question: who sang the theme song from russia with love

answers: Matt Monro

title: From Russia with Love (soundtrack)

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Not heard in the film From Russia with Love (soundtrack) From Russia with Love is the soundtrack for the second James Bond film of the same name. This is the first series film with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer. John Barry, arranger of Monty Norman's "James Bond Theme" for "Dr. No", would be the dominant Bond series composer for most of its history and the inspiration for fellow series composer, David Arnold (who uses cues from this soundtrack in his own for "Tomorrow Never Dies"). The theme song was composed by Lionel Bart of Oliver! fame and

title: From Russia with Love (soundtrack)

text: to these nightclubs and listen to all this stuff. We had the strangest week, and really came away with nothing, except a lot of ridiculous stories. We went back, talked to Lionel, and then he wrote 'From Russia with Love.<nowiki>"</nowiki> The soundtrack's original recordings are thought to be lost and did not appear when the Bond soundtrack albums were issued in remastered form on CD. The album is different from the film with the album's recording of the main titles sounding slower and not featuring the organ played by Alan Haven. Several tracks on the album do not appear in

title: From Russia with Love (soundtrack)

text: appears in a soft string arrangement as a theme for Tania. In Germany, the original release featured an end title track cover version called "Die Wolga ist Weit" sung by Ruthe Berlé. Originally planning to use local Turkish music as Norman had used Jamaican music on "Dr No", Barry accompanied the film crew to Istanbul, however he found nothing suitable for the film. Recalling his visit to Istanbul, John Barry said, "It was like no place I'd ever been in my life. [The Trip] was supposedly to seep up the music, so Noel Rogers and I used to go 'round

title: Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2009

text: Kaas for France, Sakis Rouvas for Greece and AySel and Arash for Azerbaijan. Anastasia Prikhodko performing "Mamo", Valeriya performing "Back to Love" and Kvatro performing "Lyubovyu otvechay" qualified to the Super Final. An eleven-member jury selected the final winner from the three super finalists. The winner, receiving six of the eleven votes, was Anastasia Prikhodko and the song "Mamo". The jury panel included television and music producers: Yuriy Aksyuta, Kim Breitburg, Alexander Dulov, Igor Krutoy, Alexander Lunyov, Vladimir Matetsky, Ruben Oganesov, Larisa Sinelschikova, Maxim Fadeev, as well as the secretary of organising committee of the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in

title: From Russia with Love (soundtrack)

text: decision of the producers not to use Monty Norman, though keeping his "James Bond Theme", Harry Saltzman decided on using the then popular Lionel Bart of "Oliver!" fame. Bart was unable to read or write music, but he offered to compose the music and lyrics for a title song to the film. The producers chose John Barry to score the film. Barry had not only arranged and conducted the "James Bond Theme" from the previous film, but had already scored some films such as "Beat Girl" and "Never Let Go". Barry's group also charted at 13 in the November 1962

title: James Bond 007: From Russia with Love

text: at Compass Point Studios in Nassau with engineer Terry Manning. In addition, two new characters were added to the story, voiced by Natasha Bedingfield and Maria Menounos, were added to the main cast (with the actress' likenesses incorporated). "From Russia with Love" is the first title developed by Electronic Arts Redwood Shores to use an integrated game engine for the third-person shooter action and driving segments. It was a new engine that was not based on any of the technology used for previous titles in the series but the result was similar to Id Tech 3. The game was written

title: From Russia with Love (film)

text: From Russia with Love (film) From Russia with Love is a 1963 British spy film and the second in the "James Bond" film series produced by Eon Productions, as well as Sean Connery's second role as MI6 agent James Bond. It was directed by Terence Young, produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, and written by Richard Maibaum and Johanna Harwood, based on Ian Fleming's similarly named 1957 novel. In the film, Bond is sent to assist in the defection of Soviet consulate clerk Tatiana Romanova in Turkey, where SPECTRE plans to avenge Bond's killing of Dr. No. Following

title: Sissel Kyrkjebø

text: Sissel had just a half-hour to learn the Russian lyrics and she got help from a Russian, who drove a cab in New York City: the driver's name, coincidentally, was Igor. Sissel was on her way to the airport, but the taxi-driver drove her direct to the studio and followed Sissel into studio. He helped Sissel sing the Russian words correct while Sissel recorded her part of the lyrics. In the end he was satisfied and they made it to the airport afterwards. On St. Patrick's Day that year Sissel made her second performance on the Late Show, singing "Love

title: Matt Monro

text: for Britain" with "My Kind of Girl". His follow-up hits included that song, plus "Softly as I Leave You" (1962) and the song from the James Bond film "From Russia with Love" (1963). For the latter, his vocals were not used in the opening titles, as became the standard for the series; they were heard on a radio during the film and over the final credits. At the 1964 Eurovision Song Contest, singing "I Love the Little Things," Monro finished second behind Italy's 16-year-old Gigliola Cinquetti, despite an "excellent performance of the only English language song of the night." The

title: John Barry (composer)

text: his tenure with the film series, Barry's music, variously brassy and moody, achieved very wide appeal. For "From Russia with Love" he composed "007", an alternative James Bond signature theme, which is featured in four other Bond films ("Thunderball", "You Only Live Twice", "Diamonds Are Forever" and "Moonraker"). The theme "Stalking", for the teaser sequence of "From Russia with Love", was covered by colleague Marvin Hamlisch for "The Spy Who Loved Me" (1977). (The music and lyrics for "From Russia with Love"'s title song were written by Lionel Bart, whose musical theatre credits included "Oliver!") Barry also contributed indirectly to

title: From Russia, with Love (novel)

text: of Bond radio adaptations featuring Jarvis and Stephens following "Dr. No" in 2008 and "Goldfinger" in 2010. From Russia, with Love (novel) From Russia, with Love is the fifth novel by the English author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond. Fleming wrote the story in early 1956 at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica; at the time he thought it might be his final Bond book. The novel was first published in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape on 8 April 1957. The story centres on a plot by SMERSH, the Soviet counter-intelligence agency, to

title: From Russia with Love (soundtrack)

text: the completed film. The album was the last of the Bond soundtrack albums to feature more than the usual six tracks per record side. The soundtrack album reached 28 on the "Variety" charts in March 1964 with the title song becoming Unart Music's most recorded song. Other cover versions of the "James Bond Theme" were also released to coincide with the film. Barry also released different cover versions of the title song and "007" on his Ember records for the pop charts. The Roland Shaw Orchestra performed cover versions of most of the music of Barry's soundtrack on several albums.

title: Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013

text: "Carried Away" originally recorded by Hear'Say. Leonid Gutkin, one of the composers of the song, dismissed the plagiarism accusations. On 14 March, Garipova promoted the song during the second semifinal of the Moldovan national final. Russia was allocated to compete in the first semi-final on 14 May for a place in the final on 18 May. In the first semifinal, the producers of the show decided that Russia would perform 6th, following Denmark and preceding Ukraine. On stage, Garipova was joined by four backing vocalists: Alexandra Hamnede, Anders von Hofsten, Sofia Lilja and song co-author Gabriel Alares. The Russian performance

title: Russia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2002

text: to a final round of voting by a jury panel: Premier Ministr, Kristina Orbakaitė and Vitas. During a press conference on 4 March 2002, Premier Ministr and the song "Northern Girl" were presented as the selection of the jury panel. Kristina Orbakaitė and the song "All My Love" was the runner up. The jury panel that selected the Russian entry consisted of Konstantin Ernst (general manager of ORT), Aleksandr Fifeman (general producer of ORT), Marina Danielan (service manager of ORT), Ilya Bachurin (music director of ORT), Valdis Pelšs (entertainment director of ORT, television presenter), Lev Leshchenko (singer), Oleg Gazmanov (singer),

title: From Russia with Love (film)

text: Romanova, a cipher clerk at the Soviet consulate in Istanbul, who believes the ex-Colonel still to be working for SMERSH. In London, M informs Bond that Romanova has contacted their "Station 'T'" in Turkey, claiming to have fallen in love with Bond from his file photo. She offers to defect to the West, and will bring a top secret Lektor with her to sweeten the deal but only on the condition that Bond handle her case, personally. Prior to his departure, Bond is supplied by Q with an attaché case containing a concealed throwing knife, gold sovereigns, a special tear

title: Anastasia Vinnikova

text: performed in the summer of 2010. Anastasia competed in the second semi final at Eurovision. Belarus placed fourteenth with a total of forty-five points. Inconnu : Anastasia Vinnikova Anastasia Vinnikova, (, ) born 15 April 1991 is a singer from Belarus. She represented her country at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011 with the song "I Love Belarus", but failed to qualify to the final. Anastasia Vinnikova was born in Dzyarzhynsk, BSSR on April 15, 1991. Anastasia attended the Minsk State Linguistic University, School of Translation and Interpreting. Anastasia participated in Eurovision in 2011 with the song "I Love Belarus". The

title: From Russia with Love (film)

text: of ridiculous stories. We went back, talked to Lionel, and then he wrote 'From Russia with Love.<nowiki></nowiki> In this film, Barry introduced the percussive theme "007"—action music that came to be considered the "secondary James Bond theme". He composed it to have a lighter, enthusiastic and more adventurous theme to relax the audience. The arrangement appears twice on the soundtrack album; the second version, entitled "007 Takes the Lektor", is the one used during the gunfight at the Gypsy camp and also during Bond's theft of the Lektor decoding machine. The completed film features a holdover from the Monty Norman-supervised

title: Alisa Kozhikina

text: the 2012 New Wave Junior. In April 2014, Kozhikina won the grand final of TV singing contest "The Voice Kids Russia" on the Russian Channel One. In the superfinal (the very last stage of the contest) she sang a Russian version of Mariah Carey's hit "My All" (with newly-written Russian lyrics by Maxim Fadeev, her coach on the show). The prize was 500 thousand roubles and a recording contract with Universal Music. On 22 September 2014 it became known that Alisa Kozhikina was selected to represent Russia at the 12th annual Junior Eurovision Song Contest in Malta, with her song

title: Mikhail Gutseriyev

text: V. Klimenkov, A. Atash and S. Akalin). At the traditionally held in Yurmala "Novaya Volna 2013" Music Contest, the songs by Mikhail Gutseriev were performed by Laima Vaikule ("A Wild Tango"), Kristina Orbakaite ("Disguise"), Joseph Kobzon ("Soul"), while at "Novaya Volna-2014" – by Denis Klyaver ("A Fanciful Dream"), Philipp Kirkorov ("A Loveless Idol"), Natasha Koroleva ("Apricot Dreams"), Nikolay Baskov ("Cherry-Blossom Love"). Conducted in Sochi city-resort, "Novaya Volna-2015" has hosted Nikolay Baskov with "Love is not just words', Valeriya ("The Formula of Happiness"), Alexander Kogan ("I'm waiting for your call"), Ani Lorak ("Autumn love"), Philipp Kirkorov ("Indigo") and Alla Pugacheva ("The

title: From Russia with Love (soundtrack)

text: John Barry, arranger of Monty Norman's "James Bond Theme" for Dr. No, would be the dominant Bond series composer for most of its history and the inspiration for fellow series composer, David Arnold (who uses cues from this soundtrack in his own for Tomorrow Never Dies). The theme song was composed by Lionel Bart of Oliver! fame and sung by Matt Monro.

title: From Russia, with Love (novel)

text: daily comic strip in the paper and was syndicated worldwide. The series, which ran from 3 February to 21 May 1960, was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky. The comic strip was reprinted in 2005 by Titan Books in the "Dr. No" anthology, which also included "Diamonds Are Forever" and "Casino Royale". The film "From Russia with Love" was released in 1963, produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, and directed by Terence Young. It was the second Bond film in the Eon Productions series and starred Sean Connery as Bond. The film version contained some

title: My All

text: After completing the song, Carey was whisked away by a shirtless male dancer, and carried off the stage for a costume change, as the back-up continued into the dance version. On February 25, 2014, Alisa Kozhikina, the representative of Russia to the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2014 won in the Grand Finals of Golos Deti, the Russian kids' edition of The Voice, performing a Russian version of the song called "Vsyo". Credits and personnel adapted from the "Butterfly" liner notes. Recording Management Personnel U.S. CD Single U.S. CD Maxi Single U.S. CD /12" Maxi Single European CD Maxi Single U.S.

title: The Voice (Russia, season 4)

text: Gradsky was Basta, Polina Gagarina and Grigory Leps. Dima Bilan, Pelageya and Leonid Agutin were substituted in order to focus on their music careers. However, Bilan and Agutin will be returning in the following season. Dmitry Nagiev returned for his 4th season as a presenter. The coaches performed "Теперь ты в „Голосе“!" at the start of the show. Note: Dima Bilan, a former coach of "The Voice", made a special performance with the song "Ночной каприз" in this episode. No coach pressed their button. Note: Lolita Milyavskaya made a special performance with the song "Снилось мне" in this episode. All

title: Metodie Bujor

text: to participate in one of the highest rated programs on Russian television “Two Stars”. where a professional singer takes a celebrity and teaches them how to sing. The show featured at least 12 duets. Bujor’s celebrity partner turned out to be prima ballerina, Anastasia Volochkova. The first episode aired on Channel One on February 15, 2013 and the finale was broadcast on June 7, 2013. During the length of the show Bujor’s ability to connect with the viewers, his amazing voice and exciting personality catapulted him to an “overnight” success. During filming, Bujor had announced two more solo concerts at

title: Vasily Strelnikov

text: Moscow's successor, Voice of Russia, co-hosting the mailbag show, "From Moscow With Love". After Voice of Russia was dissolved at the end of 2014, the show was carried for several months on the Sputnik media platform that replaced it before ending in March 2015. Vasily Strelnikov Vasily Borisovic Strelnikov (, also known as "друг агрессивно-прогрессивной молодёжи") is a well-known Russian-American New York City-born VJ and DJ most commonly known to the Boomerang Generation as the voice behind MTV Russia from 1998 to 2002. Strelnikov's popularity was at its peak when he hosted the morning show "Weekend's Whim" ("Викендный Каприз"). He

title: Minuta slavy

text: and Ville Haapasalo, both actors. Between the participants performances various Russian artists performed, including Philip Kirkorov, Lyudmila Gurchenko and Dima Bilan, Alexander Oleshko and Ekaterina Starshova, Sergey Lazarev and Lera Kudryavtseva, Dmitry Nagiyev, and VIA Gra. The winner was a Russian participant - Gagik Aidinyan (double Michael Jackson). 2. July 9 and July 16, 2011 in the season 5 of the show "Minute of Fame" was hosted the international tournament in 2 parts, where the participants were from Russia, Sweden, United States, Germany, Great Britain, France, China and South Africa. Participants were evaluated by Sergei Garmash, Marina Neyolova, Irina Rodnina

title: From Russia with Love (film)

text: up through the walls, and there, at close range, inspects two important Soviet secrets: the heroine's legs." "From Russia with Love" received generally positive reviews from critics; Rotten Tomatoes sampled 49 reviewers and judged 96% of the reviews to be positive with a rating of 8/10. Its summary states: " The second James Bond film, "From Russia with Love" is a razor-sharp, briskly-paced Cold War thriller that features several electrifying action scenes." Many online sites also commonly state "From Russia with Love" as the best Bond film of all time. In his 1986 book, Danny Peary described "From Russia with

title: Anastasia Vinnikova

text: Anastasia Vinnikova Anastasia Vinnikova, (, ) born 15 April 1991 is a singer from Belarus. She represented her country at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011 with the song "I Love Belarus", but failed to qualify to the final. Anastasia Vinnikova was born in Dzyarzhynsk, BSSR on April 15, 1991. Anastasia attended the Minsk State Linguistic University, School of Translation and Interpreting. Anastasia participated in Eurovision in 2011 with the song "I Love Belarus". The song was written by Evgeny Oleinik. Originally, Vinnikova was to perform the song "Born in Bielorussia" until it was discovered that the song had been previously

title: From Russia with Love (Cold War album)

text: From Russia with Love (Cold War album) From Russia with Love is the first album by metalcore band, Cold War. It was recorded between May and July 2004 and released on Indecision Records in November 2004. The band made use of sound effects and cinematic excerpts in the recording of this album, as opposed to the 'sampling' of another artist's songs. It is characterized by its harsh hardcore vocal style and brutal, but often melodic and somewhat technical, guitar work. The lyrics can be described as typically hardcore, that is to say politically and socially aware in contrast to the

title: From Russia with Love (film)

text: "Dr. No" music; the post-rocket-launch music from "Dr. No" is played in "From Russia with Love" during the helicopter and speedboat attacks. "From Russia with Love" premiered on 10 October 1963 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. Ian Fleming, Sean Connery and Walter Gotell attended the premiere. The following year, it was released in 16 countries worldwide, with the United States premiere on 8 April 1964, at New York's Astor Theatre. Upon its first release, "From Russia with Love" doubled "Dr. No"s gross by earning $12.5 million ($ million in dollars) at the worldwide box office. After reissue it

title: From Russia with Love (soundtrack)


question: who established the idea that microorganisms play a role in disease

answers: Robert Koch

answers: Agostino Bassi

title: Microorganism

text: of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists. Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living

title: Brett Finlay

text: Brett Finlay B. Brett Finlay, (born 4 April 1959) is a Canadian microbiologist well known for his contributions to understanding how microbes cause disease in people and developing new tools for fighting infections, as well as the role the microbiota plays in human health and disease. Science.ca describes him as one of the world's foremost experts on the molecular understanding of the ways bacteria infect their hosts. He also led the SARS Accelerated Vaccine Initiative (SAVI) and developed vaccines to SARS and a bovine vaccine to E. coli O157:H7. His current research interests focus on pathogenic E. coli and Salmonella

title: Microbiology

text: the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by micro-organisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages in 1917 and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists. Joseph Lister was the first to use phenol disinfectant on the

title: Stanley Falkow

text: September 2008, Falkow was one of five scientists awarded the prestigious Lasker Award for medical research. Stanley Falkow Stanley Falkow (January 24, 1934 – May 5, 2018) was an American microbiologist and a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University School of Medicine. He discovered molecular mechanisms of infectious diseases, like antibiotic resistance and sounded the alarm for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. He championed the benefits of microorganisms. He formulated molecular Koch's postulates, which have guided the study of the microbial determinants of infectious diseases since the late 1980s. Falkow was born into a Yiddish-speaking household in Albany, New York. His

title: Anthrax

text: physician and scientist, first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in Wolsztyn (now part of Poland). His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that diseases could be caused by microbes. In a groundbreaking series of experiments, he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax. His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax, but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over spontaneous generation versus cell theory. Koch went on to study the mechanisms of

title: Jean Binot

text: on Mont Blanc. During his career, he amassed a large and varied collection of microorganisms for research purposes. Jean Binot Jean Binot (11 August 1867 – 25 November 1909) was a French microbiologist born in Saint-Mandé, Val-de-Marne. He studied medicine in Paris, where one of his instructors was Raphael Blanchard (1857–1919). In 1887 he began work as an assistant préparateur in histology at the Collège de France, followed by an assignment as externe to the hospitals of Paris. In 1892 he became a hospital interne, and during the following year began taking courses in microbiology at the Pasteur Institute in

title: History of science

text: the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Perhaps the most

title: Louis Pasteur

text: Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur (, ; December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French biologist, microbiologist and chemist renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization. He is remembered for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of diseases, and his discoveries have saved many lives ever since. He reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and created the first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His medical discoveries provided direct support for the germ theory of disease and its application in clinical medicine. He is best known to the general public for his invention

title: Microbiology

text: spontaneous generation, thereby solidifying microbiology’s identity as a biological science. One of his students, Adrien Certes, is considered the founder of marine microbiology. Pasteur also designed methods for food preservation (pasteurization) and vaccines against several diseases such as anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies. Koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of disease, proving that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogenic micro-organisms. He developed a series of criteria that have become known as the Koch's postulates. Koch was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture resulting in his

title: Immune system

text: Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed. Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a Nobel Prize in 1908, which was jointly awarded

title: Gerald Domingue

text: bacterial organisms and is considered a pioneer and an expert on the role of these unusual bacteria in the persistence and expression of kidney and urological infectious diseases. Domingue was named a Fellow of the American Academy for Microbiology (1973) and a Fellow of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (1975). In 1995, he received the prestigious Palmes Academiques Medal (Chevalier) from the country of France. Domingue was born in 1937 in Lafayette, Louisiana. He was educated at Southwestern Louisiana Institute (presently University of Louisiana at Lafayette, LA), receiving the Bachelor of Science degree in three years (bacteriology with minors

title: Daniel A. Portnoy

text: Daniel A. Portnoy Daniel A. Portnoy (born 1956 in Syracuse, NY) is a microbiologist, the Edward E. Penhoet Distinguished Chair in Global Public Health and Infectious Diseases, and a Professor of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Structural Biology in the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and in the Division of Microbiology in the Department of Plant and Microbial Biology at the University of California, Berkeley. He is one of the world's foremost experts on "Listeria monocytogenes", the bacterium that causes the severe foodborne illness Listeriosis. He has made seminal contributions to multiple aspects of bacterial pathogenesis, cell biology, innate immunity, and

title: Brett Finlay

text: the University of Alberta, and did his post-doctoral work at Stanford University with Dr. Stanley Falkow (1986-1989). Finlay's lab is based in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in the Michael Smith Laboratories at the University of British Columbia, and involves a multidisciplinary research program exploring how microbes contribute to both human health and disease. The lab specifically focuses on type III secreted virulence factors from Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli, how microbiota influence infectious diarrhea outcomes, and the role of the microbiota in asthma, malnutrition, and environmental enteropathy. More publications may be accessed at PubMed Finlay has co-authored a book for

title: Walther Hesse

text: Walther Hesse Walther Hesse (27 December 1846 – 19 July 1911) is best known for his work in microbiology, specifically his work in developing agar as a medium for culturing microorganisms. He was born in Bischofswerda, Lusatia, as one of 12 children in the family of a medical practitioner. Hesse attended the Kreuzschule in Dresden and studied medicine at the University of Leipzig with Ernst Leberecht Wagner from 1866 till 1870, when he received his doctorate in pathology. Afterwards he participated in the Franco-Prussian War, and therein in the Battle of Gravelotte. As a ship's physician on the New York

title: Fanny Hesse

text: an 1882 paper on tuberculosis bacilli, mentioned he used agar instead of gelatin, he did not credit either Hesse, or mention why he made the switch. Hesse's suggestion never resulted in financial benefit for the Hesse family. Fanny Hesse Fanny Hesse (born Angelina Fanny Elishemius, June 22, 1850 – December 1, 1934) is best known for her work in microbiology alongside her husband, Walther Hesse. Together they were instrumental in developing agar as a medium for culturing microorganisms. Hesse was born in 1850 in New York City to Gottfried Elishemius, a wealthy import merchant, and his wife, Ceclie Elise. She

title: Stanley Falkow

text: Stanley Falkow Stanley Falkow (January 24, 1934 – May 5, 2018) was an American microbiologist and a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University School of Medicine. He discovered molecular mechanisms of infectious diseases, like antibiotic resistance and sounded the alarm for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. He championed the benefits of microorganisms. He formulated molecular Koch's postulates, which have guided the study of the microbial determinants of infectious diseases since the late 1980s. Falkow was born into a Yiddish-speaking household in Albany, New York. His father was a shoe salesman and had immigrated from Soviet Kiev, Ukraine. His mother came from

title: Ernest Duchesne

text: Ernest Duchesne Ernest Duchesne (30 May 1874 – 12 April 1912) was a French physician who noted that certain molds kill bacteria. He made this discovery 32 years before Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic properties of penicillin, a substance derived from those molds, but his research went unnoticed. Duchesne entered "l'Ecole du Service de Santé Militaire de Lyon" (the Military Health Service School of Lyons) in 1894. Duchesne's thesis, "Contribution à l’étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes" (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between molds and microbes),

title: Susan Gottesman

text: Susan Gottesman Susan Gottesman is microbiologist at the National Cancer Institute (NCI), which is part of the National Institutes of Health. She is a pioneer in the area of biological regulation in which enzymes that destroy specific other proteins, called proteases, play a central role inside the cell. She discovered and elucidated the central features of a new family of proteases that require energy for their function in the form of ATP-hydrolysis. She has also played a major role in the discovery and characterization of bacterial small RNAs. Gottesman was born on May 19, 1945, in New York. Her father

title: Samuel Bedson

text: of the British Empire Cancer Campaign in the Bland Sutton Institute of Pathology at the Middlesex Hospital until 1962. Samuel Bedson Sir Samuel Phillips Bedson, FRS (1 December 1886 - 11 May 1969) was a British microbiologist who was Professor Emeritus of bacteriology at the University of London. Bedson was born in Newcastle upon Tyne, the son of Peter Phillip Bedson, a professor of chemistry at the University of Durham, and was educated at Abbotsholme School in Derbyshire. From there he went to Armstrong College, Newcastle upon Tyne, where he graduated B.Sc in 1907. In 1912 he was awarded MB

title: Germ theory of disease

text: The Italian Agostino Bassi was the first person to prove that a disease was caused by a microorganism when he conducted a series of experiments between 1808 and 1813, demonstrating that a "vegetable parasite" caused a disease in silkworms known as calcinaccio—this disease was devastating the French silk industry at the time.  The "vegetable parasite" is now known to be a fungus pathogenic to insects called Beauveria bassiana (named after Bassi).

title: Fanny Hesse

text: Fanny Hesse Fanny Hesse (born Angelina Fanny Elishemius, June 22, 1850 – December 1, 1934) is best known for her work in microbiology alongside her husband, Walther Hesse. Together they were instrumental in developing agar as a medium for culturing microorganisms. Hesse was born in 1850 in New York City to Gottfried Elishemius, a wealthy import merchant, and his wife, Ceclie Elise. She met her husband and research partner Walther Hesse in 1872 while in Germany. They were engaged in 1873, and married in 1874 in Geneva. Hesse worked in an unpaid capacity to assist her husband through preparing bacterial

title: Robert Cruickshank (bacteriologist)

text: ill-health, he greatly built up the reputation of the laboratory in the field of bacteriological research. In 1945 he became the first Director of the Central Public Health Laboratory in Colindale in north London, establishing it as a centre for medical microbiology. In 1949 he became Professor of Bacteriology at the University of London linked to St Mary’s Hospital. In 1955 he became Director of the Wright-Fleming Institute (formerly the Sir Almoth Wright Inoculation Department). In 1958 he returned to Scotland to take up a chair in Bacteriology at Edinburgh University. He was made a Fellow of the Royal College

title: Germ theory of disease

text: end caring for the sick. Searching for a cure, Kircher observed microorganisms under the microscope and invented the germ theory of disease, which he outlined in his "Scrutinium pestis physico-medicum" (Rome 1658). Building on Leeuwenhoek's work, physician Nicolas Andry argued in 1700 that microorganisms he called "worms" were responsible for smallpox and other diseases. In 1720, Richard Bradley theorised that the plague and 'all pestilential distempers' were caused by 'poisonous insects', living creatures viewable only with the help of microscopes. In 1762, the Austrian physician Marcus Antonius von Plenciz (1705-1786) published a book titled "Opera medico-physica". It outlined a theory

title: Hans Schlossberger

text: Hans Schlossberger Hans Otto Friedrich Schlossberger (born 22 September 1887 in Alpirsbach, died 27 January 1960 in Stuttgart) was a German physician, who was known for his research in immunology, medical microbiology, epidemiology and antimicrobial chemotherapy, especially on syphilis, typhus, gas gangrene, diphtheria, erysipeloid of Rosenbach, tuberculosis, malaria and leptospirosis. He was one of the leading immunologists and bacteriologists of Germany during his lifetime, and was a student and collaborator of the Nobel laureates Paul Ehrlich and Emil von Behring, two of the principal founders of the field of immunology. From 1946 to 1955, he was Professor of Medical Microbiology

title: Sara Branham Matthews

text: course of her career, she published eighty papers and helped with the composition of many textbooks. Her papers are held at the National Library of Medicine. Sara Branham Matthews Sara Elizabeth Branham Matthews (1888–1962) was an American microbiologist and physician best known for her research into the isolation and treatment of "Neisseria meningitidis", a causative organism of meningitis. Branham was born July 25, 1888 in Oxford, Georgia to mother Sarah ("Sallie") Stone and father Junius Branham. Although education of women was not commonplace at the time, members of Sara Branham's family were firm believers in the value of education for

title: Osamu Hayaishi

text: as a medical officer in the Japanese Navy for 3 years, he joined the Institute of Microbial Diseases, Osaka University and was awarded his Ph.D. in 1949. After working with Arthur Kornberg at the National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, National Institutes of Health and Washington University in St. Louis, Hayaishi served as a research group leader or a professor at various research institutions in the US and Japan including Kyoto University, and led approximately 600 graduate students in his life including Yasutomi Nishizuka, Tasuku Honjo, and Shigetada Nakanishi. More than 100 his pupils became professors at various universities

title: David Relman

text: latter with human health and disease, formed the basis of his subsequent research career. Relman joined the faculty at Stanford in 1994 and has remained there since. His development of broad range small subunit rRNA gene amplification methods for revealing novel microbial pathogens led to the identification of several important previously-uncharacterized human pathogens, including the agents of bacillary angiomatosis and of Whipple's disease. He was an early pioneer in the study of the human microbiome using modern molecular methods, and published some of the first broad molecular surveys of the human oral and gut microbiota. His current research seeks to

title: Elizabeth O. King

text: Southeastern Branch of the American Society for Microbiology established the Elizabeth O. King Award for significant contributions in the field of medical microbiology. Elizabeth O. King Elizabeth Osborne King (October 12, 1912April 8, 1966) was an internationally known American microbiologist who discovered and described bacteria of medical importance at the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention from the late 1940s through the early 1960s. The genera "Kingella" and "Elizabethkingia" and the species "Kingella kingae" are named to honor her for her pioneering work. Born on October 12, 1912 in Atlanta, Georgia she earned her Bachelor of Science degree

title: Harold Ginsberg

text: Harold Ginsberg Harold Samuel "Harry" Ginsberg (May 27, 1917 – February 2, 2003) was an American microbiologist who made early discoveries in virology and infectious disease. Ginsberg was born on May 27, 1917, in Daytona Beach, Florida. He earned his undergraduate degree from Duke University in 1937 and received his medical degree from the Tulane University School of Medicine in 1941. While serving in the United States Army as a first lieutenant during World War II and stationed at a military hospital in England, Ginsberg was responsible for caring for soldiers injured during the Normandy landings. There he discovered a

title: Harry Smith (microbiologist)

text: biochemistry for the successful conclusion of a research project. In 1947 he became a researcher at the Microbiological Research Establishment at Porton Down. There he carried out research on the mechanisms of anthrax infection using live animals and its possible applications in chemical warfare. From 1965 to 1988, he was Chair of Microbiology at the University of Birmingham, subsequently becoming Emeritus Professor. He was president of the Society for General Microbiology (now known as the Microbiology Society) and of the 14th International Congress of Microbiology. In 1979 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1991 delivered

title: Germ theory of disease


question: where did this case of product tampering occur

answers: the Chicago metropolitan area

title: Tampering (crime)

text: manufacturer, and in many cases no contamination to a product ever takes place. Fraud is sometimes handled as a matter of civil law, but actual modification of products is almost always a matter of criminal law. Seven people died in this incident in the United States after taking medication that had been contaminated with cyanide. One man was later convicted of extortion, but no one was convicted of the murders. In 2009, the Federal Bureau of Investigation announced that it was re-examining the case. This event led to new requirements for tamper-evident seals on over-the-counter medications and changes in US

title: Tampering (crime)

text: tampering laws. Tampering cases often involve foreign objects in food products. These cases often focus on determining whether the contamination occurred during manufacturing, either accidentally or intentionally, or whether the claims made by the complaining customers are real or fraudulent. A famous case involving claims by customers that had tainted the products themselves was a series of claims in 1993 of needles found in Pepsi products. The manufacturer convincingly demonstrated that the contamination could not have taken place at the bottling plant, and several people were proven to have put the needles in themselves. Hardware Trojan (HT), malicious modification of

title: Tampering (crime)

text: Tampering (crime) Tampering can refer to many forms of sabotage but the term is often used to mean intentional modification of products in a way that would make them harmful to the consumer. This threat has prompted manufacturers to make products that are either difficult to modify or at least difficult to modify without warning the consumer that the product has been tampered with. Since the person making the modification is typically long gone by the time the crime is discovered, many of these cases are never solved. The crime is often linked with attempts to extort money from the

title: Tampering (crime)

text: the circuitry of an integrated circuit. Tampering (crime) Tampering can refer to many forms of sabotage but the term is often used to mean intentional modification of products in a way that would make them harmful to the consumer. This threat has prompted manufacturers to make products that are either difficult to modify or at least difficult to modify without warning the consumer that the product has been tampered with. Since the person making the modification is typically long gone by the time the crime is discovered, many of these cases are never solved. The crime is often linked with

title: Stella Nickell

text: case, such as the store owner who testified about her having purchased Algae Destroyer, was influenced by promises of payment. After the 1982 Chicago Tylenol murders, new FDA regulations went into effect which made it a federal - rather than just a state or local - crime to tamper with consumer products. Local and state authorities are not, however, prevented from also filing charges in such cases. Under this law, Nickell's crime was prosecutable as a federal product tampering case as well as a state murder case, and she was not convicted of murder, but of product tampering that caused

title: Tamper-evident technology

text: the process of product packaging and labelling, where it can be vital to know that the product has not been altered since it left the manufacturer. Cans of baby food were among the first high-profile cases, where manufacturers were extorted by persons claiming to have added various poisons to baby food and replaced them on supermarket shelves. The amount of stock which needed to be destroyed (because it was impossible to tell if a given item had been tampered with), and the threat of public fear, meant that tamper-evident design principles had the potential to save a lot of money

title: Tamper resistance

text: and tamper evidence. In some applications, devices are only tamper-evident rather than tamper-resistant. Tampering involves the deliberate altering or adulteration of a product, package, or system. Solutions may involve all phases of product production, packaging, distribution, logistics, sale, and use. No single solution can be considered as "tamper-proof". Often multiple levels of security need to be addressed to reduce the risk of tampering. Some considerations might include: Tamper means interfere with (something) without authority or so as to cause damage. Nearly all appliances and accessories can only be opened with the use of a screwdriver (or a substitute item such

title: Stella Nickell

text: 1987, even Nickell's attorneys acknowledged that she was the prime suspect in the case. On December 9, 1987, Nickell was indicted by a federal grand jury on five counts of product tampering, including two which resulted in the deaths of Bruce and Snow, and arrested the same day. She went on trial in April 1988 and was found guilty of all charges on May 9, after five days of jury deliberation. Nickell's legal team sought a mistrial on grounds of jury tampering and judicial misconduct. One of the jurors had been a plaintiff in a case involving a pill baked

title: Cosmetic packaging

text: tampering and radiation damage. The FDA overseas cosmetic packaging but does not test products. It leaves testing for safety up to manufacturers. It still provides regulations and can issue recalls when a product is associated with safety hazards. While the FDA does not have many restrictions on ingredients for cosmetic products, it does require that certain chemicals and colorants be listed. As far as EU regulations regarding packaging, manufacturers must be compliant with EC No. 1223/2009. One of these requirements involves the manufacturer issuing a safety report before putting the product on the market. The manufacturer must also disclose any

title: Chicago Tylenol murders

text: within several years, Tylenol had the highest market share for the over-the-counter analgesic in the U.S. The 1982 incident inspired the pharmaceutical, food, and consumer product industries to develop tamper-resistant packaging, such as induction seals and improved quality control methods. Moreover, product tampering was made a federal crime. The new laws resulted in Stella Nickell's conviction in the Excedrin tampering case, for which she was sentenced to ninety years in prison. Additionally, the incident prompted the pharmaceutical industry to move away from capsules, which were easy to contaminate as a foreign substance could be placed inside without obvious signs of

title: Tamper resistance

text: intended by the manufacturer might deny they did it, in order to claim the warranty or (mainly in the case of PCs) call the helpdesk for help in fixing it. Tamper-evident seals may be enough to deal with this. However, they cannot easily be checked remotely, and many countries have statutory warranty terms that mean manufacturers may still have to service the equipment. Tamper proof screws will stop most casual users from tampering in the first place. In the US, the Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act prevents manufacturers from voiding warranties solely due to tampering. A warranty may be dishonored only if

title: Chemins

text: and had done so with numerous other products, including one called Supercharge, without notifying consumers. He admitted that the product's labeling failed to disclose the use of the chemicals on the list of ingredients, and that he and his employees had misled FDA investigators and purposely hindered inspections of the company’s premises. Chemins actively conspired to hide from the FDA the fact that it possessed the undisclosed ingredients by, among other things, making a late night transfer of the ingredients to an employee's home during an FDA inspection and creating false manufacturing and inventory records that were shown to FDA

title: Tamper-evident technology

text: Tamper-evident technology Tamper-evident describes a device or process that makes unauthorized access to the protected object easily detected. Seals, markings or other techniques may be tamper indicating. Tampering involves the deliberate altering or adulteration of information, a product, a package, or system. Solutions may involve all phases of product production, distribution, logistics, sale, and use. No single solution can be considered as "tamper proof". Often multiple levels of security need to be addressed to reduce the risk of tampering. Some considerations might include: Tamper-evident designs have been a feature of letters since ancient times, often using wax, clay, or metal

title: The Vitamin Shoppe

text: supplements. The amount of lead found was found to cause cancer and death to 29 people nationwide. In the wake of extensive adverse media coverage, Vitamin Shoppe withdrew the product, but in a statement made by CEO Tom Tolworthy denied it had any proof the vitamins were contaminated and asserted that, despite the high lead levels found in the Consumer Labs tests, its vitamins were manufactured in accordance with "good manufacturing practices." On June 15, 2011, Vitamin Shoppe's "Ultimate Woman Gold" multivitamin was tested by ConsumerLab.com in their "Multivitamin and Multimineral Supplements Review" of 38 of the leading multivitamin/multimineral products

title: Chicago Tylenol murders

text: deaths, three other tampered-with bottles were later discovered. In a concerted effort to reassure the public, Johnson & Johnson distributed warnings to hospitals and distributors and halted Tylenol production and advertising. On October 5, 1982, it issued a nationwide recall of Tylenol products; an estimated 31 million bottles were in circulation, with a retail value of over US $100 million ($267 million in 2018). The company also advertised in the national media for individuals not to consume any of its products that contained acetaminophen after it was determined that only these capsules had been tampered with. Johnson & Johnson offered

title: Protein adulteration in China

text: distrust, namely non-compliant contract manufacturers, beyond the original problematic Chinese ingredient suppliers. Diamond and Natural Balance refer to this as a "manufacturing deviation" by ANI. Blue Buffalo and Harmony Farms characterize this as "product tampering" by ANI. ANI's recall notice makes no comment on these allegations. On 31 May 2007, the "International Herald Tribune" reported that melamine has also been purposely added as a binder to fish and livestock feed manufactured in the United States and traced to suppliers in Ohio and Colorado. In autumn 2008, the Food and Drug Administration detected traces of melamine in one top-selling brand of

title: Burson-Marsteller

text: in Johnson & Johnson. Ninety percent of respondents stated that they did not hold the manufacturer responsible for the deaths. At a Burson-Marsteller organized press conference in November 1982, Johnson & Johnson introduced new tamper-proof packaging, becoming the first company to introduce triple-sealed packaging, which later became the industry standard. The conference gave Johnson & Johnson the opportunity to announce that they were reintroducing Tylenol capsules to the market and would replace any Tylenol that consumers had thrown away. In addition, Johnson & Johnson published advertisements with coupons for consumers to use in replacing Tylenol that had been thrown out

title: Product sabotage

text: the floating point unit was not working properly, but the CPU was fine. If this was the case it can't be said to be product sabotage.) Various information extracted from: Product sabotage In marketing and retail, product sabotage is a practice used to encourage the customer to purchase a more profitable product or service as opposed to cheaper alternatives. It is also the practice where a company attempts to aim different prices at different types of customer. There are several methods used in achieving this: This method is commonly used in supermarkets, where the cheapest products are packaged in cheap

title: Encaprin

text: 5 April 1986, Procter & Gamble announced that no evidence of tampering had been found, and Encaprin was returned to the shelves. Despite the fact that the scare was revealed to be a hoax, Encaprin never recovered its sales and was quietly retired in August 1986. The Encaprin hoax influenced the 1989 FDA federal guidelines for the manufacture of tamper-proof products, which called for a minimum of two layers of tamper-proof packaging for two-piece capsule products, and the use of tamper-proof capsule sealing technologies. Encaprin Encaprin was a brand of coated aspirin made by Procter & Gamble in the mid-1980s.

title: Chicago Tylenol murders

text: The Chicago Tylenol murders were a series of poisoning deaths resulting from drug tampering in the Chicago metropolitan area in 1982.  The victims had all taken Tylenol-branded acetaminophen capsules that had been laced with potassium cyanide. A total of seven people died in the original poisonings, with several more deaths in subsequent copycat crimes.

title: Tylenol (brand)

text: These events led to the widespread use of tamper resistance packaging of drugs by drug companies, to the 1982 passage of a US federal law making tampering a crime, and to legislation in 1989 requiring tamper-proof packaging. On January 15, 2010, Johnson & Johnson announced a voluntary recall of several hundred batches of popular medicines, including Benadryl, Motrin, Rolaids, Simply Sleep, St. Joseph Aspirin and Tylenol. The recall was due to complaints of a musty smell suspected to be due to contamination of the packaging with the chemical 2,4,6-tribromoanisole. The full health effects of 2,4,6-tribromoanisole are not known but no

title: Poisoned candy myths

text: tampering myths was an article published in "The New York Times" in 1970. This article claimed that "Those Halloween goodies that children collect this weekend on their rounds of ‘trick or treating’ may bring them more horror than happiness", and provided specific examples of potential tamperings. Reports and copycat incidents peaked shortly after the Chicago Tylenol murders, which were first reported one month before Halloween in 1982. This incident involved a murderer who added poison to a few bottles of over-the-counter medication after the medication had been delivered to stores. Joel Best, a sociologist at the University of Delaware, specializes

title: Product defect

text: Product defect A product defect is any characteristic of a product which hinders its usability for the purpose for which it was designed and manufactured. Product defects arise most prominently in legal contexts, where the term is applied to "anything that renders the product not reasonably safe". The field of law that addresses injuries caused by defective products is called products liability. A wide range of circumstances can render a product defective. The product may have a design defect, resulting from the product having been poorly designed or tested, so that the design itself yields a product that can not

title: Tamper-evident technology

text: the BBC demonstrated that such tamper-resistant jars could indeed be reclosed with their seals intact, and this spurred more robust designs. Newer jars of food tend to come with a plastic wrap around the edge of the lid, which is removed when opening, although the springy-cap designs are still in common use. Tamper-evident packaging also extends to protect stores; there are some scale labels for meats and deli products that will tear if removed. The Tylenol Crisis of 1982 involved over-the-counter medications. Due to FDA regulations, many manufacturers of food and medicine (as well as other products) now use induction

title: 2010 Johnson & Johnson children's product recall

text: Pennsylvania, United States. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the plant's manufacturing process was "not in control," meaning it was using flawed procedures that could potentially lead to manufacturing errors. As a result, some products "may contain a higher concentration of active ingredient than is specified; others contain inactive ingredients that may not meet internal testing requirements; and others may contain tiny [foreign] particles." Foreign particles could potentially include solidified ingredients or "manufacturing residue such as tiny metal specks" or mold. It was not clear when the problems began, but FDA official Douglas Stearn said it "does go

title: Chicago Tylenol murders

text: the public. In addition to issuing the recall, the company established relations with the Chicago Police Department, the FBI, and the Food and Drug Administration. This way it could have a part in searching for the person who laced the capsules and they could help prevent further tamperings. While at the time of the scare the company's market share collapsed from thirty-five percent to eight percent, it rebounded in less than a year, a move credited to the company's prompt and aggressive reaction. In November, it reintroduced capsules but in a new, triple-sealed package, coupled with heavy price promotions and

title: Counterfeit medications

text: from which they were exported to U.S. wholesale distributors. The Wall Street Journal reported that the U.S. wholesale distributor was hired by Canada Drugs, which also owns CanadaDrugs.com, a retail pharmacy website that sells prescription medication internationally, with a focus on the American market. In 2007-08, 149 Americans died from a contaminated blood thinner called Heparin that was legally imported into the United States. Investigated by the FDA Office of Criminal Investigations, the Albers Medical investigation is the most prolific example to date. On August 21, 2005, the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Western District of Missouri issued a press

title: Tamper resistance

text: Tamper resistance Tamper resistance is resistance to tampering (intentional malfunction or sabotage) by either the normal users of a product, package, or system or others with physical access to it. There are many reasons for employing tamper resistance. Tamper resistance ranges from simple features like screws with special drives, more complex devices that render themselves inoperable or encrypt all data transmissions between individual chips, or use of materials needing special tools and knowledge. Tamper-resistant devices or features are common on packages to deter package or product tampering. Anti-tamper devices have one or more components: tamper resistance, tamper detection, tamper response,

title: Staples Inc.

text: a pattern of card fraud (suggesting that several Staples office supply locations in the Northeastern United States were dealing with a data breach). At the time, Staples would say only that it was investigating "a potential issue" and had contacted law enforcement. On December 19, 2014, Staples reported that criminals had deployed malware to point-of-sale systems at 115 of their retail stores in the United States. At 113 stores, the malware may have allowed access to this data for purchases made from August 10, 2014 through September 16, 2014. At two stores, the malware may have allowed access to data

title: West Bengal blood test kit scam

text: and healthcare system, an investigation was launched regarding potential negligence by Monozyme India. In particular, there was concern that the company had knowingly violated the Drugs and Cosmetics Act of 1940, which prohibited the tampering of expiration dates of drugs. Random tests on the seized blood test kits showed that almost all of the kits were defective in some way; as such, legal and criminal action was taken against several high-level employees at Monozyme India. Particular focus was placed on two brothers, Ghanashyam and Govind Sarda. Govind was the owner of Monozyme India, and Ghanashyam had been managing director of

title: Chicago Tylenol murders


question: how many us states are commonwealths and which states are they

answers: Kentucky

answers: Pennsylvania

answers: Massachusetts

answers: Virginia

title: Commonwealth

text: coast of North America prior to the formation of the United States of America in 1776. As such, they share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions. The four are: Two organized but unincorporated U.S. territories are called commonwealths. The two are: The Commonwealth of Nations—formerly the British Commonwealth—is a voluntary association or confederation of 53 independent sovereign states, most of which were once part of the British Empire. The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies. The Head of the Commonwealth is Queen Elizabeth II, who also reigns as monarch directly in

title: States and territories of Australia

text: of Queensland (1859). Upon Federation, the six colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania became the founding states of the new Commonwealth of Australia. Legislative powers of the states are protected by the Australian constitution, section 107, and under the principle of federalism Commonwealth legislation only applies to the states where permitted by the constitution. The territories, by contrast, are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth Government; laws for territories are determined by the Australian Parliament. Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth Government, while two (the Northern

title: U.S. state

text: court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody). Four states use the term "commonwealth" rather than "state" in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, and states may also create other local governments. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles, and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches, each with separate and independent

title: States and territories of Australia

text: States and territories of Australia States and territories of Australia (officially known as the Commonwealth of Australia) is a federation of six states, together with ten federal territories. The Australian mainland consists of five of the six federated states and three of the federal territories (the "internal" territories). The state of Tasmania is an island about south of the mainland. The remaining seven territories are classified for some purposes as "external" territories. All states and the two largest internal territories are partially self-governing, as well as being represented in the federal parliament; the other territories are administered by the federal

title: Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)

text: Commonwealth (U.S. insular area) In the terminology of the United States insular areas, a Commonwealth is a type of organized but unincorporated dependent territory. There are currently two United States insular areas with the status of commonwealth, the Northern Mariana Islands and Puerto Rico. The definition of "Commonwealth" according to current U.S. State Department policy (as codified in the department's Foreign Affairs Manual) reads: "The term 'Commonwealth' does not describe or provide for any specific political status or relationship. It has, for example, been applied to both states and territories. When used in connection with areas under U.S. sovereignty that

title: States and territories of Australia

text: the X-Y axis. States and territories of Australia States and territories of Australia (officially known as the Commonwealth of Australia) is a federation of six states, together with ten federal territories. The Australian mainland consists of five of the six federated states and three of the federal territories (the "internal" territories). The state of Tasmania is an island about south of the mainland. The remaining seven territories are classified for some purposes as "external" territories. All states and the two largest internal territories are partially self-governing, as well as being represented in the federal parliament; the other territories are administered

title: State government

text: this article. The United States and Australia are the main examples of federal systems in which the term "state" is used for the subnational components of the federation. In addition, the Canadian provinces fulfil a similar role. The term for subnational units in non-English-speaking federal countries may also often be translated as "state", e.g. States of Germany (German "Länder"). The Commonwealth of Australia is a federal nation with six states (and two mainland territories). Section 51 of the Australian Constitution sets out the division of legislative power between the states and the Commonwealth (federal) government. The Commonwealth government is given

title: Commonwealth

text: federation. Australia operates under a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal (national) government and the state governments (the successors of the six colonies). So, in an Australian context, the term "Commonwealth" (capitalized) refers to the federal government, and "Commonwealth of Australia" is the official name of the country. The Bahamas uses the official style "Commonwealth of The Bahamas". The small Caribbean republic of Dominica has used the official style "Commonwealth of Dominica" since 1970. Four states of the United States officially designate themselves as "commonwealths". All four were part of Great Britain's possessions along the Atlantic

title: Australia

text: was sworn in as prime minister later that day. Australia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria (VIC) and Western Australia (WA)—and two major mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT). In most respects these two territories function as states, except that the Commonwealth Parliament has the power to modify or repeal any legislation passed by the territory parliaments. Under the constitution, the States essentially have plenary legislative power to legislate on any subject, whereas the Commonwealth (federal) Parliament may legislate only within the subject areas enumerated under section

title: Commonwealth realm

text: Commonwealth realm A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state in which Queen Elizabeth II is the reigning constitutional monarch and head of state. Each realm is independent from the other realms. As of 2018, there are 16 Commonwealth realms: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and the United Kingdom. All 16 Commonwealth realms are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states. Elizabeth II is Head of the Commonwealth. In 1952,

title: Australia Act 1986

text: and UK) eliminated the remaining possibilities for the UK to legislate with effect in Australia, for the UK to be involved in Australian government, and for an appeal from any Australian court to a British court. The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 by federation of six British colonies, each of which became a State. The Commonwealth Constitution provided for a Commonwealth Parliament, with legislative power on a range of specified topics, leaving the residue of legislative power to the States. That constitution was (and still is) contained in a British statute. The United Kingdom Parliament retained ultimate legislative

title: New South Wales v Commonwealth (1915)

text: when ascertained must be the same always and in all conceivable circumstances; it must apply equally when we are considering the right of the Commonwealth to legislate under sec. 51 (i.), and of the States to legislate under sec. 107. The Wheat case sounded the death knell, not only to the Inter-State Commission, but also to the combined function approach to administrative adjudication in Australia. The decision continues to have ramifications for both federal courts and non-judicial tribunals and has been followed in numerous High Court decisions, including New South Wales v Commonwealth (1915) New South Wales v Commonwealth, commonly

title: New South Wales v Commonwealth (2006)

text: Wales, Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, Victoria, and the Australian Workers' Union and Unions New South Wales. The defendant was the Commonwealth of Australia. Attorneys-General for the State of Tasmania, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory intervened in support of the plaintiffs. The Full Court of the High Court hearing the case comprised Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Kirby, Hayne, Callinan, Heydon and Crennan JJ. Hearings of substantial matters began on 4 May 2006, and concluded on 11 May. The outcome of the challenge was the High Court decision of New South Wales & Ors v Commonwealth, delivered on 14

title: Commonwealth

text: welfare" or "commonweal" to mean "a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people; a republic or democratic state". The term evolved to become a title to a number of political entities. Three countries – Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica – have the official title "Commonwealth", as do four U.S. states and two U.S. territories. More recently, the term has been used to name some fraternal associations of nations, most notably the Commonwealth of Nations, an organization primarily of former territories of the British Empire, which is often referred to as simply "the Commonwealth". Translations of Roman

title: U.S. state

text: U.S. state A state is a constituent political entity of the United States. There are currently 50 states, which are bound together in a union with each other. Each state holds governmental jurisdiction over a defined geographic territory and shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons restricted by certain types of

title: Junior State of America

text: quarterback Tom Brady. The JSA consists of 10 states which correspond roughly to the geographic territories in the United States: the Arizona State, Mid-Atlantic State, Midwest State, Northeast State, Northern California State, Ohio River Valley State, Pacific Northwest State, Southeast State, Southern California State, and the Texas State. Each state is broken into one or more regions. If a state contracts below a certain operational level, the Council of Governors may vote to make the state a territory. The Council may also break states into multiple territories if they become too large to be effectively managed. The sponsoring JSF is

title: U.S. state

text: used … for data collection and analysis," and is the most commonly used classification system. Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines. U.S. state A state is a constituent political entity of the United States. There are currently 50 states, which are bound together in a union with each other. Each state holds governmental jurisdiction over a defined geographic territory and shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic

title: State government

text: union and industrial relations legislation. One difference between the Australian and United States models of federalism is that, in Australia, the Commonwealth Parliament has explicit constitutional power over marriage legislation; this has been a focal point for recent controversies over same-sex marriage. Each state of Australia has a governor, who represents the Queen of Australia (currently Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom) and performs the ceremonial duties of a head of state. Every state also has a parliament; most states have a bicameral parliament, except for Queensland, where the upper chamber (the Legislative Council) was abolished in 1922. Unlike their

text: Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of 53 sovereign states. Nearly all of them are former British colonies or dependencies of those colonies. No one government in the Commonwealth exercises power over the others, as is the case in a political union. Rather, the Commonwealth is an international organisation in which countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in status, and cooperate within a framework of common values and goals, as outlined in the Singapore Declaration issued in 1971. Such common values and goals include the

title: Commonwealth (U.S. state)

text: Commonwealth is a designation used by four of the 50 states of the United States in their full official state names: Kentucky (the law creating Kentucky names it the "State of Kentucky" but it was originally part of the land grant of the Colony of Virginia), Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia.  Each was, prior to 1776, a British colony, or parts thereof, and share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions.

text: 2014 estimates. Other states which have expressed an interest in joining the Commonwealth over the years or states which may be eligible to join the Commonwealth include Algeria, Bahrain, Cambodia, Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Madagascar, Palestine, United States and Yemen. Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of 53 sovereign states. Nearly all of them are former British colonies or dependencies of those colonies. No one government in the Commonwealth exercises power over the others, as is the case in a political union. Rather, the Commonwealth is an international organisation in which

title: Commonwealth citizen

text: Commonwealth citizen In general, a Commonwealth citizen is a citizen of a member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. This designation is given legal effect in the nationality laws of some Commonwealth countries, and Commonwealth citizens may enjoy some privileges in the United Kingdom and, less commonly, other member states. Each Commonwealth country determines what special rights, if any, are accorded to citizens of other Commonwealth countries. The status is most significant in British law and has little effect in many other Commonwealth countries, such as Australia. In British nationality law, a Commonwealth citizen is a person who is either

title: Commonwealth realm

text: after World War II, it became a province of Canada in 1949. A number of Commonwealth realms have held referendums to consider whether they should become republics. As of January 2017, of the eight referendums held, only three have been successful: in Ghana, in South Africa and the second referendum in Gambia. Referendums which rejected the proposal were held in Australia, twice in Tuvalu, and in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. There are currently no planned referendums, but interest in holding a second referendum was expressed in Australia in 2010. Commonwealth realm A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state in

title: Section 99 of the Constitution of Australia

text: Commonwealth under certain conditions relating to the remuneration of labour, which could vary according to local circumstances, agreements and judicial opinion. In invalidating this provision, Griffith CJ, Barton and O'Connor JJ said: The words "States or parts of States" must be read as synonymous with "parts of the Commonwealth" or "different localities within the Commonwealth." The existing limits of the States are arbitrary, and it would be a strange thing if the Commonwealth Parliament could discriminate in a taxing Act between one locality and another, merely because such localities were not coterminous with States or with parts of the same

title: Veto

text: of the states which are federated under the Australian Commonwealth, a somewhat different situation exists. Until the Australia Act 1986, each state was constitutionally dependent upon the British Crown directly. Since 1986, however, they are fully independent entities, although the Queen still appoints governors on the advice of the state head of government, the premier. So the Crown may not veto (nor the UK Parliament overturn) any act of a state governor or state legislature. Paradoxically, the states are more independent of the Crown than the federal government and legislature. State constitutions determine what role a governor plays. In general

title: Commonwealth realm

text: Britain's proclamation of Elizabeth II's accession used the term "Realms" to describe the seven sovereign states of which she was queen—the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon. Since then, new realms have been created through independence of former colonies and dependencies and some realms have become republics. There are 16 Commonwealth realms currently with a combined area (excluding Antarctic claims) of 18.7 million km (7.2 million mi) and a population of 144 million, of which all but about two million live in the six most populous: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New

title: Constitution of Australia

text: the Queen in the authority of the Commonwealth. Section 123 requires that changing the boundaries of a State requires the consent of the Parliament of that State and approval by referendum in that State. No new states have been admitted to the Commonwealth since federation. Chapter VII contains three quite different provisions. Section 125 provides that the seat of government of the Commonwealth would be in Melbourne for the time being, but eventually in Commonwealth territory, to be created within New South Wales but no less than from Sydney. The national capital would thus be neither of the rival State

text: states are Commonwealth realms, with the Head of the Commonwealth as their head of state. Five others are monarchies with their own individual monarchs (Brunei, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malaysia, Tonga) and the rest are republics. Republic of Ireland (from 1949 according to the Commonwealth; 1936 according to Irish government), Zimbabwe (2003), and Maldives (2016) are former members of the Commonwealth. South Africa, Pakistan and The Gambia left and later rejoined the Commonwealth. All dates below are provided by the Commonwealth of Nations Secretariat members list, and population figures are as of 1 January 2018. A. Unless otherwise noted, independence was gained

title: State constitution (United States)

text: and the United States Virgin Islands – are organized. One unorganized territory, American Samoa, has its own constitution. The remaining 13 unorganized territories have no permanent populations and are either under direct control of the U.S. Government or operate as military bases. The commonwealths of Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) do not have organic acts but operate under local constitutions. Pursuant to the acquisition of Puerto Rico under the Treaty of Paris, 1898, the relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States is controlled by Article IV of the United States Constitution. Constitutional law in the CNMI

title: Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)

text: 15, 1935 until July 4, 1946. The United States recognized the future independence of the Philippines in 1934 but called for a transitional ten-year period from 1934 up to 1944. The Second World War disrupted the schedule and the Philippines became fully independent in 1946. Commonwealth (U.S. insular area) In the terminology of the United States insular areas, a Commonwealth is a type of organized but unincorporated dependent territory. There are currently two United States insular areas with the status of commonwealth, the Northern Mariana Islands and Puerto Rico. The definition of "Commonwealth" according to current U.S. State Department policy

title: Commonwealth (U.S. state)

short_answers: Kentucky Massachusetts Pennsylvania Virginia