question: who was an early advocate for using scientific methods based on inductive reasoning

answers: Aristotle

answers: René Descartes

title: History of logic

text: it into understanding". This method is known as inductive reasoning, a method which starts from empirical observation and proceeds to lower axioms or propositions; from these lower axioms, more general ones can be induced. For example, in finding the cause of a "phenomenal nature" such as heat, 3 lists should be constructed: Then, the "form nature" (or cause) of heat may be defined as that which is common to every situation of the presence list, and which is lacking from every situation of the absence list, and which varies by degree in every situation of the variability list. Other works

title: Inductive reasoning

text: of inference to the best explanation (IBE). IBE is otherwise synonym to C S Peirce's abduction. Many philosophers of science espousing scientific realism have maintained that IBE is the way that scientists develop approximately true scientific theories about nature. Inductive reasoning has been criticized by thinkers as far back as Sextus Empiricus. The classic philosophical treatment of the problem of induction was given by the Scottish philosopher David Hume. Although the use of inductive reasoning demonstrates considerable success, its application has been questionable. Recognizing this, Hume highlighted the fact that our mind draws uncertain conclusions from relatively limited experiences. In

title: Inductive reasoning

text: of belief, Bayesian inference does not determine which beliefs are "a priori" rational, but rather determines how we should rationally change the beliefs we have when presented with evidence. We begin by committing to a prior probability for a hypothesis based on logic or previous experience, and when faced with evidence, we adjust the strength of our belief in that hypothesis in a precise manner using Bayesian logic. Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction based on observations; for example, predicting the next symbol based upon a given series of symbols. This

title: Empiricism

text: beliefs about the natural world, can be conclusively established by reason. Rather, he maintained, our beliefs are more a result of accumulated "habits", developed in response to accumulated sense experiences. Among his many arguments Hume also added another important slant to the debate about scientific method—that of the problem of induction. Hume argued that it requires inductive reasoning to arrive at the premises for the principle of inductive reasoning, and therefore the justification for inductive reasoning is a circular argument. Among Hume's conclusions regarding the problem of induction is that there is no certainty that the future will resemble the

title: Scientific Revolution

text: method as conceived in the 17th century, natural and artificial circumstances were set aside as a research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted by the scientific community. The philosophy of using an inductive approach to obtain knowledge — to abandon assumption and to attempt to observe with an open mind — was in contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian approach of deduction, by which analysis of known facts produced further understanding. In practice, many scientists and philosophers believed that a healthy mix of both was needed — the willingness to question assumptions, yet also to interpret observations assumed to have

title: Inductivism

text: Inductivism Inductivism is the traditional model of scientific method attributed to Francis Bacon, who in 1620 vowed to subvert allegedly traditional thinking. In the Baconian model, one observes nature, proposes a modest law to generalize an observed pattern, confirms it by many observations, ventures a modestly broader law, and confirms that, too, by many more observations, while discarding disconfirmed laws. The laws grow ever broader but never much exceed careful, extensive observation. Thus, freed from preconceptions, scientists gradually uncover nature's causal and material structure. In 1740, David Hume found multiple obstacles in the use of experience to infer causality. Hume

title: Psychology of reasoning

text: This kind of reasoning allows the conclusion to be false even if the original statement is true. For example, if one observes a college athlete, one makes predictions and assumptions about other college athletes based on that one observation. Scientists use inductive reasoning to create theories and hypotheses. In opposition, deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. In this reasoning process a person starts with a known claim or a general belief and from there asks what follows from these foundations or how will these premises influence other beliefs. In other words, deduction starts with a hypothesis and

title: Janina Hosiasson-Lindenbaum

text: and the application of probability theory to inductive logic. Hosiasson-Lindenbaum is listed amongst the speakers at the first Unity of Science Congress in Paris 1935 and is known to have participated in the preliminary meeting for the same in Prague the previous year and to have attended the Second Congress held in Copenhagen in 1936. She had (like Alfred Tarski) also been scheduled to present her research at the Unity of Science Congress at Harvard in September 1939 but, fatefully, was unable to sail in time - she applied for passage on the next boat to America after that taken

title: Reason

text: or laws based on limited observations of recurring phenomenal patterns. Inductive reasoning contrasts strongly with deductive reasoning in that, even in the best, or strongest, cases of inductive reasoning, the truth of the premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Instead, the conclusion of an inductive argument follows with some degree of probability. Relatedly, the conclusion of an inductive argument contains more information than is already contained in the premises. Thus, this method of reasoning is ampliative. A classic example of inductive reasoning comes from the empiricist David Hume: Abductive reasoning, or argument to the best explanation, is

title: Inductive reasoning

text: is a formal inductive framework that combines algorithmic information theory with the Bayesian framework. Universal inductive inference is based on solid philosophical foundations, and can be considered as a mathematically formalized Occam's razor. Fundamental ingredients of the theory are the concepts of algorithmic probability and Kolmogorov complexity. Inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion (in contrast to "deductive" reasoning and "abductive" reasoning). While the conclusion of a deductive argument is certain, the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument may be

title: Ray Solomonoff

text: the current data". Ray Solomonoff Ray Solomonoff (July 25, 1926 – December 7, 2009) was the inventor of algorithmic probability, his General Theory of Inductive Inference (also known as Universal Inductive Inference), and was a founder of algorithmic information theory. He was an originator of the branch of artificial intelligence based on machine learning, prediction and probability. He circulated the first report on non-semantic machine learning in 1956. Solomonoff first described algorithmic probability in 1960, publishing the theorem that launched Kolmogorov complexity and algorithmic information theory. He first described these results at a Conference at Caltech in 1960, and in

title: History of scientific method

text: Summary of the Theory of Inductive Inference, states "Thus there are but three steps in the process of induction :- Jevons then frames those steps in terms of probability, which he then applied to economic laws. Ernest Nagel notes that Jevons and Whewell were not the first writers to argue for the centrality of the hypothetico-deductive method in the logic of science. In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the further development of scientific method generally. Peirce's work quickly accelerated the progress on several fronts. Firstly, speaking

title: History of scientific method

text: in classical logic, he refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address the then-current problems in scientific reasoning. Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in scientific inquiry today, the processes that are currently known as abductive, deductive, and inductive inference. Thirdly, he played a major role in the progress of symbolic logic itself – indeed this was his primary specialty. Charles S. Peirce was also a pioneer in statistics. Peirce held that science achieves statistical probabilities, not certainties, and that chance, a veering from law, is very

title: Inductive reasoning

text: Inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion (in contrast to "deductive" reasoning and "abductive" reasoning). While the conclusion of a deductive argument is certain, the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument may be "probable", based upon the evidence given. Many dictionaries define inductive reasoning as the derivation of general principles from specific observations, though some sources find this usage "outdated". Unlike deductive arguments, inductive reasoning allows for the possibility that the conclusion is false, even if all of the premises

title: Intuitive statistics

text: in learning, and how they apply to infant and childhood learning specifically. Gopnik advocates the hypothesis that infant and childhood learning are examples of inductive inference, a general-purpose mechanism for generalization, acting upon specialized information structures ("theories") in the brain. On this view, infants and children are essentially proto-scientists because they regularly use a kind of scientific method, developing hypotheses, performing experiments via play, and updating models about the world based on their results. For Gopnik, this use of scientific thinking and categorization in development and everyday life can be formalized as models of Bayesian inference. An application of this

title: Roger Schank

text: implements curricula for primary and secondary schools and hosts the Virtual International Science and Technology Academy (VISTA). Schank was a leading pioneer of artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology in the 1970s and 1980s. His innovations in these fields were conceptual dependency theory and case-based reasoning, both of which challenged cognitivist views of memory and reasoning. In 1969 Schank introduced the conceptual dependency theory for natural language understanding. This model, partly based on the work of Sydney Lamb, was extensively used by Schank's students at Yale University, such as Robert Wilensky, Wendy Lehnert, and Janet Kolodner. Case-based reasoning (CBR) is based

title: Einstellung effect

text: relied on mental sets formed through previous experience. However, the experimental subjects would have been more efficient if they had employed the direct method of solving the problem rather than applying the same solution from previous examples. The Einstellung effect can be supported by theories of inductive reasoning. In a nutshell, inductive reasoning is the act of inferring a rule based on a finite number of instances. Most experiments on human inductive reasoning involve showing subjects a card with an object (or multiple objects, or letters, etc.) on it. The objects can vary in number, shape, size, color, etc., and

title: Inductivism

text: other considerations upon the evidence, render scientific theories of known metaphysical truth. By 1880, C S Peirce had clarified the basis of deductive inference and, although recognizing induction, proposed a third type of inference that Peirce called "abduction", now otherwise termed "inference to the best explanation" (IBE). Since the 1920s, although opposing all metaphysical inference via scientific theories, the logical positivists sought to understand scientific theories as provably false or true as to strictly observations. Though accepting hypotheticodeductivism to originate theories, they launched verificationism whereby Rudolf Carnap tried but never succeeded to formalize an inductive logic whereby a universal law's

title: Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference

text: from positive data is a topic studied from Gold's pioneering paper in 1967 onwards. A far reaching extension of the Gold’s approach is developed by Schmidhuber's theory of generalized Kolmogorov complexities, which are kinds of super-recursive algorithms. The third mathematically based direction of inductive inference makes use of the theory of automata and computation. In this context, the process of inductive inference is performed by an abstract automaton called an inductive Turing machine (Burgin, 2005). "Inductive Turing machines" represent the next step in the development of computer science providing better models for contemporary computers and computer networks (Burgin, 2001) and

title: History of scientific method

text: Some of the most important debates in the history of scientific method center on: rationalism, especially as advocated by René Descartes; inductivism, which rose to particular prominence with Isaac Newton and his followers; and hypothetico-deductivism, which came to the fore in the early 19th century.  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over realism vs. antirealism was central to discussions of scientific method as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable, while in the mid-20th century some prominent philosophers argued against any universal rules of science at all.

title: Foundations of statistics

text: language. Fisher was a scientist and an intuitive mathematician. Inductive reasoning was natural. Neyman was a rigorous mathematician. He was convinced by deductive reasoning rather by a probability calculation based on an experiment. Thus there was an underlying clash between applied and theoretical, between science and mathematics. Neyman, who had occupied the same building in England as Fisher, accepted a position on the west coast of the United States of America in 1938. His move effectively ended his collaboration with Pearson and their development of hypothesis testing. Further development was continued by others. Textbooks provided a hybrid version of significance

title: History of scientific method

text: where Herschel held that the origin of new biological species would be found in a natural rather than a miraculous process, Whewell opposed this and considered that no natural cause had been shown for adaptation so an unknown divine cause was appropriate. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was stimulated to publish "A System of Logic" (1843) upon reading Whewell's "History of the Inductive Sciences". Mill may be regarded as the final exponent of the empirical school of philosophy begun by John Locke, whose fundamental characteristic is the duty incumbent upon all thinkers to investigate for themselves rather than to accept the

title: Wesley C. Salmon

text: Wesley C. Salmon Wesley C. Salmon (August 9, 1925 – April 22, 2001) was an American philosopher of science renowned for his work on the nature of scientific explanation. He also worked on confirmation theory, trying to explicate how probability theory via inductive logic might help confirm and choose hypotheses. Yet most prominently, Salmon was a realist about causality in scientific explanation, although his realist explanation of causality drew ample criticism. Still, his books on scientific explanation itself were landmarks of the 20th century's philosophy of science, and solidified recognition of causality's important roles in scientific explanation, whereas causality itself

title: Alexey Ivakhnenko

text: is known to be the founder of Inductive modelling, a scientific approach used for pattern recognition and complex systems forecasting. He had used this approach during development of the Group Method of Data Handling (GMDH). In 1968 the journal "Avtomatika" had published his article "Group Method of Data Handling - a rival of the method of stochastic approximation", marking the beginning of a new stage in his scientific work. He led the development of this approach, with a professional team of mathematicians and engineers at the Institute of Cybernetics. The GMDH method presents a unique approach to the problem of

title: Intuitive statistics

text: use of various tools, assumptions, and problems relating to inductive inference in particular. David Hume famously considered the problem of induction, questioning the logical foundations of how and why people can arrive at conclusions that extend beyond past experiences - both spatiotemporally and epistemologically. More recently, theorists have considered the problem by emphasizing techniques for arriving from data to hypothesis using formal content-independent procedures, or in contrast, by considering informal, content-dependent tools for inductive inference. Searches for formal procedures have led to different developments in statistical inference and probability theory with different assumptions, including Fisherian frequentist statistics, Bayesian inference, and

title: Philosophy of science

text: of successful tests. For example, a chicken observes that each morning the farmer comes and gives it food, for hundreds of days in a row. The chicken may therefore use inductive reasoning to infer that the farmer will bring food "every" morning. However, one morning, the farmer comes and kills the chicken. How is scientific reasoning more trustworthy than the chicken's reasoning? One approach is to acknowledge that induction cannot achieve certainty, but observing more instances of a general statement can at least make the general statement more probable. So the chicken would be right to conclude from all those

title: Pierre Gassendi

text: we arrive at the idea of thing or substance by inductive reasoning. He holds that the true method of research is the analytic, rising from lower to higher notions; yet he sees and admits that inductive reasoning, as conceived by Francis Bacon, rests on a general proposition not itself proved by induction. The whole doctrine of judgment, syllogism and method mixes Aristotelian and Ramist notions. In the second part of the "Syntagma", the physics, appears the most glaring contradiction between Gassendi's fundamental principles. While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects the Epicurean negation of God and particular providence. He

title: Inductivism

text: and the British J S Mill were the leading philosophers of science. Debating in the 1840s, J S Mill claimed that science proceeds by inductivism, whereas William Whewell, also British, claimed it proceeds by hypotheticodeductivism. William Whewell found the "inductive sciences" not so simple, but, amid the dominance of inductivism, described "superinduction". Whewell proposed recognition of "the peculiar import of the term "Induction"", as "there is some Conception "superinduced" upon the facts", that is, "the Invention of a new Conception in every inductive inference". Rarely spotted by Whewell's predecessors, such mental inventions rapidly evade notice. Whewell explained, These "superinduced" explanations

title: History of scientific method

text: ascertain whether their effect is general; and in pushing the application of our laws to extreme cases." William Whewell (1794–1866) regarded his "History of the Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time" (1837) to be an introduction to the "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences" (1840) which analyzes the method exemplified in the formation of ideas. Whewell attempts to follow Bacon's plan for discovery of an effectual art of discovery. He named the hypothetico-deductive method (which "Encyclopædia Britannica" credits to Newton); Whewell also coined the term "scientist". Whewell examines ideas and attempts to construct science by uniting ideas to

title: Inductivism

text: laying scientific laws irrefutable by theology or metaphysics. Finding experience to show uniformity of nature and thereby justify enumerative induction, Mill accepted positivism: the first modern philosophy of science, which, simultaneously, was a political philosophy whereby only scientific knowledge was reliable knowledge. Nearing 1840, William Whewell thought that the inductive sciences, so called, were not so simple after all, and asked recognition of "superinduction", an explanatory scope or principle invented by the mind to unite facts, but not present "in" the facts. Mill would have none of hypotheticodeductivism, posed by Whewell as science's method, which Whewell believed to sometimes, via

title: History of scientific method


question: the first political society started under british rule in india was

answers: The British Indian Association

title: Politics of India

text: number of political parties. It has been estimated that over 200 parties were formed after India became independent in 1947. Some features of the political parties in India are that the parties are generally woven around their leaders, the leaders are actively playing a dominant role, and that the role of leadership can be transferred, thus tending to take a dynastic route. The two main parties in India are the Bharatiya Janata Party, also known as the BJP and the Indian National Congress, commonly called the INC or simply Congress. These two parties dominate national politics. On the left-right political

title: Rajyadhikara Party

text: Kanshi Ram. Even after India attaining Independence from the British Raj in 1947, India is governed till today either by Indian National Congress or Bharatiya Janata Party, dominated by some upper castes (15% of population), or by only one family for a long time. This created a wide disparity in Socio-Economical development between Forward Caste and Backward Classes in India. Backward Classes, comprising 52% of population (consisting of 94 castes), neither came to power by floating a political parties before nor democratically elected member of Backward Classes community was allowed to become the Prime Minister of India through Indian National

title: Politics of India

text: the fundamental rights of citizens, issuing writs for their enforcement in cases of violation. Governments are formed through elections held every five years (unless otherwise specified), by parties that secure a majority of members in their respective lower houses (Lok Sabha in the central government and Vidhan Sabha in states). India had its first general election in 1951, which was won by the Indian National Congress, a political party that went on to dominate subsequent elections until 1977, when a non-Congress government was formed for the first time in independent India. The 1990s saw the end of single-party domination and

title: Mumbai Consensus

text: In the 2009 Indian Lok Sabha (lower house of Parliament) elections, 300 political parties and almost 8000 candidates ran for office. Voting occurred at 828,804 polling stations across the country. Such a diverse democracy works in a polity largely based on the rule of law. Enshrined in the Indian Constitution, political and media freedoms provide a continual framework for negotiations by stakeholders of their right to participate and achieve in society. Earlier, a rigid caste system has skewed political freedoms and achievement to the higher classes but Dalit or lower caste populist leaders like Mayawati, Chief Minister of the largest

title: Bharatiya Jana Sangh

text: Sabha. After 1949, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh members began to contemplate the formation of a political party to continue their work and take their ideology further. The BJS was started by Syama Prasad Mookerjee on 21 October 1951 in Delhi in collaboration with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) as a "nationalistic alternative" to the India Congress. After the death of Mookerjee, the RSS activists in the party edged out the career politicians and made it a political arm of the RSS and an integral part of the RSS family of organisations ("Sangh Parivar"). The symbol of the party in Indian

title: Mohammad Yunus (politician)

text: Deep Narayan Singh,Dr A N Sinha, Mr. Kishan Sahay and Mr. Parmeswar. Served briefly as All India Secretary of the Muslim League. Political Ideology – Muttahda Qaumiat (United Nationhood) which was in contrast with Two Nation Theory of Muslim League. Became Member of Imperial Legislative Council in 1916 at the age of 32. Became member of Bihar and Orissa Legislative Council in 1921. Elected to the position of the Chief Whip of the Democratic Party in 1921 and remained in the post till 1926. Again elected as member of Bihar and Orissa Legislative Council in 1932. Twice elected a member

title: Gopinath Bordoloi

text: all political activity and got involved in various social works after becoming member of Guwahati Municipal Board and Local Board. In addition, he was constantly demanding a separate University and High Court for Assam. In 1935 Government of India Act was articulated with a view to form British India. Congress decided to participate in the Regional Assembly election in 1936. They won 38 seats and became the party with majority in Assembly, but due to a dubious law meant to reduce the power of Ministers and the Cabinet, they decided to remain as opposition party instead of forming the government.

title: British Raj

text: judges in the Bengal Presidency on equal footing with British ones, that transformed the discontent into political action. On 28 December 1885, professionals and intellectuals from this middle-class—many educated at the new British-founded universities in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras, and familiar with the ideas of British political philosophers, especially the utilitarians assembled in Bombay. The seventy men founded the Indian National Congress; Womesh Chunder Bonerjee was elected the first president. The membership comprised a westernised elite and no effort was made at this time to broaden the base. During its first twenty years, the Congress primarily debated British policy toward

title: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

text: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha Pune Sarvajanik Sabha, (), was a sociopolitical organisation in British India which started with the aim of working as a mediating body between the government and people of India and to popularise the peasants' legal rights. It started as an elected body of 95 members elected by 6000 persons on April 2, 1870. The organisation was a precursor to the Indian National Congress which started with its first session from Maharashtra itself. The Pune Sarvajanik Sabha provided many of the prominent leaders of national stature to the Indian freedom struggle including Bal Gangadhar Tilak. It was formed

title: History of the Anushilan Samiti

text: the 1800s, however, the concept of secret societies and the propensity of nationalist violence was stronger in Maharashtra. Tilak himself was associated with such a society in Bombay. The most notable amongst the Maharashtrian societies was "Mitra Mela" (Friends circle) founded by V.D. Savarkar at Nasik in 1900. The organisation reformed as the "Abhinav Bharat" Society and moved to Poona. The trend towards secret societies in Bengal had in the mean time slowed down, and what existed did not engage in any notable political activities. It was at this time, at the turn of the 20th century, that the revolutionary

title: Bagha Jatin

text: reports further : "The earliest known attempts in Bengal to promote societies for political or semi-political ends are associated with the names of the late P. Mitter, Barrister-at-Law, Miss Saralabala Ghosal and a Japanese named Okakura. These activities commenced in Calcutta somewhere about the year 1900, and are said to have spread to many of the districts of Bengal and to have flourished particularly at Kushtia, where Jatindra Nath Mukharji ["sic"!] was leader." Bhavabhushan Mitra's written notes precise his presence along with Jatindra Nath during the first meeting. A branch of this organisation (Anushilan Samiti), was to be inaugurated in

title: History of the Anushilan Samiti

text: mouthpiece of an informal constituency of students and middle-class gentlemen. The Association sponsored the Indian National Conference in 1883 and 1885, which later merged with the Indian National Congress. Calcutta was at the time the capital of British India, and the most prominent centre for organised politics, and some of the same students who attended the political meetings began at the time to organise "secret societies" which cultivated a cultural of physical strength and nationalist feelings. In Bengal at large, through the decades 1860s and 1870s, there arose large numbers of "akhras", or gymnasiums consciously designed along the lines of

title: History of the Indian National Congress

text: (A political party of India (British India to Free India)) in order to form a platform for civic and political dialogue among educated Indians. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, control of India was transferred from the East India Company to the British Empire. British-controlled India, known as the British Raj, or just the Raj, worked to try to support and justify its governance of India with the aid of English-educated Indians, who tended to more familiar with and friendly to British culture and political thinking. Ironically, a few of the reasons that the Congress grew and survived, particularly in

title: C. F. Brackenbury

text: in 1935 and as per the provisions of the act the franchise which had hitherto been restricted only to landlords and notables was enlarged to include much of India's population making the 1937 elections, the first democratically-held elections in India's history. In the Madras Presidency, the Indian National Congress was elected to power and Indian independence activist C. Rajagopalachari became the Premier. Brackenbury soon became a favourite of Rajagopalachari and the working of the government was smooth and unhindered. Upon Rajagopalachari taking charge as Premier, he gifted khadi cloth to Brackenbury. Brackenbury warmly accepted the gift and made a suit

title: Democratic Swarajya Party

text: dissatisfied and decided to contest the elections and enter the councils. Therefore, Kelkar, along with B. S. Moonje, Madhav Shrihari Aney and Jamnadas Mehta revived the Democratic Swarajya Party on October 29, 1933 in Bombay. Democratic Swarajya Party The Democratic Swarajya Party was a political party in British India. It was founded in the Bombay Province in October 1933 with the aim of attaining Purna Swaraj (Total Independence) through constitutional means. The first Democratic Swarajya Party was established by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1920 within the Indian National Congress. After his death, his supporters such as N. C. Kelkar, M.

title: Democratic Swarajya Party

text: Democratic Swarajya Party The Democratic Swarajya Party was a political party in British India. It was founded in the Bombay Province in October 1933 with the aim of attaining Purna Swaraj (Total Independence) through constitutional means. The first Democratic Swarajya Party was established by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1920 within the Indian National Congress. After his death, his supporters such as N. C. Kelkar, M. R. Jayakar, Bhaskar Bhopatkar and Karandikar became members of the Swaraj Party within the Congress and contested elections for the legislative councils. Since the Congress boycotted the councils following the civil disobedience movement, old-Tilakites were

title: Anushilan Samiti

text: a mouthpiece. The Association became the mouthpiece of an informal constituency of students and middle-class gentlemen. It sponsored the Indian National Conference in 1883 and 1885, which later merged with the Indian National Congress. Calcutta was at the time the most prominent centre for organised politics, and some of the same students who attended the political meetings began at the time to organise "secret societies" which cultivated a cultural of physical strength and nationalist feelings. By 1902, Calcutta had three secret societies working toward the violent overthrow of British rule in India. One was founded by Calcutta student Satish Chandra

title: Indian Empire Society

text: a too rapid advance towards self-government would be fraught with the utmost danger, not only to British trade and commerce, but also to the security and happiness of the 350,000,000 of our Indian fellow-subjects."" (published in the Times, 1933) The society's first public meeting was held in Westminster in July 1930. The first president was Lord Sumner. Winston Churchill joined in October 1930 and made speeches to the society on a number of occasions.. Other prominent members included: Correspondence and papers of the Society from 1930 to 1948 are held in the Bodleian Library's Special Collections and Western Manuscripts section.

title: Indian Home Rule Society

text: Sociologist", was the foundation of the militant Indian nationalist movement in Britain. After Krishna Varma's shift to Paris in 1907, the society gave way the secret nationalist society of Abhinav Bharat Mandal, founded by V.D. Savarkar. The society was founded amongst efforts and movements that arose to reverse the flow of authority and power from Britain to India. along with substantial help from Bhikaji Cama. Indian Home Rule Society The Indian Home Rule Society (IHRS) was an Indian organisation founded in London in 1905 that sought to promote the cause of self-rule in British India. The organisation was founded by

title: British Indian Association

text: The British Indian Association was established on 31 October 1851.  Its formation was a major event of 19th-century India. Its establishment meant Indians had come together and could no longer be ignored. It developed enormous hopes amongst the Indians about their future.

title: Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee

text: prove her worthiness for political freedom. He moved to Britain and practiced before the Privy Council. He financed the British Committee of Congress and its journals in London. In 1865 Dadabhai Naoroji founded the London Indian society and Bonnerjee was made its general secretary. In December 1866, Naoroji dissolved the society and formed East Indian Association. When Bonnerjee became the Congress president Naoroji along with him, Eardley Norton and William Digby opened The Congress Political Agency, a branch of Congress in London. He lived in Croydon and named his residence after his birthplace Khidirpur. The Liberal party made him his

title: Legislatures of British India

text: Most of the provincial governments were unstable amid the outbreak of World War II, the Bengal famine of 1943 and the Quit India movement. A number of British Indians and Anglo-Indians were elected to the British parliament, particularly from the Parsi and Jewish communities. They included Dadabhai Naoroji, Mancherjee Bhownagree, Shapurji Saklatvala, Philip Sassoon and Ernest Soares. The Chamber of Princes was established by a proclamation of King George V in 1920. It was a forum for the rulers of princely states to air their views and engage with the colonial government. It was housed in the Parliament House and

title: Syed Shamsul Huda

text: lecturer in Arabic and Persian. Two years later, he left the madrasah to practice law at the Calcutta High Court and gradually became involved in politics. The Indian National Congress was established in 1885 by Calcutta's Hindu leaders. This political body was proposed to symbolize all the people of India, together with Hindu and Muslim population. Prominent Indian Muslim leaders including Sir Syed Ahmad Khan CSI, Nawab Abdul Latif and Syed Ameer Ali, firstly gave their full support to this political body. But later on, the Hindu Congress leaders began practicing partition. Muslim leaders called Second Annual Meeting of the

title: Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

text: in 1870 by S. H. Chiplunkar, Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi, Mahadev Govind Ranade, et al. The ruler of the Aundh State, Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao Pant Pratinidhi was the first President of the organisation. Many eminent personalities such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Hari Deshmukh, "Maharshi" Annasaheb Patwardhan, etc. served as the Presidents of the organisation. In 2016, Meera Pavagi was elected as the first woman President of the organisation. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha Pune Sarvajanik Sabha, (), was a sociopolitical organisation in British India which started with the aim of working as a mediating body between the government and people of India and

title: South India

text: these two coalitions have been alternately in power and E. M. S. Namboodiripad, the first elected chief minister of Kerala in 1957 is credited as the leader of the first democratically elected communist government in the world. Bharatiya Janata Party and Janata Dal are significant parties in Karnataka. C. Rajagopalachari, the first Indian Governor General of India post independence, was from South India. The region has produced six Indian Presidents namely Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, V. V. Giri, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, R. Venkataraman, K. R. Narayanan and APJ Abdul Kalam. Prime Ministers P. V. Narasimha Rao and H. D. Deve Gowda were

title: Students For Society

text: Students For Society The Students For Society (SFS) was founded in Panjab University, Chandigarh on 28 September 2010 as a students' discussion group for holding discussions on books and social issues, on the 103rd birth anniversary of Bhagat Singh. It rejected the politics of muscle and money power by mainstream political parties in University. It also rejected the politics of those who were trying to get votes by offering movie shows, dinners, trips and beauty parlour coupons. SFS takes out its rallies on foot with singing of slogans with a Tambourine ("Dafli") while other parties took out rallies in cars.

title: Indian National Congress

text: included several famous lawyers, including Bhulabhai Desai, Asaf Ali, and Jawaharlal Nehru. The same year, Congress members initially supported the sailors who led the Royal Indian Navy mutiny, but they withdrew support at a critical juncture and the mutiny failed. After Indian independence in 1947, the Indian National Congress became the dominant political party in the country. In 1952, in the first general election held after Independence, the party swept to power in the national parliament and most state legislatures. It held power nationally until 1977, when it was defeated by the Janata coalition. It returned to power in 1980

title: 1951–52 Indian general election

text: held in 1951, India had around 173 million voters, out of an overall population of about 360 million. Voter turnout was 45.7%. Before Independent India went to the polls, two former cabinet colleagues of Nehru established separate political parties to challenge the INC's supremacy. While Shyama Prasad Mookerjee went on to found the Jana Sangh in October 1951, First Law Minister Dr. B. R. Ambedkar revived the Scheduled Castes Federation (which was later named the Republican Party). Other parties which started coming to the forefront included the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Parishad, whose prime mover was Acharya Kripalani; the Socialist Party,

title: Politics of Maharashtra

text: politics of Maharashtra since its inception in 1960 and also of predecessor states such as Bombay has been dominated by the Indian National Congress party. Maharashtra became a bastion of the Congress party producing stalwarts such as Yashwantrao Chavan, Vasantdada Patil, Vasantrao Naik and Shankarrao Chavan. Sharad Pawar has been a towering personality in the state and National politics for nearly forty years. During his career, he has split the Congress twice with significant consequences for the state politics. The Congress party enjoyed a near unchallenged dominance of the political landscape until 1995 when the Shiv Sena and the Bharatiya

title: Gopinath Bordoloi

text: The Assam Association was the only political organisation of Assam in that period. Assam Congress was formed in 1921 as a branch of the Indian National Congress. Gopinath Bordoloi's political life started when he joined the Indian National Congress as a volunteer in that year. He actively participated in the fight for independence. He was arrested in 1922 due to active participation in the Non-co-operation movement and was put in jail for a year. When the movement was called off following the Chauri Chaura incident, he went back to practising law. From 1930 to 1933, he kept himself away from

title: British Indian Association


question: where does the term pop music come from

answers: Britain

title: Pop music

text: Pop music Pop music is a genre of popular music that originated in its modern form in the United States and United Kingdom during the mid-1950s. The terms "popular music" and "pop music" are often used interchangeably, although the former describes all music that is popular and includes many diverse styles. "Pop" and "rock" were roughly synonymous terms until the late 1960s, when they became increasingly differentiated from each other. Although much of the music that appears on record charts is seen as pop music, the genre is distinguished from chart music. Pop music is eclectic, and often borrows elements

title: Pop music

text: been as successful. Pop music Pop music is a genre of popular music that originated in its modern form in the United States and United Kingdom during the mid-1950s. The terms "popular music" and "pop music" are often used interchangeably, although the former describes all music that is popular and includes many diverse styles. "Pop" and "rock" were roughly synonymous terms until the late 1960s, when they became increasingly differentiated from each other. Although much of the music that appears on record charts is seen as pop music, the genre is distinguished from chart music. Pop music is eclectic, and

title: Pop music

text: the mid-1950s as a description for rock and roll and the new youth music styles that it influenced". "The Oxford Dictionary of Music" states that while pop's "earlier meaning meant concerts appealing to a wide audience [...] since the late 1950s, however, pop has had the special meaning of non-classical mus[ic], usually in the form of songs, performed by such artists as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, ABBA, etc." "Grove Music Online" also states that "[...] in the early 1960s, [the term] 'pop music' competed terminologically with beat music [in England], while in the US its coverage overlapped (as it

title: Pop music

text: from other styles such as urban, dance, rock, Latin, and country; nonetheless, there are core elements that define pop music. Identifying factors include generally short to medium-length songs written in a basic format (often the verse-chorus structure), as well as common use of repeated choruses, melodic tunes, and hooks. David Hatch and Stephen Millward define pop music as "a body of music which is distinguishable from popular, jazz, and folk musics". According to Pete Seeger, pop music is "professional music which draws upon both folk music and fine arts music". Although pop music is seen as just the singles charts,

title: British pop music

text: British pop music British pop music is popular music, produced commercially in the United Kingdom. It emerged in the mid-to late 1950s as a softer alternative to rock 'n' roll and later to rock music. Like American pop music it has a focus on commercial recording, often orientated towards a youth market, as well as that of the Singles Chart usually through the medium of relatively short and simple love songs. While these basic elements of the genre have remained fairly constant, pop music has absorbed influences from most other forms of popular music, particularly borrowing from the development of

title: Pop music

text: still does) with that of 'rock and roll'". From about 1967, the term “pop music” was increasingly used in opposition to the term rock music, a division that gave generic significance to both terms. While rock aspired to authenticity and an expansion of the possibilities of popular music, pop was more commercial, ephemeral, and accessible. According to British musicologist Simon Frith, pop music is produced "as a matter of enterprise not art", and is "designed to appeal to everyone" but "doesn't come from any particular place or mark off any particular taste". Frith adds that it is "not driven by

title: Rock music

text: end. The term "pop" has been used since the early 20th century to refer to popular music in general, but from the mid-1950s it began to be used for a distinct genre, aimed at a youth market, often characterized as a softer alternative to rock and roll. From about 1967, it was increasingly used in opposition to the term rock music, to describe a form that was more commercial, ephemeral and accessible. In contrast rock music was seen as focusing on extended works, particularly albums, was often associated with particular sub-cultures (like the counterculture of the 1960s), placed an emphasis

title: Pop rock

text: in sound, instrumentation and even lyrical content. The terms "pop rock" and "power pop" have been used to describe more commercially successful music that uses elements from, or the form of, rock music. Writer Johan Fornas views pop/rock as "one single, continuous genre field", rather than distinct categories. To the authors Larry Starr and Christopher Waterman, it is defined as an "upbeat variety of rock music" represented by artists and bands such as: Andy Kim, the Bells, Paul McCartney, Lighthouse, and Peter Frampton. The term "pop" has been used since the early twentieth century to refer to popular music in

title: British pop music

text: pop music. However, around 1967 as blues-rock acts, emerging folk rock and some beat bands, including the Beatles, veered towards a more serious forms of music (with an emphasis on meaning, virtuosity and orientated towards the albums market), the term pop music began to be applied to rock and roll based music with more commercial aims, often with inconsequential lyrics, particularly simple love songs, and orientated towards the singles chart, continuing the path of traditional pop. Although some bands occupied territory that crossed the emerging rock/pop divide and were able to produce successes in both camps, including the Beatles and

title: Pop music

text: it is not the sum of all chart music. The music charts contain songs from a variety of sources, including classical, jazz, rock, and novelty songs. As a genre, Pop music is seen to exist and develop separately. Therefore, the term "pop music" may be used to describe a distinct genre, designed to appeal to all, often characterized as "instant singles-based music aimed at teenagers" in contrast to rock music as "album-based music for adults". Pop music continuously evolves along with the term's definition. According to "The New Grove Dictionary Of Music and Musicians", popular music is defined as "the

title: Pop rock

text: Pop rock Pop rock (also typeset as pop/rock) is rock music with a greater emphasis on professional songwriting and recording craft, and less emphasis on attitude. Originating in the 1950s as an alternative to rock and roll, early pop rock was influenced by the beat, arrangements, and style of rock and roll (and sometimes doo-wop). It may be viewed as a distinct genre field, rather than music that overlaps with pop and rock. The detractors of pop rock often deride it as a slick, commercial product, less authentic than rock music. Much pop and rock music has been very similar

title: Pop music

text: any significant ambition except profit and commercial reward [...] and, in musical terms, it is essentially conservative". It is, "provided from on high (by record companies, radio programmers, and concert promoters) rather than being made from below ... Pop is not a do-it-yourself music but is professionally produced and packaged". According to Frith, characteristics of pop music include an aim of appealing to a general audience, rather than to a particular sub-culture or ideology, and an emphasis on craftsmanship rather than formal "artistic" qualities. Music scholar Timothy Warner said it typically has an emphasis on recording, production, and technology, rather

title: Music of the United Kingdom (1960s)

text: folk rock and some beat bands, including the Beatles, veered towards a more serious forms of music, with an emphasis on meaning, virtuosity and orientated towards the albums market, the term pop music began to be applied to rock and roll based music with more commercial aims, often with inconsequential lyrics, particularly simple love songs, and orientated towards the singles chart, continuing the tradition of traditional pop. Although some bands occupied territory that crossed the emerging rock/pop divide and were able to produce successes in both camps, including the Beatles and Rolling Stones, the British pop genre in the late

title: Pop music

text: than live performance; a tendency to reflect existing trends rather than progressive developments; and aims to encourage dancing or uses dance-oriented rhythms. The main medium of pop music is the song, often between two and a half and three and a half minutes in length, generally marked by a consistent and noticeable rhythmic element, a mainstream style and a simple traditional structure. Common variants include the verse-chorus form and the thirty-two-bar form, with a focus on melodies and catchy hooks, and a chorus that contrasts melodically, rhythmically and harmonically with the verse. The beat and the melodies tend to be

title: Traditional pop music

text: Traditional pop music Traditional pop (also classic pop or pop standards) is music that was recorded or performed after the Big Band era and before the advent of rock music. The most popular and enduring songs from this style of music are known as pop standards or American standards. The works of these songwriters and composers are usually considered part of the canon known as the Great American Songbook. More generally, the term "standard" can be applied to any popular song that has become widely known in mainstream culture. This definition is disputed by many scholars; however, as many of

title: American pop

text: The Backstreet Boys, 98° and girl groups such as The Spice Girls and Destiny's Child. American pop American pop is pop music in the United States. American folk singer Pete Seeger defined pop music as "professional music which draws upon both folk music and fine arts music". An early genre of American pop music was the swing craze, a popular dance style in the early part of the 20th century. Jazz artist Rudy Vallée became what was perhaps the first complete example of the 20th century mass media pop star. Vallée became the most prominent and, arguably, the first of

title: American pop

text: American pop American pop is pop music in the United States. American folk singer Pete Seeger defined pop music as "professional music which draws upon both folk music and fine arts music". An early genre of American pop music was the swing craze, a popular dance style in the early part of the 20th century. Jazz artist Rudy Vallée became what was perhaps the first complete example of the 20th century mass media pop star. Vallée became the most prominent and, arguably, the first of a new style of popular singer, the crooner. One of the most successful crooners was

title: Pop rock

text: of the 1970s were called "pop rock". Moore-Gilbert claims that this approach unfairly puts rock at the apex, and makes every other influence become an add-on to the central core of rock. Other guitar-based pop genres Pop rock Pop rock (also typeset as pop/rock) is rock music with a greater emphasis on professional songwriting and recording craft, and less emphasis on attitude. Originating in the 1950s as an alternative to rock and roll, early pop rock was influenced by the beat, arrangements, and style of rock and roll (and sometimes doo-wop). It may be viewed as a distinct genre field,

title: Traditional pop music

text: Female singers Male groups Female groups Mixed gender groups Traditional pop music Traditional pop (also classic pop or pop standards) is music that was recorded or performed after the Big Band era and before the advent of rock music. The most popular and enduring songs from this style of music are known as pop standards or American standards. The works of these songwriters and composers are usually considered part of the canon known as the Great American Songbook. More generally, the term "standard" can be applied to any popular song that has become widely known in mainstream culture. This definition

title: Pop music

title: Pop music

text: genres of popular music. Early pop music drew on the sentimental ballad for its form, gained its use of vocal harmonies from gospel and soul music, instrumentation from jazz and rock music, orchestration from classical music, tempo from dance music, backing from electronic music, rhythmic elements from hip-hop music, and spoken passages from rap. In the 1960s, the majority of mainstream pop music fell in two categories: guitar, drum and bass groups or singers backed by a traditional orchestra. Since early in the decade, it was common for pop producers, songwriters, and engineers to freely experiment with musical form, orchestration,

title: Pop rock

text: is more pronounced in the US than in the UK. He claims in the US, pop has roots in white crooners such as Perry Como, whereas rock is rooted in African-American music influenced by forms such as rock and roll. Auslander points out that the concept of pop rock, which blends pop and rock is at odds with the typical conception of pop and rock as opposites. Auslander and several other scholars such as Simon Frith and Grossberg argue that pop music is often depicted as an inauthentic, cynical, "slickly commercial" and formulaic form of entertainment. In contrast, rock music

title: Popular music

text: is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States. Although popular music sometimes is known as "pop music", the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music is a generic term for a wide variety of genres of music that appeal to the tastes of a large segment of the population, whereas pop music usually refers to a specific musical genre "within" popular music. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies. The song structure of popular music commonly involves repetition of sections, with the verse and chorus or refrain repeating throughout the song

title: New Pop

text: New Pop New Pop was a loosely defined British-centric pop music movement consisting of ambitious, DIY-minded artists who achieved commercial success in the early 1980s through sources such as MTV. Rooted in the post-punk movement of the late 1970s, the movement spanned a wide variety of styles and artists, including acts such as Orange Juice, the Human League and ABC. The term "rockist", a pejorative against people who shunned this type of music, coincided and was associated with New Pop. "New Music" is a roughly equivalent but slightly more expansive umbrella term for a pop music and cultural phenomenon in

title: Power pop

text: Power pop Power pop (also typeset as powerpop) is a form of pop rock based on the early music of bands such as the Who, the Beatles, the Beach Boys, and the Byrds. It originated in the late 1960s as young music fans began to rebel against the emerging pretensions of rock music, and developed mainly among American musicians who came of age during the British Invasion. The genre typically incorporates melodic hooks, vocal harmonies, an energetic performance, and "happy"-sounding music supported by a sense of yearning, longing, or despair. The term "power pop" was coined by the Who's Pete

title: Pop-rap

text: Pop-rap Pop-rap or hip-pop is a genre of music fusing the rhythm-based lyricism of hip hop music with pop music's preference for melodious vocals and catchy tunes, which gained mainstream popularity during the 1990s. The lyrics are often lighthearted, with choruses similar to those heard in pop music. The influences and roots of pop rap trace back to late 1980s hip hop artists, such as Run DMC, LL Cool J, and Beastie Boys. Allmusic describes pop-rap as "a marriage of hip-hop beats and raps with strong melodic hooks, which are usually featured as part of the chorus section in a

title: Country pop

text: Country pop Country pop is a fusion genre of country music and pop music that was developed by members of the country genre out of a desire to reach a larger, mainstream audience. By producing country songs that employed many styles and sounds found in pop music, the country music industry was effective in gaining new listeners without alienating its traditional country audience. Country pop music is often known for genres like rock, pop, and country combined. It is a continuation of similar efforts that began in the late 1950s originally known as Nashville sound and later on Countrypolitan. By

title: Pop rock

text: general, but from the mid-1950s it began to be used for a distinct genre, aimed at a youth market, often characterized as a softer alternative to rock and roll. In the aftermath of the British Invasion, from about 1967, it was increasingly used in opposition to the term rock music, to describe a form that was more commercial, ephemeral and accessible. As of the 2010s, "guitar pop rock" and "indie rock" are roughly synonymous terms used as a contrast to non-guitar based pop music like hip hop and R&B. Critic Philip Auslander argues that the distinction between pop and rock

title: Pop music

text: has been dominated by the American and (from the mid-1960s) British music industries, whose influence has made pop music something of an international monoculture, but most regions and countries have their own form of pop music, sometimes producing local versions of wider trends, and lending them local characteristics. Some of these trends (for example Europop) have had a significant impact of the development of the genre. According to "Grove Music Online", "Western-derived pop styles, whether coexisting with or marginalizing distinctively local genres, have spread throughout the world and have come to constitute stylistic common denominators in global commercial music cultures".

title: Power pop

text: pop rock that is based on catchy, melodic hooks and energetic moods. AllMusic describes the style as "a cross between the crunching hard rock of the Who and the sweet melodicism of the Beatles and the Beach Boys, with the ringing guitars of the Byrds thrown in for good measure". Virtually every artist of the genre has been a rock band consisting of white male musicians who engaged with the song forms, vocal arrangements, chord progressions, rhythm patterns, instrumentation, or overall sound associated with groups of the mid 1960s British Invasion era. An essential feature of power pop is that

title: Pop music

long_answer: According to the website of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, called Grove Music Online, the term "pop music" "originated in Britain in the mid-1950s as a description for rock and roll and the new youth music styles that it influenced". The Oxford Dictionary of Music states that while pop's "earlier meaning meant concerts appealing to a wide audience ... since the late 1950s, however, pop has had the special meaning of non-classical mus[ic], usually in the form of songs, performed by such artists as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, ABBA, etc". Grove Music Online also states that "... in the early 1960s, [the term] 'pop music' competed terminologically with beat music [in England], while in the USA its coverage overlapped (as it still does) with that of 'rock and roll'".


question: what is the most famous building in rennes

answers: Parlement de Bretagne

answers: The Parlement de Bretagne

title: Rennes

text: botanical garden on 10 hectares of land, built between 1860 and 1867. 17th century promenade "la Motte à Madame", and a monumental stairway overlooking the Rue de Paris entrance to the Thabor. The south city centre is a mix of old buildings and 19th and 20th centuries constructions. The Fine Arts Museum is situated on Quai Émile Zola, by the Vilaine River. Les Champs Libres is a building on Esplanade Charles de Gaulle, and was designed by the architect Christian de Portzamparc. It houses the Brittany Museum (Musée de Bretagne), the regional library Bibliothèque de Rennes Métropole with six floors,

title: Rennes

text: after Toulouse and before Montpellier, Bordeaux and Nantes. The inhabitants of Rennes are called "Rennais" in French. Rennes is classified as a city of art and history. The historic centre is located on the former plan of the ramparts. There is a difference between the northern city centre and the southern city centre due to the 1720 fire, which destroyed most of the timber framed houses in the northern part of the city. The rebuilding was done in stone, on a grid plan. The southern part, the poorest at this time, was not rebuilt. Due to the presence of the

title: Rennes

text: historic province of Brittany of the Kingdom of France. Since the 1950s, Rennes has grown in importance through rural flight and its modern industrial development, partly automotive. The city developed extensive building plans to accommodate upwards of 200,000 inhabitants. During the 1980s, Rennes became one of the main centres in telecommunication and high technology industry. It is now a significant digital innovation centre in France. In 2015, the city was the tenth largest in France, with a metropolitan area of about 720,000 inhabitants. With more than 66,000 students in 2016, it is also the eighth-largest university campus of France. The

title: Rennes

text: number of pupils enrolled in these schools is steadily growing. Specialties from Rennes include: Many other Breton specialties (seafood, milk, vegetables, cheese, meat) are seen at the Marché des Lices, a weekly market held every Saturday morning (one of the most important markets in France). The Rennes agglomeration has a large student population (around 63,000). The city has two main universities; "Université de Rennes 1", which offers courses in science, technology, medicine, philosophy, law, management and economics and "Université Rennes 2", which has courses in the arts, literature, languages, communication, human and social sciences and sport. The official website of

title: University of Rennes 1

text: and the faculty of letter were thus relocated in 1909 in the Séminaire, located currently in the Place Hoche. In 1969, in order to enforce the growth of French universities, a law was passed, splitting the University of Rennes into two new entities. This new university took the name of 'University of Rennes 1'. Most of the university's 1.64 km² of grounds lie within the city boundary of Rennes, but it has other sites dotted around Brittany. The three main campuses are in Beaulieu (in the east of Rennes), Villejean (in the north-west of Rennes) and a central campus. Situated

title: University of Rennes 1

text: in the north-east of the city, the Beaulieu campus is a large complex that was still in development in 1969. Beaulieu is the home of more than a dozen science buildings (for the Faculties of mathematics, physics, biology and other schools such as the INSA) and one of philosophy. The sports facilities and the students' entertainment building are also located there. In the north-west, the Villejean campus gathers Rennes 2's Faculties of Foreign Languages, Arts, Human Sciences and Social Sciences. Rennes I University's Faculty of Medicine is located on the edge of this Villejean campus, nearby Brittany's largest hospital center,

title: Rennes

text: fired by a protester during a demonstration. It houses the Rennes Court of Appeal. The plaza around is built on the classical architecture. On the west, the Place de la Mairie (City Hall Plaza, Plasenn Ti Kêr): On the east, at the end of the "Rue Saint-Georges" with traditional half-timbered houses: On the south-east: The Place des Lices is lined by hôtels particuliers with the place Railler-du-Baty, is the location of the weekly big market, the marché des Lices. Near the Rennes Cathedral (cathédrale Saint-Pierre de Rennes) is the Rue du Chapitre: On this era are the former St. Yves

title: Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes

text: Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes The Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes ( "Musée des beaux-arts de Rennes") is a municipal museum of fine arts in the French city of Rennes, the capital of Brittany. Its collections range from ancient Egypt antiquities to the Modern art period and make the museum one of the most important in France outside Paris, notably for its paintings and drawings holdings. The museum was established in 1794 during the French Revolution like most of the main French museums. Its first collections were the confiscated artworks of the churches and public buildings of Rennes.

title: Rennes

text: after Paris and Grenoble, with 3,000 people working in 10 laboratories, like well-known IRISA, IETR, IRMAR, DGA-MI (cyberdefense), SATIE, etc. It is also the 3rd innovation potential in agrofood French industry with lots of firms in this field (Lactalis, Triballat Sojasun, Coralis, Panavi, Bridor, Claude Léger, Loïc Raison, Groupe Roullier, Sanders, etc.), an agro campus (Agrocampus Ouest) and a big international and professional expo, the Space (every year in September). Other large firms located in Rennes include the restaurant conglomerate Groupe Le Duff (owners of Brioche Dorée, Bruegger's, La Madeleine, Mimi's Cafe, Timothy's World Coffee), the first French newspaper Ouest

title: Rennes

text: Rennes Rennes (; , ; Gallo: "Resnn"; ) is a city in the east of Brittany in northwestern France at the confluence of the Ille and the Vilaine. Rennes is the capital of the region of Brittany, as well as the Ille-et-Vilaine department. Rennes's history goes back more than 2,000 years, at a time when it was a small Gallic village named Condate. Together with Vannes and Nantes, it was one of the major cities of the ancient Duchy of Brittany. From the early sixteenth century until the French Revolution, Rennes was a parliamentary, administrative and garrison city of the

title: Gare de Rennes

text: Gare de Rennes Rennes railway station is situated in the town centre of Rennes, France. It is situated on the Paris–Brest, Rennes–Saint-Malo and the Rennes–Redon railways. The station at Rennes was opened in 1857, and was situated a significant walking distance from the city centre. However, since that date the town has expanded and now the station lies in the central part of the city. It has access to Paris on the TGV, a two-hour trip; and serves Brittany with regular trains to Brest, Lannion, Nantes, Quimper and Saint-Malo. Train service is also available to other cities in France such

title: University of Rennes 1

text: Pontchaillou. The city center holds two separate buildings: the Faculty of Law and Political Science, and the Faculty of Economical Science, in front of which a cloister houses the two faculties' library. There are other sites in Lannion, Saint-Brieuc, Saint-Malo, Fougères and Dinard; some research centers in Monterfil, Paimpont and the isle of Bailleron; and a museum owned by the university in Penmarch. Institute of Technology of Saint-Malo (or IUT of Saint-Malo) is a French higher education institution founded in 1994 and located in Saint-Malo. It is attached to the University of Rennes 1 and trains students from BAC to

title: Rennes Cathedral

text: the first Bishop of Rennes, buried here in the 6th century. The present buildings were constructed in the 17th century, and were badly damaged during World War II. Rennes Cathedral Rennes Cathedral () is a Roman Catholic church located in the town of Rennes, France. It has been a monument historique since 1906. The cathedral, dedicated to Saint Peter, is the seat of the Archbishop of Rennes, Dol, and Saint-Malo, previously Bishop of Rennes. The site has been used for a cathedral more or less from the beginnings of the see in the 6th century. The earliest building was completely

title: Rennes Cathedral

text: Rennes Cathedral Rennes Cathedral () is a Roman Catholic church located in the town of Rennes, France. It has been a monument historique since 1906. The cathedral, dedicated to Saint Peter, is the seat of the Archbishop of Rennes, Dol, and Saint-Malo, previously Bishop of Rennes. The site has been used for a cathedral more or less from the beginnings of the see in the 6th century. The earliest building was completely replaced by a Gothic cathedral in the 12th century, of which in 1490 the tower and the entire west front collapsed. The existing façade with its neoclassical granite

title: University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany

text: University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany The University of Rennes 2 ("Université Rennes 2", UR2) is a university in Upper Brittany, France, one of four in the Academy of Rennes. The main campus is situated in the northwest section of Rennes in the Villejean neighborhood not far from the other campus, located at La Harpe. Asked by Francis II, Duke of Brittany, the Pope created the first university of Brittany in Nantes in 1460. It taught arts, medicine, law, and theology. In 1728, the mayor of Nantes, Gérard Mellier, asked that the university be moved to Rennes, Nantes being

title: Rennes

text: There are two halls of the printer, Oberthür, built by Marthenot between 1870 and 1895 on Rue de Paris in the eastern part of the city. Oberthür Park is the second biggest garden in the city. The 17th century manor of Haute-Chalais, a granite château, is situated to the south of the city in Blosne Quarter (Bréquigny). Parc du Thabor contains a compact but significant botanical garden, the Jardin botanique du Thabor. The University of Rennes 1, with a campus in the city's eastern section, also contains a botanical garden and collections (the Jardin botanique de l'Université de Rennes). Local

title: University of Rennes 1

text: University of Rennes 1 The University of Rennes 1 is one of the two main universities in the city of Rennes, France. It is under the Academy of Rennes. It specializes in science, technology, law, economy, management and philosophy. The University of Rennes 1 has been in existence since 1969, but its heritage stems back to the days of the Breton University founded in 1461. There are currently about students enrolled, with about members of teaching staff and other staff members employed by the university. Asked by Francis II, Duke of Brittany, the Pope created the first university of Brittany

title: Rennes

text: designed by architect Norman Foster (La Poterie station). A second light metro line is being planned, it should be operational by 2019, and the construction began in 2014. Rennes provides other modes of local transport: a bike sharing system with 900 bicycles (named ). Rennes created the first system of modern French bike sharing (1998). The city is an important hub of Brittany's motorway network and is surrounded by a ring road: the Rocade (national road 136). The construction of the bypass was started in 1968 and completed in 1999. It is 31 km (18.5 mi) long, it has 2

title: Rennes

text: and the Espace des Sciences science centre with a planetarium. At Place Honoré Commeurec is Les Halles Centrales, a covered market from 1922, with one part converted into contemporary art gallery. The Mercure Hotel is located in a restored building on Rue du Pré-Botté, which was the prior location of Ouest-Éclair, and then of Ouest-France, a premier daily regional newspaper. There are large mills at Rue Duhamel, constructed on each side of the south branch of the Vilaine in 1895 and 1902. To the northwest of Rennes, near Rue de Saint-Malo are the locks of the Canal d'Ille-et-Rance of 1843.

title: Rennes

text: The Parlement de Bretagne (Administrative and judicial centre of Brittany, Breton: Breujoù Breizh) is the most famous 17th century building in Rennes.  It was rebuilt after a terrible fire in 1994 that may have been caused by a flare fired by a protester during a demonstration. It houses the Rennes Court of Appeal. The plaza around is built on the classical architecture.

title: PSA Rennes Plant

text: PSA Rennes Plant The PSA Rennes Plant is one of the principal car plants in France, producing approximately 340,000 cars in 2005. PSA Rennes was acquired by the PSA Group in 1976 when Peugeot took a majority stake in the Citroën company which had built the plant. PSA Rennes is the largest private employer in the Rennes conurbation, with approximately 6,900 people as of 2009. The plant is located to the south-west of Rennes in the commune of Chartres-de-Bretagne, just beyond the Rennes city limits on a large site at Rennes-la-Janais, across the road from the city's airport. The completion

title: Rennes Métropole

text: Rennes Métropole Rennes Métropole is the "métropole", an intercommunal structure, centred on the city of Rennes. It is located in the Ille-et-Vilaine department, in the Brittany region, western France. It was created in January 2015, replacing the previous "Communauté d'agglomération de Rennes", which had itself succeeded in 2000 to the previous district created in 1970 with less powers than the current métropole. Its population was 444,723 in 2014, of which 219,370 in Rennes proper. The goal of the Métropoles (intercommunal structure for the largest French cities like Lille, Lyon, Bordeaux or Strasbourg) is to build a better metropolitan area by

title: Rennes

text: Université Rennes 2 identifies that facility as "the largest research and higher learning institution in Arts, Literature, Languages, Social Sciences and Humanities in the West of France." There are a few "École Supérieures" in Rennes, like the "École Normale Supérieure de Rennes" on the Ker Lann campus, just outside Rennes, the "Institut d'études politiques de Rennes" or the ESC Rennes School of Business. There is also branches of "École Supérieure d'Électricité" – Supélec and Telecom Bretagne in the east of the city (Cesson-Sévigné), a campus of the "École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies", a campus of the "École pour

title: Rennes

text: l'informatique et les techniques avancées", and the "grande école" Institut National des Sciences Appliquées, which is next to the "École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes". The computer science and applied mathematics research institute, IRISA, is located on the campus of the Université des Sciences, nearby Cesson-Sévigné. The "Délégation Générale pour l'Armement" (defence procurement agency) operates the CELAR research centre, dedicated to electronics and computing, in Bruz, a neighbouring town. Catholic University of Rennes ("Institut Catholique de Rennes") is a Catholic university founded in 1989. The city is also home to an American study abroad program for high school students,

title: Stade Rennais F.C.

text: members of the first division of French football. Alongside Nantes, Rennes is one of the top football clubs in the region and the two are among the main clubs that contest the Derby Breton. The club's best finish in the league has been fourth with the club accomplishing this feat on four occasions, most recently in 2006–07. Rennes has won two Coupe de France titles in 1965 and 1971. After winning the Coupe de France in 1971, Rennes changed its name to its current version. Rennes is known for its youth academy, known in English as the Henri Guérin Training

title: Rennes

text: lanes each way (sometimes 3 lanes) and toll free. Many other expressways are connected to the Rennes ring road for local and regional service. By road, Saint-Malo can be reached in 45 minutes, Nantes in 1 hour, Brest in 2 hours and 30 minutes, Paris in 4 hours, Bordeaux in 5 hours and Bruxelles in 6 hours and 30 minutes. Rennes has a major French railway station, the Gare de Rennes, opened in 1857. Since July 2, 2017, it is now one hour twenty seven minutes by TGV high speed train from Paris ( after the extension of the High

title: University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany

text: the Villejean campus opened, dedicated to Arts, Letters, and Human Sciences. In 1969, in order to enforce the growth of French universities, a law was passed, splitting the University of Rennes into two new entities. This new university took the name of 'University of Upper Brittany'. The Villejean neighborhood was then still in development, building housing facilities for students, along with other university facilities. In the east of the city, Beaulieu includes sciences and philosophy. In the west, Villejean includes Schools of Foreign Languages, Arts, Human Sciences and Social Sciences. Rennes I University's School of Medicine, is located on the

title: Rennes

text: of the town is built on a hill, with the north side being more elevated than the south side. It is at the confluence of two rivers: the Ille and the Vilaine. Rennes is located on the European atlantic arc, 50 km from the English Channel (near Saint-Malo, Dinard and Mont Saint-Michel). Rennes has the distinction of having a significant Green Belt around its ring road. This Green Belt is a protected area between the city proper (rather dense) and the rest of its urban area (rather rural). Rennes features an oceanic climate. Precipitation in Rennes is considerably less abundant

title: Rennes

text: this list, there is art facilities, such as "40mcube" exhibition space or the centre for contemporary art "La Criée". There is also miscellaneous cultural places: the dance dedicated place the "Triange", two "Art et Essai" - art house cinemas - cinemas called "l'Arvor" and "Cine TNB". Remark that the surrounding cities house many other cultural places. Rennes was one of the first towns in France to have its own local television channel 'TV Rennes', created in 1987. Rennes has also local radio stations (Hit West, Radio Campus, Canal B, Radio Caroline, Radio Rennes, Radio Laser) and local newspapers or magazines

title: Gare de Rennes

text: as Lyon, Montpellier, Marseille, Lille, Aix-en-Provence and Strasbourg. It is also served by "Gares" station on the VAL Rennes Metro. Gare de Rennes Rennes railway station is situated in the town centre of Rennes, France. It is situated on the Paris–Brest, Rennes–Saint-Malo and the Rennes–Redon railways. The station at Rennes was opened in 1857, and was situated a significant walking distance from the city centre. However, since that date the town has expanded and now the station lies in the central part of the city. It has access to Paris on the TGV, a two-hour trip; and serves Brittany with

title: Rennes

short_answers:
Parlement de Bretagne
The Parlement de Bretagne


question: when did equus first appear in fossil record

answers: 1820s

answers: ~3.5 million years old

answers: about 3.5 mya

title: Equus (genus)

text: each other both visually and vocally. Human activities have threatened wild equine populations. The word "equus" is Latin for "horse", and is cognate with the Greek ἵππος ("hippos"), "horse", and Mycenaean Greek "i-qo" /ikkʷos/, the earliest attested variant of the Greek word, written in Linear B syllabic script.; compare the alternative development of the Proto-Greek labiovelar in Ionic ἴκκος ("ikkos"). The genus "Equus" was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. It is the only recognized extant genus in the family Equidae. The first equids were small, dog-sized mammals (e.g. "Eohippus") adapted for browsing on shrubs during the Eocene, around

title: Equus (genus)

text: The oldest material to date was found in Idaho, USA. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged "E. livenzovensis" documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate that the most recent common ancestor of all modern equines (members of the genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9-7.8) Mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Mya for the most recent common ancestor within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Mya. Mitochondrial evidence supports the division of "Equus" species into noncaballoid (which includes

title: Equus (genus)

text: 54 million years ago (Mya). These animals had three toes on the hind feet and four on the front feet with small hooves in place of claws, but also had soft pads.<ref name="doi10.1126/science.1105458"></ref> Equids developed into larger, three-toed animals (e.g. "Mesohippus") during the Oligocene and Miocene. From there, the side toes became progressively smaller through the Pleistocene until the emergence of the single-toed "Equus". The genus "Equus", which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from "Dinohippus", via the intermediate form "Plesippus". One of the oldest species is "Equus simplicidens", described as zebra-like with a donkey-like head shape.

title: Onager

text: ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus "Equus") lived around 5.6 (3.9–7.8) million years ago (Mya). Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Mya for the most recent common ancestor within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Mya. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus "E. (Asinus)", including the kulan, onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera "E. (Dolichohippus)", and "E. (Hippotigris)"). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus "E. (Equus)" which

title: Kiang

text: genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus "E. (Asinus)", including the kulan, onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera "E. (Dolichohippus)", and "E. (Hippotigris)"). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus "E. (Equus)" which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago. The

title: Horse

text: known informally as splint bones. Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed. By about 5 million years ago, the modern "Equus" had evolved. Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America. By about 15,000 years ago, "Equus ferus" was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones

title: Evolution of the horse

text: the genus "Equus". Their estimated average weight was 425 kg, roughly the size of an Arabian horse. At the end of the Pliocene, the climate in North America began to cool significantly and most of the animals were forced to move south. One population of "Plesippus" moved across the Bering land bridge into Eurasia around 2.5 mya. The genus "Equus", which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from "Dinohippus", via the intermediate form "Plesippus". One of the oldest species is "Equus simplicidens", described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is ~3.5 million

title: Equus (genus)

text: Equus (genus) Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, donkeys, and zebras. Within Equidae, "Equus" is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species. The term equine refers to any member of this genus, including horses. Like Equidae more broadly, "Equus" has numerous extinct species known only from fossils. The genus most likely originated in North America and spread quickly to the Old World. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies), and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler

title: African wild ass

text: common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus "E. (Asinus)", including the kulan, onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera "E. (Dolichohippus)", and "E. (Hippotigris)"). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus "E.

title: Horse

text: Rhinocerotidae (the rhinoceroses)—have survived to the present day. The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the "Hyracotherium", which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot. The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the "Mesohippus", which lived 32 to 37 million years ago. Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee,

title: Evolution of the horse

text: in Europe and were about the size of a sheep, with tails making slightly less than half of the length of their bodies and unlike their ancestors, good running skills for eluding predators. "Eohippus" appeared in the Ypresian (early Eocene), about 52 mya (million years ago). It was an animal approximately the size of a fox (250–450 mm in height), with a relatively short head and neck and a springy, arched back. It had 44 low-crowned teeth, in the typical arrangement of an omnivorous, browsing mammal: three incisors, one canine, four premolars, and three molars on each side of the

title: Equidae

text: new species appearing. By this time, equids were more truly horse-like, having developed the typical body shape of the modern animals. Many of these species bore the main weight of their bodies on their central, third, toe, with the others becoming reduced, and barely touching the ground, if at all. The sole surviving genus, "Equus", had evolved by the early Pleistocene, and spread rapidly through the world. Equidae Equidae (sometimes known as the horse family) is the taxonomic family of horses and related animals, including the extant horses, donkeys, and zebras, and many other species known only from fossils. All

title: Equus (genus)

text: zebras and asses) and caballoids or "true horses" (which includes "E. ferus" and "E. przewalskii"). Of the extant equine species, the lineage of the asses may have diverged first, possibly as soon as "Equus" reached the Old World. Zebras appear to be monophyletic and differentiated in Africa, where they are endemic. Molecular dating indicates the caballoid lineage diverged from the noncaballoids 4 Mya. Genetic results suggest that all North American fossils of caballine equines, as well as South American fossils traditionally placed in the subgenus "E." ("Amerhippus"), belong to "E. ferus". Remains attributed to a variety of species and lumped

title: Mustang

text: argue that the animals are merely small due to their harsh living conditions and that natural selection has eliminated many traits that lead to weakness or inferiority. The taxonomic horse family "Equidae" evolved in North America 55 million years ago. By the late Pleistocene era, there were two species of the family remaining there, the caballine (stout legged) and stilt-legged, which recent DNA studies have indicated represent different genera; ""Equus"" and ""Haringtonhippus,"" respectively. "Haringtonhippus" went extinct, and "Equus" was extirpated from the Americas at the end of the last ice age, possibly due to a changing climate or the impact

title: Horses in the United States

text: animals on the continent. Fossils of the earliest direct ancestor to the modern horse, "Eohippus" have been found in the Eocene layers of North American strata, mainly in the Wind River basin in Wyoming. Fossils found at the Hagerman Fossil Beds in Idaho, called the Hagerman horse or "Equus simplicidens" are from the Pliocene, dating to about 3.5 million years ago (mya). Paleontologists determined the fossils represented the oldest remains of the genus "Equus". The genus "Equus", which includes all extant equines, was plentiful in North America and spread into the Old World by about 2.5 mya. A 2005 genetic

title: Evolution of the horse

text: onager, and kiang), followed by the African zebras (subgenera "E. (Dolichohippus)", and "E. (Hippotigris)"). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil Pliocene and Pleistocene forms) belong to the subgenus "E. (Equus)" which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago. Pleistocene horse fossils have been assigned to a multitude of species, with over 50 species of equines described from the Pleistocene of North America alone, although the taxonomic validity of most of these has been called into question. Recent genetic work on fossils has found evidence for only three genetically divergent equid lineages in Pleistocene North and South

title: Equus (genus)

text: to be an ancestor of the domestic horse, though the two can hybridize and produce fertile offspring. The split between Przewalskii's horse and "E. ferus caballus" is estimated to have occurred 120,000– 240,000 years ago, long before domestication. Of the caballine equines of "E. ferus," "E. f. ferus," also known as the European wild horse or "tarpan", shares ancestry with the modern domestic horse. In addition, tarpans that lived into modern times may have been hybridized with domestic horses. Archaeological, biogeographical, and linguistic evidence suggests that the donkey was first domesticated by nomadic pastoral people in North Africa over 5,000

title: Evolution of the horse

text: years old from Idaho, USA. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged "Equus livenzovensis" documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus "E. (Asinus)", including the kulan,

title: Donkey

text: old from Idaho, USA. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged "Equus livenzovensis" documented from western Europe and Russia. Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus "Equus") lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP. The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus "E. (Asinus)", including the kulan, onager,

title: Evolution of the horse

text: The genus Equus, which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from Dinohippus, via the intermediate form Plesippus. One of the oldest species is Equus simplicidens, described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is ~3.5 million years old from Idaho, USA.  The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged Equus livenzovensis documented from western Europe and Russia.

title: Evolution of the horse

text: regards South America, had become extinct, and has a second time been introduced into that Continent, is not one of the least interesting fruits of Mr. Darwin's palæontological discoveries." In 1848, a study "On the fossil horses of America" by Joseph Leidy systematically examined Pleistocene horse fossils from various collections, including that of the Academy of Natural Sciences, and concluded at least two ancient horse species had existed in North America: "Equus curvidens" and another, which he named "Equus americanus". A decade later, however, he found the latter name had already been taken and renamed it "Equus complicatus". In the

title: Equus scotti

text: Americas until the reintroduction of the horse approximately 10,000 years later, when conquistadors brought modern horses to North and South America around the 16th century. Paleontological excavations have identified the locations of numerous places where "E. scotti" occurred. The species was named from Rock Creek, Texas, United States, where multiple skeletons were recovered. A closely related fossil find was made of "Equus bautistensis" in California; this species appeared closely related, but of a slightly more primitive form than "E. scotti". However, "E. bautistensis" was redefined as a junior synonym of "E. scotti" in 1998 by paleontologist E. Scott, who also

title: Evolution of the horse

text: results, it appears the genus "Equus" evolved from a "Dinohippus"-like ancestor ~4–7 mya. It rapidly spread into the Old World and there diversified into the various species of asses and zebras. A North American lineage of the subgenus "E. (Equus)" evolved into the New World stilt-legged horse (NWSLH). Subsequently, populations of this species entered South America as part of the Great American Interchange shortly after the formation of the Isthmus of Panama, and evolved into the form currently referred to as "Hippidion" ~2.5 million years ago. "Hippidion" is thus only distantly related to the morphologically similar "Pliohippus", which presumably became

title: Horse

text: Horse The horse ("Equus ferus caballus") is one of two extant subspecies of "Equus ferus". It is an odd-toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, "Eohippus", into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies "caballus" are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. These feral populations are not true wild horses, as this term

title: Evidence of common descent

text: referred to as "Eohippus"), which lived in North America about 54 million years ago then spread across to Europe and Asia. Fossil remains of "Hyracotherium" show it to have differed from the modern horse in three important respects: it was a small animal (the size of a fox), lightly built and adapted for running; the limbs were short and slender, and the feet elongated so that the digits were almost vertical, with four digits in the forelimbs and three digits in the hindlimbs; and the incisors were small, the molars having low crowns with rounded cusps covered in enamel. The

title: Haringtonhippus

text: Heintzman and colleagues placed "Equus francisci" outside "Equus" based on a phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences, leading to erection of the new genus "Haringtonhippus". The genus is phylogenetically closer to "Equus" than to "Hippidion". It is estimated to have diverged from "Equus" around 4 to 6 million years ago. Haringtonhippus Haringtonhippus is an extinct genus of stilt-legged horse from the Pleistocene of North America first described in 2017. The genus is monospecific, consisting of the species H. francisci, initially described in 1915 by Oliver Perry Hay as "Equus francisci". Prior to its formal description, it was sometimes referred to as

title: Equus (genus)

text: and pioneer spirit of the West" under the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971, and in "Kleppe v. New Mexico", the United States Supreme Court ruled that the animals so designated were, as a matter of law, wildlife. Equus (genus) Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, donkeys, and zebras. Within Equidae, "Equus" is the only recognized extant genus, comprising seven living species. The term equine refers to any member of this genus, including horses. Like Equidae more broadly, "Equus" has numerous extinct species known only from fossils. The genus most

title: Evolution of the horse

text: toes, of which four were equipped with small proto-hooves; the large fifth "toe-thumb" was off the ground. The hind limbs had small hooves on three out of the five toes, while the vestigial first and fifth toes did not touch the ground. Its feet were padded, much like a dog's, but with the small hooves in place of claws. For a span of about 20 million years, "Eohippus" thrived with few significant evolutionary changes. The most significant change was in the teeth, which began to adapt to its changing diet, as these early Equidae shifted from a mixed diet of

title: Equidae

text: Equidae Equidae (sometimes known as the horse family) is the taxonomic family of horses and related animals, including the extant horses, donkeys, and zebras, and many other species known only from fossils. All extant species are in the genus "Equus". Equidae belongs to the order Perissodactyla, which includes the extant tapirs and rhinoceros, and several extinct families. The term equid refers to any member of this family, including any equine. The oldest known fossils assigned to Equidae date from the early Eocene, 54 million years ago. They used to be assigned to the genus "Hyracotherium", but the type species of

title: Equus scotti

text: Equus scotti Equus scotti (translated from Latin as Scott's horse, named after vertebrate paleontologist William Berryman Scott) is an extinct species of "Equus", the genus that includes the horse. "E. scotti" was native to North America and likely evolved from earlier, more zebra-like North American equids early in the Pleistocene Epoch. The species may have crossed from North America to Eurasia over the Bering land bridge during the Pleistocene. The species died out at the end of the last ice age in the large-scale Pleistocene extinction of megafauna. It was among the last of the native horse species in the

title: Evolution of the horse