question: name the four major layers of the earth in order

answers: a liquid outer core

answers: an outer silicate solid crust

answers: a highly viscous mantle

answers: a solid inner core

title: Pedosphere

text: Pedosphere The pedosphere (from Greek πέδον "pedon" "soil" or "earth" and σφαῖρα "sphaira" "sphere") is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The pedosphere is the skin of the Earth and only develops when there is a dynamic interaction between the atmosphere (air in and above the soil), biosphere (living organisms), lithosphere (unconsolidated regolith and consolidated bedrock) and the hydrosphere (water in, on and below the soil). The pedosphere is the foundation of terrestrial life on Earth. The

title: Geosphere

text: referred to as the "geopause," to suggest the relative scarcity of such matter beyond it, where the solar wind dominates. Geosphere There are several conflicting definitions for geosphere. The geosphere may be taken as the collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. In Aristotelian physics, the term was applied to four spherical "natural places", concentrically nested around the center of the Earth, as described in the lectures "Physica" and "Meteorologica". They were believed to explain the motions of the four "terrestrial elements:" "Earth", "Water", "Air" and "Fire". In modern texts and in Earth system science,

title: Structure of the Earth

text: the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth are at the following depths below the surface: The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large

title: Four corners of the world

text: Four corners of the world Several cosmological and mythological systems portray four corners of the world or four quarters of the world corresponding approximately to the four points of the compass (or the two solstices and two equinoxes). At the center may lie a sacred mountain, garden, world tree, or other beginning-point of creation. Often four rivers run to the four corners of the world, and water or irrigate the four quadrants of the Earth. In Christianity and Judaism, the Old Testament () identifies the Garden of Eden, and the four rivers as the Tigris, Euphrates, Pishon, and Gihon. The

title: Four Seas

text: Four Seas The Four Seas () were four bodies of water that metaphorically made up the boundaries of ancient China. There is a sea for each for the four cardinal directions. The West Sea is Qinghai Lake, the East Sea is the East China Sea, the North Sea is Lake Baikal, and the South Sea is the South China Sea. Two of the seas were symbolic until they were tied to genuine locations during the Han Dynasty's wars with the Xiongnu. The lands "within the Four Seas", a literary name for China, are alluded to in Chinese literature and poetry.

title: Koreshanity

text: center. Inside the earth there are three separate atmospheres: the first composed of oxygen and nitrogen and closest to the earth; the second, a hydrogen atmosphere above it; the third, an aboron (sic) atmosphere at the center. The earth's shell is one hundred miles thick and has seventeen layers. The outer seven are metallic with a gold rind on the outermost layer, the middle five are mineral and the five inward are geologic strata. Inside the shell there is life, outside a void. Teed proposed the creation of a "New Jerusalem" as an ideal commune for his followers, to be

title: Natural environment

text: cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere, as well as the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geographical sciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the principal areas or "spheres" of Earth. The Earth's crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of

title: Geosphere

text: Geosphere There are several conflicting definitions for geosphere. The geosphere may be taken as the collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. In Aristotelian physics, the term was applied to four spherical "natural places", concentrically nested around the center of the Earth, as described in the lectures "Physica" and "Meteorologica". They were believed to explain the motions of the four "terrestrial elements:" "Earth", "Water", "Air" and "Fire". In modern texts and in Earth system science, geosphere refers to the solid parts of the Earth; it is used along with atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere to describe

title: Chthonic

text: connecting two horizontally stacked décollements and thus "under the earth". Chthonic Chthonic (, ; from , "in, under, or beneath the earth", from "earth") literally means "subterranean", but the word in English describes deities or spirits of the underworld, especially in Ancient Greek religion. The Greek word is one of several for "earth"; it typically refers to that which is under the earth, rather than the living surface of the land (as "Gaia" or "Ge" does), or the land as territory (as does). Chthonic, a form of "khthonie" and "khthonios", has a precise meaning in Greek; it refers primarily to

title: Earth (classical element)

text: as 白虎 ("Bái Hǔ") in Chinese, "Byakko" in Japanese, "Bạch Hổ" in Vietnamese and "Baekho" (백호, Hanja:白虎) in Korean. "Earth" is represented in the Aztec religion by a house; to the Hindus, a lotus; to the Scythians, a plough; to the Greeks, a wheel; and in Christian iconography; bulls and birds. Earth (classical element) Earth is one of the classical elements, in some systems numbering four along with air, fire, and water. Earth is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. It was commonly associated with qualities of heaviness, matter and the terrestrial world. Due

title: Four Mountains

text: Four Mountains Four Mountains () variously interpreted from Chinese mythology or the most ancient level of Chinese history as being a person or four persons or four gods, depending upon the specific source. The figures feature prominently in the myth of the Great Flood, and the related myths of Emperor Yao (in whose reign the Great Flood began), Gun, Shun (Yao's successor as emperor), and Yu the Great (who finally controlled the flood waters during the reign of Shun, and later succeeded him as emperor). Mythologist Yang Lihui sees Four Mountains as four gods of a set of four mountains,

title: Sima (geology)

text: Sima (geology) In geology, sima is the name for the lower layer of the Earth's crust. This layer is made of rocks rich in magnesium silicate minerals. Typically when the sima comes to the surface it is basalt, so sometimes this layer is called the 'basalt layer' of the crust. The sima layer is also called the 'basal crust' or 'basal layer' because it is the lowest layer of the crust. Because the ocean floors are mainly sima, it is also sometimes called the 'oceanic crust'. The name 'sima' was taken from the first two letters of silica and of

title: Earth (classical element)

text: Earth (classical element) Earth is one of the classical elements, in some systems numbering four along with air, fire, and water. Earth is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. It was commonly associated with qualities of heaviness, matter and the terrestrial world. Due to the hero cults, and chthonic underworld deities, the element of "earth" is also associated with the sensual aspects of both life and death in later occultism. Empedocles of Acragas proposed four "archai" by which to understand the cosmos: "fire"," air", "water", and "earth". Plato believed the elements were geometric forms

title: Four Mountains

text: the figure of Four Mountains to the Chinese cosmological idea of a square earth, with each of the peaks representing one of the four cardinal directions which the ruler would tour, and at which he would perform various imperial rituals, upon taking possession of his realm. The person or person(s) of Four Mountains being afterwards present in court then symbolized the completion of the ruler's having taken possession of his entire realm. Four Mountains Four Mountains () variously interpreted from Chinese mythology or the most ancient level of Chinese history as being a person or four persons or four gods,

title: Four corners of the world

text: four sides, from which four rivers flow to the four quarters of the world (the Ganges, Indus, Oxus (Amu Darya), and Śita (Tarim)), dividing the world into four quadrants. Another account portrays a celestial mountain, Mount Meru, buttressed by four terrestrial mountain ranges which extend in four directions. Between them lie four sacred lakes, through which the celestial river divides into four earthly rivers, which flow to the four corners and irrigate the four quadrants of the Earth. Buddhism and the Bon religion of Tibet have similar accounts. Four corners of the world Several cosmological and mythological systems portray four

title: Geology of solar terrestrial planets

text: (found in limestone), aragonite, and dolomite. The pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Currently the total arable land is 13.31% of the land surface, with only 4.71% supporting permanent crops. Close to 40% of the Earth's land surface is presently used for cropland and pasture, or an estimated of cropland and of pastureland. The physical features of land are remarkably varied. The largest mountain ranges—the Himalayas in Asia and the Andes in South America—extend for

title: Earth in culture

text: deity. The name "Earth" derives from the eighth century Anglo-Saxon word "erda", which means ground or soil. It became "eorthe" later, and then "erthe" in Middle English. These words are all cognates of Jörð, the name of the giantess of Norse myth. Earth was first used as the name of the sphere of the Earth in the early fifteenth century. The planet's name in Latin, used academically and scientifically in the West during the Renaissance, is the same as that of Terra Mater, the Roman goddess, which translates to English as Mother Earth. The standard astronomical symbol of the Earth

title: Soil horizon

text: called “layers”. Some soil scientists use the word layer in a more general way, including the horizons "sensu stricto". Many soils have an organic surface layer, which is denominated with a capital letter (different letters, depending from the system). The mineral soil usually starts with an A horizon. If a well-developed subsoil horizon as a result of soil formation exists, it is generally called a B horizon. An underlying loose, but poorly developed horizon is called a C horizon. Hard bedrock is mostly denominated R. Most individual systems defined more horizons and layers than just these five. In the following,

title: Land

text: area—it is also used as two words. Landmasses include supercontinents, continents, and islands. There are four major continuous landmasses on Earth: Afro-Eurasia, the Americas, Antarctica and Australia. Land, capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops, is called arable land. A country or region may be referred to as the motherland, fatherland, or homeland of its people. Many countries and other places have names incorporating -land (e.g. New Zealand). The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to (billion years ago); therefore, the Earth itself must have been formed by accretion around this time. By , the

title: Mesosphere (mantle)

text: The base of the lower mantle is at about 2700 km. "Mesosphere" (not to be confused with mesosphere, a layer of the atmosphere) is derived from “mesospheric shell”, coined by Reginald Aldworth Daly, a Harvard University geology professor. In the pre-plate tectonics era, Daly (1940) inferred that the outer Earth consisted of three spherical layers: lithosphere (including the crust), asthenosphere, and mesospheric shell. Daly’s hypothetical depths to the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary ranged from , and the top of the mesospheric shell (base of the asthenosphere) were from . Thus, Daly’s asthenosphere was inferred to be thick. According to Daly, the base

title: Earth

text: Earth is metamorphic rock, which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth's surface include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine. Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and dolomite. The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about . The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of soil

title: Four Mountains

text: importance of Four Mountains can be seen in their key role in selecting Gun to be the first to be put in charge of controlling the flood, then, later, in nominating Shun to be Yao's co-emperor, and later successor. The name "Four Mountains" in Chinese uses 四 (sì), the standard character/word for the number four, plus 嶽 (yuè), which refers to a great mountain, or the highest peak of a mountain — in contrast to the usual word for mountain, 山 (shān), which may also be used to refer to a mere foothill or other geological prominence. Anthony Christie relates

title: Core–mantle boundary

text: his 1942 publication of his model, the entire lower mantle was the D layer. In 1950, Bullen found his 'D' layer to actually be two different layers. The upper part of the D layer, about 1800 km thick, was renamed D′ (D prime) and the lower part (the bottom 200 km) was named D″. A seismic discontinuity occurs within Earth's interior at a depth of about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) below the surface, where there is an abrupt change in the speed of seismic waves (generated by earthquakes or explosions) that travel through Earth. At this depth, primary seismic waves

title: Elysium (Dungeons & Dragons)

text: fourth layer of the plane. The river itself continually splits and recombines at many points throughout its course across Elysium. One of the "Planescape" factions, "The Transcendent Order", also maintains a large presence here. Although they don't keep an official headquarters, they can be found throughout the plane, following their hearts and generally striving for greater harmony with their surroundings. As an outer plane, Elysium is spatially infinite, further consisting of four infinite layers (or sub-planes). Elysium’s first layer shares borders with the neighbouring planes of the Wilderness of the Beastlands and the Twin Paradises of Bytopia; travel is possible

title: Mantle (geology)

text: Mantle (geology) The mantle is a layer inside a planetary body bounded below by a core and above by a crust. Mantles are made of rock or ices, and are generally the largest and most massive layer of the planetary body. Mantles are characteristic of planetary bodies that have undergone differentiation by density. All terrestrial planets (including Earth), a number of asteroids, and some planetary moons have mantles. The Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core. Its mass of 4.01 × 10 kg is 67% the mass of the Earth. It has

title: Land

text: is approximately which is about 29.2% of its total surface. Water covers approximately 70.8% of Earth's surface, mainly in the form of oceans and ice formations. Creation myths in many religions recall a story involving the creation of the world by a supernatural deity or deities, including accounts wherein the land is separated from the oceans and the air. The Earth itself has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures, the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. To the Aztecs, Earth was called "Tonantzin"—"our mother"; to the Incas, Earth was called

title: Earth science

text: in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth's history to apply knowledge of how Earth processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout deep history. Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere; these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. Earth science Earth science or geoscience includes all fields

title: Zam

text: the waters, and before that of plants and fire. The creation of the earth is described in three stages: At first, the surface of the earth was a round, flat disk, floating in the center of the waters that filled the lower half of the "sky". Then, from its surface grew up the mountains, the tallest of these being Hara Berezaiti whose outlying ranges encircled the earth and beyond which lay the world river Aredvi Sura. Finally, during the time of the fourth creation (plants), the primordial tree grew up, and was the prototype of all plants (this tree is

title: Earth

text: of Nerthus, and later Norse mythology included Jörð, a giantess often given as the mother of Thor. Originally, "earth" was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as "the globe" was expressed as "the earth". By Early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and "the earth" became (and often remained) "the Earth", particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as "Earth", by analogy with the names of the other planets. House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized

title: Structure of the Earth

title: Structure of the Earth

long_answer: The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells: an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.

short_answers:
a highly viscous mantle
a liquid outer core
a solid inner core
an outer silicate solid crust


question: how many levels of protein structure are there

answers: four

title: Protein structure prediction

text: it appears that although the number of actual proteins is vast, there is a limited set of tertiary structural motifs to which most proteins belong. It has been suggested that there are only around 2,000 distinct protein folds in nature, though there are many millions of different proteins. These methods may also be split into two groups: Homology modeling is based on the reasonable assumption that two homologous proteins will share very similar structures. Because a protein's fold is more evolutionarily conserved than its amino acid sequence, a target sequence can be modeled with reasonable accuracy on a very distantly

title: Rosetta@home

text: carry out functions within the cell. To better understand a protein's function and aid in rational drug design, scientists need to know the protein's three-dimensional tertiary structure. Protein 3D structures are currently determined experimentally via X-ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The process is slow (it can take weeks or even months to figure out how to crystallize a protein for the first time) and costly (around $100,000 USD per protein). Unfortunately, the rate at which new sequences are discovered far exceeds the rate of structure determination – out of more than 7,400,000 protein sequences available in the

title: Protein structure

text: to perform their biological function, proteins fold into one or more specific spatial conformations driven by a number of non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, Van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic packing. To understand the functions of proteins at a molecular level, it is often necessary to determine their three-dimensional structure. This is the topic of the scientific field of structural biology, which employs techniques such as X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and dual polarisation interferometry to determine the structure of proteins. Protein structures range in size from tens to several thousand amino acids. By physical size, proteins are

title: Protein structure

text: proteins are made up of amino acid residues. Post-translational modification such as disulfide bond formation, phosphorylations and glycosylations are usually also considered a part of the primary structure, and cannot be read from the gene. For example, insulin is composed of 51 amino acids in 2 chains. One chain has 31 amino acids, and the other has 20 amino acids. Secondary structure refers to highly regular local sub-structures on the actual polypeptide backbone chain. Two main types of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand or β-sheets, were suggested in 1951 by Linus Pauling and coworkers. These secondary structures are

title: HH-suite

text: a large fraction of the approximately 20 000 human proteins the structures and functions remain unknown. Many proteins have been investigated in model organisms such as many bacteria, baker's yeast, fruit flies, zebra fish or mice, for which experiments can be often done more easily than with human cells. To predict the function, structure, or other properties of a protein for which only its sequence of amino acids is known, the protein sequence is compared to the sequences of other proteins in public databases. If a protein with sufficiently similar sequence is found, the two proteins are likely to be

title: Protein structure

text: a 3-D model for a protein of unknown structure from experimental structures of evolutionarily-related proteins, called a protein family. Protein structure Protein structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in an amino acid-chain molecule. Proteins are polymers specifically polypeptides formed from sequences of amino acids, the monomers of the polymer. A single amino acid monomer may also be called a residue indicating a repeating unit of a polymer. Proteins form by amino acids undergoing condensation reactions, in which the amino acids lose one water molecule per reaction in order to attach to one another with a peptide bond. By convention,

title: Protein structure

text: polypeptide, the final structure of the protein chain is determined by its amino acid sequence (Anfinsen's dogma). Protein stability depends upon a few factors such as 1) Non-covalent electrostatic interactions 2) Hydrophobic interactions These interaction energies are from the order of 20-40 kJ/mol. Proteins are very sensitive to changing temperatures and a change in temperature may result in unfolding or denaturation. Protein denaturation may result in loss of function, and loss of native state. X-ray crystallography and calorimetry indicates that there is no general mechanism that describes the effect of temperature change on the functions and structure of proteins. This

title: Protein

text: of 50,000 to 1 million. By contrast, eukaryotic cells are larger and thus contain much more protein. For instance, yeast cells have been estimated to contain about 50 million proteins and human cells on the order of 1 to 3 billion. The concentration of individual protein copies ranges from a few molecules per cell up to 20 million. Not all genes coding proteins are expressed in most cells and their number depends on, for example, cell type and external stimuli. For instance, of the 20,000 or so proteins encoded by the human genome, only 6,000 are detected in lymphoblastoid cells.

title: Protein structure

text: Protein structure Protein structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in an amino acid-chain molecule. Proteins are polymers specifically polypeptides formed from sequences of amino acids, the monomers of the polymer. A single amino acid monomer may also be called a residue indicating a repeating unit of a polymer. Proteins form by amino acids undergoing condensation reactions, in which the amino acids lose one water molecule per reaction in order to attach to one another with a peptide bond. By convention, a chain under 30 amino acids is often identified as a peptide, rather than a protein. To be able

title: Protein structure

text: this approach, including fast parallel proteolysis (FASTpp), can probe the structured fraction and its stability without the need for purification. Once a protein's structure has been experimentally determined, further detailed studies can be done computationally, using molecular dynamic simulations of that structure. Proteins are often thought of as relatively stable structures that have a set tertiary structure and experience conformational changes as a result of being modified by other proteins or as part of enzymatic activity. However proteins have varying degrees of stability and some of the less stable variants are intrinsically disordered proteins. These proteins exist and function in

title: Protein secondary structure

text: detects π and 3 helical caps to standard α-helices, and automatically assembles the various extended strands into consistent β-pleated sheets. It provides a readable output of dissected secondary structural elements, and a corresponding PyMol-loadable script to visualize the assigned secondary structural elements individually. The rough secondary-structure content of a biopolymer (e.g., "this protein is 40% α-helix and 20% β-sheet.") can be estimated spectroscopically. For proteins, a common method is far-ultraviolet (far-UV, 170–250 nm) circular dichroism. A pronounced double minimum at 208 and 222 nm indicate α-helical structure, whereas a single minimum at 204 nm or 217 nm reflects random-coil or

title: Macromolecular crowding

text: 0.5 μm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0.6 - 0.7 μm. However, "E. coli" can contain up to 4,288 different types of proteins, and about 1,000 of these types are produced at a high enough level to be easily detected. Added to this mix are various forms of RNA and the cell's DNA chromosome, giving a total concentration of macromolecules of between 300 and 400 mg/ml. In eukaryotes the cell's interior is further crowded by the protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton, this meshwork divides the cytosol into a network of narrow pores. These high concentrations of

title: Protein domain

text: the course of evolution. There are currently about 110,000 experimentally determined protein 3D structures deposited within the Protein Data Bank (PDB). However, this set contains many identical or very similar structures. All proteins should be classified to structural families to understand their evolutionary relationships. Structural comparisons are best achieved at the domain level. For this reason many algorithms have been developed to automatically assign domains in proteins with known 3D structure; see 'Domain definition from structural co-ordinates'. The CATH domain database classifies domains into approximately 800 fold families; ten of these folds are highly populated and are referred to as

title: SOSUI

text: to a study published by SOSUI's developers it successfully differentiated 99% of a chosen group of proteins with known structure . However, another study that had several prediction tools perform on the AAS's of 122 known proteins claimed that SOSUI was correct about the number of α helices in only about 60% of the cases . But even if the number of transmembrane domains is not always exact, the differentiation between soluble and transmembrane proteins often works, as it is only necessary to find out if a protein has such a domain at all. Of course, membrane proteins which don't

title: Protein structure

text: optimized for the maximum stability. Around 90% of the protein structures available in the Protein Data Bank have been determined by X-ray crystallography. This method allows one to measure the three-dimensional (3-D) density distribution of electrons in the protein, in the crystallized state, and thereby infer the 3-D coordinates of all the atoms to be determined to a certain resolution. Roughly 9% of the known protein structures have been obtained by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. For larger protein complexes, cryo-electron microscopy can determine protein structures. The resolution is typically lower than that of X-ray crystallography, or NMR, but the

title: Protein structure

text: 2-fold axis in a dimer. Multimers made up of identical subunits are referred to with a prefix of "homo-" (e.g. a homotetramer) and those made up of different subunits are referred to with a prefix of "hetero-", for example, a heterotetramer, such as the two alpha and two beta chains of hemoglobin. Proteins are frequently described as consisting of several structural units. These units include domains, motifs, and folds. Despite the fact that there are about 100,000 different proteins expressed in eukaryotic systems, there are many fewer different domains, structural motifs and folds. A structural domain is an element of

title: Threading (protein sequence)

text: past three years have similar structural folds to ones already in the PDB. The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database provides a detailed and comprehensive description of the structural and evolutionary relationships of known structure. Proteins are classified to reflect both structural and evolutionary relatedness. Many levels exist in the hierarchy, but the principal levels are family, superfamily and fold, as described below. Family (clear evolutionary relationship): Proteins clustered together into families are clearly evolutionarily related. Generally, this means that pairwise residue identities between the proteins are 30% and greater. However, in some cases similar functions and structures provide definitive

title: Protein structure prediction

text: have more difficulty addressing the looser constraints and higher flexibility of surface residues, which often occupy multiple rotamer conformations rather than just one. Statistical methods have been developed for predicting structural classes of proteins based on their amino acid composition, pseudo amino acid composition and functional domain composition. In the case of complexes of two or more proteins, where the structures of the proteins are known or can be predicted with high accuracy, protein–protein docking methods can be used to predict the structure of the complex. Information of the effect of mutations at specific sites on the affinity of the

title: De novo protein structure prediction

text: similar amino acid sequences. Ubiquitin, for example, is a protein involved in regulating the degradation of other proteins; its amino acid sequence is nearly identical in species as far separated as "Drosophila melanogaster" and "Homo sapiens". Fourth, by thought experiment, one can deduce that protein folding must not be a completely random process and that information necessary for folding must be encoded within the primary structure. For example, if we assume that each of 100 amino acid residues within a small polypeptide could take up 10 different conformations on average, giving 10^100 different conformations for the polypeptide. If one possible

title: Protein structure prediction

text: be taken into account in molecular modeling and alignments. The α helix is the most abundant type of secondary structure in proteins. The α helix has 3.6 amino acids per turn with an H bond formed between every fourth residue; the average length is 10 amino acids (3 turns) or 10 Å but varies from 5 to 40 (1.5 to 11 turns). The alignment of the H bonds creates a dipole moment for the helix with a resulting partial positive charge at the amino end of the helix. Because this region has free NH groups, it will interact with negatively

title: Protein moonlighting

text: the enzyme's measured metabolic activity. These expression levels may signify that the protein is performing a different function than previously known. The structure of a protein can also help determine its functions. Protein structure in turn may be elucidated with various techniques including X-ray crystallography or NMR. Dual polarization interferometry may be used to measure changes in protein structure which may also give hints to the protein's function. Finally, application of systems biology approaches such as interactomics give clues to a proteins function based on what it interacts with. In the case of the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), in

title: Edward Trifonov

text: protein modules tries to address the questions of proteins evolution and protein folding. In 2000, Trifonov with Berezovsky and Grosberg studied protein sequences and tried to identify simple sequential elements in proteins. They postulated that structurally diverse closed loops of 25–30 amino acid residues are universal building blocks of protein folds. They speculated that at the beginning of the evolution, there were short polypeptide chains which later formed these closed loops. They supposed that the loops structure provided more stability to the sequence and thus was favored in the evolution. Modern proteins are probably a group of closed loops fused

title: Protein

text: 2 prolines [P], separated by 2 unspecified amino acids [x], although the surrounding amino acids may determine the exact binding specificity). A large number of such motifs has been collected in the Eukaryotic Linear Motif (ELM) database. Proteins are the chief actors within the cell, said to be carrying out the duties specified by the information encoded in genes. With the exception of certain types of RNA, most other biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act. Proteins make up half the dry weight of an "Escherichia coli" cell, whereas other macromolecules such as DNA and RNA make

title: Protein

text: protein contains at least one long polypeptide. Short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds and adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids; however, in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine and—in certain archaea—pyrrolysine. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in

title: Protein structure

text: of protein three-dimensional structure or amino acid sequence that were found in a large number of different proteins. The supersecondary structure refers to a specific combination of secondary structure elements, such as β-α-β units or a helix-turn-helix motif. Some of them may be also referred to as structural motifs. A protein fold refers to the general protein architecture, like a helix bundle, β-barrel, Rossman fold or different "folds" provided in the Structural Classification of Proteins database. A related concept is protein topology that refers to the arrangement of contacts within the protein. A superdomain consists of two or more nominally

title: Protein secondary structure

text: typically ~7 residues on either side) throughout evolution provides a much better picture of the structural tendencies near that position. For illustration, a given protein might have a glycine at a given position, which by itself might suggest a random coil there. However, multiple sequence alignment might reveal that helix-favoring amino acids occur at that position (and nearby positions) in 95% of homologous proteins spanning nearly a billion years of evolution. Moreover, by examining the average hydrophobicity at that and nearby positions, the same alignment might also suggest a pattern of residue solvent accessibility consistent with an α-helix. Taken together,

title: Biomolecular structure

text: prediction software). The "tertiary structure" of a protein or any other macromolecule is its three-dimensional structure, as defined by the atomic coordinates. Proteins and nucleic acids fold into complex three-dimensional structures which result in the molecules' functions. While such structures are diverse and complex, they are often composed of recurring, recognizable tertiary structure motifs and domains that serve as molecular building blocks. Tertiary structure is considered to be largely determined by the biomolecule's primary structure (its sequence of amino acids or nucleotides). The "quaternary structure" refers to the number and arrangement of multiple protein molecules in a multi-subunit complex. For

title: Intrinsically disordered proteins

text: V, L, and N are hydrophobic and uncharged. The remaining amino acids H, M, T and D are ambiguous, found in both ordered and unstructured regions. This information is the basis of most sequence-based predictors. Regions with little to no secondary structure, also known as NORS (NO Regular Secondary structure) regions, and low-complexity regions can easily be detected. However, not all disordered proteins contain such low complexity sequences. Determining disordered regions from biochemical methods is very costly and time-consuming. Due to the variable nature of IDPs, only certain aspects of their structure can be detected, so that a full characterization

title: Transmembrane protein

text: and are expressed at relatively low levels. This creates difficulties in obtaining enough protein and then growing crystals. Hence, despite the significant functional importance of membrane proteins, determining atomic resolution structures for these proteins is more difficult than globular proteins. As of January 2013 less than 0.1% of protein structures determined were membrane proteins despite being 20–30% of the total proteome. Due to this difficulty and the importance of this class of proteins methods of protein structure prediction based on hydropathy plots, the positive inside rule and other methods have been developed. Transmembrane α-helical proteins are unusually stable judging from

title: Protein structure

text: There are four distinct levels of protein structure.

title: Protein structure


question: what is the definition of the word hosanna

answers: save, rescue, savior

answers: rescue

answers: savior

answers: save

title: Hosanna

text: the shout of praise or adoration made in recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus on his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, "Hosanna! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord!" It is used in the same way in Christian praise. The "Hosanna Anthem", based on the phrase "Hosanna", is a traditional Moravian Church anthem written by Bishop Christian Gregor of Herrnhut sung on Palm Sunday and the first Sunday of Advent. It is antiphonal, i.e. a call-and-response song; traditionally, it is sung between the children and adult congregation, though it is not unheard of for it to

title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: A month before the film's release, a group from the Christian Secular Forum (CSF) in Mumbai strongly objected to the song "Hosanna". According to them, "Hosanna" is a sacred term in the Bible that is used by both Jews and Christians while praying, while in the film, the same term was used in a romantic sense. They demanded removal of the song, as well as an "apology for disrespecting the word", and threatened to take legal action against the film if the song was not edited out of the film's final cut. To this, music director Rahman responded, "As with

title: Hosanna shout

text: shouts of hosanna were viewed as a sealing benediction on both private and quorum prayer and then on the dedicatory prayer. At prayer meetings in the Kirtland Temple, the Saints sometimes used related phrases such as "Blessed is the name of the Most High God" and "Glory to God in the highest" (HC 2:386). The Hosanna Shout is whole-souled, given to the full limit of one's strength. The congregation stands and in unison shouts the words "Hosanna, Hosanna, Hosanna to God and the Lamb. Amen, Amen, and Amen," repeating them three times. This is usually accompanied by the rhythmic waving

title: Palm Sunday

text: of South India (CSI), Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, and Syriac Orthodox Church (Jacobite) congregations elsewhere in India and throughout the West), flowers are strewn about the sanctuary on Palm Sunday during the reading of the Gospel, at the words uttered by the crowd welcoming Jesus, "Hosanna! Blessed is he who is come and is to come in the name of the Lord God". These words are read to the congregation thrice. The congregation then repeats, "Hosanna!", and the flowers are scattered. This is adapted from the older Hindu custom of scattering flowers on festive occasions, as well as the honour shown

title: Hosanna

text: named Hussein. In arabic, Hussein is also referred to as Hussaina or Hossein/a. Shia Muslims believe that Hussein sacrificed his soul for the sake of humanity and not only Islam, which places him in the highest levels of heaven. In Jewish liturgy, the word is applied specifically to the Hoshana Service, a cycle of prayers from which a selection is sung each morning during Sukkot, the Feast of Booths or Tabernacles. Hence its relationship to Christ's arrival The complete cycle is sung on the seventh day of the festival, which is called Hoshana Rabbah (הושענא רבא, "Great Hosanna"). "Hosanna" was

title: Hosanna shout

text: Hosanna shout In the Latter Day Saint movement, a hosanna shout is an organized ritual of a congregation of shouting hosanna. It was first performed as a ritual in the dedication of the Kirtland Temple, and was a part of the Kirtland endowment ceremony. It continues to be practiced by some Latter Day Saint denominations, most notably The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which practices the ritual at the dedication of each of its temples and other important buildings. The "Encyclopedia of Mormonism" states: When the ordinance of the washing of feet was introduced at Kirtland,

title: Sanctus

text: Hosanna in the highest.</poem> The form used in the ancient Liturgy of Addai and Mari is much shorter: Holy, Holy, Holy Lord is the Lord God of hosts, for heaven and earth are full of his praises, and of the nature of his being, and for the excellency of his glorious splendor. Hosanna in the heights. Hosanna to the son of David. Blessed is he who came in the comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the heights.</poem> The Coptic version of the Liturgy of Saint Basil also gives a short text of what it calls the "Hymn

title: Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song)

text: later. In 2012, members of an organization called Christian Secular Forum (CSF) objected to the song, claiming that "Hosanna" is a sacred word. They demanded removal of the word from the song, and an apology. "Hosanna" created waves among the music lovers even before the audio release of the film. It had another grand reception when its video was released onto television channels on 10 March. The song was the most promoted song of the film and it became very popular. The song was #1 in the year end music charts of 2010, published by Sify on the number of

title: Hosanna shout

text: of white handkerchiefs with uplifted hands. The epithet "Lamb" relates to the condescension and Atonement of Jesus Christ. The Hosanna Shout memorializes the pre-earthly Council in Heaven, as "when … all the sons of God shouted for joy" (Job 38:7). It also recalls the hosannas and the waving of palm branches accorded the Messiah as he entered Jerusalem. And hosannas welcomed him as he appeared to the Nephites. [LDS Church] President Lorenzo Snow taught that this shout will herald the Messiah when he comes in the glory of the Father (cf. 1 Thes. 4:16). The worldwide membership of the LDS

title: Hosanna

text: Love People". In the 1969 Broadway musical 1776 the word is used repeatedly as part of the chorus of the song "Cool, Cool, Considerate Men." A. R. Rahman composed the song "Hosanna" for the 2010 Tamil movie "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa". Here the word is used as an exclamation of joy when a man sees his beloved. The Christian Catholic Secular Forum (CSF) objected to this song and asked film-makers Fox Star Studios to remove it from the final cut of the Hindi remake of the film, "Ekk Deewana Tha". Paul McCartney's album New, released in 2013, features a song titled Hosanna.

title: Hosanna

text: be done in other ways, such as between choir and congregation, or played between trombone choirs. Architect Frank Lloyd Wright famously used the word in his exclamation "Hosanna! A client!" after securing a commission, breaking a long, dry spell. "Hosanna" is also the name of one of the songs featured in the 1971 rock opera "Jesus Christ Superstar". The song covers the entry of Jesus into Jerusalem, as in the above Biblical passages. Jesus is briefly harassed by the high priest Caiaphas but the people celebrate him as the Messiah. There is also a reprise of the chorus when Jesus

title: Hosanna shout

text: Church participated in a hosanna shout led by Gordon B. Hinckley at the dedication of the LDS Conference Center on October 8, 2000. Video of the dedication and hosanna shout is available to view on the LDS Church website.. Hosanna shout In the Latter Day Saint movement, a hosanna shout is an organized ritual of a congregation of shouting hosanna. It was first performed as a ritual in the dedication of the Kirtland Temple, and was a part of the Kirtland endowment ceremony. It continues to be practiced by some Latter Day Saint denominations, most notably The Church of Jesus

title: Worship in Hinduism

text: commonly used for theophany - "manifestation / visions of the divine" in Hindu worship, e.g. of a deity (especially in image form), or a very holy person or artifact. One could also "receive" darshana or a glimpse of the deity in the temple, or from a great saintly person, such as a great guru. Homa (also known as "homam" or "havan") is a Sanskrit word which refers to any ritual in which making offerings into a consecrated fire is the primary action. At present, the words "homa/homam" and "havan" are interchangeable with the word "Yagna." Yagya is a ritual of

title: Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song)

text: times the songs have been played on FM channels, digital downloads and physical sales of the audio. The song is regarded as a classic by fans of the film and A.R.Rahman Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song) "Hosanna/Hosaanaa" is a Tamil/ Hindi/Telugu song from the 2010 Tamil film "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa", Telugu film "Ye Maaya Chesave" and 2012 "Hindi film "Ekk Deewana Tha composed by Academy Award winner A. R. Rahman, sung by Vijay Prakash & Suzanne D'Mello featuring Tamil lyrics by Thamarai, and the rap portion in all versions by Blaaze. The song features additional vocals by Vivek Agarwal, Dr. Narayan,

title: Dihosana

text: dancers usually dance in groups and wear black skirts, and long strings of beads in their necks.The beads are grouped in many different colour categories from red, black and white, a myriad in the body and waist. Hosana is part of the Kalanga culture and not everyone qualifies to be a Hosana dancer. For one to be a Hosana, the person should have an ancestral calling. It comes not as a choice or preference. One becomes possessed with sickness that cannot be healed at the hospital.The person will then be taken to a hill called Ka Mwale where they meet

title: Hosanna (play)

text: Hosanna (play) Hosanna is a 1973 play by French-Canadian writer Michel Tremblay. The story takes place in the Montreal, Quebec apartment of Hosanna, a drag queen dressed as Elizabeth Taylor's Cleopatra, and centres on the relationship between her and Cuirette, an aging "stud" and homosexual biker after they have returned from a Halloween party. The play deals with several issues including gender identity, sexual identity, the ignorance and acceptance of ageing, and social expressions of homosexuality. Hosanna discusses her relationship with her mother and shows her anxieties over her knowledge of who she really is. The scholar and activist Viviane

title: Mass in the Catholic Church

text: prefaces, which lead to the Sanctus acclamation: "Holy, Holy, Holy Lord God of hosts. Heaven and earth are full of your glory. Hosanna in the highest. Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest." In some countries, including the United States, the people kneel immediately after the singing or recitation of the Sanctus. If a person is unable to kneel, he makes a profound bow after the Consecration – the Institution Narrative that recalls Jesus' words and actions at his Last Supper: "Take this, all of you, and eat of it: for this

title: Dihosana

text: the leader or elder of hosana so that they can pray for rain.The elder from veteran hosana will release someone to start by cleaning or sweeping the ground known as Sebata. Dihosana Dihosana is a traditional dance by Kalanga people or Ikalanga people which existed for a long period of time. Dihosana involves the invitation of ancestors through trance to pray for rain. It is a rain making dance. Dihosana is a dance heritage which has been inherited from the fore fathers by those practising it. People living in the north, approximately about 20 to 30 km north of Francistown,

title: Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song)

text: were written by director Gautham Menon's usual associate Thamarai and the Telugu lyrics were written by Anantha Sreeram, whilst the lyrics for the rap portion were written by the Blaaze. It was the composer itself, who suggested to include the word "Hosanna", as the heroine hails from a Christian family and to include the portion "Ee Hrudayam/Yen Idhayam". Kannada singer Vijay Prakash is the main vocalist, who sung the male portion completely except for the rap portion starting "Everybody Wanna". While Suzanne with her excellent singing, culminates in a humming of the word "Hosanna". The song is picturised when the

title: Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song)

text: as it was the first album composed by A. R. Rahman after his double Oscars win. Rahman won his first filmfare award in Telugu due to the success of the soundtrack. Following this anticipation, before the official audio release of the Tamil version, on 19 December 2009 in London and 12 January 2010 in Chennai, and the Telugu version on 3 February 2010, "Ee Hrudayam/Hosanna" track was leaked onto the internet. Later the track was officially released with the same singer but another strophe had been added to the song. A thirty second video of the song was also released

title: Hosaena

text: belief, 24.6% practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, 6.57% were Muslim, and 1.99% were Catholic, whose Latin Catholic missionary pre-diocesan Apostolic Vicariate of Hosanna has its episcopal see at the St. Joseph cathedral in Hosaina. The 1994 national census reported this town had a total population of 31,701 of whom 15,593 were men and 16,108 were women. However, the latest report made by the city population center, Hosaena have a total population of 89,300 in the year 2011. Hosaena Hosaena (also spelled Hosaina or Hosa'ina, also called Hosanna (which has namasakes); an older name is Wachamo) is a town and separate woreda

title: Hosanna (play)

text: Tarragon Theatre in Toronto, Ontario, on 15 May 1974. "Hosanna" then appeared on Broadway in New York City at the Bijou Theatre on 14 October 1974. Hosanna (play) Hosanna is a 1973 play by French-Canadian writer Michel Tremblay. The story takes place in the Montreal, Quebec apartment of Hosanna, a drag queen dressed as Elizabeth Taylor's Cleopatra, and centres on the relationship between her and Cuirette, an aging "stud" and homosexual biker after they have returned from a Halloween party. The play deals with several issues including gender identity, sexual identity, the ignorance and acceptance of ageing, and social expressions

title: Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song)

text: Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song) "Hosanna/Hosaanaa" is a Tamil/ Hindi/Telugu song from the 2010 Tamil film "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa", Telugu film "Ye Maaya Chesave" and 2012 "Hindi film "Ekk Deewana Tha composed by Academy Award winner A. R. Rahman, sung by Vijay Prakash & Suzanne D'Mello featuring Tamil lyrics by Thamarai, and the rap portion in all versions by Blaaze. The song features additional vocals by Vivek Agarwal, Dr. Narayan, V. V. Prasanna and Haricharan Sesh and chorus by K. M. Music Conservatory. In the 2012 Hindi remake of the film, "Ekk Deewana Tha" the song was written by Javed Akhtar

title: The Spirit of God Like a Fire Is Burning

text: and Advocate". The January 1836 issue of the "Messenger and Advocate" specifies the tune "American Star". On the other hand, the March 1836 issue specifies the tune "Hosanna" when it was sung for the dedication service of the Kirtland Temple. At least four tunes were associated with the hymn since it was written. While these tunes were likely familiar to many of the members of the church at the time, there is some ambiguity today as to how these tunes were sung. J. C. Little and G. B. Gardner published an unofficial hymnal 1844 in Bellows Falls, Vermont, which is

title: Palm Sunday

text: Ethiopia, this holiday is referred to as Hosanna. Palm leaves are used to create crucifixes, rings and other ornaments. In Finland, it is popular for children to dress up as Easter witches and go door to door in neighborhoods and trade decorated pussy willow branches for coins and candy. This is an old Karelian custom called "virpominen". It is customary for the children to chant, with some variation, "Virvon varvon tuoreeks, terveeks, tulevaks vuodeks, vitsa sulle, palkka mulle!" which translates as "I'm wishing you a fresh, healthy upcoming year, a branch for you, a prize for me!" The chant has

title: Ekk Deewana Tha

text: any film project I work on, I had spent several months researching before composing/writing all the songs for and had consulted friends who are Christian in particular about the use of the word 'Hosanna' in this song. The song was a sensation when it was released in the South a couple of years ago and it went on to win all possible music awards and was well received by all communities! Therefore I am deeply concerned about the sentiments of all those who appear to be hurt by this song." "Ekk Deewana Tha" received mixed to negative reviews upon release.

title: Hosanna (A. R. Rahman song)

text: by Blaaze. The song in Tamil and Telugu starts slowly with lyrics "Ee Hrudayam/Yen Idhayam", which resembles the biblical verses ""If someone slaps you on one cheek, let him slap the other too!"", (But in Hindi it uses a She'r "Dil hote jo mere seene mein do Doosra dil bhi main tumhe deta todne ko" which means "If there were two hearts in my chest I'd give you the second heart as well to break it.." having almost similar meaning in context of Love ) but soon gain its pace with the lines starting "Entha Mandhi/Andha Neram". The Tamil lyrics

title: Hosanna (play)

text: Namaste has criticized "Hosanna", which ends with its protagonist identifying as a gay man after a series of humiliations, as reinforcing a patriarchal, transphobic ideology in which a "reliance on the ideas of illusion, deception, and betrayal presupposes that we as transgendered people do not know who we are. [...] It is through such a violently anti-transgendered discourse that Tremblay enables gay male subject-positions." The play was translated into English by John Van Burek and Bill Glassco. "Hosanna" was first performed at le Théâtre de Quat'sous in Montreal, Quebec, on 10 May 1973. "Hosanna" was first performed in English at

title: Sanctus

text: full of your glory. Hosanna in the highest. Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest. </poem> As Enrico Mazza writes: The "Sanctus" became part of the Roman Eucharistic Prayer only in the first half of the fifth century; all in all, this was a fairly late period, inasmuch as by then the text of the Roman Canon had become fixed and was regarded as a text possessing great authority. There exist two fundamental types of "Sanctus": the Alexandrian and the Antiochene. The "Sanctus" of the Roman Eucharist derives from the Antiochene liturgy

title: Hosanna

text: The word hosanna (Latin osanna, Greek ὡσαννά, hōsanná) is from Hebrew הושיעה־נא, הושיעה נא hôšîʿâ-nā and related to Aramaic אושענא (ʾōshaʿnā) meaning "save, rescue, savior".

title: Hosanna

short_answers:
rescue
save
save, rescue, savior
savior


question: what areas of africa were involved in colonization

answers: 90 percent of the continent

title: German colonization of Africa

text: Parts of contemporary Chad, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, the Central African Republic and the Republic of the Congo were also under the control of German Africa at various points during its existence. German colonization of Africa The German colonization of Africa took place during two distinct periods. In the 1680s, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, then leading the broader realm of Brandenburg-Prussia, pursued limited imperial efforts in West Africa. The Brandenburg African Company was chartered in 1682, and established two small settlements on the Gold Coast of what is today Ghana. Five years later, a treaty with the king of

title: Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire

text: the colonial project. Jules Brévié, governor of French West Africa from 1930 to 1936, wrote that "colonization needs scholars, impartial and disinterested researchers with broad vision, outside of the urgency and fire of action. He wanted a methodical research program into colonial history and African culture, and lobbied for an official scientific institute to undertake geographical, ethnographic and historical research. The Popular Front government, in 1936, converted the "Comite d'etudes historiques et scientifiques de l'AOF" into the Dakar-based IFAN, and placed naturalist Théodore Monod at its head. From the opening of the institute in 1938, Monod sought to promote Africans

title: Colonisation of Africa

text: academic theoretical critiques could be brought against her work. Colonisation of Africa The history of external colonisation of Africa can be divided into two stages: Classical antiquity and European colonialism. In popular parlance, discussions of colonialism in Africa usually focus on the European conquests that resulted in the Scramble for Africa after the Berlin Conference in the 19th century. Settlements established by Europeans while incorporated abjection of natives, also brought with it governing and academic institutions as well as agricultural and technological innovations that offset the extractive institutions commonly attributed to colonialism by Western powers. In nearly all African countries

title: History of Africa

text: power, or as part of a long term development plan. In other areas, Europeans were encouraged to settle, creating settler states in which a European minority dominated. Settlers only came to a few colonies in sufficient numbers to have a strong impact. British settler colonies included British East Africa (now Kenya), Northern and Southern Rhodesia, (Zambia and Zimbabwe, respectively), and South Africa, which already had a significant population of European settlers, the Boers. France planned to settle Algeria and eventually incorporate it into the French state on an equal basis with the European provinces. Algeria's proximity across the Mediterranean allowed

title: Colonisation of Africa

text: Colonisation of Africa The history of external colonisation of Africa can be divided into two stages: Classical antiquity and European colonialism. In popular parlance, discussions of colonialism in Africa usually focus on the European conquests that resulted in the Scramble for Africa after the Berlin Conference in the 19th century. Settlements established by Europeans while incorporated abjection of natives, also brought with it governing and academic institutions as well as agricultural and technological innovations that offset the extractive institutions commonly attributed to colonialism by Western powers. In nearly all African countries today, the language used in government and media is

title: Colonisation of Africa

text: Vincent Khapoya notes the significant resistance of powers faced to their domination in Africa. Technical superiority enabled conquest and control. Pro-independence Africans recognised the value of European education in dealing with Europeans in Africa. Some Africans established their own churches. Africans also noticed the unequal evidence of gratitude they received for their efforts to support Imperialist countries during the world wars. Vincent Khapoya also notes that while European imposed borders did not correspond to traditional territories, such new territories provided entities to focus efforts by movements for increased political voice up to independence. Among local groups so concerned were professionals

title: Colonisation of Africa

text: in the colony illuminates the unequal relationship between the coloniser and colonised and reminds us of the violence inflicted on African bodies throughout the process of colonisation. It cannot be understood nor should be taught without the context of this violence. Stephanie Terreni Brown is an academic in the field of colonialism. In her 2014 paper she examines how sanitation and dirt is used in colonial narratives through the example of Kampala in Uganda. Writing also about Abjection through sanitation planning in the city and how this plays a key role in this narrative of colonisation. Brown describes Abjection as

title: Economic history of Africa

text: forced labor (largely for the purposes of rubber cultivation), massacre by colonial troops, famine and disease. In white settler colonies like Algeria, Kenya, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), South Africa and Southwest Africa (now Namibia), the most fertile lands were forcibly expropriated from the indigenous populations for use by white settlers. In these countries African farmers were pushed onto "native reserves," usually located on arid, marginal lands. Slavery was also widely abolished by colonial powers. To some colonizers, such as the British, the ideal colony was based on an open economy, actively engaged in world trade through the export of raw materials

title: History of Africa

text: Other significant European explorers included Heinrich Barth, Henry Morton Stanley (coiner of the term "Dark Continent" for Africa in an 1878 book), Silva Porto, Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Rene Caille, Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs, Gustav Nachtigal, George Schweinfurth, and Joseph Thomson. The most famous of the explorers was David Livingstone, who explored southern Africa and traversed the continent from the Atlantic at Luanda to the Indian Ocean at Quelimane. European explorers made use of African guides and servants, and established long-distance trading routes were used. Missionaries attempting to spread Christianity also increased European knowledge of Africa. Between 1884 and 1885, European

title: Decolonisation of Africa

text: all African soil was claimed by Western European governments, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (which had successfully resisted colonisation by Italy). Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of natural resources such as gold and rubber. The introduction of imperial policies surfacing around local economies led to the failing of local economies due to an exploitation of resources and cheap labor. Progress towards independence

title: Jules Brévié

text: a circular to the West African administrators asking them to collect oral material, verbal art, since that would help them better understand the people of the colonies. Brévié wrote, "colonization is becoming a question of method, of calculation, or predictions and, we should say, of science, It remains without a doubt and first of all a political and psychological art, but one that must be guided and clarified by exact scientific data.". Brévié wanted a methodical research program into colonial history and African culture, and lobbied for an official scientific institute to undertake geographical, ethnographic and historical research. He wrote

title: German colonization of Africa

text: German colonization of Africa The German colonization of Africa took place during two distinct periods. In the 1680s, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, then leading the broader realm of Brandenburg-Prussia, pursued limited imperial efforts in West Africa. The Brandenburg African Company was chartered in 1682, and established two small settlements on the Gold Coast of what is today Ghana. Five years later, a treaty with the king of Arguin in Mauritania established a protectorate over that island, and Brandenburg occupied an abandoned fort originally constructed there by Portugal. Brandenburg — after 1701, the Kingdom of Prussia — pursued these colonial efforts

title: Colonization of the Congo

text: Colonization of the Congo Colonization of the Congo refers to the European colonization of the Congo region of tropical Africa. It was the last part of the continent to be colonized. By the end of the 19th century, the Congo Basin had been carved up by European colonial powers, into the Congo free state, the French Congo and the Portuguese Congo. One by one the other great mysteries had been explored: Though the Congo had been one of the first to be attempted, it remained a mystery. Since the 15th century, European explorers had sailed into the broad Congo estuary,

title: History of Africa

text: Africa) across much of the sub-Saharan continent in waves between around 1000 BC and 0 AD, creating a linguistic commonality across much of the central and Southern continent. During the Middle Ages, Islam spread west from Arabia to Egypt, crossing the Maghreb and the Sahel. Some notable pre-colonial states and societies in Africa include the Ajuran Empire, D'mt, Adal Sultanate, Warsangali Sultanate, Kingdom of Nri, Nok culture, Mali Empire, Songhai Empire, Benin Empire, Oyo Empire, Ashanti Empire, Ghana Empire, Mossi Kingdoms, Mutapa Empire, Kingdom of Mapungubwe, Kingdom of Sine, Kingdom of Sennar, Kingdom of Saloum, Kingdom of Baol, Kingdom of

title: Culture of Africa

text: the Roman colonization of North Africa,(parts of Algeria, Libya, Egypt and the whole of Tunisia) provinces such as Tripolitania became major producers of food for the republic and the empire, this generated much wealth in these places for their 400 years of occupation. During colonialism in Africa, Europeans possessed attitudes of superiority and a sense of mission. The French were able to accept an African as French if that person gave up their African culture and adopted French ways. Knowledge of the Portuguese language and culture and abandonment of traditional African ways defined one as civilized. Kenyan social commentator Mwiti

title: Economic history of Africa

text: would ultimately fall under European colonial rule by 1914, with the exceptions of Ethiopia and Liberia. The partitioning of African territory among European regimes often violated existing boundaries recognized by local Africans. Some of the independent African states affected by the partitioning of the continent included: Under colonial rule, the plantation system of farming was widely introduced in order to grow large quantities of cash crops, and employing cheap (often forced) African labor for export to European countries. Mining for gems and precious metals such as gold was developed in a similar way by wealthy European entrepreneurs such as Cecil

title: 19th century

text: in Southeast Asia, and in 1863 France annexes Cambodia. In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations. Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European

title: Colonisation of Africa

text: the other colonial powers to plead with the Belgian king to exercise some moderating influence. Eventually the Belgian government annexed the territory as a Belgian colony. Khapoya notes the significant attention colonial powers paid to the economics of colonisation. This included: acquisition of land, often enforced labour, introduction of cash crops, sometimes even to the neglect of food crops, changing inter-African trading patterns of pre-colonial times, introduction of labourers from India, etc. and the continuation of Africa as a source of raw materials for European industry. Colonial powers later focused on abolishing slavery, developing infrastructure, and improving health and education.

title: European exploration of Africa

text: continued as far as Guinea or even Gabon. However, Robin Law notes that some commentators have argued that Hanno exploration have taken him no further than southern Morocco. "Africa" is named for the Afri people who settled in the area of current-day Tunisia. The Roman province of Africa spanned the Mediterranean coast of what is now Libya, Tunisia and Algeria. The parts of North Africa north of the Sahara were well known in antiquity. Prior to the 2nd century BC, however, Greek geographers were unaware that the land mass then known as Libya expanded south of the Sahara, assuming that

title: Chinweizu Ibekwe

text: discusses gender relations. Chinweizu has argued that the Arab colonization and Islamization of Africa is no different from European imperialism. The violent conquests, forced conversions and slavery perpetrated by European Christians were also perpetrated by Arab Muslims. In fact, the colonization and enslavement of Africa by Arabs began before the Europeans and continues to this day in Sudan, Mauritania and other countries in the Sahel region. Recently he published a comparative digest that shows the parallel history of European and Arab atrocities against indigenous Africans. He has been critical of the popular illusion that Islam is free of slavery and

title: John Thornton (historian)

text: and change in the kingdom. Thornton would return to this theme in writing the biography of D Beatriz Kimpa Vita in showing the daily life of Kongo in her times (1684–1706). Thornton's second book, "Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1650" (Cambridge University Press, 1992, the second edition in 1998 extended its framework to 1800) was an examination of the Atlantic portions of Africa and their involvement in the Atlantic slave trade, as well as the impact of Africans in the American countries to which they were carried. In this work, Thornton sought to demonstrate that

title: Jules Brévié

text: that "colonization needs scholars, impartial and disinterested researchers with broad vision, outside of the urgency and fire of action. After much planning and preparation the Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (French Institute of Black Africa) was established in 1938 in Dakar. Brévié took office at the start of the Great Depression and a slump in the local economy. He partly blamed colonial capitalists for the problems, and obtained large loans from the French government to support African producers. However, by 1932 the value of export crops was dropping despite increased yields, and Africans were starting to return to food crops. Brévié

title: European exploration of Africa

text: and 17th centuries. The European powers were content to establish trading posts along the coast while they were actively exploring and colonizing the New World. Exploration of the interior of Africa was thus mostly left to the Arab slave traders, who in tandem with the Muslim conquest of the Sudan established far-reaching networks and supported the economy of a number of Sahelian kingdoms during the 15th to 18th centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, European knowledge of geography of the interior of Sub-Saharan Africa was still rather limited. Expeditions exploring Southern Africa were made during the 1830s and

title: Jean-Paul Harroy

text: Central Africa and was entitled "Afrique, terre qui meurt, la dégradation des sols africains sous l'influence de la colonisation" ("Africa, a dying land: The Degradation of African Soils under the Influence of Colonization"). This thesis had a certain international impact, both in the United States and in the USSR. From 1932 to 1935 Jean-Paul Harroy worked in the family company, before being appointed to manage the Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo belge, a precursor of the Institut congolais pour la conservation de la nature. From 1948 et 1955, Jean-Paul Harroy was the first secretary-general of the International Union for

title: Colonisation of Africa

text: after World War II. Growing independence movements, indigenous political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from within the imperialist powers and from the United States ensured the decolonisation of the majority of the continent by 1980. While some areas, in particular, South Africa, & Namibia retain a large population of European descent, only the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla and the islands of Réunion, the Canary Islands, and Madeira remain under European control, the latter two of which were never part of any African polity and have an overwhelmingly European population. The theory of colonialism addresses the problems

title: European exploration of Africa

text: the European exploration and colonization of South Africa. Almost at the same time as the Dutch, other European powers attempted to create their own outposts for the African slave trade. As early as 1530, English merchant adventurers started trading in West Africa, coming into conflict with Portuguese troops. In 1581, Francis Drake reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1663, the English built Fort James in Gambia. One year later, another English colonial expedition attempted to settle southern Madagascar, resulting in the death of most of the colonists. The English forts on the West African coast were eventually taken by

title: History of Africa

text: Europe after the Second World War , decolonization took place across the continent, culminating in the 1960 Year of Africa. Africa's pre-colonial history has been challenging to research, mostly due to the almost extreme lack of documentation and architecture that the continents of Europe and Asia are so richly dense in. Disciplines such as the recording of oral history, historical linguistics, archaeology and genetics have been crucial. The first known hominids evolved in Africa. According to paleontology, the early hominids' skull anatomy was similar to that of the gorilla and the chimpanzee, great apes that also evolved in Africa, but

title: Cartography

text: due to the diminished proportions of those regions compared to higher latitudes where the European powers were concentrated. Maps furthered imperialism and colonization of Africa in practical ways by showing basic information like roads, terrain, natural resources, settlements, and communities. Through this, maps made European commerce in Africa possible by showing potential commercial routes, and made natural resource extraction possible by depicting locations of resources. Such maps also enabled military conquests and made them more efficient, and imperial nations further used them to put their conquests on display. These same maps were then used to cement territorial claims, such as

title: History of Africa

text: the early part of the 19th century was undergoing its Industrial Revolution. Nationalist rivalries and prestige were at play. Acquiring African colonies would show rivals that a nation was powerful and significant. These factors culminated in the Scramble for Africa. Knowledge of Africa increased. Numerous European explorers began to explore the continent. Mungo Park traversed the Niger River. James Bruce travelled through Ethiopia and located the source of the Blue Nile. Richard Francis Burton was the first European at Lake Tanganyika. Samuel White Baker explored the Upper Nile. John Hanning Speke located a source of the Nile at Lake Victoria.

title: Scramble for Africa

text: The "Scramble for Africa" was the occupation, division, and colonisation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present-day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent.

title: Scramble for Africa


question: when did the isle of wight become an island

answers: During the last Ice Age

title: Isle of Wight

text: (meaning "caterpillar"), "gurt" meaning "large", "nammit" (a mid-morning snack) and "gallybagger" ("scarecrow", and now the name of a local cheese). There remains occasional confusion between the Isle of Wight as a county and its former position within Hampshire. The island was regarded and administered as a part of Hampshire until 1890, when its distinct identity was recognised with the formation of Isle of Wight County Council (see also "Politics of the Isle of Wight"). However, it remained a part of Hampshire until the local government reforms of 1974 when it became a full ceremonial county with its own Lord Lieutenant.

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: status is a perennial source of friction. It was planned to merge the county back into Hampshire as a district in the 1974 local government reform, but a last minute change led to it retaining its county council. However, since there was no provision made in the Local Government Act 1972 for unitary authorities, the Island had to retain a two-tier structure, with a county council and two boroughs, Medina and South Wight. The borough councils were merged with the county council on 1 April 1995, to form a single unitary authority, the Isle of Wight Council. The only significant

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: are retained in the county archaeological centre. From about 685-686 the island can be considered part of Wessex, and after the West Saxon kings ruled all England, then part of England. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle tells how "Wiht-land" suffered from Viking raids: ""And then another time they lay in the Isle of Wight, and meanwhile ate out of Hampshire and of Sussex"". Alfred the Great's navy defeated the Danes in 871 after they had "ravaged Devon and the Isle of Wight". Around 900 the kingdom was divided into shires, and the island became part of the shire of Hampshire. During

title: Isle of Wight

text: the mainland about 125,000 years ago, during the Ipswichian interglacial. Like the rest of the UK, the island has an oceanic climate, but is somewhat milder and sunnier, which makes it a holiday destination. It also has a longer growing season. Lower Ventnor and the neighbouring Undercliff have a particular microclimate, because of their sheltered position south of the downs. The island enjoys 1,800–2,100 hours of sunshine a year. Some years have almost no snow in winter, and only a few days of hard frost. The island is in Hardiness zone 9. The Isle of Wight is one of the

title: Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England

text: changed the administrative map of England. The changes were carried out in several waves. On 1 April 1995, the Isle of Wight became a single unitary authority. It had previously had a two-tier structure with an Isle of Wight County Council, Medina Borough Council and South Wight Borough Council. Also on this day, two small areas were ceded from Surrey and Buckinghamshire to Berkshire, giving it a border with Greater London. On 1 April 1996, the unpopular counties of Avon, Humberside and Cleveland were abolished and their former area divided into unitary districts. Also at this time, the city of

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: the last Ice Age, about 8–9000 years ago, as sea levels rose, and the land of southern Britain sunk due to the post-glacial rebound of the north that had been under the ice. This flooded the former river valley of the Solent to the north, and the future English Channel to the south, and cut Wight off from the island of Britain. Once open to the sea, tidal scouring widened the Solent. The first inhabitants are assumed to have been hunter-gatherers migrating by land during the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) period, as the ice age began to recede and the

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: inhabitants of southern Britain at this time may indeed have been Germanic, rather than Celtic, which could re-open the possibility of the island's name having Germanic roots. The Romans occupied southern Britain, including the Isle of Wight, for nearly four hundred years. The Romans built no towns on the island, but it became an agricultural centre, and at least seven Roman villas are known. The Roman villas at Newport and Brading have been excavated and are open to the public. When fully developed around 300 AD, Brading was probably the largest on the Island, being a courtyard villa with impressive

title: Politics of the Isle of Wight

text: county back into Hampshire as a district in the 1974 local government reform, but a last minute change led to it retaining its county council. However, since there was no provision made in the Local Government Act 1972 for unitary authorities, the Island had to retain a two-tier structure, with a county council and two boroughs, Medina and South Wight. The borough councils were merged with the county council on 1 April 1995 to form a single unitary authority, the Isle of Wight Council, as recommended by the Local Government Commission for England. The only significant present-day administrative link with

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: are considered approximate) by Caedwalla, a Wessex King. He writes: "After Caedwalla had obtained possession of the kingdom of the Gewissae, he took also the Isle of Wight, which till then was entirely given over to idolatry, and by merciless slaughter, endeavoured to destroy all the inhabitants thereof, and to place in their stead people from his own province; binding himself by a vow, though it is said that he was not yet regenerated in Christ, to give the fourth part of the land and of the spoil to the Lord, if he took the Island. He fulfilled this vow

title: Politics of the Isle of Wight

text: six lost seats with the first MP for the whole Isle of Wight. Often thought of as part of Hampshire, the Isle of Wight was briefly included in that county when the first county councils were created in 1888. However, a "Home Rule" campaign led to a separate county council being established for the Isle of Wight in 1890, and it has remained separate ever since. Like inhabitants of many islands, Islanders are fiercely jealous of their real (or perceived) independence, and confusion over the Island's separate status is a perennial source of friction. It was planned to merge the

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: as the "Fort of the Men of Wight" ("Wihtwarasburgh"), or alternatively the fort may have been named after Wihtgar. It is believed that the island became a Jutish kingdom ruled by King Stuf and his successors, until 661 when it was invaded by Wulfhere of Mercia and forcibly converted to Christianity. When he returned to Mercia the island reverted to paganism. Arwald was its last Jutish King and the last pagan king in Anglo-Saxon England until the Vikings. Bede describes the invasion of the island in 686 (noting that Bede was writing fifty years later, and some of his dates

title: Isle of Wight

text: The oldest records that give a name for the Isle of Wight are from the Roman Empire: it was then called "Vectis" or "Vecta" in Latin, "Iktis" or "Ouiktis" in Greek. From the Anglo-Saxon period Latin "Vecta", Old English "Wiht" and Old Welsh forms "Gueid" and "Guith" are recorded. In Domesday Book it is "Wit"; the modern Welsh name is "Ynys Wyth" ("ynys" = island). These are all variant forms of the same name, possibly Celtic in origin. It may mean "place of the division", because the island divides the two arms of the Solent. The Isle of Wight is

title: Isle of Wight Council

text: Isle of Wight Council The Isle of Wight Council is a unitary authority covering the Isle of Wight near the South coast of England. It is currently made up of 40 seats. Since the 2017 election, the Conservatives have held a majority of 25 and appointed Cllr Dave Stewart as leader of the council. The council was formed on 1 April 1995, replacing the Isle of Wight County Council and Medina and South Wight Borough Councils. Prior to 1998, the Liberals and then Liberal Democrats had dominated the Council. Between 1998 and 2005, it was under no overall control, ruled

title: Isle of Wight

text: Ships likely were important to the local economy. During the Dark Ages the island was settled by Jutes as the pagan kingdom of Wihtwara under King Arwald. In 685 it was invaded by Caedwalla, who tried to replace the inhabitants with his own followers. In 686 Arwald was defeated and the island became the last part of English lands to be converted to Christianity, added to Wessex and then becoming part of England under King Alfred the Great, included within the shire of Hampshire. It suffered especially from Viking raids, and was often used as a winter base by Viking

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: for the whole Isle of Wight; Newport also retained its two MPs, though these were reduced to one in 1868 and eventually abolished completely in 1885. Often thought of as part of Hampshire, the Isle of Wight was briefly included in that county when the first county councils were created in 1888. However, a "Home Rule" campaign led to a separate county council being established for the Isle of Wight in 1890, and it has remained separate ever since. Like inhabitants of many islands, Islanders are fiercely jealous of their real (or perceived) independence, and confusion over the Island's separate

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: fifth centuries AD, Roman troops and officials had withdrawn from Britain. In Bede's ecclesiastical history, "Vecta" [sic], along with parts of Hampshire and most of Kent, was settled by Jutes. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", Cerdic and his son Cynric conquered the island in 530. The "Chronicle" states that after Cerdic died in 534, the island was given to his nephews Stuf and Wihtgar. However, it is uncertain whether "Wihtgar", who is believed to have died in 544, was a real person or came from a misunderstood place name. The "Men of Wight" were known as "Wihtwara". Carisbrooke was known

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: present-day administrative link with Hampshire is the police service, the Hampshire Constabulary, which is joint between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. From the closing decades of the 20th century onwards, there has been considerable debate on the Island over whether or not a bridge or tunnel should connect the island with mainland England. The Isle of Wight Party campaigned from a positive position, although extensive public debate on the subject revealed a strong body of opinion amongst islanders against such a proposal. In 2002 the Isle of Wight Council debated the issue and made a policy statement against the

title: Local Government Commission for England (1992)

text: "early wins" in Cleveland, Humberside and Avon. The first recommendation, published in 1993, was the quite uncontroversial one to make Isle of Wight a unitary authority. The island had been split between South Wight and Medina boroughs, with an Isle of Wight County Council, since 1974. Three more final reports, for Cleveland, Derbyshire and Durham, were published in November 1993. In both Derbyshire and Durham, unitary authorities would be created covering the large urban areas, but the rest of the county would remain two-tier in structure. A new Secretary of State, John Selwyn Gummer, had taken over in May, and

title: South Wight

text: district councils. South Wight South Wight was a non-metropolitan district with the status of a borough on the Isle of Wight in England from 1974 to 1995. The district was formed by the Local Government Act 1972, and was a merger of Sandown-Shanklin and Ventnor urban districts and Isle of Wight Rural District. It was one of two districts on the island formed in 1974 - the other was Medina. Following a review by the Local Government Commission for England, the borough was abolished on 1 April 1995, when a single Isle of Wight Council replaced the island's county council

title: South Wight

text: South Wight South Wight was a non-metropolitan district with the status of a borough on the Isle of Wight in England from 1974 to 1995. The district was formed by the Local Government Act 1972, and was a merger of Sandown-Shanklin and Ventnor urban districts and Isle of Wight Rural District. It was one of two districts on the island formed in 1974 - the other was Medina. Following a review by the Local Government Commission for England, the borough was abolished on 1 April 1995, when a single Isle of Wight Council replaced the island's county council and two

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: evolving over the years into a Captaincy and eventually a Governorship). It is sometimes said there was a brief interruption in 1444 when Henry Beauchamp was crowned King of the Isle of Wight, with King Henry VI placing the crown on his head; the regal title supposedly expired when he died heirless in 1446. But there little evidence to support this story. Henry VIII developed the Royal Navy and its permanent base at Portsmouth, and ordered fortifications to be built at Yarmouth, Cowes, East Cowes and Sandown, sometimes using stone from the dissolved monasteries. The French invaded the island on

title: Isle of Wight

text: the abolition of its two borough councils and restructuring of the county council as Isle of Wight Council in 1995, it has been a unitary authority. Elections in the constituency have traditionally been a battle between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. Andrew Turner of the Conservative Party gained the seat from Peter Brand of the Lib Dems at the 2001 general election. Since 2009, Turner was embroiled in controversy over his expenses, health, and relationships with colleagues, with local Conservatives having tried but failed to remove him in the runup to the 2015 general election. He stood down prior

title: Isle of Wight

text: named Isle of Wight. Other notable examples include: The Isle of Wight was: Isle of Wight The Isle of Wight (; also referred to informally as The Island or abbreviated to IoW) is a county and the largest and second-most populous island in England. It is in the English Channel, between 2 and 5 miles off the coast of Hampshire, separated by the Solent. The island has resorts that have been holiday destinations since Victorian times, and is known for its mild climate, coastal scenery, and verdant landscape of fields, downland and chines. The island has been home to the

title: Politics of the Isle of Wight

text: Politics of the Isle of Wight As a geographical entity distinct from the mainland, the Isle of Wight has always fought to have this identity recognised. The Isle of Wight is currently a ceremonial and Non-metropolitan county and as it has no district councils (only the county council) it is effectively a unitary county. The island is also the highest populated Westminster constituency in the country. Historically, the island was part of the historic county of Hampshire, previously called Southamptonshire. The island's most ancient borough was Newtown on the large natural harbour on the island's north-western coast. A French raid

title: Isle of Wight

text: day Poole Harbour towards mid-Channel. As sea levels rose, the river valley became flooded, and the chalk ridge line west of the Needles breached to form the island. The Isle of Wight is first mentioned in writing in "Geography" by Ptolemy. Bronze Age Britain had large reserves of tin in the areas of Cornwall and Devon and tin is necessary to smelt bronze. At that time the sea level was much lower and carts of tin were brought across the Solent at low tide for export, possibly on the Ferriby Boats. Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin, as

title: Solent

text: many valleys creating today's characteristic rias, such as Southampton Water and Poole Harbour, as well as submerging the Solent. The estuary of the Solent River was gradually flooded, and eventually the Isle of Wight became separated from the mainland as the chalk ridge between The Needles on the island and Old Harry Rocks on the mainland was eroded. This is thought to have happened about 7,500 years ago. The process of coastal change is still continuing, with the soft cliffs on some parts of the Solent, such as Fort Victoria, constantly eroding, whilst other parts, such as Ryde Sands, are

title: History of the Isle of Wight

text: In 1006 the Chronicle records: ""when it drew near to winter, the army travelled home, and after Martinmas the raiding-army came to its secure base on the Isle of Wight and there provided themselves everywhere whatever they needed"", and then records raids that they made from there into southern England. In 1013 Sweyn began a more concerted invasion, and Ethelred was forced to flee to the island: ""And then at midwinter the King turned from the fleet to the Isle of Wight, and was there for the season; and after the season turned across the sea to Richard [of Normandy],

title: Isle of Wight

text: Isle of Wight The Isle of Wight (; also referred to informally as The Island or abbreviated to IoW) is a county and the largest and second-most populous island in England. It is in the English Channel, between 2 and 5 miles off the coast of Hampshire, separated by the Solent. The island has resorts that have been holiday destinations since Victorian times, and is known for its mild climate, coastal scenery, and verdant landscape of fields, downland and chines. The island has been home to the poets Swinburne and Tennyson and to Queen Victoria, who built her much-loved summer

title: Isle of Wight (UK Parliament constituency)

text: the unitary authority, Isle of Wight Council: a diamond-shaped island with rounded oblique corners, measuring by , the Needles and similar small uninhabitable rocks of very small square surface area. The island is linked by ferry crossings from four points (five points if counting West Cowes and East Cowes separately) to three points in Hampshire: Lymington, Southampton and Portsmouth. Its electorate of 110,924 () is, by more than 30,000 electors, the largest in the UK, more than 50% above the English average: 71,537, and five times the size of the smallest seat: Na h-Eileanan an Iar, formerly known as the

title: Isle of Wight

text: During the last Ice Age, sea levels were lower and the Solent was part of a river flowing south east from current day Poole Harbour towards mid-Channel.  As sea levels rose, the river valley became flooded, and the chalk ridge line west of the Needles breached to form the island.

title: Isle of Wight