question: what does it mean to fuse the spine

answers: joins two or more vertebrae

title: Spinal fusion

text: of spinal fusion techniques. Each technique varies depending on the level of the spine and the location of the compressed spinal cord/nerves. After the spine is decompressed, bone graft or artificial bone substitute is packed between the vertebrae to help them heal together. In general, fusions are done either on the anterior (stomach), posterior (back), or both sides of the spine. Today, most fusions are supplemented with hardware (screws, plates, rods) because they have been shown to have higher union rates than non-instrumented fusions. Minimally invasive techniques are also becoming more popular. These techniques use advanced image guidance systems to

title: Low back pain

text: between these vertebrae are fibrocartilaginous discs, which act as cushions, preventing the vertebrae from rubbing together while at the same time protecting the spinal cord. Nerves come from and go to the spinal cord through specific openings between the vertebrae, providing the skin with sensations and messages to muscles. Stability of the spine is provided by the ligaments and muscles of the back and abdomen. Small joints called facet joints limit and direct the motion of the spine. The multifidus muscles run up and down along the back of the spine, and are important for keeping the spine straight and

title: Spinal fusion

text: together. Spinal fusion is most commonly performed to relieve the pain and pressure on the spinal cord that results when a disc (cartilage between two vertebrae) wears out (degenerative disc disease). Other common pathological conditions that are treated by spinal fusion include spinal stenosis, spondylolisthesis, spondylosis, spinal fractures, scoliosis, and kyphosis. Like any surgery, complications may include infection, blood loss, and nerve damage. Fusion also changes the normal motion of the spine and results in more stress on the vertebrae above and below the fused segments. As a result, long-term complications include degeneration at these adjacent spine segments. Spinal fusion

title: Failed back syndrome

text: source of the pain. The reason for this is that many patients with chronic pain often have disc bulges at multiple spinal levels and the physical examination and imaging studies are unable to pinpoint the source of pain. In addition, spinal fusion itself, particularly if more than one spinal level is operated on, may result in "adjacent segment degeneration". This is thought to occur because the fused segments may result in increased torsional and stress forces being transmitted to the intervertebral discs located above and below the fused vertebrae. This pathology is one reason behind the development of artificial discs

title: Back pain

text: pressure on the nerve root. Total disc replacement can also be performed, in which the source of the pain (the damaged disc) is removed and replaced, while maintaining spinal mobility. When an entire disc is removed (as in discectomy), or when the vertebrae are unstable, spinal fusion surgery may be performed. Spinal fusion is a procedure in which bone grafts and metal hardware is used to fix together two or more vertebrae, thus preventing the bones of the spinal column from compressing on the spinal cord or nerve roots. If infection, such as a spinal epidural abscess, is the source

title: Craniopagus twins

text: the brain stem and central nervous system. Furthermore, this secondary fusion of embryonic discs could implicate that intact skin will not fuse to other intact skin, including the ectoderm of the embryo. This means that two embryonic discs could only unite in locations where the ectoderm is absent. Moreover, the fusion occurs from neural folds of two separate, dorsally oriented embryonic discs, and the union can occur only after the ectoderm is disrupted to allow the neural and surface ectodermal layers to separate from each other. The union in craniopagus twins may happen at any portion of the calvarium. The

title: Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion

text: is often filled with a graft. That can be a bone graft, taken from the pelvis or cadaveric bone; or an artificial implant. The slow process of the bone graft joining the vertebrae together is called "fusion". Sometimes a titanium plate is screwed on the vertebrae or screws are used between the vertebrae to increase stability during fusion, especially when there is more than one disc involved. The surgery requires a short stay in the clinic (1 to 3 days) and a gradual recovery between 1 and 6 weeks. However, the technology has advanced and it can be performed by

title: Spinal fusion

text: can be used to treat a variety of conditions affecting any level of the spine - lumbar, cervical and thoracic. In general, spinal fusion is performed to decompress and stabilize the spine. The greatest benefit appears to be in spondylolisthesis, while evidence is less good for spinal stenosis. The most common cause of pressure on the spinal cord/nerves is degenerative disc disease. Other common causes include disc herniation, spinal stenosis, trauma, and spinal tumors. Spinal stenosis results from bony growths (osteophytes) or thickened ligaments that cause narrowing of the spinal canal over time. This causes leg pain with increased activity,

title: Spinal fusion

text: a condition called neurogenic claudication. Pressure on the nerves as they exit the spinal cord (radiculopathy) causes pain in the area where the nerves originated (leg for lumbar pathology, arm for cervical pathology). In severe cases, this pressure can cause neurologic deficits, like numbness, tingling, bowel/bladder dysfunction, and paralysis. Lumbar and cervical spinal fusions are more commonly performed than thoracic fusions. Degeneration happens more frequently at these levels due to increased motion and stress. The thoracic spine is more immobile, so most fusions are performed due to trauma or deformities like scoliosis and kyphosis. Conditions where spinal fusion may be

title: Failed back syndrome

text: treatment. It's necessary to point out that at present "there are relationships between the industry and back pain, and there is also an industry of the back pain". Nonetheless, the "market of the spine surgery" is growing because patients are demanding solutions for their back problems. The tide of scientific evidence seems to go against the spinal fusions in the degenerative disc disease, discogenic pain and in specific back pain. After decades of advances in this field, the results of spinal fusions are mediocre. New epidemiological studies show that "spinal fusion must be accepted as a non proved or experimental

title: Neutral spine

text: Neutral spine A good posture refers to the "three natural curves [that] are present in a healthy spine.". It is also called neutral spine. Looking directly at the front or back of the body, the 33 vertebrae in the spinal column should appear completely vertical. From a side view, the cervical (neck) region of the spine (C1-C7) is bent inward, the thoracic (upper back) region (T1-T12) bends outward, and the lumbar (lower back) region (L1-L5) bends inward. The sacrum (tailbone area) (S1-S5 fused) and coccyx (on average 4 fused) rest between the pelvic bones. A neutral pelvis indicates the anterior

title: Ankylosing spondylitis

text: can cause the vertebrae and the lumbosacral joint to ossify, resulting in the fusion of the spine. This places the spine in a vulnerable state because it becomes one bone, which causes it to lose its range of motion as well as putting it at risk for spinal fractures. This not only limits mobility but reduces the affected person's quality of life. Complete fusion of the spine can lead to a reduced range of motion and increased pain, as well as total joint destruction which could lead to a joint replacement. Osteoporosis is common in ankylosing spondylitis, both from chronic

title: Failed back syndrome

text: 25% of all low back pain is sacroiliac joint in origin and that the diagnosis of sacroiliac joint disease is frequently overlooked by physicians. Studies by Ha, et al., show that the incidence of SI joint degeneration in post-lumbar fusion surgery is 75% at 5 years post-surgery, based on imaging. Studies by DePalma and Liliang, et al., demonstrate that 40-61% of post-lumbar fusion patients were symptomatic for SI joint dysfunction based on diagnostic blocks. In the past two decades there has been a dramatic increase in fusion surgery in the U.S.: in 2001 over 122,000 lumbar fusions were performed, a

title: Failed back syndrome

text: forces in the development of new technologies and its immediate application to spine surgery, shows the relationship between the published results and the industry support. Authors who have developed and defended fusion techniques have also published new articles praising new spinal technologies. The author calls spinal surgery the "American Stock and Exchange" and "the bubble of spine surgery". The scientific literature doesn't show clear evidence in the cost-benefit studies of most instrumented surgical interventions of the spine compared with the conservative treatments. It has not been yet demonstrated that fusion surgery and disc replacement are better options than the conservative

title: Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion

text: Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) is a surgical procedure to treat nerve root or spinal cord compression by decompressing the spinal cord and nerve roots of the cervical spine with a discectomy in order to stabilize the corresponding vertebrae. This procedure is used when other non-surgical treatments have failed. ACDF is used to treat serious pain from a nerve root that has become inflamed. This can be caused by: 1. a herniated disc when other non-surgical treatments have failed. The nucleus pulposus (the jelly-like center of the disc) of the herniated disc bulges out

title: Low back pain

text: there is not enough evidence to provide recommendations for surgical options. The long-term effect surgery has on degenerative disc disease is not clear. Less invasive surgical options have improved recovery times, but evidence regarding effectiveness is insufficient. For those with pain localized to the lower back due to disc degeneration, fair evidence supports spinal fusion as equal to intensive physical therapy and slightly better than low-intensity nonsurgical measures. Fusion may be considered for those with low back pain from acquired displaced vertebra that does not improve with conservative treatment, although only a few of those who have spinal fusion experience

text: Minimally-invasive thoracic spinal fusion Minimally-invasive thoracic spinal fusion is one of the newest approaches to scoliosis surgery. Instead of a vertical scar down the back or horizontal from the middle of the chest to the center of the back, a rod is inserted through a series of small incisions on the side of the body. The spine is not exposed during the surgery; a small scope is used instead. Spinal fusion is usually needed when a curvature reaches 40 degrees. However, there is a window of opportunity for a minimally invasive surgery. The curvature needs to be between 0 and

title: Failed back syndrome

text: as a possible alternative to fusion surgery. But fusion surgeons argue that spinal fusion is more time-tested, and artificial discs contain metal hardware that is unlikely to last as long as biological material without shattering and leaving metal fragments in the spinal canal. These represent different schools of thought. (See discussion on disc replacement infra.) Another highly relevant consideration is the increasing recognition of the importance of "chemical radiculitis" in the generation of back pain. A primary focus of surgery is to remove "pressure" or reduce mechanical compression on a neural element: either the spinal cord, or a nerve root.

text: have about the same flexibility as he or she did before the surgery. However, this means that full correction will not be able to be achieved. A person will still be slightly "bent" after the surgery is performed. Minimally-invasive thoracic spinal fusion Minimally-invasive thoracic spinal fusion is one of the newest approaches to scoliosis surgery. Instead of a vertical scar down the back or horizontal from the middle of the chest to the center of the back, a rod is inserted through a series of small incisions on the side of the body. The spine is not exposed during the

title: Management of scoliosis

text: fusions have good outcomes with high degrees of correction and low rates of failure and infection. However a systematic review of PubMed papers in 2008 concluded "Scoliosis surgery has a varying but high rate of complications", although the non-standardised data on complications was difficult to assess and was incomplete. Patients with fused spines and permanent implants tend to have normal lives with unrestricted activities when they are younger; it remains to be seen whether those that have been treated with the newer surgical techniques develop problems as they age. A complementary surgical procedure a surgeon may recommend is called thoracoplasty

title: Sacroiliac joint dysfunction

text: only, without the use of bone grafting) is more common than a spinal fusion, as it is much less invasive, surgically straightforward, and results in a quicker recovery time for the patient. Some experts in the field believe that it is important to make sure the sacroiliac joint is in an anatomically correct position prior to fixation or fusion, but published research contradicts this belief. Sacroiliac joint dysfunction Sacroiliac joint dysfunction generally refers to pain in the sacroiliac joint region that is caused by abnormal motion in the sacroiliac joint, either too much motion or too little motion. It typically

title: Harrington rod

text: fusion. Before the Harrington rod was invented, scoliosis patients had their spines fused without any instrumentation to support it; such fusions required many months in plaster casts, and large curvatures could progress despite fusion. Harrington rod instrumentation was used to treat instability and deformity of the spine. Instability occurs when the spine no longer maintains its normal shape during movement. Such instability results in nerve damage, spinal deformities, and disabling pain. Spinal deformities may be caused by birth defects, fractures, marfan syndrome, neurofibromatosis, neuromuscular diseases, severe injuries, and tumors. By far, the most common use for the Harrington rod was

title: Neurosurgery

text: spines will need "spine fusions". At present these procedures include complex instrumentation. Spine fusions could be performed as open surgery or as minimally invasive surgery. Anterior cervical diskectomy and fusion is a common surgery that is performed for disc disease of cervical spine. However, each method described above may not work in all patients. Therefore, careful selection of patients for each procedure is important. It has to be noted that if there is prior permanent neural tissue damage spinal surgery may not take away the symptoms. Surgery for chronic pain is a sub branch of functional neurosurgery. Some of the

title: Low back pain

text: good results. There are a number of different surgical procedures to achieve fusion, with no clear evidence of one being better than the others. Adding spinal implant devices during fusion increases the risks but provides no added improvement in pain or function. It is unclear if among those with non-chronic back pain alternative treatments are useful. For chiropractic care or spinal manipulation therapy (SMT) it is unclear if it improves outcomes more or less than other treatments. Some reviews find that SMT results in equal or better improvements in pain and function when compared with other commonly used interventions for

title: Spinal fusion

text: Spinal fusion, also called spondylodesis or spondylosyndesis, is a neurosurgical or orthopedic surgical technique that joins two or more vertebrae.  This procedure can be performed at any level in the spine (cervical, thoracic, or lumbar) and prevents any movement between the fused vertebrae. There are many types of spinal fusion and each technique involves using bone grafting - either from the patient (autograft), donor (allograft), or artificial bone substitutes - to help the bones heal together. Additional hardware (screws, plates, or cages) is often used to hold the bones in place while the graft fuses the two vertebrae together.

title: Laminotomy

text: from this type of surgical treatment is often very quick, with patients ambulating within a few hours of the procedure. Spinal fusion involves fusing two vertebrae together using a spacer, and is intended to prohibit movement at that particular segment. Screws are typically inserted to assure that the spacer is held in place. The most common lumbar spinal fusion occurs between L4 and L5. A lumbar spinal fusion may be recommended when non-surgical treatment options for severe degenerative disc disease are ineffective. A laminotomy would not be effective in this case, since this procedure is concerning a degenerated disc that

title: Mesoblast

text: stimuli and signals from the injured tissue by releasing a wide range of biomolecules (growth factors, chemokines, enzymes etc.) that induce the body’s own tissue to grow and regenerate, effectively repairing the injury. Which specific factors are released by the mesenchymal precursors in any given tissue presumably depends on the signals they encounter from the damaged tissue itself. For example, with back pain, the MPCs are injected into the damaged disc in order to regenerate it. Much like a tire jack, it re-inflates the degenerated disc to provide the spine the stability and flexibility it once had. Back pain is

title: Intervertebral disc

text: to have a higher degree of cellular senescence than non-herniated discs. In addition to scoliosis, which is the lateral 'S' curvature of the spine, the fused vertebrae can also experience other abnormalities such as kyphosis (hunchback) which shows in old age, or lordosis (swayback), which is often present in pregnancy and obesity. The intervertebral disc space is typically defined on an X-ray photograph as the space between adjacent vertebrae. In healthy patients, this corresponds to the size of the intervertebral disc. The size of the space can be altered in pathological conditions such as discitis (infection of the intervertebral disc).

text: the back of the hip. The lung is deflated and pushed aside, and a breathing tube is inserted into the deflated lung to help assist the patient in breathing. Once the lung is aside the surgeon removes the amount of discs needed for the fusion. Each patient is different in the number of discs needed to be removed. Bone from the patient's hip is then inserted right where the discs used to be. Screws are then inserted along the spine from the inside of the rib cage. These screws act as anchors for the rod. A rod is then inserted

title: Vertebral fixation

text: physician with few other choices than spinal fusion. A spinal fixation device stabilizes an area of the posterior spine while allowing for a significant range of motion and limiting the compression of the affected vertebrae. The device consists of two or more arm assemblies (lateral) connected by one or more telescopic assemblies (vertical). Each arm assembly is composed of a central portion, which connects to the telescopic assembly or assemblies. Left and right arms attach to the corresponding side of the central portion of the arm assembly. Each arm section is directly connected to its individual pedicle by means of

title: Spinal fusion


question: a country having an island location and a country having continental location

answers: Australia

title: Island country

text: Island country An island country is a country whose primary territory consists of one or more islands or parts of islands. As of 2011, 46 (approximately 24%) of the 193 UN member states are island countries. The percentage of island countries that are democratic is higher than that of continental countries. Historically they have been less prone to political instability than their continental counterparts. Island countries have often been the basis of maritime conquest and historical rivalry between other countries. Island countries are more susceptible to attack by large, continental countries due to their size and dependence on sea and

title: Geography Cup

text: The randomly selected countries could be any country (or territory) in the world. This included the large and well-known regions (Russia, Canada, United States, etc.) as well as smaller and more obscure nations (Palau, Djibouti, Togo, etc.). Most participants had little trouble recognizing the major European and Asian countries but many people on both teams had trouble locating small Pacific Islands and some African countries. The trivia questions were sometimes related directly to geography, e. g., "Made up of 33 atolls, which country straddles both the equator and the International Date Line?". However, some were about current events to test

title: Data localization

text: Data localization Data localization or data residency law requires data about a nations' citizens or residents be collected, processed, and/or stored inside the country, often before being transferred internationally, and usually transferred only after meeting local privacy or data protection laws, such as giving the user notice of how the information will be used and obtaining their consent. Data localization builds upon the concept of data sovereignty that regulates certain data types by the laws applicable to the data subject or processor. While data sovereignty may require that records about a nation's citizens or residents follow its personal or financial

title: Country

text: Country A country is a region that is identified as a distinct entity in political geography. A country may be an independent sovereign state or part of a larger state, as a non-sovereign or formerly sovereign political division, or a geographic region associated with sets of previously independent or differently associated people with distinct political characteristics. Regardless of the physical geography, in the modern internationally accepted legal definition as defined by the League of Nations in 1937 and reaffirmed by the United Nations in 1945, a resident of a country is subject to the independent exercise of legal jurisdiction. "Countries"

title: National power

text: Location has an important bearing on foreign policy of a nation. The relation between foreign policy and geographic location gave rise to the discipline of geopolitics. The presence of a water obstacle provided protection to nation states such as Great Britain, Japan, and the United States and allowed Japan to follow isolationist policies. The presence of large accessible seaboards also permitted these nations to build strong navies and expand their territories peacefully or by conquest. In contrast, Poland, with no obstacle for its powerful neighbours, even lost its independence as a nation, being partitioned among the Kingdom of Prussia, the

title: Lists of countries and territories

text: Lists of countries and territories This is a list of many lists of countries and territories by various definitions, including FIFA countries, federations, and fictional countries. A country or territory is a geographical area, either in the sense of "nation" (a cultural entity) or "state" (a political entity). The characteristics of the human population: The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services: The value of goods and services produced within a country: The physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an ecosystem: The Earth and its features: The label for the country: The process by which groups, often

title: Data localization

text: or nearly passed data localization laws, the European Union was considering restrictions on data localization laws in 2017. Data localization laws are often seen as protectionist and would thus violate European Union competition law. Most nations restrict foreign transfer of information that they consider related to national security, such as military technology. Data localization Data localization or data residency law requires data about a nations' citizens or residents be collected, processed, and/or stored inside the country, often before being transferred internationally, and usually transferred only after meeting local privacy or data protection laws, such as giving the user notice of

title: Tz database

text: have their sign reversed from the standard ISO 8601 convention. In the "Etc" area, zones west of GMT have a positive sign and those east have a negative sign in their name (e.g "Etc/GMT-14" is 14 hours ahead of GMT.) "Location" is the name of a specific location within the area – usually a city or small island. Country names are not used in this scheme, primarily because they would not be robust, owing to frequent political and boundary changes. The names of large cities tend to be more permanent. However, the database maintainers attempt to include at least one

title: Lists of countries and territories

text: governments, make decisions: Lists of countries and territories This is a list of many lists of countries and territories by various definitions, including FIFA countries, federations, and fictional countries. A country or territory is a geographical area, either in the sense of "nation" (a cultural entity) or "state" (a political entity). The characteristics of the human population: The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services: The value of goods and services produced within a country: The physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an ecosystem: The Earth and its features: The label for the country: The process by

title: Island

text: and Barbados, the Falkland Islands, and Trinidad off South America. A special type of continental island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, and some of the Seychelles. Another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. This includes: Islets are very small islands. Oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the

title: International taxation

text: usually involve the location of the person's main home and number of days the person is physically present in the country. Examples include: Territorial systems usually tax local income regardless of the residence of the taxpayer. The key problem argued for this type of system is the ability to avoid taxation on portable income by moving it outside of the country. This has led governments to enact hybrid systems to recover lost revenue. Almost all countries tax foreign income based on residency, if at all. Only two countries in the world systematically and comprehensively tax the worldwide income of nonresident

title: Internationalization and localization

text: a local time zone for display purposes. Different countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example: Localization also may take into account differences in culture, such as: In order to "internationalize" a product, it is important to look at a variety of markets that the product will foreseeably enter. Details such as field length for street addresses, unique format for the address, ability to make the postal code field optional to address countries that do not have postal codes or the state field for countries that do not have states, plus the introduction of new registration flows that adhere to

title: Overseas country of France

text: Overseas country of France Overseas country () is the designation for the overseas collectivity of French Polynesia. French Polynesia was an overseas territory until the constitutional reform on 28 March 2003 created the overseas collectivities. Then, on 27 February 2004 a law was passed giving French Polynesia the particular designation of overseas country while recalling that it belongs to the category of overseas collectivities. However, the Constitutional Council of France ruled that this description was merely a designation and not a legal status, as that would have been unconstitutional. The territory's new status meant a certain autonomy for French Polynesia

title: International Date Line

text: consistent with the principle of national and nautical time zones: the islands of eastern Kiribati are actually "islands" of Asian date (west side of IDL) in a sea of American date (east side of IDL). Similarly, the western Aleutian Islands are islands of American date in a sea of Asian date. No international organization, nor any treaty between nations, has fixed the IDL drawn by cartographers: the 1884 International Meridian Conference explicitly refused to propose or agree to any time zones, stating that they were outside its purview. The conference resolved that the Universal Day, midnight-to-midnight Greenwich Mean Time (now

title: Continental Chile

text: Isla Salas y Gómez, both in Polynesia, are in the UTC-5 time zone. Continental Chile has a surface of 756,770 km², representing 99.976% of the total surface of the country under effective administration. However, considering the claim in Antarctic, this percent fall down to only 37.71% of national's surface. With regard to the population, according to the 2002 census, it had a total of 15,111,881 inhabitants, corresponding to 99.97% of the national population. Continental Chile Continental Chile is the name given to the Chilean territory located on the continental shelf of South America. This term serves to distinguish the South

title: Continental Chile

text: Continental Chile Continental Chile is the name given to the Chilean territory located on the continental shelf of South America. This term serves to distinguish the South American area from the insular territories, known as Insular Chile, as from the Antarctic Chile (Chilean Antarctic Territory). The existence of this three areas of effective or claimed Chilean sovereignty is what supports the existing tricontinental principle in this country. In addition, this term specifies the time zones of mainland Chile and the Juan Fernández archipelago and the Desventuradas Islands, located in the UTC-3 time zone, as "continental Chile". Easter Island and the

title: Foreign territories of Singapore

text: has the right to exercise full control over the area, despite it being geographically closer to Malaysia than to Singapore. It is adjacent to the South Ledge islands, whose jurisdiction is still under contest between Singapore and Malaysia, and would be expected to be awarded to whichever country whose maritime boundaries it falls under. Access to the location is restricted and is considered a protected area under Singapore laws. In 2017, Malaysia has filed two cases against Singapore in the ICJ with respect to the ownership of the island, which are the revision of the ICJ's 2008 judgement and interpretation

title: Island country

text: to suffer environmental damage to infrastructure; exceptions include Japan and the United Kingdom. The dominant industry for many island countries is tourism. Island countries are typically small with low populations, although some, like Indonesia and Japan are notable exceptions. Some island countries are centred on one or two major islands, such as the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, New Zealand, Cuba, Bahrain, Singapore, Iceland, Malta, and Taiwan. Others are spread out over hundreds or thousands of smaller islands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, The Bahamas, Seychelles, and the Maldives. Some island countries share one or more of their islands with

title: Boundaries between the continents of Earth

text: islands have no permanent population. All land claims south of 60°S latitude are held in abeyance by the Antarctic Treaty System. The South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are closer to Antarctica than to any other continent. However, they are politically associated with the inhabited Falkland Islands which are closer to South America. Furthermore, Argentina, a South American country, maintains its irredentist claims on the islands. The continental shelf boundary separates the two island groups. The Prince Edward Islands are located between Africa and Antarctica, and are the territory of South Africa, an African country. The Australian Macquarie Island

title: 2015 Solheim Cup

text: been naturalised as a citizen of a European country; (ii) having held a current passport of that European country for the immediately preceding four consecutive years; (iii) having resided in that European country for the immediately preceding four consecutive years. A European country is a nation situated in the continent of Europe and is recognised as an independent state by the United Nations. Any player who holds dual nationality (of which one shall be the nationality of a European country) shall elect on joining the LET in each of 2013 and 2014 whether she wishes to be eligible for selection

title: Island

text: territorial sea of their own. Island An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, cays or keys. An island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, such as the Philippines. An island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge; examples are

title: Dependencies of Norway

text: Dependencies of Norway Norway has three dependent territories (), all uninhabited and located in the Southern Hemisphere. Bouvetøya is a Subantarctic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. Queen Maud Land is a sector of Antarctica which spans between 20° west and 45° east. Peter I Island is a volcanic island located off the coast of Ellsworth Land of continental Antarctica. (Svalbard is not considered to be a dependency. While the Svalbard Treaty regulates some aspects of that Arctic territory, one article acknowledges that these islands are part of Norway. Similarly, Jan Mayen is recognized as an integral part of the

title: Continental union

text: considered a traditional continental union, the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) is an intergovernmental organization that spans the majority of independent states and dependent territories within the Pacific Ocean. As an intergovernmental organization, the PIF's focus is on political dialog relating to the enhancement of cooperation and economic and social well-being among states within the Pacific Ocean. In Canadian history and political science, the term "Continental Union" refers to the idea of creating a union between Canada and the United States, either by forming a new, super-national body in which both countries would become equal members, or by the United States

title: Mobile country code

text: Official Norwegian allocations: See French Indian Ocean Territories. See French Antilles See French Antilles See Former Netherlands Antilles See Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Mobile country code The ITU-T Recommendation E.212 defines mobile country codes (MCC) as well as mobile network codes (MNC). The mobile country code consists of three decimal digits and the mobile network code consists of two or three decimal digits (for example: MNC of 001 is not the same as MNC of 01). The first digit of the mobile country code identifies the geographic region as follows (the digits 1 and 8 are not

title: List of island countries

title: Territory

text: exclusive jurisdiction of the central or national government within a federation. Federal territories include: Overseas territory is a broad designation for a territorial entity that is separated from the country that governs it by an ocean. An overseas territory may be either a constituent part of the governing state or a dependent territory. Examples include: Territory A territory is an administrative division, usually an area that is under the jurisdiction of a state. In most countries, a "territory" is an organized land controlled division of an area that is controlled by a country but is not formally developed into, or

title: Locale (computer software)

text: replace nearly all LCID-based APIs. Locale (computer software) In computing, a locale is a set of parameters that defines the user's language, region and any special variant preferences that the user wants to see in their user interface. Usually a locale identifier consists of at least a language code and a country/region code. On POSIX platforms such as Unix, Linux and others, locale identifiers are defined by ISO/IEC 15897, which is similar to the BCP 47 definition of language tags, but the locale variant modifier is defined differently, and the character set is included as a part of the identifier.

title: Archipelago

text: to as "oceanic islands", "continental fragments", and "continental islands". Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, and widely separated from any adjacent continent. The Hawai'ian Islands and Easter Island in the Pacific, and Île Amsterdam in the south Indian Ocean are examples. Continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. The Farallon Islands off the coast of California are an example. Sets of islands formed close to the coast of a continent are considered continental archipelagos when they form part of the same continental shelf, when those islands are above-water extensions

title: Henley Passport Index

text: Partners has analysed the visa regulations of all the countries and territories in the world since 2006. The HPI consists of a ranking of passports according to how many other territories can be reached 'visa-free' (defined below). All distinct destination countries and territories in the IATA database are considered. However, since not all territories issue passports, there are far fewer passports to be ranked than destinations against which queries are made. To determine the score for each country or territory, the IATA database is queried in the following way: 1. Each of the 199 passports for which the score is

title: Copyright law of the United Kingdom

text: that is the country of origin. If a work is published simultaneously (i.e. in more than one country, but all within 30 days), and one of the countries is a European Economic Area (EEA) country, then the EEA country is the country of origin (even if another is a Berne Convention country); but if none of them is an EEA country, and one of them is a Berne Convention country, then the Berne Convention country is the country of origin. If two or more Berne Convention countries qualify, and not all of them are in the EEA (such as Canada,

title: List of island countries

long_answer: This is a list of island countries. An island is a land mass (smaller than a continent) that is surrounded by water. Many island countries are spread over an archipelago, as is the case with the Federated States of Micronesia and the Indonesia (which consists of thousands of islands). Others consist of a single island, such as Nauru, or part of an island, such as Haiti. Although Australia is designated as a continent, it is often referred to as an island, as it has no land borders. Some declared island countries are not universally recognized as politically independent, such as Northern Cyprus. Some states, such as Taiwan, officially claim to hold continental territories but are de facto limited to control over islands.


question: who plays the girl in wreck it ralph

answers: Stefanie Scott

answers: Sarah Silverman

title: Wreck-It Ralph (franchise)

text: "beaming themselves right out into space". A short film called "Wreck-It Ralph in 60 Seconds" premiered at the Virgin Radio Fake Film Festival in Canada on February 12, 2013. A 2012 video game of the same name was also released, featuring the title character Wreck-It Ralph, voiced by actor Brian T. Delaney. A video game called "Wreck-It Ralph: Ralph Breaks VR" will be released in 2018, along with the second film. The character of Wreck-It Ralph features in the 2012 video game "Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed", voiced by actor Brian T. Delaney and Kōichi Yamadera in the Japanese version.

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: villain who rebels against his "bad-guy" role and dreams of becoming a hero. "Wreck-It Ralph" premiered at the El Capitan Theatre on October 29, 2012, and went into general release on November 2. The film was a critical and commercial success, grossing $471 million worldwide against a $165 million budget and winning the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature, as well as receiving nominations for the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. The film was released on Blu-ray and DVD on March 5, 2013. It is the first installment in the "Wreck-It Ralph" film series. A sequel,

title: Wreck-It Ralph (franchise)

text: Wreck-It Ralph (franchise) Wreck-It Ralph is an American media franchise primarily consisting of an animated comedy film series produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The series tells the story of the eponymous arcade game villain named Wreck-It Ralph, who rebels against his "bad guy" role and dreams of becoming a hero. The series has grossed $729.4 million worldwide. The series is also notable for featuring cameos of characters from licensed properties including video games and various Disney franchises. A video game villain named Wreck-It Ralph wants to be a hero and sets out to

title: Raymond S. Persi

text: at the 1999 Vancouver Animation Festival and was nominated for the Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject. In 2010, Persi moved from Fox Animation Studios to Walt Disney Animation Studios where he worked extensively on Academy Award nominee "Wreck-It Ralph" (2012). In addition to serving as storyboard artist, he had a prominent acting role in the film as Gene, leader of the Nicelanders whom Wreck-It Ralph is programmed to antagonize. Persi also voices the Zombie from The House of the Dead in a scene where Ralph joins other video game villains at a support group meeting. Persi has become

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The film earned an "A" from audiences polled by CinemaScore. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote, "More than in most animated films, the art design and color palette of "Wreck-It Ralph" permit unlimited sets, costumes, and rules, giving the movie tireless originality and different behavior in every different cyber world." A.O. Scott of "The New York Times" wrote, "The movie invites a measure of cynicism – which it proceeds to obliterate with a 93-minute blast of color, noise, ingenuity and

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: Store released their individual figures on January 7, 2014. A combo "toy box pack" of the two figures with Sugar Rush customization discs was released April 1, 2014, from the Disney Store. "Wreck-It Ralph" is a playable world on the mobile game "Disney Crossy Road". Ralph will make his debut appearance in the "Kingdom Hearts" video game series in the upcoming "Kingdom Hearts III", serving as a summon. In an interview on October 25, 2012, director Rich Moore said that he and Disney had ideas about a sequel that would bring the characters up to date and explore online gaming

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: Atlantic" found it "overplotted and underdeveloped." The film's score was composed by Henry Jackman. The soundtrack also features original songs by Owl City, AKB48, Skrillex with the remix Noisia, and Buckner & Garcia. Early in the development process, Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson-Lopez wrote an original song for the film; it was later cut out. In addition to the Flash version of the "Fix-It Felix Jr." game, Disney released a tie-in side-scrolling platform game called "Wreck-It Ralph" for the Wii, Nintendo 3DS, and Nintendo DS, to mostly negative reviews. The arcade style side-scrolling game was produced in collaboration between Disney

title: John C. Reilly

text: total kick." "Wreck-It Ralph" grossed over $471 million and a sequel titled "Ralph Breaks the Internet" was released in November 2018. Also that year, Reilly appeared in "Tim and Eric's Billion Dollar Movie" as the dim-witted Taquito and made an uncredited cameo appearance in the comedy "The Dictator", starring Sacha Baron Cohen. He had a cameo in the 2013 comedy sequel "", playing the ghost of Confederate General Stonewall Jackson in the film's fight scene. In 2014, Reilly narrated the nature documentary "Bears". He played Nova Corps corpsman Rhomann Dey in the Marvel Studios film "Guardians of the Galaxy", released

title: Ralph Breaks the Internet

text: character, alongside new additions to the cast including Gal Gadot, Taraji P. Henson and Alfred Molina. Talks for a "Wreck-It Ralph" sequel began in October 2012, and went through three different scripts before settling on the final plot. The film was officially announced in June 2016, with much of the original cast confirming they had signed on, with new members being added in 2018. It is the studio's first animated sequel to be created by the original film's writing/directing team. "Ralph Breaks the Internet" had its world premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on November 5, 2018,

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: the show floor. Disney also released a browser-based Flash-based version of the "Fix-It Felix Jr." game as well as iOS, Android, and Windows Phone versions, with online Unity-based versions of "Sugar Rush" and "Hero's Duty". A second trailer for the film was released on September 12, 2012, coinciding with "Finding Nemo 3D" and "Frankenweenie". To promote the home media release of "Wreck-It Ralph", director Rich Moore produced a short film titled "Garlan Hulse: Where Potential Lives". Set within the movie's universe, the mockumentary film was designed as a parody of "The King of Kong". "Wreck-It Ralph" was released on Blu-ray

title: Ralph Breaks the Internet

text: response and "if there's a good story to be told". Also, John C. Reilly says that he has an idea if a third film was to be made, which would see Ralph and Vanellope "beaming themselves right out into space". Ralph Breaks the Internet Ralph Breaks the Internet is a 2018 American 3D computer-animated comedy film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the sequel to the 2012 film "Wreck-It Ralph" as well as Disney's 57th feature-length film. The film was directed by Rich Moore and Phil Johnston, written by Johnston and Pamela

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: Bison (Gerald C. Rivers), and Zangief (Rich Moore) from ""; Clyde (Kevin Deters) from "Pac-Man"; and Yuni Verse (Jamie Sparer Roberts) from "Dance Dance Revolution". A character modeled after dubstep musician Skrillex makes an appearance in the fictional "Fix-It Felix Jr." as the DJ at the anniversary party of the game. In addition to the spoken roles, "Wreck-It Ralph" contains a number of other video game references, including characters and visual gags. The video game villains at the support meeting, in addition to those mentioned above, include Bowser from the "Mario" franchise, Doctor Eggman from "Sonic the Hedgehog", and Neff

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: video-game bad guy who travels the length of the arcade to prove that he's a good guy." In a manner similar to "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" and the "Toy Story" films, "Wreck-It Ralph" featured cameo appearances by a number of licensed video-game characters. For example, one scene from the film shows Ralph attending a support group for the arcade's various villain characters, including Clyde from "Pac-Man", Doctor Eggman from "Sonic the Hedgehog", and Bowser from "Super Mario Bros." Rich Moore, the film's director, had determined that for a film about a video-game world to feel authentic, "it had to have

title: John C. Reilly

text: their children get into a fight. Reilly was approached to appear in a production of the play it was based on, "God of Carnage", but he couldn't fit it into his schedule and remarked "I think I've spent enough time in that apartment". Reilly voiced the title character in the 2012 Disney animated film "Wreck-It Ralph", which follows an arcade game villain who is determined to prove himself as the hero. Reilly made contributions to the film's script. The film was positively received, with "Los Angeles Times" writer Betsy Sharkey saying, "The movie's subversive sensibility and old-school/new-school feel are a

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: an 8-bit pixelated fashion, whereas the Walt Disney Pictures closing production logo appears in a glitched state, a reference to the kill screen from many early arcade games such as "Pac-Man". The concept of "Wreck-It Ralph" was first developed at Disney in the late 1980s, under the working title "High Score". Since then, it was redeveloped and reconsidered several times: In the late 1990s, it took on the working title "Joe Jump", then in the mid-2000s as "Reboot Ralph". John Lasseter, the head of Walt Disney Animation Studios and executive producer of the film, describes "Wreck-It Ralph" as "an 8-bit

title: Sarah Silverman

text: co-produced by Mik Moore and Ari Wallach (the pair that also co-produced The Great Schlep and Scissor Sheldon). Silverman voiced Vanellope von Schweetz, one of the main characters in the 2012 Disney animated film, "Wreck-It Ralph". She is in the creative team that writes and produces the content for the YouTube comedy channel called Jash. The other partners are Michael Cera, Reggie Watts, and Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim (also known as Tim & Eric). The JASH channel premiered online March 10, 2013. In Seth MacFarlane's western comedy film, "A Million Ways to Die in the West", she played Ruth,

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: Special effects, including from "smoke or dust," looks distinct in each of the segments. The film was originally scheduled for a release on March 22, 2013, but it was later changed to November 2, 2012, due to it being ahead of schedule. The theatrical release was accompanied by Disney's animated short film, "Paperman". The first trailer for "Wreck-It Ralph" was released on June 6, 2012, debuting with "" and "Rock of Ages". This also coincided with the 2012 Electronic Entertainment Expo, for which Disney constructed a mock aged arcade cabinet for the fictional "Fix-It Felix Jr." game on display on

title: Wreck-It Ralph (franchise)

text: fulfill his dream, but his quest brings havoc to the whole arcade where he lives. Six years after the events of the first film, Ralph and Vanellope, now best friends, discover a wi-fi router in their arcade, leading them into a new adventure. Directors Rich Moore and Phil Johnston said that a "Ralph Breaks the Internet" spin-off film focusing on the Disney Princesses could be made depending on the audience's response and "if there's a good story to be told". Also, John C. Reilly says that he has an idea for a second sequel, which would see Ralph and Vanellope

title: Shut Up and Drive

text: of the 2012 Disney film "Wreck-It Ralph", where it is the song that plays when Ralph is putting Vanellope through driving school in "Sugar Rush". The song is also featured in 2008 movies "Wild Child", "College Road Trip" and "21". It was used in 2012 commercials for cars from the Japanese automobile maker "Mazda". The song was later used as a "Lip Sync for your Life" song on "RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars". Contestants Tatianna and Alyssa Edwards performed this song for a chance to re-enter the competition; since both performed well, they both got to return. The song was

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: the CIS ($5.27 million). In total grosses, the three largest markets were the UK, Ireland and Malta ($36.2 million), Japan ($29.6 million), and Australia ($24.0 million). The review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 87% of critics have given the film a positive review, based on 178 reviews with an average score of 7.5/10. The site's consensus reads: "Equally entertaining for both kids and parents old enough to catch the references, "Wreck-It Ralph" is a clever, colorful adventure built on familiar themes and joyful nostalgia." At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 72 out

title: Sonic the Hedgehog

text: Carrey will be playing the role of Dr. Eggman, James Marsden will play a police officer named Tom Wachowski, while Tika Sumpter and Natasha Rothwell are currently in unannounced roles. Ben Schwartz will voice Sonic in the upcoming film. Sonic, Tails and Eggman appear in the 2012 Disney animated film "Wreck-It Ralph". In the movie, Sonic has a small speaking role and Tails briefly appears as an image, while Eggman makes a non-speaking appearance. Sonic also has a small cameo in the 2018 film "Ready Player One" as a character avatar, and will return in the 2018 sequel to "Wreck-It

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: Disc (2D and 3D) and DVD in North America on March 5, 2013, from Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. The film was made available for digital download in selected regions on February 12, 2013. "Wreck-It Ralph" debuted at #1 in Blu-ray and DVD sales in the United States. "Wreck It Ralph" was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on November 6, 2018. "Wreck-It Ralph" grossed $189.4 million in North America and $281.8 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $471.2 million. It was the 14th-highest-grossing film of 2012, and the fourth-highest-grossing 2012 animated film. In North America, the film

title: Buckner & Garcia

text: write the song "Wreck It, Wreck-It Ralph!" for the Disney film "Wreck-It Ralph" (2012). Pac-Man Fever (1981‒1982) 1982‒1999 1999‒2011 Wreck-It, Wreck-It Ralph (2012) Buckner & Garcia Buckner & Garcia was an American musical duo consisting of Jerry Buckner and Gary Garcia from Akron, Ohio. Their first recording was made in 1972, when they performed a novelty song called "Gotta Hear the Beat", which they recorded as Animal Jack. Later, in 1980, they wrote a novelty Christmas song titled "Merry Christmas in the NFL", imagining sports journalist Howard Cosell as Santa Claus. The artist was local radio personality Willis the Guard

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: and console gaming. Moore stated that many of the crew and voice cast are open to the sequel, believing that they have "barely scratched the surface" of the video game world they envisioned. He also stated that he plans to include Mario and Tron in the sequel. In a 2014 interview, the film's composer Henry Jackman said that a story for the sequel is being written. In July 2015, John C. Reilly said he had signed on to reprise his role of Ralph in a projected sequel. On March 24, 2016, Rich Moore stated that a sequel is still being

title: Wreck-It Ralph

title: Rich Moore

text: film's characters Sour Bill and Zangief. "Wreck-It Ralph" won five Annie Awards, including Best Animated Feature and a Best Director award for Moore, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Moore's next animated feature film, Disney's "Zootopia", which he co-directed with Byron Howard and Jared Bush, was released in March 2016, having the biggest worldwide opening for an animated film ever and the second highest-grossing animated feature film of 2016 to "Finding Dory". Rich Moore Rich Moore (born May 10, 1963) is an American film and television animation director, screenwriter, voice actor and a creative partner

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: Interactive and Activision and serves as a "story extension" to the film. Taking place following the events of the film, players may play as Wreck-It Ralph or Fix-It Felix, causing or repairing damage, respectively, following another Cy-Bug incident. Game levels are based on the locations in the film like the "Fix-It Felix Jr.", "Hero's Duty", and "Sugar Rush" games as well as Game Central Station. It was released in conjunction with the film's release, in November 2012. In October 2012, Disney released fully playable browser-based versions of the "Hero's Duty" and "Sugar Rush" games on the new official film site.

title: Ralph Breaks the Internet

text: and was released in the United States on November 21, 2018. The film has grossed over $286 million worldwide and received positive reviews from critics, who called it a "worthy successor" and praised the animation, humor, characters, and storyline, as well as the vocal performances of Reilly and Silverman. The film received a Best Animated Feature nomination at the 76th Golden Globe Awards and 24th Critics' Choice Awards. Wreck-It Ralph and Vanellope von Schweetz have been best friends since their misadventures six years prior, hanging out every night after work in Litwak's Family Fun Center and Arcade. While Ralph is

title: Paperman

text: the film took about 30 minutes. She said "Since the film is mostly silent, they just wanted some vocal 'ambiance' that they could experiment with. We played with lots of different vocal reactions in the session: snorts, gasps, breaths... I think one chuckle made it into the final mix. I'm actually glad they kept it mostly silent—I think it makes the short even more powerful that way." The short film premiered at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival in June 2012. The short accompanied the theatrical release of "Wreck-It Ralph", which was released on November 2, 2012. Christophe Beck's score

title: Wreck-It Ralph

text: a term coined when notorious racing game character Turbo attempted to take over "RoadBlasters", another racing game, which resulted in both of their games being unplugged. Ralph learns he can obtain a medal from the first-person shooter, "Hero's Duty". After disrupting a game session, Ralph scales the game's central beacon and obtains a medal, only to hatch a Cy-Bug, a dangerous monster. Ralph and the Cy-Bug stumble into an escape pod, which is launched out of the game, and crash land in "Sugar Rush", a candy-themed kart racing game. With Ralph missing, his game is labelled as malfunctioning and faces

title: Wreck-It Ralph

long_answer: The cast also includes the Fix-It Felix Jr. Nicelanders, Edie McClurg as Mary, Raymond S. Persi as Mayor Gene, Jess Harnell as Don, Rachael Harris as Deanna, and Skylar Astin as Roy; Katie Lowes as Candlehead, Jamie Elman as Rancis Fluggerbutter, Josie Trinidad as Jubileena Bing-Bing, and Cymbre Walk as Crumbelina DiCaramello, racers in Sugar Rush; Phil Johnston as Surge Protector, Game Central Station security; Stefanie Scott as Moppet Girl, a young arcade-game player; John DiMaggio as Beard Papa, the security guard at the Sugar Rush candy-kart factory; Raymond Persi as a Zombie, Brian Kesinger as a Cyborg (based on Kano from Mortal Kombat) and Martin Jarvis as Saitine, a devil-like villain, who attends the Bad-Anon support group; Tucker Gilmore as the Sugar Rush Announcer; Brandon Scott as Kohut, a soldier in Hero's Duty; and Tim Mertens as Dr. Brad Scott, a scientist and Sgt. Calhoun's deceased fiancé in Hero's Duty (voiced by Nick Grimshaw in the UK version but not in the UK home release).


question: what olympic athlete has won the most medals

answers: American swimmer Michael Phelps

answers: Marit Bjørgen

answers: Michael Phelps

title: Great Britain at the Olympics

text: four silver medals. Kathleen McKane Godfree also won five medals, but were one gold, two silvers, and two bronzes. Lizzy Yarnold is the most successful British athlete at the Winter Olympics, with two gold medals. Chris Hoy, Jason Kenny (both cycling), Ben Ainslie (sailing) Alistair Brownlee (Triathlon) and Lizzy Yarnold (skeleton) are the most successful Olympic competitors in their sports, as of 2018. Steve Redgrave and Reginald Doherty are the most successful male athletes in their respective sports, rowing and tennis. In addition, Shirley Robertson, Sarah Ayton and Sarah Webb with two gold medals in sailing, Nicola Adams in boxing

title: Katie Ledecky

text: Janeiro as the most decorated female athlete of the 2016 Olympic Games with four gold medals, one silver medal, and two world records. In total, she has won 31 medals (27 golds, three silvers, and one bronze) in major international competitions, spanning the Summer Olympics, World Championships, and Pan Pacific Championships. During her career, she has broken fourteen world records. Ledecky's success has earned her "Swimming World" Female World Swimmer of the Year a record-breaking five times. Ledecky was also named Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year in 2017, international female Champion of Champions by "L'Équipe" in 2014 and

title: Great Britain at the Olympics

text: most successful female Olympian for GB is cyclist Laura Trott, who has four gold medals, while the most decorated female Olympians are Katherine Grainger and Kathleen McKane Godfree, with five medals each - one gold and four silver for Grainger, a gold, two silver and two bronze for McKane Godfree. Alongside five time gold medalist Redgrave, Grainger, Ainslie, Wiggins and Jack Beresford are the only British Olympians to win medals of any colour in five successive Games. In 1908, the country finished in the Olympic table in first place for the first and only time in its history; its most

title: 200 metres at the Olympics

text: Campbell-Brown repeated that feat in 2008. Usain Bolt was the first person to win two Olympic 200 m gold medals at the 2012 Summer Olympics, and at the 2016 Summer Olympics he defended his title to win his third Olympic 200 m gold medal. Merlene Ottey is the most decorated athlete, having won four medals in the event (though none of them gold). Allyson Felix has won three medals, as has Poland's Irena Szewińska. Reflecting how sprint athletes often compete over various distances, many of the medalists in the Olympic 200 metres have had success in the Olympic 100 metres

title: 1976 Summer Olympics medal table

text: the medal table, which remains the worst result a host nation has ever scored in the history of the Games. Nikolai Andrianov of the Soviet Union won seven medals (four gold, two silver and one bronze medals), becoming the most medalled athlete in these Games. The medal table is based on information provided by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and is consistent with IOC convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won (in this context, a nation is an entity represented by a

title: 4 × 100 metres relay at the World Championships in Athletics

text: and women's events. Those two nations share the highest medal tally at eighteen. France and Canada, with two golds each, are the only other nations to have won multiple titles. Great Britain has the third highest medal tally in the event at nine medals. Jamaica's Usain Bolt is the most successful athlete of the event, with four consecutive gold medals from 2009 to 2015 and a silver medal in 2007. His female compatriots Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce and Kerron Stewart are the next most successful, with three gold medals and two silver medals. Another Jamaican woman, Beverly McDonald, has the highest number

title: Great Britain at the 2016 Summer Olympics

text: fourth Briton with Mo Farah, Chris Hoy and Jason Kenny to successfully defend two Olympic titles at the same Games. In athletics in both the men's 5,000 and 10,000 metres Mo Farah successfully defended his Olympic titles to become Britain's most successful ever Olympic track and field athlete with four golds between 2012 and 2016, while Christine Ohorougu, despite failing to reach the 400 metres final, became the second British track and field athlete, after Steve Backley, to win medals in three successive Games anchoring the Great Britain team to bronze in the 4 × 400 metres relay. In swimming

title: 2008 Summer Olympics medal table

text: from China won the most gold medals, with 48 gold medals. Athletes from the United States won the most total medals, with 112. Afghanistan, Mauritius, Sudan, Tajikistan and Togo won their first Olympic medals. Athletes from Mongolia (which previously held the record for most medals without a gold) and Panama won their first gold medals. Serbian swimmer Milorad Čavić won the first medal for the country as an independent NOC. Serbian athletes have previously won medals as nationals of Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro. Samoa won its first Olympic medal due to medals reallocation after the IOC retested doping samples

title: Ray Ewry

text: three events (200-meter individual medley, 100-meter butterfly, and 200-meter butterfly). Phelps equaled Ewry's record in 2012, when he won his third gold in the 100 meter butterfly on August 3, having won his third in the 200-meter individual medley on August 2. Ewry currently holds the record for the most Olympic medals with a 100% record - 8 individual golds. Ray Ewry Raymond "Ray" Clarence Ewry (October 14, 1873 – September 29, 1937) was an American track and field athlete who won eight gold medals at the Olympic Games and two gold medals at the Intercalated Games (1906 in Athens).

title: Marc Gagnon

text: in the inaugural 1500 m event, and two golds; in the 500 m and again as a part of the relay team. Even his disqualification in the 1000 m was memorable, as it was the first of an improbable series of events that led to Australian Steven Bradbury winning arguably the most unlikely gold medal in Olympic history. Winning a total of five medals in three consecutive Winter Games made him the most decorated Canadian athlete in Winter Olympic history until 2006. He has now been overtaken by long track speed skater Cindy Klassen and long track speed skater/road cyclist

title: Great Britain at the Olympics

text: different events, having reached the top step in four different disciplines – men's kilo, men's team sprint, men's match sprint and men's kierin. Cyclist Sir Bradley Wiggins has the most overall medals by a British Olympian (and thus often referred to in the media as the "most decorated British Olympian") with eight. Sir Steve Redgrave is the only British Olympian to win a gold medal in five consecutive Olympic Games, winning his first in 1984 Los Angeles and last in 2000 Sydney. With five golds and a bronze, Redgrave is the most successful Olympic male rower of all time. The

title: 1500 metres at the Olympics

text: win) and, soon after, Sebastian Coe became the first man to do so in 1984. No athlete of either sex has won more than two medals. Historically, athletes in this event have also had success in the 800 metres at the Olympics. Kelly Holmes was the last athlete to win both events at the same Olympics in 2004. 2012 1500m gold medalist Taoufik Makhloufi made both podiums without winning gold in 2016. Great Britain is the most successful nation in the event, having won six gold medals and a total of fourteen. Kenya has the next highest number of gold

title: 1972 Summer Olympics medal table

text: American swimmer Mark Spitz won seven events, breaking the record for most gold medals by a single athlete in a single Olympic Games. Soviet gymnast Olga Korbut delivered another memorable performance. She entered the Olympics as an alternate on the Soviet gymnastics team, and replaced an injured teammate before the start of the competition. Korbut performed well during the team competition and captured the global television audience with her personality. She helped the Soviet team win its sixth straight Olympic title and went on to win two more individual gold medals and one silver. Japanese gymnast Sawao Kato won three

title: 1948 Summer Olympics

text: medals, 38. The host nation won 23 medals, three of them gold. One of the star performers at the Games was Dutch sprinter Fanny Blankers-Koen. Dubbed "The Flying Housewife", the thirty-year-old mother of two won four gold medals in athletics. In the decathlon, American Bob Mathias became the youngest male ever to win an Olympic gold medal at the age of seventeen. The most individual medals were won by Veikko Huhtanen of Finland who took three golds, a silver and a bronze in men's gymnastics. In June 1939, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) awarded the 1944 Olympic Summer Games to

title: Michelle Carter (athlete)

text: American to win any medal (Earlene Brown, bronze medal, 1960). Carter broke her own American Record with the Olympic Gold Medal-winning toss of 20.63 meters or 67' 8 1/4". She finished fifteenth at the 2008 Olympic Games and fourth at the 2012 Olympic Games. A Bronze Medalist at the 2015 and 2017 IAAF World Championships, Carter also won the Gold Medal at the 2016 World Indoor Championships after winning the Bronze Medal in 2012. She won the Silver Medal at the 2001 World Youth Championships and the Gold Medal at the 2004 World Junior Championships. In addition to winning the

title: Italy at the Olympics

text: times in the Winter Olympic Games. In total Italy has finished in the top 10 of the medal count 33 times. According to the official count of the International Olympic Committee, Italy has won 577 medals at Summer Olympics. The Italian athlete who won the most medals in the history of the Olympic Games, is the fencer Edoardo Mangiarotti. In this table (sorted by individual totals gold medals), the men who have won gold individual medals at the Olympics (but also at the World Championships). In this table, the women who have won gold individual medals at the Olympics and

title: 5000 metres at the Olympics

text: metres at the Olympics. The winner of the men's Olympic 5000 m has completed a long-distance track double on nine occasions, the most recent being Farah at the 2016 Rio Olympics. Tirunesh Dibaba is the only woman to complete this double, having done so at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Ethiopia is the most successful nation in the event, having taken six gold medals and fifteen medals in total. The next most successful nation, depending on definition, is either Finland or Kenya. In terms of gold medals, Finland is equal with Ethiopia at six, but has a total of twelve overall

title: 2016 Summer Olympics medal table

text: most nations winning a medal at a single edition of the Olympics. However, following reallocation due to doping sanctions, an 87th country was later awarded a medal at the 2008 Olympics, tying the record. Athletes from 59 nations earned gold medals at these games, also breaking the record for the most number of nations winning gold at a single games. Great Britain became the first country in the history of the modern Olympics to increase their tally of medals in the subsequent games after being the host nation – winning 67 total medals (with 27 golds) at these games compared

title: Marit Bjørgen

text: in Sochi in the 15 km skiathlon, the Team sprint and the 30km freestyle race. These three Olympic medals brought her total up to ten, equaling the record for most Winter Olympic medals held by a woman, already achieved by Stefania Belmondo and Raisa Smetanina; but of the three record holders at the time, Bjørgen had the most golds. Bjørgen is a five-time Olympian, having competed in every Winter Olympics since Salt Lake City in 2002 where she won her first silver medal. At the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang she won her 11th–15th Olympic medals, the highest number of

title: 4 × 100 metres relay at the Olympics

text: disqualify a team because of a doping offense of one athlete. Frank Wykoff, Evelyn Ashford and Usain Bolt are the most successful athletes in the event, having each won three gold medals. In terms of total career medals, the most successful is Jamaica's Veronica Campbell-Brown with four (one gold and three silvers). Only two other athletes have won three medals in the event: Marlies Göhr (twice champion) and Lyudmila Zharkova. 4 × 100 metres relay at the Olympics The 4×100 metres relay at the Summer Olympics is the shortest track relay event held at the multi-sport event. The men's relay

title: Great Britain at the 2012 Summer Olympics

text: the nation's first gold medal in his sport for 12 years. By winning two gold medals in London, track cyclist Chris Hoy emerged as Great Britain's most successful athlete in Olympic history with a total of seven medals, including six golds which surpassed the five golds won by former rower Steve Redgrave. Hoy also tied for the most total Olympic medals for a Briton with road cyclist Bradley Wiggins, who won the gold in men's time trial. Ben Ainslie became the most successful sailor in Olympic history, after winning his fourth gold medal in the Finn class. With three medals

title: High jump at the Olympics

text: Only two athletes have won two Olympic high jump titles, both women: Iolanda Balaş and Ulrike Meyfarth. The United States has been the most successful nation in this event, with an American topping the podium on seventeen occasions. A standing high jump variant of the event was contested from 1900 to 1912 and standing jumps specialist Ray Ewry won all but one of the gold medals in its brief history. From 1900 to 1912 a variation of the event was contested at the Olympics where athletes had to high jump from a standing position. This was one of three standing

title: Michael Phelps

text: of eight medals of any color at a single Games by winning six gold and two bronze medals. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Phelps won four gold and two silver medals, and at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, he won five gold medals and one silver. This made him the most successful athlete of the Games for the fourth Olympics in a row. Phelps is the long course world record holder in the men's 100 meter butterfly, 200 meter butterfly, and 400 meter individual medley as well as the former long course world record holder

title: 2008 Summer Olympics

text: one gold medal, both of these figures setting new records for Olympic Games. There were 117 participating countries that did not win any medals. Athletes from China won the highest number of gold medals of any nation at these Games, with 48, thus making China the seventh nation to rank top in the medal table in the history of the modern Olympics, along with the United States (fifteen times), France (in 1900), Great Britain (in 1908), Germany (in 1936), the Soviet Union (six times), and the Unified Team (in 1992). The United States team won the most medals overall, with

title: List of multiple Olympic medalists

text: American swimmer Michael Phelps has won the most Olympic medals with 28 medals (23 gold, 3 silver, 2 bronze). He is also the most decorated Olympian in individual events, with 16 medals (13 gold, 2 silver, 1 bronze). Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen is the most decorated Winter Olympian, with 15 medals (8 gold, 4 silver, and 3 bronze).

title: Olympic Games ceremony

text: indoor events. A three–tiered rostrum is used for the three medal winners, with the gold medal winner ascending to the highest platform, in the centre, with the silver and bronze medalists flanking. The medals are awarded by a member of the IOC. The IOC member is usually accompanied by a person from sports federation governing the sport (such as IAAF in athletics or FINA in swimming), who presents each athlete with a small bouquet of flowers. When the Games were held in Athens in 2004, the medal winners also received olive wreaths in honor of the tradition at the Ancient

title: 800 metres at the Olympics

text: 1500 metres at the Olympics. Holmes was the last athlete to win both events at the same Olympics in 2004. 2012 1500m gold medalist Taoufik Makhloufi made both podiums without winning gold in 2016. Alberto Juantorena in 1976 also won the 400 metres gold medal in the same Olympics, only three other men and one woman have been able to medal in both events. The United States is the most successful nation, having nine gold medals and 24 medals in total. The next most successful nations are Great Britain (eight gold and 12 medals overall) and Kenya (5 golds among

title: Pole vault at the Olympics

text: first female Olympic pole vault champion over 100 years later in 2000. Thiago Braz da Silva and Ekaterini Stefanidi are the reigning Olympic champions from 2016. Yelena Isinbayeva and Bob Richards are the only two athletes to win two Olympic pole vault titles, and also the only two athletes to win more than two Olympic medals in the discipline. The United States is by far the most successful nation in the event, having won 21 gold medals and 49 medals in total. France is the next most successful with three gold medallists. The 1906 Intercalated Games were held in Athens

title: China at the 2012 Summer Olympics

text: Among the nation's medalists were Sun Yang and Ye Shiwen, who emerged as China's first swimmers to win two gold medals in their events; Sun and Ye broke a world record and an Olympic record respectively. Sun also dominated the nation's Olympic medal standings, winning four medals. Gymnast Zou Kai, who won two golds and one bronze in London, became the most successful Chinese athlete in history with a total of six Olympic medals. Springboard diver Wu Minxia became the first Chinese athlete to win a gold medal in a single event at three consecutive Olympic Games. Meanwhile, Chen Ruolin

title: Venus Williams

text: and most recent grand slam singles finals appearances. Williams has won four Olympic gold medals, one in singles and three in women's doubles, along with a silver medal in mixed doubles, pulling even with Kathleen McKane Godfree for the most Olympic medals won by a male or female tennis player. She is the only tennis player to have won a medal at four Olympic Games. At the 2000 Sydney Olympics, Williams became only the second player to win Olympic gold medals in both singles and doubles at the same Olympic Games, after Helen Wills Moody in 1924. With 49 singles

title: List of multiple Olympic medalists

short_answers:
American swimmer Michael Phelps
Marit Bjørgen
Michael Phelps


question: what is the highest base on the ph scale

answers: greater than 14

title: PH

text: fluoride ions, the free scale is significantly different from both the total and seawater scales. Because of the relative unimportance of the fluoride ion, the total and seawater scales differ only very slightly. The pH of different cellular compartments, body fluids, and organs is usually tightly regulated in a process called acid-base homeostasis. The most common disorder in acid-base homeostasis is acidosis, which means an acid overload in the body, generally defined by pH falling below 7.35. Alkalosis is the opposite condition, with blood pH being excessively high. The pH of blood is usually slightly basic with a value of

title: PH

text: PH In chemistry, pH () is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions. More precisely it is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion. At 25 °C, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. The neutral value of the pH depends on the temperature, being lower than 7 if the

title: PH

text: the Hammett acidity function, "H", has been developed in connection with superacids. The concept of "unified pH scale" has been developed on the basis of the absolute chemical potential of the proton. This model uses the Lewis acid–base definition. This scale applies to liquids, gases and even solids. In 2010, a new "unified absolute pH scale" has been proposed that would allow various pH ranges across different solutions to use a common proton reference standard. Pure water is neutral. When an acid is dissolved in water, the pH will be less than 7 (25 °C). When a base, or alkali,

title: Weak base

text: the solution determines pH. Weak bases will have a higher H concentration because they are less completely protonated than stronger bases and, therefore, more hydrogen ions remain in the solution. If you plug in a higher H concentration into the formula, a low pH results. However, pH of bases is usually calculated using the OH concentration to find the pOH first. This is done because the H concentration is not a part of the reaction, while the OH concentration is. By multiplying a conjugate acid (such as NH) and a conjugate base (such as NH) the following is given: Since

title: Wastewater discharge standards in Latin America

text: get 5 points. Later, an average is taken from all the parameters of the country, giving the index a relative position of all the countries. Afterwards, all the values are classified using quartiles. A summary with the values of each country is presented below. The pH is a chemical parameter that measures the acidity or basicity of the water and is commonly measured in situ. Distilled water has a pH of 7, where less than 7 is considered acid and greater than 7 is considered basic. In most cases, low pH is due to organic overloading and low oxygen conditions

title: PH indicator

text: the concentration of the conjugate base is 10 times greater than the concentration of the acid, their ratio is 10:1, and consequently the pH is p"K" + 1. Conversely, if a 10-fold excess of the acid occurs with respect to the base, the ratio is 1:10 and the pH is p"K" − 1. For optimal accuracy, the color difference between the two species should be as clear as possible, and the narrower the pH range of the color change the better. In some indicators, such as phenolphthalein, one of the species is colorless, whereas in other indicators, such as methyl

title: PH

text: to −log(0.01), that is, pH = 2. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is an example of a strong base. The p[OH] value of a 0.01M solution of NaOH is equal to −log(0.01), that is, p[OH] = 2. From the definition of p[OH] above, this means that the pH is equal to about 12. For solutions of sodium hydroxide at higher concentrations the self-ionization equilibrium must be taken into account. Self-ionization must also be considered when concentrations are extremely low. Consider, for example, a solution of hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 5×10M. The simple procedure given above would suggest that it has

title: PH

text: pH measurements. The concentration of hydroxide ions in water is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions by where "K" is the self-ionisation constant of water. Taking logarithms So, at room temperature, pOH ≈ 14 − pH. However this relationship is not strictly valid in other circumstances, such as in measurements of soil alkalinity. Measurement of pH below about 2.5 (ca. 0.003 mol dm acid) and above about 10.5 (ca. 0.0003 mol dm alkaline) requires special procedures because, when using the glass electrode, the Nernst law breaks down under those conditions. Various factors contribute to this. It cannot be assumed

title: Weak base

text: formula_4 then, formula_5 By taking logarithms of both sides of the equation, the following is reached: Finally, multiplying throughout the equation by -1, the equation turns into: After acquiring pOH from the previous pOH formula, pH can be calculated using the formula pH = pK - pOH where pK = 14.00. Weak bases exist in chemical equilibrium much in the same way as weak acids do, with a base dissociation constant (K) indicating the strength of the base. For example, when ammonia is put in water, the following equilibrium is set up: Bases that have a large K will ionize

title: Acid–base imbalance

text: Acid–base imbalance Acid–base imbalance is an abnormality of the human body's normal balance of acids and bases that causes the plasma pH to deviate out of the normal range (7.35 to 7.45). In the fetus, the normal range differs based on which umbilical vessel is sampled (umbilical vein pH is normally 7.25 to 7.45; umbilical artery pH is normally 7.18 to 7.38). It can exist in varying levels of severity, some life-threatening. An excess of acid is called acidosis or acidemia and an excess in bases is called alkalosis or alkalemia. The process that causes the imbalance is classified based

title: PH

text: than three reagents. The calculation of hydrogen ion concentrations, using this formalism, is a key element in the determination of equilibrium constants by potentiometric titration. PH In chemistry, pH () is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions. More precisely it is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion. At 25 °C, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and

title: PH

text: to a straight line with respect to standard buffer values. Commercial standard buffer solutions usually come with information on the value at 25 °C and a correction factor to be applied for other temperatures. The pH scale is logarithmic and therefore pH is a dimensionless quantity. This was the original definition of Sørensen, which was superseded in favor of pH in 1909. However, it is possible to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions directly, if the electrode is calibrated in terms of hydrogen ion concentrations. One way to do this, which has been used extensively, is to titrate a solution

title: Soil

text: assumed occupied by base-forming cations, so that the percentage base saturation is 15/20 x 100% = 75% (the compliment 25% is assumed acid-forming cations). When the soil pH is 7 (neutral), base saturation is 100 percent and there are no hydrogen ions stored on the colloids. Base saturation is almost in direct proportion to pH (increases with increasing pH). It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil. The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of acid forming ions on the colloids not just those

title: PH

text: pH 7.365. This value is often referred to as physiological pH in biology and medicine. Plaque can create a local acidic environment that can result in tooth decay by demineralization. Enzymes and other proteins have an optimum pH range and can become inactivated or denatured outside this range. The calculation of the pH of a solution containing acids and/or bases is an example of a chemical speciation calculation, that is, a mathematical procedure for calculating the concentrations of all chemical species that are present in the solution. The complexity of the procedure depends on the nature of the solution. For

title: Soil pH

text: are rare. Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as it affects many chemical processes. It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions they undergo. The optimum pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.5; however, many plants have adapted to thrive at pH values outside this range. The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service classifies soil pH ranges as follows: Methods of determining pH include: Precise, repeatable measures of soil pH are required for scientific research and monitoring. This generally

title: PH indicator

text: the concentration of the conjugate base is greater than the concentration of the acid, and the color associated with the conjugate base dominates. If pH is below the p"K" value, the converse is true. Usually, the color change is not instantaneous at the p"K" value, but a pH range exists where a mixture of colors is present. This pH range varies between indicators, but as a rule of thumb, it falls between the p"K" value plus or minus one. This assumes that solutions retain their color as long as at least 10% of the other species persists. For example, if

title: Weak base

text: become. As seen above, the strength of a base depends primarily on pH. To help describe the strengths of weak bases, it is helpful to know the percentage protonated-the percentage of base molecules that have been protonated. A lower percentage will correspond with a lower pH because both numbers result from the amount of protonation. A weak base is less protonated, leading to a lower pH and a lower percentage protonated. The typical proton transfer equilibrium appears as such: B represents the base. In this formula, [B] is the initial molar concentration of the base, assuming that no protonation has

title: Soil pH

text: Soil pH Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a soil. pH is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the activity of hydronium ions ( or, more precisely, ) in a solution. In soils, it is measured in a slurry of soil mixed with water (or a salt solution, such as 0.01 M ), and normally falls between 3 and 10, with 7 being neutral. Acid soils have a pH below 7 and alkaline soils have a pH above 7. Ultra-acidic soils (pH < 3.5) and very strongly alkaline soils (pH > 9)

title: Calcium reactor

text: dissolves. This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor. The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5–6.8. When the pH rises above a certain level, a valve opens, allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor. The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level. Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump. This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank. If the probe detects a low pH level, the pump activates. The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO gas. Calcium reactor In marine

title: PH indicator

text: frequently weak acids or weak bases. The general reaction scheme of a pH indicator can be formulated as: Here, HInd stands for the acid form and Ind for the conjugate base of the indicator. The ratio of these determines the color of the solution and connects the color to the pH value. pH indicators that are weak protolytes, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation for them can be written as: The equation, derived from the acidity constant, states that when pH equals the p"K" value of the indicator, both species are present in a 1:1 ratio. If pH is above the p"K" value,

title: PH

text: upon the abundance of fluoride in the medium. In seawater, for instance, sulfate ions occur at much greater concentrations (>400 times) than those of fluoride. As a consequence, for most practical purposes, the difference between the total and seawater scales is very small. The following three equations summarise the three scales of pH: In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales differ in their values by up to 0.12 pH units, differences that are much larger than the accuracy of pH measurements typically required, in particular, in relation to the ocean's carbonate system. Since it omits consideration of sulfate and

title: Weak base

text: more completely and are thus stronger bases. As stated above, pH of the solution depends on the H concentration, which is related to the OH concentration by the self-ionization constant (K = 1.0x10). A strong base has a lower H concentration because they are fully protonated and less hydrogen ions remain in the solution. A lower H concentration also means a higher OH concentration and therefore, a larger K. NaOH (s) (sodium hydroxide) is a stronger base than (CHCH)NH (l) (diethylamine) which is a stronger base than NH (g) (ammonia). As the bases get weaker, the smaller the K values

title: Ion speciation

text: at the right. A practical application of these results is that the "pH transition range" of a pH indicator is approximately p"K" ± 1; the colour of the indicator in its acid form is different from the colour of the conjugate base form. In the transition range both forms are in equilibrium, so the colour is intermediate. Outside the transition range the concentration of acid or conjugate base is less than 10% and the colour of the major species dominates. A "weak acid" may be "defined" as an acid with p"K" greater than about −2. An acid with p"K" =

title: PH

text: cause changes in electrode potential. To resolve this problem, an alternative series of buffers based on artificial seawater was developed. This new series resolves the problem of ionic strength differences between samples and the buffers, and the new pH scale is referred to as the 'total scale', often denoted as pH. The total scale was defined using a medium containing sulfate ions. These ions experience protonation, H + SO HSO, such that the total scale includes the effect of both protons (free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen sulfate ions: An alternative scale, the 'free scale', often denoted 'pH', omits this consideration

title: pH

title: PH indicator

text: range p"K" ± 1, but this range can be extended by using mixtures of two or more indicators. Because indicators have intense absorption spectra, the indicator concentration is relatively low, and the indicator itself is assumed to have a negligible effect on pH. In acid-base titrations, an unfitting pH indicator may induce a color change in the indicator-containing solution before or after the actual equivalence point. As a result, different equivalence points for a solution can be concluded based on the pH indicator used. This is because the slightest color change of the indicator-containing solution suggests the equivalence point has

title: Ripeness in viticulture

text: most wineries will us a pH meter that can give readings to an accuracy of plus or minus 0.1. As with sugars and acids, the ideal pH levels to determine ripeness will vary. For white wines, winemakers often look for pH readings between 3.1 and 3.2, while would be a maximum of 3.4. If the pH is too high, it may be a sign that the grapes are overripe (or that the soil has too much potassium which will also influence pH readings). While there are risks to letting the pH go too high, winemakers can counter high pH by

title: PH

text: strong acids and bases no calculations are necessary except in extreme situations. The pH of a solution containing a weak acid requires the solution of a quadratic equation. The pH of a solution containing a weak base may require the solution of a cubic equation. The general case requires the solution of a set of non-linear simultaneous equations. A complicating factor is that water itself is a weak acid and a weak base (see amphoterism). It dissociates according to the equilibrium with a dissociation constant, defined as where [H] stands for the concentration of the aqueous hydronium ion and [OH]

title: PH

text: as the silver chloride electrode. The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. There are three current theories used to describe acid–base reactions: Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis when determining pH. The concept of pH was first introduced by the Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen at the Carlsberg Laboratory in 1909 and revised to the modern pH in 1924 to accommodate definitions and measurements in terms of electrochemical cells. In the first papers, the notation had the "H" as a subscript to the lowercase "p", as so: p. The

title: PH

text: represents the concentration of the hydroxide ion. This equilibrium needs to be taken into account at high pH and when the solute concentration is extremely low. Strong acids and bases are compounds that, for practical purposes, are completely dissociated in water. Under normal circumstances this means that the concentration of hydrogen ions in acidic solution can be taken to be equal to the concentration of the acid. The pH is then equal to minus the logarithm of the concentration value. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is an example of a strong acid. The pH of a 0.01M solution of HCl is equal

title: pH

long_answer: In chemistry, pH (/piːˈeɪtʃ/) (potential of hydrogen) is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions. More precisely it is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH 7 (25 °C), being neither an acid nor a base. Contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively.