question: who took part in the american civil war

answers: nationalists of the Union

title: James Dunlavy

text: James Dunlavy Private James Dunlavy (February 4, 1844 to March 6, 1923) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Dunlavy received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for capturing Maj. Gen. John S. Marmaduke at the Battle of Mine Creek on 25 October 1864. He was honored with the award on 4 April 1865. Dunlavy was born the first of two children in Decatur County, Indiana on 4 February 1844. His father was John Yocum Dunavy, his mother was Nancy Woolery, and his younger sister was Matilda Dunlavy. He joined

title: Albert O'Connor

text: Albert O'Connor Albert O'Connor (July 15, 1843 – April 3, 1928) served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor. O'Connor was born on July 15, 1843, in East Hereford, Quebec. His official residence was listed as Lodi, Wisconsin. He joined the US Army from West Point, Wisconsin, in June 1861, and mustered out in July 1865. He died in Orting, Washington, and was buried in Washington Soldiers Home Cemetery. His award citation reads: For extraordinary heroism on March 31 & 1 April 1865, while serving with Company A, 7th Wisconsin Infantry, in

title: Samuel S. French

text: Samuel S. French Private Samuel S. French (April 23, 1841 to February 17, 1913) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. French received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Seven Pines in Virginia on 31 May 1862. He was honored with the award on 24 October 1895. French was born in Erie County, New York on 23 April 1841. He enlisted into the 7th Michigan Infantry. He died on 17 February 1913 and his remains are interred at the Gilford Cemetery in Michigan.

title: Alexander A. Forman

text: Alexander A. Forman Corporal Alexander A. Forman (January 14, 1843 to March 3, 1922) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Forman received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Seven Pines in Virginia on 31 May 1862. He was honored with the award on 17 August 1895. Forman was born in Scipio Township, Michigan on January 14, 1843. He enlisted into the 7th Michigan Infantry. He died on March 3, 1922 and his remains are interred at the Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn,

title: Alexander A. Forman

text: New York. Alexander A. Forman Corporal Alexander A. Forman (January 14, 1843 to March 3, 1922) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Forman received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Seven Pines in Virginia on 31 May 1862. He was honored with the award on 17 August 1895. Forman was born in Scipio Township, Michigan on January 14, 1843. He enlisted into the 7th Michigan Infantry. He died on March 3, 1922 and his remains are interred at the Cypress Hills Cemetery

title: Henry C. Magruder

text: Henry C. Magruder Henry C. Magruder (1844 - October 20, 1865) was a Confederate soldier and guerrilla during the American Civil War. Born in Bullitt County, he took part in several major Western theater, but he is best known for his fate as a guerrilla. Magruder enlisted in the Confederate States Army at age 17 and served under General Simon Bolivar Buckner at the Battle of Fort Donelson. He was captured when the Buckner chose to surrender the fort rather than allow his men to fight their way out, but he soon managed to escape. Magruder joined the personal bodyguard

title: Louis J. Bruner

text: Indiana. Louis J. Bruner Private Louis Jordan Bruner (October 6, 1834 to January 28, 1912) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Bruner received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action at Walkers Ford in Tennessee on 2 December 1863. He was honored with the award on 9 March 1896. Bruner was born in Monroe County, Indiana on 6 October 1834 and enlisted in 5th Indiana Volunteer Cavalry at Clifty Brumer, Indiana. He died on 28 January 1912 and his remains are interred at the Green Park Cemetery

title: Augustus Gabriel de Vivier Tassin

text: Augustus Gabriel de Vivier Tassin Augustus Gabriel de Vivier Tassin (1842–1893) was a French-born American soldier who served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. After the war he occupied a variety of posts in the American West. He made notable contributions in writing descriptive accounts of several Native American groups. Tassin was born in Paris, France, on October 12, 1842 but immigrated to the United States, at New Orleans, Louisiana, on October 25, 1852. When the Civil War broke out, he was living in Leopold, Indiana. He enlisted as a first lieutenant in the 35th Indiana Infantry

title: Hillary Beyer

text: on May 5, 1864, but remained on active duty until his discharge in November of that year. Beyer died on September 24, 1907 and is buried in Lower Providence Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. Hillary Beyer Hillary Beyer (September 28, 1837 – September 24, 1907) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War and received the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862. Beyer enlisted in the 90th Pennsylvania Infantry in September 1861 He earned the Medal of Honor while a 2nd Lieutenant during the

title: Louis J. Bruner

text: Louis J. Bruner Private Louis Jordan Bruner (October 6, 1834 to January 28, 1912) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Bruner received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action at Walkers Ford in Tennessee on 2 December 1863. He was honored with the award on 9 March 1896. Bruner was born in Monroe County, Indiana on 6 October 1834 and enlisted in 5th Indiana Volunteer Cavalry at Clifty Brumer, Indiana. He died on 28 January 1912 and his remains are interred at the Green Park Cemetery in

title: William F. Browne

text: William F. Browne William Frank Browne (died September 12, 1867) was an American military photographer noted for his prolific work during the Civil War. Browne was born in Northfield, Vermont. When the Civil War erupted in 1861, he enlisted as a private in Company C of the 15th Vermont Infantry at Berlin, Vermont. He mustered out of the Union Army in August 1863. Soon afterward, he began working as the camp photographer of the 5th Michigan Cavalry, staying with them in their winter encampment at Stevensburg, Virginia. He took some of the earliest portrait photographs of George Armstrong Custer, commander

title: David Edwards (soldier)

text: David Edwards (soldier) Private David Edwards (1841 – April 14, 1897) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Edwards received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Five Forks in Virginia on 1 April 1865. He was honored with the award on 10 May 1865. Edwards was born in Wales in 1841. He joined the 146th New York Infantry in September 1862, and mustered out with his regiment in July 1865. He died on 14 April 1897 and his remains are interred at the

title: Charles D. Ennis

text: Charles D. Ennis Private Charles D. Ennis (8 August 1843 – 29 December 1930) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Ennis received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Third Battle of Petersburg in Virginia on 2 April 1865. He was honored with the award on 28 June 1892. Ennis was born in Stonington, Connecticut on 8 August 1843. He enlisted into the 1st Rhode Island Light Artillery. He died on 29 December 1930 and his remains are interred at the White Brook Cemetery in

title: Hillary Beyer

text: Hillary Beyer Hillary Beyer (September 28, 1837 – September 24, 1907) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War and received the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862. Beyer enlisted in the 90th Pennsylvania Infantry in September 1861 He earned the Medal of Honor while a 2nd Lieutenant during the Battle of Antietam, for staying on the open field and carrying another soldier, James H. Gouldy, to safety in a rear area. He later received an injury at the Battle of the Wilderness

title: Robert J. Coffey

text: state's National Guard. He died on July 9, 1901 and his remains are interred at the Green Mount Cemetery in Montpelier, Vermont. Robert J. Coffey Sergeant Robert John Coffey (December 15, 1842 to July 9, 1901) was a Canadian soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Coffey received the United States' highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Salem Church in Virginia on 4 May 1863. He was honored with the award on 13 May 1892. Coffey was born in Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada on 15 December 1842.

title: Joseph Keene

text: New York in May 1861, and mustered out with this regiment after two years. He re-enlisted with the 3rd New York Heavy Artillery in June 1863, and mustered out with this regiment in July 1865. Keene was later buried in Whitesboro, New York. Joseph Keene Joseph Keene (April 3, 1839 – December 1, 1921) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Keene received his country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor. Keene's medal was won for his actions at the Battle of Fredricksburg in Virginia, where he voluntarily seized his regiments colors

title: Thomas Toohey

text: Thomas Toohey Thomas Toohey (January 1, 1835 – November 19, 1918) served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor. Toohey was born on January 1, 1835, in New York City. He joined the 24th Wisconsin Infantry from Milwaukee, Wisconsin in August 1862, and mustered out in June 1865. He died on November 19, 1918, and was buried at Mount Washington Cemetery in Independence, Missouri. His award citation reads: For gallantry in action on 30 November 1864, while serving with Company F, 24th Wisconsin Infantry, in action at Franklin, Tennessee. Sergeant Toohey voluntarily

title: Thomas Burke (soldier)

text: Thomas Burke (soldier) Private Thomas Burke (1842 to March 15, 1902) was an Irish soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Burke received the United States' highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action at Hanover Courthouse in Virginia on June 30, 1863. He was honored with the award on February 11, 1878. Burke was born in Ireland in 1842. He joined the 5th New York Cavalry in October 1861, and mustered out in October 1864. Burke died on 15 March 1902 and his remains are interred at the Calvary Cemetery in New York.

title: Albert E. Fernald

text: Albert E. Fernald First Lieutenant Albert E. Fernald (May 13, 1838 – December 3, 1908) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Fernald received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Five Forks in Virginia on 1 April 1865. He was honored with the award on 10 May 1865. Fernald was born in Winterport, Maine, on 13 May 1838. He enlisted into the 20th Maine Infantry. He died on 3 December 1908 and his remains are interred at the Oak Hill Cemetery in Maine.

title: August Kauss

text: the 15th New York Heavy Artillery in August 1863, and again mustered out with his regiment after two years. Kauss was buried in Hurley, New York. August Kauss Corporal August Kauss (or Kautz) (November 6, 1843 – April 27, 1913) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Kauss received his country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor. Kauss's medal was won for capturing a flag at the Battle of Five Forks in Virginia on April 1, 1865. He was honored with the award on May 10, 1865. Kauss was born in Germany.

title: Charles D. Ennis

text: Rhode Island. Charles D. Ennis Private Charles D. Ennis (8 August 1843 – 29 December 1930) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Ennis received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Third Battle of Petersburg in Virginia on 2 April 1865. He was honored with the award on 28 June 1892. Ennis was born in Stonington, Connecticut on 8 August 1843. He enlisted into the 1st Rhode Island Light Artillery. He died on 29 December 1930 and his remains are interred at the White Brook

title: Dayton P. Clarke

text: Dayton P. Clarke Captain Dayton P. Clarke (December 15, 1840 to November 10, 1915) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Clarke received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House in Virginia on 12 May 1864. He was honored with the award on 30 June 1892. Clarke was born in Hermon, New York on 15 December 1840. He enlisted into the 2nd Vermont Volunteer Infantry. He died on 10 November 1915 and his remains are interred at the Green Mount Cemetery.

title: Charles G. Gould

text: Windham Center Cemetery in Windham, Vermont. Charles G. Gould Charles Gilbert Gould (May 5, 1845 - December 5, 1916) was a Union Army soldier in the American Civil War who received the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor. Gould was born in Windham County, Vermont on May 5, 1845. He was awarded the Medal of Honor, for extraordinary heroism shown on April 2, 1865, while serving as a Captain with Company H, 5th Vermont Infantry, at Petersburg, Virginia. His Medal of Honor was issued on July 30, 1890. He died at the age of 71, on December 5,

title: Orson W. Bennett

text: Orson W. Bennett First Lieutenant Orson W. Bennett (November 17, 1841 – January 8, 1904) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Bennett received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action at Honey Hill, South Carolina on 30 November 1864. He was honored with the award on 9 March 1887. Bennett was born in Union City in Branch County, Michigan. He enlisted into the 1st Iowa Volunteers at Dubuque, Iowa. Having left the war due to injuries he received during the Battle of Wilson's Creek, he subsequently re-enlisted

title: Abner P. Allen

text: Abner P. Allen Abner P. Allen (October 9, 1839 – August 22, 1905) was an American soldier who received the Medal of Honor for valor during the American Civil War. Allen was born in Woodford County, Illinois. He joined the 39th Illinois infantry Regiment from Bloomington, Illinois, in January 1864, and mustered out with his regiment on December 6, 1865. By the time the 39th was involved in the Siege of Petersburg, Virginia, Allen was a corporal in Company K. When the regiment (as part of the XXIV Corps under Major General John Gibbon) was assaulting Fort Gregg on April

title: Erastus W. Jewett

text: of St. Albans. Their children included Jessie, Mary, Nellie, and Walter. Erastus W. Jewett Erastus W. Jewett (April 1, 1836 – February 20, 1906) was a Medal of Honor recipient who fought in the 9th Vermont Infantry during the American Civil War. Jewett was born in St. Albans, Vermont on April 1, 1836, the son of Eleazer Jewett and Jessie (Abell) Jewett. Jewett had nine brothers and sisters, including Albert Burton Jewett, who commanded the 10th Vermont Infantry as a colonel, and Jesse A. Jewett, a captain in the 5th Vermont Infantry, who died in Swanton shortly after the war

title: Edmund English

text: Edmund English Edmund English (November 16, 1841 – May 27, 1912) was a Union Army soldier who received the Medal of Honor for his bravery at the Battle of the Wilderness in the American Civil War. After the outbreak of the Civil War, he enlisted in the 2nd New Jersey Volunteer Infantry, and was mustered in as a Corporal in Company C on May 27, 1861. He served with his regiment, which was part of the famed First New Jersey Brigade, as it fought in the June–July 1862 Seven Days Battles, the August 1862 Battle of Second Bull Run, and

title: August Kauss

text: August Kauss Corporal August Kauss (or Kautz) (November 6, 1843 – April 27, 1913) was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Kauss received his country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor. Kauss's medal was won for capturing a flag at the Battle of Five Forks in Virginia on April 1, 1865. He was honored with the award on May 10, 1865. Kauss was born in Germany. He joined the 8th New York Infantry from New York City in April 1861, and mustered out with this regiment after two years. He re-enlisted with

title: Wilson W. Brown

text: Wilson W. Brown Wilson Wright Brown (December 25, 1839 – December 25, 1916) was a soldier and recipient of the Medal of Honor for his role in the Great Locomotive Chase during the American Civil War. Wilson Wright Brown was born December 25, 1839 in Logan County, Ohio, and enlisted September 6, 1861 at Findlay, Ohio in Company F, 21st Ohio Infantry, mustering into service September 19, 1861. He first saw action at Ivy Mountain, Ky., November 8–9, 1861. Chosen by James Andrews for his abilities as a locomotive engineer, as he had been an engineer on the Mobile &

title: American Civil War

text: The American Civil War was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. As a result of the long-standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after U.S. President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution.  They faced secessionists of the Confederate States, who advocated for states' rights to expand slavery.

title: American Civil War


question: when was the national flag of india adopted

answers: 15 August 1947

answers: 22 July 1947

title: Flag of India

text: of India and other laws relating to the national emblems. The original code prohibited use of the flag by private citizens except on national days such as the Independence day and the Republic Day. In 2002, on hearing an appeal from a private citizen, Naveen Jindal, the Supreme Court of India directed the Government of India to amend the code to allow flag usage by private citizens. Subsequently, the Union Cabinet of India amended the code to allow limited usage. The code was amended once more in 2005 to allow some additional use including adaptations on certain forms of clothing.

title: Flag code of India

text: it became the official flag of the Dominion of India. The flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India. In India, the term "tricolour" (, Tirangā) almost always refers to the Indian national flag. The flag is based on the "Swaraj" flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya. Khadi or hand-spun cloth is the only material allowed to be used for the flag, and flying a flag made of any other material is punishable by law with imprisonment up to three years, besides a fine. Raw materials for khadi are restricted to

title: Flag of India

text: of the flag by private citizens, arguing that hoisting the national flag with due decorum and honour was his right as a citizen, and a way of expressing his love for the country. At the end of the appeals process, the case was heard by the Supreme Court of India; the court ruled in Jindal's favour, asking the Government of India to consider the matter. The Union Cabinet of India then amended the Indian Flag Code with effect from 26 January 2002, allowing private citizens to hoist the flag on any day of the year, subject to their safeguarding the

text: Flag of India at Central Park, Connaught Place Tiranga, the national flag of India was hoisted for the first time on 7 March 2014 at Central Park, Connaught Place. At the time it was the longest and largest Indian flag in the world. This title was later claimed by Indian flags at Cuttack followed by at Mumbai, Bhopal, Pune, Raipur, Hyderabad, Ranchi, Kolhapur, Attari and at last presently at Belagavi (with height of pole being 110 metre) on 12 March 2018. The flag is located at the centre of the Central Park, encircled by Inner Circle Rd, which is listed

title: Flag of India

text: Azad, Sarojini Naidu, C. Rajagopalachari, K. M. Munshi and B. R. Ambedkar as its members. On 14 July 1947, the committee recommended that the flag of the Indian National Congress be adopted as the National Flag of India with suitable modifications, so as to make it acceptable to all parties and communities. It was also resolved that the flag should not have any communal undertones. The spinning wheel of the Congress flag was replaced by the "Chakra" (wheel) from the Lion Capital of Ashoka. According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the "chakra" was chosen as it was representative of "dharma" and law.

title: Indian Naval Ensign

text: the Royal Indian Navy. The Flag of India has been used since 1947 as the naval jack of the Indian Navy. From 26 January 1950, when India became a republic, until 2001, the Indian Navy used a modified version of the British Naval Ensign, with the Union Flag replaced with the Indian Tricolor in the canton. In 2001, this flag was replaced with a white ensign bearing the Indian Navy crest, as the previous ensign was thought to reflect India's colonial past. However complaints arose that the new ensign was indistinguishable as the blue of the naval crest easily merged

title: Flag of India

text: standard IS:1803-1973. Note that the values given in the table correspond to CIE 1931 color space. Approximate RGB values for use may be taken to be: India saffron #FF9933, white #FFFFFF, India green #138808, navy blue #000080. Pantone values closest to this are 130 U, White, 2258 C and 2735 C. Gandhi first proposed a flag to the Indian National Congress in 1921. The flag was designed by Pingali Venkayya. In the centre was a traditional spinning wheel, symbolising Gandhi's goal of making Indians self-reliant by fabricating their own clothing. The design was then modified to include a white stripe

title: Saffron (color)

text: the nation gained its independence. Plants Birds The National Flag of India is officially described in the Flag Code of India as follows: "The color of the top panel shall be India saffron (Kesari) and that of the bottom panel shall be India green. The middle panel shall be white, bearing at its centre the design of Ashoka Chakra in navy blue color with 24 equally spaced spokes." Deep saffron approximates the color of India saffron. India saffron, white and what is now called India green were chosen for the three bands, representing courage and sacrifice, peace and truth, and

title: Flag of India

text: the Ashoka Chakra representing the eternal wheel of law. The philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, who later became India's first Vice President and second President, clarified the adopted flag and described its significance as follows: A number of flags with varying designs were used in the period preceding the Indian Independence Movement by the rulers of different princely states; the idea of a single Indian flag was first raised by the British rulers of India after the rebellion of 1857, which resulted in the establishment of direct imperial rule. The first flag, whose design was based on western heraldic standards, were similar

title: Flag of India

text: people, white for purity, and green for hope. On 13 April 1923, during a procession by local Congress volunteers in Nagpur commemorating the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, the "Swaraj" flag with the spinning wheel, designed by Pingali Venkayya, was hoisted. This event resulted in a confrontation between the Congressmen and the police, after which five people were imprisoned. Over a hundred other protesters continued the flag procession after a meeting. Subsequently, on the first of May, Jamnalal Bajaj, the secretary of the Nagpur Congress Committee, started the "Flag Satyagraha", gaining national attention and marking a significant point in the flag movement.

title: Flag of India

text: tricolour flag included eight white lotuses on the upper green band representing the eight provinces, a sun and a crescent on the bottom red band, and the "Vande Mataram" slogan in Hindi on the central yellow band. The flag was launched in Calcutta bereft of any ceremony and the launch was only briefly covered by newspapers. The flag was not covered in contemporary governmental or political reports either, but was used at the annual session of the Indian National Congress. A slightly modified version was subsequently used by Madam Bhikaji Cama at the second International Socialist Congress in Stuttgart in

title: Flag of India

text: which should always be in a proper state of maintenance. The original flag code of India did not allow private citizens to fly the national flag except on national days such as Independence Day or Republic Day. In 2001, Naveen Jindal, an industrialist used to the more egalitarian use of the flag in the United States where he studied, flew the Indian flag on his office building. The flag was confiscated and he was warned of prosecution. Jindal filed a public interest litigation petition in the High Court of Delhi; he sought to strike down the restriction on the use

title: Flag of India

text: of the Home Rule Movement. The flag included the Union Jack in the upper left corner, a star and crescent in the upper right, and seven stars displayed diagonally from the lower right, on a background of five red and four green alternating bands. The flag resulted in the first governmental initiative against any nationalistic flag, as a magistrate in Coimbatore banned its use. The ban was followed by a public debate on the function and importance of a national flag. In the early 1920s, national flag discussions gained prominence across most British dominions following the peace treaty between Britain

title: Flag of India

text: a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya. By law, the flag is to be made of "", a special type of hand-spun cloth or silk, made popular by Mahatma Gandhi. The manufacturing process and specifications for the flag are laid out by the Bureau of Indian Standards. The right to manufacture the flag is held by the Khadi Development and Village Industries Commission, who allocates it to regional groups. As of 2009, the Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha has been the sole manufacturer of the flag. Usage of the flag is governed by the Flag Code

title: Ravishankar Shukla

text: school boys with the National Flag and national songs. I feel sure you must be realising that National Flag is an embodiment of the most patriotic sentiments of the nation, whether dependent or independent or whether within British Empire or outside it. A flag is said to be the necessity for all nations. It is a dire necessity for India, where we have to cultivate in our children the same sentiments towards our National Flag which the infurling of the Union Jack evokes in the English breasts. When even the honourable ministers of the Crown and along with highly placed

title: Star of India (flag)

text: Star of India (flag) The Star of India can refer to a group of flags used during the period of British rule in the Indian subcontinent. British India had a range of flags for different purposes during its existence. The flags included the Union Flag with the insignia of the Order of the Star of India superimposed, or the Red or Blue Ensign with the Star of India superimposed. The official state flag for use on land was the Union Flag of the United Kingdom and it was this flag that was lowered on Independence Day in 1947. While the

title: Flag of India

text: on Indian territory along with other national flags, the general rule is that the Indian flag should be the starting point of all flags. When flags are placed in a straight line, the rightmost flag (leftmost to the observer facing the flag) is the Indian flag, followed by other national flags in alphabetical order. When placed in a circle, the Indian flag is the first point and is followed by other flags alphabetically. In such placement, all other flags should be of approximately the same size with no other flag being larger than the Indian flag. Each national flag should

title: Flag of India

text: In the early twentieth century, around the coronation of Edward VII, a discussion started on the need for a heraldic symbol that was representative of the Indian empire. William Coldstream, a British member of the Indian Civil Service, campaigned the government to change the heraldic symbol from a star, which he considered to be a common choice, to something more appropriate. His proposal was not well received by the government; Lord Curzon rejected it for practical reasons including the multiplication of flags. Around this time, nationalist opinion within the realm was leading to a representation through religious tradition. The symbols

title: Flag of India

text: and based on directives from England, the British Indian government threatened to withdraw funds from municipalities and local governments that did not prevent the display of the "Swaraj" flag. The "Swaraj" flag became the official flag of Congress at the 1931 meeting. However, by then, the flag had already become the symbol of the independence movement. A few days before India gained its independence in August 1947, the Constituent Assembly was formed. To select a flag for independent India, on 23 June 1947, the assembly set up an "ad hoc" committee headed by Rajendra Prasad and including Maulana Abul Kalam

title: Flag of India

text: death of the president, Vice-president or prime minister. It is flown half-mast in New Delhi and the state of origin for the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and Union Ministers. On deaths of Governors, Lt. Governors and Chief Ministers, the flag is flown at half-mast in the respective states and union territories. The Indian flag cannot be flown at half-mast on Republic Day (26 January), Independence day (15 August), Gandhi Jayanti (2 October), National Week (6–13 April) or state formation anniversaries, except over buildings housing the body of the deceased dignitary. However, even in

text: of Connaught Circus in pre-independent India was the veteran freedom fighter Mir Mushtaq Ahmad who would raise the flag and demand the end of British rule in what was then considered the heart of British imperialism in India. Flag of India at Central Park, Connaught Place Tiranga, the national flag of India was hoisted for the first time on 7 March 2014 at Central Park, Connaught Place. At the time it was the longest and largest Indian flag in the world. This title was later claimed by Indian flags at Cuttack followed by at Mumbai, Bhopal, Pune, Raipur, Hyderabad, Ranchi,

title: Flag code of India

text: the premises do not undermine the dignity of the tricolor. Flag code of India The Flag Code of India is a set of laws, practices and conventions that apply to the display of the national flag. Flag Code of India, 2002, has been divided into three parts. Part I of the code contains a general description of the national flag. Part II of the code is devoted to the display of the national flag by members of public, private organizations, educational institutions, etc. Part III of the code relates to display of the national flag by Central and state governments

title: Flag of Karnataka

text: state than the new one. The current version of the flag was recognised by Chief Minister Siddaramaiah by unveiling it on 8 March 2018, awaiting the central government's approval of the state-recognised flag. Flag of Karnataka The Flag of Karnataka is the proposed flag of the State of Karnataka in southern India. The current version was officially designed during the Fourteenth Assembly and recognised by the state government of Karnataka on the 8th of March 2018. . Though the flag has been officially recognized by the state's assembly, it is currently waiting for approval from the central government of India

title: Flag of India

text: flag should be flown on the aircraft carrying the President, the Vice-President or the Prime Minister on a visit to a foreign country. Alongside the National Flag, the flag of the country visited should also be flown; however, when the aircraft lands in countries en route, the national flags of the respective countries would be flown instead. When carrying the president within India, aircraft display the flag on the side the president embarks or disembarks; the flag is similarly flown on trains, but only when the train is stationary or approaching a railway station. When the Indian flag is flown

title: Flag of Jammu and Kashmir

text: to hoist the state flag along with national flag on official buildings and vehicles of constitutional authorities. However, this decision was contested by the Bharatiya Janata Party and in January 2016 Jammu and Kashmir High Court stayed their decision of hoisting state flag. Deputy Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir Nirmal Kumar Singh said that no flag could be hoisted at an equal level of the national flag of India. Other parties alleged that the BJP is trying to impose its nationalist agenda on a state with special status. Despite the stance of the BJP, ministers of its coalition partner

title: State Emblem of India

text: State Emblem of India The State Emblem of India, as the national emblem of India is called, is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, preserved in the Sarnath Museum near Varanasi, India. A representation of Lion Capital of Ashoka was initially adopted as the emblem of the Dominion of India in December 1947. The current version of the emblem was officially adopted on 26 January 1950, the day that India became a republic. In 1947, as the date of independence for India and Pakistan approached, Jawaharlal Nehru gave charge of finding a suitable national emblem to

title: Flag of India

text: component of the independence struggle. While Muslims were still wary of the "Swaraj" flag, it gained acceptance among Muslim leaders of the Congress and the Khilafat Movement as the national flag. Detractors of the flag movement, including Motilal Nehru, soon hailed the "Swaraj" flag as a symbol of national unity. Thus, the flag became a significant structural component of the institution of India. In contrast to the subdued responses of the past, the British Indian government took greater cognisance of the new flag, and began to define a policy of response. The British parliament discussed public use of the flag,

text: permission for this has been taken for this purpose from the Home Ministry Flag is guarded by guards and CCTV cameras have been installed around it. The flag is also replaced if torn or dirty. The Flag Foundation of India had sent its proposal of installing the national tricolour to the NDMC. The proposal was sent by NDMC to the Delhi Urban Art Commission (DUAC). The DUAC approved the proposal after scrutinising the plan. It was ensured that the proposed structure did not lead to any pollution or traffic mess. The first Indian to hoist the tricolor at Central lawns

title: Indian Naval Ensign

text: with the sky and the ocean. Hence in 2004, the ensign was changed back to the St. George's cross design, with the addition of the emblem of India in the intersection of the cross. In 2014, the ensign as well as the naval crest was further modified to correct the omission of the national motto in Devanagari script: सत्यमेव जयते (Satyameva Jayate) which means 'Truth Alone Triumphs' in Sanskrit. Indian Naval Ensign The Indian Naval Ensign (also known as the Indian White Ensign) is a naval ensign used by ships of the Indian Navy. The blue ensign of the Star

title: Flag of India

title: Flag of India

long_answer: The National Flag of India is a horizontal rectangular tricolour of India saffron, white and India green; with the Ashoka Chakra, a 24-spoke wheel, in navy blue at its centre. It was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on 22 July 1947, and it became the official flag of the Dominion of India on 15 August 1947. The flag was subsequently retained as that of the Republic of India. In India, the term "tricolour" (Hindi: तिरंगा, translit. Tiraṅgā) almost always refers to the Indian national flag. The flag is based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress designed by Pingali Venkayya.


question: what was the most important new religious figure of the new kingdom of ancient egypt

answers: Aten

title: Tjetju

text: priest at the pyramid temple of king Pepi I. Therefore he is often dated under the latter king. Others date him to the First Intermediate Period. Tjetju Tjetju was an important Ancient Egyptian official at the end of the Old Kingdom or in the First Intermediate Period. He held a series of high titles making him to one of the most influential people at the royal court. He most important title was that of the vizier. He was also overseer of the treasuries, overseer of the six big houses, overseer of the two granaries and overseer of all royal work

title: Hathor

text: millennium BC, but she herself may not have appeared until the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC). With the patronage of Old Kingdom rulers she became one of Egypt's most important deities. More temples were dedicated to her than to any other goddess, of which the most prominent was Dendera Temple in Upper Egypt. She was also worshipped in the temples of her male consorts. The Egyptians connected her with foreign lands such as Nubia and Canaan and their valuable goods, such as incense and semiprecious stones, and some of the peoples in those lands adopted her worship. In Egypt itself,

title: Sha-Amun-en-su

text: the mummy, as well as almost all archaeological artifacts in permanent display. Sha-Amun-en-su was born circa the year 800 B.C., during the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt. Her name and almost all known information about her life come from the hieroglyphic inscriptions in her sarcophagus It is known that she was a "singer of Amun's sanctuary", that means, a singer with priestly assignments in the service of the Temple of Karnak in the ancient city of Thebes (currently Luxor), devoted to the god Amun. Thebes was one of the most important religious centers in Ancient Egypt, congregating a complex of temples

title: Ancient Egyptian deities

text: Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period, Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom, Amun was supreme in the New, and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess. Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors. Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise, and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon, he was conjoined with Ra, the traditional king of the gods, to become a solar deity. The gods were believed to manifest in many forms. The Egyptians had a complex

title: High steward (Ancient Egypt)

text: Siese and Khnumhotep III, both were later in their career appointed vizier. The title was still very important in the New Kingdom and was in this period often called high steward of the king. An important title holder of the New Kingdom was Senenmut under Hatshepsut, other include Wadjetrenput serving under the same queen. During the 25th and 26th dynasties, the role of God's Wife of Amun greatly rose in importance, both religiously and politically. Their offices required several servants and employees, led by a chief steward of the God's Wife ("imy-r pr wr n ḥm.t nṯr") who was in

title: Ancient Egyptian religion

text: they simultaneously viewed him as a god, because the divine power of kingship was incarnated in him. He therefore acted as intermediary between Egypt's people and the gods. He was key to upholding Maat, both by maintaining justice and harmony in human society and by sustaining the gods with temples and offerings. For these reasons, he oversaw all state religious activity. However, the pharaoh's real-life influence and prestige could differ from his portrayal in official writings and depictions, and beginning in the late New Kingdom his religious importance declined drastically. The king was also associated with many specific deities. He

title: Naqa

text: remaining hypostatic deities, Amun represented the essential and hidden, whilst in Ra he represented revealed divinity. As the creator deity "par excellence", he was the champion of the poor and central to personal piety. Amun was self-created, without mother and father, and during the New Kingdom he became the greatest expression of transcendental deity in Egyptian theology. His position as King of gods developed to the point of virtual monotheism where other gods became manifestations of him. With Osiris, Amun-Ra is the most widely recorded of the Egyptian gods. The Amun temple of Naqa was founded by King Natakamani and

title: Hathor

text: queen or queen mother, who had prominent roles in Kushite religion. At Jebel Barkal, a site sacred to Amun, the Kushite king Taharqa built a pair of temples, one dedicated to Hathor and one to Mut as consorts of Amun, replacing New Kingdom Egyptian temples that may have been dedicated to these same goddesses. But Isis was the most prominent of the Egyptian goddesses worshipped in Nubia, and her status there increased over time. Thus, in the Meroitic period of Nubian history (c. 300 BC – AD 400), Hathor appeared in temples mainly as a companion to Isis. In addition

title: Ancient Egyptian religion

text: Middle Kingdom, he was eclipsed by the rising popularity of Amun. In this new Egyptian state, personal piety grew more important and was expressed more freely in writing, a trend that continued in the New Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom crumbled in the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BC), but the country was again reunited by Theban rulers, who became the first pharaohs of the New Kingdom. Under the new regime, Amun became the supreme state god. He was syncretized with Ra, the long-established patron of kingship, and his temple at Karnak in Thebes became Egypt's most important religious center. Amun's

title: Amun

text: throughout the New Kingdom (with the exception of the "Atenist heresy" under Akhenaten). Amun-Ra in this period (16th to 11th centuries BC) held the position of transcendental, self-created creator deity "par excellence"; he was the champion of the poor or troubled and central to personal piety. His position as King of Gods developed to the point of virtual monotheism where other gods became manifestations of him. With Osiris, Amun-Ra is the most widely recorded of the Egyptian gods. As the chief deity of the Egyptian Empire, Amun-Ra also came to be worshipped outside Egypt, according to the testimony of ancient

title: Luxor

text: rose in importance as well and became linked to the sun god Ra, thus creating the new 'king of gods' Amon-Ra. His great temple, at Karnak just north of Thebes, was the most important temple of Egypt right until the end of antiquity. Later, the city was attacked by Assyrian emperor Assurbanipal who installed the Libyan prince on the throne, Psamtik I. The city of Thebes was in ruins and fell in significance. However, Alexander the Great did arrive at the temple of Amun, where the statue of the god was transferred from Karnak during the Opet Festival, the great

title: Ishemai

text: Ishemai Ishemai was an Ancient Egyptian official at the end of the Old Kingdom, around 2150 BC. He is mainly known from his rock cut tomb found at the Qubbet el-Hawa. Ishemai had several titles, including "royal sealer", "sole friend", "lector priest" and "great overlord of the king". His rock cut tomb at Qubbet el-Hawa consists of one bigger main cult chapel and several smaller rooms. The main chapel is supported by three rock cut pillars. On the walls of the chapel and on one of the pillars are four panels. They contain painted reliefs, showing Ishemai in front of

title: Mut

text: of the Goddesses", "Lady of Heaven", "Mother of the Gods", and "She Who Gives Birth, But Was Herself Not Born of Any". Mut was the consort of Amun, the patron deity of pharaohs during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) and New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC). Amaunet and Wosret may have been Amun's consorts early in Egyptian history, but Mut, who did not appear in texts or art until the late Middle Kingdom, displaced them. In the New Kingdom, Amun and Mut were the patron deities of Thebes, a major city in Upper Egypt, and formed a cultic triad with

title: Priest

text: to take up residence and performing other rituals for their benefit. Little is known about what training may have been required of priests, and the selection of personnel for positions was affected by a tangled set of traditions, although the pharaoh had the final say. In the New Kingdom of Egypt, when temples owned great estates, the high priests of the most important cult—that of Amun at Karnak—were important political figures. High-ranking priestly roles were usually held by men. Women were generally relegated to lower positions in the temple hierarchy, although some held specialized and influential positions, especially that of

title: Nebamun

text: Nebamun Nebamun was a middle-ranking official "scribe and grain accountant" during the period of the New Kingdom in ancient Egypt. He is thought to have lived and worked at the vast temple complex near Thebes (now Luxor) where the state-god Amun was worshipped. His name was translated as "My Lord is Amun", and his association with the temple, coupled with the importance of grain supplies to Egypt, meant that he was a person of considerable practical importance, though not of the highest rank. Nebamun is known today because of the 1820 discovery of the richly-decorated Tomb of Nebamun on the

title: Hathor

text: she was one of the deities commonly invoked in private prayers and votive offerings, particularly by women desiring children. During the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC), goddesses such as Mut and Isis encroached on Hathor's position in royal ideology, but she remained one of the most widely worshipped deities. After the end of the New Kingdom, Hathor was increasingly overshadowed by Isis, but she continued to be venerated until the extinction of ancient Egyptian religion. Images of cattle appear frequently in the artwork of Predynastic Egypt (before c. 3100 BC), as do images of women with upraised, curving arms in

title: Amenemhatankh

text: the Karnak temple, now located in Cairo and in the tomb inscriptions of the vizier Khnumhotep, Tomb 2 at Dahshur. Amenemhatankh Amenemhatankh (his name means “Amenemhat lives”) was an ancient Egyptian prince of the 12th Dynasty, son of Amenemhat II. Amenhemhatankh is mentioned on a false door which was originally in his tomb but was found reused in the tomb of Khenemet and Siese at Dahshur. He is also mentioned on the base of a broken statue of him, found in Saqqara and now in Cairo Museum, on which his appointing of a priest named Tetiemsaf is recorded. His name

title: Hathor

text: to Hathor and placed her own mortuary temple, which incorporated a chapel dedicated to the goddess, at the site of Deir el-Bahari, which had been sacred to the goddess since the Middle Kingdom. The preeminence of Amun during the New Kingdom gave greater visibility to his consort Mut, and in the course of the period, Isis began appearing in roles that traditionally belonged to Hathor alone, such as that of the goddess in the solar barque. Despite the growing prominence of these deities, Hathor remained important, particularly in relation to fertility, sexuality, and queenship, throughout the New Kingdom. After the

title: Tjauti

text: Tjauti Tjauti was an Ancient Egyptian official who lived at the end of the Eighth Dynasty, around 2150 BC. He is known from a number of sources providing evidence that he was an important figure in the Coptic Nome in Upper Egypt. However, the sources are often broken and the figure of Tjauti remains therefore enigmatic. The most important objects naming Tjauti are the fragments of a false door found near Khozam (compare: Iushenshen) where he is called "overseer of Upper Egypt", which was one of the most important titles in the Old Kingdom. He is also called "the one

title: Simut

text: Simut Simut or Samut (“Son of Mut”) was an Ancient Egyptian priest who held the position of Second Prophet of Amun towards the end of the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep III. He is known from a number of objects, including his (now lost), Theban tomb chapel Tomb A.24. He started his career as a "wab" priest in the temple of Amun and a porter of the god's processional shrine. In the 20th regnal year of Amenhotep he was already the Fourth Prophet of Amun, which means he was the fourth highest ranking priest in the most influential priesthood of the

title: Ancient Egyptian deities

text: all across the country despite its political divisions. The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt, in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country. These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the right to interact with the gods, and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion. New deities continued to emerge after this transformation. Some important deities such as Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC). Places and concepts could inspire the creation of a deity to represent them,

title: Isis

text: first recorded in the "Pyramid Texts" and grew into the most elaborate and influential of all Egyptian myths. Isis plays a more active role in this myth than the other protagonists, so as it developed in literature from the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE) to the Ptolemaic Period (305–30 BCE), she became the most complex literary character of all Egyptian deities. At the same time, she absorbed characteristics from many other goddesses, broadening her significance well beyond the Osiris myth. Isis is part of the Ennead of Heliopolis, a family of nine gods descended from the creator god, Atum or

title: Ancient Egyptian religion

text: most important religious sites of the period. Another important center was Abydos, where the early rulers built large funerary complexes. During the Old Kingdom, the priesthoods of the major deities attempted to organize the complicated national pantheon into groups linked by their mythology and worshipped in a single cult center, such as the Ennead of Heliopolis which linked important deities such as Atum, Ra, Osiris, and Set in a single creation myth. Meanwhile, pyramids, accompanied by large mortuary temple complexes, replaced mastabas as the tombs of pharaohs. In contrast with the great size of the pyramid complexes, temples to gods

title: Tjetju

text: Tjetju Tjetju was an important Ancient Egyptian official at the end of the Old Kingdom or in the First Intermediate Period. He held a series of high titles making him to one of the most influential people at the royal court. He most important title was that of the vizier. He was also overseer of the treasuries, overseer of the six big houses, overseer of the two granaries and overseer of all royal work of the king. Tjetu is known from his modest tomb at Saqqara, built close to the much bigger tomb complexes of Mereruka and Kagemni. Tjetju was

title: High Priests of Amun

text: the cults in Egypt. The young pharaoh Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun to signal the restoration of the Amun to his former place of prominence. The Theban High Priest of Amun was appointed by the King. It was not uncommon for the position to be held by dignitaries who held additional posts in the pharaoh's administration. Several of the high priests from the time of Ramesses II also served as Vizier. At the end of the New Kingdom, the Twentieth Dynasty priesthood of Amun is for a large part dominated by Ramessesnakht. His son, Amenhotep, eventually succeeded his father

title: History of ancient Egypt

text: of Egypt and successfully reasserted Egyptian power in its formerly subject territories of Nubia and the Southern Levant. His reign marks this beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom. Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt, and attain its greatest territorial extent. It expanded far south into Nubia and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria. This was a time of great wealth and

title: Temple of Kom Ombo

text: the theology of this temple. A temple was already built in the New Kingdom to honor these gods, however, this site gained in importance during the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Little remains of the New Kingdom temple. The existing temple was begun by Ptolemy VI Philometor (180–145 BC) at the beginning of his reign and added to by other Ptolemies, most notably Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator (51–47 BC), who built the inner and outer hypostyles. The scene on the inner face of the rear wall of the temple is of particular interest, and "probably represents a set of surgical instruments." Much of

title: New Kingdom of Egypt

text: also known as the "Ramesside period". It is named after the 11 Pharaohs that took the name Ramesses, after Ramesses I, the founder of the 19th Dynasty. Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt proper, and during this time Egypt attained its greatest territorial extent. Similarly, in response to very successful 17th century attacks during the Second Intermediate Period by the powerful Kingdom of Kush, the rulers of the New Kingdom felt compelled to expand far

title: Ancient Egyptian religion

text: was identified directly with Horus, who represented kingship itself, and he was seen as the son of Ra, who ruled and regulated nature as the pharaoh ruled and regulated society. By the New Kingdom he was also associated with Amun, the supreme force in the cosmos. Upon his death, the king became fully deified. In this state, he was directly identified with Ra, and was also associated with Osiris, god of death and rebirth and the mythological father of Horus. Many mortuary temples were dedicated to the worship of deceased pharaohs as gods. The Egyptians had elaborate beliefs about death

title: New Kingdom of Egypt

title: New Kingdom of Egypt

long_answer: One of the best-known 18th Dynasty pharaohs is Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of the Aten, a representation of the Egyptian god, Ra. His exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as history's first instance of monotheism. Akhenaten's wife, Nefertiti, contributed a great deal to his new take on the Egyptian religion. Nefertiti was bold enough to perform rituals to Aten. Akhenaten's religious fervor is cited as the reason why he and his wife were subsequently written out of Egyptian history. Under his reign, in the 14th century BC, Egyptian art flourished under a distinctive style. (See Amarna Period.)


question: who is often associated with printing the first book using moveable type in germany

answers: Johannes Gutenberg

title: Heinrich Eggestein

text: Heinrich Eggestein Heinrich Eggestein (born around 1415/1420 in Rosheim, Alsace; died 1488 or later; also spelled Eckstein or Eggesteyn) is considered, along with Johannes Mentelin, to be the earliest book printer in Strasbourg and therefore one of the earliest anywhere in Europe outside Mainz. Before he came to Strasbourg in the beginning of the 1440s, Heinrich Eggestein had already acquired the academic degree of a Magister artium liberalium at a university which is still unknown. Already shortly after his arrival, he entered the service of Bishop Ruprecht von Pfalz-Simmern and held the office of "Siegelbewahrer" (keeper of the seal, also

title: Bernhard von Mallinckrodt

text: Bernhard von Mallinckrodt Bernhard von Mallinckrodt (29 November 1591 in Ahlen — 7 March 1664, Burg Ottenstein), dean ("Domdechant") of Münster cathedral, was a bibliophile from a noble family of Protestants, who converted to Catholicism. In 1639 he issued a pamphlet at Cologne to mark the bicentennary of the invention of printing by moveable type in Europe, defending the priority of Gutenberg; it was titled "De ortu et progressu artis typographicae" ("Of the rise and progress of the typographic art"), that includes the phrase "prima typographicae incunabula", "the first infancy of printing". This gave rise to the term "incunabula", which

title: Christian Egenolff

text: Christian Egenolff Christian Egenolff or Egenolph (26 July 1502 – 9 February 1555), also known as Christian Egenolff, the Elder, was the first important printer and publisher operating from Frankfurt-am-Main, and best known for his "Kräuterbuch" and re-issue of books by Adam Ries, Erasmus von Rotterdam and Ulrich von Hutten. Egenolff was born in Hadamar and studied humanities at the University of Mainz from 1516, but later took up the trade of bookprinting in Strasbourg, working for Wolfgang Küpfel and marrying Margarethe Karpf. He left Strasbourg in 1530 and started business as a printer/publisher and typecasting in Frankfurt-am-Main. Here he

title: Erhard Ratdolt

text: from 1482, Haly Abenragel (1485), and Alchabitius (1503). Ratdolt is also famous for having produced the first known printer's type specimen book (in this instance a broadsheet displaying the fonts with which he might print). His innovations of layout and typography, mixing type and woodcuts, have subsequently been much admired. His graphic choices and technical solutions influenced also those of William Morris. Erhard Ratdolt Erhard Ratdolt (1442–1528) was an early German printer from Augsburg. He was active as a printer in Venice from 1476 to 1486, and afterwards in Augsburg. From 1475 to 1478 he was in partnership with two

title: Johann Rynmann of Augsburg

text: Johann Rynmann of Augsburg Johann Rynmann of Augsburg, also referred to as John Rynmann of Augsburg, (died 1522) is considered to be the first non-printing publisher. He started his profession as a bookseller in the German city of Oehringen and later moved to Augsburg in Bavaria. Unlike many of the publishers of his time, Rynmann would hire others to conduct the technical production of printed material, choosing instead to concentrate on the distribution and sale of work contracted to him. Reynmann published nearly 200 books but never printed one of them. "Compendium perutile IV librorum sententiarum" written by Nicolaus De

title: Adolf Rusch

text: Adolf Rusch Adolf Rusch von Ingweiler (ca. 1435 - 26 May 1489 in Straßburg) was a notable German printer and publisher. He was the first printer north of the Alps to print in Antiqua. Rusch was probably born at Ingweiler in Alsace. Before 1488 he married Salome Mentelin, the daughter of the well-known Straßburg printer Johannes Mentelin, in whose printing shop he assisted. In the "Rationale divinorum officium", printed by Rusch in or before 1474, he was the first to use the Antiqua type which had originated in Italy; in this type Rusch issued Latin classics, including works by Plutarch

title: Johannes Mentelin

text: Johannes Mentelin Johannes Mentelin, sometimes also spelled Mentlin, (born around 1410 in Schlettstadt, today Sélestat; died December 12, 1478 in Strasbourg) was a pioneering German book printer and bookseller active during the period during which incunabula were printed. In 1466, he published the first printed Bible in the German language, the Mentelin Bible. In 1447, Johannes Mentelin gained the rights of a Strasbourg citizen. He was first a "Goldschreiber" (calligrapher and book scribe) by profession and worked in addition as an episcopal notary. Exactly when and where he learned the technique of book printing is not known. Since at the

title: Hieronymus Vietor

text: Hieronymus Vietor Hieronymus Vietor (ca. 1480, Liebenthal (now Lubomierz) Silesia – late 1546 or early 1547, Kraków) was a printer and publisher born in Silesia and active in Vienna and Kraków. Famous for the quality and quantity of his prints, he is considered one of the most important early book printers in Poland, also because he was the first to regularly print in Polish. He is also known as Hieronymus Philovallensis (a latinization of the name of his birthplace, Lubomierz/Liebenthal) or Hieronymus Doliarius, or in Polish as Hieronim Wietor or Büttner. Hieronymus' birthname was Büttner, sometimes also given as Binder

title: Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz

text: Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz Karl Christoph Traugott Tauchnitz (October 29, 1761-January 14, 1836) was a German printer and bookseller. He was born at Grosspardau, near Grimma and Leipzig, Germany. He learned the printer's trade at Leipzig, and worked in the printing house of Unger in Berlin. In 1792 he entered the house of Sommer in Leipzig. He began a small printing business of his own in Leipzig in 1796. In 1798 he opened a bookstore in connection with the printing business, and in 1800 a type foundery. His business, “Karl Tauchnitz,” became one of the largest establishments of the kind

title: Johannes Gutenberg

text: Gutenberg in 1439 was the first European to use movable type. Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the use of oil-based ink for printing books; adjustable molds; mechanical movable type; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period. His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenberg's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a

title: Heinrich Gran

text: Heinrich Gran Heinrich Gran (; active 1489–1527 in Haguenau) was a German book printer of the "incunabular" era. Together with Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein, he was one of the pioneers of book-printing in Alsace. Little is known about Gran's life other than that he introduced printing to Haguenau, then a more important city than today. Between 1501 and 1527 he printed 213 works of mostly theological content. The municipal library of Haguenau owns a collection of about 40 incunabula from his workshop, signed with the monogram HG, and showing sometimes the emblem of the city, the rose. He printed

title: Anna Rügerin

text: Rügerin (who had inherited Rüger's press) to make her first printing. Anna Rügerin Anna Rügerin (d. after 1484), is considered to be the first female typographer to inscribe her name in the colophon of a book, in the 15th century. In 1484, Rügerin printed two books in the in-folio format, in a press she owned in the city of Augsburg (Germany). Her work appeared less than twenty years after the arrival of the movable-type printing press in that city. The first of Rügerin's known books is an edition of Eike of Repgow's compendium of customary law, the "Sachsenspiegel", dated 22

title: Ottmar Mergenthaler

text: Ottmar Mergenthaler Ottmar Mergenthaler (May 11, 1854 – October 28, 1899) was a German-born inventor who has been called a second Gutenberg, as Mergenthaler invented the linotype machine, the first device that could easily and quickly set complete lines of type for use in printing presses. This machine revolutionized the art of printing. Mergenthaler was born in Hachtel, Württemberg, Germany. He was the third son of a school teacher, Johann Georg Mergenthaler, from Hohenacker near the city of Waiblingen. He was apprenticed to a watchmaker in Bietigheim before emigrating to the United States in 1872 to work with his cousin

title: Anna Rügerin

text: Anna Rügerin Anna Rügerin (d. after 1484), is considered to be the first female typographer to inscribe her name in the colophon of a book, in the 15th century. In 1484, Rügerin printed two books in the in-folio format, in a press she owned in the city of Augsburg (Germany). Her work appeared less than twenty years after the arrival of the movable-type printing press in that city. The first of Rügerin's known books is an edition of Eike of Repgow's compendium of customary law, the "Sachsenspiegel", dated 22 June 1484. The "Sachsenspiegel", written in the 13th century, was the

title: Bernhard von Mallinckrodt

text: is still used to describe books and broadsheets printed before 1500, the arbitrary cut-off date selected by Mallinckrodt. Bernhard von Mallinckrodt Bernhard von Mallinckrodt (29 November 1591 in Ahlen — 7 March 1664, Burg Ottenstein), dean ("Domdechant") of Münster cathedral, was a bibliophile from a noble family of Protestants, who converted to Catholicism. In 1639 he issued a pamphlet at Cologne to mark the bicentennary of the invention of printing by moveable type in Europe, defending the priority of Gutenberg; it was titled "De ortu et progressu artis typographicae" ("Of the rise and progress of the typographic art"), that includes

title: Günther Zainer

text: decoration. His first German Bible is decorated with 73 ornamental initials. Günther Zainer Günther Zainer (or Zeyner or Zeiner) (died 1 October 1478) was the first printer in Augsburg, where he worked from 1468 until his death; he produced about 80 books including two German editions of the Bible and the first printed calendar. He came to Augsburg from Strassburg and printed in 1472–76 three large works of moral instruction. He also printed the first large illustrated book, Jacobus de Voragine's "Legenda aurea" in 2 volumes with 131 woodcuts, 1471–76. Johann Zainer, the first printer in Ulm, was probably his

title: Johann and Wendelin of Speyer

text: slender Gothic models, probably reduced to save space. His work showed the same correctness of text, beauty of printing, and evenness that had characterized Johann's. The latter was the first printer to number the leaves with Arabic numerals, and was also the first who used the colon and interrogation point. In Wendelin's books appeared for the first time the so-called catch-words ("Kustoden"), that is to say he printed on the lower margin of each page the first word of the page following. The Speyer brothers are sometimes credited as the originators of the Roman type of character of movable type,

title: Johann Bämler

text: The first printed book by Bämler appeared in April 1472, and the first illustrated printed book from his workshop in September 1473. He based his typefaces on local cursive script, and they are considered to have contributed to the development of the Schwabacher. Approximately half of the books printed in his printing office were illustrated with woodcuts or other decorative elements. He belonged to the guild of painters, glassmakers, woodcut-makers and goldbeaters, and eventually reached a high position within the guild. His printing activity ceased in 1495. Johann Bämler Johann Bämler (sometimes Johannes Bämler, Johann Baemler or Hans Bemler, 1430–1503)

title: Johann David Köhler

text: in 1728; "Hochverdiente und aus bewährten Urkunden wohlbeglaubte Ehren-Rettung Johann Guttenbergs, eingebohrnen Bürgers in Mayntz" in 1741; and "Anweisung für reisende Gelerte, Bibliothecken, Münz-Cabinette, Antiquitäten-Zimmer, Bilder-Sale, Naturalien- und Kunst-Kammern, u.d.m mit Nutzen zubesehen" from 1762. The 1728 "Syllogie…" is a bibliographic examination of major history texts of the day and is in keeping with the role of historians then and now. The 1741 "Hochverdiente…" is an examination of the assertion that Johann Gutenberg was indeed the inventor of movable type – the printing press – against competing claims. Bernhard von Mallinckrodt (1591-1664) is credited with writing the first defense of

title: Franz Rhode

text: Franz Rhode Franz Rhode (also "Franciscus Rhodus") (died 1559) was a German printer of the 16th century. Having been active in Marburg between 1529 and 1534, he went to Hamburg in 1536 to print Latin works of the theologist Urbanus Rhegius from Celle. In 1537 he moved his office to Danzig (Gdańsk) in Kingdom of Poland, where he published the "Wisby'sches Waterrecht" (Maritime Laws of Wisbuy) in 1538, and established himself as the printer of the council and gymnasium of the town. In the winter of 1539/1540, he printed the Narratio Prima of the young German astronomer Georg Joachim Rheticus,

title: Hans Dorn

text: Hans Dorn Hans Dorn (or Johannes Dorn) was a German printer of the late 15th and early 16th centuries, active in Brunswick He is known to have been in Brunswick during the period of 1493–1525. He may have been active as a bookseller before becoming a printer. The first book known to have printed by him, and at the same time the oldest known book printed in Brunswick, is a Low German "Plenarium" with the title "Dath boke der hilgen Ewangelien. Lectien. Profecien unde Epistelen", dated 15 July 1506. An earlier print by Dorn, dated 1502, is mentioned in an

title: History of Western typography

text: the first printers known to have set up shop outside Germany, Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheim, closely followed by the brothers Johann and Wendelin of Speyer (de Spira), and the Frenchman Nicolas Jenson. The sequence of appearance and production dates for types used by these printers have yet to be established with certainty; all four are known to have printed with types ranging from textur Gothic to fully developed romans inspired by the earlier humanistic writing, and within a few years the center of printing in Italy shifted from Rome to Venice. Some time before 1472 in Venice, Johann and

title: Hubertus Reulandt

text: After he moved to Trier in 1640 there was no printer active in Luxembourg until 1686. In Trier he worked as printer to the Prince-Bishop. Hubertus Reulandt Hubertus Reulandt (1590–1661) was a printer active in Luxembourg from 1618 to 1639 and in Trier from 1640 onwards. A native of St. Vith in the Duchy of Luxembourg, Reulandt took over Moritz Schmalhertz's printing shop in the city of Luxembourg in 1618, and bought up the printing stock from the widow and heirs of Matthias Birton. There he printed numerous German editions of the decrees of the Archdukes Albert and Isabella (to

title: Print culture

text: into its own. Even though the printing press was a paradigm shifting invention, printing had many critics, who were afraid that books could spread lies and subversion or corrupt unsuspecting readers. Also, they were afraid that the printed texts would spread heresy and sow religious discord. The Gutenberg Bible was the first book produced with moveable type in Europe. Martin Luther's Bible, which was published in German in 1522, started the Protestant Reformation. Latin's importance as a language started languishing with the rise of texts written in national languages. The shift from scholarly Latin to everyday languages marked an important

title: Adolf Rusch

text: and Seneca. Jointly with Mentelin he produced theological and medical works, in the Mentelin typeface. Rusch left behind an extensive correspondence. In the 19th century his work had not yet been attributed to him and was ascribed to the R-printer because of the peculiar shape of the capital 'R' used by him. Adolf Rusch Adolf Rusch von Ingweiler (ca. 1435 - 26 May 1489 in Straßburg) was a notable German printer and publisher. He was the first printer north of the Alps to print in Antiqua. Rusch was probably born at Ingweiler in Alsace. Before 1488 he married Salome Mentelin,

title: Heinrich Gran

text: the "Epistolæ Obscurorum Virorum," among other works. One of Gran's most important clients was the pioneering publisher Johann Rynmann of Augsburg, who financed the printing of 174 out of the 213 works issued by his press between 1501 and 1527. Many of Gran's prints were destined for Hungary. Gran also seems to have worked sometimes with his junior, Haguenau printer Thomas Anshelm. Heinrich Gran Heinrich Gran (; active 1489–1527 in Haguenau) was a German book printer of the "incunabular" era. Together with Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein, he was one of the pioneers of book-printing in Alsace. Little is known

title: History of Western typography

text: Erhard Ratdolt c. 1486 was cut to suit Venetian taste. In 1476 William Caxton, having learned his craft on the Continent, printed the first books in England with a so-called Bâtarde type (an early Schwabacher design), but soon abandoned it. The early printers of Spain were Germans who began by printing in up-to-date roman types but soon gave these up and adopted Gothic typefaces based on the letterforms of Spanish manuscripts. Valencia in the Kingdom of Aragon was the location of the first press, established in 1473. From there printers moved to other cities to set up presses. Roman types

title: Christoph Sauer

text: Christoph Sauer Christoph Sauer (1695 – September 25, 1758) was the first German-language printer and publisher in North America. Johann Christoph Sauer was born in 1695 in Ladenburg (near Heidelberg), the son of a Reformed pastor. He came to the County ("Graftschaft") of Wittgenstein in central Germany as a child with his widowed mother some time between 1700–1710. He was a graduate of a German university, and studied medicine at the University of Halle. At the time, its rulers were tolerant of a variety of Pietists and other religious dissenters, most notably Alexander Mack, who would later found the Church

title: Johannes Gutenberg

text: book production in Europe, and upon woodblock printing, and revolutionized European book-making. Gutenberg's printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world. His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible), has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality. Gutenberg was born in the German city of Mainz, the youngest son of the patrician merchant Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden, and his second wife, Else Wyrich, who was the daughter of a shopkeeper. It is assumed that he was baptized in the area close to his birthplace of St. Christoph. According to some accounts, Friele

title: Movable type

text: Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany is acknowledged as the first to invent a metal movable-type printing system in Europe, the printing press.  Gutenberg was a goldsmith familiar with techniques of cutting punches for making coins from moulds. Between 1436 and 1450 he developed hardware and techniques for casting letters from matrices using a device called the hand mould. Gutenberg's key invention and contribution to movable-type printing in Europe, the hand mould, was the first practical means of making cheap copies of letterpunches in the vast quantities needed to print complete books, making the movable-type printing process a viable enterprise.

title: Movable type


question: when does the sa node begin electrical signaling

answers: spontaneously generated

answers: spontaneously

title: Cardiac pacemaker

text: out of the cell and pumping (exchanging) potassium into the cell. Restoring these ion concentrations is vital because it enables the cell to reset itself and enables it to repeat the process of spontaneous depolarization leading to activation of an action potential. If the SA node does not function, or the impulse generated in the SA node is blocked before it travels down the electrical conduction system, a group of cells further down the heart will become its pacemaker. This center is typically represented by cells inside the atrioventricular node (AV node), which is an area between the atria and

title: Bradycardia

text: the SA node falls below the rate of the AV node. This dysrhythmia also may occur when the electrical impulses from the SA node fail to reach the AV node because of SA or AV block. This is a protective mechanism for the heart, to compensate for an SA node that is no longer handling the pacemaking activity, and is one of a series of backup sites that can take over pacemaker function when the SA node fails to do so. This would present with a longer PR interval. A junctional escape complex is a normal response that may result

title: Cardiac physiology

text: unregulated, the SA node would initiate a sinus rhythm of approximately 100 bpm. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic stimuli flow through the paired cardiac plexus near the base of the heart. Without any nervous stimulation, the SA node would establish a sinus rhythm of approximately 100 bpm. Since resting rates are considerably less than this, it becomes evident that parasympathetic stimulation normally slows HR. The cardioaccelerator center also sends additional fibers, forming the cardiac nerves via sympathetic ganglia (the cervical ganglia plus superior thoracic ganglia T1–T4) to both the SA and AV nodes, plus additional fibers to the atria and ventricles.

title: Sinoatrial node

text: therefore cause ischaemia and cell death in the SA node. This can disrupt the electrical pacemaker function of the SA node, and can result in sick sinus syndrome. If the SA node does not function, or the impulse generated in the SA node is blocked before it travels down the electrical conduction system, a group of cells further down the heart will become its pacemaker. The sinoatrial node was first discovered by a young medical student, Martin Flack, in the heart of a mole, whilst his mentor, Sir Arthur Keith, was on a bicycle ride with his wife. They made

title: Sinoatrial node

text: superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The cells of the SA node are spread out within a mesh of connective tissue, containing nerves, blood vessels, collagen and fat. Immediately surrounding the SA node cells are paranodal cells. These cells have structures intermediate between that of the SA node cells and the rest of the atrium. The connective tissue, along with the paranodal cells, insulate the SA node from the rest of the atrium, preventing the electrical activity of the atrial cells from affecting the SA node cells. The SA node cells are smaller and paler than the surrounding

title: Cardiac pacemaker

text: node (SA node), is responsible for atrial propagation of this potential. The sinoatrial node (SA node) is a group of cells positioned on the wall of the right atrium, near the entrance of the superior vena cava. These cells are modified cardiomyocytes. They possess rudimentary contractile filaments, but contract relatively weakly compared to the cardiac contractile cells. The pacemaker cells are connected to neighboring contractile cells via gap junctions, which enable them to locally depolarize adjacent cells. Gap junctions allow the passage of positive cations from the depolarization of the pacemaker cell to adjacent contractile cells. This starts the depolarization

title: Cardiac physiology

text: syncytium, the sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular node, the bundle of His (atrioventricular bundle), the bundle branches, and the Purkinje cells. Normal sinus rhythm is established by the sinoatrial (SA) node, the heart's pacemaker. The SA node is a specialized grouping of cardiomyocytes in the upper and back walls of the right atrium very close to the opening of the superior vena cava. The SA node has the highest rate of depolarization. This impulse spreads from its initiation in the SA node throughout the atria through specialized internodal pathways, to the atrial myocardial contractile cells and the atrioventricular node. The internodal

title: Sinoatrial node

text: rate, and increasing heart rate. An increase in heart rate is known as positive chronotropy. The parasympathetic nerves supplying the SA node (in particular the Vagus nerves) originate in the brain. These nerves release a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine (ACh). ACh binds to a receptor called an M2 muscarinic receptor, located on the SA node membrane. Activation of this M2 receptor, then activates a protein called a G-protein (in particular G protein, i for inhibitory). Activation of this G-protein, blocks the cAMP pathway, reducing its effects, therefore inhibiting sympathetic activity and slowing action potential production. As well as this, the G-protein

title: Sinoatrial block

text: a lag between the time that the SA node fires and actual depolarization of the atria. This rhythm is not recognizable on an ECG strip because a strip does not denote when the SA node fires. It can be detected only during an electrophysiology study when a small wire is placed against the SA node from within the heart and the electrical impulses can be recorded as they leave the p-cells in the centre of the node [ see pacemaker potential ], followed by observing a delay in the onset of the p wave on the ECG. Second degree SA

title: Cardiac physiology

text: plateau phase. The remaining Ca for contraction is released from storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The pattern of prepotential or spontaneous depolarization, followed by rapid depolarization and repolarization just described, are seen in the SA node and a few other conductive cells in the heart. Since the SA node is the pacemaker, it reaches threshold faster than any other component of the conduction system. It will initiate the impulses spreading to the other conducting cells. The SA node, without nervous or endocrine control, would initiate a heart impulse approximately 80–100 times per minute. Although each component of the conduction system

text: If SA nodal impulses occur at a rate less than 60bpm, the heart rhythm is known as sinus bradycardia. If SA nodal impulses occur at a rate exceeding 100bpm, the consequent rapid heart rate is sinus tachycardia. These conditions are not necessarily bad symptoms, however. Trained athletes, for example, usually show heart rates slower than 60bpm when not exercising. If the SA node fails to initialize, the AV junction can take over as the main pacemaker of the heart. The AV junction consists of the AV node, the bundle of His, and the surrounding area; it has a regular rate

title: Sinoatrial node

text: also activates a potassium channel, which allows K to flow out of the cell, making the membrane potential more negative and slowing the pacemaker potential, therefore decreasing the rate of action potential production and therefore decreasing heart rate. A decrease in heart rate is known as negative chronotropy. The first cell to produce the action potential in the SA node isn’t always the same, this is known as pacemaker shift. In certain species of animals, for example, in dogs, a superior shift (i.e. the cell that produces the fastest action potential in the SA node is higher than previously) usually

title: Cardiac physiology

text: ms to pass through the node. This pause is critical to heart function, as it allows the atrial cardiomyocytes to complete their contraction that pumps blood into the ventricles before the impulse is transmitted to the cells of the ventricle itself. With extreme stimulation by the SA node, the AV node can transmit impulses maximally at 220 per minute. This establishes the typical maximum heart rate in a healthy young individual. Damaged hearts or those stimulated by drugs can contract at higher rates, but at these rates, the heart can no longer effectively pump blood. Arising from the AV node,

title: Neural oscillation

text: sinoatrial node normally initiates it, simply because it generates impulses slightly faster than the other areas. Hence, these cells generate the normal sinus rhythm and are called pacemaker cells as they directly control the heart rate. In the absence of extrinsic neural and hormonal control, cells in the SA node will rhythmically discharge. The sinoatrial node is richly innervated by the autonomic nervous system, which up or down regulates the spontaneous firing frequency of the pacemaker cells. Synchronized firing of neurons also forms the basis of periodic motor commands for rhythmic movements. These rhythmic outputs are produced by a group

title: ICAM-1

text: that the downstream effectors of ICAM-1 mediated signaling through various kinases including p56lyn, Raf-1, and the MAPKs are largely unknown. A more thorough study of the cross-talk between these signaling molecules may shed further light onto the biological endpoints produced by ICAM-1 ligation and signal transduction. ICAM-1 has been implicated in subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Levels of ICAM-1 are shown to be significantly elevated in patients with SAH over control subjects in many studies. While ICAM-1 has not been shown to be directly correlated with cerebral vasospasm, a secondary symptom that affects 70% of SAH patients, treatment with anti-ICAM-1 reduced the

title: Tbx18 transduction

text: healthy heart, sinoatrial (SA) nodal cells act as the heart’s pacemaker and cause the heart to beat in a regular rhythm. Approximately 10 thousand of the 10 billion cells in the heart are SA nodal cells. Although they make up a relatively small portion of the heart SA node cells play a crucial role in the heart’s function. The problem in sick sinus syndrome is that the SA node is not functioning properly and is causing an irregular heartbeat. Currently the treatment for sick sinus syndrome is to remove the SA nodal cells that are not functioning properly (?) and

title: Systole

text: is situated at the top of the right atrium adjacent to the junction with the superior vena cava. The S-A Node is a pale yellow structure. For humans it is approximately 25 mm long, 3-4 mm wide and 2 mm thick. It contains two types of cells: (a) the small, round P "cells" which have very few "organells and myofibrils," and (b")" the slender elongated "transitional cells", which are intermediate in appearance between the P and the ordinary myocardial cells. Intact, the SA node provides continual electrical discharge known as sinus rhythm through the atrial mass, the signals of which

title: Cardiac pacemaker

text: discharge at about 40-60 beats per minute, and are called the "secondary pacemaker". Further down the electrical conducting system of the heart is the Bundle of His. The left and right branches of this bundle, and the Purkinje fibres, will also produce a spontaneous action potential at a rate of 30-40 beats per minute, so if the SA and AV node both fail to function, these cells can become pacemakers. It is important to realize that these cells will be initiating action potentials and contraction at a much lower rate than the primary or secondary pacemaker cells. The SA node

title: Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

text: cardiac action potential arises in the sinoatrial (SA) node, which is located in the right atrium. From there, the electrical stimulus is transmitted via internodal pathways to the atrioventricular (AV) node. After a brief delay at the AV node, the stimulus travels through the bundle of His to the left and right bundle branches and then to the Purkinje fibers and the endocardium at the apex of the heart, then finally to the ventricular myocardium. The AV node serves an important function as a "gatekeeper", limiting the electrical activity that reaches the ventricles. In situations where the atria generate excessively

title: Pacemaker potential

text: of the heart between the SA node and the atrial foci. SA node → |block| atrial foci → junctional foci → ventricular foci The other foci will not see the SA node firing; however, they will see the atrial foci. The heart will now beat at the intrinsic rate of the atrial foci. The firing of the pacemaker cells is induced electrically by reaching the threshold potential of the cell membrane. The threshold potential is the potential an excitable cell membrane, such as a myocyte, must reach in order to induce an action potential. This depolarization is caused by very

title: Sinoatrial node

text: (in particular T1-T4). These nerves release a neurotransmitter called noradrenaline (NA). This binds to a receptor on the SA node membrane, called a beta-1adrenoceptor. Binding of NA to this receptor activates a G-protein (in particular a G-Protein, S for stimulatory) which initiates a series of reactions (known as the cAMP pathway) that results in the production of a molecule called cyclic adenosinemonophosphate (cAMP). This cAMP binds to the HCN channel (see above). Binding of cAMP to the HCN, increases the flow of Na and K into the cell, speeding up the pacemaker potential, so producing action potentials at a quicker

title: Heart block

text: to a second degree type I block in "either the SA node or the AV node", however the ECG features of the two are quite distinctly different. SA blocks rarely give severe symptoms, because even if an individual had complete block at this level of the conduction system (which is uncommon), the secondary pacemaker of the heart would be at the AV node, which would fire at 40 to 60 beats a minute, which is enough to retain consciousness in the resting state. However SA block is capable of causing problematic symptoms even so, and may also hint at conduction

title: Heart rate

text: predominates as, left unregulated, the SA node would initiate a sinus rhythm of approximately 100 bpm. Both sympathetic and parasympathetic stimuli flow through the paired cardiac plexus near the base of the heart. The cardioaccelerator center also sends additional fibers, forming the cardiac nerves via sympathetic ganglia (the cervical ganglia plus superior thoracic ganglia T1–T4) to both the SA and AV nodes, plus additional fibers to the atria and ventricles. The ventricles are more richly innervated by sympathetic fibers than parasympathetic fibers. Sympathetic stimulation causes the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline) at the neuromuscular junction of

text: has a regular rate of 40 to 60 bpm. These "junctional" rhythms are characterized by a missing or inverted P-Wave. If both the SA node and the AV junction fail to initialize the electrical impulse, the ventricles can fire the electrical impulses themselves at a rate of 20 to 40 bpm and will have a QRS complex of greater than 120 ms. In the event of arrhythmia, a pacemaker may be surgically inserted into the conduction system. Electrical conduction system of the heart The electrical conduction system of the heart transmits signals generated usually by the sinoatrial node to cause

title: Sinoatrial node

text: produced an increased heart rate whereas an inferior shift (i.e. the cell producing the fastest action potential within the SA node is further down than previously) produced a decreased heart rate. Sinus node dysfunction describes an irregular heartbeat caused by faulty electrical signals of the heart. When the heart's sinoatrial node is defective, the heart’s rhythms become abnormal – typically too slow or exhibiting pauses in its function or a combination, and very rarely faster than normal. Blockage of the arterial blood supply to the SA node (most commonly due to a myocardial infarction or progressive coronary artery disease) can

title: Sinoatrial node

text: proteins called connexins. There are fewer gap junctions within the SA node and they are smaller in size. This is again important in insulating the SA node from the surrounding atrial cells. The sinoatrial node receives its blood supply from the sinoatrial nodal artery. This blood supply, however, can differ hugely between individuals. For example, in most humans this is a single artery, although in some cases there have been either 2 or 3 sinoatrial node arteries supplying the SA node. Also, the SA node artery mainly originates as a branch of the right coronary artery; however in some individuals

title: Somatosensory amplification

text: Somatosensory amplification Somatosensory amplification (SA) is a tendency to perceive normal somatic and visceral sensations as being relatively intense, disturbing and noxious. It is a common feature of hypochondriasis and is commonly found with fibromyalgia, major depressive disorder, some anxiety disorders, Asperger syndrome, and alexithymia. One common clinical measure of SA is the Somatosensory Amplification Scale (SSAS). It is unclear whether persons with SA have a truly increased physiological sensitivity to bodily sensations. One study paradoxically found "lower" levels of SA in hypochondriacs who reported being constantly aware of their own heartbeats. Tentative electroencephalography results tend to indicate SA is

title: Heart block

text: issues elsewhere in the heart, and therefore SA blocks are - despite their lower level of life-threatening risk - still "the most common indication for pacemaker implantation in the US". Types of SA nodal blocks include: In addition to the above blocks, the SA node can be suppressed by any other arrhythmia that reaches it. This includes retrograde conduction from the ventricles, ectopic atrial beats, atrial fibrillation, and atrial flutter. The difference between SA node block and SA node suppression is that in SA node block an electrical impulse is generated by the SA node that doesn't make the atria

title: Tachycardia-dependent bundle branch block

text: that are directed throughout the heart. A direct neural-like pathway propagates this electrical signal from the SA node through the atrial tissue to a central nodal point in the center of the heart, the atrioventricular node. From here, the signal travels down a signal conducting channel (the bundle of His) where it will diverge into a left and right branch that will control the left and right ventricle, respectively. As a result of underlying heart disease, this cardiac conductive tissue can become damaged from ischemia (a deprivation of oxygenated blood). This damage results in the inability of this neural-like tissue

text: Under normal conditions, electrical activity is spontaneously generated by the SA node, the cardiac pacemaker.  This electrical impulse is propagated throughout the right atrium, and through Bachmann's bundle to the left atrium, stimulating the myocardium of the atria to contract. The conduction of the electrical impulses throughout the atria is seen on the ECG as the P wave.

short_answers:
spontaneously
spontaneously generated