid bulla (EB), middle turbinate (MT), inferior turbinate (IT), and nasal septum (S). B. Endoscopic view of a microdebrider being used to widen the right maxillary sinus ostium.ABCDFigure 18-11. Preoperative coronal (A) and sagittal (B) magnetic resonance images of a large olfactory groove meningioma removed using endoscopic endonasal approach. Postoperative coronal (C) and sagittal (D) images demonstrating removal of the tumor. The skull base can be reconstructed using local flaps (most commonly a nasoseptal flap pedicled on the posterior nasal artery).Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62101/03/19 5:23 PM 622SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIprovide maximal freedom of movement for the critical compo-nent of the case (i.e., tumor resection near


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Surgery_Schwartz. 62101/03/19 5:23 PM 622SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIprovide maximal freedom of movement for the critical compo-nent of the case (i.e., tumor resection near vital structures). Once the corridor is created by the otolaryngologist, the neurosurgeon joins, and a two-person, threeto four-hand technique is utilized to address the lesion of interest and reconstruct the skull base (Fig. 18-12).Despite the relatively confined aperture provided by the nostrils, even large tumors can be removed using EEAs, albeit via piecemeal removal. For malignant tumors, this has required a philosophical shift whereby en bloc resection of the entire tumor is replaced by piecemeal removal of the bulk of the tumor followed by complete resection of the pedicle with sufficient margins. Outcomes utilizing EEAs for resection of malignant tumors, when chosen appropriately, parallel those of traditional open approaches. However, EEAs are not favored over tradi-tional approaches when oncological principles would


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. resection of malignant tumors, when chosen appropriately, parallel those of traditional open approaches. However, EEAs are not favored over tradi-tional approaches when oncological principles would otherwise need to be violated.Pharyngeal and Adenotonsillar DiseaseWaldeyer’s ring consists of the palatine tonsils between the anterior and posterior tonsillar pillars, the lingual tonsils (lym-phoid tissue in the base of tongue), and the adenoid located in the nasopharynx. These four main sites of Waldeyer’s ring are connected by other minor lymphoid tissue along the posterior and lateral pharyngeal wall completing the ring. These are all considered mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). These tissues react to inflammatory disease, infection, trauma, acid reflux, and radiotherapy. Even the vibratory effects of chronic snoring have been implicated in the development of adenoton-sillar disease. Inflammation of these tissues can lead to referred pain through cranial nerves IX and X to the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. vibratory effects of chronic snoring have been implicated in the development of adenoton-sillar disease. Inflammation of these tissues can lead to referred pain through cranial nerves IX and X to the throat and ear. Adenotonsillar tissue does not have any afferent lymphatics and receives antigen presentation directly, with appropriate produc-tion of memory cells. However, there is no clear immune com-promise after removal.Figure 18-12. Two-surgeon, threeto four-hand technique uti-lized in endoscopic endonasal surgery.Microbiology and Complications. Adenotonsillar infections present with three temporal patterns: acute, recurrent acute, and chronic. Acute infection is typically viral in origin but second-ary bacterial invasion may initiate chronic disease. Viruses do not cause chronic infections; however, Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) can cause significant hypertrophy. Systemic EBV infection, also known as mononucleosis, can mimic bacterial pharyngitis, but the progression of signs and


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Surgery_Schwartz. infections; however, Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) can cause significant hypertrophy. Systemic EBV infection, also known as mononucleosis, can mimic bacterial pharyngitis, but the progression of signs and symptoms demonstrates lymphade-nopathy, splenomegaly, and hepatitis. This can be diagnosed on bloodwork (heterophile antibody or atypical lymphocytes). The most common bacterial causes of acute tonsillitis are group A β-hemolytic streptococcus species (GABHS) and S pneumoniae.23 If GABHS is confirmed, then antibiotic therapy is warranted in the pediatric population to decrease the risk (3%) of developing rheu-matic fever. A positive test for GABHS historically meant a throat swab with culture and sensitivity; however, rapid antigen assays have been demonstrated to be reasonably sensitive and specific (85% and 95%, respectively), thus largely replacing cultures.24 If the rapid assay is negative, then a culture is warranted. The remainder of the bacteriology for adenotonsillar disease is


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Surgery_Schwartz. specific (85% and 95%, respectively), thus largely replacing cultures.24 If the rapid assay is negative, then a culture is warranted. The remainder of the bacteriology for adenotonsillar disease is similar to otitis media and sinusitis, which includes H influenzae and M catarrhalis. Atypical infections include Corynebacterium diph-theria, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Chlamydia trachomatis.Complications of GABHS pharyngitis, typically from S pyogenes, can be systematic and include poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, scarlet fever, and rheumatic fever. Anti-biotic therapy does not decrease the incidence of glomerulo-nephritis. Scarlet fever, caused by blood-borne streptococcal toxins, causes a strawberry tongue and a punctate rash on the trunk that spreads distally while sparing the palms and soles. Peritonsillar abscess is also a common complication that is treated in an ambulatory setting through a transoral approach after appropriate topicalization and local anesthetic. Deep neck


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. and soles. Peritonsillar abscess is also a common complication that is treated in an ambulatory setting through a transoral approach after appropriate topicalization and local anesthetic. Deep neck space infections are rare from pharyngitis but can occur from odontogenic and salivary gland infections. These typically require a transcervical approach for incision and drainage.Adenoids and Adenoidectomy. Acute adenoiditis typically presents with purulent rhinorrhea, nasal obstruction, and fever and can be associated with otitis media, particularly in the pedi-atric population. Recurrent acute adenoiditis is defined as four or more acute infections in a 6-month period, but in an adult, this may be difficult to distinguish from recurrent acute sinus-itis, and endoscopy with or without imaging of the sinuses may be warranted to distinguish between the two diagnoses. Chronic adenoiditis presents with persistent nasal discharge, halitosis, chronic congestion, and postnasal drip. In children,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. of the sinuses may be warranted to distinguish between the two diagnoses. Chronic adenoiditis presents with persistent nasal discharge, halitosis, chronic congestion, and postnasal drip. In children, obstructive adenoid hyperplasia often requires surgical intervention to help relieve obstructive symptoms such as snoring, obligate mouth breathing, and hyponasal voice.The management of adenoid disease is slightly different than that for tonsillar disease. Chronic infection can be treated with antibiotics, although this often does not lead to a full reso-lution of symptoms. If the adenoid bed appears hyperplastic on lateral X-ray imaging or endoscopy, a 2-month trial of nasal steroids may be helpful. Adenoidectomy is indicated for recur-rent and chronic infections that have failed conservative man-agement. These infections are not limited to the adenoid bed but also involve the sinuses and the middle year. Adenoidectomy with a myringotomy and ventilation tube placement is benefi-cial for


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. man-agement. These infections are not limited to the adenoid bed but also involve the sinuses and the middle year. Adenoidectomy with a myringotomy and ventilation tube placement is benefi-cial for recurrent or chronic otitis media in children because the Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62201/03/19 5:23 PM 623DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18adenoid functions as a reservoir for bacteria that can enter the middle ear through the Eustachian tube.25Adenoidectomy is also the first line of surgical manage-ment for children with chronic sinusitis because the adenoid can obstruct mucociliary clearance from the sinonasal tract into the choana and ultimately into the pharynx. Patients with obstruc-tive systems attributable to the adenoids and suspected benign or malignant neoplasms of the adenoid bed are also candidates. However, the procedure is contraindicated in patients with vel-opalatine insufficiency (VPI) and in patients with a cleft pal-ate. Prior to adenoidectomy, patients


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. adenoid bed are also candidates. However, the procedure is contraindicated in patients with vel-opalatine insufficiency (VPI) and in patients with a cleft pal-ate. Prior to adenoidectomy, patients should be examined for a submucous cleft, a lack of midline muscular tissue of the soft palate. Clinical signs of this include a bifid uvula, a translucent portion of the muscular diastasis of the soft palate (zona pel-lucida), and a palpable notched hard palate.26 A number of dif-ferent methods can be used to perform an adenoidectomy: cold steel, suction coagulator, microdebrider, and coblation. Adenoid regrowth and bleeding rates are both low, and no study has been able to demonstrate the superiority of one technique over the other for either outcome.27,28 Adenoidectomy is not without complications though, beyond VPI and bleeding, halitosis and adenoid bed regrowth (∼1%) are common complications. Rare complications include torticollis secondary to inflammation of the prevertebral fascia,


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. though, beyond VPI and bleeding, halitosis and adenoid bed regrowth (∼1%) are common complications. Rare complications include torticollis secondary to inflammation of the prevertebral fascia, nasopharyngeal stenosis, and cervi-cal spine subluxation, which is more common in patients with Down syndrome.Tonsils and Tonsillectomy Patients with acute tonsillitis present with sore throat, fever, dysphagia, and tender cervi-cal nodes with erythematous or exudative tonsils. The Centor Criteria is used to identify the likelihood of bacterial infection in adult patients complaining of sore throat in the emergency department or walk-in clinic, a point is given for each of the following: fever, tonsillar exudate, lymphadenopathy, and lack of cough.29-31 A score of 0 to 1 warrants no treatment, a score of 2 to 3 warrants GABHS testing, and a score of 4 warrants initiation of antibiotic therapy. First-line treatment is with peni-cillin or a cephalosporin; however, in those with an allergy, a


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Surgery_Schwartz. a score of 2 to 3 warrants GABHS testing, and a score of 4 warrants initiation of antibiotic therapy. First-line treatment is with peni-cillin or a cephalosporin; however, in those with an allergy, a macrolide can be considered. Documentation of recurrent acute infections should include a temperature (>38.3oC), cervical adenopathy, tonsillar exudate, and a positive test for GABHS. According to the American Academy of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery (AAO-HNS) clinical practice guideline on tonsillectomy in children, tonsillectomy is indicated when chil-dren have more than 7 documented episodes per year, 5 epi-sodes per year in the past 2 years, or 3 episodes per year in the past 3 years.23 Tonsillectomy can still be considered in children who do not meet these criteria if they have multiple antibiotic allergies or intolerances, have a history of peritonsillar abscess after the acute inflammation has resolved, or have PFAPA (peri-odic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. multiple antibiotic allergies or intolerances, have a history of peritonsillar abscess after the acute inflammation has resolved, or have PFAPA (peri-odic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis). A peritonsillar abscess is an infection of the peritonsillar salivary gland (Weber’s gland), located between the tonsil capsule and the muscles of the tonsillar fossa. In selected cases of active peritonsillar abscess, tonsillectomy is required in the acute set-ting to treat systemic toxicity or impending airway compromise. Multiple techniques have been described, including electrocau-tery, sharp dissection, laser, and radiofrequency ablation. There is no consensus as to the best method.Sleep Disordered Breathing and Adenotonsillar Disease. Patients with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) and tonsil-lar hypertrophy may also benefit from tonsillectomy if they have growth retardation, poor school performance, enuresis, or behavioral problems. The benefits may be accentuated in


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. (SDB) and tonsil-lar hypertrophy may also benefit from tonsillectomy if they have growth retardation, poor school performance, enuresis, or behavioral problems. The benefits may be accentuated in children with abnormal polysomnography; however, DB may require further treatment after tonsillectomy when it is multifac-torial. Clinical documentation of tonsillar grade/size is based on the percentage of the transverse oropharyngeal space measured between the anterior tonsillar pillars: grade 1+ <25%; grade 2+ 25% to 49%; grade 3+ 50% to 74%; grade 4+ ≥75% or more sometimes referred to as “kissing tonsils.”32 Tonsillectomy is effective for control of SDB in 60% to 70% of patients with tonsillar hypertrophy, although this much lower (10%–25%) in obese children, and it is therefore not curative in obese chil-dren but may improve some of their symptoms nonetheless. In patients with Down syndrome, obesity, craniofacial abnormali-ties, neuromuscular disorders, sickle cell disease, or


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Surgery_Schwartz. curative in obese chil-dren but may improve some of their symptoms nonetheless. In patients with Down syndrome, obesity, craniofacial abnormali-ties, neuromuscular disorders, sickle cell disease, or mucopoly-saccharidoses, polysomnography (PSG) should be performed prior to tonsillectomy.33 When the need for surgery is uncertain or when there is a discordance between tonsillar size on physi-cal examination and the reported severity of SDB, physicians should advocate for PSG prior to tonsillectomy. Tonsillectomy, usually with adenoidectomy if the adenoids are enlarged, is often performed on an outpatient basis unless the patient has documented or strongly suspected obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), is <3 years of age, or has severe OSA (in children, an apnea-hypopnea index ≥10 or more, oxygen saturation <80%, or both). Other reasons for admission include a home >1 hour from a hospital, patients with craniofacial abnormalities, or any other medical issue. There is strong evidence to suggest


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Surgery_Schwartz. <80%, or both). Other reasons for admission include a home >1 hour from a hospital, patients with craniofacial abnormalities, or any other medical issue. There is strong evidence to suggest the routine administration of a single intraoperative dose of IV dexametha-sone in children undergoing tonsillectomy, though antibiotics should not be administered or prescribed perioperatively in children. The complications from tonsillectomy include peri-operative bleeding (3%–5%), airway obstruction, death, and readmission from postoperative dysphagia leading to dehydra-tion.34 It is recommended that surgeons calculate and quote their own primary and secondary posttonsillectomy hemorrhage rates yearly.23 A rare but serious complication in patients with obstructive adenotonsillar disease post adenotonsillectomy is postobstructive pulmonary edema syndrome, which presents with decreased oxygen saturation and frothy, blood-tinged oral secretions. Patients usually recover with reintubation, positive


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. is postobstructive pulmonary edema syndrome, which presents with decreased oxygen saturation and frothy, blood-tinged oral secretions. Patients usually recover with reintubation, positive pressure, diuresis, and supportive care.Multilevel Sleep Surgery. SDB surgery is often multilevel and is not limited to adenotonsillar disease. Patients with nasal obstruction may benefit from septoplasty and trubinate reduc-tion, although in the adult population this is most commonly used to allow patients to tolerate their OSA appliances. Simi-larly, patients with significant lingual tonsillar hypertrophy and a large base of tongue may benefit from a base of tongue reduction, tongue base advancement, or geniohyoidopexy. A base of tongue reduction alone does not often provide enough apnea-hypopnea index reduction (30%–60%) for resolution of symptoms and is fraught with a high morbidity rate.35 Rarely, maxillomandibular advance is required to open up the retrolin-gual space. In patients with life


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Surgery_Schwartz. reduction (30%–60%) for resolution of symptoms and is fraught with a high morbidity rate.35 Rarely, maxillomandibular advance is required to open up the retrolin-gual space. In patients with life threatening symptoms (right heart failure/cor pulmonale, oxygen saturation <70%, comorbid cardiopulmonary disease) who have failed other measures, the only “cure” for OSA is a tracheotomy.Other Tonsillar Pathology. Unilateral tonsillar hypertrophy is mostly likely benign but can also be the result of Mycobac-terium tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterium, fungi, or Actino-myces. With the epidemic rise in incidence of oropharyngeal Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62301/03/19 5:23 PM 624SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIcancers, neoplasms (squamous cell carcinoma and lymphoma) have increasingly also presented as tonsillar asymmetry.36 Man-agement of these lesions is dependent on the pretest probability of malignancy and the type of malignancy. If squamous cell car-cinoma is suspected, then a


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Surgery_Schwartz. presented as tonsillar asymmetry.36 Man-agement of these lesions is dependent on the pretest probability of malignancy and the type of malignancy. If squamous cell car-cinoma is suspected, then a biopsy alone is sufficient so as to not impact the possibility of other future surgical interventions such as transoral robotic surgery. If lymphoma or a nonmalignant pathology is suspected, tonsillectomy is often recommended for diagnostic and therapeutic reasons, and the specimen should be sent fresh to pathology for a lymphoma protocol workup, bacte-rial and fungal culture, and gram stain. Pharyngitis may also be seen in immune-mediated conditions such as erythema multi-forme, bullous pemphigoid, and pemphigus vulgaris.Benign Conditions of the LarynxHoarseness is the most common presenting symptom for patients with a voice complaint. Other complaints include breathiness, weakness/hypophonia, aphonia, and pitch breaks. Voice disor-ders affect a large range of patient ages, occupations, and


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. for patients with a voice complaint. Other complaints include breathiness, weakness/hypophonia, aphonia, and pitch breaks. Voice disor-ders affect a large range of patient ages, occupations, and socio-economic statuses and affect both genders equally. They can be associated with dysphagia, globus sensation, laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) disease and, rarely, airway obstruction.37 Smoking can both cause and aggravate preexisting benign laryngeal con-ditions and raises the suspicion of malignancy often requiring a biopsy to exclude this diagnosis.Any discussion of laryngeal disorders should start with a review of the anatomy of the vocal cords (Fig. 18-13). The true vocal cords are formed from stratified squamous epithelium, beneath which is the superficial lamina propria (in Reinke’s space). Beneath this is the ligament that includes the middle and deep lamina propria. Beneath this ligament is the muscular layer that includes the thyroarytenoid muscle or vocalis. The cover-body theory


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. Beneath this is the ligament that includes the middle and deep lamina propria. Beneath this ligament is the muscular layer that includes the thyroarytenoid muscle or vocalis. The cover-body theory describes the freely mobile cover (mucosa and Reinke’s space) over the more rigid body (vocal ligament and vocalis).38Membranous vocal cord lesions have been notoriously dif-ficult to classify reliably; however, increased availability of vid-eostroboscopic examination and standardized definitions have improved the classification of these lesions.39 These lesions are usually mid cord because that is the site of maximal lateral displacement and amplitude. Vocal fold nodules are typically bilateral, fairly symmetric, and with normal or mild impairment of the mucosal wave, and they almost always resolve with voice therapy. A vocal fold polyp is more often unilateral than bilat-eral, is exophytic, and is associated with unorganized gelatinous debris in the subepithelial space. These can be


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. resolve with voice therapy. A vocal fold polyp is more often unilateral than bilat-eral, is exophytic, and is associated with unorganized gelatinous debris in the subepithelial space. These can be hemorrhagic as is often seen in males secondary to capillary rupture within the mucosa by shearing forces during voice abuse. Hemorrhagic polyps are seen more often in patients on anticoagulants. These lesions usually fail conservative measures (voice rest, voice therapy, smoking cessation, and reflux management) usually requiring micorlaryngeal surgery to remove the lesion while preserving normal mucosa. Vocal fold cyst is an encapsulated lesion within the subepithelial or ligamentous space and is asso-ciated with reduced mucosal wave. It typically does not resolve with voice therapy. These lesions require microlaryngeal sur-gery for complete removal of the cyst while preserving the over-lying mucosa, and this surgery can be performed with cold steel or carbon dioxide (CO2) laser. A fibrous


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. require microlaryngeal sur-gery for complete removal of the cyst while preserving the over-lying mucosa, and this surgery can be performed with cold steel or carbon dioxide (CO2) laser. A fibrous mass of the vocal fold is amorphous fibrous material within the subepithelial space or EpiglottisEpitheliumLayers oflamina propriaSuperficialIntermediateDeepVocalisHyoid boneCushion ofepiglottisThyroidcartilageFalse vocal cordLaryngealsinusTrue vocalcordThyroarytenoidmuscleCricoid cartilageAryteno-epiglottideanfoldFigure 18-13. Coronal view of the larynx demonstrate the supraglottic, glottic and subglottis (LEFT) and the layers of the true vocal cord (RIGHT).Brunicardi_Ch18_p0613-p0660.indd 62401/03/19 5:23 PM 625DISORDERS OF THE HEAD AND NECKCHAPTER 18ligament often associated with reduced mucosal wave, and it also does not resolve with voice therapy.Reinke’s edema is characterized by edema in the superfi-cial lamina propria of the vocal cord. Edema is thought to arise from injury to the


Surgery_Schwartz

Surgery_Schwartz. wave, and it also does not resolve with voice therapy.Reinke’s edema is characterized by edema in the superfi-cial lamina propria of the vocal cord. Edema is thought to arise from injury to the capillaries that exist in this layer, with sub-sequent extravasation of fluid. The etiology is multifactorial: smoking, LPR, hypothyroidism, and vocal misuse.40 This pathol-ogy is more common in women (because they present early due to a deep vocal pitch change in their voice) and heavy smokers. The physical examination findings are typically bilateral. Sur-gery typically involves microlaryngoscopy with removal of the gelatinous debris in Reinke’s space with trimming of the excess mucosa. However, smoking cessation and surgery do not fully reverse the structural abnormalities due to the presence of pos-sible structure alterations in fibroblasts caused by the toxicity of cigarette components, resulting in uncontrolled production of fibrous matrix in the lamina propria, thus preventing complete