question: which type of hematoma is a result of torn bridging meningeal veins

answers: A subdural hematoma

answers: subdural hematoma (SDH)

answers: subdural hematoma

title: Epidural hematoma

text: and compress the brainstem, causing unconsciousness, abnormal posturing, and abnormal pupil responses to light. The most common cause of intracranial epidural hematoma is traumatic, although spontaneous hemorrhage is known to occur. Hemorrhages commonly result from acceleration-deceleration trauma and transverse forces. The majority of bleeds originate from meningeal arteries, particularly in the temporal region. 10% of epidural bleeds may be venous, due to shearing injury from rotational forces. Epidural hematoma commonly results from a blow to the side of the head. The pterion region which overlies the middle meningeal artery is relatively weak and prone to injury. Thus only 20 to

title: Bruise

text: a neuroblastoma). As a type of hematoma, a bruise is always caused by internal bleeding into the interstitial tissues which does not break through the skin, usually initiated by blunt trauma, which causes damage through physical compression and deceleration forces. Trauma sufficient to cause bruising can occur from a wide variety of situations including accidents, falls, and surgeries. Disease states such as insufficient or malfunctioning platelets, other coagulation deficiencies, or vascular disorders, such as venous blockage associated with severe allergies can lead to the formation of purpura which is not to be confused with trauma-related bruising/contusion. If the trauma is

title: Epidural hematoma

text: Epidural hematoma Epidural hematoma is when bleeding occurs between the tough outer membrane covering the brain (dura mater), and the skull. Often there is loss of consciousness following a head injury, a brief regaining of consciousness, and then loss of consciousness again. Other symptoms may include headache, confusion, vomiting, and an inability to move parts of the body. Complications may include seizures. The cause is typically head injury that results in a break of the temporal bone and bleeding from the middle meningeal artery. Occasionally it can occur as a result of a bleeding disorder or blood vessel malformation. Diagnosis

title: Subgaleal hemorrhage

text: with subgaleal hematoma may present with hemorrhagic shock given the volume of blood that can be lost into the potential space between the skull periosteum and the scalp galea aponeurosis. The swelling may obscure the fontanel and cross suture lines (distinguishing it from cephalohematoma). Patients with subgaleal hemorrhage may have significant hyperbilirubinemia. The long-term prognosis is generally good. Laboratory studies consist of a hematocrit evaluation. The majority of neonatal cases (90%) result from applying a vacuum to the head at delivery (ventouse-assisted delivery). The vacuum assist ruptures the emissary veins (i.e., connections between dural sinus and scalp veins) leading to

title: Subdural hematoma

text: the dura mater and skull. Subarachnoid hemorrhage, the third type of brain hemorrhages, is bleeding into the subarachnoid space — the area between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater surrounding the brain. Symptoms of subdural hemorrhage have a slower onset than those of epidural hemorrhages because the lower pressure veins bleed more slowly than arteries. Therefore, signs and symptoms may show up in minutes, if not immediately but can be delayed as much as two weeks. If the bleeds are large enough to put pressure on the brain, signs of increased ICP (intracranial pressure) or damage to part of

title: Breus' mole

text: by ultrasound, where a thick multilobulated hematoma can be seen beneath the chorion. Occasionally, subchorial thrombohematoma may later become intraplacental, making its diagnosis difficult. The mole may be echogenic or hypoechoic depending upon the amount of fresh blood present in it. Breus' mole should be differentiated from vesicular mole and missed abortion in an ultrasound examination. Foetal demise occurs if the circulating blood volume is decreased significantly. The critical factor deciding the prognosis is the site of the hematoma and not the volume. If discovered antinatally, serial USG and/or Doppler scans is indicated to monitor the size of the hematoma

title: Middle meningeal artery

text: following branches: In approximately half of subjects it branches into an accessory meningeal artery. Very rarely the ophthalmic artery may arise as a branch of the middle meningeal artery. The middle meningeal artery may arise not only from the maxillary artery but also from the ophthalmic artery, or lacrimal artery. An injured middle meningeal artery is the most common cause of an epidural hematoma. A head injury (e.g., from a road traffic accident or sports injury) is required to rupture the artery. Emergency treatment requires decompression of the haematoma, usually by craniotomy. Subdural bleeding is usually "venous" in nature, rather

title: Hematoma

text: Hematoma A hematoma (US spelling) or haematoma (UK spelling) is a localized collection of blood outside of blood vessels, due to either disease or trauma including injury or surgery and may involve blood continuing to seep from broken capillaries. A hematoma is benign and is initially in liquid form spread among the tissues including in sacs between tissues where it may coagulate and solidify before blood is reabsorbed into blood vessels. An ecchymosis is a hematoma of the skin larger than 10mm. They may occur among/within many areas such as skin and other organs, connective tissues, bone, joints and muscle.

title: Bruise

text: factors into the area and encourage drainage, if the injury is still bleeding this will allow more blood to seep out of the wound and cause the bruise to become worse. In most cases hematomas spontaneously revert, but in cases of large hematomas or those localized in certain organs ("e.g.", the brain), the physician may perform a puncture of the hematoma to allow blood to exit. Folk medicine, including ancient medicine of Egyptians, Greeks, Celts, Turks, Slavs, Mayans, Aztecs and Chinese, has used bruising as a treatment for some health problems. The methods vary widely and include cupping, scraping, and

title: Epidural hematoma

text: diagnosing epidural hemorrhage. If the patient is not treated with prompt surgical intervention, death is likely to follow. As with other types of intracranial hematomas, the blood may be removed surgically to remove the mass and reduce the pressure it puts on the brain. The hematoma is evacuated through a burr hole or craniotomy. If transfer to a facility with neurosurgery is prolonged trephination may be performed in the emergency department. In TBI patients with epidural hematomas, prognosis is better if there was a lucid interval (a period of consciousness before coma returns) than if the patient was comatose from

title: Subdural hematoma

text: new fragile and leaky blood vessels through angiogenesis, permitting the leakage of red blood cells, white blood cells, and plasma into the haematoma cavity and easily causes mirco bleeds. Besides, tearing of arachnoid mater during trauma causes leakage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) into the haematoma cavity, causing increase in haematoma size over time. Excessive fibrinolysis is another factor that causes continuous bleeding. Examples of pro-inflammatory mediators acted in the haematoma expansion process are: Interleukin 1α (IL1A), Interleukin 6, Interleukin 8; while the anti-inflammatory mediator is Interleukin 10. Mediators that promote angiogenesis are: angiopoietin and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Meanwhile,

title: Bruise

text: sufficient to break the skin and allow blood to escape the interstitial tissues, the injury is not a bruise but bleeding, a different variety of hemorrhage. Such injuries may be accompanied by bruising elsewhere. Bruises often induce pain immediately after the trauma that results in their formation, but small bruises are not normally dangerous alone. Sometimes bruises can be serious, leading to other more life-threatening forms of hematoma, such as when associated with serious injuries, including fractures and more severe internal bleeding. The likelihood and severity of bruising depends on many factors, including type and healthiness of affected tissues. Minor

title: Subgaleal hemorrhage

text: Subgaleal hemorrhage Subgaleal hemorrhage or hematoma is bleeding in the potential space between the skull periosteum and the scalp galea aponeurosis. The diagnosis is generally a clinical one, with a fluctuant boggy mass developing over the scalp (especially over the occiput) with superficial skin bruising. The swelling develops gradually 12–72 hours after delivery, although it may be noted immediately after delivery in severe cases. The hematoma spreads across the whole calvaria as its growth is insidious and may not be recognized for hours. If enough blood accumulates a visible fluid wave may be seen. Patients can develop raccoon eyes. Patients

title: Epidural hematoma

text: is typically by a CT scan or MRI. When this condition occurs in the spine it is known as a spinal epidural hematoma. Treatment is generally by urgent surgery in the form of a craniotomy or burr hole. Without treatment death typically results. The condition occurs in one to four percent of head injuries. Typically it occurs in young adults. Males are more often affected than females. Epidural, subdural, and subarachnoid hemorrhages are extra-axial bleeds, occurring outside of the brain tissue, while intra-axial hemorrhages, including intraparenchymal and intraventricular hemorrhages, occur within it. Epidural hematomas may present with a lucid period

title: Subdural hematoma

text: A subdural hematoma (SDH), is a type of hematoma, usually associated with traumatic brain injury. Blood gathers between the inner layer of the dura mater and the arachnoid mater. Usually resulting from tears in bridging veins which cross the subdural space, subdural hemorrhages may cause an increase in intracranial pressure (ICP), which can cause compression of and damage to delicate brain tissue. Subdural hematomas are often life-threatening when acute. Chronic subdural hematomas, however, have a better prognosis if properly managed.

title: Intracranial hemorrhage

text: and a draining venous sinus. At times they may be caused by arterial lacerations on the brain surface. Acute subdural hematomas are usually associated with cerebral cortex injury as well and hence the prognosis is not as good as extra dural hematomas. Clinical features depend on the site of injury and severity of injury. Patients may have a history of loss of consciousness but they recover and do not relapse. Clinical onset occurs over hours. A crescent shaped hemorrhage compressing the brain that does cross suture lines will be noted on CT of the head. Craniotomy and surgical evacuation is

title: Hematoma

text: word derives from the Greek αἷμα "haima" "blood" and -ωμα "-oma", a suffix forming nouns indicating a mass or tumor. Hematoma A hematoma (US spelling) or haematoma (UK spelling) is a localized collection of blood outside of blood vessels, due to either disease or trauma including injury or surgery and may involve blood continuing to seep from broken capillaries. A hematoma is benign and is initially in liquid form spread among the tissues including in sacs between tissues where it may coagulate and solidify before blood is reabsorbed into blood vessels. An ecchymosis is a hematoma of the skin larger

title: Subdural hematoma

text: and may ultimately lead to brain cell death. This condition lead to higher risk of death for the patient. Subdural haematoma may continually grow in size by the pressure effect of the haematoma on the brain. This causes the intracranial pressure of the brain to rise, squeezing the intracranial blood into the dural venous sinuses, raising the dural venous pressure, and resulting in more bleeding from the ruptured bridging veins. Subdural haematoma only stopped to enlarge when the pressure of the haematoma equalises with the intracranial pressure of the brain, as the space for haematoma expansion getting smaller and smaller.

title: Subdural hematoma

text: prostaglandin E2 promotes the expression of VEGF. Matrix metalloproteinases remove surrounding collagen, thus providing space for new blood vessels to grow. It is important that a person receive medical assessment, including a complete neurological examination, after any head trauma. A CT scan or MRI scan will usually detect significant subdural hematomas. Subdural hematomas occur most often around the tops and sides of the frontal and parietal lobes. They also occur in the posterior cranial fossa, and near the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli. Unlike epidural hematomas, which cannot expand past the sutures of the skull, subdural hematomas can expand along

title: Hematoma

text: A collection of blood (or even a hemorrhage) may be aggravated by anticoagulant medication (blood thinner). Blood seepage and collection of blood may occur if heparin is given via an intramuscular route; to avoid this, heparin must be given intravenously or subcutaneously. It is not to be confused with hemangioma, which is an abnormal buildup/growth of blood vessels in the skin or internal organs. Some hematomas are visible under the surface of the skin (commonly called bruises) or possibly felt as masses/lumps. Lumps may be caused by the limitation of the blood to a sac, subcutaneous or intramuscular tissue space

title: Sports-related traumatic brain injury

text: rounds, the addition of the ‘outclassed rule’ (where the point difference becomes greater than 20), and the option for the boxer to interrupt the fight itself. A hematoma is a localized collection of blood that gathers outside the blood vessels in an area it does not belong. Specifically a hematoma is tissue damage due to acceleration or deceleration from unrestricted movement, in which the result is shearing of the brain tissue. Two types of hematomas occurring within the brain are: subdural and extradural hematomas, which are classified as a traumatic brain injury (TBI). When a direct blow to the head

title: Intracerebral hemorrhage

text: in the putamen (50%) or thalamus (15%), cerebrum (10-20%), cerebellum (10-13%), pons (7-15%), or elsewhere in the brainstem (1-6%). Treatment depends substantially on the type of ICH. Rapid CT scan and other diagnostic measures are used to determine proper treatment, which may include both medication and surgery. Surgery is required if the hematoma is greater than , if there is a structural vascular lesion or lobar hemorrhage in a young patient. The risk of death from an intraparenchymal bleed in traumatic brain injury is especially high when the injury occurs in the brain stem. Intraparenchymal bleeds within the medulla oblongata

title: Intracerebral hemorrhage

text: rupture of an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation (AVM), and bleeding within a tumor are additional causes. Amyloid angiopathy is a not uncommon cause of intracerebral hemorrhage in patients over the age of 55. A very small proportion is due to cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. Risk factors for ICH include: Traumautic intracerebral hematomas are divided into acute and delayed. Acute intracerebral hematomas occur at the time of the injury while delayed intracerebral hematomas have been reported from as early as 6 hours post injury to as long as several weeks. Both computed tomography angiography (CTA) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) have

title: Thrombocytopenia

text: nosebleeds, and/or bleeding gums. Some women may have heavier or longer periods or breakthrough bleeding. Bruising, particularly purpura in the forearms and petechiae in the feet, legs, and mucous membranes, may be caused by spontaneous bleeding under the skin. Eliciting a full medical history is vital to ensure the low platelet count is not secondary to another disorder. It is also important to ensure that the other blood cell types, such as red blood cells and white blood cells, are not also suppressed. Painless, round and pinpoint (1 to 3 mm in diameter) petechiae usually appear and fade, and sometimes

title: Intracranial hemorrhage

text: hemorrhage is considered a focal brain injury; that is, it occurs in a localized spot rather than causing diffuse damage over a wider area. Intra-axial hemorrhage is bleeding within the brain itself, or cerebral hemorrhage. This category includes intraparenchymal hemorrhage, or bleeding within the brain tissue, and intraventricular hemorrhage, bleeding within the brain's ventricles (particularly of premature infants). Intra-axial hemorrhages are more dangerous and harder to treat than extra-axial bleeds. Extra-axial hemorrhage, bleeding that occurs within the skull but outside of the brain tissue, falls into three subtypes: Epidural hematoma (EDH) is a rapidly accumulating hematoma between the dura mater

title: Bitemporal hemianopsia

text: compression are pituitary adenomas and craniopharyngiomas. Also, another relatively common neoplastic cause is meningiomas. A cause of vascular origin is an aneurysm of the anterior communicating artery which arise superior to the chiasm, enlarge, and compress it from above. The absence of vision in half of a visual field is described as "hemianopsia". The visual field of each eye can be divided in two vertically, with the outer half being described as "temporal", and the inner half being described as "nasal". "Bitemporal hemianopsia" can be broken down as follows: Bitemporal hemianopsia Bitemporal hemianopsia, also known as bitemporal heteronymous hemianopsia or

title: Intraparenchymal hemorrhage

text: Clinical manifestations of intraparenchymal hemorrhage are determined by the size and location of hemorrhage, but may include the following: In younger patients, vascular malformations, specifically AVMs and cavernous angiomas are more common causes for hemorrhage. In addition, venous malformations are associated with hemorrhage. In the elderly population, amyloid angiopathy is associated with cerebral infarcts as well as hemorrhage in superficial locations, rather than deep white matter or basal ganglia. These are usually described as "lobar". These bleedings are not associated with systemic amyloidosis. Hemorrhagic neoplasms are more complex, heterogeneous bleeds often with associated edema. These hemorrhages are related to tumor

title: Breast hematoma

text: Breast hematoma Breast hematoma is a collection of blood within the breast. It arises from internal bleeding (hemorrhage) and may arise due to trauma (breast injury or surgery) or due to a non-traumatic cause. Symptoms may include visible discoloring (ecchymosis), breast pain, and swelling. The symptoms may be similar to those of fibrocystic breast changes. A breast hematoma may appear due to direct trauma to the breast, for example from a sports injury or a road accident, for example a vehicle collision in which a seat belt injury occurs. Hematoma can also be a consequence of breast surgery, usually due

title: Brain tumor

text: Hemangiopericytoma, Medulloblastoma, Medulloepithelioma, Meningeal carcinomatosis, Neuroblastoma, Neurocytoma, Oligoastrocytoma, Oligodendroglioma, Optic nerve sheath meningioma, Pediatric ependymoma, Pilocytic astrocytoma, Pinealoblastoma, Pineocytoma, Pleomorphic anaplastic neuroblastoma, Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, Primary central nervous system lymphoma, Sphenoid wing meningioma, Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma, Subependymoma, Trilateral retinoblastoma. When a brain tumor is diagnosed, a medical team will be formed to assess the treatment options presented by the leading surgeon to the patient and his/her family. Given the location of primary solid neoplasms of the brain in most cases a "do-nothing" option is usually not presented. Neurosurgeons take the time to observe the evolution of the neoplasm before proposing

title: Bruise

text: Bruise A contusion, commonly known as a bruise, is a type of hematoma of tissue in which capillaries and sometimes venules are damaged by trauma, allowing blood to seep, hemorrhage, or extravasate into the surrounding interstitial tissues. Most bruises are not very deep under the skin so that the bleeding causes a visible discoloration. The bruise then remains visible until the blood is either absorbed by tissues or cleared by immune system action. Bruises, which do not blanch under pressure, can involve capillaries at the level of skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, or bone. Bruises are not to be confused with

title: Subdural hematoma

short_answers:
A subdural hematoma
subdural hematoma
subdural hematoma (SDH)


question: who sang i want to be bobbys girl

answers: Marcie Blane

title: Do You Want to Dance

text: reached No. 17. A different song called "Do You Wanna Dance?" was a UK hit for Barry Blue in 1973. San Francisco-born teenager Bobby Freeman had been a member of doo-wop groups the Romancers and the Vocaleers. When asked by a local DJ if he had written any songs, he wrote several and recorded them as solo demos. These included "Do You Want to Dance", which was heard by a visiting record label executive, Mortimer Palitz of Jubilee Records. He signed Freeman to the label, and had the original recording overdubbed in New York by session musicians including guitarist Billy

title: Susan Maughan

text: when she recorded 'Bobby's Girl'; her success brought so many offers that in November 1963 Susan decided to branch out as a solo artist." In early 1963, following the success of "Bobby's Girl", Maughan had further minor UK hits entitled "Hand A Handkerchief To Helen" and "She's New To You". Also at that time she released her first album on Philips called "I Wanna Be Bobby's Girl But...". All songs on this album featured male names, including the John D. Loudermilk songs "Norman" and "James (Hold The Ladder Steady)" which were hits in the US for the American singer Sue

title: I Wanna Be Where You Are

text: by singers including Zulema, Marvin Gaye, Willie Hutch, Jason Weaver and later The Fugees. Ware and Ross also penned the classic Marvin Gaye hit, "I Want You" several years afterwards. 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s American R&B recording artist Beyoncé Knowles covered the song during her 2009 revue show I Am... Yours, which was held four consecutive nights in July and August. It was later included on her live CD/DVD "", which contained the performances from the show of the revue. Later, she covered the song for her 2011 revue show 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé held during four non-consecutive

title: Dee Dee Warwick

text: 1965, she sang "We're Doing Fine" and "I Want to Be with You". In 1965, Warwick signed with Mercury Records, where she recorded with producer Ed Townsend for their subsidiary Blue Rock label, reaching the R&B Top 30 with "We're Doing Fine". It was on the Mercury label in 1966, that she had her biggest hit with "I Want to Be with You" from the Broadway show "Golden Boy", a number 9 R&B hit, which just missed the pop Top 40 at number 41 (Nancy Wilson had reached number 54 with her version entitled "I Wanna Be with You" in

title: Bobby's Girl (song)

text: Girls Don't Cry" and Elvis Presley's "Return to Sender". It reached 2 on the "Cash Box" chart staying on the charts for nineteen weeks and made Blane the top selling female singer in the US. The Susan Maughan cover version was also released in 1962, in the UK. It featured Wally Stott and his orchestra and chorus. Maughan's version spent nineteen weeks on the UK's "Record Retailer" chart, peaking at No. 3. In 1983, Tracey Ullman released a version of "Bobby's Girl" on the album "You Broke My Heart in 17 Places" and as a single. Ullman's version reached No.

title: Bobby Freeman

text: Bobby Freeman Robert Thomas "Bobby" Freeman (June 13, 1940 – January 23, 2017) was an African-American rock, soul and R&B singer, songwriter and record producer from San Francisco, best known for his two Top Ten hits, the first in 1958 on Josie Records called "Do You Want to Dance" and the second in 1964 for Autumn Records, "C'mon and Swim". Freeman was born in the San Francisco Bay Area and spent much of his youth in San Francisco, California. He attended Mission High School. He started singing in a doo-wop group, the Romancers, in his early teens, and first recorded

title: Bobby Crush

text: Bobby Crush Robert Nicholas "Bobby" Crush (born 23 March 1954) is an English pianist, songwriter, actor and television presenter, originally from Leyton in East London. Bobby Crush first came to public attention after six winning appearances on Hughie Green's British ITV talent show, "Opportunity Knocks", in 1972. He received the Variety Club of Great Britain award for 'Best New Artist' of 1972. He recorded for the Philips label in the UK and his recordings were produced by Norman Newell, who had previously worked with Shirley Bassey, Judy Garland, Johnny Mathis and Bobby's role model, Russ Conway. At the age of

title: Bobby Kildea

text: God Help the Girl project. Bobby features alongside Belle and Sebastian co-star Stevie Jackson on the 2011 album 'Fuerteventura' by Spanish artist Russian Red Bobby Kildea Bobby Kildea (born 14 March 1972) is a musician from Northern Ireland. He currently plays bass and guitar in the Scottish indie pop band Belle & Sebastian, after joining in 2001 to replace departing bassist Stuart David, and had previously been in V-Twin. He is the band's only Northern Irish member and is notable for his laidback demeanor and long hair. He goes by the nickname "Belfast" in the band, despite being born in

text: I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me) "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)" is the first single from Whitney Houston's second studio album, "Whitney". It was produced by Narada Michael Walden, and written by George Merrill and Shannon Rubicam of the band Boy Meets Girl, who had previously written the number-one Whitney Houston hit "How Will I Know." The song received mixed reviews from critics, who compared the musical arrangement to her own "How Will I Know" and Cyndi Lauper's "Girls Just Want to Have Fun." The song won the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal

title: Bobby McVay

text: Bobby McVay Robert (Bobby) McVay (born Glasgow) is a British singer and radio broadcaster. In 1983, he represented the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest as a member of the band Sweet Dreams. Singing the song "I'm Never Giving Up", the trio came sixth, with 79 points. McVay had previously fronted the group Lovin' Feeling in the 1982 A Song For Europe contest, singing "Different Worlds, Different People". This song placed 4th of the 8 entries. After his pop career, Bobby became a local radio presenter. He worked at Radio Wyvern in Worcester before joining Red Dragon Radio in

title: Bobby Smith (rhythm and blues singer)

text: The Spinners first hit record in 1961, "That's What Girls Are Made For" (which has been inaccurately credited to the group's mentor and former Moonglows lead singer, the late Harvey Fuqua). Smith also sang lead on most of their Motown material during the 1960s, such as the charting singles like "Truly Yours" (1966) and "I'll Always Love You" (1965); almost all of the group's pre-Motown material on Fuqua's Tri-Phi Records label, and also on The Spinners' biggest Atlantic Records hits. These included "I'll Be Around", "Could It Be I'm Falling in Love", "They Just Can't Stop It the (Games People

title: Bobby Poe

text: classic "Let's Have a Party". Bobby, Wanda, Big Al and Vernon are all members of the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. Bobby Poe and The Poe Kats came to the attention of Sam Phillips of Sun Records with their first recorded track, "Rock and Roll Record Girl". Based on the music of the old standard "Chattanooga Shoe Shine Boy", "Rock and Roll Record Girl" was at first blocked from release by Wesley Rose of Acuff-Rose because of that fact. By the time all of the legal hurdles were cleared, Sam Phillips was no longer interested in releasing the track. Instead, Dallas,

title: Bobby Smith (rhythm and blues singer)

text: Bobby Smith (rhythm and blues singer) Robert "Bobby" Smith (sometimes spelled Bobbie; April 10, 1936 – March 16, 2013) was an American R&B singer notable as the principal lead singer of the classic Motown/Philly group, The Spinners, (also known as the Detroit Spinners or the Motown Spinners), throughout its history. The group was formed circa 1954 at Ferndale High School in Ferndale, Michigan, just north of the Detroit border. The group had their first record deal when they signed with Tri-Phi Records in early 1961. Smith had been the group's lead singer since its inception, having sung lead vocals on

title: Bobby G

text: Bobby G Bobby G (also known as Bobby Gee) (born Robert Alan Gubby, 23 August 1953) is a member of pop group Bucks Fizz, best known for winning the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest and for achieving three UK number one hits with "Making Your Mind Up" (1981), "The Land of Make Believe" (1981) and "My Camera Never Lies" (1982). G was born in Epsom, Surrey, England. After leaving school at 14, he began working in a number of trades, the most significant of these being the building trade. In his late teens, he set up his own building business, based

title: Bobby's Girl (song)

text: "Bobby's Girl" is a song and single written by Gary Klein and Henry Hoffman and performed by American teenage singer, Marcie Blane.

title: Bobby Starr

text: Bobby Starr Bobby Starr (born January 19, 1937) is an American R&B and soul singer; currently a lead singer for The Intruders. Born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland, Bobby Starr toured with a variety of vocal groups as a teen before forming Bobby Starr and the Versatilles. His recordings with the five member vocal group include the single "Fanny, Fanny." While on tour he met Philadelphia recording group The Intruders. Noted for his similar sound to The Intruders' lead singer Samuel Brown, the group recruited Starr to replace Brown when he opted out to spend time with his family. Starr's

title: I Wanna Be Loved by You

text: Annette Hanshaw, Jack Lemmon, Frank Sinatra, Rhonda Towns, Rose Murphy, Tina Louise, Verka Serduchka, Patricia Kaas, Sinéad O'Connor, Jinx Titanic, Shiina Ringo, Paul Manchin, Claire Johnston, Lorraine Allan (formerly Lorraine Gray), Eve's Plum, Barry Manilow (in a duet with the Marilyn Monroe recording) and many more. Actress Rue McClanahan performed a humorous rendition of the song while portraying Blanche Devereaux in the sitcom "The Golden Girls". Actor and actress Robert Reed and Florence Henderson sang "I Wanna Be Loved By You" in a 1973 episode "Never Too Young" of "The Brady Bunch". I Wanna Be Loved by You "I Wanna

title: Shaheen Jafargholi

text: performed I Want You Back by the Jackson 5. He sang the song while being accompanied onstage by Dancers, Aidan Davis and Perri Luc Kiely and Mitchell Craske from Diversity. The boys were a huge success. After performing on the Britain's Got Talent tour, Jafargholi sang a musical tribute of "Who's Lovin' You" on stage at the Los Angeles Staples Center, at 7 July 2009 globally televised funeral memorial service for the "King of Pop" Michael Jackson. He had been originally invited to perform with Jackson in his This Is It series of London concerts. Jafargholi's performance was preceded by

title: Bobby Starr

text: Montgomery. Bobby Starr returned as lead singer and the group continues to tour today. He is featured on tour with The Intruders on the "Love Train: Sound of Philadelphia" concert series. Bobby Starr's charitable endeavors include support for education and public television. His recent appearances include the P.B.S TV special "Superstars of 70's Soul Live." Bobby Starr Bobby Starr (born January 19, 1937) is an American R&B and soul singer; currently a lead singer for The Intruders. Born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland, Bobby Starr toured with a variety of vocal groups as a teen before forming Bobby Starr and

title: Bobby G

text: Manton. They married in 2000 and are still together. They have a daughter, Millie Rose (born July 2006, Tiverton, Devon). Bobby G Bobby G (also known as Bobby Gee) (born Robert Alan Gubby, 23 August 1953) is a member of pop group Bucks Fizz, best known for winning the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest and for achieving three UK number one hits with "Making Your Mind Up" (1981), "The Land of Make Believe" (1981) and "My Camera Never Lies" (1982). G was born in Epsom, Surrey, England. After leaving school at 14, he began working in a number of trades, the

title: I Just Want to Be Your Everything

text: Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male at the 20th Grammy Awards. The best-known cover version of "I Just Want to Be Your Everything" was recorded by American country music artist Connie Smith. Released in the autumn of 1977, Smith's version, according to AMG reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine, was "relatively faithful" to Gibb's version and — given its disco-influenced sound — also a departure from her honky-tonk songs of the 1960s and early 1970s. "I Just Want to Be Your Everything" peaked at #14 on "Billboard Magazine"'s Hot Country Songs chart in 1978, becoming her last significant hit, as her

title: Bobby (2006 film)

text: Robinson, "I Was Made to Love Her" by Stevie Wonder, "Ain't That Peculiar" by Marvin Gaye, an original acoustic version of "The Sound of Silence" by Simon & Garfunkel, "Anji" covered by Jason Huxley, "Come See About Me" by The Supremes, "There's a Kind of Hush" by Herman's Hermits, "Black Is Black" by Los Bravos, "Season of the Witch" and "Hurdy Gurdy Man" by Donovan, "Wives and Lovers" by Jack Jones, "Magic Moments" by Perry Como, "Pata Pata" by Miriam Makeba and "Initials" from the musical "Hair". The soundtrack album "Bobby" features The Supremes, Shorty Long, Hugh Masekela, The Moody

title: Bobby Eli

text: Bobby Eli Bobby Eli (born Eli Tatarsky; March 2, 1946) in Philadelphia, is an American musician, arranger, composer and record producer from Philadelphia. He is a founding member and lead guitarist of Philadelphia studio band MFSB. A multi-instrumentalist,producer,songwriter and arranger, Bobby Eli's contributions can be heard on recordings by many artists, including Teddy Pendergrass, The Jacksons, Chris Brown, David Bowie, Jay-Z, Hall and Oates, Patti LaBelle, Elton John, Phyllis Hyman, B.B. King, Billy Paul, Wilson Pickett, George Clinton, The Spinners, The Temptations, The Stylistics, The Trammps, Curtis Mayfield, The Sapphires and Shaggy. He was a regular session player for Gamble

title: K.I.D (band)

text: Mercuriadis of Hipgnosis Music Ltd., publisher and record label in London and Los Angeles. In high school, singer Kara Lane from Washington and friend Bobby Lo from Toronto enjoyed smoking cigarettes during class hours. Lane and Lo turned their relationship into ideas around cravings and desires. They traveled to the city to perform at "Elvis Mondays", an open mic night for Toronto bands and also performed at Mediterranean restaurants. Then, Kara appeared as the band's front woman because of her vocal range and stage presence. Bobby finds his voice as a lyricist and began drafting songs about sexual frustration, acne,

title: Bobby Smith (rhythm and blues singer)

text: bass singer Pervis Jackson in 2008, Henry Fambrough is now the last remaining original member of the group. Fambrough is still performing with a current day line-up of Spinners. Bobby Smith (rhythm and blues singer) Robert "Bobby" Smith (sometimes spelled Bobbie; April 10, 1936 – March 16, 2013) was an American R&B singer notable as the principal lead singer of the classic Motown/Philly group, The Spinners, (also known as the Detroit Spinners or the Motown Spinners), throughout its history. The group was formed circa 1954 at Ferndale High School in Ferndale, Michigan, just north of the Detroit border. The group

title: Kevin Bazinet

text: on "La Voix", auditioning with a take on Sam Smith's acoustic version of "Latch". In the finale on April 12, he performed "Jusqu’où tu m’aimes", a song written by his coach Marc Dupré and Alex Nevsky. He was named the winner at the end of the episode, with 46 per cent of the audience vote. On May 12, "Jusqu'où tu m'aimes" was released as his first radio single. The song peaked at #2 on Quebec's French language pop charts. In June, Bobby and Kevin performed together on Quebec's Opération Enfant Soleil telethon, duetting on a version of The Bee Gees'

title: I Want You to Be My Baby

text: nor a 1956 UK single release of "I Want You to Be My Baby" by Don Lang charted. The song became a UK Top 40 hit in the autumn of 1968 via a recording by Billie Davis. Produced by "Ready Steady Go!" co-host Michael Aldred and arranged by Mike Vickers, Davis' version featured a chorale comprising Madeline Bell, Kiki Dee, Kay Garner, Doris Troy and the Moody Blues. The single's failure to rise no higher than #33 is attributable to a strike at the Decca processing plant, which stopped the pressing of discs. In November 1970 the Jyve Fyve reached

title: Bobby Crush

text: London's Fortune Theatre. His work overseas includes a tour of Canada with Sir Harry Secombe in "The London Palladium Show", concerts in Australia and New Zealand, as well as performing on cruise liners. His television appearances include "Sounds Like Music", a British game show that aired on ITV from 6 June 1989 to 11 May 1990 and which was hosted by Crush, and various other programmes. Bobby's most recent TV appearances have been in the ITV sitcom "Benidorm", in which he played the character "Billy Sparkle". Bobby was recently featured on the ITV series "Last Laugh in Vegas" in which

title: Bobby V

text: Bobby V Bobby Wilson (born February 27, 1980) better known by his stage name Bobby V (formerly Bobby Valentino) is an American singer, songwriter and actor. He has charted three No. 1 albums on "Billboard"s U.S. Top R&B Chart since 2006. V's first major single, "Slow Down" produced by Grammy Award winners Tim & Bob, charted No. 1 on "Billboard"s U.S. Top R&B Chart and peaked at No. 8 on "Billboard"s Hot 100 chart. The single was certified Gold by the RIAA. His second single, "Anonymous", was produced and featured a guest appearance from Grammy Award-winning producer Timbaland. Bobby V

text: similar version of '99 tour's on Arista Records 25th Anniversary Celebration, taped at Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on April 10, and broadcast on May 15 on NBC. Bibliography I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me) "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)" is the first single from Whitney Houston's second studio album, "Whitney". It was produced by Narada Michael Walden, and written by George Merrill and Shannon Rubicam of the band Boy Meets Girl, who had previously written the number-one Whitney Houston hit "How Will I Know." The song received mixed reviews from critics, who compared the

title: Bobby's Girl (song)


question: when did the nba add the three point line

answers: 1979–80

answers: 1979–80 season

answers: the 1979–80 season

title: Three-point field goal

text: in 1987, a year after the NCAA. The NCAA used the FIBA three-point line (see below) in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) For three seasons beginning in 1994–95, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from ( at the corners) to a uniform around the basket. From the 1997–98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of ( at the corners, with a 3-inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all-time leader in career made three-pointers with 2,973. In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased

title: College basketball

text: backboard, and the court dimensions are the same, the distance between the three-point line and the backboard is different. The NBA three-point line measures at the top of the circle, or 22 feet (6.7 m) in the corners or baseline. On the NCAA court, the three-point line had been a constant , but the NCAA Rules Committee voted in May 2007 to extend it a foot more to , which became effective beginning the 2008–09 season for men and the 2011–12 season for women. The WNBA's three-point line was , which FIBA used before it extended its three-point arc to

title: Three-point field goal

text: in June 1979, the NBA adopted the three-point line for a one-year trial for the despite the view of many that it was a gimmick. Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979; the season opener at Boston Garden was more noted for the debut of Larry Bird (and two new Rick Barry of the Houston Rockets, in his final season, also made one in the same game, and Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets made one that Friday night The sport's international governing body, FIBA,

title: Three-point field goal

text: three-point line was first tested at the collegiate level in 1945, with a 21-foot line, in a game between Columbia and Fordham, but it was not kept as a rule. There was another one-game experiment in 1958, this time with a 23-foot line, in a game between St. Francis (N.Y.) and Siena. In 1961, Boston University and Dartmouth played one game with an experimental rule that counted all field goals as three points. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three-point line was a radius

title: Basketball court

text: scoring by shortening the overall distance of the line to a uniform around the basket. It was moved back to its original distance after the 1996–97 season. FIBA and the NCAA both adopted the three-point line in 1985. In most high school associations in the United States, the distance is 19.75 feet. This was formerly the distance for college basketball as well. On May 26, 2007, the NCAA playing rules committee agreed to move the three-point line back one foot to 20.75 feet for the men. This rule went into effect for the 2008–2009 season. The three-point line for women

title: Basketball court

text: players permitted to enter this area prior to the tipoff are the players contesting the jump ball (usually but not always centers). Both players jump when the referee throws the ball in the air, each attempting to tap the ball into the hands of a player of their own team. The three-point line is the line that separates the two-point area from the three-point area; any shot converted beyond this line counts as three points. If the shooting player steps on the line, it is counted as two points. Any foul made in the act of shooting beyond the three-point

title: Jim Line

text: his senior year, 1949–50, Line averaged 13.1 points per game and was named a third team All-American by United Press International (UPI), along with teammate Bill Spivey. For his career, Line scored 1,041 points. After graduation, he was drafted in the fourth round of the 1950 NBA Draft by the Indianapolis Olympians, but never played in the National Basketball Association. In 1952, Line was one of several former Kentucky players implicated in a point shaving scandal, with former teammates Spivey and Walter Hirsch. He was acquitted, however. Line died on January 24, 2013 at his home in Russell, Kansas. Jim

title: Three-point field goal

text: arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three-point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three-point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three-point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180° around the basket,

title: Three-point field goal

text: of from the baskets, except along the sides. The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963–64 season. The three-point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association (ABA), introduced in its inaugural 1967–68 ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three-pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans." During the 1970s, the ABA used the three-point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the NBA; its ninth and final season concluded in the spring Three years later

title: Three-point field goal

text: introduced the three-point line in 1984, and it made its Olympic debut in 1988 in Seoul, South Korea. The NCAA's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three-point rule, adopting a line for the 1980–81 season. Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina was the first to score a three-point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980. Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three-pointer. The line was as close as in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), and as far away as in the

title: Four-point play

text: Basketball Association during its inaugural season. The National Basketball Association (NBA) introduced that rule in 1979; FIBA in 1984; the NCAA in 1986 (men only) and 1987 (women); middle and high schools in 1987; and the WNBA in 1997. Sam Smith of the Chicago Bulls completed the first four-point play in NBA history on October 21, 1979, in a game against the Milwaukee Bucks. Dale Ellis was the first player in NBA history to complete two four-point plays in the same game when he did so in a win against the Sacramento Kings on January 26, 1988. On April 29,

title: Three-point field goal

text: then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline ( in college, in high schools). The distance of the three-point line to the center of the hoop varies by level: A player's feet must be completely behind the three-point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three-point attempt; if the player's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two-point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three-point attempt, as

title: Three-point field goal

text: in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) the arc is . In the NBA and FIBA/WNBA, the three-point line becomes parallel to each sideline at the points where the arc is from each sideline; as a result the distance from the basket gradually decreases to a minimum of . In the NCAA the arc is continuous for 180° around the basket. There are more variations (see main article). In 3x3, a FIBA-sanctioned variant of the half-court 3-on-3 game, the same line exists, but shots from behind it are only worth 2 points with all other shots worth 1 point. The

title: ABA–NBA merger

text: Louis were put into a special dispersal draft in 1976. The three-point field goal was used in the ABA; the NBA originally disparaged it, but eventually adopted it in the 1979-80 season. Angelo Drossos, owner of the San Antonio Spurs: "When the leagues merged, the NBA moguls didn't want the 3-point shot. Red Auerbach hated it and said the Celtics would never go along with it. He had everybody up in arms against the play. Of course, a few years later Red drafted Larry Bird and suddenly he was all for it. And suddenly one of the bigger attractions at

title: Three-point field goal

text: In the 1979–80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three-point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick.  Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three-point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day.

title: Abe Saperstein

text: served as its commissioner, as well as owner of the league's Chicago Majors team. To differentiate the ABL from the NBA – and to promote the new league – Saperstein introduced a widened free throw lane and the three-point shot, both of which were later adopted by the NBA, although the ABL lasted only a season and a half. The NBA adopted the three-point shot in 1979. In a time of racial segregation and bigotry in professional sports, Saperstein proudly showcased the talents of the nation's best black basketball players. Four years after the all-white National Basketball Association (originally called

title: NBA Street V3

text: executed, and how long the ball is passed (each player may only have the ball once during a Gamebreaker), a dunk could be worth two to four points, and the opposing player's score would be subtracted by one, causing a three-to-five point swing. In an NBA game, the score changes become three to five points for the offense and a loss of two for the defense, amounting to a "five-to-seven" point swing. The risks added by this mechanic are the possibility of overdoing the tricks and therefore missing the basket, or (due to the variance in offensive points) allowing an

title: Basketball court

text: shot, is located within the three-point arc at 15 feet from the basket. A foul shot is worth 1 point, but if a shot is made from the foul line while in play it is still worth 2 points. † The FIBA three-point line is 2.95 ft (0.90 m) from the sideline in a zone starting at the baseline and ending when it crosses the 22.1 ft (6.75 m) arc. The 21.65 ft (6.60 m) distance exists only at the points on the three-point line that are directly to the left and right of the basket center. The only two

title: Basketball

text: this is called a "three-point play" or "four-point play" (or more colloquially, an "and one") because of the basket made at the time of the foul (2 or 3 points) and the additional free throw (1 point). Although the rules do not specify any positions whatsoever, they have evolved as part of basketball. During the early years of basketball's evolution, two guards, two forwards, and one center were used. In more recent times specific positions evolved, but the current trend, advocated by many top coaches including Mike Krzyzewski is towards positionless basketball, where big guys are free to shoot from

title: Basketball court

text: of the sidelines, 28 feet from each of the endlines, which designates the extent of the coaching box and bench. This line marks the farthest extent a coach (aside from the sidelines) can stand. Directly behind this area is the team bench. On the half-court line of NBA floors two lines extend outside the playing court, designating the place where substitutes wait before they can enter the playing court; directly behind this area are the various off-court officials such as the timekeeper and reserve referee. On April 26, 2008, FIBA announced several major rules changes involving the court markings. These

title: Jim Line

text: Jim Line James R. Line (January 19, 1926 – January 24, 2013) was an American basketball player. He was an All-American at the University of Kentucky and a key player on two NCAA championship teams. Line, a 6'2" guard/forward from North High School in Akron, Ohio, played for Adolph Rupp at Kentucky from 1946 to 1950. Line was on some of the best Kentucky teams of all time, as the Wildcats went 127–13 in his four years. He started at forward on Kentucky's 1947–48 championship team and played a significant role off of the bench for the 1948–49 team. In

title: Goal (sport)

text: a team does not necessarily need to score the most baskets to win the game. Basketball scores are expressed in total points. A basket scored during normal play is called a field goal and is worth two points if shot from within or on the three-point line, and three points if shot from beyond the three-point line. The three-point line's distance from the basket varies by level. Points are also awarded to the shooting team if the defensive team commits goaltending or basket interference while the ball is in flight towards the basket or is directly over it. A basketball

title: Small ball (basketball)

text: three-point plays) can help spread the opposition defense. The opposing defender will come out to mark the player on the perimeter of the three point line, allowing space for teammates to run in and score around the basket. A player occupying this position, with a high three-point shot success percentage, is coined a "stretch 4". Miami Heat coach Erik Spoelstra employed this style of play starting in 2011–12, labeling it as "pace and space". Early in the playoffs, small forward LeBron James filled in at power forward after the Heat lost starter Chris Bosh to injury. James remained at that

title: Three-point field goal

text: long as the ball is released in mid-air. An official raises his/her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he/she raises his/her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three-point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA, WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to

title: Wilt Chamberlain's 100-point game

text: Pistons attempted 13 shots in the game, and won 19–18. NBA President Maurice Podoloff said, "In our game, with the number of stars we have, we of necessity run up big scores." In the , teams averaged just above 80 points per game. The NBA introduced the 24-second shot clock in 1954, and league scoring and attendance increased. By the , teams were averaging 119 points each game. Chamberlain that season was one of 37 black players in the league, the NBA having started integration of blacks in 1950. With their emergence, the NBA game was stylistically being played faster

title: Three-point field goal

text: Used only in conference play for several years, it was adopted by the NCAA in April 1986 for the 1986–87 season at and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in March 1987. The NCAA adopted the three-pointer in women's basketball on an experimental basis for that season at the same distance, and made its use mandatory beginning In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men's distance by a foot to , effective with the season, and the women's line was moved to match the men's in 2011–12. American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a line nationally

title: Three-point field goal

text: Three-point field goal A three-point field goal (also 3-pointer or informally, trey) is a field goal in a basketball game made from beyond the three-point line, a designated arc surrounding the basket. A successful attempt is worth three points, in contrast to the two points awarded for field goals made within the three-point line and the one point for each made free throw. The distance from the basket to the three-point line varies by competition level: in the National Basketball Association (NBA) the arc is from center of the basket; in FIBA and the WNBA the arc is ; and

title: Three-point field goal

text: and 6.6 attempts (33% effectiveness). The 1999–2000 season had an average 4.8 three-point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35% effectiveness). The 2009-10 season had an average 6.4 three-point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36% effectiveness). The 2016–17 season had an average 9.7 three-point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36% effectiveness). A three-point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the

title: Basketball positions

text: specialists. In the NBA, small forwards usually range from to . The power forward (PF), also known as the four, often plays a role similar to that of the center, down in the "post" or "low blocks". The power forward is often the team's most versatile scorer, being able to score close to the basket while also being able to shoot mid-range jump shots from 12 to 18 feet from the basket. Some power forwards, known as stretch fours, have since extended their shooting range to three-pointers. On defense, they are required to have the strength to guard bigger players

title: Dell Curry

text: 1985 and 1986, it lost in the first round on both occasions. In his senior season in 1986, Curry was named the player of the year in the Metro Conference. Prior to the 1986–87 season, NCAA basketball did not feature a three-point line; Curry's accurate long-range shooting was not rewarded, as it would be later in his NBA career. (In the early and mid 1980s, the three-point line was introduced in many conferences at varying distances, but it was not recognized by the NCAA.) Curry also played baseball for Virginia Tech. He was selected by the Baltimore Orioles in the

title: Three-point field goal

short_answers:
1979–80
1979–80 season
the 1979–80 season


question: where are the cones in the eye located

answers: the retina

answers: in the fovea centralis

answers: in the retina

title: Sensory nervous system

text: cones correspond with a primary response to short wavelength (blue), medium wavelength (green), and long wavelength (yellow/red). Rods are photoreceptors which are very sensitive to the intensity of light, allowing for vision in dim lighting. The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal. In humans rods outnumber cones by approximately 20:1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer to 1000:1. Ganglion Cells reside in the adrenal medulla and retina where they are involved in the sympathetic response. Of the ~1.3 million ganglion cells

title: Fovea centralis

text: of the cone mosaic, and the fovea is the area of the eye with the highest sensitivity to fine details. Cones in the central fovea express pigments that are sensitive to green and red light. These cones are the 'midget' pathways that also underpin high acuity functions of the fovea. The fovea is employed for accurate vision in the direction where it is pointed. It comprises less than 1% of retinal size but takes up over 50% of the visual cortex in the brain. The fovea sees only the central two degrees of the visual field, (approximately twice the width

title: Retina

text: of the photoreceptors can be perceived as tiny bright moving dots when looking into blue light. This is known as the blue field entoptic phenomenon (or Scheerer's phenomenon). Between the ganglion cell layer and the rods and cones there are two layers of neuropils where synaptic contacts are made. The neuropil layers are the outer plexiform layer and the inner plexiform layer. In the outer neuropil layer, the rods and cones connect to the vertically running bipolar cells, and the horizontally oriented horizontal cells connect to ganglion cells. The central retina predominantly contains cones, while the peripheral retina predominantly contains

title: Cone cell

text: report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range. At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish-green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish-green wavelength. Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are

title: Monochromacy

text: continuous band of frequencies, retinal ganglion cells and the visual cortex. Rods, which are extremely abundant (about 120 million), are in the periphery of the human retina. Rods respond only to faint levels of light and are very light sensitive, therefore, completely useless in daylight because bright light bleaches them. Cones, which are mostly near the fovea in the eye and are less active in dim light, more useful in bright light, are essential for color vision. There are three types of cones in normal human eyes (short, medium and long wavelength, sometimes called blue, green and red); each detects

title: Photoreceptor cell

text: rods and cones are intermingled. No photoreceptors are found at the blind spot, the area where ganglion cell fibers are collected into the optic nerve and leave the eye. The photoreceptor proteins in the three types of cones differ in their sensitivity to photons of different wavelengths (see graph). Since cones respond to both the wavelength and intensity of light, the cone's sensitivity to wavelength is measured in terms of its relative rate of response if the intensity of a stimulus is held fixed, while the wavelength is varied. From this, in turn, is inferred the absorbance. The graph normalizes

title: OPN1LW

text: LWS cone cells into horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and finally ganglion cells before continuing to the brain via the optic nerve. Ganglion cells compile the signal from the LWS cones with all other cone signals that occurred in response to the light that was seen, and pass the overall signal into the optic nerve. The cones themselves do not process colour, it is the brain that decides what colour is being seen by the signal combination it receives from the ganglion cells. Before humans evolved to be a trichromatic species, our vision was dichromatic and consisted of only

title: Cone cell

text: them their different response curves. They are typically 40–50 µm long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 µm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others. Photobleaching can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark-adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark-adapt making it appear white in contrast to the grey dark-adapted cones when a

title: Macula of retina

text: shown to prevent the disease. After death or enucleation (removal of the eye) the macula appears yellow, a color that is not visible in the living eye except when viewed with light from which red has been filtered. Structures in the macula are specialized for high-acuity vision. Within the macula are the fovea and foveola that both contain a high density of cones, which are nerve cells that are photoreceptors with high acuity. In details, the normal human eye contains three different types of cones, with different ranges of spectral sensitivity. The brain combines the signals from neighboring cones to

title: Retina

text: a cone falls into one of three subtypes, often called blue, green, or red but more accurately known as short, medium, or long wavelength-sensitive cone subtypes. It is a lack of one or more of the cone subtypes that causes individuals to have deficiencies in colour vision or various kinds of colour blindness. These individuals are not blind to objects of a particular colour but are unable to distinguish between colours that can be distinguished by people with normal vision. Humans have this trichromatic vision, while most other mammals lack cones with red sensitive pigment and therefore have poorer dichromatic

title: Pineal gland

text: "pinea" (pine-cone), was first used in the late 17th century to refer to the cone shape of the brain gland. The pineal gland is a midline brain structure that is unpaired. It takes its name from its pine-cone shape. The gland is reddish-gray and about the size of a grain of rice (5–8 mm) in humans. The pineal gland, also called the pineal body, is part of the epithalamus, and lies between the laterally positioned thalamic bodies and behind the habenular commissure. It is located in the quadrigeminal cistern near to the corpora quadrigemina. It is also located behind the

title: Trichromacy

text: discussed in the color psychology article. Primates are the only known placental mammalian trichromats. Their eyes include three different kinds of cones, each containing a different photopigment (opsin). Their peak sensitivities lie in the blue (short-wavelength S cones), green (medium-wavelength M cones) and yellow-green (long-wavelength L cones) regions of the color spectrum. (Schnapf "et al", 1987). S cones make up 5–10% of the cones and form a regular mosaic. Special bipolar and ganglion cells pass those signals from S cones and there is evidence that they have a separate signal pathway through the thalamus to the visual cortex as well.

title: Rod cell

text: at all at night. Rods are a little longer and leaner than cones but have the same basic structure. Opsin-containing disks lie at the end of the cell adjacent to the retinal pigment epithelium, which in turn is attached to the inside of the eye ball. The stacked-disc structure of the detector portion of the cell allows for very high efficiency. Rods are much more common than cones, with about 100 million rod cells compared to 7 million cone cells. Like cones, rod cells have a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment. The synaptic terminal forms a

title: Cone cell

text: L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the color red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. Cones are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the lens and cornea of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human-visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called 'ultraviolet' light. People with aphakia, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes

title: Cone cell

title: Adaptation (eye)

text: cones in the eye are the major contributors to dark adaptation. Above a certain luminance level (about 0.03 cd/m), the cone mechanism is involved in mediating vision; photopic vision. Below this level, the rod mechanism comes into play providing scotopic (night) vision. The range where two mechanisms are working together is called the mesopic range, as there is not an abrupt transition between the two mechanism. This adaptation forms the basis of the Duplicity Theory. Many animals such as cats possess high-resolution night vision, allowing them to discriminate objects with high frequencies in low illumination settings. The "tapetum lucidum" is

title: Cone cell

text: normally one of the three types, each with different pigment, namely: S-cones, M-cones and L-cones. Each cone is therefore sensitive to visible wavelengths of light that correspond to short-wavelength, medium-wavelength and long-wavelength light. Because humans usually have three kinds of cones with different photopsins, which have different response curves and thus respond to variation in color in different ways, we have trichromatic vision. Being color blind can change this, and there have been some verified reports of people with four or more types of cones, giving them tetrachromatic vision. The three pigments responsible for detecting light have been shown to

title: Cone dystrophy

text: help detect many of these characteristic ophthalmoscopic features. In addition to the retinal findings, temporal pallor of the optic disc is commonly observed. As expected, visual field testing in cone dystrophy usually reveals a central scotoma. In cases with the typical bull’s-eye appearance, there is often relative central sparing. Because of the wide spectrum of fundus changes and the difficulty in making the diagnosis in the early stages, electroretinography (ERG) remains the best test for making the diagnosis. Abnormal cone function on the ERG is indicated by a reduced single-flash and flicker response when the test is carried out in

title: Monochromacy

text: a different range of wavelengths. Rods outnumber cones by about 20 to 1 in the human retina, but cones provide about 90% of the brain's input. Cones respond faster than rods and have three types of pigments with different color sensitivities, where rods only have one and so are achromatic (colorless). Because of the distribution of rods and cones in the human eye, people have good color vision near the fovea (where cones are) but not in the periphery (where the rods are). These types of color blindness can be inherited, resulting from alterations in cone pigments or in other

title: Mammalian eye

text: light, which allows an organism to see color. The shift from cone vision to rod vision is why the darker conditions become, the less color objects seem to have. The differences between rods and cones are useful; apart from enabling sight in both dim and light conditions, they have further advantages. The fovea, directly behind the lens, consists of mostly densely packed cone cells. The fovea gives humans a highly detailed central vision, allowing reading, bird watching, or any other task which primarily requires staring at things. Its requirement for high intensity light does cause problems for astronomers, as they

title: Cone cell

text: and outer segments are connected by a cilium. The inner segment contains organelles and the cell's nucleus, while the outer segment, which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light-absorbing materials. Unlike rods, the outer segments of cones have invaginations of their cell membranes that create stacks of membranous disks. Photopigments exist as transmembrane proteins within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous

title: Mammalian eye

text: cannot see dim stars, or other celestial objects, using central vision because the light from these is not enough to stimulate cone cells. Because cone cells are all that exist directly in the fovea, astronomers have to look at stars through the "corner of their eyes" (averted vision) where rods also exist, and where the light "is" sufficient to stimulate cells, allowing an individual to observe faint objects. Rods and cones are both photosensitive, but respond in different ways to different frequencies of light. They contain different pigmented photoreceptor proteins. Rod cells contain the protein rhodopsin and cone cells contain

title: Visual phototransduction

text: image through comparison of the outputs of the three different types of cones. Each cone type responds best to certain wavelengths, or colors, of light because each type has a slightly different opsin. The three types of cones are L-cones, M-cones and S-cones that respond optimally to long wavelengths (reddish color), medium wavelengths (greenish color), and short wavelengths (bluish color) respectively. Humans have a trichromatic visual system consisting of three unique systems, rods, mid and long-wavelength sensitive (red and green) cones and short wavelength sensitive (blue) cones. To understand the photoreceptor's behaviour to light intensities, it is necessary to understand

title: Bird vision

text: from a number of photoreceptor cells, and may in turn trigger a nerve impulse to relay information along the optic nerve for further processing in specialised visual centres in the brain. The more intense a light, the more photons are absorbed by the visual pigments; the greater the excitation of each cone, and the brighter the light appears. By far the most abundant cone pigment in every bird species examined is the long-wavelength form of iodopsin, which absorbs at wavelengths near 570 nm. This is roughly the spectral region occupied by the red- and green-sensitive pigments in the primate retina,

title: Color vision

text: sensitivities, known as cone cells. In humans, there are three types of cones sensitive to three different spectra, resulting in trichromatic color vision. Each individual cone contains pigments composed of opsin apoprotein, which is covalently linked to either 11-cis-hydroretinal or more rarely 11-cis-dehydroretinal. The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the

title: Cone cell

text: vary in their exact chemical composition due to genetic mutation; different individuals will have cones with different color sensitivity. Destruction of the cone cells from disease would result in color blindness. Humans normally have three types of cones. The first responds the most to light of long wavelengths, peaking at about 560 nm ; this type is sometimes designated L for long. The second type responds the most to light of medium-wavelength, peaking at 530 nm, and is abbreviated M for medium. The third type responds the most to short-wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and is designated S for

title: Photoreceptor cell

text: among species, dependent on whether an animal is primarily diurnal or nocturnal. Certain owls, such as the nocturnal tawny owl, have a tremendous number of rods in their retinae. In the human visual system, in addition to the photosensitive rods & cones, there are about 2.4 million to 3 million ganglion cells, with 1 to 2% of them being photosensitive. The axons of ganglion cells form the two optic nerves. Photoreceptor cells are typically arranged in an irregular but approximately hexagonal grid, known as the retinal mosaic. The pineal and parapineal glands are photoreceptive in non-mammalian vertebrates, but not in

title: Bird vision

text: which contain the visual pigment rhodopsin are better for night vision because they are sensitive to small quantities of light. Cones detect specific colours (or wavelengths) of light, so they are more important to colour-orientated animals such as birds. Most birds are tetrachromatic, possessing four types of cone cells each with a distinctive maximal absorption peak. In some birds, the maximal absorption peak of the cone cell responsible for the shortest wavelength extends to the ultraviolet (UV) range, making them UV-sensitive. In addition to that, the cones at bird's retina are arranged in a characteristic form of spatial distribution, known

title: Fovea centralis

text: density of cones; the perifovea is the outermost region where the ganglion cell layer contains two to four rows of cells, and is where visual acuity is below the optimum. The perifovea contains an even more diminished density of cones, having 12 per 100 micrometres versus 50 per 100 micrometres in the most central fovea. This, in turn, is surrounded by a larger peripheral area that delivers highly compressed information of low resolution following the pattern of compression in foveated imaging. Approximately half of the nerve fibers in the optic nerve carry information from the fovea, while the remaining half

title: Vision in fishes

text: may enable other fish to better detect it against a diffuse background, and may provide useful information to schooling fish about their proximity and orientation relative to neighbouring fish. Most fish have double cones, a pair of cone cells joined to each other. Each member of the double cone may have a different peak absorbance, and behavioural evidence supports the idea that each type of individual cone in a double cone can provide separate information (i.e. the signal from individual members of the double cone are not necessarily summed together). Fishes that live in surface waters down to about 200

title: Cone cell

long_answer: Cone cells, or cones, are one of three types of photoreceptor cells in the retina of mammalian eyes (e.g. the human eye). They are responsible for color vision and function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells, which work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis, a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye and are most concentrated towards the macula. The commonly cited figure of six million cone cells in the human eye was found by Osterberg in 1935. Oyster's textbook (1999) cites work by Curcio et al. (1990) indicating an average close to 4.5 million cone cells and 90 million rod cells in the human retina.

short_answers:
in the fovea centralis
in the retina
the retina


question: where does puerto rico's power come from

answers: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

title: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: that produce electric power at less than half of Puerto Rico's price. Electric utility costs ultimately create a ripple effect on the economy as it adds to the cost of living and the cost of doing business. For example, 20% of Bacardi's expenses on the island come from electricity, while the company that owns all Wendy's, Applebee's, and LongHorn Steakhouse on the island has simply opted to keep the lights and air conditioning off in certain areas when employees arrive. The water industry is administered in whole by the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA), another government-owned corporation and

title: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: For example, even though the island's geography features many rivers, the government has opted to leave the hydroelectric industry behind. Public policy has also opted not to pursue nuclear power either. Instead, even though Puerto Rico does not have any oil-based resources, it has opted to power its electric plants with fossil fuels: less than 3% of all energy is produced through renewable energy even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65% sunny hours per day in average and 19-knot (22 mph; 35 km/h) winds year round. This forces PREPA, the government-owned corporation and government monopoly that owns and manages

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: through several power plants: Puerto Rico has 21 hydroelectric plants rated at a combined 156MW. The public corporation also provides fiber optic broadband to private carriers through one of its subsidiary, PREPA Networks. PREPA is also studying the possibility of selling energy to the United States Virgin Islands with the installation of an underwater power cable between Fajardo and the island of St. Thomas—similar to the power cable with which it services its clients in Vieques and Culebra, which are also islands. There are four labor unions that represent the workers from the authority exclusively UTIER, UITICE, UEPI, and UPAEE.

title: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: Rico must import oil at a rate of 8.0 billion kWh and about 1,499,196 km3 of natural gas per year[44] as well as a very large amount of coal. Perplexingly, less than 3% of all energy is produced through renewable energy even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65% sunny hours per day in average and 19-knot (22 mph; 35 km/h) winds year round. The island could also generate all its energy through hydroelectric dams thanks to its local geography which features many rivers but it has opted to leave that industry behind. Public policy has also opted not to

title: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: pursue nuclear power either. Biofuel, biomass, geothermal energy, wave power and tidal power are still in its infant stages although there are some microbusinesses providing energy from those sources or performing research on the subject. The Puerto Rican government has made plans to reduce dependency on costly imported fossil fuels, but lacks funds to make more than modest progress. As a result, Puerto Ricans pay 26¢ per kilowatt per hour of electricity, compared to an average of 11 to 12 cents or less in the United States. This places Puerto Rico at an enormous disadvantage when compared to other states

title: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: government monopoly which owns and manages all the water supply network in Puerto Rico. All potable water comes either from raw water (primarily rainwater, lakes, and rivers) or sewage treatment subject to regulations by the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources of Puerto Rico (DRNA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (JCA in Spanish), and the Safe Drinking Water Act. The water bottling industry is diverse with several plants on the island. Fishery is common in all coastal towns but Puerto Rico does not have enough wild fisheries to supply the demand required to sustain

title: Puerto Rico

text: most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate. Puerto Rico's agricultural sector represents less than 1% of GNP. In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and

title: Puerto Rico

text: Title III of PROMESA. By early August 2017, the debt was $72 billion with a 45% poverty rate. In late September 2017, Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico, causing devastating damage. The island's electrical grid was largely destroyed, with repairs expected to take months to complete, provoking the largest power outage in American history. Recovery efforts were somewhat slow in the first few months, and over 200,000 residents had moved to the mainland State of Florida alone by late November 2017. Puerto Rico means "rich port" in Spanish. Puerto Ricans often call the island ' – a derivation of

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: usually every four or eight years. When both the governor and the legislature of Puerto Rico belong to the same party, one of the earliest laws amended by the legislature is the one governing PREPA in order to change its board's composition. Once a new board is settled in, one of its first resolutions is to appoint a new executive director. These frequent changes effectively make the authority a partisan tool rather than a mere electric utility and, consequently, change the vision, strategy, and plans of the authority every four or eight years according to the political party in power.

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: suffered several outages that have left the entire island of Puerto Rico without power. One of these islandwide outages occurred on September 20, 2016 due to a fire at one of PREPA's plants—Central Aguirre. All of Puerto Rico was without power for three days. At the first days of September 2017, the eye of Hurricane Irma passed north of the island. The strong winds left 1 million residents without power. Power had been restored to 980,000 people by September 20, when Hurricane Maria struck, leaving nearly the entire island without power. Two weeks later, power had been restored to about

title: Kenneth McClintock

text: interconnecting Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands power systems. Siemens AG completed the study in July 2011. The government of Spain financed a World Bank pre-feasibility study on the possible interconnection of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic's power systems, which would be an integral part of the proposed Caribbean Energy Grid. After the election of Sen. Alejandro García Padilla as the 10th elected Governor of Puerto Rico on November 6, 2012, McClintock became the statutory chairman of Governor Fortuño's Outgoing Committee on Government Transition, the first and so far only to have chaired both the Incoming and

title: Puerto Rico Energy Commission

text: the commissioners. After the September 2017 hurricanes largely destroyed the island's aging, neglected and fragile power grid, and among the rush to simply rebuild as fast as possible, advocates of renewable energy and micro grids tried to turn the conversation - and infrastructure investment - to solar PV, microgrids and combined heat and power (CHP). With microgram regulations passed by PREC in May 2018, realizing the vision for such projects is likely still twenty years away. Puerto Rico Energy Commission The Puerto Rico Energy Commission (PREC) (Spanish: "Comisión de Energía de Puerto Rico") is the government agency that regulates the

title: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: all electric power distribution and transmission, to spend 58% of its operational expenses in fuel purchases alone. In terms of food production, Puerto Rico imports 85% of its food even though most of the land is fertile with only a mere 6% being arable. This perplexing situation has been caused due to a shift in priorities towards industrialization, bureaucratization, mismanagement of land, lack of alternative methods, and a deficiency in the number of agricultural workforce. Similarly, when looking at forestry, even though a study conducted more than two decades ago by the U.S. Forest Service concluded that local soil could

title: Puerto Rican government-debt crisis

text: solar power projects, has a debt of $9 billion. PREPA has had poor bill collection practices, with FTI Consulting estimating that the utility had improperly given away $420 million of electricity and that the island's governments were $300 million delinquent in payments. In 2012, the Puerto Rico Ports Authority was forced to sell the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport to private buyers after PREPA threatened to cut off power over unpaid bills. In 2014, the Puerto Rico Energy Commission was established. Between 2007 and 2017 Puerto Rico’s gross national product (GNP) declined by 14 percent, and in 2015, 46 percent

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) —Spanish: Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica (AEE)— is an electric power company and the government-owned corporation of Puerto Rico responsible for electricity generation, power distribution, and power transmission on the island.  PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, making it a government monopoly. The authority is ruled by a board of directors appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate. Since 2014, PREPA is subject to the Puerto Rico Energy Commission, another government agency whose board of directors is also appointed by the governor.

title: Puerto Rico Energy Commission

text: in comparison to other jurisdictions. This did not bode well with several energy businesses and think tanks, such as the Association of Producers of Renewable Energy (APER) and the Center for the New Economy (CNE), which advocated for the creation of a separate independent entity capable of regulating the industry. Organizationally, the commission is overseen by a board of directors comprised by three commissioners appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate. The commission is also supported by an executive director who works together with the Puerto Rico Energy Affairs Administration and provides technical advice to

title: Federal Emergency Management Agency

text: requires "2,700 megawatts of electricity to operate and at last count had 376 megawatts available." This translates to about 14 percent of the grid being functional. FEMA Administrator William "Brock" Long told reporters in a briefing following the storm that Puerto Rico politics had hindered the ability of the federal government to send aid. He explained that political divisions had prevented unity for leaders in this time of crisis, describing that their issue was "even worse" than the mainland United States' issue between Democrats and Republicans. Residents, in some cases, were required to fill out paperwork in English rather than

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: generation would reach 95% by the following month, and 100% of customers would be restored by June 2018. On April 18, 2018, an accident at a transmission line knocked out the electrical grid of Puerto Rico. All the island lost power. The following afternoon, PREPA announced that service had been restored to 97% of customers, the same percentage as before this blackout. 40,000 customers were still out of service due to the hurricane seven months earlier. With June 1 the official start of the 2018 hurricane season, an estimated 11,000+ customers remained without power, possibly for another two months. Although

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: is also appointed by the governor. Hurricane Maria in September 2017 destroyed PREPA's distribution network, creating a blackout in all parts of the island. On January 22, 2018 the governor of Puerto Rico, Ricardo Rossello, announced that all assets of the Authority will be sold in a general privatization of PREPA. PREPA was originally named the Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority (PRWRA)— (AFF)—which was created by Law No. 83 of May 2, 1941, during the governorship of Rexford G. Tugwell. Government-owned, PRWRA unified diverse regional and local electric power companies into one unified electric grid. Throughout its history, PREPA has

title: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: most of which have an active and continued presence in the island. Its main trading partners are the United States itself, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. At a global scale, Puerto Rico's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate. Puerto Rico, like many other countries, has transitioned from an agricultural economy to an industrial one. Its economy is currently experiencing a

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: Of the different members of the board, the governor is usually required to appoint four members with the advice and consent of the Senate. It is through these members, along with the incumbent political officeholders which serve as ex officio, thus the governor and the political party in power effectively control the authority. Three additional members of the board are directly elected by consumers by plurality-at-large; two of them by residential consumers and one by commercial ones. The last structural change to the board occurred on June 11, 2018 after governor Ricardo Rossello. PREPA serves close to 1.5 million customers

title: Budget of the Government of Puerto Rico

text: (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272M, while the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112M. All these losses were defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40% of Puerto Rico's entire public debt today. Holistically, from FY2000–FY2010 Puerto Rico's debt grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9% while GDP remained stagnant. In terms of protocol, the governor, together with the Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget (OGP in Spanish), formulates

title: Implications of Puerto Rico's current political status

text: equate plenary power to exclusive power. The U.S. government could exert over the territory power that it could not exercise over the states." Ramos quotes Justice Harlan, writing in "Grafton v. United States", , "The jurisdiction and authority of the United States over that territory [referring to the Philippines] and its inhabitants, for all legitimate purposes of government is paramount,". Ramos then goes on to argue "This power, however, is not absolute, for it is restrained by some then-undefined fundamental rights possessed by anyone subject to the authority of the U.S. government." Since 1917, people born in Puerto Rico have

title: Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration

text: extended power lines and stations across the island, bringing affordable power to thousands of rural citizens for the first time in Puerto Rico’s history. In addition to providing power, the hydroelectric dams also provided crucial flood control, irrigation for crops, and improved the quality of drinking water. The electrification program also helped to create the infrastructure for the future urban industrialization efforts under Operation Bootstrap. Although another initial intention of Chardón-influenced PRRA was to seek enforcement of the 500-acre law and aid in land distribution among Puerto Rican citizens, the agency took no steps in this regard as it was

title: Puerto Rico

text: of flights until July 2018. Some 90% of the island was receiving electricity, although the power structure would require another $17.6 billion for full rebuilding, according to the United States Department of Energy. Nearly all residents had access to telecommunications service and running water. All hospitals were operating. Some 83% of hotel rooms were available for use and the cruise ship port was receiving ships; 58 arrived in San Juan in February. The island was encouraging operators to increase the number of tourists. Reports in April 2018 stated that Puerto Rico will receive $18.5 billion from the United States Department

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority

text: the authority. This forced the authority to take $100 million out of its Capital Improvements Fund in order to pay its debt to Petrobras. PREPA argues that the different agencies of the government of Puerto Rico owe them more than $290 million in debt, while an additional $375 million of revenue is lost through subsidies enacted by the Puerto Rican legislature. An additional $600 million is owed to the authority by residential and commercial consumers, some of them by consumers living in public housing. The authority argues that it wouldn't have a problem being self-sufficient if it were paid the

title: Antonio S. Luchetti

text: what the government of Puerto Rico needed to do at the moment was to purchase the three private electric companies operating in the island: the Ponce Electric Co., the Porto Rico Railway Light & Power Company, and Mayagüez Light, Ice & Power Co., and concentrate on building and island-wide energy infrastructure. He estimated the cost at $7 million. Lucchetti next reasoned that for the power infrastructure to be built, it was necessary to issue government bonds. Prior to 1938, these bonds would have been tied to the insular government’s ability to pay. Fortunately, on June 25, 1938, the U.S. Congress

title: Puerto Rico

text: 2018, it was reported that close to 40 percent of the island's customers still did not have electricity. The vast majority had access to water but were still required to boil it. The number still living in shelters had dropped to 982 with thousands of others living with relatives. The official death toll at the time was 58 but some sources indicated that the actual number is much higher. A dam on the island was close to failure and officials were concerned about additional flooding from this source. Thousands had left Puerto Rico, with close to 200,000 having arrived in

title: Puerto Rico

text: monopoly. The Authority is ruled by a Governing Board appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico, and is run by an Executive Director. Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). , there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available and the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service also broadcast on the island. Geography United States government

title: Political status of Puerto Rico

text: Congress, thus, is ultimately required to modify the current political status of Puerto Rico. On June 9, 2016, in Commonwealth of Puerto Rico vs Sanchez Valle, a 6-2 majority of the United States Supreme Court determined that Puerto Rico is a territory and lacks sovereignty. The opinion of the court stated: "Back of the Puerto Rican people and their Constitution, the 'ultimate' source of prosecutorial power remains the U. S. Congress, just as back of a city’s charter lies a state government." Four major bills regarding the political status of Puerto Rico have come before Congress, H.R. 856, H.R. 900,

title: Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority