question: who appoints the chief election commissioner of india

answers: President of India

answers: the president

title: Election Commissioner of India

text: Election Commissioner of India Election Commissioners of India are members of Election Commission of India, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair elections to the national and state legislatures. The Election Commissioners are usually retired Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officers. Until 1989, the commission was a single member body, but later two additional Election Commissioners were added. Thus, the Election Commission currently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. The decisions of the commission are taken by a majority vote.Sunil Arorais the current Chief Election Commissioner and the other two are Ashok Lavasa Originally in

title: Election Commission of India

text: Election Commission is assisted by the Chief Electoral Officer of the State, who is an IAS officer of Principal Secretary rank. At the district and constituency levels, the District Magistrates (in their capacity as District Election Officers), Electoral Registration Officers and Returning Officers perform election work. The Chief Election Commissioner of India can be removed from his office similar to the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court of India which requires a resolution passed by the Parliament with a two-thirds majority in both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha on the grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity.

title: Election Commissioner of India

text: Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1992". Election Commissioner of India Election Commissioners of India are members of Election Commission of India, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair elections to the national and state legislatures. The Election Commissioners are usually retired Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officers. Until 1989, the commission was a single member body, but later two additional Election Commissioners were added. Thus, the Election Commission currently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. The decisions of the commission are taken by a majority vote.Sunil Arorais the current Chief

title: Om Prakash Rawat

text: Cabinet in March 2012, he assumed office on 3 March 2012, and demitted it on and superannuation from service on 31 December 2013. Rawat assumed office as one of the twoElection Commissioners of India on 14 August 2015. During his tenure at the Election Commission of India, elections to state legislative assemblies of Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, Puducherry, Assam, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Manipur, Uttar Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh were held. Besides, presidential as well as vice-presidential elections were also be held during his stint with the Election Commission of India. As the senior-most Election Commissioner, post the

title: Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh

text: all electoral roll and for supervising the conduct of all elections (including Lok Sabha, Vidhan Sabha and Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council). The Chief Electoral Officer is also responsible for monitoring the election expenditure and also the Code of Conduct defined by the Election Commission of India. The Chief Electoral Officer works under the superintendence, direction and control of the Election Commission of India. The Chief Electoral Officer is nominated by or is designated by the Election Commission of India to perform the duties stated in the Representation of the People Act, 1950 & 1951. Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh The

title: Sunil Arora

text: 1 September 2017.. On 26 November 2018, it was announced that Arora was would become the Chief Election Commissioner in December 2018, succeeding Om Prakash Rawat. Sunil Arora Sunil Arora (born 13 April 1956) is the current and 23rd Chief Election Commissioner of India. He is a retired 1980 batch Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer of Rajasthan cadre. He also served as a secretary to the Government of India in two ministries. Arora's father is a retired accounts officer of the Indian Railways, whereas his mother served in DAV College, Hoshiarpur. Of his two brothers, one is also an IAS

title: Election Commission of India

text: then, with the decisions being made by a majority vote. The Chief Election Commissioner and the two Election Commissioners who are usually retired IAS officers draw salaries and allowances as per with those of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India as per the "Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1992". The commission is served by its secretariat located in New Delhi. The Election Commissioners are assisted by Deputy Election Commissioners, who are generally IAS officers. They are further assisted by Directors General, Principal Secretaries, and Secretaries and Under Secretaries. At the state level,

title: Om Prakash Rawat

text: retirement of Achal Kumar Jyoti, Rawat was announced to be the next Chief Election Commissioner on 21 January 2018. Rawat assumed charge as the Chief Election Commissioner of India on 23 January 2018. He retired from the post on 1st December 2018 on attaining 65 years of age. Om Prakash Rawat Om Prakash Rawat (IAST: "Oma Prakāśa Rāvata"; born 2 December 1953) is a retired 1977 batch Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer of the Madhya Pradesh cadre who served as 22nd Chief Election Commissioner of India. He has also served as one of the twoElection Commissioners of India and the

title: Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission

text: is headed by the Uttar Pradesh State Election Commissioner, who is in turn assisted by an additional commissioner; three joint commissioners; two officers on special duty, one of whom also acts the head of department (HoD); a secretary; and two deputy election commissioners. The Uttar Pradesh State Election Commissioner acts as the head of the state election commission. Usually a retired officer of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the commissioner is appointed by the governor of Uttar Pradesh on the chief minister's aid and advise and has the same immunity as a high court judge and therefore, can only be

title: Chief Election Commissioner of India

text: him, the current system was open to "manipulation and partisanship". Similar demand was made by many former CEC's such as B B Tandon, N Gopalaswamy and S Y Quraishi. By the "Election Commission (Condition Of Service Of Election Commissions And Transaction Of Business) Act, 1991", the salary of the chief election commissioner is the same as salary of a Judge of Supreme Court of India. The following have held the post of the Chief Election Commissioner of India. Chief Election Commissioner of India The Chief Election Commissioner heads the Election Commission of India, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free

title: Andhra Pradesh State Election Commission

text: IAS (Retd) has assumed office of the State Election Commissioner of Andhra Pradesh on 01.04.2016 and he is currently holding the said post. The Government conferred the status of a Judge of High Court on the State Election Commissioner. The State Election Commissioner is assisted by a Secretary, who is a cadre officer (IAS), a Legal Advisor (District Judge rank) and one Joint Secretary. At present, the post of Secretary is vacant and Sri A.V. Satya Ramesh, Joint Secretary is holding full additional charge of the post of Secretary, A.P. State Election Commission w.e.f. 06.01.2015. The other senior official is

title: Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission

text: removed from office via impeachment by both houses of the Indian parliament. The commissioner has a tenure of six years or till she/he attains the age of 68, whichever is earlier. The current state election commissioner is Manoj Kumar, a retired UP cadre IAS officer of 1982 batch. Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission The State Election Commission Uttar Pradesh (SEC UP; IAST: ), commonly known as the Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission, is an independent constitutional body responsible for conducting elections for urban and rural local bodies—the constitutionally mandated third-tier of government in India—in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh

title: Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh

text: Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh The Chief Electoral Officer, Uttar Pradesh (a.k.a. CEO, Uttar Pradesh) is the Government official responsible for supervising the preparation, revision and correction of the electoral roll and for supervising the conduct of all elections in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. As of 20 Sep 2018, Lakku Venkateshwarlu is the Chief Electoral Officer of Uttar Pradesh. As defined in section 13A of the Representation of the People Act 1950 and under section 20 of the Representation of the People Act 1951, the Chief Electoral Officer is responsible for supervising the preparation, revision and correction of

title: Election Commission of India

text: election. Being a constitutional authority, Election Commission is amongst the few institutions which function with both autonomy and freedom, along with the country’s higher judiciary, the Union Public Service Commission and the Comptroller and Auditor General of India. Originally in 1950, the commission had only a Chief Election Commissioner. Two additional Commissioners were appointed to the commission for the first time on 16 October 1989 but they had a very short tenure, ending on 1 January 1990. "The Election Commissioner Amendment Act, 1989" made the commission a multi-member body. The concept of a 3-member Commission has been in operation since

title: Tamil Nadu State Election Commission

text: Tamil Nadu was conducted in October 1996. Consecutive elections were then conducted in October 2001, October 2006 and October 2011 successfully. The Tamil Nadu State Election Commission is headed by a "Tamil Nadu State Election Commissioner" appointed by the Governor of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu State Election Commissioner holds his term for two years which is eligible for reappointment for two terms. Usually, Tamil Nadu State Election Commissioners are appointed in the rank of Secretary to Govt. of Tamil Nadu. Currently, Thiru Malik Feroz Khan, I.A.S,(R), is the Tamil Nadu State Election Commissioner. Commissioner is assisted by a Secretary in

text: such office, eligible for appointment as Chief Election Commissioner, but is not eligible for appointment in the service of the Republic. In addition to their duties and functions as an election commissioner, the chief election commissioner acts as chairperson of the commission. The following have held the post of the Chief Election Commissioner of Bangladesh. Chief Election Commissioner of Bangladesh The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) () heads the Election Commission of Bangladesh, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair elections. The appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner of Bangladesh and other Election Commissioners (if any) is made by

title: Chief Election Commissioner of India

text: machinery of the Indian political process, it gained significant public attention during the tenure of T.N. Seshan, from 1990 to 1996. Seshan is widely credited with undertaking a zealous effort to end corruption and manipulation in Indian elections. Though he made significant progress, several politicians attempted to derail these efforts. In particular, the expansion of the Election Commission to include the two Election Commissioners (in addition to the Chief Commissioner) was seen as a move to curtail the commissioner's ability to act aggressively. In June 2012, Lal Krishna Advani, a veteran Indian politician and former Deputy Prime Minister of India

title: Bangladesh Election Commission

text: chairman. Under the constitution, the term of office of any election commissioner is five years from the date on which he enters upon office. A person who has held office as chief election commissioner is not eligible for appointment in the service of the Republic. Any other Election Commissioner is, on ceasing to hold such office, eligible for appointment as Chief Election Commissioner, but is not eligible for appointment in the service of the Republic. The Election Commission was formed on 23 March 1956 as the Election Commission of Pakistan and after Bangladesh Liberation War it has been restructured, reformed

title: Election Commissioner of India

text: 1950, the commission had only a Chief Election Commissioner. Two additional Commissioners were appointed to the commission for the first time on 16 October 1989 but they had a very short tenure, ending on 1 January 1990. "The Election Commissioner Amendment Act, 1989" made the Commission a multi-member body. The concept of a 3-member Commission has been in operation since then, with the decisions being made by a majority vote.the official website was introduced on 28 February 1998 The Chief Election Commissioner cannot be removed from his post easily on account of any political reasons. This is necessary so as

title: Chief Election Commissioner of India

text: The Chief Election Commissioner heads the Election Commission of India, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair elections to the national and state legislatures. Chief Election Commissioner of India is usually a member of the Indian Civil Service and mostly from the Indian Administrative Service. It is very difficult to remove the authority of the Chief Election Commissioner once elected by the president, as two-thirds of the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha need to vote against him for disorderly conduct or improper actions.

title: Elections in Andhra Pradesh

text: in 2008 by Telugu Film Actor Chiranjeevi that won the third largest number of seats in the 2009 state assembly elections. Elections in Andhra Pradesh are conducted by the Election Commission of India whose state level head is the Chief Election Commissioner of Andhra Pradesh, the authority created under the Constitution. It is a well established convention that once the election process commences, no courts intervene until the results are declared by the election commission. During the elections, vast powers are assigned to the election commission to the extent that it can function as a civil court, if needed. The

title: Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission

text: Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission The State Election Commission Uttar Pradesh (SEC UP; IAST: ), commonly known as the Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission, is an independent constitutional body responsible for conducting elections for urban and rural local bodies—the constitutionally mandated third-tier of government in India—in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh (UP). The commission is headed by the Uttar Pradesh State Election Commissioner, at present, Manoj Kumar. The commission was constituted by the Government of Uttar Pradesh in April 1994, after the passing of 73 and 74 amendments of the Constitution of India, which mandated for a permanent indissoluble

title: Telangana State Election Commission

text: Telangana State Election Commission The Telangana State Election Commission is an autonomous, independent Constitutional and Statutory authority of Telangana. It was formed under the Constitution of India as per the provisions of the 73rd and 74th Amendments Acts of 1992 .All Local Body elections of Telangana are conducted by this agency. The Election commission is headed by a State Election Commissioner appointed by the Governor of Telangana. State Election Commissioner holds his term for five years. Usually, Commissioners are appointed in the rank of Secretary to Govt. of Telangana. The Election Commission monitors the work relating to the conduct of

title: S. L. Shakdhar

text: S. L. Shakdhar S. L. Shakdher (1918 -2002) was a Chief Election Commissioner of India and former Secretary-General of 3rd Lok Sabha, 4th Lok Sabha and 5th Lok Sabha (Lower House of Parliament of India). He was Chief Election Commissioner from 1977 to 1982. He hailed from Jammu and Kashmir. He died in 2002. He was an Expert on Constitution matters and Parliamentary proceeding, he made significant contribution to adaptation and changes in Parliamentary procedures for efficient functioning of Lok Sabha. He has rich knowledge and wide experience in Parliamentary matters is symbolised by his treatise on "Practice and Procedure

title: Elections in India

text: a democratic country but malpractices during the elections have been continuing since the first government was formed. The Election Commission of India is an autonomous entity prescribed in the Constitution of India. It is the federal authority responsible for administering all the electoral processes of India and ensuring they are free and fair. Elections are conducted according to constitutional provisions and parliamentary legislation. These include the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which mainly deals with the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, and the Representation of the People Act, 1951 which deals, in detail, with all aspects of the

title: Uttar Pradesh State Election Commission

text: of Uttar Pradesh. District magistrates—under the general superintendence of the state election commission—are responsible for the conduct of local body elections in their respective districts. The commission is also vested with the power of general supervision of preparation of electoral rolls for local body election in Uttar Pradesh. The Election Commission of India—the constitutional body responsible for conducting presidential, vice-presidential, parliamentary and state legislative elections in India—can share its electoral rolls with the state election commission, but the latter is otherwise independent from it, whilst being vested with the same powers as the former for local body elections. The commission

title: V. S. Sampath

text: V. S. Sampath Veeravalli Sundaram Sampath (Telugu: వీరవల్లి సుందరం సంపత్) served as 18th Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) of the Election Commission of India from 2012 to 2015 . He succeeded S. Y. Quraishi as the Chief Election Commissioner on 11 June 2012. Born on January 16, 1950, Sampath retired on January 15, 2015 when he attained 65 years of age. In his early career in the state of Andhra Pradesh in the southern part of India, Shri Sampath was the administrative head (District Collector) of large Indian districts between 1975 and 1986. This stint, apart from giving him a strong

title: Election Commissioner of Bangladesh

text: from the date on which he enters upon office. A person who has held office as Chief Election Commissioner is not eligible for appointment in the service of the Republic. Any other Election Commissioner is, on ceasing to hold such office, eligible for appointment as Chief Election Commissioner, but is not eligible for appointment in the service of the Republic Election Commissioner of Bangladesh The Election Commissioner of Bangladesh (EC) () is a member of Election Commission of Bangladesh, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair national and regional elections. Article 118 of the Bangladeshi Constitution consisting of

title: Tamil Nadu State Election Commission

text: Tamil Nadu State Election Commission The Tamil Nadu State Election Commission is an autonomous, independent Constitutional and Statutory authority of Tamil Nadu. It was formed under the Constitution of India as per the provisions of the 73rd and 74th Amendments Acts of 1992 on 15 July 1994. All Local Body elections of Tamil Nadu are conducted by this Commission. Tamil Nadu Panchayats Act, 1994 was enacted according to the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments of India in May 1994 which paved way for the creation of Tamil Nadu State Election Commission. But, the first election to the Local Bodies of

title: Elections in India

text: conduct of elections and post-election disputes. The Supreme Court of India has held that where the enacted laws are silent or make insufficient provision to deal with a given situation in the conduct of elections, the Election Commission has the residuary powers under the Constitution to act in an appropriate manner. From 1947 to 16 October 1989, there was one Chief Election Commissioner. From 1989 to 1 January 1990, there were two commissioners. In 1990 of January, two chief commissioners were abolished and election commission acted as a single-member body. Again by The Election Commissioner Amendment Act, 1993 made the

title: Chief Election Commissioner of India


question: glycogen and amylopectin are long chains of which simple sugar(s)

answers: glucose

title: Glycogenin-1

text: growth of itself until forming an oligosaccharide made by 8 glucoses. Glycogenin is an oligomer, and it's capable of interacting with several proteins. In recent years, a family of proteins has been identified, the GNIPs (glycogenin-interacting protein), that interacts with glycogenin stimulating its autoglycolsilation activity. In humans, two isoforms of glycogenin can be expressed: glycogenin-1, with a molecular weight of 37 kDa and codified by GYG1 gen, which is expressed mostly in muscles; and glycogenin-2, with a molecular weight of 66 kDa and codified by GYG2 gen, which is expressed mainly in liver, cardiac muscle and other types of tissue,

title: Waxy corn

text: of chains per molecule are different from those in either amylopectin or amylose. Several researchers demonstrated the presence in normal maize starch of about 5 to 7% intermediate polysaccharides, basing their conclusions on indirect evidence from IA. As early as in 1956, it was stated that amylopectin contained three different types of chains. In each macromolecule there is one C-chain, which carries the only reducing group. The B-chains are linked to the macromolecules linked by their potential reducing group, and may contain one or more A-chains that are similarly linked. The ratio of A-B chains (1:1 to 1,5:1) is a

title: Backbone chain

text: residues) and polysaccharides (up to about 50,000 residues) consist of saccharide residues bonded in a backbone chain, which is characterized by an ether bond known as a glycosidic linkage. In the body's formation of glycogen, the energy storage polymer, this glycosidic linkage is formed by the enzyme glycogen synthase. The mechanism of this enzymatically driven condensation reaction is not well studied but it is known that the molecule UDP acts as an intermediary linker and is lost in the synthesis. These backbone chains can be unbranched (containing one linear chain) or branched (containing multiple chains). The glycosidic linkages are designated

title: Genetically modified food

text: in field trials, but has not been released commercially. Starch or amylum is a polysaccharide produced by all green plants as an energy store. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odourless powder. It consists of two types of molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight. Starch can be further modified to create modified starch for specific purposes, including creation of many of the sugars in processed foods. They include: Lecithin is a naturally occurring lipid. It can be

title: Oligosaccharide

text: Oligosaccharide An oligosaccharide (/ˌɑlɪgoʊˈsækəˌɹaɪd/; from the Greek ὀλίγος "olígos", "a few", and σάκχαρ "sácchar", "sugar") is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to ten) of monosaccharides (simple sugars). Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell recognition and cell binding. For example, glycolipids have an important role in the immune response. They are normally present as glycans: oligosaccharide chains linked to lipids or to compatible amino acid side chains in proteins, by "N"- or "O"-glygosidic bonds. N-linked oligosaccharides are always pentasaccharides attached to asparagine via a beta linkage to the amine nitrogen of the side chain. Alternately, O-linked

title: Glycobiology

text: of the cellular and molecular biology of glycans. However, as early as the late nineteenth century pioneering efforts were being made by Emil Fisher to establish the structure of some basic sugar molecules. Sugars may be linked to other types of biological molecule to form glycoconjugates. The enzymatic process of glycosylation creates sugars/saccharides linked to themselves and to other molecules by the glycosidic bond, thereby producing glycans. Glycoproteins, proteoglycans and glycolipids are the most abundant glycoconjugates found in mammalian cells. They are found predominantly on the outer cell wall and in secreted fluids. Glycoconjugates have been shown to be important

title: Mochi

text: of greater viscosity and gelation is dependent on the distribution of the amylopectin unit chains. Grains that have this gene are considered mutants, which explains why most of them are selectively bred to create a grain that is close to having or has a 0% amylose content. The table below summarizes the amylose and amylopectin content of different starches, waxy and nonwaxy: The soaking of the glutinous rice is an elemental step in the preparation of mochi, either traditionally or industrially. During this process, glutinous rice decreases in protein content as it is soaked in water. The chemicals that make

title: Starch gelatinization

text: chains come together with water still embedded in the molecule network. Due to strong associations of hydrogen bonding, longer amylose molecules (and starch which has a higher amylose content) will form a stiff gel. Amylopectin molecules with longer branched structure (which makes them more similar to amylose), increases the tendency to form strong gels. High amylopectin starches will have a stable gel, but will be softer than high amylose gels. Retrogradation restricts the availability for amylase hydrolysis to occur which reduces the digestibility of the starch. Pregelatinized starch is starch which has been cooked and then dried in the starch

title: Oligosaccharide

text: where X can be any amino acid except for proline, although it is rare to see Asp, Glu, Leu, or Trp in this position. Oligosaccharides that participate in O-linked glycosylation are attached to threonine or serine on the hydroxyl group of the side chain. O-linked glycosylation occurs in the golgi apparatus, where monosaccharide units are added to a complete polypeptide chain. Cell surface proteins and extracellular proteins are O-glycosylated. Glycosylation sites in O-linked oligosaccharides are determined by the secondary and tertiary structures of the polypeptide, which dictate where glycosyltransferases will add sugars. Glycoproteins and glycolipids are by definition covalently bonded

title: Mochi

text: starch granule and becomes part of a colloidal solution. In other words, the higher the amylopectin content, the higher the swelling of the starch granule. Though the amylopectin content plays a major role in the defined characteristic of viscosity in glutinous rice, factors such as heat also play a very important role in the swelling, since it enhances the uptake of water into the starch granule significantly. The swelling increases at about 10% in volume per 10 °C temperature increase. The high amylopectin content of waxy or glutinous starches is genetically controlled by the waxy or wax gene. Its quality

title: Glycome

text: i.e. [CHO]n. Monosaccharides are a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler carbohydrate and are the building blocks of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides are linear or branched chains of monosaccharides attached to one another via glycosidic linkages. The number of monosaccharide units can vary. Polysaccharides are glycans composed of repeating monosaccharides, generally greater than ten monosaccharide units in length. The glycome exceeds the complexity of the proteome as a result of the even greater diversity of the glycome's constituent carbohydrates and is further complicated by the sheer multiplicity of possibilities in the combination and interaction of the carbohydrates with

title: Polysaccharide

text: up to eight percent (100–120 g in an adult) of the fresh weight soon after a meal. Only the glycogen stored in the liver can be made accessible to other organs. In the muscles, glycogen is found in a low concentration of one to two percent of the muscle mass. The amount of glycogen stored in the body—especially within the muscles, liver, and red blood cells—varies with physical activity, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits such as intermittent fasting. Small amounts of glycogen are found in the kidneys, and even smaller amounts in certain glial cells in the brain and

title: Lectin

text: large scale and available on a commercial basis was concanavalin A, which is now the most-used lectin for characterization and purification of sugar-containing molecules and cellular structures. The legume lectins are probably the most well-studied lectins. Most lectins do not possess enzymatic activity. Lectins occur ubiquitously in nature. They may bind to a soluble carbohydrate or to a carbohydrate moiety that is a part of a glycoprotein or glycolipid. They typically agglutinate certain animal cells and/or precipitate glycoconjugates. Lectins serve many different biological functions in animals, from the regulation of cell adhesion to glycoprotein synthesis and the control of protein

title: Glycome

text: Glycome The glycome is the entire complement of sugars, whether free or present in more complex molecules, of an organism. An alternative definition is the entirety of carbohydrates in a cell. The glycome may in fact be one of the most complex entities in nature. "Glycomics, analogous to genomics and proteomics, is the systematic study of all glycan structures of a given cell type or organism" and is a subset of glycobiology. "Carbohydrate", "glycan", "saccharide", and "sugar" are generic terms used interchangeably in this context and includes monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and derivatives of these compounds. Carbohydrates consist of “hydrated carbon”,

title: Amylose

text: density between the two forms. Because the long linear chains of amylose more readily crystallize than amylopectin (which has short, highly branched chains), high-amylose starch is more resistant to digestion. Unlike amylopectin, amylose is not soluble in cold water. It also reduces the crystallinity of amylopectin and how easily water can infiltrate the starch. The higher the amylose content, the less expansion potential and the lower the gel strength for the same starch concentration. This can be countered partially by increasing the granule size. Amylose is important in plant energy storage. It is less readily digested than amylopectin; however, because

title: Biomolecule

text: and have different metabolic fates, providing multiple opportunities for 2 different saccharides to differentially affect food intake. Most saccharides eventually provide fuel for cellular respiration. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides, or two single simple sugars, form a bond with removal of water. They can be hydrolyzed to yield their saccharin building blocks by boiling with dilute acid or reacting them with appropriate enzymes. Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose, and lactose. Polysaccharides are polymerized monosaccharides, or complex carbohydrates. They have multiple simple sugars. Examples are starch, cellulose, and glycogen. They are generally large and often have a complex branched

title: Amylose

text: of its helical structure, it takes up less space compared to amylopectin. As a result, it is the preferred starch for storage in plants. It makes up about 30% of the stored starch in plants, though the specific percentage varies by species and variety. The digestive enzyme α-amylase is responsible for the breakdown of the starch molecule into maltotriose and maltose, which can be used as sources of energy. Amylose is also an important thickener, water binder, emulsion stabilizer, and gelling agent in both industrial and food-based contexts. Loose helical amylose chains have a hydrophobic interior that can bind to

title: Amylose

text: It is also possible to use starch as an indicator in titrations involving iodine reduction. It is also used in amylose magnetic beads and resin to separate maltose-binding protein High-amylose varieties of rice, the less sticky long-grain rice, have a much lower glycemic load, which could be beneficial for diabetics. Researchers have identified the Granule Bound Starch Synthase (GBSS) as the enzyme that specifically elongates amylose during starch biosynthesis in plants. The waxy locus in maize encodes for the GBSS protein. Mutants lacking the GBSS protein produce starch containing only amylopectin, such as in waxy corn. In Arabidopsis leaves, another

title: Amflora

text: in 2010. Waxy potato varieties produce two main kinds of potato starch, amylose and amylopectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. The Amflora potato has been modified to contain antisense against the enzyme that drives synthesis of amylose, namely granule bound starch synthase. This resulting potato almost exclusively produces amylopectin, and thus is more useful for the starch industry. Regular potato starch contains two constituent types of molecules: amylopectin (80 percent), which is more useful as a polymer for industry, and amylose (20 percent) which often creates problems as starch retrogradation, so must be modified with chemical reactions

title: Glycogen

text: Glycogen is the analogue of starch, a glucose polymer that functions as energy storage in plants. It has a structure similar to amylopectin (a component of starch), but is more extensively branched and compact than starch. Both are white powders in their dry state. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol/cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact than the energy reserves of triglycerides (lipids).

title: Galectin

text: Galectin Galectins are a class of proteins that bind specifically to β-galactoside sugars, such as N-acetyllactosamine (Galβ1-3GlcNAc or Galβ1-4GlcNAc), which can be bound to proteins by either N-linked or O-linked glycosylation. They are also termed S-type lectins due to their dependency on disulphide bonds for stability and carbohydrate binding. There have been 15 galectins discovered in mammals, encoded by the LGALS genes, which are numbered in a consecutive manner. Only galectin-1, -2, -3, -4, -7, -8, -9, -10 and -12 have been identified in humans. Galectin-5 and -6 are found in rodents, whereas galectin-11, -14 and -15 are uniquely found

title: Glycoside hydrolase family 57

text: (); amylopullulanase (); branching enzyme (). It includes a thermostable alpha-amylase with a broad substrate specificity from the archaebacterium "Pyrococcus furiosus". Glycoside hydrolase family 57 In molecular biology, glycoside hydrolase family 57 is a family of glycoside hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases are a widespread group of enzymes that hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate moiety. A classification system for glycoside hydrolases, based on sequence similarity, has led to the definition of >100 different families. This classification is available on the CAZy web site, and also discussed at CAZypedia, an online encyclopedia

title: Carbohydrate

text: storage of energy (e.g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g. cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Starch and sugars are the most important carbohydrates in human diet. They are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch

title: Bodybuilding

text: and other slowly digesting carbohydrates, which release energy in a more stable fashion than high-glycemic sugars and starches. This is important as high-glycemic carbohydrates cause a sharp insulin response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat. However, bodybuilders frequently do ingest some quickly digesting sugars (often in form of pure dextrose or maltodextrin) after a workout. This may help to replenish glycogen stored within the muscle, and to stimulate muscle protein synthesis. The motor proteins actin and myosin generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles. Current advice says that

title: Pectin

text: pectic polysaccharides, are rich in galacturonic acid. Several distinct polysaccharides have been identified and characterised within the pectic group. Homogalacturonans are linear chains of α-(1–4)-linked D-galacturonic acid. Substituted galacturonans are characterized by the presence of saccharide appendant residues (such as D-xylose or D-apiose in the respective cases of xylogalacturonan and apiogalacturonan) branching from a backbone of D-galacturonic acid residues. Rhamnogalacturonan I pectins (RG-I) contain a backbone of the repeating disaccharide: 4)-α-D-galacturonic acid-(1,2)-α-L-rhamnose-(1. From many of the rhamnose residues, sidechains of various neutral sugars branch off. The neutral sugars are mainly D-galactose, L-arabinose and D-xylose, with the types and proportions of

title: Biochemistry

text: component of plant's cell walls, and "glycogen", used as a form of energy storage in animals. Sugar can be characterized by having reducing or non-reducing ends. A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom that can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde (aldose) or keto form (ketose). If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side-chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal. This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified

title: Glycogen debranching enzyme

text: glucoamylase, respectively. Their active sites are selective towards the respective substrates, ensuring proper activation of GDE. Besides the active sites GDE have additional binding sites for glycogen, which are important for its recruitment to glycogen. Mapping the disease-causing mutations onto the GDE structure provided insights into glycogen storage disease type III. The official name for the gene is "amylo- α- 1,6- glucosidase, 4- α- glucanotransferase", with the official symbol AGL. AGL is an autosomal gene found on chromosome lp21. The AGL gene provides instructions for making several different versions, known as isoforms, of the glycogen debranching enzyme. These isoforms vary

title: Glycoside

text: to a "non-sugar" for the molecule to qualify as a glycoside, thus excluding polysaccharides. The sugar group is then known as the "glycone" and the non-sugar group as the "aglycone" or "genin" part of the glycoside. The glycone can consist of a single sugar group (monosaccharide) or several sugar groups (oligosaccharide). The first glycoside ever identified was amygdalin, by the French chemists Pierre Robiquet and Antoine Boutron-Charlard, in 1830. Molecules containing an N-glycosidic bond are known as glycosylamines and are not discussed in this article. (Many authors in biochemistry call these compounds "N-glycosides" and group them with the glycosides; this

title: Glycobiology

text: Glycobiology Defined in the narrowest sense, glycobiology is the study of the structure, biosynthesis, and biology of saccharides (sugar chains or glycans) that are widely distributed in nature. Sugars or saccharides are essential components of all living things and aspects of the various roles they play in biology are researched in various medical, biochemical and biotechnological fields. According to "Oxford English Dictionary" the specific term "glycobiology" was coined in 1988 by Prof. Raymond Dwek to recognize the coming together of the traditional disciplines of carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry. This coming together was as a result of a much greater understanding

title: Glycolipid

text: are likewise polar, allowing them to be soluble in the aqueous environment surrounding the cell. The lipid and the saccharide form a glycoconjugate through a glycosidic bond, which is a covalent bond. The anomeric carbon of the sugar binds to a free hydroxyl group on the lipid backbone. The structure of these saccharides varies depending on the structure of the molecules to which they bind. Enzymes called glycosyltransferases link the saccharide to the lipid molecule, and also play a role in assembling the correct oligosaccharide so that the right receptor can be activated on the cell which responds to the

title: Glycogen


question: who was the editor of the journal jugantor published in the time of swadeshi movement

answers: Bhupendranath Dutt

title: Sundari Mohan Das

text: lines. He was the main organizer of the National Council of Education and one of the founder-members of Bengali Technical Institute (present-day Jadavpur University). The Swadeshi Movement was not just a negative movement to Sundarimohan. He keenly felt that unless the British goods could be replaced by Swadeshi goods through organizing Swadeshi industrial production, this movement could not be successful. It was a fond dream of Sundarimohan that India must be made self-sufficient in industrial products. He had imported knitting machineries for the production of hosiery goods at his Sukeas Street house where he trained unemployed youths on this line.

title: Jugantar

text: Jugantar Jugantar or Yugantar ( "Jugantor") (English meaning "New Era" or more literally "Transition of an Epoch") was one of the two main secret revolutionary trends operating in Bengal for Indian independence. This association, like Anushilan Samiti started in the guise of suburban fitness club. Several Jugantar members were arrested, hanged, or deported for life to the Cellular Jail in Andaman. Thanks to the amnesty after World War I, most of them were released and could give a new turn to their political career, mainly: (a) by joining Deshbandhu's Swarajya or (b) the Communist Party of India; or (c) M.

title: Krishna Kumar Mitra

text: luck of the tea garden coolies of Assam were slightly changed". Krishna Kumar Mitra Krishna Kumar Mitra (1852-1936) was an Indian freedom fighter, journalist and leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He is remembered for his contributions to the Swadeshi movement through his journal "Sanjibani". Krishna Kumar was born in the village of Baghil in the Mymensingh district of Bengal in what is today Bangladesh in 1852. He was a Hindu Kayastha by birth and his father Guruprasad Mitra was a landholder who led an agitation against oppression by British indigo planters. Krishna Kumar was educated at Mymensingh's Hardinge Vernacular School

title: Swadeshi movement

text: sphere that the impact of the swadeshi movement was most marked. The songs composed at the time of Rabindranath Tagore, Rajani Kanta Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Makunda Das, Syed Abu Mohammad and other later became the moving spirit for nationalist of all hues. Rabindranath's Amar Sonar Bangla, written at that time, was to later inspire the liberation struggle of Bangladesh and was adopted as the National Anthem of the country in 1971. Similarly, there were great improvements in Indian art. The writings of Vande Mataram, practically revolutionized the political attitude of Bengal. The four leading newspapers of Calcutta- the Bengalee, the

title: Sumit Sarkar

text: the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), publication of which was blocked in 2000 by the ICHR under the influence of then Indian government administered by the Bharatiya Janata Party as alleged by Sarkar. The publication of the volume was eventually allowed by the Government of India once the Congress party came to power after the general election of 2004. Sumit Sarkar Sumit Sarkar (born 1939) is an Indian historian of modern India. He is the author of "Swadeshi Movement". He studied at Presidency College, Calcutta and at the University of Calcutta. He taught for many years as a lecturer

title: Sumit Sarkar

text: Sumit Sarkar Sumit Sarkar (born 1939) is an Indian historian of modern India. He is the author of "Swadeshi Movement". He studied at Presidency College, Calcutta and at the University of Calcutta. He taught for many years as a lecturer at the University of Calcutta, and later as a reader at the University of Burdwan. He was Professor of History at the University of Delhi. He was one of the founding members of the Subaltern Studies Collective, but later distanced himself from the project. He noted that arguments made by the later issues of the journal as well as books

title: Ram Nath Puri

text: "Indian Sociologist" and "Bande Mataram". Chandra describes Puri as pledging support to Swadeshi movement in the publication; Ramnath quotes a 1908 issue that reads, in part, "The king is no longer to us the representative of God in the country. We have come to know that people possess the right of appointing and dethroning kings…Swadeshi is for Indians what Sinn Fein is for Ireland." "Circular-i-Azadi" came to the attention of the British Director of Criminal Intelligence, and was prohibited from shipment to India due to its allegedly "seditious" content. In January 1908, a Director of Criminal Intelligence report described the

title: Swadeshi movement

text: the need of the hour. This need to preserve the old fabric of an agrarian country while simultaneously modernising, necessitated a resurgence of a slightly recast "Swadeshi Movement". Forerunners of this resurgent movement was noted journalist, writer and critic S. R. Ramaswamy. Others of late in the movement include the likes of Rajiv Dixit, Swami Ramdev and Pawan Pandit. In the Digital World Swadeshishopping.com taking novel initiative for promoting Swadeshi Movement. The word "Swadeshi" derives from Sanskrit and is a "sandhi" or conjunction of two Sanskrit words. "Swa" means "self" or "own" and "desh" means country, so "Swadesh" would be

title: Bhogilal Sandesara

text: he worked as an editor of "Swadhyaya", a journal of the institute and Gujarati quarterly. He also served as an editor of Gujarati monthly "Buddhiprakash". He was appointed as the president of History & Archaeology department of Gujarati Sahitya Parishad's 59th Adhiveshan held at Nadiad in 1955. He also served as the president of Prakrit languages and Jain religion department in Akhil Bharat Prachyavidya Paridhad held at Bhuwaneshwar in 1959. In 1987, he was elected as the president of Gujarati Sahitya Paridhad. He died on 18 January 1995. Bhogilal Sandesara made several contributions to the fields of Indian archaeology, Indian

title: Krishna Kumar Mitra

text: he openly called for the boycott of foreign goods through the journal. He attended the Bengal Provincial Conference at Barisal in 1906 where he condemned police atrocities against Swadeshi activists. The same year the Bengal government issued a circular banning the singing of "Vande Mataram" in any procession or public meeting. Mitra became president of the Anti-Circular Society that was formed to oppose the ban. For his involvement in the Swadeshi movement, Mitra had to resign from his job as a professor of history and in 1908 was deported from Calcutta for two years by the British authorities. Mitra married

title: Krishna Kumar Mitra

text: associated with the swadeshi movement. Mitra joined Surendranath Banerjee's Indian Association in 1876 and became its joint secretary and Banerjee and Mitra traveled across northern India to popularise their political ideas. Mitra was also associated with the Indian National Congress since its inception and was part of its 'moderate' faction in Bengal. In 1890 he joined the indigo cultivators' agitation. Opposed to the partition of Bengal and influenced by colleagues like Ananda Mohan Bose and Kalishankar Shukul, Mitra joined the anti-Partition Swadeshi movement. He used his journal "Sanjibani" to rouse public opinion against the partition and on 13 July 1905

title: Krishna Kumar Mitra

text: Krishna Kumar Mitra Krishna Kumar Mitra (1852-1936) was an Indian freedom fighter, journalist and leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He is remembered for his contributions to the Swadeshi movement through his journal "Sanjibani". Krishna Kumar was born in the village of Baghil in the Mymensingh district of Bengal in what is today Bangladesh in 1852. He was a Hindu Kayastha by birth and his father Guruprasad Mitra was a landholder who led an agitation against oppression by British indigo planters. Krishna Kumar was educated at Mymensingh's Hardinge Vernacular School and the Zilla School and obtained a bachelor's degree from the

title: Santosh Kumar Mitra

text: Bhupati Majumder, one of the Jugantar Leaders in 1922. He organised Socialist conference in Kolkata in the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru. After the suspension of Non-cooperation movement Mitra shifted to extremist movement in the struggle for Independence. He was charged with Shankharitola Murder Case and arrested in 1923. On 16 September 1931, police fired at and killed Santosh kumar Mitra and another inmate Tarakeswar Sengupta in Hijli Detention Camp. Santosh Kumar Mitra Santosh kumar Mitra (Bengali: সন্তোষ কুমার মিত্র) or Santosh Mitra (15 August 1900 – 16 September 1931) was an activist of Indian independence movement and martyr. Mitra was

title: Peter Heehs

text: Works of Sri Aurobindo". As a historian, Heehs has written on the swadeshi period of the Indian independence movement and on the early phase of the Indian revolutionary movement. His 1992 study "The Bomb in Bengal" highlighted the importance of the Maniktala secret society, which was a predecessor of the Jugantar Group. In this book and other publications, Heehs made it clear that the Indian freedom struggle had a violent as well as a non-violent side, and that the violent revolutionaries helped prepare the country psychologically for the later mass movements led by Mahatma Gandhi. In the second edition of

title: Bal Gangadhar Tilak

text: goods and also the social boycott of any Indian who used foreign goods. The Swadeshi movement consisted of the usage of natively produced goods. Once foreign goods were boycotted, there was a gap which had to be filled by the production of those goods in India itself. Tilak said that the Swadeshi and Boycott movements are two sides of the same coin. Tilak opposed the moderate views of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and was supported by fellow Indian nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab. They were referred to as the "Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate". In 1907, the

title: Mokshadacharan Samadhyayi

text: Mokshadacharan Samadhyayi Pandit Mokshada Charan Samadhyayi (Mokshada or Mokhoda Charan Bhattacharji or Khasnabis) (1874-?) was a leading figure of the Jugantar movement. Born about 1874, Mokshada Charan was son of Shyama Charan Khasnabis of Paikpara, Dhaka district, now in Bangladesh. He spent long years in Benares to have a genuine schooling in the Sanskrit classics and the Vedic texts. G.C. Denham of the Central Criminal Intelligence Department noted: "The position of Benares as a centre of revolutionary activity is very similar to the position which it holds in the religious life of the Hindu inhabitants of India.". He mentioned it

title: Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (Assam)

text: was also the president of the Asam Sahitya Sabha in 1929 held at Jorhat district, Assam. He campaigned for the abolition of the box security regulations and promoted the education of women. He also participated in the swadeshi movement in 1905-06. Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (Assam) Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (; 1853 - 1936) was a prominent essayist and poet belonged to the Oronodoi era of Assamese Literature. He was born in 23 December 1853 in Gorehagi village, Biswanath Chariali, Sonitpur district, Assam. He was popularly known as 'Agnikobi' (অগ্নিকবি). Politically, he was strongly nationalistic. He opposed the introduction of Bengali as the official

title: Protap Chunder Mozoomdar

text: 1893 as a delegate for the Brahmo Samaj. In October 1893, Mozoomdar was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. In 1919, the collected precepts of Protap Chunder Mazoomdar were published titled as 'Upadesh'. The writings of Mazoomdar reflects an outlook that freely acknowledges the value and fundamental affinity of different religions - including Christianity, Islam, or Judaism - and the religious figures associated with their origin and propagation. Protap Chunder Mozoomdar Protap Chunder Mozoomdar ( "Protap Chôndro Mojumdar", also transliterated as Pratap Chander Mozoomdar) (1840-1905) was a leader of the Hindu reform movement, the Brahmo Samaj, in Bengal,

title: Katyayanidas Bhattacharya

text: and used to play "Tabla" well. At one point of time he also edited the Bengali cultural journal "Jayanti" which was brought out first from Chunta (Brahmanbaria) and subsequently from Calcutta. His elder brother, Bireswar Bhattacharya, was the author of the novel "Muktir Dak" (Call for Freedom), written against the background of freedom struggle of India in 1940s. Katyayanidas was married to Uma Bhattacharya, daughter of Priyanath Bhattacharya and Sudhabala Devi of Bidyakut (also spelt as Biddakut and Biddyakut), Brahmanbaria District (now in Bangladesh), in the year 1948. The couple had four sons Amitabha, Niranjan, Sugata and Gautam, who all

title: Jugantar Patrika

title: Bipin Chandra Pal

text: with revolutionary activity. Aurobindo Ghosh and Pal were recognised as the chief exponents of a new national movement revolving around the ideals of Purna Swaraj, Swadeshi, boycott and national education. His programme consisted of Swadeshi, Boycott and national education. He preached and encouraged the use of Swadeshi and the Boycott of foreign goods to eradicate poverty and unemployment. He wanted to remove social evils from the form and arouse the feelings of nationalism through national criticism. He had no faith in mild protests in the form of Non-Cooperation with the British colonialists. On that one issue, the Assertive nationalist leader

title: Anushilan Samiti

text: in the participation of members with more secular outlook. Wings of the "Samiti" also included prominent participation from women. Amongst the most famous of the latter were Pritilata Waddedar who led a Jugantor attack during the Chittagong Armoury raid, and Kalpana Dutta who manufactured bombs at Chittagong. The "Samiti" was influenced by the writings of the Bengalee nationalist author Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. The name of the organisation, "Anushilan", itself is derived from Bankim's works espousing hardwork and spartan life. Bankim's cultural and martial nationalism exemplified in "Anandamath", along with his interpretations of the "Bhagavat Gita", are noted to be strong

title: Atul Prasad Sen

text: patriotic songs which helped in propagation of "Swadeshi" movement ideologies. Rabindranath Tagore, Atulprasad Sen, Dwijendralal Roy, Rajanikanta Sen, Mukunda Das, Kamini Kumar Bhattacharya, Aswini Kumar Datta, Manmohan Chakravarty, Satish Chandra Banerjee and many others composed various patriotic songs in support of the movement. In 1916 All India Congress Convention was held in Lucknow, and Atul Prasad actively participated in the program contributing a song that stressed upon harmony between Hindu and Muslims: দেখ মা এবার দুয়ার খুলে গলে গলে এনু মা তোর হিন্দু মুসলমান দুই ছেলে (Look, O Mother, we have come hand in hand, two of your children, Hindu

title: Mokshadacharan Samadhyayi

text: available. The following are notes about Mokhoda Samadhyayi: Mokshadacharan Samadhyayi Pandit Mokshada Charan Samadhyayi (Mokshada or Mokhoda Charan Bhattacharji or Khasnabis) (1874-?) was a leading figure of the Jugantar movement. Born about 1874, Mokshada Charan was son of Shyama Charan Khasnabis of Paikpara, Dhaka district, now in Bangladesh. He spent long years in Benares to have a genuine schooling in the Sanskrit classics and the Vedic texts. G.C. Denham of the Central Criminal Intelligence Department noted: "The position of Benares as a centre of revolutionary activity is very similar to the position which it holds in the religious life of

title: Shyam Sundar Chakravarthy

text: Indian National Congress and an office bearer of the Swaraj Party. He founded and edited the newspaper ""The Servant"" in 1920 to promote the Non-cooperation movement. Shyam Sundar Chakravarthy Shyam Sundar Chakravarthy (12 July 1869 – 7 September 1998 , independence activist and journalist from Bengal. He was born in Bharenga, Pabna in Bengal Presidency (currently in Bangladesh). He belonged to the "Pabna Group" of Bengali revolutionaries along with Abinash Chakravarty and Annada Kaviraj. In 1905 he was the sub-editor of the revolutionary journal "Sandhya". In 1906, he joined with Bengali nationalist newspaper "Bande Mataram" as an assistant to its

title: Ashwini Kumar Dutta

text: He served as the honorary lecturer of English at the college for 25 years. In 1897, he was appointed the Chairman of Barisal Municipality. In 1898, he was selected amongst the committee that was empowered to draw up a constitution of the Congress. The Partition of Bengal drew him to the Swadeshi movement. He founded the Swadesh Bandhab Samiti to promote the consumption of indigenous products and boycott foreign goods. When the moderates and the extremists parted ways in the Surat session, he attempted a reconciliation between the two groups. In 1908, the government of the newly formed Eastern Bengal

title: Swadeshi movement

text: Boycott, the Swadeshi as a purely economic measure for the growth of Indian Industry was not an altogether novel idea in India. It was preached by several eminent personalities in the 19th century, Gopal Hari Deshmukh, better known as Lokahitawadi of Bombay, Arya Samaj founder Dayanand Saraswati and Bholanath Chandra of Calcutta. But the seeds sown by them did not germinate till the soil was rendered fertile by the grim resolve of a united people, exasperated beyond measure; to forge the twin weapons of Boycott and Swadeshi in order to undo the great wrong which was inflicted upon them by

title: Barindra Kumar Ghosh

text: Barindra Kumar Ghosh Barindra Kumar Ghosh or Barindra Ghosh, or, popularly, Barin Ghosh (5 January 1880 – 18 April 1959) was an Indian revolutionary and journalist. He was one of the founding members of Jugantar, a revolutionary outfit in Bengal. Barindra Ghosh was a younger brother of Sri Aurobindo. Barindra Ghosh was born at Croydon, near London on 5 January 1880. His father, Dr. Krishnadhan Ghosh, was a physician and district surgeon. His mother Swarnalata was the daughter of the Brahmo religious and social reformer, scholar Rajnarayan Basu. Revolutionary and a spiritualist in later life, Aurobindo Ghosh was Barindranath's third

title: Nationalist Movements in India

text: were closed. The cotton textile industry is rightly described as swadeshi industry. The period witnessed the growth of swadeshi textile mills. Swadeshi factories came into existence everywhere. According to Surendranath Banerji, swadeshi movement changed the entire texture of our social and domestic life. The songs composed by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikanta Sen and Syed Abu Mohd became the moving spirit for the nationalists. The movement soon spread to the rest of the country and the partition of Bengal had to be firmly inhaled on the first of April, 1912.The people were great. The mass movements failed in their primary objective, achieving

title: Rajanikanta Bordoloi

text: also edited a monthly magazine called "Pradipika". Rajanikanta Bordoloi Rajanikanta Bordoloi () was a noted writer, journalist and tea planter from Assam, India. He was one of the pioneers of the romantic movement in Assamese literature and is popularly known in Assamese literary society as Upanyash Samrat (king of novels) as he laid the foundation of Assamese fictional literature by writing many novels based on the history of Assam. He was President of the Asam Sahitya Sabha in 1925 which was held at Nagaon. Novels He was a regular contributor to many leading magazines in that period such as Junaki,

title: Jugantar Patrika

long_answer: The paper rapidly acquired a broad popularity, at one time having a readership of 20,000. Bhupendranath Dutt served as the editor of the newspaper till his arrest in 1907, although it also published articles from a number of noted Bengali revolutionaries including Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Aurobindo Ghosh. It faced prosecution a number of times by the British Indian government for publishing seditious articles. Bhupendranath Dutt was arrested in 1907 for publication of articles "inciting violence against the Government of India", for which he was sentenced to a year's rigorous imprisonment. The paper was ultimately forced to shut down in 1908, amidst financial ruins following the prosecutions, and after the passage of The Newspapers (Incitement to offences) act in June 1908 which made its position vulnerable.


question: when did indoor toilets become common in america

answers: After World War I

title: Flush toilet

text: January 1859. The toilets were probably imported from Britain, as they were referred to by the English term "waterclosets" in the insurance ledger. Another early watercloset on the European continent, dating from 1860, was imported from Britain to be installed in the rooms of Queen Victoria in Ehrenburg Palace (Coburg, Germany); she was the only one who was allowed to use it. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of the wealthy and in hotels, soon after its invention in England in the 1880s. Flush toilets were introduced in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the

title: Toilet

text: especially in London, which made the flush toilet particularly attractive for health and sanitation reasons. Flush toilets were also known as "water closets", as opposed to the earth closets described above. WCs first appeared in Britain in the 1880s, and soon spread to Continental Europe. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of the wealthy and in hotels in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906, which used pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. Toilet was originally a French loanword (first attested in 1540) that referred

title: Hygiene

text: only the elite in Western cities typically possessed indoor facilities for relieving bodily functions. The poorer majority used communal facilities built above cesspools in backyards and courtyards. This changed after Dr. John Snow discovered that cholera was transmitted by the fecal contamination of water. Though it took decades for his findings to gain wide acceptance, governments and sanitary reformers were eventually convinced of the health benefits of using sewers to keep human waste from contaminating water. This encouraged the widespread adoption of both the flush toilet and the moral imperative that bathrooms should be indoors and as private as possible.

title: Flush toilet

text: wealthy people had indoor private bathrooms. By 1890 in the US, there was increased public awareness of the theory of disease and of carelessly disposed human waste being contaminated and infectious. Originally, the term "bath-room" referred only to the room where the bathtub was located (usually a separate room not housing a toilet), but this connotation has changed in common North American usage. In the UK, the terms "bathroom" and "toilet" are used to indicate distinct functions, even though bathrooms in modern homes often include toilets. The term "water closet" was probably adopted because in the late 19th century, with

title: Toilet (room)

text: to sophisticated water systems that swept its effluent away without affecting the community's drinking, cooking, or washing water. In the early modern period, "night soil" from municipal outhouses became an important source of nitrates for creating gunpowder. 19th century refinements of the outhouse included the privy midden and the pail closet. Indoor toilets were at first a luxury of the rich and only gradually spread to the lower classes. As late as the 1890s, building regulations in London did not require working-class housing to have indoor toilets; into the early 20th century, some English homes were built with an upstairs

title: Flush toilet

text: the advent of indoor plumbing, a toilet displaced an early clothes closet, closets being renovated to easily accommodate the spatial needs of a commode. Early indoor toilets had in fact been known as garderobes because they actually were used to store clothes, as the smell of ammonia was found to deter fleas and moths. The term "water closet" now often refers to a room that has both a toilet and other plumbing fixtures such as a sink or a bathtub. Plumbing manufacturers often use the term "water closet" to differentiate toilets from urinals. American plumbing codes refer to a toilet

title: Toilet

text: London, at that time the world's largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War. The water closet, with its origins in Tudor times, started to assume its currently known form, with an overhead cistern, s-bends, soil pipes and valves around 1770. This was the work of Alexander Cumming and Joseph Bramah. Water closets only started to be moved from outside to inside of the home around 1850. The integral water closet started to be built into middle class homes in the 1860s and 1870s, firstly on the principal bedroom floor and

title: America (toilet)

text: America (toilet) America is a satirical sculpture by the Italian artist Maurizio Cattelan. It is a fully functioning toilet made of solid gold. Cattelan created the toilet in 2016 for the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York. It was made to look like the museum's other toilets, and was installed in one of the museum's bathrooms for visitors to use. According to the museum, over 100,000 people waited in line to use "America", which was guarded by a security guard posted outside the bathroom. The gold is estimated to be worth more than a million dollars. As to the

title: Toilet

text: sculleries and individual external WC. It was the Tudor Walters Report of 1918 that recommended that semi-skilled workers should be housed in suburban cottages with kitchens and internal WC. As recommended floor standards waxed and waned in the building standards and codes, the bathroom with a water closet and later the low-level suite, became more prominent in the home. Before the introduction of indoor toilets, it was common to use the chamber pot under one's bed at night and then to dispose of its contents in the morning. During the Victorian era, British housemaids collected all of the household's chamber

title: Public toilet

text: traced back almost 2000 years, to the first century AD. The payment may be taken by a bathroom attendant, or by a coin-operated turnstile or cubicle door (see John Nevil Maskelyne, who invented a doorlock requiring the insertion of a penny coin, hence the euphemism to "spend a penny".) The first pay toilet in the United States was installed in 1910 in Terre Haute, Indiana. In some places, the provision of public toilet facilities is under great pressure. One response by public authorities is to close the buildings, often citing criminal activity. The United Kingdom government austerity programme has led

title: Pay toilet

text: allow pay toilets only where there were also free toilets. A campaign by the Committee to End Pay Toilets in America (CEPTIA) resulted in laws prohibiting pay toilets in some cities and states. In 1973, Chicago became the first American city to enact a ban, at a time when, according to the Wall Street Journal, there were at least 50,000 units in America, mostly made by the Nik-O-Lok Company. CEPTIA was successful over the next few years in obtaining bans in New York, New Jersey, Minnesota, California, Florida and Ohio. Lobbying was successful in other states as well, and by

title: Toilet

text: with toilets built into outer walls of homes. These toilets were Western-style, albeit a primitive form, with vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains. These toilets were only used by the affluent classes; most people would have squatted over old pots set into the ground or used open pits. The people of the Harappan civilization in Pakistan and northwestern India had primitive water-cleaning toilets that used flowing water in each house that were linked with drains covered with burnt clay bricks. The flowing water removed the human waste. The Indus Valley civilisation had a

title: Toilet (room)

text: contains prescription and over the counter drugs, first aid supplies, and grooming equipment for shaving or makeup. Into the modern era, humans typically practiced open defecation or employed latrines or outhouses over a pit toilet in rural areas and used chamber pots emptied into streets or drains in urban ones. The Indus Valley Civilization had particularly advanced sanitation, which included common use of private flush toilets. The ancient Greeks and Romans had public toilets and, in some cases, indoor plumbing connected to rudimentary sewer systems. The latrines of medieval monasteries were known as reredorters; in some cases, these were connected

title: Dry toilet

text: be very low for dry toilets. The history of dry toilets is essentially the same as the history of toilets in general (until the advent of flush toilets) as well as the history of ecological sanitation systems with regards to reuse of excreta in agriculture. In Britain, use of dry toilets continued in some areas, often urban areas, through to the 1940s. It seems that these were often emptied directly onto their gardens, where the excreta was used as fertilizer. Sewer systems did not come to some rural areas in Britain until the 1950s or even after that. Brisbane, Australia

title: Public toilet

text: of the term: literally, a place to rest. Historically such rooms pre-dated the washroom and washrooms were added afterwards. Subsequent integrated designs resulted in the women's restroom lounge. A notable early example of a public toilet in the United States is the Old School Privy. The American architect Frank Lloyd Wright claimed to have "invented the hung wall for the w.c. (easier to clean under)" when he designed the Larkin Administration Building in Buffalo, New York in 1904. In parts of the United States, public toilets were subject to racial segregation, due to the Jim Crow laws prior to the

title: Outhouse

text: to be overbuilt, impractical and ostentatious, giving rise to the simile "built like a brick shithouse." That phrase's meaning and application is subject to some debate; but (depending upon the country) it has been applied to men, women, or inanimate objects. With regards to anal cleansing, old newspapers and mail order catalogs, such as those from Montgomery Ward or Sears Roebuck, were common before toilet paper was widely available. Paper was often kept in a can or other container to protect it from mice, etc. The catalogs served a dual purpose, also giving one something to read. Outdoor toilets are

title: Toilet

text: of the industrial revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. A crucial advance in plumbing, was the S-trap, invented by the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cummings in 1775, and still in use today. This device uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. It was only in the mid-19th century, with growing levels of urbanisation and industrial prosperity, that the flush toilet became a widely used and marketed invention. This period coincided with the dramatic growth in the sewage system,

title: Thomas Maddock

text: medal for their unusual pottery. Maddock’s firm in Trenton lead the way in the new industry of American toilets. Trenton soon captured the majority of the American market for sanitary ware (indoor toilets), producing over eighty five percent of the national market. Maddock improved the old fashion early nineteenth century plumbing method of connecting lead pipe to a toilet by inventing a brass coupling replacement. His 1880 invention allowed the plumbing to be directly connected to the earthenware china toilet. The old school method involved a porcelain horn extending from the flushing rim connecting to the sewer lead pipe and

title: Toilet (room)

text: washrooms with sinks located near the bedrooms; in lower-class homes, there was often only a collapsible tub for bathing. In Britain, there was long a prejudice against having the toilet located in the bathroom proper: in 1904, Hermann Muthesius noted that "a lavatory [i.e., toilet] is practically never found in an English bathroom; indeed it is considered downright inadmissible to have one there". When toilets were placed within bathrooms, the original reason was cost savings. In 1876 Edward William Godwin, a progressive architect-designer, drew up affordable housing with the toilet in the bathroom, and faced criticism for it. America and

title: Toilet (room)

text: Indoor toilets were at first a luxury of the rich and only gradually spread to the lower classes. As late as the 1890s, building regulations in London did not require working-class housing to have indoor toilets; into the early 20th century, some English homes were built with an upstairs toilet for use by the owners and an outhouse for use by the servants. In some cases, there was a transitional stage where toilets were built into the house but accessible only from the outside. After World War I, all new housing in London and its suburbs had indoor toilets.

title: Public toilet

text: attendant. A few remain in London, but others have been converted into alternative uses such as cafes, bars and even dwellings. In the United States, concerns over public health and sanitation spurred the sanitarian movement during the late 1800s. Reforms to standardize plumbing codes and household plumbing were advocated for; the intersection of advancements in technology and desire for cleanliness and disease-free spaces spurred the development of restrooms and toilets. Facilities for women sometimes had a wider emphasis, providing a safe and comfortable private space in the public sphere. The Ladies Rest Room is one example of the non-euphemistic use

title: Flush toilet

text: the early 1970s are now only found in a decreasing number of localities in continental Europe. A washout toilet is a kind of flush toilet which was once predominantly used in Germany, Austria and France. It was patented in Britain by George Jennings in 1852 and remained the standard toilet type in Britain throughout the 19th century. Examples of this type of toilet can be found in Australia, Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, and some regions of Poland, although it is becoming less common. One disadvantage of this design is that it may require the more intense

title: Chamber pot

text: "urine"), / ("skōramis"), ("chernibion"). The introduction of indoor flush toilets started to displace chamber pots, in the 19th century but they remained common until the mid-20th century. The alternative to using the chamber pot was a long cold walk to the outhouse in the middle of the night. Chamber pots continue in use in areas lacking indoor plumbing, such as rural China. In the Philippines, chamber pots are used as urinals and are known as "arinola" in most Philippine languages, such as Cebuano and Tagalog. In Korea, chamber pots are referred to as "yogang" (요강). They were used by people

title: Toilet

text: James Bannehr, in 1860 he took out a patent for the process (No. 1316). His system was adopted in private houses, in rural districts, in military camps, in many hospitals, and extensively in the British Raj. Ultimately, however, it failed to gain the same public support in Europe as the water closet, although variations of the design remain today in use (see dry toilet). Although a precursor to the flush toilet system which is widely used nowadays was designed in 1596 by John Harington, such systems did not come into widespread use until the late nineteenth century. With the onset

title: Toilet

text: in most Muslim countries. They are also occasionally be found in some European and South American countries. In 1976, squatting toilets were said to be used by the majority of the world's population. However, there is a general trend in many countries to move from squatting toilets to sitting toilets (particularly in urban areas) as the latter are often regarded as more modern. There are cultural differences in socially accepted and preferred voiding positions for urination around the world: in the Middle East and Asia, the squatting position is more prevalent, while in the Western world the standing and sitting

title: Spa

text: facilities for bathing and washed clothes, and more people participating in these activities. Also in 1842, a house in Cincinnati, Ohio, received the first indoor bathtub in the United States. Bathing, however, was still not a universal custom. Only one year later — in 1843 — bathing between 1 November and 15 March was outlawed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as a health measure, and in 1845 bathing was banned in Boston, Massachusetts, unless under the direct orders of a physician. The situation improved, however, and by 1867 in Philadelphia most houses of the well-to-do had tubs and indoor plumbing. In England,

title: Toilet

text: to describe a special room for grooming came much later (first attested in 1819), following the French ". Similar to "powder room", "toilet" then came to be used as a euphemism for rooms dedicated to urination and defecation, particularly in the context of signs for public toilets, as on trains. Finally, it came to be used for the plumbing fixtures in such rooms (apparently first in the United States) as these replaced chamber pots, outhouses, and latrines. These two uses, the fixture and the room, completely supplanted the other senses of the word during the 20th century except in the

title: Public toilet

text: Middle Ages public toilets became uncommon, with only few attested in Frankfurt in 1348, in London in 1383, and in Basel in 1455. In the early 19th century, large cities in Europe started installing public toilets: first in Paris, then in Berlin in 1820 and in London in 1851. George Jennings, the sanitary engineer, introduced public toilets, which he called "monkey closets", to the Crystal Palace for The Great Exhibition of 1851. He also used the euphemism "halting station", now in use in Indian English for a basic place to stay attached to a railway station. Public toilets were also

title: Toilet (room)

text: taken as quite formal in American English, and more often refers to public toilets in Britain. The contraction "lav" is commonly used in British English. In American English, the most common term for a private toilet is "bathroom", regardless of whether a bathtub or shower is present. In British English, "bathroom" is a common term but is typically reserved for private rooms primarily used for bathing; a room without a bathtub or shower is more often known as a "WC", an abbreviation for water closet, or "loo". Other terms are also used, some as part of a regional dialect. Some

title: Toilets in Japan

text: were used too. Often, toilets were constructed over a running stream; one of the first known flushing toilets was found at Akita castle, dating back to the 8th century, with the toilet constructed over a diverted stream. However, historically, pit toilets were more common, as they were easier to build and allowed the reuse of the feces as fertilizer—very important in a country where Buddhism and its associated mostly vegetarian, pescetarian lifestyle acted to reduce dependence on livestock for food. The waste products of rich people were sold at higher prices because their diet was better. Various historic documents dating

title: Toilet (room)