question: where do the neutrons come from in nuclear fission

answers: Startup neutron source

title: Uranium-238

text: come from the fission of Pu, which is not supplied as a fuel to the reactor, but rather, produced from U. U is not usable directly as nuclear fuel, though it can produce energy via "fast" fission. In this process, a neutron that has a kinetic energy in excess of 1 MeV can cause the nucleus of U to split in two. Depending on design, this process can contribute some one to ten percent of all fission reactions in a reactor, but too few of the about 2.5 neutrons produced in each fission have enough speed to continue a chain

title: Nuclear fission

text: nuclear fuel. Such neutrons would escape rapidly from the fuel and become a free neutron, with a mean lifetime of about 15 minutes before decaying to protons and beta particles. However, neutrons almost invariably impact and are absorbed by other nuclei in the vicinity long before this happens (newly created fission neutrons move at about 7% of the speed of light, and even moderated neutrons move at about 8 times the speed of sound). Some neutrons will impact fuel nuclei and induce further fissions, releasing yet more neutrons. If enough nuclear fuel is assembled in one place, or if the

title: Neutron

text: lower-energy thermal neutrons, and high-energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators. Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes such as nuclear fission. Neutrons produced in fission, as noted above, have a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of kinetic energies from 0 to ~14 MeV, a mean energy of 2 MeV (for U-235 fission neutrons), and a mode of only 0.75 MeV, which means that more than half of them do not qualify as fast (and thus have almost no chance of initiating fission in fertile materials, such as U-238 and Th-232). Fast neutrons can be made into thermal neutrons via a process

title: Neutron

text: the mass of nuclei. Ultimately, the ability of the nuclear force to store energy arising from the electromagnetic repulsion of nuclear components is the basis for most of the energy that makes nuclear reactors or bombs possible. In nuclear fission, the absorption of a neutron by a heavy nuclide (e.g., uranium-235) causes the nuclide to become unstable and break into light nuclides and additional neutrons. The positively charged light nuclides then repel, releasing electromagnetic potential energy. The neutron is classified as a "hadron", because it is a composite particle made of quarks. The neutron is also classified as a "baryon",

title: Neutron source

text: operate with energies in the > 1 MeV range. Neutrons are produced when photons above the nuclear binding energy of a substance are incident on that substance, causing it to undergo giant dipole resonance after which it either emits a neutron (photoneutron) or undergoes fission (photofission). The number of neutrons released by each fission event is dependent on the substance. Typically photons begin to produce neutrons on interaction with normal matter at energies of about 7 to 40 MeV, which means that radiotherapy facilities using megavoltage X-rays also produce neutrons, and some require neutron shielding. In addition, electrons of energy

title: Neutron

text: nuclear fission, such as occurs in nuclear reactors. In addition, high-energy nuclear reactions (such as occur in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions) also produce neutrons from disintegration of target nuclei. Small (tabletop) particle accelerators optimized to produce free neutrons in this way, are called neutron generators. In practice, the most commonly used small laboratory sources of neutrons use radioactive decay to power neutron production. One noted neutron-producing radioisotope, californium-252 decays (half-life 2.65 years) by spontaneous fission 3% of the time with production of 3.7 neutrons per fission, and is used alone as a neutron source from this process. Nuclear

title: Neutron source

text: over about 50 MeV may induce giant dipole resonance in nuclides by a mechanism which is the inverse of internal conversion, and thus produce neutrons by a mechanism similar to that of photoneutrons. Nuclear fission which takes place within in a reactor produces very large quantities of neutrons and can be used for a variety of purposes including power generation and experiments. Nuclear fusion, the combining of the heavy isotopes of hydrogen, also has the potential to produces large quantities of neutrons. Small scale fusion systems exist for (plasma) research purposes at many universities and laboratories around the world. A

title: Nuclear power

text: called nuclear fission. The fission reaction releases energy and neutrons. The released neutrons can hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei, causing new fission reactions, which release more energy and more neutrons. This is called a chain reaction. The reaction rate is controlled by control rods that absorb excess neutrons. The controllability of nuclear reactors depends on the fact that a small fraction of neutrons resulting from fission are delayed. The time delay between the fission and the release of the neutrons slows down changes in reaction rates and gives time for moving the control rods to adjust the reaction rate.

title: Uranium-235

text: fission are moderated to lower their speed, since the probability for fission with slow neutrons is greater. A fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of them produce neutrons, called delayed neutrons, which contribute to the fission chain reaction. In nuclear reactors, the reaction is slowed down by the addition of control rods which are made of elements such as boron, cadmium, and hafnium which can absorb a large number of neutrons. In nuclear bombs, the reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of energy released creates

title: Neutron radiation

text: energy distribution (the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution) to a gas in thermodynamic equilibrium but are easily captured by atomic nuclei and are the primary means by which elements undergo nuclear transmutation. To achieve an effective fission chain reaction, neutrons produced during fission must be captured by fissionable nuclei, which then split, releasing more neutrons. In most fission reactor designs, the nuclear fuel is not sufficiently refined to absorb enough fast neutrons to carry on the chain reaction, due to the lower cross section for higher-energy neutrons, so a neutron moderator must be introduced to slow the fast neutrons down to thermal velocities

title: Neutron

text: more energy than fission energy neutrons and are generated as secondary particles by particle accelerators or in the atmosphere from cosmic rays. These high-energy neutrons are extremely efficient at ionization and far more likely to cause cell death than X-rays or protons. Neutron The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms. Since protons and neutrons behave similarly within the nucleus, and each has a mass of approximately one atomic mass unit, they are both referred to

title: Fast fission

text: of neutrons per fission, so fast reactors have better neutron economy making a plutonium breeder reactor possible. However, a fast neutron reactor must use relatively highly enriched uranium or plutonium so that the neutrons have a better chance of fissioning atoms. Some atoms, notably uranium-238, do not usually undergo fission when struck by slow neutrons, but do split when struck with neutrons of high enough energy. The fast neutrons produced in a hydrogen bomb by fusion of deuterium and tritium have even higher energy than the fast neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This makes it possible to increase the

title: Neutron

text: to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion, and neutron capture processes. The neutron is essential to the production of nuclear power. In the decade after the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, neutrons were used to induce many different types of nuclear transmutations. With the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938, it was quickly realized that, if a fission event produced neutrons, each of these neutrons might cause further fission events, etc., in a cascade known as a nuclear chain reaction. These events and findings led to the first self-sustaining nuclear reactor (Chicago Pile-1,

title: Neutron

text: then transported to where the neutron source is needed. Nuclear fission reactors naturally produce free neutrons; their role is to sustain the energy-producing chain reaction. The intense neutron radiation can also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation, which is a type of neutron capture. Experimental nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product. However, it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy, and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge. Fusion reactors that generate neutrons are likely to create radioactive waste, but the waste

title: Critical mass

text: free neutron of the desired energy level in order to sustain a chain reaction, and each must find other nuclei and cause them to fission. Most of the neutrons released from a fission event come immediately from that event, but a fraction of them come later, when the fission products decay, which may be on the average from microseconds to minutes later. This is fortunate for atomic power generation, for without this delay "going critical" would always be an immediately catastrophic event, as it is in a nuclear bomb where upwards of 80 generations of chain reaction occur in less

title: Neutron moderator

text: of a heavy fuel element such as uranium absorbs a slow-moving free neutron, becomes unstable, and then splits ("fissions") into two smaller atoms ("fission products"). The fission process for U nuclei yields two fission products, two to three fast-moving free neutrons, plus an amount of energy primarily manifested in the kinetic energy of the recoiling fission products. The free neutrons are emitted with a kinetic energy of ~2 MeV each. Because more free neutrons are released from a uranium fission event than thermal neutrons are required to initiate the event, the reaction can become self-sustaining — a chain reaction —

title: Nuclear fission

text: (although the very rare neutrino event is ionizing). Almost all of the rest of the radiation (6.5% delayed beta and gamma radiation) is eventually converted to heat in a reactor core or its shielding. Some processes involving neutrons are notable for absorbing or finally yielding energy — for example neutron kinetic energy does not yield heat immediately if the neutron is captured by a uranium-238 atom to breed plutonium-239, but this energy is emitted if the plutonium-239 is later fissioned. On the other hand, so-called delayed neutrons emitted as radioactive decay products with half-lives up to several minutes, from fission-daughters,

title: Uranium

text: isotopes are fissionable, but not fissile. On bombardment with slow neutrons, its uranium-235 isotope will most of the time divide into two smaller nuclei, releasing nuclear binding energy and more neutrons. If too many of these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei, a nuclear chain reaction occurs that results in a burst of heat or (in special circumstances) an explosion. In a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction is slowed and controlled by a neutron poison, absorbing some of the free neutrons. Such neutron absorbent materials are often part of reactor control rods (see nuclear reactor physics for a

title: Nuclear fission

text: a nuclear reactor, as too small a fraction of the fission neutrons produced by any type of fission have enough energy to efficiently fission U-238 (fission neutrons have a mode energy of 2 MeV, but a median of only 0.75 MeV, meaning half of them have less than this insufficient energy). Among the heavy actinide elements, however, those isotopes that have an odd number of neutrons (such as U-235 with 143 neutrons) bind an extra neutron with an additional 1 to 2 MeV of energy over an isotope of the same element with an even number of neutrons (such as

title: Atomic nucleus

text: from the electron cloud. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force. The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of () for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton) to about for the heaviest atom uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 26,634 (uranium atomic radius is about ()) to about 60,250 (hydrogen atomic radius is about ). The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the

title: Neutron

text: number is the total number of nucleons. For example, carbon has atomic number 6, and its abundant carbon-12 isotope has 6 neutrons, whereas its rare carbon-13 isotope has 7 neutrons. Some elements occur in nature with only one stable isotope, such as fluorine. Other elements occur with many stable isotopes, such as tin with ten stable isotopes. Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the nuclear force. Neutrons are required for the stability of nuclei, with the exception of the single-proton hydrogen atom. Neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and fusion. They are a primary contributor

title: Nuclear fission

text: the neutron, as happens when U-238 absorbs slow and even some fraction of fast neutrons, to become U-239. The remaining energy to initiate fission can be supplied by two other mechanisms: one of these is more kinetic energy of the incoming neutron, which is increasingly able to fission a fissionable heavy nucleus as it exceeds a kinetic energy of one MeV or more (so-called fast neutrons). Such high energy neutrons are able to fission U-238 directly (see thermonuclear weapon for application, where the fast neutrons are supplied by nuclear fusion). However, this process cannot happen to a great extent in

title: Fast-neutron reactor

text: the energy of the neutron; most atoms undergo induced fission only with high energy neutrons, although a smaller number prefer much lower energies. Natural uranium consists mostly of three isotopes: , , and trace quantities of , a decay product of . accounts for roughly 99.3% of natural uranium and undergoes fission only by fast neutrons. About 0.7% of natural uranium is , which undergoes fission by neutrons of any energy, but particularly by lower-energy neutrons. When either of these isotopes undergoes fission they release neutrons with an energy distribution peaking around 1 to 2 MeV. The flux of higher-energy

title: Nuclear weapon design

text: In bombs, they become radioactive fallout, both local and global. Meanwhile, inside the exploding bomb, the free neutrons released by fission carry away about 3% of the initial fission energy. Neutron kinetic energy adds to the blast energy of a bomb, but not as effectively as the energy from charged fragments, since neutrons are not slowed as quickly. The main contribution of fission neutrons to the bomb's power is the initiation of other fissions. Over half of the neutrons escape the bomb core, but the rest strike U-235 nuclei causing them to fission in an exponentially growing chain reaction (1,

title: Startup neutron source

text: Startup neutron source is a neutron source used for stable and reliable initiation of nuclear chain reaction in nuclear reactors, when they are loaded with fresh nuclear fuel, whose neutron flux from spontaneous fission is insufficient for a reliable startup, or after prolonged shutdown periods.  Neutron sources ensure a constant minimal population of neutrons in the reactor core, sufficient for a smooth startup. Without them, the reactor could suffer fast power excursions during startup from state with too few self-generated neutrons (new core or after extended shutdown).

title: Nuclear fission

text: undergo fission when struck by fission neutrons, and in turn emit neutrons when they break apart. This makes a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction possible, releasing energy at a controlled rate in a nuclear reactor or at a very rapid, uncontrolled rate in a nuclear weapon. The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is millions of times the amount of free energy contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel such as gasoline, making nuclear fission a very dense source of energy. The products of nuclear fission, however, are on average far more radioactive than the heavy elements which

title: Tube Alloys

text: of the size of the critical mass that would allow a chain reaction to take place and its practical significance. In the interior of a critical mass sphere, neutrons are spontaneously produced by the fissionable material. A very small portion of these neutrons are colliding with other nuclei, while a larger portion of the neutrons are escaping through the surface of the sphere. Peierls calculated the equilibrium of the system, where the number of neutrons being produced equalled the number escaping. Niels Bohr had theorised that the rare uranium-235 isotope, which makes up only about 0.7% of natural uranium, was

title: Aneutronic fusion

text: p–B plasma would produce neutrons, and the energy of these neutrons would account for less than 0.2% of the total energy released. These neutrons come primarily from the reaction The reaction itself produces only 157 keV, but the neutron will carry a large fraction of the alpha energy, which will be close to "E"/3 = 2.9 MeV. Another significant source of neutrons is the reaction These neutrons are less energetic, with an energy comparable to the fuel temperature. In addition, C itself is radioactive, but quickly decays to negligible levels as its half life is only 20 minutes. Since these

title: Chain reaction

text: use neutrons theoretically produced from certain nuclear reactions in lighter isotopes, to induce further reactions in light isotopes that produced more neutrons. This would in theory produce a chain reaction at the level of the nucleus. He did not envision fission as one of these neutron-producing reactions, since this reaction was not known at the time. Experiments he proposed using beryllium and indium failed. Later, after fission was discovered in 1938, Szilárd immediately realized the possibility of using neutron-induced fission as the particular nuclear reaction necessary to create a chain-reaction, so long as fission also produced neutrons. In 1939, with

title: Neutron

text: atmosphere. These high-energy muons are capable of penetration to considerable depths in water and soil. There, in striking atomic nuclei, among other reactions they induce spallation reactions in which a neutron is liberated from the nucleus. Within the Earth's crust a second source is neutrons produced primarily by spontaneous fission of uranium and thorium present in crustal minerals. The neutron background is not strong enough to be a biological hazard, but it is of importance to very high resolution particle detectors that are looking for very rare events, such as (hypothesized) interactions that might be caused by particles of dark

title: Startup neutron source


question: who sang the theme song to that 70s show

answers: Big Star

answers: Todd Griffin

answers: Cheap Trick

title: That '70s Show

text: 5.1 DTS-HD Master Audio surround sound and 1.78:1 widescreen aspect ratio. Several prominent songs from the decade can be heard on the series, and two soundtracks were released in 1999. The first is a collection of funk, soul, and disco, called "That '70s Album (Jammin')". The second is a collection of album-oriented rock songs, called "That '70s Album (Rockin')". AllMusic gave both albums 3 out of 5 stars in their reviews. Over the course of its run, the series was a consistent performer for Fox, becoming one of their flagship shows. Its eight seasons, consisting of 200 episodes, made it

title: That '70s Show

text: show were "Teenage Wasteland" (named after the lyric from "Baba O'Riley" by The Who), "The Kids Are Alright" (named after another song by The Who), "Feelin' All Right", and "Reeling in the Years" (named after the song by Steely Dan). However, due to the denials of these three songs from the 1970s (including The Who's Pete Townshend's denial of using his two songs for each of the two titles), and Fox Network's decision that "Feelin' All Right" was not too memorable, co-creator Bonnie Turner suggested that the show should be titled "That '70s Show", which ultimately became the official title

title: That '70s Show

text: That '70s Show That '70s Show is an American television period sitcom that originally aired on Fox from August 23, 1998 to May 18, 2006. The series focused on the lives of a group of six teenage friends living in fictional Point Place, Wisconsin, from May 17, 1976 to December 31, 1979. The main teenage cast members were Topher Grace, Mila Kunis, Ashton Kutcher, Danny Masterson, Laura Prepon and Wilmer Valderrama. The main adult cast members were Debra Jo Rupp, Kurtwood Smith, Don Stark, Tommy Chong and Tanya Roberts. The creators had wanted the show to have a 1970s "feel"

title: That '70s Show

text: and Marion Ross ("Happy Days"), Monty Hall ("Let's Make A Deal"), Gavin MacLeod ("The Love Boat" and "The Mary Tyler Moore Show"), Don Knotts, Richard Kline and Jenilee Harrison ("Three's Company"), and Danny Bonaduce and Shirley Jones ("The Partridge Family"). Series recurring cast member Tanya Roberts also starred in a popular show in the 1970s ("Charlie's Angels"). Beginning with season 5, each episode in the series is named after a song by a rock band that was famous in the 1970s: Led Zeppelin (season 5), The Who (Season 6), The Rolling Stones (season 7), and Queen (season 8, except for

title: Barry Williams (actor)

text: "Mega Piranha", who played alongside the former teen pop singer Tiffany. Williams has also created a cabaret act that pays tribute to his past and hosts the satellite radio trivia show, "The Real Greg Brady's Totally '70s Pop Quiz starring Barry Williams", broadcast Saturdays on Sirius Satellite Radio's "70s on 7" channel. In late 2011, Williams started appearing in a show at the Yakov Smirnoff theater in Branson, Missouri, where he resides. He then moved to the Americana Theatre in Branson, where he performs his "70s Music Celebration!" musical variety show, which showcases his singing and guitar playing ability along

title: I Love the '70s (U.S. TV series)

text: We Were" Foxy Ladies of 1974: Britt Ekland, Bebe Buell, and Angie Dickinson Macho Men of 1974: Eric Clapton, Mikhail Baryshnikov, and Freddie Prinze Flashback Commercial of 1974: Meow Mix Wonders of 1974: Lite Beer, People magazine, VCR, Liposuction. Follicle Fad of 1974: Mutton chops Primate of 1974: Magilla Gorilla Roller Rink Anthem of 1975: KC and the Sunshine Band's "That's The Way I Like It" Foxy Ladies of 1975: Suzi Quatro, Chris Evert, and Charo Macho Men of 1975: Bruce Springsteen, Carlton Fisk, and Joe Namath Flashback Commercial of 1975: Band-Aid Wonders of 1975: Kool-Aid, Freshen Up Gum, Famous

title: CHiPs

text: "That '70s Show" cast member Danny Masterson were featured in two parodies of "CHiPs", which featured the two actors as Ponch and Baker respectively. Mila Kunis also appeared in the second sketch. In a 2002 episode of "That '70s Show", Valderrama's character, Fez, was seen in the "most likely" section of the yearbook as "most likely to appear as Ponch in a musical version of "CHiPs"". On September 2, 2014, Warner Bros. Pictures announced a film adaptation of the show, which Andrew Panay would be producing along with Dax Shepard. Shepard will also write, direct and star in the film

title: I Love the '70s (UK TV series)

text: Commercial of 1970: Cresta - Singing Polar Bear (actually aired in 1972) Host: Britt Ekland Host: David Cassidy PIF of 1972: Learn to Swim Host: Noddy Holder Flashback Commercial of 1973: Vymura Wallpaper Host: Roobarb & Custard. Opening titles: "You Ain't Seen Nothing Yet" by Bachman Turner Overdrive. Host: Dennis Waterman Host: Kermit the Frog. Opening titles: "Dancing Queen" by ABBA. Ending credits: "Young Hearts Run Free" by Candi Staton. Host: Carrie Fisher. Opening titles: "Star Wars Theme" by Meco. Host: Lynda Carter. Opening credits: "Blame It On the Boogie" by The Jacksons. Ending credits: "Teenage Kicks" by The Undertones.

title: '70s on 7

text: channel. The channel features the unique "Jukebox of Dynamite" (formerly the "Jukebox of Cheese"), when an alleged listener selects a "cheesy" song for the segment such as "Seasons In The Sun", "Theme from Billy Jack", "Run Joey Run" or "Billy Don't Be A Hero". 70s on 7 also uses bumpers that parody TV shows and commercial jingles from the 70s, and also has its own parodies of movie scenes, known as "director's cuts". The '70s on 7 was once the most listened to channel on the XM lineup, but is now currently the fourth most listened to channel, with a

title: Totally '70s

text: Thomas. The channel played the full spectrum of hit songs from 1970 to 1979, spanning pop, soul, rock, and disco. Some songs that went on to be considered decade kitsch were spotlighted in a bottom-of-the-hour feature called "Jukebox from Hell". Totally '70s Totally '70s was an all-1970s music channel on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 7 and Dish Network channel 6007. It was replaced by '70s on 7 after the Sirius-XM merger. "The Totally 70's Satellite Survey" was hosted by Dave Hoeffel. Actor Barry Williams, who starred as Greg Brady on the 1970s TV' series "The Brady Bunch", hosted "The Real

title: Robin Ward (singer)

text: mid-1960s Jackie was one of the singers on "The Red Skelton Show" and "The Danny Kaye Show", and later, on "The Carol Burnett Show". In the 1970s she sang on "The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour". Ward sang in hundreds of commercials, most notably for Rice-a-Roni ("The San Francisco treat"). Ward's voice is heard in dozens of television theme songs, including "Flipper", "Batman", "Love, American Style", "Maude" (with Donny Hathaway providing the lead vocal), and "The Partridge Family". By her own estimate, Ward's voice can be heard in "maybe 800" films. Among the notable are her voice dubbed as Natalie

title: 1970s in music

text: theme song to the movie. Other family acts included Gladys Knight & the Pips who topped the charts with "Midnight Train to Georgia", Sly & the Family Stone who brought "Thank You (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin)" and "Family Affair" to the top spot. As well as The Staple Singers with "I'll Take You There" and "Let's Do It Again" theme song to a 1975 Sidney Poitier/Bill Cosby movie. The Sylvers with "Boogie Fever" and The Emotions with "Best of My Love". The Emotions were a girl group which were still popular in soul music, Honey Cone had a chart

title: That '70s Show

text: Wisconsin!" Alternate holiday versions of the theme song were arranged for Halloween and Christmas specials, using organ music and bells, respectively. Opening credits for seasons 1–7 showed members of the cast driving in Eric's car singing the theme song together. At the conclusion of the opening, a shot of a 1970s-style Wisconsin license plate (black letters/numbers on a yellow background) is seen, showing the year in which the episode was taking place in the bottom right corner. During the first season's opening, a single shot of the group is used; beginning with season 2, numerous alternating shots were used of

title: Retro style

text: A*Teens, the Spice Girls, and Jamiroquai; Lenny Kravitz's "It Ain't Over 'Til It's Over" being inspired by Earth, Wind and Fire and Philly soul; a revival of sideburns, bell bottoms, and afro (worn by Kravitz); the debut of the television series "That '70s Show"; and 1970s hits covered by various artists. Examples of such covers are "I Can See Clearly Now" by Jimmy Cliff, "Baby I Love Your Way" by Big Mountain, "Turn the Beat Around" by Gloria Estefan, "Wild World" by Mr. Big, "O-o-h Child" by Dino, "Wild Night" by John Mellencamp and Meshell Ndegeocello, "Oh Girl" by Paul

title: AM Radio (song)

text: 2006. The song's lyrics deal with Art Alexakis' memories of growing up during the 1970s— specifically mentioning the years 1970, 1972, 1975, and 1977—while listening to his favorite music on AM radio, which Alexakis describes in the outro chant as: ""We like pop, we like soul, we like rock, but we never liked disco."" The song begins with a 1970s vintage jingle from Los Angeles radio station KHJ and samples Jean Knight's song "Mr. Big Stuff". It also contains a short sample of "Those Were the Days", the theme song of the American sitcom "All in the Family". However, certain

title: That '70s Show

text: place of both Eric and, to a lesser extent, Charlie. Another new character, Samantha, a stripper played by Jud Tylor, was added as Hyde's wife for nine episodes. The location of the show's introductory theme song was changed from the Vista Cruiser to the circle. Both Eric and Kelso returned for the series' final episode, although Topher Grace was uncredited. The eighth season was announced as the final season of the show on January 17, 2006, and "That '70s Finale" was filmed a month later on February 17, 2006, first airing on May 18, 2006. The working titles for the

title: Cyndi Grecco

text: Cyndi Grecco Cyndi Grecco (born May 19, 1952, in New York, New York) is an American singer who performed the theme tune to the popular 1970s American television show "Laverne & Shirley". Titled "Making Our Dreams Come True," the song (in which Grecco was accompanied by the Ron Hicklin Singers) was also put out as a single and charted at #25 on July 25, 1976. The song came out on the small Private Stock label (#45086). An album followed, though a second disco-themed single, "Dancing, Dancing," failed to chart. She also provided the theme to another 1970s ABC television sitcom,

title: That '70s Show (season 8)

text: final seconds of the decade. The very last seconds of the series show the license plate of Eric's Vista Cruiser for the final time, now featuring a tag with the year "80" on it, signaling that the 1980s have begun. All episodes of season 8, except the finale, are named after songs by Queen. The region 1 DVD was released on April 1, 2008. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude> That '70s Show (season 8) The eighth and final season of the American comedy television series "That '70s Show" premiered November 2, 2005 on Fox in the United States. The season ended on May 18,

title: Kon Kan

text: Rose Garden", Silver Convention's 1976 hit "Get Up and Boogie (That's Right)", GQ's "Disco Nights (Rock-Freak)", Tones on Tail's "Go!", Spagna's "Call Me", National Lampoon's "Disco Hotline" sketch from their "That's Not Funny, That's Sick" album, and the opening bars from the theme music from "The Magnificent Seven" (which was also well known as the theme to a commercial for Marlboro cigarettes in the 1960s). It was recorded part-time during weekends in a home basement midi studio in Hamilton, Ontario, in March, April and May 1988. It was here that Barry Harris met Kevin Wynne who was hired to sing

title: Totally '70s

text: Totally '70s Totally '70s was an all-1970s music channel on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 7 and Dish Network channel 6007. It was replaced by '70s on 7 after the Sirius-XM merger. "The Totally 70's Satellite Survey" was hosted by Dave Hoeffel. Actor Barry Williams, who starred as Greg Brady on the 1970s TV' series "The Brady Bunch", hosted "The Real Greg Brady’s Totally '70s Pop Quiz". The rest of the lineup included shows hosted by Magic Matt Alan, Ron Parker, J.J. Walker (also known as The "Jammer" OR "Double J" in the 1980s on New York City's WHTZ), and Jay

title: The Spy Who Loved Me (soundtrack)

text: driving disco rhythm to "Bond '77" is very similar to the Bee Gees' 1976 single "You Should Be Dancing". The theme song became a hit that is still popular today and has been featured in numerous films including "Mr. & Mrs. Smith" (2005), "Little Black Book" (2004), "Lost in Translation" and "" (2004). In 2004, the song was honoured by the American Film Institute as the 67th greatest film song as part of their 100 Years...100 Songs countdown. The film's soundtrack was composed by Marvin Hamlisch, who filled in for usual Bond composer John Barry, as Barry was unavailable for

title: Mark Brazill

text: Show". He loosely based the setting of his sitcom "That '70s Show" on his hometown. Early in his career, he was an uncredited writer for the video game film adaptation "Double Dragon", mainly for the comedy. In late 2001, Judd Apatow sought to have Topher Grace of "That '70s Show" appear in an episode of his series "Undeclared". This initiated a string of heated emails between the two. Brazill claimed that Apatow had stolen his idea for a comedy about a rock band and used it on "The Ben Stiller Show" in the early 1990s. The sketch was titled "The

title: Rebecca Barnard

text: and with various bands, singing a selection of jazz standards. During 2011 and 2012, Barnard teamed with up with fellow Australian singers Monique Brumby and Kerri Simpson, performing the show "Sheilas of the '70s" (a tribute to female singers of that decade), where the show included comic dialogue and songs by Kate Bush, Donna Summer, Suzi Quatro, Melanie, Blondie and Fleetwood Mac. On September 26, 2017, Rebecca Barnard whilst being interviewed by Jon Faine (on ABC Radio Melbourne), indicated that it was difficult to ""get bums on seats"" in touring and promoting her own original work. Consequently, Rebecca has been

title: Danny Masterson

text: "Cybill", Masterson decided he wanted to move on from "Cybill" and audition for a show originally titled "Teenage Wasteland", which later was changed to "That '70s Show". The original casting director for "That '70s Show", Debby Romano, resisted Masterson's audition because he was slightly older than the rest of the cast, but ultimately allowed him to audition. She stated that, "he came in and he was just so funny," and that he redefined where the role was going and made the role of Steven Hyde the, "tough, funny guy." Masterson appeared in all eight seasons of "That '70s Show". His

title: That '70s Show

text: Big Star's original version of the song was not used on the show. Instead, a cover version sung by Todd Griffin was used as the theme song for the show's first season. Beginning in the second season, the theme song was performed by the band Cheap Trick. Unlike previous versions of the song, Cheap Trick ended the song with the repeated phrase "We're all alright!"  quoting the ending of their 1978 hit song "Surrender".

title: The Murmaids

text: Suares. both former members of Sérgio Mendes and Brasil '66. Subsequently Terry Fischer had a prolific career as a background vocalist with television appearances on "Kraft Music Hall", "The Merv Griffin Show", the Jerry Lewis Telethon and "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson", and live work with Steve Lawrence and Eydie Gormé, Don Rickles, Sonny and Cher and Tina Turner. Terry Fischer's career highlight came in 1977: while working as a percussionist and vocalist supporting Fabian in Lake Tahoe, she was spotted by sax player Sam Butera and invited to sing with Sam Butera and the Witnesses on their gig

title: I Love the '70s (U.S. TV series)

text: Ladd, Stevie Nicks, Jacqueline Bisset Macho Men of 1977: Lindsey Buckingham, Richard Gere, Arnold Schwarzenegger Flashback Commercial of 1977: Miller Lite - "Great taste, less filling" Wonders of 1977: Billy Beer, first MRI, Sports bra Follicle Fad of 1977: Chest hair, Mohawk Primate of 1977: The Grape Ape Roller Rink Anthem of 1978: Chic's "Le Freak" Flashback Commercial of 1978: Body on Tap shampoo Primate of 1978: Evie of "Battlestar Galactica" Follicle Fad of 1978: Throwback hair Macho Men of 1978: Andy Gibb, Björn Borg, Mick Jagger Wonders of 1978: Ben & Jerry's, Reese's Pieces, Ginsu, Ironman Triathlon Foxy Ladies

title: I Love the '70s (U.S. TV series)

text: of 1978: Margot Kidder, Raquel Welch, Cheryl Tiegs Roller Rink Anthem of 1979: Sister Sledge's "We Are Family" Foxy Ladies of 1979: Erin Gray, Bette Midler, and Sally Field Macho Men of 1979: Ted Nugent, Sting, and Dudley Moore Commercial of 1979: Coca-Cola (featuring Mean Joe) Wonders of 1979: ESPN, tanning beds, and Sunkist Follicle Fad of 1979: Mustache Primate of 1979: "Monkey" I Love the '70s (U.S. TV series) I Love the '70s is a decade nostalgia television mini-series produced by VH1. The series is based on a BBC series of the same name. It examines the pop culture

title: That '70s Show (season 7)

text: an uncredited cameo in the series finale. All episodes are named after songs by The Rolling Stones. <onlyinclude> </onlyinclude> That '70s Show (season 7) The seventh season of "That '70s Show", an American television series, began September 8, 2004, and ended on May 18, 2005. It aired on Fox. The region 1 DVD was released on October 16, 2007. This season is set entirely in 1979. This is the last season to feature Topher Grace and Ashton Kutcher as regulars. Grace leaves the show at the end of the season to star in "Spider-Man 3", and Kutcher to star in

title: Brooke White

text: sounds of the 70s", such as the Carpenters, Carole King, Fleetwood Mac, James Taylor, Elton John, Stevie Wonder, the Eagles, America, Carly Simon, the Bee Gees, Hall & Oates, Joni Mitchell, Bonnie Raitt and Phil Collins. When asked on "American Idol" with whom she would like to do a duet, she named John Mayer as her choice for a modern artist. She also says that, if she could choose a partner for a "dream duet", she would choose Carole King, whom she cites as one of her main influences. She also cites Kelly Clarkson and Carrie Underwood as her favorite

title: That '70s Show

short_answers:
Big Star
Cheap Trick
Todd Griffin


question: when was zero first used in mathematical operations

answers: By 1770 BC

answers: 7th century

title: 0

text: a symbol. When division produced zero as a remainder, "nihil", also meaning "nothing", was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval calculators of Easter. The initial "N" was used as a zero symbol in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or his colleagues around 725. The "Sūnzĭ Suànjīng", of unknown date but estimated to be dated from the 1st to , and Japanese records dated from the 18th century, describe how the Chinese counting rods system enables one to perform decimal calculations. According to "A History of Mathematics", the rods "gave the decimal representation of a

title: Mathematical notation

text: of accounting for numerical concepts. The development of zero as a number is one of the most important developments in early mathematics. It was used as a placeholder by the Babylonians and Greek Egyptians, and then as an integer by the Mayans, Indians and Arabs. (See The history of zero for more information.) The earliest mathematical viewpoints in geometry did not lend themselves well to counting. The natural numbers, their relationship to fractions, and the identification of continuous quantities actually took millennia to take form, and even longer to allow for the development of notation. It was not until the

title: 0

text: is also used to refer to zero. A symbol for zero, a large dot likely to be the precursor of the still-current hollow symbol, is used throughout the Bakhshali manuscript, a practical manual on arithmetic for merchants. In 2017 three samples from the manuscript were shown by radiocarbon dating to come from three different centuries: from 224-383 AD, 680-779 AD, and 885-993 AD, making it the world's oldest recorded use of the zero symbol. It is not known how the birch bark fragments from different centuries that form the manuscript came to be packaged together. The origin of the modern

title: History of science

text: to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and "The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD

title: 0

text: was one of the earliest scientific books to be "printed" in 1488. Until the late 15th century, Hindu–Arabic numerals seem to have predominated among mathematicians, while merchants preferred to use the Roman numerals. In the 16th century, they became commonly used in Europe. 0 is the integer immediately preceding 1. Zero is an even number because it is divisible by 2 with no remainder. 0 is neither positive nor negative. By most definitions 0 is a natural number, and then the only natural number not to be positive. Zero is a number which quantifies a count or an amount of

title: 0

text: as well as "cipher", have also been used historically. The word "zero" came into the English language via French "zéro" from Italian "zero", Italian contraction of Venetian "zevero" form of 'Italian "zefiro" via "ṣafira" or "ṣifr". In pre-Islamic time the word "ṣifr" (Arabic صفر) had the meaning "empty". "Sifr" evolved to mean zero when it was used to translate "śūnya" (Sanskrit : शून्य) from India . The first known English use of "zero" was in 1598. The Italian mathematician Fibonacci (c. 1170–1250), who grew up in North Africa and is credited with introducing the decimal system to Europe, used the

title: Number

text: was done by the Babylonians or as a symbol for a lack of quantity as was done by Ptolemy and the Romans. The use of 0 as a number should be distinguished from its use as a placeholder numeral in place-value systems. Many ancient texts used 0. Babylonian and Egyptian texts used it. Egyptians used the word "nfr" to denote zero balance in double entry accounting. Indian texts used a Sanskrit word or to refer to the concept of "void". In mathematics texts this word often refers to the number zero. In a similar vein, Pāṇini (5th century BC) used

title: 0

text: use of a numeral representing zero in the Old World. However, the positions were usually limited to the fractional part of a number (called minutes, seconds, thirds, fourths, etc.)—they were not used for the integral part of a number, indicating a concept perhaps better expressed as "none", rather than "zero" in the modern sense. In later Byzantine manuscripts of Ptolemy's "Almagest", the Hellenistic zero had morphed into the Greek letter omicron (otherwise meaning 70). Another zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as a word, "nulla" meaning "nothing", not as

title: Number

text: sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals. Because it was used alone, not as just a placeholder, this Hellenistic zero was the first "documented" use of a true zero in the Old World. In later Byzantine manuscripts of his "Syntaxis Mathematica" ("Almagest"), the Hellenistic zero had morphed into the Greek letter omicron (otherwise meaning 70). Another true zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as a word, meaning "nothing", not as a symbol. When division produced 0 as a remainder, , also meaning "nothing", was used. These medieval zeros

title: Number

text: were used by all future medieval computists (calculators of Easter). An isolated use of their initial, N, was used in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or a colleague about 725, a true zero symbol. The abstract concept of negative numbers was recognized as early as 100–50 BC in China. "The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" contains methods for finding the areas of figures; red rods were used to denote positive coefficients, black for negative. The first reference in a Western work was in the 3rd century AD in Greece. Diophantus referred to the equation equivalent to (the

title: Division by zero

text: zero, gives zero?' The "Brahmasphutasiddhanta" of Brahmagupta (598–668) is the earliest known text to treat zero as a number in its own right and to define operations involving zero. The author could not explain division by zero in his texts: his definition can be easily proven to lead to algebraic absurdities. According to Brahmagupta, A positive or negative number when divided by zero is a fraction with the zero as denominator. Zero divided by a negative or positive number is either zero or is expressed as a fraction with zero as numerator and the finite quantity as denominator. Zero divided

title: 0

text: 0 0 (zero) is both a number and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. The number 0 fulfills a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other algebraic structures. As a digit, 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems. Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US) (), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter "O"—oh or o (). Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip. "Ought" and "aught" (),

title: Year zero

text: Dionysius Exiguus did use Latin number words, or the word "nulla" (meaning "nothing") alongside Roman numerals. Zero was invented in India in the sixth century, and was either transferred or reinvented by the Arabs by about the eighth century. The Arabic numeral for zero (0) did not enter Europe until the thirteenth century. Even then, it was known only to very few, and only entered widespread use in Europe by the seventeenth century. The "anno Domini" nomenclature was not widely used in Western Europe until the 9th century, and the to historical year was not uniform throughout Western Europe until

title: 0

text: and so on. 0 0 (zero) is both a number and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. The number 0 fulfills a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other algebraic structures. As a digit, 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems. Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US) (), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter "O"—oh or o (). Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip. "Ought"

title: 0

text: of Elea depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of zero. By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero (a small circle with a long overbar) in his work on mathematical astronomy called the "Syntaxis Mathematica", also known as the "Almagest". The way in which it is used can be seen in his table of chords in that book. Ptolemy's zero was used within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals. Because it was used alone, not just as a placeholder, this Hellenistic zero was perhaps the earliest documented

title: Division by zero

text: floating point arithmetic instead of algebraic arithmetic). Division by zero In mathematics, division by zero is division where the divisor (denominator) is zero. Such a division can be formally expressed as where "a" is the dividend (numerator). In ordinary arithmetic, the expression has no meaning, as there is no number which, when multiplied by 0, gives "a" (assuming "a" ≠ 0), and so division by zero is undefined. Since any number multiplied by zero is zero, the expression is also undefined; when it is the form of a limit, it is an indeterminate form. Historically, one of the earliest recorded

title: Abacus

text: decimal system but lacked the concept of zero as a place holder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the Tang dynasty (618–907) when travel in the Indian Ocean and the Middle East would have provided direct contact with India, allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the decimal point from Indian merchants and mathematicians. The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles ("calculi") were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in

title: History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent

text: rest of the world. The concept of 0 as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India. In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division. Brahmagupta (598–668) was able to find (integral) solutions of Pell's equation. Conceptual design for a perpetual motion machine by Bhaskara II dates to 1150. He described a wheel that he claimed would run forever. The trigonometric functions of sine and versine, from which it was trivial to derive the cosine, were used

title: Number

text: the null (zero) operator in the Ashtadhyayi, an early example of an algebraic grammar for the Sanskrit language (also see Pingala). There are other uses of zero before Brahmagupta, though the documentation is not as complete as it is in the Brahmasphutasiddhanta. Records show that the Ancient Greeks seemed unsure about the status of 0 as a number: they asked themselves "how can 'nothing' be something?" leading to interesting philosophical and, by the Medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of 0 and the vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea depend in part on the uncertain interpretation

title: Division by zero

text: by zero is zero. In 830, Mahavira tried unsuccessfully to correct Brahmagupta's mistake in his book in "Ganita Sara Samgraha": "A number remains unchanged when divided by zero." The four basic operations − addition, subtraction, multiplication and division − as applied to whole numbers (positive integers), with some restrictions, in elementary arithmetic are used as a framework to support the extension of the realm of numbers to which they apply. For instance, to make it possible to subtract any whole number from another, the realm of numbers must be expanded to the entire set of integers in order to incorporate

title: 0

text: on the Mathematical Art". Pingala (c. 3rd/2nd century BC), a Sanskrit prosody scholar, used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), a notation similar to Morse code. Pingala used the Sanskrit word "śūnya" explicitly to refer to zero. It was considered that the earliest text to use a decimal place-value system, including a zero, is the "Lokavibhāga", a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380). In this text, "śūnya" ("void, empty")

title: 0

text: year of the inscription in the Saka era, corresponding to a date of AD 683. The first known use of special glyphs for the decimal digits that includes the indubitable appearance of a symbol for the digit zero, a small circle, appears on a stone inscription found at the Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior in India, dated 876. Zero is also used as a placeholder in the Bakhshali manuscript, portions of which date from AD 224–383. The Arabic-language inheritance of science was largely Greek, followed by Hindu influences. In 773, at Al-Mansur's behest, translations were made of many ancient treatises including

title: Computing

text: "the number" arose, there were mathematical concepts to serve the purposes of civilization. These concepts include one-to-one correspondence (the basis of counting), comparison to a standard (used for measurement), and the "3-4-5" right triangle (a device for assuring a "right angle"). The earliest known tool for use in computation was the abacus, and it was thought to have been invented in Babylon circa 2400 BC. Its original style of usage was by lines drawn in sand with pebbles. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. This was the first known calculation aid - preceding

title: Negative number

text: and gave rules regarding operations involving negative numbers and zero, such as ""A debt cut off from nothingness becomes a credit; a credit cut off from nothingness becomes a debt. "" He called positive numbers "fortunes," zero "a cipher," and negative numbers "debts." In the 9th century, Islamic mathematicians were familiar with negative numbers from the works of Indian mathematicians, but the recognition and use of negative numbers during this period remained timid. Al-Khwarizmi in his "Al-jabr wa'l-muqabala" (from which we get the word "algebra") did not use negative numbers or negative coefficients. But within fifty years, Abu Kamil illustrated

title: 0

text: The rules governing the use of zero appeared for the first time in Brahmagupta's Brahmasputha Siddhanta (7th century).  This work considers not only zero, but negative numbers, and the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of arithmetic with such numbers. In some instances, his rules differ from the modern standard, specifically the definition of the value of zero divided by zero as zero.

title: Hindu–Arabic numeral system

text: use of a symbol for zero appears on a stone inscription found at the Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior in India, dated 876. In 10th century Islamic mathematics, the system was extended to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by Syrian mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in 952–953. In Christian Europe, the first mention and representation of Hindu-Arabic numerals (from one to nine, without zero), is in the ", an illuminated compilation of various historical documents from the Visigothic period in Spain, written in the year 976 by three monks of the Riojan monastery of San Martín de Albelda. Between 967 and

title: Floating-point arithmetic

text: the principal square root of for any negative number "y". As with any approximation scheme, operations involving "negative zero" can occasionally cause confusion. For example, in IEEE 754, "x" = "y" does not always imply 1/"x" = 1/"y", as 0 = −0 but 1/0 ≠ 1/−0. Subnormal values fill the underflow gap with values where the absolute distance between them is the same as for adjacent values just outside the underflow gap. This is an improvement over the older practice to just have zero in the underflow gap, and where underflowing results were replaced by zero (flush to zero). Modern

title: Natural number

text: spread beyond Mesoamerica. The use of a numeral 0 in modern times originated with the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628. However, 0 had been used as a number in the medieval computus (the calculation of the date of Easter), beginning with Dionysius Exiguus in 525, without being denoted by a numeral (standard Roman numerals do not have a symbol for 0); instead "nulla" (or the genitive form "nullae") from "nullus", the Latin word for "none", was employed to denote a 0 value. The first systematic study of numbers as abstractions is usually credited to the Greek philosophers Pythagoras and Archimedes.

title: Arithmetic

text: 0. The use of 0 as a placeholder and, therefore, the use of a positional notation is first attested to in the Jain text from India entitled the "Lokavibhâga", dated 458 AD and it was only in the early 13th century that these concepts, transmitted via the scholarship of the Arabic world, were introduced into Europe by Fibonacci using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. Algorism comprises all of the rules for performing arithmetic computations using this type of written numeral. For example, addition produces the sum of two arbitrary numbers. The result is calculated by the repeated addition of single digits

title: 0

text: number, with an empty space denoting zero." The counting rod system is considered a positional notation system. In AD 690, Empress Wǔ promulgated Zetian characters, one of which was "〇". The symbol 0 for denoting zero is a variation of this character. Zero was not treated as a number at that time, but as a "vacant position". Qín Jiǔsháo's 1247 "Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections" is the oldest surviving Chinese mathematical text using a round symbol for zero. Chinese authors had been familiar with the idea of negative numbers by the Han Dynasty , as seen in "The Nine Chapters

title: 0


question: what was one reason south carolina gave for its decision to secede from the union

answers: to preserve slavery

text: uphold the Fugitive Slave Act, South Carolina states the primary reason for its secession: The final section concludes with a statement that South Carolina had therefore seceded from the United States of America and was thus, no longer bound by its laws and authorities. While later claims have been made after the war's end that the South Carolinian decision to secede was prompted by other issues such as tariffs and taxes, these issues were not mentioned at all in the declaration. The primary focus of the declaration is the perceived violation of the Constitution by northern states in not extraditing

title: American Civil War

text: Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws, and even to secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union". It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that

title: Christopher Memminger

text: was considered a moderate on the secession issue, but after Lincoln's election, he decided secession was necessary. When South Carolina seceded from the United States in 1860, Memminger was asked to write the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union" which outlined the reasons for secession. When other states also seceded, he was selected as a South Carolina delegate to the Provisional Congress of the Confederate States, and was the chairman of the committee which drafted the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States. The twelve-man committee produced a provisional

title: History of South Carolina

text: delegates convened in Charleston and voted unanimously to secede from the Union. President James Buchanan declared the secession illegal, but did not act to stop it. The first six states to secede with the largest slaveholding states in the South, demonstrating that the slavery societies were an integral part of the secession question. On February 4, the seven seceded states approved a new constitution for the Confederate States of America. Lincoln argued that the United States were "one nation, "indivisible"," and denied the Southern states' right to secede. South Carolina entered the Confederacy on February 8, 1861, thus ending fewer

title: The Carolinas

text: state to secede from the Union, while North Carolina was the last state to secede. When North Carolina did secede, it did so largely because North Carolinians refused to provide the federal government men to fight against their sister state, or to allow them passage through North Carolina to make war on South Carolina. During the war, South Carolina was generally one of the strongest supporters of the Confederacy. The war began in Charleston, South Carolina, where cadets of the South Carolina Military Academy, known as The Citadel, fired the opening shots at the Union Ship "Star of the West".

text: the South Carolina General Assembly passed a "Resolution to Call the Election of Abraham Lincoln as U.S. President a Hostile Act" and stated its intention to declare secession from the United States. In December 1860, amid the secession crisis, former South Carolinian congressman John McQueen wrote to a group of civic leaders in Richmond, Virginia, regarding the reasons as to why South Carolina was contemplating secession from the United States. In the letter, McQueen claimed that U.S. president-elect Abraham Lincoln supported equality and civil rights for African Americans as well as the abolition of slavery, and thus South Carolina, being

text: Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union The Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union was a proclamation issued on December 24, 1860, by the government of South Carolina to explain its reasons for seceding from the United States (Full text of the declaration). It followed the brief Ordinance of Secession that had been issued on December 20. The declaration is a product of a convention organized by the state's government in the month following the election of

text: opposed to such measures, was compelled to secede: South Carolinian religious leader James Henley Thornwell also espoused a similar view to McQueen's, stating that slavery was justified under the Christian religion, and thus, those who viewed slavery as being immoral were opposed to Christianity: Other religious institutions in South Carolina also expressed support for slavery. The Southern Presbyterian of S.C. declared that: On November 10, 1860 the S.C. General Assembly called for a "Convention of the People of South Carolina" to consider secession. Delegates were to be elected on December 6. The secession convention convened in Columbia on December 17

title: Charleston in the American Civil War

text: the election of Abraham Lincoln, South Carolina convoked a special convention in Charleston to debate her long dissatisfaction with the Federal government and many Northern citizens views on slavery. They believed that the avowed views of the new President-elect made abolition a likely goal of his administration. On December 20, 1860, the Secession Convention voted for South Carolina to secede from the Union. As the first state to do so, they also issued a Declaration of the Immediate Causes which explained her decision to part company from her erstwhile sister states. Beginning with the Missouri Compromise in 1820, the defense

title: History of South Carolina

text: courts supported the position of this law. In 1848, O'Neall was the only one to express protest against the Act, arguing for the propriety of receiving testimony from enslaved Africans (many of whom, by 1848, were Christians) under oath: "Negroes (slave or free) will feel the sanctions of an oath, with as much force as any of the ignorant classes of white people, in a Christian country." South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union after the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. South Carolina adopted the on December 24, 1860, following a briefer Ordinance of Secession

text: and voted unanimously, 169-0, to declare secession from the United States. The convention then adjourned to Charleston to draft an ordinance of secession. When the ordinance was adopted on December 20, 1860, South Carolina became the first slave state in the south to declare that it had seceded from the United States. James Buchanan, the United States president, declared the ordinance illegal but did not act to stop it. A committee of the convention also drafted a "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina" which was adopted on December 24. The secession declaration

text: of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War": Jaffa states that South Carolina omitted references to human equality and consent of the governed, as due to their racist and pro-slavery views, secessionist South Carolinians did not believe in those ideals: Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union The Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union was a proclamation issued on December 24, 1860, by the government of South Carolina to explain its reasons for seceding

title: Secession in the United States

text: negro, or slavery question." South Carolina also threatened to secede in 1850 over the issue of California's statehood. It became the first state to declare its secession from the Union on December 20, 1860, with the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union and later joined with the other southern states in the Confederacy. The most famous secession movement was the case of the Southern states of the United States. Secession from the United States was accepted in eleven states (and failed in two others). The seceding states joined

text: stated the primary reasoning behind South Carolina's declaring of secession from the U.S., which was described as: The declaration also claims that secession was declared as a result of the refusal of free states to enforce the Fugitive Slave Acts. Although the declaration does argue that secession is justified on the grounds of U.S. "encroachments upon the reserved rights of the States," the grievances that the declaration goes on to list are mainly concerned with the property of rights of slave holders. Broadly speaking, the declaration argues that the U.S. Constitution was framed to establish each State "as an equal"

text: Abraham Lincoln as U.S. President, where it was drafted in a committee headed by Christopher Memminger. The declaration stated the primary reasoning behind South Carolina's declaring of secession from the U.S., which was described as "increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to the Institution of Slavery". An official secession convention met in South Carolina following the November 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, on a platform opposing the expansion of slavery into U.S. territories. On December 20, 1860, the convention issued an ordinance of secession announcing the state's withdrawal from the union.

title: History of South Carolina

text: South Carolina was left without a leader great enough in national standing and character to prevent action by those more militant South Carolinian factions who wanted to secede immediately. Andrew Pickens Butler argued against Charleston publisher Robert Barnwell Rhett, who advocated immediate secession and, if necessary, independence. Butler won the battle, but Rhett outlived him. When people began to believe that Abraham Lincoln would be elected president, states in the Deep South organized conventions to discuss their options. South Carolina was the first state to organize such a convention, meeting in December following the national election. On December 20, 1860,

title: First Baptist Church (Columbia, South Carolina)

text: from the United States; it was the only such convention where the vote to secede was unanimous. Six other states would follow South Carolina's lead before the Battle of Fort Sumter; some felt if they did not secede now, they might lose the argument that a state had the right to secede, a right that has never been confirmed or denied by a court of law. This convention lasted only one day, as Columbia was then experiencing an outbreak of smallpox. South Carolina's Order of Secession would not be signed until the delegates at this convention reconvened at Charleston, South

text: South Carolina in the American Civil War South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union in December 1860, and was one of the founding member states of the Confederacy in February 1861. The bombardment of the beleaguered U.S. garrison at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor on April 12, 1861 is generally recognized as the first military engagement of the war. South Carolina was a source of troops for the Confederate army, and as the war progressed, also for the Union, as thousands of ex-slaves flocked to join the Union. The state also provided uniforms, textiles, food, and

text: secession several weeks after South Carolina, and five other states of the lower South soon followed. Both the outgoing Buchanan administration and President-elect Lincoln denied that any state had a right to secede. On February 4, a congress of the seven seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama, and approved a new constitution for the Confederate States of America. South Carolina entered the Confederacy on February 8, 1861, fewer than six weeks after declaring itself the independent State of South Carolina. Upper Southern slave states such as Virginia and North Carolina, which had initially voted against secession, called a peace conference,

text: 24. The opening portion of the declaration outlines the historical background of South Carolina and offers a legal justification for its secession. It asserts that the right of states to secede is implicit in the Constitution and this right was explicitly reaffirmed by South Carolina in 1852. The declaration states that the agreement between South Carolina and the United States is subject to the law of compact, which creates obligations on both parties and which revokes the agreement if either party fails to uphold its obligations. The next section asserts that the government of the United States and of states

text: The ordinance was brief and legalistic in nature, containing no explanation of the reasoning behind the delegates' decision: The convention had previously agreed to draft a separate statement that would summarize their justification and gave that task to a committee of seven members comprising Christopher G. Memminger (considered the primary author), F. H. Wardlaw, R. W. Barnwell, J. P. Richardson, B. H. Rutledge, J. E. Jenkins, and P. E. Duncan. The document they produced, the Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union, was adopted by the convention on December

title: Edward Dickinson Baker

text: refused to follow tradition and introduce Baker to the Senate, so Democratic Senator Milton Latham of California did it. On December 31, Senator Judah Benjamin of Louisiana argued that Southern states had a constitutional right to secede and that other states would soon join South Carolina, which had seceded on December 20. Baker refuted Benjamin’s argument in a three-hour speech a day later. He acknowledged that he was opposed to interference with slave owners in slave states, but he was also opposed to secession and the extension of slavery into new territories and states. In March 1861, he indicated a

title: St. Andrew's Hall, Charleston

text: to discuss possible secession from the United States. The following day, they met in Institute Hall on Meeting Street, which became known as Secession Hall and voted 169 to 0 to secede. South Carolina delegates later ratified the Confederate Constitution there on April 3, 1861. South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union. The St. Andrew's Hall as well as Secession Hall were both destroyed during a Charleston fire on December 11, 1861 St. Andrew's Hall, Charleston St. Andrew's Hall was a public building in Charleston, South Carolina, on Broad Street. The hall served as headquarters for

text: within that government had failed to uphold their obligations to South Carolina. The specific issue stated was the refusal of some states to enforce the Fugitive Slave Act and clauses in the U.S. Constitution protecting slavery and the federal government's perceived role in attempting to abolish slavery. The next section states that while these problems had existed for twenty-five years, the situation had recently become unacceptable due to the election of a President (this was Abraham Lincoln although he is not mentioned by name) who was planning to outlaw slavery. In reference to the failure of the northern states to

text: Alfred P. Aldrich, a South Carolinian politician from Barnwell, stated that declaring secession would be necessary if a Republican candidate were to win the 1860 U.S. presidential election, stating that it was the only way for the state to preserve slavery and diminish the influence of the anti-slavery Republican Party, which, were its goals of abolition realized, would result in the "destruction of the South":

text: demands. One affecting Louisiana was the removal of all U.S. military forces from the former Confederate states. At the time, U.S. troops remained in only Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida, but the Compromise completed their withdrawal from the region. South Carolina in the American Civil War South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union in December 1860, and was one of the founding member states of the Confederacy in February 1861. The bombardment of the beleaguered U.S. garrison at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor on April 12, 1861 is generally recognized as the first military engagement of

text: escaped slaves (as the U.S. Constitution required in Article IV, Section 2) and actively working to abolish slavery (which South Carolinian secessionists saw as Constitutionally guaranteed and protected). The main thrust of the argument was that since the U.S. Constitution, being a contract, had been violated by some parties (the northern abolitionist states), the other parties (the southern slave-holding states) were no longer bound by it. Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas offered similar declarations when they seceded, following South Carolina's example. The declaration does not make a simple declaration of states' rights. It asserts that South Carolina was a sovereign state

title: Thomas Patterson Brockman

text: slavery issue came to a head with the Compromise of 1850. South Carolina secessionists asserted that if the Compromise passe, South Carolina should withdraw from the Union. Brockman's town of Greenville had long been a Unionist stronghold. In the October state elections of 1850, Brockman was elected state Senator, and fellow Unionists Benjamin Perry and Perry E. Duncan were also elected to the legislature. The Unionist started a newspaper, the "Southern Patriot", to support the cause. Nonetheless, the legislature called for a convention to be held to decide on secession. Brockman and other Unionists worked to delay the convention as

title: Virginia Secession Convention of 1861

text: from Georgia, explained that Georgia had seceded because "a separation from the North was the only thing that could prevent the abolition of her slavery." The Virginia-born John Smith Preston, commissioner from South Carolina, insisted that when the North voted for Lincoln, it decreed annihilation of white Southerners, who must act in self-defense, and Virginia should lead the Southern host in an independent Confederacy. His speech brought the Convention to a standing ovation, but only a third of the delegates were for immediate secession. The Conditional Unionists awaited some overt action of aggression from Lincoln before deciding to secede. At

text: win the election nationally and would cause a major upset in the Southern States. South Carolina would be the first state to secede from the Union, on December 20, 1860, and would join the newly formed Confederate States of America in the February of the following year. South Carolina would not vote in another presidential election until 1868. 1860 United States presidential election in South Carolina The 1860 United States presidential election in South Carolina took place on November 6, 1860, as part of the 1860 United States presidential election. The state legislature chose eight representatives, or electors to the


question: who laid the foundation of school of possibilism

answers: Strabo

answers: Marshall Sahlins

title: Catholic probabilism

text: Conradus, and Thomas Cajetan. Consequently, Probabiliorism had already gained a strong hold on theologians when Medina arrived on the scene. Bartholomew Medina, a Dominican, was the first to expound the moral system which is known as probabilism. In his "Expositio in 1am 2ae S. Thomae" he wrote: His system soon became the common teaching of the theologians, so that in the introduction to his "Regula Morum" Father Terill maintained that until 1638 Catholic theologians of all schools were probabilists. There were exceptions such as Rebellus, Comitolus and Philalethis, but the great body of the theologians around 1600 were on the

title: Holly Martin Smith

text: a lie or breaking a promise). Her paper “Dated Rightness and Moral Imperfection” helped launch a debate now known as the debate between Actualism and Possibilism by arguing for the first time in favor of Actualism. Possibilists believe that whether or not the agent ought to perform an immediate action depends on whether performing it would enable the ideal course of action in the future. Actualists believe that whether or not an agent ought to perform the action depends on what performing that action would actually lead her to do in the future. The issue is illustrated by an example

title: Catholic probabilism

text: has equal or nearly equal probability with the safe opinion. Many of the moderate probabilists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries foreshadowed in their writings the theory to which, in his later-days, St. Alphonsus adhered. This view gained vigour and persistence from the teaching of Alphonsus Liguori, who began his theological career as a Probabiliorist, subsequently defended probabilism, especially in a treatise entitled "Dissertatio scholastico-moralis pro usu moderato opinionis probabilis in concursu probabilioris" (1749, 1755), and finally embraced Æquiprobabilism about 1762. In a new dissertation he laid down the two propositions that it is lawful to act on the less

title: Paul Vidal de La Blache

text: approach, using numbers sparingly, essentially narrative, even descriptive—not far removed, in some ways from a guidebook or a manual for landscape painting. Influenced by German thought, especially by Friedrich Ratzel whom he had met in Germany, Vidal has been linked to the term "possibilism", which he never used but which summed up conveniently his opposition to the determinism of the sort that was defended by some nineteenth century geographers. The concept of possibilism has been used by historians to evoke the epistemological fuzziness that, according to them, characterized the approach of Vidal's school. Described as "idiographic", this approach was seen

title: Libertarian possibilism

text: workers was strongly influenced by the ideas of Pi y Margall, leader of the Spanish Federalists and disciple of Proudhon. Pi y Margall was one of the outstanding theorists of his time and had a powerful influence on the development of libertarian ideas in Spain. His political ideas had much in common with those of Richard Price, Joseph Priestly (sic), Thomas Paine, Jefferson, and other representatives of the Anglo-American liberalism of the first period. He wanted to limit the power of the state to a minimum and gradually replace it by a Socialist economic order." Pi i Margall was a

title: Catholic probabilism

text: Rigorism spread into France, and Pascal attacked probabilism in his "Lettres Provinciales", which were in turn condemned by Alexander VII in 1657. After the condemnation of Jansenism, several 18th century theologians unfolded a moderate form of Tutiorism. Others favoured Laxism, which maintained that a slightly probable opinion in favour of liberty could safely be followed. Probabiliorism, which held that it is not lawful to act on the less safe opinion unless it is more probable than the safe opinion and which was in vogue before the time of Medina, was renewed in the middle of the seventeenth century as an

title: Jean Baptiste Gonet

text: of the doctrine of probabilism. Jean Baptiste Gonet Jean Baptiste Gonet (about 1616 at Béziers, in the province of Languedoc – 24 January 1681 at Béziers) was a French Dominican theologian. He received his primary education in his native place, and there at the age of seventeen entered the Order of St. Dominic. After his religious profession he was sent to the University of Bordeaux, where with unusual ability he devoted himself to the study of philosophy and theology, winning all honours in the customary examinations before advancement. Having received the doctorate he was appointed to the chair of scholastic

title: Tadeusz Kotarbiński

text: to create a state university in Lodz. In 1945 professor Kotarbiński accepted the position of the first rector of the University of Lodz, which he held until 1949 working simultaneously at the University of Warsaw. His model of work became a benchmark for the future generations of scientists and researchers working at the UL. Reism is a pansomatism (from Greek:πᾶν meaning "all" and σῶμα - "body") ontology as well as semantic theory developed by Kotarbiński and most extensively exposed in his major work: "Elements of the Theory of Knowledge, Formal Logic and Methodology of the Sciences", first published in 1929.

title: Determinism

text: chain of prior occurrences, but a selectionistic or probabilistic model does not. In the West, some elements of determinism have been expressed in Greece from the 6th century BC by the Presocratics Heraclitus and Leucippus. The first full-fledged notion of determinism appears to originate with the Stoics, as part of their theory of universal causal determinism. The resulting philosophical debates, which involved the confluence of elements of Aristotelian Ethics with Stoic psychology, led in the 1st-3rd centuries CE in the works of Alexander of Aphrodisias to the first recorded Western debate over determinism and freedom, an issue that is known

title: Léon Ollé-Laprune

text: Political Sciences elected him a member of the philosophical section in 1897, to succeed Vacherot. Some months after his death William P. Coyne called him "the greatest Catholic layman who has appeared in France since Ozanam" ("New Ireland Review", June, 1899, p. 195). Ollé-Laprune's first important work was "La Philosophie de Malebranche" (1870). Ten years later to obtain the doctorate he defended before the Sorbonne a thesis on moral certitude. As against Cartesian rationalism and positivistic determinism, he investigated the part of the will and the heart in the phenomenon of belief. This work resembles in many respects John Henry

title: School of Salamanca

text: under new conditions. Over the years a casuistry, a fixed set of answers to moral dilemmas, had been developed. However, by its nature, a casuistry can never be complete, leading to a search for more general rules or principles. From this developed Probabilism, where the ultimate criterion was not truth, but the certainty of not choosing evil. Developed principally by Bartolomé de Medina and continued by Gabriel Vázquez and Francisco Suárez, Probabilism became the most important school of moral thought in the coming centuries. The polemic "De auxiliis" was a dispute between Jesuits and Dominicans which occurred at the end

title: Metaphysics

text: freedom and causation, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic. Some philosophers, known as Incompatibilists, view determinism and free will as mutually exclusive. If they believe in determinism, they will therefore believe free will to be an illusion, a position known as "Hard Determinism". Proponents range from Baruch Spinoza to Ted Honderich. Others, labeled Compatibilists (or "Soft Determinists"), believe that the two ideas can be reconciled coherently. Adherents of this view include Thomas Hobbes and many modern philosophers such as John Martin Fischer. Incompatibilists who accept free will but reject determinism are called Libertarians, a term not

title: Chrysippus

text: for us to act differently or not. This rather subtle position which attempts to reconcile determinism with human responsibility is known as soft-determinism, or compatibilism. Chrysippus also argued for the existence of fate based on divination, which he thought there was good evidence for. It would not be possible for diviners to predict the future if the future itself was accidental. Omens and portents, he believed, are the natural symptoms of certain occurrences. There must be countless indications of the course of providence, for the most part unobserved, the meaning of only a few having become known to humanity. To

title: David Hume

text: down rules for educating people in taste and correct conduct, and his writings in this area have been very influential on English and Anglo-Saxon aesthetics. Hume, along with Thomas Hobbes, is cited as a classical compatibilist about the notions of freedom and determinism. The thesis of compatibilism seeks to reconcile human freedom with the mechanist belief that human beings are part of a deterministic universe, whose happenings are governed by physical laws. Hume, to this end, was influenced greatly by the scientific revolution and by in particular Sir Isaac Newton. Hume argued that the dispute about the compatibility of freedom

title: Catholic probabilism

text: in his "Probabilismus Vindicatus" (1906) and in the eleventh edition of his "Theologia Moralis" (1910), strongly supported the probabilist thesis which had been accepted during the nineteenth century by most theologians. The system of compensationism has arisen, which holds that a compensating reason proportionate to the gravity of the law and to the degree of probability in favour of the existence of the law, is required in order that a person might lawfully act on the less safe opinion. This theory was proposed by Mannier, Laloux and Potton; but it gained little support and has not yet become a rival

title: Aristippus

text: who lived a generation after Aristippus. The name may have been adopted by the writer to suggest a connection with the hedonistic philosopher. Aristippus Aristippus of Cyrene (; ; c. 435 – c. 356 BCE) was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a very different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. His outlook came to be called "ethical hedonism." Among his pupils was his daughter Arete. There are indications that

title: British philosophy

text: wise men of Christendom", of whom he names another as Albertus Magnus. Bacon judged Sherwood to be "much wiser than Albert". Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294), also known as Doctor Mirabilis (Latin: "Wondrous Doctor"), was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on empirical methods. He is sometimes credited as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by the works of Plato and Aristotle via early Islamic scientists such as Avicenna and Averroes. John Duns Scotus (c. 1265 – 8 November 1308) was an important philosopher and theologian of the High Middle Ages.

title: Hellenistic philosophy

text: BC when Antiochus added Stoic elements, rejecting skepticism. With the adoption of oriental mysticism in the third century AD, Platonism evolved into Neoplatonism. The Peripatetic school was the name given to the philosophers who maintained and developed the philosophy of Aristotle. They advocated examination of the world to understand the ultimate foundation of things. The goal of life was the happiness which originated from virtuous actions, which consisted in keeping the mean between the two extremes of the too much and the too little. Pyrrhonism is a school of philosophical skepticism that originated with Pyrrho in the 3rd century BC,

title: Compatibilism

text: As for the Jesuits, their concern was to reconcile the claim of God's foreknowledge of who would be saved with moral agency. The term "compatibilism" itself was coined as late as the 20th century. During the 20th century, compatibilists presented novel arguments that differed from the classical arguments of Hume, Hobbes, and John Stuart Mill. Importantly, Harry Frankfurt popularized what are now known as Frankfurt counterexamples to argue against incompatibilism, and developed a positive account of compatibilist free will based on higher-order volitions. Other "new compatibilists" include Gary Watson, Susan R. Wolf, P. F. Strawson, and R. Jay Wallace. Contemporary

title: Alfred Mele

text: his career writing about Aristotle and practical reason, but gradually moved into a focus on contemporary issues in the philosophy of mind and action. While not taking a stand on the question whether free will is or is not compatible with determinism, Mele develops positive conceptions of how free will may be implemented from both “compatibilist” and “incompatibilist” perspectives. He also has argued that claims that scientists have proved that free will is an illusion are not credible. Mele is also known for his development of a causal theory of how intentional actions are produced and for his deflationary view

title: Aristippus

text: Aristippus Aristippus of Cyrene (; ; c. 435 – c. 356 BCE) was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a very different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. His outlook came to be called "ethical hedonism." Among his pupils was his daughter Arete. There are indications that he was conflated with his grandson, Aristippus the Younger. Aristippus, the son of Aritades, was born in Cyrene, Ancient Libya, c. 435 BCE.

title: Alexander of Aphrodisias

text: of necessity; and one "On the Soul". His commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was styled, by way of pre-eminence, "the commentator" (). Alexander was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria and came to Athens towards the end of the 2nd century. He was a student of the two Stoic, or possibly Peripatetic, philosophers Sosigenes and Herminus, and perhaps of Aristotle of Mytilene. At Athens he became head of the Peripatetic school and lectured on Peripatetic philosophy. Alexander's dedication of "On Fate" to Septimius Severus and Caracalla, in gratitude for his position at Athens, indicates a date

title: Catholic probabilism

text: The Augustinians, Carmelites, Trinitarians and many Benedictines were also Probabiliorists. Probabiliorism was also held by many Jesuits. Thyrsus Gonzalez, a Jesuit professor at the University of Salamanca, favoured Probabiliorism in his "Fundamentum Theologiae Moralis" (1670–72). When the book was sent to the Jesuit General Oliva in 1673, permission for publication was refused. Pope Innocent XI favoured Gonzalez and, in 1680, sent a decree through the Holy Office to Oliva ordering that liberty be given to the members of the order to write in favour of Probabiliorism and against probabilism. Gonzalez was elected general of the order in 1687, but his

title: David Hume

text: a bundle of sensations, and that the self is nothing more than this bundle of causally-connected perceptions. Hume's compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom. Hume influenced utilitarianism, logical positivism, Immanuel Kant, the philosophy of science, early analytic philosophy, cognitive science, theology, and other movements and thinkers. Kant himself credited Hume as the spur to his philosophical thought who had awakened him from his "dogmatic slumbers". Hume was the second of two sons born to Joseph Home of Ninewells, an advocate, and his wife The Hon. Katherine ("née" Falconer), daughter of Sir David

title: Possibilism (geography)

text: Possibilism in cultural geography is the theory that the environment sets certain constraints or limitations, but culture is otherwise determined by social conditions. In Cultural ecology Marshall Sahlins used this concept in order to develop alternative approaches to the environmental determinism dominant at that time in ecological studies. Theory by Strabo in 64 BC that humans can make things happen by their own intelligence over time. Strabo cautioned against the assumption that nature and actions of  humans were determined by the physical environment they inhabited.  He observed that humans were the active elements in a human-environmental partnership.

title: Roderick Chisholm

text: chains of justified beliefs that ultimately lead to beliefs that are directly evident. He also defended a controversial theory of volition called "agent causation" much like that of Thomas Reid. He argued that free will is incompatible with determinism, and believed that we do act freely; this combination of views is known as libertarianism. He developed a highly original theory of first person thought according to which the things we believe are properties, and believing them is a matter of self-attributing them. (A similar view was developed independently by David Kellogg Lewis, and enjoys considerable popularity, although it is now

title: Delfim Santos

text: study of modern and contemporary European thinkers, specially the contemporary German Phenomenologists, adopting the "aporetic" and anti-systematic approach to philosophical inquiry similar to onto-phenomenologist Nicolai Hartmann. Also from Hartmann's 'levels of reality' he adapted and further developed his own "pluriversal" or rather "pluriregional" views on 'reality', ascribing the scientific method of study exclusively to the material world and not to philosophical matters as the neopositivists propounded. He wrote comprehensively about the history of philosophical thinking in Portugal and Brazil, particularly on (1769–1846) arguably Brazil's first philosopher, and on Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), a Spanish scholar active at Coimbra University between 1597

title: Richard Congreve

text: Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire and Auguste Comte, and the influence of Comte stayed with him. He adopted the entire positivist system, including the religious cult. He resigned his fellowship (1855), left Oxford, and soon afterwards founded the positivist community in London. Congreve studied medicine, and in 1866 was admitted member of the Royal College of Physicians. In the early days of the positivist movement he took the major part in the establishment of the propaganda in Chapel Street, Lamb's Conduit Street, London, and for some years worked harmoniously with Mr. Frederic Harrison and other leading positivists. In 1878, however, he issued a circular

title: 19th-century philosophy

text: influential in the 19th century was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), whose formulation of nomological determinism is famous up to this day. This is a partial list of schools of 19th-century philosophy (also known as late modern philosophy). One of the first philosophers to attempt to grapple with Kant's philosophy was Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose development of Kantian metaphysics became a source of inspiration for the Romantics. In "Wissenschaftslehre", Fichte argues that the self posits itself and is a self-producing and changing process. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, a student of Fichte, continued to develop many of the same ideas and was also

title: Frederic Harrison

text: Oxford that he was to embrace positive philosophy, under the influence of his tutor Richard Congreve and the works of John Stuart Mill and George Henry Lewes. Harrison found himself in conflict with Congreve as to details, and eventually led the Positivists who split off and founded Newton Hall in 1881, and he was president of the English Positivist Committee from 1880 to 1905; he was also editor and part author of the "Positivist New Calendar of great Men" (1892), and wrote much on Comte and Positivism. For more than three decades, he was a regular contributor to The Fortnightly

title: Possibilism (geography)

short_answers:
Marshall Sahlins
Strabo