question: what is the current population of bora bora

answers: 10,605

title: Dugda (woreda)

text: they observed this belief, while 3.88% of the population were Protestant, 2.13% of the population were Muslim, and 1.36% of the population practiced traditional beliefs. Based on figures published by the Central Statistical Agency in 2005, this woreda has an estimated total population of 196,323, of whom 96,849 are men and 99,474 are women; 50,126 or 25.53% of its population are urban dwellers, which is less than the Zone average of 32.1%. With an estimated area of 1,459.53 square kilometers, Dugda Bora has an estimated population density of 134.5 people per square kilometer, which is less than the Zone average

title: Bora (woreda)

text: 6.01% of the population practiced traditional beliefs, 4.47% of the population were Muslim, and 3.11% of the population were Protestant. Bora (woreda) Bora is one of the woredas in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia. It was part of the former woreda of Dugda Bora. Part of the Misraq Shewa Zone it is located in the Great Rift Valley. The administrative center of Bora is Bote (Alem Tena). The 2007 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 58,748, of whom 30,487 were men and 28,261 were women; 11,403 or 19.41% of its population were urban dwellers. The majority

title: Borawal

text: 700 years" (). Borawal has population of 3950 of which 2112 are males while 1838 are females, as per Population Census 2011. In Borawal village, there are 403 children aged between, making up 10.20% of total population of village. The average sex ratio is 870 which is lower than the Punjab state average of 895. The child Sex Ratio for the Borawal as per the census is 824, lower than the Punjab average of 846. Borawal village has lower literacy rate compared to Punjab. In 2011, the literacy rate of Borawal village was 55.79% compared to 75.84% of Punjab. In

title: Boda Upazila

text: Boda Upazila Boda () is an Upazila of Panchagarh District in the Division of Rangpur, Bangladesh. Boda is the largest upazila in Panchagarh. It is named "Boda" because the big Badeshwari Temple is there. Boda is located at . It has 33535 households and total area 349.47 km². As of the 1991 Bangladesh census, Boda has a population of 168258. Males constitute 51.22% of the population, and females 48.78%. This Upazila's eighteen up population is 83118. Boda has an average literacy rate of 29.4% (7+ years), and the national average of 32.4% literate. Boda Upazila is divided into one municipality

title: Bora Reserve

text: Bora Reserve Bora Special Reserve is a wildlife reserve in the Sofia Region of Madagascar, between the villages of Antsohihy and Bealalana. Bora is in a transition zone between eastern humid forests and western dry forests and the reserve and has many endemic species including six lemur species, twenty birds and over 150 species of endemic plants. This reserve is in the north-west of Madagascar, from Antsohihy. In the north the park is accessible by the tarmaced road, RN31, which runs between Antsohihy and Bealalana, and the southern part of the reserve is accessible by the road between North Befandriana

title: Bora (woreda)

text: Bora (woreda) Bora is one of the woredas in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia. It was part of the former woreda of Dugda Bora. Part of the Misraq Shewa Zone it is located in the Great Rift Valley. The administrative center of Bora is Bote (Alem Tena). The 2007 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 58,748, of whom 30,487 were men and 28,261 were women; 11,403 or 19.41% of its population were urban dwellers. The majority of the inhabitants said they practised Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 86% of the population reporting they observed this belief, while

title: Dugda (woreda)

text: 54 people (94% of which performed food processing), as well as 707 registered businesses including 108 wholesalers, 404 retailers and 195 service providers. There were 54 Farmers Associations with 18,946 members and 2 Farmers Service Cooperatives with 2226 members. Dugda Bora has 85 kilometers of dry-weather and 122 of all-weather road, for an average road density of 142 kilometers per 1000 square kilometers. About 67% of the rural, 100% of the urban and 74% of the total population has access to drinking water. In late August 2005, the Awash and Meki rivers burst their banks due to heavy rains and

title: Dugda (woreda)

text: flooded Dugda Bora. According to reports, up to 7,000 people were made homeless, one person was killed, many livestock were swept away and more than 814 hectares of farmland was destroyed. It was also reported that up to 3,400 of those displaced were stranded by the floodwaters, and authorities rescued 455 people. The 2007 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 144,910, of whom 74,561 were men and 70,349 were women; 36,252 or 25.02% of its population were urban dwellers. The majority of the inhabitants said they practised Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 91.32% of the population reporting

title: Boda Upazila

text: and 10 union parishads: Benghari Banagram, Boda, Boroshoshi, Chandanbari, Jholaishalshiri, Kajoldighikaligonj, Mareabamonhat, Moidandighi, Pachpir, and Sakoa. The union parishads are subdivided into 174 mauzas and 239 villages. Boda Upazila Boda () is an Upazila of Panchagarh District in the Division of Rangpur, Bangladesh. Boda is the largest upazila in Panchagarh. It is named "Boda" because the big Badeshwari Temple is there. Boda is located at . It has 33535 households and total area 349.47 km². As of the 1991 Bangladesh census, Boda has a population of 168258. Males constitute 51.22% of the population, and females 48.78%. This Upazila's eighteen up

title: Bora people

text: tribe's ancestral lands are currently threatened by illegal logging practices. The Bora have no indigenous reserves. Bora people The Bora are an indigenous tribe of the Peruvian, Colombian and Brazilian Amazon, located between the Putumayo and Napo rivers. The Bora speak a Witotan language and comprise approximately 2,000 people. In the last forty years, they have become a largely settled people living mostly in permanent forest settlements. In the animist Bora worldview, there is no distinction between the physical and spiritual worlds and spirits are present throughout the world. Bora families practice exogamy. The Bora have an elaborate knowledge of

title: Boko, Kamrup

text: district headquarters in Amingaon. The population of Boko constituency based on the 2011 census is 111,880. The average sex ratio of Boko is 983 women to 1000 men, or 56,415 males and 55,465 females. 23,509 families resided there. The total literacy rate is 76.17%. The male literacy rate is 70.85% and the female literacy rate is 61.9%. Based on population, Boko is ranked 8th in Kamrup district and ranked 122nd in Assam. Satras at Boko include Bhalukghata Satra, Haripur Satra and Chamaria Satra. Among them, Chamaria Satra is the oldest and largest. This well-known satra is situated about 22km from

title: Bora Reserve

text: herds of zebu. Bora Reserve Bora Special Reserve is a wildlife reserve in the Sofia Region of Madagascar, between the villages of Antsohihy and Bealalana. Bora is in a transition zone between eastern humid forests and western dry forests and the reserve and has many endemic species including six lemur species, twenty birds and over 150 species of endemic plants. This reserve is in the north-west of Madagascar, from Antsohihy. In the north the park is accessible by the tarmaced road, RN31, which runs between Antsohihy and Bealalana, and the southern part of the reserve is accessible by the road

title: Borim

text: Borim Borim or Bori is a census town in Ponda taluka, North Goa district in the state of Goa, India on the banks of Zuari River. It has a land area of 1536.07 acres and has a population size of 8,257 people living there. The village has a rich history dating back to the 12th century Kadamba era, when the Kamleshwar temple was built at Deulwada by the Kadamba queen, Kamaladevi. The name " Bore" is etymologically derived from the word " Bora" (Indian berry, zizyphus). It is said that the village had many Bora trees at some point in

title: Bora, Punjab

text: Bora, Punjab Bora is a village in the Hoshiarpur district of Punjab, India. Bora is located east of Garshankar. It is situated on the Garhshankar - Sri Anand pur Sahib Road. In the 19th century, between 1800-1820 AD, Shri Mahant Ram, a Digpal Brahmin, came from Garhi Mansowal and purchased or occupied some land. As the time passed people from nearby villages started to come there, and Mahant Ram started selling plots to those people, becoming wealthy in the process. According to the caste norms of the time, Brahmins occupied the center of the developing town, while peasants occupied the

title: Bora Reserve

text: habitat in the reserve and there are also areas of degraded secondary forest, gallery forest and savannah, as well as some areas converted into rice paddies. Nearly three hundred species of plants have been recorded and more than half are endemic. There is also six species of lemur (four nocturnal and two diurnal), 48 species of birds (twenty endemic), fifteen reptiles species, five species of amphibians and 160 families of arthropods. The reserve is under threat from hunting for bush meat, illegal tree felling, plantations, rice paddies, and setting fire (known as tavy) to land to encourage grass for grazing

title: Bo people (Andaman)

text: of the tribe living on a reservation on Strait Island, but none can speak the original language. The original size of the Bo tribe, by 1858, has been estimated at 200 individuals. However, they were discovered by the British only later, in the work leading to the 1901 census. Like other Andamanese peoples, the Bo were decimated during colonial and post-colonial times, by diseases, alcohol, colonial warfare and loss of territory. The census of 1901 recorded only 48 individuals. Census takers were told that an epidemic had come from the neighboring Kari and Kora tribes, and the Bo had resorted

title: Ripun Bora

text: Ripun Bora Ripun Bora is a leader of the Indian National Congress party hailing from Assam. He is currently President, Assam Pradesh Congress Committee,MP of Rajya Sabha for Assam and Ex-Minister Govt of Assam. On 21 March 2016, he has been elected to the Rajya Sabha, the Upper House of Indian Parliament along with Ranee Narah also from the Indian National Congress. Congress got support from AIUDF for the biennial Rajya Sabha election held on that day.Out of 114 MLAs, 85 (67 of INC, 16 of AIUDF, 1 Independent, 1 BJP voted for the Congress candidate. AGP, BJP, BPF boycotted

title: Bora people

text: Bora people The Bora are an indigenous tribe of the Peruvian, Colombian and Brazilian Amazon, located between the Putumayo and Napo rivers. The Bora speak a Witotan language and comprise approximately 2,000 people. In the last forty years, they have become a largely settled people living mostly in permanent forest settlements. In the animist Bora worldview, there is no distinction between the physical and spiritual worlds and spirits are present throughout the world. Bora families practice exogamy. The Bora have an elaborate knowledge of the plant life of the surrounding rainforest. Like other indigenous peoples of the Peruvian Amazon, such

title: Borio (community development block)

text: and Santhalis generally inhabit the area. Borio CD Block has 344 gram panchayats, 264 inhabited (chiragi) and 80 uninhabited (bechiragi) villages. As per 2011 Census of India Borio CD Block had a total population of 97,845, of which 90,881 were rural and 6,964 were urban. There were 49,234 (50 %) males and 48,611 (50 %) females. Population below 6 years was 17,825. Scheduled Castes numbered 2,479 and Scheduled Tribes numbered 59,732. Borio, with a population of 6,964 in 2011 census, is a census town. As per 2011 census the total number of literates in Borio CD Block was 33,916 (42.38

title: Bora Bora

text: As of 2017, the Bora Bora group has a permanent population of 10,605.

title: Bora Bora

text: pronounced "Bola Bola" or "Bora Bora". When explorer Jacob Roggeveen first landed on the island, he and his crew adopted the name "Bora Bora" which has stood ever since. The island was inhabited by Polynesian settlers around the 4th century The first European sighting was made by Jakob Roggeveen in 1722. James Cook sighted the island on 29 July 1769, using a Tahitian navigator, Tupaia. The London Missionary Society arrived in 1820 and founded a Protestant church in 1890. Bora Bora was an independent kingdom until 1888 when its last queen Teriimaevarua III was forced to abdicate by the French

title: Boke (woreda)

text: 2005, this woreda has an estimated total population of 103,803, of whom 50,436 are men and 53,367 are women; 3,745 or 3.61% of its population are urban dwellers, which is less than the Zone average of 9.6%. With an estimated area of 3,461.88 square kilometers, Boke has an estimated population density of 30 people per square kilometer, which is less than the Zone average of 101.8. The 1994 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 74,931, of whom 38,713 were men and 36,218 women; 2,090 or 2.79% of its population were urban dwellers at the time. The

title: Boji

text: woreda has an estimated total population of 115,043, of whom 59,320 are men and 55,723 are women; 9,122 or 7.93% of its population are urban dwellers, which is less than the Zone average of 10.9%. With an estimated area of 966.1 square kilometers, Boji has an estimated population density of 119.1 people per square kilometer, which is greater than the Zone average of 91.7. The 1995 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 82,184 in 13,521 households, of whom 39,968 were men and 42,216 were women; 5,104 or 6.21% of its population were urban dwellers. The largest

title: Bora Reserve

text: and Antsohihy. The landscape is mainly flat with volcanic rocks and small hills and on the eastern border is the Anjingo River with its tributary the Bemahavony brook. There are two seasons; a cool dry season from May to October and a warm rainy season for the rest of the year. The prominent ethnic group is the Tsimihety people who farm in and around the reserve. Bora is in a transition zone between eastern humid forests and western dry forests which can be seen in the vegetation and fauna which belongs to both types. Dry deciduous forest is the dominant

title: Bora Bora

text: not considered to be dangerous to people. In addition to the existing islands of Bora Bora, the new manmade island of Motu Marfo has been added in the northeastern corner of the lagoon on the property of the St. Regis Resort. Most rainfall occurs during the summer months (November to April) and is accompanied by high humidity, although clear days are not unknown in mid-January. Bora Bora Bora Bora (French: "Bora-Bora", Tahitian: "Pora Pora") is a island group in the Leeward group in the western part of the Society Islands of French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the

title: Papeete

text: or the Bora Bora cruiseline to go to Bora Bora. The urban area of Papeete had a total population of 136,771 inhabitants at the August 2017 census, 26,926 of whom lived in the commune of Papeete proper. The urban area of Papeete is made up of seven communes. They are listed from northeast to southwest: Average population growth of the Papeete urban area: The places of birth of the 131,695 residents in the Papeete urban area at the 2007 census were the following: At the 2007 census, 98.2% of the population in the urban area of Papeete whose age was

title: Loma Bosa

text: Bos woredas. Based on figures published by the Central Statistical Agency in 2005, this woreda has an estimated total population of 131,160, of whom 67,184 were men and 63,976 were women; 1,364 or 1.04% of its population are urban dwellers, which is less than the Zone average of 8.5%. With an estimated area of 1,980.63 square kilometers, Loma Bosa has an estimated population density of 66.2 people per square kilometer, which is less than the Zone average of 156.5. The 1994 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 92,893 of whom 45,334 were males and 47,559 were

title: Bora Bora Commune

text: Bora Bora Commune Bora-Bora is a commune of French Polynesia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean. The commune is in the administrative subdivision of the Leeward Islands. The commune of Bora-Bora is made up of the island of Bora Bora proper with its surrounding islets emerging from the coral reef (30.55 km²/11.3 sq. miles in total) and of the atoll of Tupai (), located north of Bora Bora. The atoll of Tupai has no permanent population apart from some seasonal workers in the coconut plantations. The surrounding islets include Motu Tapu, Motu Ahuna, Tevairoa, Motu Tane, Motu

title: Rajpur Sonarpur

text: and 208,963 (49%) were females. Population below 6 years was 35,274. The total number of literates was 350,721 (91.69% of the population over 6 years). Kamalgazi is the centre and most developed area of this municipality. Boral is also a major locality of the city. A very old temple namely of historical importance (said to be as old as the reigns of the Sen rulers of Bengal, however the old construction has been ruined)- Tripurasundari Temple near Boral High School. Now Boral is also well known for the engineering institute Future Institute of Technology. In early 1953, the principal photography

title: Bankra

text: Bankra Bankra is a census town in Domjur (community development block) under Domjur police station in Sadar subdivision of Howrah district in the Indian state of West Bengal. Bankra is located at . It has an average elevation of 8 metres (26 feet). As per 2011 Census of India Bankra had a total population of 63,957 of which 33,079 (52%) were males and 30,878 (48%) were females. Population below 6 years was 8,911. The total number of literates in Bankra was 41,560 (75.50 % of the population over 6 years). Bankra was part of Kolkata Urban Agglomeration in 2011 census.

title: Bora Bora


question: what was the population of the roman empire at its height

answers: 50 to 90 million inhabitants

answers: 70 million

answers: 55–60 million

answers: an estimated 70 million people

title: Roman Empire

text: of 5 million square kilometres. The traditional population estimate of inhabitants accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population and made it the largest population of any unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century. Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from to more than . Each of the three largest cities in the Empire—Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch—was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century. As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it: Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: in the Imperial period. At its peak, the city of Rome had at least one million inhabitants, a total not equalled again until the 19th century. As the imperial capital, Rome was sustained by transfers in kind from throughout the empire; no other city could be sustained at this level. Other major cities in the empire (Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Ephesus, etc.) had populations of about a few hundred thousand. Of the remaining cities, most were quite small, usually possessing only 10–15,000 inhabitants. The cumulative urban population of the empire is estimated at around 14 million (using a population threshold of

title: Classical demography

text: lived within the city of Alexandria. The population of the vast Seleucid Empire has been estimated to have been higher than 30 million. There are many estimates of the population for the Roman Empire, that range from 45 million to 120 million with 55-65 million as the most accepted range. "An estimated population of the empire during the reign of Augustus:" "Beloch's 1886 estimate for the population of the empire during the reign of Augustus:" "Russell's 1958 estimate for the population of the empire in 1 AD:" "Russell's 1958 estimate for the population of the empire in 350 AD:" The

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: with comparative evidence from other periods and other parts of the empire. "Beloch's 1886 estimate for the population of the empire during the reign of Augustus:" "Russell's 1958 estimate for the population of the empire in 350 CE:" Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from (comparable to the contemporaneous and similarly sized Han empire in China), with one-tenth of them located in Italy itself, to more than . By the standards of pre-modern economies, the Roman Empire was highly urbanized. According to recent work, there were some 1,400 sites with urban characteristics in the Roman world

title: Roman Britain

text: the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents. The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other

title: Medieval demography

text: been found for the 3rd century as for the 1st. During the period from 150 to 400, with the intermittent appearance of plague, the population of the Roman Empire ranged from a high of 70 to a low of 50 million, followed by a fairly good recovery if not to the previous highs of the Early Empire. Serious gradual depopulation began in the West only in the 5th century and in the East due to the appearance of bubonic plague in 541 after 250 years of economic growth after the troubles which afflicted the empire from the 250s to 270s.

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: By providing a check to population densities, these area figures compel a baseline level of plausibility. Beloch's 1886 estimate of the population of the empire in 14 CE has withstood contemporary and more recent criticism, and underlies modern analysis (his 1899 revision of those figures is less esteemed). Only his estimates for Anatolia and Greater Syria required extensive revision; Beloch estimated population figure, 19 million, produced population densities not otherwise achieved in those areas until the 20th century. Bruce Frier, in a recent estimate of the population of the empire, suggested a figure of 12 million as "considerably more plausible".

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: Beloch's figures for Spain and Africa have also been revised downwards. This estimate produces a population density of 13.6 inhabitants per square kilometer, a very low figure by modern standards (the United Kingdom, for example, has a population density of 254.7/km). The population density in the Greek East was 20.9/km, twice as dense as the Latin West at 10.6/km; only the Western provinces of Italy and Sicily had a density comparable to the East. Slaves constituted about 15 percent of the Empire's total population; the proportionate figure would be much higher in Italy and much lower in Africa and Egypt.

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: 5,000 individuals), indicating an urbanization rate of at least 25-30 % to be consistent with conventional estimates for the total population, comparable to those in the 19th century. High mortality rates and pre-modern sanitary conditions made urban regions net population sinks, with more local deaths than births. They could only be sustained by constant immigration. The large cities provided a major stimulus to demand, and not only for agricultural products, but for manufactured goods and luxury items as well. Russell estimated the urban population in Late Antiquity, as follows. Demography of the Roman Empire Demographically, the Roman Empire was an

title: Military of ancient Rome

text: and created permanent stations that became cities. At its territorial height, the Roman Empire may have contained between 45 million and 120 million people. Historian Edward Gibbon estimated that the size of the Roman army "most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men" at the Empire's territorial peak in the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 − 138CE). This estimate probably included only legionary and auxiliary troops of the Roman army. However, Gibbon states that it is "not... easy to define "the size of the Roman military" with any tolerable accuracy." In the late

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: have needed to be higher than that baseline, at around 6 to 9 children per woman. Fertility could not long have either fallen below or outstripped replacement levels. A population which maintained an annual growth or decline of 0.7% would double or halve itself every century. Such rates are feasible locally or over a short period of time, and deaths could consistently outstrip births during epidemics, but, in the long term, convergence to maintenance levels was the rule. The surviving census returns from Roman Egypt speak to a population that had not yet undergone the "fertility transition"; artificial fertility controls

title: Classical demography

text: total population of Roman Italy (south of the Po Valley) was estimated to be around 4 million before the Second Punic War. The figure is approximate: the Romans carried out a regular census of citizens eligible for military service (Polybius 2.23), but for the population of the rest of Italy at this time we have to rely on a single report of the military strength of Rome's allies in 227 BC - and guess the numbers of those who were opposed to Rome at this time. The citizen count in the second century B.C. hovered between 250-325,000 presumably males over

title: Deforestation during the Roman period

text: to house increasing populations throughout the Roman Empire. While some Mediterranean houses were built with brick and stone, roof structures, covered with tiles, as well as the floors in multistory apartment buildings were often made of wood. At one point it is estimated that the Roman Empire had a population of 56.8 million people and an estimated one million or more in Rome alone (a population that was not matched in size in Europe until London in the 19th century). With such a large population increase, coupled with an enhancement of exuberant lifestyles and a high standard of living for

title: Early Middle Ages

text: first. Estimates of the population of the Roman Empire during the period from 150 to 400 suggest a fall from 65 million to 50 million, a decline of more than 20 per cent. Some scholars have connected this de-population to the (300–700), when a decrease in global temperatures impaired agricultural yields. Early in the 3rd century Germanic peoples migrated south from Scandinavia and reached the Black Sea, creating formidable confederations which opposed the local Sarmatians. In Dacia (present-day Romania) and on the steppes north of the Black Sea the Goths, a Germanic people, established at least two kingdoms: Therving and

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: annual growth from 1 CE to 1800 CE. After population decline following the disintegration of the western half of the Roman state in the fifth and sixth centuries, Europe probably re-attained Roman-era population totals in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and, following another decline associated with the Black Death, consistently exceeded them after the mid-15th century. There are no reliable surviving records for the general demography of the Roman Empire. There are no detailed local records, such as underlie the demographic study of early modern Europe, either. Large numbers of impressionistic, moralizing, and anecdotal observations on demography survive from the

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: There are few recorded population numbers for the whole of antiquity, and those that exist are often rhetorical or symbolic. Unlike the contemporaneous Han Dynasty, no general census survives for the Roman Empire. The late period of the Roman Republic provides a small exception to this general rule: serial statistics for Roman citizen numbers, taken from census returns, survive for the early Republic through the 1st century CE. Only the figures for periods after the mid-3rd century BCE are reliable, however. Fourteen figures are available for the 2nd century BCE (from 258,318 to 394,736). Only four figures are available for

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: in the vicinity of Rome revealed that only 1 individual definitely came from outside of Europe (North Africa), and another 2 possibly did, but results are inconclusive. Other than that, there was no apparent net inter-regional migration in the imperial period, except perhaps a small continuous resettlement of Easterners in the West. Modern estimates of the population of the Roman Empire derive from the fundamental work of nineteenth-century historian Karl Julius Beloch. His estimates of the area of different components of the empire, based on planimetric estimates by contemporary military cartographers, have not been challenged by any more modern analyst.

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: urbanization rates. During the 2nd century CE, the city of Rome had more than one million inhabitants. No Western city would have as many again until the 19th century. For the lands around the Mediterranean Sea and their hinterlands, the period from the second millennium BCE to the early first millennium CE was one of substantial population growth. What would become the territory of the Roman Empire saw an average annual population growth of about 0.1 per cent from the 12th century BCE to the 3rd century CE, resulting in a quadrupling of the region's total population. Growth was slower

title: Classical demography

text: Gaul and other parts of the Empire. If this only represents adult male citizens (or some subset of adult male citizens those over age 13 as the census traditionally did not count children until they were formally enrolled as citizens early in puberty), then the population of Italy must have been around 10 million, not including slaves and foreigners, which was a striking, sustained increase despite the Romans' losses in the almost constant wars over the previous two centuries. Others find this entirely incredible, and argue that the census must now be counting all citizens, male and female over the

title: Roman Empire

title: Roman Italy

text: citizens, all adult male citizens, or citizens "sui iuris". Estimates for the population of mainland Italy, including Cisalpine Gaul, at the beginning of the 1st century range from 6,000,000 according to Karl Julius Beloch in 1886, to 14,000,000 according to Elio Lo Cascio in 2009. During the Crisis of the Third Century the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy and civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, emperor Diocletian restored political stability. He carried out thorough administrative reforms to maintain order. He created the so-called Tetrarchy whereby the empire was ruled by two senior emperors

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: survive. R. Bagnall and B. Frier have used them to build female and male age distributions, which show life expectancies at birth of between 22 and 25 years, results broadly consistent with model life tables. Other sources used for population reconstructions include cemetery skeletons, Roman tombstones in North Africa, and an annuities table known as "Ulpian's life table". The basis and interpretation of these sources is disputed: the skeletons cannot be firmly dated, the tombstones show non-representative sample populations, and the sources of "Ulpian's life table" are unknown. Nonetheless, because they converge with low Roman elite survival rates shown in

title: Rome

text: grain imports, aqueduct capacity, city limits, population density, census reports, and assumptions about the number of unreported women, children and slaves providing a very wide range. Glenn Storey estimates 450,000 people, Whitney Oates estimates 1.2 million, Neville Morely provides a rough estimate of 800,000 and excludes earlier suggestions of 2 million. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city's population declined to less than 50,000 people. It continued to stagnate or shrink until the Renaissance. When the Kingdom of Italy annexed Rome in 1870, the city had a population of about 200,000. This increased to 600,000 by the

title: Rome

text: was first under the control of Odoacer and then became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom before returning to East Roman control after the Gothic War, which devastated the city. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to 500,000 in 273 to 35,000 after the Gothic War (535-554), reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins, vegetation, vineyards and market gardens. It is generally thought the population of the city until 300 A.D. was 1 million (estimates range from 2 million to 750,000) declining to 750-800,000 in 400 A.D., 450-500,000

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: the 1st century BCE, and are feature a large break between 70/69 BCE (910,000) and 28 BCE (4,063,000). The interpretation of the later figures—the Augustan censuses of 28 BCE, 8 BCE, and 14 CE—is therefore controversial. Alternate interpretations of the Augustan censuses (such as those of E. Lo Cascio) produce divergent population histories across the whole imperial period. The enfranchisement of the Cisalpine provinces and the Italian Allies after the Social War would account for some of the population growth of the 1st century BCE. Alternate readings of the Augustan census both accept the basic accuracy of the figures, but

title: Roman economy

text: estimate (see right) relies on a low-count of the Roman population of only 44 million at the time of the death of Augustus in 14 AD. Italia is considered to have been the richest region, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland; its NDI per capita is estimated at having been between 40% and 66% higher than in the rest of the empire. Besides Italy, the wealthiest province was Egypt, in terms of NDI per capita. The European NDI per capita was higher than in the Asian and African provinces if

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: Although this figure relies more on conjecture than ancient evidence, which is sparse and of dubious quality, it is a point of general consensus among historians of the period. It originates in cross-country comparison: given the known social and economic conditions of the Roman Empire, we should expect a life expectancy near the lower bound of known pre-modern populations. Roman demography bears comparison to available data for India and rural China in the early 20th century, where life expectancies at birth were also in the low 20s. About 300 census returns filed in Egypt in the first three centuries CE

title: Cura Annonae

text: 700,000-800,000, between 400,000 to 500,000 in 452, and thereafter to a population estimated at only 100,000 in 500 CE, declining still further thereafter in the Middle Ages. Due to its "decreasing population, smaller army, and more land to feed its population," Rome did not need many of its watermills, storehouses, bakeries, and port and transportation facilities. Writing in the early 6th century, Cassiodorus noted the large decrease in the population and the existence of watermills. "The vast numbers of the Roman people in old time are evidenced by the extensive Provinces from which their food supply was drawn ...and the

title: Battle of the Allia

text: 9,000 men of military age (aged between 17 and 47), which would require a minimum population of 30,000. Archaeological evidence shows that in the 5th century BC, there was an economic downturn. That would have precluded considerable population growth. The territory of Rome had increased by 75% by the early 4th century, but the bulk of the increase was caused by the recent conquest of the city of Veii and her territory, and its population did not have Roman citizenship, a requirement to serve in the Roman army. Such considerations make it unlikely that the size of the population of

title: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: literary sources. They are of little use in the study of Roman demography, which tends to rely instead on conjecture and comparison, rather than records and observations. When the high infant mortality rate is factored in (life expectancy at birth) inhabitants of the Roman Empire had a life expectancy at birth of about 25 years. However, when infant mortality is factored out, life expectancy is doubled to the late-50s. If a Roman survived infancy to their mid-teens, they could, on average, expect near six decades of life, although of course many lived much longer or shorter lives for varied reasons.

title: Roman Empire

long_answer: The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Rōmānum; Classical Latin: [ɪmˈpɛ.ri.ũː roːˈmaː.nũː] Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterized by government headed by emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia. The city of Rome was the largest city in the world c. 100 BC –  c. AD 400, with Constantinople (New Rome) becoming the largest around AD 500, and the Empire's populace grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population at the time). The 500-year-old republic which preceded it was severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflict, during which Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavian's power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus, effectively marking the end of the Roman Republic.


question: what does sip stand for in the ngn / ims context

answers: Session Initiation Protocol

title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: permanent element of the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) architecture for IP-based streaming multimedia services in cellular networks. In June 2002 the specification was revised in and various extensions and clarifications have been published since. SIP was designed to provide a signaling and call setup protocol for IP-based communications supporting the call processing functions and features present in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) with a vision of supporting new multimedia applications. It has been extended for video conferencing, streaming media distribution, instant messaging, presence information, file transfer, Internet fax and online games. SIP is distinguished by its proponents for having

title: UMTS security

text: calls, video conferences, streaming and chat. SIP is specified by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)27. IMS also uses the IETF Session Description Protocol (SDP)28 to specify the session parameters and to negotiate the codecs to be used. SIP runs on top of different IP transport protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). A 3G IMS subscriber has one IP multimedia private identity (IMPI) and at least one IP multimedia public identity (IMPU). To participate in multimedia sessions, an IMS subscriber must register at least one IMPU with the IMS. The private identity

title: SIP extensions for the IP Multimedia Subsystem

text: extensions is not restricted to the IMS framework. The 3GPP has stated several general requirements stated for operation of the IMS. These include an efficient use of the radio interface by minimizing the exchange of signaling messages between the mobile terminal and the network, a minimum session setup time by performing tasks prior to session establishment instead of during session establishment, a minimum support required in the terminal, the support for roaming and non-roaming scenarios with terminal mobility management (supported by the access network, not SIP), and support for IPv6 addressing. Other requirements involve protocol extensions, such as SIP header

text: functionality. These extensions are based on Request for Comments (RFC) protocol recommendations by the IETF. The 3GPP, which is a collaboration between groups of telecommunications associations aimed at developing and maintaining the IMS, stated a series of requirements for SIP to be successfully used in the IMS. Some of them could be addressed by using existing capabilities and extensions in SIP while, in other cases, the 3GPP had to collaborate with the IETF to standardize new SIP extensions to meet the new requirements. In any case, the IETF evolves SIP in a generic basis, so that the use of its

text: configured to relay messages across both networks according to these recommendations, user agents will need to implement extensions so that they can directly exchange media streams. These extensions are related to the Session Description Protocol offer/answer initial exchange, that will be used to gather the IPv4 and IPv6 addresses of both ends so that they can establish a direct communication. Apart from all the explained extensions to SIP that make it possible for the IMS to work successfully, it is also necessary that the IMS framework interworks and exchanges services with existing network infrastructures, mainly the Public switched telephone network

text: to negotiate and allocate the call resources before the called party is alerted. In the IMS framework, it is required that once the callee is alerted, the chances of a session failure are minimum. An important source of failure is the inability to reserve network resources to support the session, so these resources should be allocated before the phone rings. However, in the IMS, to reserve resources the network needs to know the callee's IP address, port and session parameters and therefore it is necessary that the initial offer/answer exchange to establish a session has started (INVITE request). In basic

text: resource reservation on its side. Subsequent UPDATE requests are sent to inform about the reservation progress, and they are answered by 2XX response codes. In a typical offer/answer exchange, one UPDATE will be sent by the calling party when its reservation is completed, then the called party will respond and eventually finish allocating the resources. It is then, when all the resources for the call are in place, when the caller is alerted. In the IMS framework it is fundamental to handle user identities for authentication, authorization and accounting purposes. The IMS is meant to provide multimedia services over IP

title: SIP trunking

text: applications such as desktop sharing, web conferencing, and shared whiteboard. The architecture of SIP trunking provides a partitioning of the unified communications network into two different domains of expertise: The interconnection between the two domains must occur through a SIP trunk. The interconnection between the two domains, created by transport via the Internet Protocol (IP), involves setting specific rules and regulations as well as the ability to handle some services and protocols that fall under the name of SIP trunking. The ITSP is responsible to the applicable regulatory authority regarding all the following law obligations of the public domain: The

title: Telecoms & Internet converged Services & Protocols for Advanced Networks

text: networking. In 2011, TISPAN published the specification of a functional architecture for Content Delivery Networks (CDN) and is now working on the specification of the protocols applicable to the reference points identified in this architecture (See ETSI TS 182 019) The ETSI website on Next Generation Networking states: ""Standards for fixed NGN were developed by the now closed ETSI technical committee TISPAN. The TC has adopted the 3GPP™ core IMS specifications using Internet (SIP) protocols to allow features such as Presence, IPTV, Messaging, and Conferencing to be delivered irrespective of the network in use. Maintenance of NGN standards are now

text: a format used to describe streaming media initialization parameters, carried in the body of SIP messages. The new SDP attributes are meant to describe the "current status" of the resource reservation, the "desired status" of the reservation to proceed with session establishment, and the "confirmation status", to indicate when the reservation status should be confirmed. In the IMS, the initial session parameter negotiation can be done by using the provisional responses and session description updating extensions, along with SDP in the body of the messages. The first offer, described by means of SDP, can be carried by the INVITE request

title: IP Multimedia Subsystem

text: in a single network, for dimensioning, load balancing or organizational issues. The user can connect to IMS in various ways, most of which use the standard IP. IMS terminals (such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and computers) can register directly on IMS, even when they are roaming in another network or country (the visited network). The only requirement is that they can use IP and run SIP user agents. Fixed access (e.g., Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), cable modems, Ethernet), mobile access (e.g. W-CDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, GPRS) and wireless access (e.g., WLAN, WiMAX) are all supported. Other phone systems

text: to the user agent. This extension is only applicable within administrative domains with trust relationships. It was particularly designed for specialized SIP networks like the IMS, and not for the general Internet. Source routing is the mechanism that allows the sender of a message to specify partially or completely the route the message traverses. In SIP, the "route" header field, filled by the sender, supports this functionality by listing a set of proxies the message will visit. In the IMS context, there are certain network entities (i.e. certain CSCFs) that must be traversed by requests from or to a user,

text: it ensures mobility of users, terminals and services as much as possible, even across administrative boundaries. A key subsystem is based on the architectures of 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS). TISPAN has been working with 3GPP to extend the IMS architecture with capabilities required in support of wire-line access. TISPAN NGN Release 2 was finalized early 2008, and added support for IPTV services and Business Communications over the IMS. Since early 2008, TISPAN has begun work on the third release of its NGN specifications with prime focus on IPTV enhancements, Content Delivery Networks (CDN) and home

text: SIP instance, and the registrar (i.e. S-CSCF) builds the GRUU, associates it to the registered identity and SIP instance and sends it back to the user agent in the response. When the S-CSCF receives a request for that GRUU, it will be able to route the request to the registered SIP instance. The efficient use of network resources, which may include a radio interface or other low-bandwidth access, is essential in the IMS in order to provide the user with an acceptable experience in terms of latency. To achieve this goal, SIP messages can be compressed using the mechanism known

title: Service layer

text: IP multimedia Subsystem Service Control Interface (ISC). The ISC interface uses the SIP signalling protocol. The network elements contained within the service layer are generically referred to as 'service platforms' however the 3GPP specification (3GPP TS 23.228 V8.7.0) defines several types of service platforms: The SIP Application Server (AS) performs the same function as a Telephony Application Server in a pre-IMS network, however it is specifically tailored to support the SIP signalling protocol for use in an IMS network. An OSA Service Capability Server acts as a secure gateway between the IMS network and an application which runs upon the

text: user agents (terminals) can describe themselves when they register so that others can search for them according to their caller preferences extension headers. For this purpose, they list their capabilities in the "Contact" header field of the REGISTER message. The aim of event notification is to obtain the status of a given resource (e.g. a user, one's voicemail service) and to receive updates of that status when it changes. Event notification is necessary in the IMS framework to inform about the "presence" of a user (i.e. "online" or "offline") to others that may be waiting to contact them, or to

title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: corporate information system infrastructure by sharing Internet access for voice and data, and removing the cost for Basic Rate Interface (BRI) or Primary Rate Interface (PRI) telephone circuits. "SIP trunking" is a similar marketing term preferred for when the service is used to simplify a telecom infrastructure by sharing the carrier access circuit for voice, data, and Internet traffic while removing the need for Primary Rate Interface (PRI) circuits. SIP-enabled video surveillance cameras can initiate calls to alert the operator of events, such as motion of objects in a protected area. SIP is used in audio over IP for broadcasting

title: Femtocell

text: up a connection between the femtocell and a femtocell convergence server (FCS). Voice calls are routed through the FCS which emulates an MSC. SIP is not required or used by the mobile device itself. In the SIP architecture, the femtocell connects to a core network of the mobile operator that is based on the SIP/IMS architecture. This is achieved by having the femtocells behave toward the SIP/IMS network like a SIP/IMS client by converting the circuit-switched 3G signaling to SIP/IMS signaling, and by transporting the voice traffic over RTP as defined in the IETF standards. Although much of the commercial

title: Multimedia telephony

text: Multimedia telephony The 3GPP/NGN IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) multimedia telephony service (MMTel) is a global standard based on the IMS, offering converged, fixed and mobile real-time multimedia communication using the media capabilities such as voice, real-time video, text, file transfer and sharing of pictures, audio and video clips. With MMTel, users have the capability to add and drop media during a session. You can start with chat, add voice (for instance Mobile VoIP), add another caller, add video, share media and transfer files, and drop any of these without losing or having to end the session. MMTel is one of

title: IP Multimedia Subsystem

title: Media-independent handover

text: (SIP) for signaling, Mobile IP for mobility management, and DiffServ and IntServ for QoS. When a session is handed off from one access point to another access point using the same technology, the handover can usually be performed within that wireless technology itself without involving MIHF or IP. For instance a VoIP call from a Wi-Fi handset to a Wi-Fi access point can be handed over to another Wi-Fi access point within the same network, e.g. a corporate network, using Wi-Fi standards such as 802.11f and 802.11r. However, if the handover is from a Wi-Fi access point in a corporate

title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: applications where it provides an interoperable means for audio interfaces from different manufacturers to make connections with one another. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Advanced Networking Technologies Division provides a public-domain Java implementation that serves as a reference implementation for the standard. The implementation can work in proxy server or user agent scenarios and has been used in numerous commercial and research projects. It supports in full and a number of extension RFCs including (event notification) and (reliable provisional responses). Numerous other commercial and open-source SIP implementations exist. See List of SIP software. SIP-I, or the

title: IP Multimedia Subsystem

text: in two ways: Both A-MGW and VGW are unaware of the services. They only relay call control signalling to and from the PSTN terminal. Session control and handling is done by IMS components. One of the most important features of IMS, that of allowing for a SIP application to be dynamically and differentially (based on the user's profile) triggered, is implemented as a filter-and-redirect signalling mechanism in the S-CSCF. The S-CSCF might apply filter criteria to determine the need to forward SIP requests to AS. It is important to note that services for the originating party will be applied in

title: IMS security

text: the Home Network, even if the user is roaming. Support confidentiality of SIP messages between the UE and the P-CSCF through the use of IPsec is provided. According to 3GPP specifications, user authentication must be based on Digest AKA, somewhat analogous to the UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) access authentication but for SIP. The 3GPP specification TS 33.203 exposed to signalling between the user agent and the P-CSCF should be based on IPsec ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload) in transport mode. However, the use of IPSec in this mode was not suitable for use in fixed networks. The problem lay in

title: Session Initiation Protocol

text: call routers, and voicemail boxes, are identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI). The syntax of the URI follows the general standard syntax also used in Web services and e-mail. The URI scheme used for SIP is "sip" and a typical SIP URI has the form "<nowiki>sip:username@domainname</nowiki>" or "<nowiki>sip:username@hostport</nowiki>", where "domainname" requires DNS SRV records to locate the servers for SIP domain while "hostport" can be an IP address or a fully qualified domain name of the host and port. If secure transmission is required, the scheme "sips" is used. SIP employs design elements similar to the HTTP request/response transaction

text: fields to exchange user or server information, and SIP methods to support new network functionality: requirement for registration, re-registration, de-registration, event notifications, instant messaging or call control primitives with additional capabilities such as call transference. Other specific requirements are: Finally, it is also necessary that other protocols and network services such as DHCP or DNS are adapted to work with SIP, for instance for outbound proxy (P-CSCF) location and SIP Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) to IP address resolution, respectively. There is a mechanism in SIP for extension negotiation between user agents (UA) or servers, consisting of three header fields: "supported",

text: this SIP URI in the "Route" header field of all his or her requests, so that they are forwarded through the home S-CSCF. In the IMS it is possible for a user to have multiple terminals (e.g. a mobile phone, a computer) or application instances (e.g. video telephony, instant messaging, voice mail) that are identified with the same public identity (i.e. SIP URI). Therefore, a mechanism is needed in order to route requests to the desired device or application. That is what a "Globally Routable User Agent URI (GRU)" is: a URI that identifies a specific user agent instance (i.e.

text: the IMS every user agent is served by its P-CSCF, which is discovered by using the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol or an equivalent mechanism when the user enters the IMS network, and all requests and responses from or to the user agent must traverse this proxy. When the user registers to the home registrar (S-CSCF), the P-CSCF adds its own SIP URI in a "Path" header field in the REGISTER message, so that the S-CSCF receives and stores this information associated with the contact information of the user. This way, the S-CSCF will forward every request addressed to that user

title: Peer-to-peer SIP

text: Protocol is in principle a client-server protocol, however it has been described in analogy to the P2P relationship, called a "dialog", which is defined by a unique combination of SIP protocol parameters (To-tag, From-tag, Call-ID). Both endpoints of a communication session implement a user-agent server and a user-agent client, which enables any two user agents to communicate directly with one another without the mediation of another a central switching system. SIP also provides facilities of registering (REGISTER request) the network location of a user agent with other SIP elements and subscription (SUBSCRIBE request) and notification (NOTIFY request) features for event

title: IP Multimedia Subsystem

text: that isolates the access network from the service layer. From a logical architecture perspective, services need not have their own control functions, as the control layer is a common horizontal layer. However, in implementation this does not necessarily map into greater reduced cost and complexity. Alternative and overlapping technologies for access and provisioning of services across wired and wireless networks include combinations of Generic Access Network, softswitches and "naked" SIP. Since it is becoming increasingly easier to access content and contacts using mechanisms outside the control of traditional wireless/fixed operators, the interest of IMS is being challenged. Examples of global

title: IP Multimedia Subsystem

long_answer: To ease the integration with the Internet, IMS uses IETF protocols wherever possible, e.g., SIP (Session Initiation Protocol). According to the 3GPP, IMS is not intended to standardize applications, but rather to aid the access of multimedia and voice applications from wireless and wireline terminals, i.e., to create a form of fixed-mobile convergence (FMC). This is done by having a horizontal control layer that isolates the access network from the service layer. From a logical architecture perspective, services need not have their own control functions, as the control layer is a common horizontal layer. However, in implementation this does not necessarily map into greater reduced cost and complexity.


question: when was penicillin first introduced to the public

answers: After World War II

answers: 1942

title: History of penicillin

text: respond to any traditional antiseptic was then given another substance that cured her, and Lister's registrar informed her that it was called Penicillium. In 1874, the Welsh physician William Roberts, who later coined the term "enzyme", observed that bacterial contamination is generally absent in laboratory cultures of "Penicillium glaucum". John Tyndall followed up on Burdon-Sanderson's work and demonstrated to the Royal Society in 1875 the antibacterial action of the "Penicillium" fungus. By this time, "Bacillus anthracis" had been shown to cause anthrax, the first demonstration that a specific bacterium caused a specific disease. In 1877, French biologists Louis Pasteur and

title: History of penicillin

text: (now Sandoz) developed the first acid-stable penicillin for oral administration, Penicillin V. American chemist John C. Sheehan of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) subsequently completed the first chemical synthesis of penicillin in 1957. The second-generation semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotic methicillin, designed to counter first-generation-resistant penicillinases, was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1959. Methicillin-resistant forms of "Staphylococcus aureus" likely already existed at the time. History of penicillin The history of penicillin follows a number of observations and discoveries of apparent evidence of antibiotic activity in molds before the modern isolation of the chemical penicillin in 1928. There are anecdotes about

title: History of penicillin

text: History of penicillin The history of penicillin follows a number of observations and discoveries of apparent evidence of antibiotic activity in molds before the modern isolation of the chemical penicillin in 1928. There are anecdotes about ancient societies using molds to treat infections, and in the following centuries many people observed the inhibition of bacterial growth by various molds. However, it is unknown if the species involved were "Penicillium" species or if the antimicrobial substances produced were penicillin. The Scottish physician Alexander Fleming was the first to suggest that a "Penicillium" mold must secrete an antibacterial substance, and the first

title: History of penicillin

text: to concentrate the active substance involved, which he named penicillin, in 1928. Penicillin was the first modern antibiotic. During the next twelve years Fleming grew, distributed, and studied the original mold, which was determined to be a rare variant of "Penicillium notatum" (now "Penicillium chrysogenum"). Many later scientists were involved in the stabilization and mass production of penicillin and in the search for more productive strains of "Penicillium". Important contributors include Ernst Chain, Howard Florey, Norman Heatley, and Edward Abraham. Shortly after the discovery of penicillin, scientists found that some disease-causing pathogens display antibiotic resistance to penicillin. Research that aims

title: Roaring Twenties

text: Alexander Fleming discovered a substance that killed a number of disease-causing bacteria. In 1929, he named the new substance "penicillin". His publications were largely ignored at first, but it became a significant antibiotic in the 1930s. In 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at Sheffield Royal Infirmary, used penicillin to treat sycosis barbae, eruptions in beard follicles, but was unsuccessful. Moving on to ophthalmia neonatorum, a gonococcal infection in infants, he achieved the first recorded cure with penicillin, on November 25, 1930. He then cured four additional patients (one adult and three infants) of eye infections, but failed to cure

title: Gladys Lounsbury Hobby

text: 1940 and 1941, before presenting at the American Society for Clinical Investigation. They discovered that penicillin was a powerful germ-killer that reduced the severity of infectious diseases and made procedures such as organ transplantation and open-heart surgery possible. Their findings received media coverage, which helped attract funding from the United States Government to mass-produce penicillin during World War II, saving the lives of many soldiers. At Pfizer, Hobby did extensive early work on Terramycin and Viomycin, used for the treatment of tuberculosis. Gladys Lounsbury Hobby Gladys Lounsbury Hobby (November 19, 1910 – July 4, 1993), born in New York City,

title: Penicillin

text: by scientists and physicians on the antibacterial properties of the different types of moulds including the mould penicillium but they were unable to discern what process was causing the effect. The effects of penicillium mould would finally be isolated in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming, in work that seems to have been independent of those earlier observations. Fleming recounted that the date of his discovery of penicillin was on the morning of Friday 28 September 1928. The traditional version of this story describes the discovery as a serendipitous accident: in his laboratory in the basement of St Mary's Hospital

title: Penicillin

text: November 19, 1999. In 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in Sheffield, attempted to use penicillin to treat sycosis barbae, eruptions in beard follicles, but was unsuccessful. Moving on to ophthalmia neonatorum, a gonococcal infection in infants, he achieved the first recorded cure with penicillin, on November 25, 1930. He then cured four additional patients (one adult and three infants) of eye infections, and failed to cure a fifth. In 1939, Australian scientist Howard Florey (later Baron Florey) and a team of researchers (Ernst Boris Chain, Edward Abraham, Arthur Duncan Gardner, Norman Heatley, M. Jennings, J.

title: Albert Alexander (police officer)

text: murder, the purification invites disaster.” Nonetheless, by March 15, 1945, supplies of penicillin were not only available to American troops, but to the American public, as war-time restrictions on availability were lifted. Albert Alexander (police officer) Reserve Constable Albert Alexander (1896 – 15 March 1941) was the first patient to be treated with injections of penicillin. Albert Alexander was a constable in the police force of the County of Oxford, England. In December 1940, Constable Alexander was accidentally scratched by a rose thorn on his face. By the end of the month, the scratch was badly infected with both "Staphylococcus"

title: La Follette-Bulwinkle Act

text: Cosmetic Act Penicillin Amendment on July 6, 1945. The United States public law required the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to certify and test penicillin samplings validating the effectiveness, potency, purification, and safety of the antibiotic drugs. The 1960s sexual revolution movement prompt the United States Congress to draft amendments for the Public Health Service Act authorizing control, prevention, and vaccination assistance for communicable diseases. The United States statutes were enacted into law by the 37th President of the United States Richard Nixon and the 38th President of the United States Gerald Ford. By 1914, American exploitation films were produced

title: History of penicillin

text: earnest in the 1870s, in the United Kingdom. Sir John Scott Burdon-Sanderson, who started out at St. Mary's Hospital (1852–1858) and later worked there as a lecturer (1854–1862), observed that culture fluid covered with mold would produce no bacterial growth. Burdon-Sanderson's discovery prompted Joseph Lister, an English surgeon and the father of modern antisepsis, to discover in 1871 that urine samples contaminated with mold also did not permit the growth of bacteria. Lister also described the antibacterial action on human tissue of a species of mold he called "Penicillium glaucum". A nurse at King's College Hospital whose wounds did not

title: Martin Henry Dawson

text: prepare it and use it in human disease. This included the successful treatment of bacterial endocarditis with penicillin, and the use of gold salts in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Dawson became the first person in history to stick a needle full of an antibiotic (penicillin) into a patient, on October 16, 1940. After he had graduated Dalhousie University in Halifax with a BA in 1916 he started serving in the Canadian forces in the First World War. Pte. M. Henry Dawson was with No. 7 Stationary Hospital at La Harve, France. He became a Capt. in the Nova Scotia

title: Vincenzo Tiberio

text: connection anticipated the discovery of the drug penicillin by Alexander Fleming thirty-five years later (see: Penicillin - Discovery). At the time, his work was disregarded as coincidence and received no further study. Vincenzo Tiberio Vincenzo Tiberio (May 1, 1869 – January 7, 1915) was an Italian researcher and medical officer of the Medical Corps of the Italian Navy and physician at the University of Naples. During his medical studies at the Faculty of Medicine in Naples he noticed that when the walls of a well which supplied drinking water was cleaned off, the people who drank the well’s water complained

title: Penicillium chrysogenum

text: a fermenter. The mold is grown in a liquid culture containing sugar and other nutrients including a source of nitrogen. As the mold grows, it uses up the sugar and starts to make penicillin only after using up most of the nutrients for growth. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 when Alexander Fleming's lab assistant accidentally left a window open overnight and mold spores covered his "Staphylococcus" bacterial specimens in a Petri dish. At first, Fleming was very irritated at the contamination, but as he was about to throw the specimens away, he noticed something interesting. He looked under the microscope

title: Biotechnology

text: – to form what we today know as penicillin. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans. The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the

title: Norman Heatley

text: to a PhD in 1936, and he then moved to Oxford where he became a fellow of Lincoln College at the University of Oxford and joined a team working under Howard Florey, which also included Ernst Chain. Alexander Fleming had first discovered penicillin by accident in 1928, but at that time believed it had little application. When Florey and his team recognised the potential of the discovery for combating bacterial infection, they faced the problem of how to manufacture penicillin in sufficient quantities to be of use. Heatley, although the junior member of the team, possessed a natural gift for

title: History of penicillin

text: and subsequently concentrated what he later named "penicillin". During the next twelve years, Fleming grew and distributed the original mold, which was eventually identified as "Penicillium notatum" (now known as "Penicillium chrysogenum"). He was unsuccessful in making a stable form of it for mass production. Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in Sheffield, attempted to treat sycosis (eruptions in beard follicles) with penicillin but was unsuccessful, probably because the drug did not penetrate deep enough. Moving on to ophthalmia neonatorum, a gonococcal infection in babies, he achieved the first cure on 25 November 1930. He cured four

title: History of penicillin

text: patients (one adult, the others infants) of eye infections, although a fifth patient was not so lucky. At Oxford, Howard Walter Florey organized a large and very skilled biochemical research team, notable among them Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley, to undertake clinical trials and produce a stable penicillin in quantity. In 1940, Chain and Edward Abraham reported the first indication of antibiotic resistance to penicillin, an "E. coli" strain that produced the penicillinase enzyme, which was capable of breaking down penicillin and completely negating its antibacterial effect. Between 1941 and 1943, Moyer, Coghill and Raper at the USDA Northern

title: Grünenthal

text: prohibited the research and manufacture of penicillin by German companies. When the ban was lifted, Grünenthal was the first company to introduce penicillin in the postwar period into the German market. This investment achieved a big financial boost for the company. Chemie Grünenthal synthesized thalidomide in 1954 and acquired a 20-year patent. Soon after obtaining a patent in April 1954, the company started clinical trials, and as early as November 1956, marketed the drug for the treatment of respiratory infections under the trade name Grippex, a combination drug that contained thalidomide, quinine, vitamin C, phenacetin, and acetylsalicylic acid. Researchers at

title: Penicillin

text: Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming. People began using it to treat infections in 1942.  There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria; these include the antistaphylococcal penicillins, aminopenicillins and the antipseudomonal penicillins. They are derived from Penicillium fungi.

title: Norman Heatley

text: Heatley who realised that the most effective vessel for this purpose was something like the porcelain bedpans in use at the Radcliffe Infirmary. These were in short supply because of wartime, so Heatley designed a modified version which was manufactured in the Potteries. With the help of these, the Oxford laboratory became the first penicillin factory, and subsequent tests on human beings proved the efficacy of the new treatment. Even so, it was very difficult to produce enough for sustained treatment. In December 1940, a 43-year-old Police Constable, Albert Alexander, was accidentally scratched by a rose thorn on his mouth,

title: Rachel Fuller Brown

text: develop a pneumonia vaccine still in use today. Additionally, she researched ways to improve the test for syphilis. However, the antibacterial and antifungal work that she is best known for did not begin until 1948. During this year, Brown embarked on a project with Elizabeth Lee Hazen, a leading authority on fungus and bacteria related research. The project would eventually bring the two scientists national recognition for discovering an antibiotic to fight fungal infections. Penicillin had been discovered in 1928, and in the years that followed, antibiotics were increasingly used to fight bacterial illness. However, one side effect was that

title: Edmund Kornfeld

text: to the need for an alternative to penicillin in resistant bacterial infections, the initial preparations were considered safe enough for use in humans. The first human trial was in 1950. The drug was given to a patient that had developed a severe infection on his foot after surgery which was unresposnsive to multiple antibiotics. The surgical staff recommended amputation or the usage of the new antibiotic. His answer was ‘ Anything that might save my foot’. Due to the spread of the bacteria, a high dosage the antibiotic of 05865 was recommended, 100 mg every eight hours, over five days.

title: Penicillin

text: synthesis was 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA), the nucleus of penicillin. Attaching different groups to the 6-APA 'nucleus' of penicillin allowed the creation of new forms of penicillin. The narrow range of treatable diseases or "spectrum of activity" of the penicillins, along with the poor activity of the orally active phenoxymethylpenicillin, led to the search for derivatives of penicillin that could treat a wider range of infections. The isolation of 6-APA, the nucleus of penicillin, allowed for the preparation of semisynthetic penicillins, with various improvements over benzylpenicillin (bioavailability, spectrum, stability, tolerance). The first major development was ampicillin in 1961. It offered a

title: John C. Sheehan

text: chemistry, especially for his new methods of synthesis of peptides, three new syntheses of β-lactams, first synthesis of the penicillin ring system, and his work on several other natural products. For three decades after the discovery of natural penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming, the source of the antibiotic hardly changed. Scientists made the drug by natural fermentation of Penicillium mold. However, during World War II, the United States government undertook a massive effort to determine the chemical structure of penicillin and to chemically synthesize it in large quantities. The scale of this project was compared to the development of the

title: Production of antibiotics

text: Penicillin was the first of the antibiotics to be discovered. After the discovery there was the issue of taking the raw naturally produced penicillin and developing a method so that wide-scale production of a clinically significant antibiotic could occur. Over the course of many years a team led by Florey and Chain and based in Oxford was able to successfully purify, concentrate, and produce the antibiotic. Advances in scientific technology have not always led to better conditions for the production of antibiotics. Since 1987 there have been no new classes of antibiotics discovered for industrial production and widespread usage. However

title: Penicillin

text: Penicillin Penicillin (PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin G (intravenous use), penicillin V (use by mouth), procaine penicillin, and benzathine penicillin (intramuscular use). Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci. They are still widely used today, though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use. About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin; however, up to 90% of this group may not actually be allergic. Serious allergies only occur in about 0.03%. All penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics. Penicillin

title: History of penicillin

text: long periods in their hearth lofts before embarking on military campaigns in order to make a poultice of the cakes to treat wounds. In 17th-century Poland, wet bread was mixed with spider webs (which often contained fungal spores) to treat wounds. The technique was mentioned by Henryk Sienkiewicz in his 1884 book "With Fire and Sword". In England in 1640, the idea of using mold as a form of medical treatment was recorded by apothecaries such as John Parkinson, King's Herbarian, who advocated the use of mold in his book on pharmacology. The modern history of penicillin research begins in

title: Dorothy Hodgkin

text: C.H. (Harry) Carlisle, she published the first such structure of a steroid, cholesteryl iodide (having worked with cholesteryls since the days of her doctoral studies). In 1945, Hodgkin and her colleagues solved the structure of penicillin, demonstrating (contrary to scientific opinion at the time) that it contains a β-lactam ring. The work was not published until 1949. In 1948, Hodgkin first encountered vitamin B, and created new crystals. Vitamin B had first been discovered at Merck earlier that year. It had a structure at the time that was almost completely unknown, and when Hodgkin discovered it contained cobalt, she realized

title: Penicillium chrysogenum

text: medication in humans and animals. However, the discovery did not attract much attention until the 1940s, when Howard Florey, Norman Heatley, and Ernst Chain developed methods for mass production and application in humans, incited by the urgent war-time need for antibacterial agents. The work of Andrew J. Moyer was important in these early developments. At this point, though the drug had shown success in treating numerous bacterial diseases, it was still so difficult to produce and so dilute that it was not feasible to produce quantities large enough for mass production, so an effort was begun to find a strain

title: Penicillin


question: what channel is celebrity big brother on in the usa

answers: CBS

answers: on CBS

title: Celebrity Big Brother 16 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 16 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 16, also known as Celebrity Big Brother: UK vs USA, was the sixteenth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother", hosted by Emma Willis and narrated by Marcus Bentley. The series launched on 27 August 2015 on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom and TV3 in the Ireland, and ended after 29 days on 24 September 2015. It is the ninth celebrity series and the fourteenth series of "Big Brother" overall to air on Channel 5. It was the only celebrity series to credit Denis O'Connor as creative director.

title: Celebrity Big Brother (UK TV series)

text: the spin-off series provided poor ratings and was not renewed. "Ultimate Big Brother" was the final series to air on Channel 4, and featured fourteen of the most memorable housemates from both "Big Brother" and "Celebrity Big Brother" competing in the series. Numerous other spin-offs have occurred throughout the series such as "Big Brother's Big Mouth", hosted by Russell Brand, and "Big Brother's Little Brother" hosted by Dermot O'Leary. Following the show's move to Channel 5, "Big Brother's Bit on the Side" is the only currently airing spin-off series. "Big Brother" is a game show in which a group of

title: Celebrity Big Brother 1 (UK)

text: March 2001, on Channel 4. The contestants were recorded 24 hours a day with cameras fixed around the house, and had to wear portable microphones. Due to the tie-in with Comic Relief, the first series was partly broadcast on BBC One in the week leading up to the telethon. Channel 4 broadcast a daily 30-minute highlights show, and from the second day on there was a live eviction show hosted by Davina McCall, where the evicted housemate was interviewed. In the nightly highlight episodes, viewers are shown various highlights of a specific day in the house. BBC One's coverage consisted

title: Celebrity Big Brother

text: Celebrity Big Brother Celebrity Big Brother (or Big Brother VIP) is an adaptation of the "Big Brother" reality television series. Just like its parent franchise, "Celebrity Big Brother" airs in several countries, however the housemates or houseguests are local celebrities. In some countries, the prize money normally awarded to the winning housemate is donated to a charity, and all celebrities are paid to appear in the show as long as they do not voluntarily leave before their eviction or the end of the series. The rest of the rules are nearly the same as those of the original version. The

title: Celebrity Big Brother 3 (UK)

text: the pupil, indicating that it is a celebrity series. The live launch, nightly highlight shows, live eviction and finale were all broadcast on Channel 4. Davina McCall remained host of the live shows. Big Brother's Little Brother returned for the celebrity series once again hosted by Dermot O'Leary, for the first time ever it was broadcast in a late night time-slot on Channel 4, however it was broadcast in its usual Sunday lunchtime slot. On E4, live coverage from the house dominated its daily and nightly schedule, Nominations Uncut and Diary Room Uncut – which were both introduced during Big

title: Celebrity Big Brother (UK TV series)

text: in the United Kingdom and immediately became a ratings success. Following the success of the first series, it was confirmed that a celebrity edition of the show was in the works. "Celebrity Big Brother" aired in March 2001 as a one-time special on Channel 4 in association with the BBC's "Comic Relief" charity telethon. Due to the tie-in with Comic Relief, the first series was partly broadcast on BBC One in the week leading up to the telethon. It lasted for eight days, and was ultimately won by comedian Jack Dee. With the first series proving to be a success,

title: Celebrity Big Brother 14 (UK)

text: not include Channel 5 +1. Celebrity Big Brother 14 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 14 was the fourteenth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother". The series launched on 18 August 2014 on Channel 5 and ended after 26 days on 12 September. It was the seventh celebrity series and the eleventh series of "Big Brother" overall to air on the channel. Emma Willis hosted the series, whilst Rylan Clark presented the spin-off show "Celebrity Big Brother's Bit on the Side" along with Iain Lee, Willis and regular panelist Luisa Zissman. The series was won by actor Gary

title: Celebrity Big Brother 8 (UK)

text: house and the first task set. Lauren Harries acted as fashion expert on the launch night show, castigating the styling of the new housemates. The show was similar to ex-spin off shows "Big Brother's Little Brother" and "Big Brother's Big Mouth", but is shown after the main show. The debut show was watched by 1.82 million viewers (receiving 13.4%). It returned along with the ninth series of the main celebrity show in January 2012. This is a special edition of the main "OK! TV" magazine show broadcast from the Big Brother compound in the Elstree Studio. The first edition aired

title: Celebrity Big Brother 14 (UK)

text: the eye. Despite fifteenth series of "Big Brother" having only an hour and a half live feed for the entire series run, it was officially announced on 6 August 2014 that there would be an hour of live feed available almost nightly on Channel 5 due to the ratings success of the previous editions of the show and mass viewer request. On 11 August 2014, the first 30-second teaser was released which features footage from past series of "Celebrity Big Brother" on Channel 5. However, the tenth series or eleventh series are not included. SuperCasino continued its sponsorship for this

title: Celebrity Big Brother 16 (UK)

text: episodes will air on Channel 5, with the weekend episodes airing on 5*. The first five-second teaser for "Celebrity Big Brother" aired on 31 July 2015 confirming the theme UK v USA. Channel 5 later revealed the full length advert on 7 August 2015. The advert featured hosts Emma Willis and Rylan Clark. Lucozade returns to sponsor "Celebrity Big Brother" after previously sponsoring "Big Brother 16" earlier in the year. The house was redecorated following the sixteenth civilian series. The house was decorated with British and American iconography to suit the UK v USA theme. House pictures were officially revealed

title: Celebrity Big Brother 8 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 8 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 2011, also known as Celebrity Big Brother 8, was the eighth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother". It was the first series of "Celebrity Big Brother" to air on Channel 5, and the first celebrity series not to air in January since "Celebrity Big Brother 2", which was broadcast in November 2002. The series launched on 18 August 2011, and ended after 22 days on 8 September 2011, making it the shortest Channel 5 series. It was followed by the twelfth regular series, which launched the following night

title: Celebrity Big Brother 10 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 10 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 10 was the tenth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother". It launched on 15 August 2012, two days after the final of "Big Brother 13", and aired on Channel 5 and 5* for 24 days until 7 September 2012. It was the third celebrity series to air on Channel 5 as part of a contract extension of the current two-year contract with Endemol, and the fifth series of "Big Brother" to air on Channel 5 since they acquired the show. The series was sponsored by hair product brand

title: Celebrity Big Brother 14 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 14 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 14 was the fourteenth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother". The series launched on 18 August 2014 on Channel 5 and ended after 26 days on 12 September. It was the seventh celebrity series and the eleventh series of "Big Brother" overall to air on the channel. Emma Willis hosted the series, whilst Rylan Clark presented the spin-off show "Celebrity Big Brother's Bit on the Side" along with Iain Lee, Willis and regular panelist Luisa Zissman. The series was won by actor Gary Busey. With an average of

title: Celebrity Big Brother 8 (UK)

text: celebrity housemates. It revealed a colourful, opulent look with a return to the luxury feel of the early Channel 4 series. It featured a bar, gym, sauna, an open-plan bathroom, the UK series' largest swimming pool thus far. In the celebrity series, the shower enclosure was screened off from public view but this was changed to a clear view for the main series. There was also a large outdoor area and a sophisticated range of designer furnishings and fittings. This made a radical contrast with the shift to an austere, claustrophobic house seen in the later Channel 4 series. The

title: Celebrity Big Brother (UK TV series)

text: "Celebrity Big Brother" began as a one-time spin-off series to the original "Big Brother UK", and premiered on Channel 4 on 9 March 2001. Following the successful first series, the show returned the following year for a second series. Though the show did not air for the next two years, it returned in 2005 and 2006. Following the highly controversial fifth series in 2007, the show did not return in 2008. It did air in 2009, but it was officially axed after the seventh series in 2010 when Channel 4 chose to cancel the programme as well as the main

title: Celebrity Big Brother (UK TV series)

text: Brother" did not air in 2008. It did, however, return in 2009 and 2010, with the 2010 series being announced as the final one. After Richard Desmond bought Channel 5 in 2010, he said he was keen to acquire both "Big Brother" and "Celebrity Big Brother". Meanwhile, Endemol had been granted permission to keep the "Big Brother" House at the Elstree TV Studios until 30 September 2013. On 2 April 2011, "The Daily Star", a newspaper owned by Desmond's Northern & Shell company, reported that "Big Brother" would be returning on Channel 5 in August 2011 with a Celebrity edition,

title: Celebrity Big Brother

text: celebrity version has become particularly popular in the UK, causing UK broadcaster Channel 5 to extend its deal with Endemol enabling them to air two celebrity series in addition to the civilian version every year from 2012. In total the UK aired 22 celebrity series with their "twenty-second and final series" ending on 10 September 2018, Four days later on 14 September 2018, Channel 5 confirmed that they had axed both "Big Brother" and "Celebrity Big Brother". In Bulgaria, "VIP Brother" has replaced the original format of the show and more seasons of the celebrity edition have been produced than

title: Celebrity Big Brother 1 (UK)

text: celebrities living in a custom built house with no contact with the outside world. Each week, the housemates are required to nominate two people for eviction. The two or more people with the most votes were nominated to leave the House. The viewers then decided which of the nominees should leave, with the selected person leaving during a live show. This process continued until only three housemates remained, at which time the public voted for which of them should win the series. Unlike the original show, "Celebrity Big Brother" saw the housemates competing for charity. The series premiered on 9

title: Channel 5 (UK) programming

text: "Celebrity Big Brother" was won by Ryan Thomas on 10 September 2018 with the final series of "Big Brother" launching four days later on 14 September 2018, ending after 53 days on 5 November 2018. In total Big Brother and Celebrity Big Brother aired twenty-three series on Channel 5 between 2011–2018, with 8 regular and 15 celebrity series respectively. "The Farm" was Channel 5's version of the international TV format "The Farm". It had a series of celebrities appearing on it during its two series run and did attract some controversy. Channel 5 cancelled "The Farm" following series two in

title: Celebrity Big Brother (U.S. TV series)

text: Celebrity Big Brother, also known as Big Brother: Celebrity Edition, is a spin-off series of the American reality television series Big Brother. This season aired during the winter of the 2017–18 network television season on CBS and was the second U.S. Big Brother season to air outside the usual summer television season, the first being Big Brother 9 in 2008.  Julie Chen returned as host, with Allison Grodner and Rich Meehan returning as executive producers. The season was produced by Fly on the Wall Entertainment in association with Endemol Shine North America. The season premiered on February 7, 2018.

title: Celebrity Big Brother 1 (UK)

text: which a group of contestants, called housemates, live in isolation from the outside world in a custom built "house", which includes everyday facilities such as a fully equipped kitchen, garden, two bedrooms, and a bathroom. The house is also a television studio with cameras and microphones in most of the rooms to record the activities of the housemates. The only place where housemates can escape the company of the other contestants is the Diary Room, where they are encouraged to voice their true feelings. Not all Diary Room footage is broadcast due to the privacy of the contestants. Each week

title: Celebrity Big Brother 18 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 18 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 18 was the eighteenth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother", hosted by Emma Willis and narrated by Marcus Bentley. The series launched on 28 July 2016, just two days after the conclusion of "Big Brother 17" on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom and TV3 in Ireland. The series ended on 26 August 2016, making it the longest summer series to date and the third-longest series of "Celebrity Big Brother" in its history, behind series 15 and 17, respectively. Rylan Clark-Neal continues to present the spin-off show "Celebrity

title: Big Brother (UK TV series)

text: day would be its last. Since its inception, "Big Brother" has seen numerous spin-offs and tie-in series' launch on both Channel 4 and Channel 5. The most notable spin-off, "Celebrity Big Brother", began initially as a one time series and involved six celebrities staying in the House for eight days. Following the success of the series, "Celebrity Big Brother" went on to become an annual occurrence, much like the main series. Following widespread media attention involving racism during the fifth series, the show was not broadcast the following year. The show returned in 2009, and the final series to air

title: Celebrity Big Brother (UK TV series)

text: celebrity contestants, referred to as housemates, live in isolation from the outside world in a custom built "house", constantly under video surveillance. During their time in the House, the housemates are required to nominate two of their fellow contestants for potential eviction, and the two or more with the most votes would be nominated. This process is mandatory for all housemates, and failure to comply could result in expulsion from the House. During the show's broadcast on Channel 4, the viewers would vote to evict one of the nominated housemates, and the housemate with the most votes would be removed

title: Celebrity Big Brother

text: the regular one. Due to the show's popularity there, it lasts for two months unlike most countries where it only airs for a month. Examples include: Celebrity Big Brother Celebrity Big Brother (or Big Brother VIP) is an adaptation of the "Big Brother" reality television series. Just like its parent franchise, "Celebrity Big Brother" airs in several countries, however the housemates or houseguests are local celebrities. In some countries, the prize money normally awarded to the winning housemate is donated to a charity, and all celebrities are paid to appear in the show as long as they do not voluntarily

title: Celebrity Big Brother 12 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 12 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 12 was the twelfth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother". It launched on 22 August 2013, three days after the fourteenth regular series final, in two parts. The series ended after 23 days on 13 September 2013, with Charlotte Crosby being voted the winner of the series by the public. It continued to air on Channel 5 as part of a two-year contract with Endemol, which secured the show until 2014. It was the fifth celebrity series to air on Channel 5 and the eighth series of "Big

title: Celebrity Big Brother 5 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 5 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 2007, also known as Celebrity Big Brother 5, was the fifth series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother". The show followed a total of fourteen celebrity contestants, known as housemates, who were isolated from the outside world for an extended period of time in a custom built House. Each week, one or more of the housemates were eliminated from the competition by public vote and left the House. The last remaining housemate, Shilpa Shetty, was declared the winner. The series launched on Channel 4 on 3 January 2007 and

title: Celebrity Big Brother 11 (UK)

text: Celebrity Big Brother 11 (UK) Celebrity Big Brother 11 was the eleventh series of the British reality television series "Celebrity Big Brother". It launched on 3 January 2013, and aired on Channel 5 and 5* for 23 days concluding on 25 January 2013. The series is part of a new two-year contract signed by Channel 5 with Endemol to air the show until 2014. The series was won by Rylan Clark, with Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt as runners-up. It was the fourth celebrity series to air on Channel 5 and the sixth series of "Big Brother" to air on

title: Celebrity Big Brother 1 (U.S.)

text: and Thursday episodes set to air at 8:30pm and with other episodes set to air at 9:30pm. Additionally, episodes were made available to Australian viewers on Nine’s streaming service 9Now the shortly after the American airing of the show. However, low ratings saw the series bumped to a later timeslot on 9Go! The HouseGuests competed for the main grand prize of $250,000. The HouseGuests were revealed during a live pre-show of the 2018 Grammy Awards on January 28, 2018. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> Celebrity Big Brother 1 (U.S.) Celebrity Big Brother, also known as Big Brother: Celebrity Edition, is a spin-off series of

title: Big Brother (UK TV series)

text: series to air on Channel 4, and featured fourteen of the most memorable housemates from both the main series and "Celebrity Big Brother" competing in the series. Brian Dowling became the only housemate to win a series twice after winning "Ultimate Big Brother". Numerous other spin-offs have occurred throughout the series such as "Big Brother's Big Mouth", presented by Russell Brand, and "Big Brother's Little Brother" presented by Dermot O'Leary. Following the show's move to Channel 5, "Big Brother's Bit on the Side" and "Celebrity Big Brother" are the only spin-off series now airing. "Big Brother" is a game show

title: Celebrity Big Brother (U.S. TV series)

short_answers:
CBS
on CBS