question: what is the breakdown product formed when one phosphate group is removed from atp

answers: adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

title: P/O ratio

text: P/O ratio The Phosphate/Oxygen Ratio, or P/O Ratio, refers to the amount of ATP produced from the movement of two electrons through a defined electron transport chain, donated by reduction of an oxygen atom. The P/O ratio is dependent on the quantity of hydrogen atoms transported outward across an electrochemical gradient, and the number of protons which return inward through the membrane via an enzyme such as ATP synthase. The ATP generated will be dependent on the amount of ATP produced per rotation of the ATP synthase rotor, and the number of hydrogen atoms necessary to complete a rotation. Inward

title: P/O ratio

text: "e", and 4 H are required to move inward to synthesize a molecule of ATP. P/O ratio The Phosphate/Oxygen Ratio, or P/O Ratio, refers to the amount of ATP produced from the movement of two electrons through a defined electron transport chain, donated by reduction of an oxygen atom. The P/O ratio is dependent on the quantity of hydrogen atoms transported outward across an electrochemical gradient, and the number of protons which return inward through the membrane via an enzyme such as ATP synthase. The ATP generated will be dependent on the amount of ATP produced per rotation of the

title: Basal metabolic rate

text: can require a breakdown, and also to build in the rest period, which occurs during the strengthening phase associated with muscular contraction. ATP is composed of adenine, a nitrogen containing base, ribose, a five carbon sugar (collectively called adenosine), and three phosphate groups. ATP is a high energy molecule because it stores large amounts of energy in the chemical bonds of the two terminal phosphate groups. The breaking of these chemical bonds in the Krebs Cycle provides the energy needed for muscular contraction. Because the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in all carbohydrates is always the same as that

title: Adenosine triphosphate

text: coenzyme. From the perspective of biochemistry, ATP is classified as a nucleoside triphosphate, which indicates that it consists of three components: a nitrogenous base (adenine), the sugar ribose, and the triphosphate. In terms of its structure, ATP consists of an adenine attached by the 9-nitrogen atom to the 1′ carbon atom of a sugar (ribose), which in turn is attached at the 5′ carbon atom of the sugar to a triphosphate group. In its many reactions related to metabolism, the adenine and sugar groups remain unchanged, but the triphosphate is converted to di- and monophosphate, giving respectively the derivatives ADP

title: Adenosine diphosphate

text: one fewer phosphate group. Energy transfer used by all living things is a result of dephosphorylation of ATP by enzymes known as ATPases. The cleavage of a phosphate group from ATP results in the coupling of energy to metabolic reactions and a by-product of ADP. Being the "molecular unit of currency", ATP is continually being reformed from lower-energy species ADP and AMP. The biosynthesis of ATP is achieved throughout processes such as substrate-level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, and photophosphorylation, all of which facilitating the addition of a phosphate group to ADP. ADP cycling supplies the energy needed to do work in

title: Phosphate

text: phosphates bound in various phosphate esters. Inorganic phosphate is generally denoted P and at physiological (homeostatic) pH primarily consists of a mixture of and ions. Inorganic phosphate can be created by the hydrolysis of pyrophosphate, denoted PP: However, phosphates are most commonly found in the form of adenosine phosphates (AMP, ADP, and ATP) and in DNA and RNA. It can be released by the hydrolysis of ATP or ADP. Similar reactions exist for the other nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates. Phosphoanhydride bonds in ADP and ATP, or other nucleoside diphosphates and triphosphates, can release high amounts of energy when hydrolyzed which

title: Metabolism

text: group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled. One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day. ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism

title: Adenosine monophosphate

text: the hydrolysis of one high energy phosphate bond of ADP: AMP can also be formed by hydrolysis of ATP into AMP and pyrophosphate: When RNA is broken down by living systems, nucleoside monophosphates, including adenosine monophosphate, are formed. AMP can be regenerated to ATP as follows: AMP can be converted into IMP by the enzyme myoadenylate deaminase, freeing an ammonia group. In a catabolic pathway, adenosine monophosphate can be converted to uric acid, which is excreted from the body in mammals. The eukaryotic cell enzyme 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, or AMPK, utilizes AMP for homeostatic energy processes during times

title: Glucose 1-phosphate

text: Glucose 1-phosphate Glucose 1-phosphate (also called cori ester) is a glucose molecule with a phosphate group on the 1'-carbon. It can exist in either the α- or β-anomeric form. In glycogenolysis, it is the direct product of the reaction in which glycogen phosphorylase cleaves off a molecule of glucose from a greater glycogen structure. A deficiency muscle glycogen phosphorylase is known as glycogen storage disease type V (McArdle Disease). To be utilized in cellular catabolism it must first be converted to glucose 6-phosphate by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase. One reason that cells form glucose 1-phosphate instead of glucose during glycogen breakdown

title: Creatine phosphate shuttle

text: inorganic phosphate for ATP formation. At the onset of exercise phosphocreatine is broken down to provide ATP for muscle contraction. ATP hydrolysis results in products of ADP and inorganic phosphate. The inorganic phosphate will be transported into the mitochondrial matrix, while the free creatine passes through the outer membrane where it will be resynthesised into PCr. The antiporter transports the ADP into the matrix, while transporting ATP out. Due to the high concentration of ATP around the mitrochondrial creatine kinase, it will convert ATP into PCr which will then move back out into the cells cytoplasm to be converted into

title: High-energy phosphate

text: PP, to effectively supply the energy of hydrolysis of two high-energy bonds, with the hydrolysis of PP being allowed to go to completion in a separate reaction. The AMP is regenerated to ATP in two steps, with the equilibrium reaction ATP + AMP ↔ 2ADP, followed by regeneration of ATP by the usual means, oxidative phosphorylation or other energy-producing pathways such as glycolysis. Often, high-energy phosphate bonds are denoted by the character '~'. In this "squiggle" notation, ATP becomes A-P~P~P. The squiggle notation was invented by Fritz Albert Lipmann, who first proposed ATP as the main energy transfer molecule of

title: Adenosine triphosphate

text: bonds". The hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate releases 30.5 kJ/mol of enthalpy, with a change in free energy of 3.4 kJ/mol. The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate (P) or pyrophosphate (PP) unit from ATP at standard state of 1 M are: These abbreviated equations can be written more explicitly (R = adenosyl): With a typical intracellular concentration of 1–10 mM, ATP is abundant. The dephosphorylation of ATP and rephosphorylation of ADP and AMP occur repeatedly in the course of aerobic metabolism. ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes; the three main

title: Adenine

text: It forms adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a nucleoside triphosphate, when three phosphate groups are added to adenosine. Adenosine triphosphate is used in cellular metabolism as one of the basic methods of transferring chemical energy between chemical reactions. In older literature, adenine was sometimes called Vitamin B. Due to it being synthesized by the body and not essential to be obtained by diet, it does not meet the definition of vitamin and is no longer part of the Vitamin B complex. However, two B vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, bind with adenine to form the essential cofactors nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin

title: Crista

text: enzyme ATP synthase produces ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. This harnesses the potential energy from the concentration gradient formed by the amount of H ions. H ions passively pass into the mitochondrial matrix by the ATP synthase, and later help to re-form HO (water). The electron transport chain requires a varying supply of electrons in order to properly function and generate ATP. However, the electrons that have entered the electron transport chain would eventually pile up like cars traveling down a blocked one-way street. Those electrons are finally accepted by oxygen (O). As a result, they form two

title: Adenosine diphosphate

text: conformational change when connecting to actin during muscle contraction. It takes multiple reactions between myosin and actin to effectively produce one muscle contraction, and, therefore, the availability of large amounts of ATP is required to produce each muscle contraction. For this reason, biological processes have evolved to produce efficient ways to replenishment the potential energy of ATP from ADP. Breaking one of ATP's phosphorus bonds generates approximately 30.5 kilojoules per Mole of ATP (7.3 kcal). ADP can be converted, or powered back to ATP through the process of releasing the chemical energy available in food; in humans, this is constantly

title: Glucose 6-phosphate

text: and muscles in the form of glycogen for most multicellular animals, and in intracellular starch or glycogen granules for most other organisms. Within a cell, glucose 6-phosphate is produced by phosphorylation of glucose on the sixth carbon. This is catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase in most cells, and, in higher animals, glucokinase in certain cells, most notably liver cells. One equivalent of ATP is consumed in this reaction. The major reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose is to prevent diffusion out of the cell. The phosphorylation adds a charged phosphate group so the glucose 6-phosphate cannot easily cross the

title: Glucose 6-phosphate

text: cell membrane. Glucose-6-phosphate is also produced during glycogenolysis from glucose-1-phosphate, the first product of the breakdown of glycogen polymers. When the ratio of NADP : NADPH increases, the body realizes it needs to produce more NADPH (a reducing agent for several reactions like fatty acid synthesis and glutathione reduction in erythrocytes). This will cause the G6P to be dehydrogenated by glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. This irreversible reaction is the initial step of the pentose phosphate pathway, which generates the useful cofactor NADPH as well as ribulose-5-phosphate, a carbon source for the synthesis of other molecules. Also, if the body needs nucleotide

title: Phosphate

text: give them their vital role in all living organisms. They are generally referred to as high-energy phosphate, as are the phosphagens in muscle tissue. Compounds such as substituted phosphines have uses in organic chemistry, but do not seem to have any natural counterparts. The addition and removal of phosphate from proteins in all cells is a pivotal strategy in the regulation of metabolic processes. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are important ways that energy is stored and released in living systems. Cells use ATP for this. Phosphate is useful in animal cells as a buffering agent. Phosphate salts that are commonly used

title: Bioenergetics

text: the stronger bonds formed when ATP is hydrolyzed (broken down by water) to adenosine diphosphate and inorganic phosphate. Here it is the thermodynamically favorable free energy of hydrolysis that results in energy release; the phosphoanhydride bond between the terminal phosphate group and the rest of the ATP molecule does not itself contain this energy. An organism's stockpile of ATP is used as a battery to store energy in cells. Utilization of chemical energy from such molecular bond rearrangement powers biological processes in every biological organism. Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic materials; i.e. ATP can be synthesized from

title: Oxidative phosphorylation

text: pathway. This enzyme is found in all forms of life and functions in the same way in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The enzyme uses the energy stored in a proton gradient across a membrane to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate (P). Estimates of the number of protons required to synthesize one ATP have ranged from three to four, with some suggesting cells can vary this ratio, to suit different conditions. This phosphorylation reaction is an equilibrium, which can be shifted by altering the proton-motive force. In the absence of a proton-motive force, the ATP synthase reaction

title: Carbohydrate catabolism

text: a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane now naturally flow through a membrane protein called ATP synthase, a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions. Carbohydrate catabolism Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP. The production of ATP is achieved through the oxidation of glucose molecules. In oxidation, the electrons are stripped from a glucose molecule to reduce NAD+ and FAD. NAD+ and FAD possess a high

title: 1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid

text: of 1,3BPG is important in respiration as it assists in the formation of ATP. The molecule of ATP created during the following reaction is the first molecule produced during respiration. The reaction occurs as follows; The transfer of an inorganic phosphate from the carboxyl group on 1,3BPG to ADP to form ATP is reversible due to a low ΔG. This is as a result of one acyl phosphate bond being cleaved whilst another is created. This reaction is not naturally spontaneous and requires the presence of a catalyst. This role is performed by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase. During the reaction

title: Carbohydrate metabolism

text: glycolysis pathway and is later cleaved into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Lactose, or milk sugar, consists of one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose. After separation from glucose, galactose travels to the liver for conversion to glucose. Galactokinase uses one molecule of ATP to phosphorylate galactose. The phosphorylated galactose is then converted to glucose-1-phosphate, and then eventually glucose-6-phosphate, which can be broken down in glycolysis. Many steps of carbohydrate metabolism allow the cells to access energy, and store it more transiently in ATP. The cofactors NAD and FAD are sometimes reduced during this process to form NADH and

title: Cardiolipin

text: inner membrane proteins in mammalian mitochondria. However, studies with isolated enzyme preparations indicate that its importance may vary depending on the protein examined. Since there are two phosphates in the molecule, each of them can catch one proton. Although it has a symmetric structure, ionizing one phosphate happens at a very different levels of acidity than ionizing both: pK = 3 and pK > 7.5. So under normal physiological conditions (wherein pH is around 7), the molecule may carry only one negative charge. The hydroxyl groups (–OH and –O) on phosphate would form a stable intramolecular hydrogen bond with the

title: Glutathione synthetase

text: ions function to stabilize the acylphosphate intermediate, facilitate binding of ATP, and activate removal of phosphate group from ATP. Sulfate ion serves as a replacement for inorganic phosphate once the acylphosphate intermediate is formed inside the active site. The biosynthetic mechanisms for synthetases use energy from nucleoside triphosphates, whereas synthases do not. Glutathione synthetase stays true to this rule, in that it uses the energy generated by ATP. Initially, the carboxylate group on γ-glutamylcysteine is converted into an acyl phosphate by the transfer of an inorganic phosphate group of ATP to generate an acyl phosphate intermediate. Then the amino group

title: High-energy phosphate

text: High-energy phosphate High-energy phosphate can mean one of two things: High-energy phosphate bonds are pyrophosphate bonds, acid anhydride linkages formed by taking phosphoric acid derivatives and dehydrating them. As a consequence, the hydrolysis of these bonds is exergonic under physiological conditions, releasing energy. Except for PP → 2 P, these reactions are, in general, not allowed to go uncontrolled in the human cell but are instead coupled to other processes needing energy to drive them to completion. Thus, high-energy phosphate reactions can: The one exception is of value because it allows a single hydrolysis, ATP + HO → AMP +

title: Sugar phosphates

text: Sugar phosphates Sugar phosphates (sugars that have added or substituted phosphate groups) are often used in biological systems to store or transfer energy. They also form the backbone for DNA and RNA (DNA having two sugar molecules, and RNA having just one). Sugar phosphate backbone geometry is altered in the vicinity of the modified nucleotides. Sugar phosphates may be divided into two groups - those that are acid-labile (aldose 1-phosphates) and those that are not. Consequently, too low a pH was to be avoided during the elution of glucose 1-phosphate and ribose 1-phosphate. On the other hand, in order to

title: Cellular respiration

text: third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously. The potential of NADH and FADH is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from

title: Adenosine triphosphate

text: necessary to transport phosphate into the mitochondrion; the phosphate carrier moves a proton in with each phosphate, partially dissipating the proton gradient. After completing glycolysis, the Citric Acid Cycle, electrons transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation, approximately 30-38 ATP are produced per glucose. The citric acid cycle is regulated mainly by the availability of key substrates, particularly the ratio of NAD to NADH and the concentrations of calcium, inorganic phosphate, ATP, ADP, and AMP. Citrate – the ion that gives its name to the cycle – is a feedback inhibitor of citrate synthase and also inhibits PFK, providing a direct link

title: ATP hydrolysis

text: ATP hydrolysis is the reaction by which chemical energy that has been stored in the high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is released, for example in muscles, by producing work in the form of mechanical energy. The product is adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate, orthophosphate (Pi).  ADP can be further hydrolyzed to give energy, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and another orthophosphate (Pi). ATP hydrolysis is the final link between the energy derived from food or sunlight and useful work such as muscle contraction, the establishment of electrochemical gradients across membranes, and biosynthetic processes necessary to maintain life.

title: ATP hydrolysis


question: to transplant a nucleus from one cell to another cell a scientist would use

answers: somatic cell nuclear transfer

title: Megan and Morag

text: transfer the nucleus from one cell to another and stimulate this new cell to grow and become an animal, a process known as nuclear transfer. The team at the Roslin Institute tried to make immortalized and undifferentiated embryonic stem cell lines in sheep, but failed. As a result, they decided to work with cultured blastocyst cells. The nuclear material of these blastocyst cells would be transferred into an unfertilized sheep egg cell, an oocyte where the nucleus had been removed. To optimize the chances of successful nuclear transfer, they put the cultured cells into a state of quiescence, which was

title: John Gurdon

text: the Basel Institute for Immunology in Switzerland. They transplanted a nucleus from an antibody-producing lymphocyte (proof that it was fully differentiated) into an enucleated egg and obtained living tadpoles. Gurdon’s experiments captured the attention of the scientific community and the tools and techniques he developed for nuclear transfer are still used today. The term clone (from the ancient Greek word "κλών" (klōn, “twig”)) had already been in use since the beginning of the 20th century in reference to plants. In 1963 the British biologist J. B. S. Haldane, in describing Gurdon’s results, became one of the first to use the

title: Somatic cell nuclear transfer

text: treatment. For example, to treat a man with Parkinson's disease, a cell nucleus from one of his cells would be transplanted by SCNT into an egg cell from an egg donor, creating a unique lineage of stem cells almost identical to the patient's own cells. (There would be differences. For example, the mitochondrial DNA would be the same as that of the egg donor. In comparison, his own cells would carry the mitochondrial DNA of his mother.) Potentially millions of patients could benefit from stem cell therapy, and each patient would require a large number of donated eggs in order

title: Xenbase

text: Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka on October 8, 2012. for nuclear reprogramming in Xenopus. Importance: Gurdon's experiments challenged the dogma of the time which suggested that the nucleus of a differentiated cell is committed to their fate (Example: a liver cell nucleus remains a liver cell nucleus and cannot return to an undifferentiated state). Specifically, John Gurdon's experiments showed that a mature or differentiated cell nucleus can be returned to its immature undifferentiated form; this is the first instance of cloning of a vertebrate animal. Experiment: Gurdon used a technique known as nuclear transfer to replace the killed-off nucleus of a

title: Elaine Diacumakos

text: at the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center and Cornell University Medical Center from 1965 to 1971. In 1961 she joined Edward Tatum, developing microneedle techniques that allowed her to transplant the nuclei of one cell to another. She returned to Rockefeller University as a senior researcher in 1971, working on cellular drug resistance and cell insertion techniques. She made important contributions to the micromanipulation of mammalian cells. She studied the displacement of chromosomes during extraction at different mitotic stages. She demonstrated the precise fusion of mammalian somatic cells using microsurgery in 1972. She was made head of the Cytobiology Laboratory

title: Cell fusion

text: biologists successfully fused cells of different types and from different species. The hybrid products of these fusions, heterokaryon, were hybrids that maintained two or more separate nuclei. This work was headed by Henry Harris at the University of Oxford and Nils Ringertz from Sweden's Karolinska Institute. These two men are responsible for reviving the interest of cell fusion. The hybrid cells interested biologists in the area of how different kinds of cytoplasm affect different kinds of nuclei. The work conducted by Henry and Nils showed that proteins from one gene fusion affect gene expression in the other partner's nucleus, and

title: Cell fusion

text: the walls and cavities of the cells coalesce together. It was this observation that provided the first hint that cells fuse. It was not until 1960 that cell biologists deliberately fused cells for the first time. To fuse the cells, biologists combined isolated mouse cells, with the same kind of tissue, and induced fusion of their outer membrane using the Sendai virus (a respiratory virus in mice). Each of the fused hybrid cells contained a single nucleus with chromosomes from both fusion partners. Synkaryon became the name of this type of cell combined with a nucleus. In the late 1960s

title: Somatic cell nuclear transfer

text: human embryos. Leading scientists to seek an alternative method of obtaining stem cells, SCNT is one such method. A potential use of stem cells genetically matched to a patient would be to create cell lines that have genes linked to a patient's particular disease. By doing so, an "in vitro" model could be created, would be useful for studying that particular disease, potentially discovering its pathophysiology, and discovering therapies. For example, if a person with Parkinson's disease donated his or her somatic cells, the stem cells resulting from SCNT would have genes that contribute to Parkinson's disease. The disease specific

title: Nuclear transfer

text: of the nucleus. Nuclear transfer Nuclear transfer is a form of cloning. The steps involve removing the DNA from an oocyte (unfertilised egg), and injecting the nucleus which contains the DNA to be cloned. In rare instances, the newly constructed cell will divide normally, replicating the new DNA while remaining in a pluripotent state. If the cloned cells are placed in the uterus of a female mammal, a cloned organism develops to term in rare instances. This is how Dolly the Sheep and many other species were cloned. Cows are commonly cloned to select those that have the best milk

title: Fritz Bach

text: to 1980 was Director of the Immunobiology Research Center at the University. Bach's major contribution to transplant science was the invention of a technique to mix cells from donor material to cells from the patient. The process allowed for a better insight in which transplant material could be successfully transplanted to the patient without fear of transplant rejection. The mixed lymphocyte culture (MLC) test as it was called, was an important step in transplant science. It was based on study of changing cell structures in vitro cultures of peripheral blood lymphocytes of unrelated individuals. Bach worked further on the possibilities

title: Cell therapy

text: in which cellular material is injected into a patient. There are two branches of cell therapy: one is legitimate and established, whereby human cells are transplanted from a donor to a patient; the other is dangerous alternative medicine, whereby injected animal cells are used to attempt to treat illness. The origins of cell therapy can perhaps be traced to the nineteenth century, when Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard (1817–1894) injected animal testicle extracts in an attempt to stop the effects of aging. In 1931 Paul Niehans (1882–1971) – who has been called the inventor of cell therapy – attempted to cure a patient

title: Somatic cell nuclear transfer

text: stem cell lines could then be studied in order to better understand the condition. Another application of SCNT stem cell research is using the patient specific stem cell lines to generate tissues or even organs for transplant into the specific patient. The resulting cells would be genetically identical to the somatic cell donor, thus avoiding any complications from immune system rejection. Only a handful of the labs in the world are currently using SCNT techniques in human stem cell research. In the United States, scientists at the Harvard Stem Cell Institute, the University of California San Francisco, the Oregon Health

title: Paul Nurse

text: cells with nuclei divide, they divide in phases called G1 (growth), S (synthesis), G2 (growth), and M (mitosis). Nurse, Hartwell and Hunt together discovered two proteins, cyclin and cyclin dependent kinase (CDK), that control the transition from one stage to another. These proteins are called checkpoints, because they check whether the cell has divided properly. If the cell doesn't divide correctly, other proteins will attempt to repair it, and if unsuccessful, they will destroy the cell. If a cell divides incorrectly and survives, it can cause cancer and other serious diseases. Working in fission yeast, Nurse identified the gene cdc2,

title: James Till

text: involved injecting bone marrow cells into irradiated mice. They observed that small raised lumps grew on the spleens of the mice, in proportion to the number of bone marrow cells injected. Till and McCulloch dubbed the lumps 'spleen colonies', and speculated that each lump arose from a single marrow cell: perhaps a stem cell. In later work, Till and McCulloch were joined by graduate student Andy Becker. They cemented their stem cell theory and in 1963 published their results in "Nature". In the same year, in collaboration with Lou Siminovitch, a trailblazer for molecular biology in Canada, they obtained evidence

title: Cell therapy

text: by injecting material from calf embryos. Niehans claimed to have treated many people for cancer using this technique, though his claims have never been validated by research. In 1953 researchers found that laboratory animals could be helped not to reject organ transplants by pre-inoculating them with cells from donor animals; in 1968, in Minnesota, the first successful human bone marrow transplantation took place. In more recent work, cell encapsulation is pursued as a means to shield therapeutic cells from the host immune response. Recent work includes micro-encapsulating cells in a gel core surrounded by a solid, but permeable, shell. Bone

title: Bone marrow

text: will then travel to the bone marrow and initiate blood cell production. Transplantation from one person to another is conducted for the treatment of severe bone marrow diseases, such as congenital defects, autoimmune diseases or malignancies. The patient's own marrow is first killed off with drugs or radiation, and then the new stem cells are introduced. Before radiation therapy or chemotherapy in cases of cancer, some of the patient's hematopoietic stem cells are sometimes harvested and later infused back when the therapy is finished to restore the immune system. Bone marrow stem cells can be induced to become neural cells

title: Cloning

text: growth stage when colonies consist of only a few cells, sterile polystyrene rings (cloning rings), which have been dipped in grease, are placed over an individual colony and a small amount of trypsin is added. Cloned cells are collected from inside the ring and transferred to a new vessel for further growth. Somatic-cell nuclear transfer, known as SCNT, can also be used to create embryos for research or therapeutic purposes. The most likely purpose for this is to produce embryos for use in stem cell research. This process is also called "research cloning" or "therapeutic cloning." The goal is not

title: Nuclear transfer

text: Nuclear transfer Nuclear transfer is a form of cloning. The steps involve removing the DNA from an oocyte (unfertilised egg), and injecting the nucleus which contains the DNA to be cloned. In rare instances, the newly constructed cell will divide normally, replicating the new DNA while remaining in a pluripotent state. If the cloned cells are placed in the uterus of a female mammal, a cloned organism develops to term in rare instances. This is how Dolly the Sheep and many other species were cloned. Cows are commonly cloned to select those that have the best milk production. On 24

title: Xenotransplantation

text: Xenotransplantation Xenotransplantation ("xenos-" from the Greek meaning "foreign" or strange), or heterologous transplant is the transplantation of living cells, tissues or organs from one species to another. Such cells, tissues or organs are called xenografts or xenotransplants. It is contrasted with allotransplantation (from other individual of same species), syngeneic transplantation or isotransplantation (grafts transplanted between two genetically identical individuals of the same species) and autotransplantation (from one part of the body to another in the same person). Xenotransplantation of human tumor cells into immunocompromised mice is a research technique frequently used in pre-clinical oncology research. Human xenotransplantation offers a potential

title: New York Stem Cell Foundation

text: of passing on these diseases. Specifically, the team removed the nucleus of an unfertilized egg cell and replaced it with the nucleus of another donor’s egg cell, but, unlike the work of previous groups, the researchers lowered the temperature of the egg, increasing transfer success rate. NYSCF Researchers Derive Pluripotent Stem Cells from Human Egg Cells, Reported in "Nature" "Time" magazine-cited research led by NYSCF scientists Dieter Egli and Scott Noggle reprogrammed the adult skin cells from Type 1 diabetes patients to the pluripotent state by combining these cells with unfertilized donor eggs, as reported in "Nature". The scientists then

title: Robert Briggs (scientist)

text: Robert Briggs (scientist) Robert Briggs (December 10, 1911 — March 4, 1983) was a scientist who, in 1952, together with Thomas Joseph King, cloned a frog by nuclear transfer of embryonic cells. The same technique, using somatic cells, was later used to create Dolly the Sheep. Their experiment was the first successful nuclear transplantation performed in metazoans. He was a scientist at the Institute for Cancer Research of the Lankenau Hospital Research Institute (now known as the Lankenau Institute for Medical Research) when the work was conducted. Upon the death of his mother when he was two years old, Briggs

title: Cloning

text: the nucleus from a skin cell of that patient is placed into an empty egg. The reprogrammed cell begins to develop into an embryo because the egg reacts with the transferred nucleus. The embryo will become genetically identical to the patient. The embryo will then form a blastocyst which has the potential to form/become any cell in the body. The reason why SCNT is used for cloning is because somatic cells can be easily acquired and cultured in the lab. This process can either add or delete specific genomes of farm animals. A key point to remember is that cloning

title: Cell isolation

text: uses antibodies tagged with a fluorescent marker to identify where proteins are located within a cell. Isolated cells can also be used for cell culture, in which a single cell multiplies to create a colony of cells. Cell isolation can also be used as part of a treatment. Isolation of pancreatic islet cells, followed by their subsequent culture and transplantation, has been used to treat patients with Type 1 Diabetes. Cell isolation Cell isolation is the process of separating individual living cells from a solid block of tissue or cell suspension. While some types of cell naturally exist in a

title: Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

text: but all of these transplants were rejected. Mathé later pioneered the use of bone marrow transplants in the treatment of leukemia. Stem cell transplantation was pioneered using bone-marrow-derived stem cells by a team at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center from the 1950s through the 1970s led by E. Donnall Thomas, whose work was later recognized with a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Thomas' work showed that bone marrow cells infused intravenously could repopulate the bone marrow and produce new blood cells. His work also reduced the likelihood of developing a life-threatening complication called graft-versus-host disease. Collaborating with University

title: Cell therapy

text: Cell therapy Cell therapy (also called cellular therapy or cytotherapy) is therapy in which cellular material is injected into a patient; this generally means intact, living cells. For example, T cells capable of fighting cancer cells via cell-mediated immunity may be injected in the course of immunotherapy. Cell therapy originated in the nineteenth century when scientists experimented by injecting animal material in an attempt to prevent and treat illness. Although such attempts produced no positive benefit, further research found in the mid twentieth century that human cells could be used to help prevent the human body rejecting transplanted organs, leading

title: Genetic engineering techniques

text: to animals, indicating progression to a cancerous state, so the process used to insert foreign DNA into animal cells is usually called transfection. There are many ways to directly introduce DNA into animal cells "in vitro". Often these cells are stem cells that are used for gene therapy. Chemical based methods uses natural or synthetic compounds to form particles that facilitate the transfer of genes into cells. These synthetic vectors have the ability to bind DNA and accommodate large genetic transfers. One of the simplest methods involves using calcium phosphate to bind the DNA and then exposing it to cultured

title: Stem cell controversy

text: have played an important role in medical research, beginning in 1868 when Ernst Haeckel first used the phrase to describe the fertilized egg which eventually gestates into an organism. The term was later used in 1886 by William Sedgwick to describe the parts of a plant that grow and regenerate. Further work by Alexander Maximow and Leroy Stevens introduced the concept that stem cells are pluripotent. This significant discovery led to the first human bone marrow transplant by E. Donnal Thomas in 1956, which although successful in saving lives, has generated much controversy since. This has included the many complications

title: John Zhang (scientist)

text: team took the nucleus from the mother's egg cell and inserted it into a different egg, taken from a donor woman with no genetic abnormality, which had had its original nucleus removed. Thus, the mother's nucleus replaced the nucleus in a donor cell, which had genetically normal mitochondria. The new egg cell was then fertilized with the father's sperm. Zhang could produce only one normally developing embryo out of five he created. The embryo was then implanted in the mother's uterus, and a healthy boy was born nine months later, on 6 April 2016. The study was published in the

title: Shoukhrat Mitalipov

text: State University in 1995. He started working at the Oregon National Primate Research Center in 1998, where he could work with monkeys, which share 98% of their DNA with humans; at Utah State Mitalipov had worked with cow DNA. A therapy for mitochondrial diseases that Mitalipov discovered, the "spindle transfer" technique, involves removing the nucleus from a human egg and placing it into another. If the egg is fertilized, in genetic terms it would have three parents. Mitalipov has successfully bred "three-parent" rhesus macaques. The possibility of using the procedure on human eggs has raised safety and ethics questions. In

title: Somatic cell nuclear transfer

title: Somatic cell nuclear transfer

long_answer: In genetics and developmental biology, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a laboratory strategy for creating a viable embryo from a body cell and an egg cell. The technique consists of taking an enucleated oocyte (egg cell) and implanting a donor nucleus from a somatic (body) cell. It is used in both therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Dolly the Sheep became famous for being the first successful case of the reproductive cloning of a mammal. "Therapeutic cloning" refers to the potential use of SCNT in regenerative medicine; this approach has been championed as an answer to the many issues concerning embryonic stem cells (ESC) and the destruction of viable embryos for medical use, though questions remain on how homologous the two cell types truly are.


question: what does a bull shark tooth look like

answers: needle-like teeth

answers: needle-like

title: Bull shark

text: caudal fin is longer and lower than that of the larger sharks, and it has a small snout, and lacks an interdorsal ridge. Bull sharks have a bite force up to , weight for weight the highest among all investigated cartilaginous fishes. The bull shark is commonly found worldwide in coastal areas of warm oceans, in rivers and lakes, and occasionally salt and freshwater streams if they are deep enough. It is found to a depth of , but does not usually swim deeper than . In the Atlantic, it is found from Massachusetts to southern Brazil, and from Morocco

title: Shark tooth

text: of Georgia, shark teeth are found so often that they decided to make shark teeth the official state fossil in 1976. In taxonomy, shark teeth are counted as follows: rows of teeth are counted along the line of the jaw, while series of teeth are counted from the front of the jaw inward. A single tooth row includes one or more functional teeth at the front of the jaw, and multiple replacement teeth behind this. For example, the jaws of a bull shark can have 50 rows of teeth in 7 series, with the outermost series functional, but most sharks

title: Shark tooth

text: have five series with the average shark having about 15 rows of teeth in each jaw. The small teeth at the symphysis, where the two halves of the jaw meet, are usually counted separately from the main teeth on either side. Sharks are also known to lose at least one tooth per week. Due to their specific arrangement of rows and series however, lost teeth can be replaced within a day. Identification of most sharks are found through a combination of tooth counts and tooth shapes. Teeth can even lead to the identification of shark species like the requiem shark.

title: Fish jaw

text: mosaic. This gives these areas much of the same strength found in the bony tissue found in other animals. Generally sharks have only one layer of tesserae, but the jaws of large specimens, such as the bull shark, tiger shark, and the great white shark, have two to three layers or more, depending on body size. The jaws of a large great white shark may have up to five layers. In the rostrum (snout), the cartilage can be spongy and flexible to absorb the power of impacts. In sharks and other extant elasmobranchs the upper jaw is not fused to

title: Shark tooth

text: part of the shark to be fossilized. Fossil teeth comprise much of the fossil record of the Elasmobranchii, extending back to hundreds of millions of years. Shark teeth are also useful in conducting research about the structure of teeth, shark migration patterns, and identifying shark species. The most ancient types of sharks date back to 450 million years ago, during the Late Ordovician period, and are mostly known by their fossilised teeth. However, the most commonly found fossil shark teeth are from the Cenozoic era (the last 66 million years). Though sharks often are highly specialized, as a category they

title: Shark tooth

text: they also exhibit partial, fading serrations, which are more pronounced near the root, and disappear towards the tip of the tooth - serrations being found in Great Whites but not Extinct Giant Makos. "C. megalodon" teeth are the largest of any shark, extinct or living, and are among the most sought after types of shark teeth in the world. This shark lived during the late Oligocene epoch and Neogene period, about 28 to 1.5 million years ago, and ranged to a maximum length of 60 ft. The smallest teeth are only in height, while the largest teeth are in excess

title: Shark tooth

text: their pockets as good-luck charms. This interpretation was corrected in 1611 by the Italian naturalist Fabio Colonna, who recognized them as ancient shark teeth, and, in 1667, by the Danish naturalist Nicolaus Steno, who discussed their composition and famously produced a depiction of a shark's head bearing such teeth. He mentioned his findings in a book, "The Head of a Shark Dissected", which also contained an illustration of a "C. megalodon" tooth, previously considered to be a tongue stone. In Oceania and America, shark teeth were commonly used for tools, especially on weapons such as clubs and daggers, but also

title: Japanese bullhead shark

text: cusp flanked by a pair of lateral cusplets, while the back teeth are broad and rounded. There are deep furrows at the corners of the mouth, extending onto both jaws. The first dorsal fin is very large and high, and is somewhat falcate (sickle-shaped); it originates over the bases of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin is much smaller, but similar in shape, and originates over the rear tips of the pelvic fins. Both dorsal fins bear stout spines on their leading edges. The pectoral fins are large; the pelvic fins are much smaller than the first dorsal fin.

title: Shark tooth

text: The fossilized records of teeth helps illustrate evolutionary history, and isolated teeth are used to study and analyze specific linear measurements of the species. In order to identify teeth and specific information about the teeth, research can be done on a shark tooth. This research may uncover many different aspects about the tooth itself, and the shark species. This proves complicated, however, due to the fact that most fossilized teeth are found mixed and scattered. To collect information on basic-life history and get dispersal estimates of a shark tooth, molecular-based technology is very efficient. To further shark population studies, collection

title: Shark tooth

text: of the shark tooth due to the fossilization process. Shark teeth are most commonly found between the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. Only after about 10,000 years will a shark tooth fossilize. The teeth commonly found are not white because they are covered with sediment from fossilization. The sediment prevents oxygen and bacteria from attacking and decaying the tooth. Fossilized shark teeth can often be found in or near river bed banks, sand pits, and beaches. These teeth are typically worn, because they were frequently moved and redeposited in different areas repeatedly before settling down. Other locations, however, yield perfect

title: Crested bullhead shark

text: extend onto both jaws. The pectoral fins are large and rounded, while the pelvic and anal fins are smaller and more angular. The first dorsal fin is moderately tall with a rounded to angular apex and a stout spine on the leading margin, originating behind the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin resembles the first and is almost as large, and is located between the pelvic and anal fins. The caudal fin is broad, with a strong ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The dermal denticles are large and rough, especially on the flanks. The coloration consists

title: Tooth

text: pharynx. While not true teeth in the usual sense, the dermal denticles of sharks are almost identical in structure and are likely to have the same evolutionary origin. Indeed, teeth appear to have first evolved in sharks, and are not found in the more primitive jawless fish – while lampreys do have tooth-like structures on the tongue, these are in fact, composed of keratin, not of dentine or enamel, and bear no relationship to true teeth. Though "modern" teeth-like structures with dentine and enamel have been found in late conodonts, they are now supposed to have evolved independently of later

title: Shark

text: the bull shark, tiger shark, and the great white shark, have two to three layers or more, depending on body size. The jaws of a large great white shark may have up to five layers. In the rostrum (snout), the cartilage can be spongy and flexible to absorb the power of impacts. Fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny keratin in hair and feathers. Most sharks have eight fins. Sharks can only drift away from objects directly in front of them because their fins do not allow

title: Shark tooth

text: of . The smaller teeth ranging from 3½" and 4½" are more common finds, while teeth over 5", 6", and 7" are more rare. These teeth are in extremely high demand by collectors and private investors, and they can fetch steep prices according to their size and deterioration. The larger teeth can cost as much as 3,000 dollars. Shark teeth cannot be collected from just any type of rock. Any fossils, including fossil shark teeth, are preserved in sedimentary rocks after falling from their mouth. The sediment that the teeth were found in is used to help determine the age

title: Pocket shark

text: teeth in the lower jaw. From the one finding of the pocket shark in the Gulf of Mexico, the mouth was described to have a rectangular like opening on the underside of the body. The male shark found in the Gulf of Mexico weighed 14.6 g and had a total length of 142.0 mm. The overall shape of the shark is cylindrical where a wide, rounded snout tapers back toward caudal fin. The shark "Mollisquama parini" gets its name from a small pocket gland that is found behind the two pectoral fins on either side of the shark. The purpose

title: Shark tooth

text: and fish. The combination of teeth entails serrated edges to cut the larger prey into smaller portions in order to easily swallow the pieces. The most famously known shark with these teeth is the Great White shark, which feeds on animals such as sea lions, dolphins, other sharks, and even small whales. The teeth of plankton-feeders, such as the basking shark and whale shark, are greatly reduced and non-functional.[1] These sharks filter feed on prey by opening their mouths to let tiny organisms get sucked into their mouths to feed without using their teeth at all, instead filtering the food

title: Shark

text: on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as the basking shark are small and non-functional. Shark skeletons are very different from those of bony fish and terrestrial vertebrates. Sharks and other cartilaginous fish (skates and rays) have skeletons made of cartilage and connective tissue. Cartilage is flexible and durable, yet is about half the normal density of bone. This reduces the skeleton's weight, saving energy. Because sharks do not have rib cages, they can easily be crushed under their own weight

title: Bull shark

text: lake have later been caught in the open ocean (and ""), with some taking as few as seven to 11 days to complete the journey. The bull shark's diet consists mainly of bony fish and small sharks, including other bull sharks, and stingrays. Their diet can also include turtles, birds, dolphins, terrestrial mammals, crustaceans, echinoderms. They hunt in murky waters where it is harder for the prey to see the shark coming. Bull sharks have been known to use the bump-and-bite technique to attack their prey. After the first initial contact, they continue to bite and tackle prey until they

title: Bullhead shark

text: Bullhead shark The bullhead sharks are a small order (Heterodontiformes) of basal modern sharks (Neoselachii). The nine living species are placed in a single genus, Heterodontus, in the family Heterodontidae. All are relatively small, with the largest species reaching just in maximum length. They are bottom feeders in tropical and subtropical waters. The Heterodontiforms appear in the fossil record in the Early Jurassic, well before any of the other Galeomorphii, a group that includes all modern sharks except the dogfish and its relatives. However, they have never been common, and their origin probably lies even further back. The bullhead sharks

title: Megalodon

text: believed to be the petrified tongues, or glossopetrae, of dragons and snakes. This interpretation was corrected in 1667 by Danish naturalist Nicolas Steno, who recognized them as shark teeth, and famously produced a depiction of a shark's head bearing such teeth. He described his findings in the book "The Head of a Shark Dissected", which also contained an illustration of a megalodon tooth. Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz gave this shark its initial scientific name, "Carcharodon megalodon", in his 1843 work "Recherches sur les poissons fossiles", based on tooth remains. English paleontologist Edward Charlesworth in his 1837 paper used the name

title: Crested bullhead shark

text: the Latin for "helmeted", referring to the prominent ridges above the shark's eyes that also give it its common name. Subsequent authors moved this species to the genera "Gyropleurodus" and "Molochophrys" before placing it in "Heterodontus". The type specimen is a 68-cm-long female caught off Australia. This shark may also be referred to as crested shark, crested bull shark, crested horn shark, and crested Port Jackson shark. The head of the crested bullhead shark is short and wide, with a blunt, pig-like snout. The eyes are placed high on the head and lack nictitating membranes. The supraorbital ridges above the

title: Megalodon

text: both jaws, causing it to be too tall. John E. Randall, an ichthyologist, used the enamel height (the vertical distance of the blade from the base of the enamel portion of the tooth to its tip) to measure the length of the shark, yielding a maximum length of about . Tooth enamel height does not necessarily increase in proportion to the animal's total length. Shark researchers Michael D. Gottfried, Leonard Compagno, and S. Curtis Bowman proposed a linear relationship between a shark's total length and the height of the largest upper anterior tooth. The proposed relationship is: total length in

title: Bullhead shark

text: into a "pickaxe" as in lamniform sharks. Heterodontiforms have two dorsal fins, with fin spines, as well as an anal fin. The dorsal and anal fins also contain basal cartilages, not just fin rays. Bullhead Sharks have distinctive small spikes on the front of their dorsal fins. These are rumoured to be poisonous, but no further scientific tests have been done to prove this rumor true or false. Nine living species of bullhead shark are described, with another potential undescribed species in Baja California: Bullhead shark The bullhead sharks are a small order (Heterodontiformes) of basal modern sharks (Neoselachii). The

title: Hybodontiformes

text: teeth fossils which are more likely to be preserved the rock record than the remainder of the sharks’ skeleton. Teeth are abundant in the fossil record because sharks shed them throughout their lifetime and teeth are resistant to erosion. Hybodont teeth are often preserved as incomplete fossils because the base of the tooth is not well attached to the crown. Hybodonts were initially divided into two groups based on their tooth shape. One group had teeth with acuminate cusps that lacked a pulp cavity; these are called osteodont teeth. The other group had a different cusp arrangement and had a

title: Shark

text: all paleontologists agree that these are from true sharks, suspecting that these scales are actually those of thelodont agnathans. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, in the Silurian period. The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. At this time the most common shark tooth is the cladodont, a style of thin tooth with three tines like a trident, apparently to help catch fish. The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. Partial skeletons and even

title: Bull shark

text: are unable to flee. The bull shark is known to be a solitary hunter, although brief moments exist in which the bull shark teams up with another bull shark to make hunting and to tricking prey easier. Sharks are opportunistic feeders, and the bull shark is no exception to this, as it is part of the "Carcharhinus" family of sharks. Normally, sharks eat in short bursts, and when food is scarce, sharks digest for a much longer period of time in order to avoid starvation. As part of their survival mechanism, bull sharks will regurgitate the food in their stomachs

title: Crested bullhead shark

text: eyes of this species are larger than any other member of its family. The nostrils are separated into incurrent and excurrent openings by a long flap of skin that reaches the mouth. A furrow encircles the incurrent opening and another furrow runs from the excurrent opening to the mouth, which is located nearly at the tip of the snout. The teeth at the front of the jaws are small and pointed with a central cusp and two lateral cusplets, while those at the back of the jaws are wide and molar-like. The deep furrows at the corners of the mouth

title: Marine life

text: and rays, have jaws and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. Megalodon is an extinct species of shark that lived about 28 to 1.5 Ma. It looked much like a stocky version of the great white shark, but was much larger with fossil lengths reaching . Found in all oceans it was one of the largest and most powerful predators in vertebrate history, and probably had a profound impact on marine life. The Greenland shark has the longest known lifespan of all vertebrates, about 400 years. Bony fish have jaws and skeletons made of bone rather than cartilage. Bony

title: Shark tooth

text: of mtDNA can be extracted from shark jaws and teeth. To study the caries-reducing effect in sharks, studies are done on the fluorine atoms that are bound covalently to calcium atoms in the teeth. Each tooth has a complex fluorapatite structure enameloid. In order to reduce effects of deterioration in the teeth, it is useful to sample only the surface of the enameloid of the tooth for this specific research. Studying and researching shark teeth betters our understandings of shark feeding behaviors, evolutionary changes, and mechanisms. This helps us to identify the teeth, and even the species. The oldest known

title: Shark tooth

text: This was the first common style of shark tooth, present in the plentiful cladodont teeth of the devonian, four hundred million years ago. Sharks with needle-like teeth commonly feed on small to medium-sized fish, sometimes including small sharks.  These teeth are especially effective for such prey because they can easily grip their slippery and narrow bodies. Modern examples include the blue shark and bull sharks. These sharks specifically use their teeth to feed on small prey like squid, flounder, stingrays, and even hammerhead sharks.

title: Shark tooth

short_answers:
needle-like
needle-like teeth


question: who played the girl in my two dads

answers: Staci Keanan

title: My Girl 2

text: attached to the project but as the time passed it was becoming less and less likely that it would ever go into production. My Girl 2 My Girl 2 is a 1994 American comedy-drama film starring Anna Chlumsky, Dan Aykroyd, Christine Ebersole, Jamie Lee Curtis, Richard Masur, and Austin O'Brien. A sequel to "My Girl" (1991), its plot follows a now-teenaged Vada Sultenfuss, who travels from her home in suburban Pennsylvania to Los Angeles to find more information about her deceased mother. A book based on the script was written by Patricia Hermes in 1994. In the spring of 1974,

title: My Girl 2

text: My Girl 2 My Girl 2 is a 1994 American comedy-drama film starring Anna Chlumsky, Dan Aykroyd, Christine Ebersole, Jamie Lee Curtis, Richard Masur, and Austin O'Brien. A sequel to "My Girl" (1991), its plot follows a now-teenaged Vada Sultenfuss, who travels from her home in suburban Pennsylvania to Los Angeles to find more information about her deceased mother. A book based on the script was written by Patricia Hermes in 1994. In the spring of 1974, nearly two years following the events of the first film, Vada Sultenfuss sets out on a quest to learn more about her deceased

title: Emma Amos (actress)

text: Chesney Hawkes, the film also starred Roger Daltrey of rock band the Who as Terry, Buddy's dad. Amos was cast as Dawn, Terry's girlfriend, but only featured in a few brief scenes. Amos's first television role was in an episode of long-running sit-com "Men Behaving Badly", playing the part of Mandy, the annoying girlfriend of Tony's brother, in the episode "People Behaving Irritatingly". Following a variety of supporting-part roles, Amos eventually landed a starring role alongside Nicholas Lyndhurst in the time-travel sitcom "Goodnight Sweetheart". Replacing Michelle Holmes midway through the show's 6 series run, Emma took on the role of

title: My Girl (film)

text: My Girl (film) My Girl is a 1991 American comedy-drama film directed by Howard Zieff, written by Laurice Elehwany, starring Dan Aykroyd, Jamie Lee Curtis, Macaulay Culkin, and Anna Chlumsky in her feature debut. It is a coming-of-age story of a young girl who faces many different emotional highs and lows during the summer of 1972 in suburban Pennsylvania. A book based on the script was written by Patricia Hermes in 1991. The film's sequel, "My Girl 2", was released in 1994. In the summer of 1972, in Madison, Pennsylvania, Vada Sultenfuss is an 11-year-old girl and a hypochondriac. Harry,

title: Nancy Meyers

text: and Lisa", it starred Lindsay Lohan in her motion picture debut, in a dual role of estranged twin sisters who try to reunite their long-divorced parents, played by Dennis Quaid and Natasha Richardson. Lohan's casting as twins forced Meyers to shoot the film in motion control, a requirement she considered rather complicated. "I really didn't know how to do it," she said. "We had a prep day to go over the process, and by the end of the day I had a little better understanding. But I approached the movie like it wasn't an effects film; I just tried to

title: Jayma Mays

text: "Stacked", "How I Met Your Mother", "Heroes", "Pushing Daisies", "The Comeback", "Entourage", "Ghost Whisperer", and "Ugly Betty". Mays appeared in other movies, such as "Bar Starz", "Flags of Our Fathers" and "Blind Guy Driving". She starred in the spoof film "Epic Movie" and as Amy in "". She was a patient on "House" in the episode "Sleeping Dogs Lie" in 2006. Mays has played the love interest of a character played by Masi Oka in two different roles: Charlie Andrews on "Heroes" and Nina in the direct-to-DVD film "". She has also been cast as a love interest twice for

title: Laura Innes

text: Wisdom Bridge Theatre, where she played Stella in "A Streetcar Named Desire". John Malkovich played Mitch in this production. Other major stage credits include "Two Shakespearean Actors" with Eric Stoltz at Lincoln Center, "Our Town" at the Seattle Repertory Theatre, and "Three Sisters" at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego. In 1986, Innes played the young daughter of Jerry Stiller and Anne Meara in the short-lived television sitcom "The Stiller and Meara Show", but the series was cancelled within a few weeks. In 1989, Innes played Miss Andrews in the Nickelodeon TV series "Hey Dude" in season 2: episode

title: Dad and Dave Come to Town

text: but the rest of the cast were newcomers. Ingenue Shirley Ann Richards, who was under long-term contract to Cinesound Productions was cast as Jill. Billy Rayes and Leila Steppe were both Americans touring on the Tivoli vaudeville circuit. Peter Finch plays a young man in love with Dad Rudd's daughter Sarah (Valerie Scanlan). Finch had appeared in a short film, "The Magic Shoes" (1935), but this was his first feature. He was recommended to Hall by George Cross, Cinesound's casting director, and so impressed the director he was cast in the role. "He was almost painfully thin in his early

title: Amy Hathaway

text: the part of Shelby Haskell in the sitcom series "My Two Dads" which starred Paul Reiser and Greg Evigan. in 1991, she appeared in an episode of "The Wonder Years". In the show's episode, "Frank and Denise ", she played Denise Lavelle aka Denise "The Grease". She is in a solid relationship with Frank Stanavukovic aka Frank "The Stank" (played by Noah Blake). The relationship becomes strained when Kevin helps Denise with a poem and causes Frank to become Jealous. In 1996, Hathaway co-starred as Kali in the Katt Shea directed sci-fi feature "Last Exit to Earth". In 1997, she

title: Dad (2005 film)

text: disease and completely forgets who Larry is. Once she has been taken to care, Larry goes to live with his family; his son Oliver (played by Kevin Whately), his daughter-in-law Sandy (played by Sinéad Cusack) and his granddaughter Millie (played by Hannah Daniels). But whilst Larry and Oliver are spending time together, things start to take a turn for the worse in their father and son relationship. Dad (2005 film) Dad is a 2005 British television film made by BBC Wales. It stars Richard Briers, Kevin Whately, Jean Heywood, Sinéad Cusack and Hannah Daniels. It is written by Lucy Gannon,

title: George Eldredge

text: innumerable police officers. However Eldredge sometimes was cast against type, as in his role as the traitorous Dr. Tobor in the ‘B’ Movie", ." Arguably his best known film role came in the 1945 cult exploitation film "Mom and Dad" where Eldredge portrayed Dan Blake, the father of a teenage girl who accidentally becomes pregnant because her parents withhold knowledge about sex from her. Although the mores of the time prevented most advertising for this film, it still became the number two moneymaker for 1945. In 2005 it received a National Film Preservation award from the Library of Congress. Throughout

title: Lisa Banes

text: Mrs. Berry in the 1984 film "The Hotel New Hampshire", Bonnie in the 1988 film "Cocktail", Flora in the 2002 movie "Dragonfly", and Christina Ricci's mother in the film "Pumpkin". In 2014, she appeared in David Fincher's "Gone Girl" as Marybeth Elliott, mother of Amy Elliott (Rosamund Pike). Lisa Banes Lisa Banes (born July 9, 1955) is an American actress. She was nominated for a Drama Desk Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play in 1984 for "Isn't it Romantic?" and won a 1981 Theatre World Award for her performance as Alison Porter Off-Broadway in "Look Back in Anger".

title: My Two Dads

text: what, or where he is, or who he is with, she would always be happy with him as one of her two dads. The series regularly featured Giovanni Ribisi and Chad Allen as two boys (Cory Kupkus and Zach Nichols, respectively) who competed for Nicole's affections, just as her two dads had done for her mother's. Florence Stanley appeared as Judge Margaret Wilbur, who was responsible for assigning Nicole's custody, and who regularly looked over the family; she was also their landlady, being the resident owner of the apartment building where the family lived. Amy Hathaway played Nicole's worldly best

title: Bethany Joy Lenz

text: daughter, a one-year run of a New York cabaret called "Foxy Ladies Love/Boogie 70's Explosion", and the lead role in an independent film. Lenz also filmed two pilots: one playing the daughter of Paul Sorvino, and the other as the lead in the WB's 1972. At the end of her two-year contract with "The Guiding Light" she left her role as Michelle Bauer Santos and moved from New York City to Los Angeles. In Los Angeles, Lenz was directed by Garry Marshall playing Pinky Tuscadero in "Happy Days: the Musical" (musical directors Carole King and Paul Williams) and by Arthur

title: Sarah Dumont

text: played the lead role in the film "Acid Girls", and then appeared in "Dads", "The Rebels", "Bad Ass 2: Bad Asses", "Tbilisi, I Love You", "Mixology", "Oh, You Pretty Things!", "Friends with Better Lives", "Playing It Cool", and "The League". In 2015, Dumont played the lead role of Denise Russo in the horror comedy film "Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse" along with Tye Sheridan, Logan Miller, Joey Morgan, and David Koechner. The film was directed by Christopher B. Landon, which released on October 30, 2015 by Paramount Pictures. She also appeared in the series "The Royals". Sarah Dumont Sarah

title: Isabella Rossellini

text: Robert Redford. The Sundance Channel then purchased the 2006 Guy Maddin-directed short film "My Dad Is 100 Years Old", a tribute that Rossellini created for her father. In the film, she played almost every role, including Federico Fellini, Alfred Hitchcock, and her mother Ingrid Bergman. Rossellini's twin sister, Isotta Ingrid, criticized the short film, calling it an "inappropriate" tribute. In 2007, Rossellini guest starred on two episodes of the television show "30 Rock", playing Alec Baldwin's character's ex-wife. Around the same time, Rossellini enrolled at Hunter College in New York, US to study Animal Behavior, and the Sundance Channel commissioned

title: Double Act (film)

text: Double Act (film) Double Act is a TV adaptation of Jacqueline Wilson's best selling book, "Double Act". The telefilm was made in 2001 for Channel 4 and screened in 2002, starring Birmingham twins, Zoe and Chloe Tempest-Jones. It was directed by Cilla Ware. It was the last acting role of Charlotte Coleman before she died. Ruby and Garnet are identical twins, who once lived with their Dad and their Gran in Birmingham. Their mother, Opal died a few years earlier. They are happy together, but then Dad gets a new girlfriend, Rose. The twins and Gran hate her. Dad decides

title: The Uninvited (2009 film)

text: Rocks the Cradle." "It was very important to me that every line reading I gave could be interpreted two ways," says Banks of her role, "So that when you go back through the movie you can see that." David Strathairn plays the concerned father of the two girls. Arielle Kebbel plays Anna's older sister, Alex Ivers. The original score for the film was composed by Christopher Young, who recorded it with a 78-piece orchestra and 20-person choir. His score features a glass harmonica, and the Yale Women's Slavic Chorus. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 32% out of 126 surveyed critics gave

title: Bibi Besch

text: Bibi Besch Bibi Besch (born Bibiana Maria Köchert; February 1, 1942 – September 7, 1996) was an Austrian-American film, television, and stage actress. She is best known for playing Dr. Carol Marcus in the science fiction film "" (1982). Her other notable film roles were in "Who's That Girl" (1987), "Steel Magnolias" (1989), and "Tremors" (1990). Besch also appeared in a number of television series and received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations. Bibiana Maria Köchert was born in Vienna, Austria in 1942, the younger of two daughters born to theater actress Gusti Huber, who starred in German films during World

title: Elinor Donahue

text: in vaudeville and had several bit parts in movies as a teenager, including "Love Is Better Than Ever" (1952), starring Elizabeth Taylor. She played one of the daughters in "Three Daring Daughters" in 1948 and appeared as Mamie Van Doren's sister in "Girls Town" (1959). Donahue achieved stardom for her role as the elder daughter, Betty, on the television family series "Father Knows Best". Her co-stars were Robert Young, Jane Wyatt, Billy Gray as her younger brother, James "Bud" Anderson, Jr., and Lauren Chapin as her younger sister, Kathy. Donahue was a musical judge in ABC's "Jukebox Jury" (1953–54). While

title: Julia Stewart (actress)

text: at the Theatre Royal, Glasgow, and in Newcastle-on-Tyne, in both girls' and boys' roles. In 1876, she became a member of Sarah Thorne's theatre company, playing the adult part of Emma Marigold in "My Awful Dad", opposite Charles Mathews. In 1877, at the age of 15, she made her London début, creating the role of Maggie Macfarlane in W. S. Gilbert's comedy, "Engaged", at the Haymarket Theatre with much success. She also played the part in a provincial tour and again in the play's revival at the Strand Theatre in 1878. "The Era" reported: "A decidedly favourable impression was made

title: A Daughter of Two Worlds

text: A Daughter of Two Worlds A Daughter of Two Worlds is a surviving 1920 silent film adventure drama directed by James Young and starring Norma Talmadge, Jack Crosby, and Virginia Lee. As described in a film magazine, Jennie Malone (Talmadge), daughter of prominent underworld figure Black Jerry Malone (Sheridan), is arrested for forgery. A friend of her father's pays her bail, and she is sent to boarding school, jumping the bail. There she is educated and becomes a lady. At the home of her friend Sue Harrison (Lee), a daughter of wealth, she meets and falls in love with Kenneth

title: My Girl 2

text: Artist Award for "Best Performance by a Young Actress Starring in a Motion Picture"; Thomson and O'Brien were also nominated for Young Artist Awards for their roles. For several years "Still My Girl" was proposed as the third motion picture in the "My Girl" movie franchise and it was in development at Columbia Pictures. In his 2003 United Kingdom talk show interview with host Michael Parkinson, Dan Aykroyd stated that Columbia had an interest in getting this off the ground and strong interest in Anna Chlumsky returning to her role as Vada. In 2009, both Chlumsky and Aykroyd were still

title: Paul Reiser

text: he reprised in its sequel, "Beverly Hills Cop II" (1987). Reiser also had roles in James Cameron's "Aliens" (1986), in which he played the corrupt Carter Burke; "The Marrying Man" (1991) and "Bye Bye Love" (1995). Reiser starred as one of two possible fathers of a teenage girl in the TV sitcom "My Two Dads" (1987–90), and later came to prominence in North America as Paul Buchman in "Mad About You" (1992–99), a comedy series he co-created, in which Helen Hunt co-starred as his on-screen wife. He was also the co-composer of the show's theme song, "The Final Frontier" (with

title: Anna Chlumsky

text: the Rattlestick Playwrights Theater in New York. Dan Aykroyd, who played her father in the two "My Girl" films, has said that a script for a third film has been in development since 2003. In April 2012 Chlumsky "put to rest" any rumors that such a film was in development. In addition to her role on "Veep", Chlumsky has appeared in multiple television series between 2011 and 2013, including "White Collar", "", and NBC's adaptation of "Hannibal". Chlumsky has appeared on Broadway in "You Can't Take It with You", and beginning in April 2015 as editor Iris Peabody in the

title: Mary Steenburgen

text: who is having an affair with the title character (played by Johnny Depp); the role of Hannah Nixon in the Oliver Stone biopic, "Nixon" (1995); and in the Will Ferrell 2003 comedy "Elf," as a woman who discovers that her husband is the father of one of Santa's elves. She has appeared in the comedy films "Step Brothers" (2008), starring Will Ferrell, playing the mother of Ferrell's character; "Four Christmases" (2008) opposite Vince Vaughn and Reese Witherspoon; and "The Proposal" (2009) opposite Sandra Bullock and Ryan Reynolds. "Dirty Girl," which features Steenburgen along with Juno Temple, Milla Jovovich and William

title: Michelle Collins

text: the British actor Tim Roth, she successfully gained a part in a musical with Gary Hutton and Gary Shail known as H.M.V. Collins had also been in "The Illustrated mum" by Jacqueline Wilson. Collins's first TV appearance was with Gary Oldman in the BBC drama "Morgan's Boy". Other TV credits included: two series of the sitcom "Running Wild", where she played Ray Brooks daughter; a part in ITV drama "The Bill"; a Screen Two production "Lucky Sunil", directed by Michael Caton Jones and a BBC play "Pressures". She later appeared in three films: "Personal Services", "Empire State" and Stephen Poliakoff's

title: Two Girls and a Guy

text: Two Girls and a Guy Two Girls and a Guy is a 1997 American comedy-drama film written and directed by James Toback and produced by Edward R. Pressman and Chris Hanley. It stars Robert Downey Jr., Heather Graham and Natasha Gregson Wagner. The film is mainly based upon dialogue between the characters. It was shot almost entirely in real time, and within a single setting, leading some reviewers to compare the film to a stage play. Director James Toback told interviewers he wrote the film's screenplay in only four days and shot the film in just eleven days. Two girls,

title: Me and My Gal

text: billing reversed (Bennett billed over Tracy), and also played a married couple two decades later in "Father of the Bride" and "Father's Little Dividend". It was remade as a B film in 1940 by Fox as "Pier 13", directed by Eugene Forde. A copy is held in the U.S. Library of Congress collection. Me and My Gal Me and My Gal is a 1932 American pre-Code drama and romantic comedy film starring Spencer Tracy and Joan Bennett, directed by Raoul Walsh, and released by the Fox Film Corporation. The film tells the story of jaunty young policeman Danny Dolan (Tracy),

title: Staci Keanan

text: Staci Keanan (born Anastasia Love Sagorsky on June 6, 1975) is a former American actress and attorney.  Keanan is best known for her roles in the television series My Two Dads (1987–1990) and Step by Step (1991–1998). She has also been credited as Stacy Keenan and Staci Love.

title: Staci Keanan


question: what type of planet is neptune known as

answers: giant

answers: ice giants

title: Planet

text: consists mostly of planets the size of Neptune and smaller, down to smaller than Mercury. There are types of planets that do not exist in the Solar System: super-Earths and mini-Neptunes, which could be rocky like Earth or a mixture of volatiles and gas like Neptune—a radius of 1.75 times that of Earth is a possible dividing line between the two types of planet. There are hot Jupiters that orbit very close to their star and may evaporate to become chthonian planets, which are the leftover cores. Another possible type of planet is carbon planets, which form in systems with

title: Planet

text: than Mercury. Neptune is 30 AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit, but there are exoplanets that are hundreds of AU from their star and take more than a thousand years to orbit, e.g. 1RXS1609 b. The next few space telescopes to study exoplanets are expected to be Gaia launched in December 2013, CHEOPS in 2018, TESS in 2018, and the James Webb Space Telescope in 2021. A planetary-mass object (PMO), planemo, or planetary body is a celestial object with a mass that falls within the range of the definition of a planet: massive enough to achieve

title: Neptune

text: its namesake god's role as the ruler of the sea. In modern Greek the planet is called "Poseidon" (Ποσειδώνας, "Poseidonas"), the Greek counterpart of Neptune. In Hebrew, "Rahab" (רהב), from a Biblical sea monster mentioned in the Book of Psalms, was selected in a vote managed by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 2009 as the official name for the planet, even though the existing Latin term "Neptun" (נפטון) is commonly used. In Māori, the planet is called "Tangaroa", named after the Māori god of the sea. In Nahuatl, the planet is called "Tlāloccītlalli", named after the rain god

title: Mini-Neptune

text: Mini-Neptune A mini-Neptune or sub-Neptune (sometimes known as a gas dwarf or transitional planet) is a planet of up to 10 Earth masses (), less massive than Uranus and Neptune, which have about 14.5 and 17 , respectively. Mini-Neptunes have thick hydrogen–helium atmospheres, probably with deep layers of ice, rock or liquid oceans (made of water, ammonia, a mixture of both, or heavier volatiles). Theoretical studies of such planets are loosely based on knowledge about Uranus and Neptune. Without a thick atmosphere, it would be classified as an ocean planet instead. An estimated dividing line between a rocky planet and

title: Neptune

text: 20th century. The planet's distance from Earth gives it a very small apparent size, making it challenging to study with Earth-based telescopes. Neptune was visited by "Voyager 2", when it flew by the planet on 25 August 1989. The advent of the "Hubble Space Telescope" and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics has recently allowed for additional detailed observations from afar. Like Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, but it contains a higher proportion of "ices" such as water, ammonia, and methane. However, its interior, like

title: Exoplanetology

text: mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth. If a planet is detectable by both the radial-velocity and the transit methods, then both its true mass and its radius can be determined, as well as its density. Planets with low density are inferred to be composed mainly of hydrogen and helium, whereas planets of intermediate density are inferred to have water as a major constituent. A planet of high density is inferred to be rocky, like Earth and the other terrestrial planets of the Solar System. Gaseous planets that are hot is because they are close to

title: IAU definition of planet

text: (i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits). Since the orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, Neptune is therefore gravitationally dominant. On June 11, 2008, the IAU announced that the subcategory of dwarf planets with trans-Neptunian orbits would be known as "plutoids". In an accompanying press release, the IAU said that: This subcategory includes Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. Some aspects of the definition are as yet difficult to apply outside the Solar System. Techniques for identifying extrasolar objects generally cannot determine whether an object has "cleared its orbit", except indirectly via an

title: Giant planet

text: despite being less massive overall. Neptune is therefore denser and has much more internal heat and a more active atmosphere. The Nice model, in fact, suggests that Neptune formed closer to the Sun than Uranus did, and should therefore have more heavy elements. Massive solid planets can also exist. For example, Kepler-10c is composed of mostly of rock with possibly up to 20% high-pressure water ice, but does have a hydrogen-dominated envelope. Solid planets up to thousands of Earth masses may be able to form around massive stars (B-type and O-type stars; 5–120 solar masses), where the protoplanetary disk would

title: HD 164922 c

text: on its similar mass to Neptune. The planet orbits a (G-type) star named HD 164922. The star has a mass of 0.87 and a radius of around 0.99 . It has a temperature of 5293 K and is 13.4 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and has a temperature of 5778 K. The star is metal-rich, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of 0.16, or 144% the solar amount. This is particularly odd for a star as old as HD 164922. Its luminosity () is 70% of the solar luminosity. The star's apparent magnitude, or

title: Neptune

text: be visible to the naked eye and can be outshone by Jupiter's Galilean moons, the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroids 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 7 Iris, 3 Juno, and 6 Hebe. A telescope or strong binoculars will resolve Neptune as a small blue disk, similar in appearance to Uranus. Because of the distance of Neptune from Earth, its angular diameter only ranges from 2.2 to 2.4 arcseconds, the smallest of the Solar System planets. Its small apparent size makes it challenging to study visually. Most telescopic data was fairly limited until the advent of the "Hubble Space Telescope" and

title: Timeline of astronomy

text: is not sensitive enough to image stars. A new planet, Neptune, is identified by German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle while searching in the position suggested by Urbain Le Verrier. Le Verrier has calculated the position and size of the planet from the effects of its gravitational pull on the orbit of Uranus. An English mathematician, John Couch Adams, also made a similar calculation a year earlier. Astronomers notice a new bright emission line in the spectrum of the Sun's atmosphere during an eclipse. The emission line is caused by an element's giving out light, and British astronomer Norman Lockyer concludes

title: Neptune

text: belt in 1992 led many astronomers to debate whether Pluto should be considered a planet or as part of the Kuiper belt. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union defined the word "planet" for the first time, reclassifying Pluto as a "dwarf planet" and making Neptune once again the outermost known planet in the Solar System. Neptune's mass of 1.0243 kg is intermediate between Earth and the larger gas giants: it is 17 times that of Earth but just 1/19th that of Jupiter. Its gravity at 1 bar is 11.15 m/s, 1.14 times the surface gravity of Earth, and surpassed only

title: Mini-Neptune

text: on their compositions; the dividing mass can vary from as low as one to as high as 20 . Mini-Neptune A mini-Neptune or sub-Neptune (sometimes known as a gas dwarf or transitional planet) is a planet of up to 10 Earth masses (), less massive than Uranus and Neptune, which have about 14.5 and 17 , respectively. Mini-Neptunes have thick hydrogen–helium atmospheres, probably with deep layers of ice, rock or liquid oceans (made of water, ammonia, a mixture of both, or heavier volatiles). Theoretical studies of such planets are loosely based on knowledge about Uranus and Neptune. Without a thick

title: Neptune

text: of the sea, identified with the Greek Poseidon. The demand for a mythological name seemed to be in keeping with the nomenclature of the other planets, all of which, except for Earth, were named for deities in Greek and Roman mythology. Most languages today, even in countries that have no direct link to Greco-Roman culture, use some variant of the name "Neptune" for the planet. However, in Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, and Korean, the planet's name was translated as "sea king star" (), because Neptune was the god of the sea. In Mongolian, Neptune is called "Dalain Van" (Далайн ван), reflecting

title: HD 69830 d

text: giants Jupiter and Saturn. Its temperature is , close to that of Earth. The radius is not known, however given its mass of 17 , which is around that of the planet Neptune, it likely has a radius of around 4 . In other terms, it is basically a warmer version of Neptune. The planet orbits a (G-type) star named HD 69830, orbited by total of three planets, of which HD 69830 d has the longest orbital period. The star has a mass of 0.86 and a radius of 0.90 . It has a surface temperature of 5394 K and

title: Neptune

text: a mass about 1.2 times that of Earth. The pressure at the centre is 7 Mbar (700 GPa), about twice as high as that at the centre of Earth, and the temperature may be 5,400 K. At high altitudes, Neptune's atmosphere is 80% hydrogen and 19% helium. A trace amount of methane is also present. Prominent absorption bands of methane exist at wavelengths above 600 nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. As with Uranus, this absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its blue hue, although Neptune's vivid azure

title: Neptune

text: Tlāloc. In Thai, Neptune is referred both by its Westernised name "Dao Nepjun" (ดาวเนปจูน), and is also named "Dao Ketu" (ดาวเกตุ, "Star of Ketu"), after the descending lunar node Ketu (केतु) who plays a role in Hindu astrology. From its discovery in 1846 until the subsequent discovery of Pluto in 1930, Neptune was the farthest known planet. When Pluto was discovered, it was considered a planet, and Neptune thus became the second-farthest known planet, except for a 20-year period between 1979 and 1999 when Pluto's elliptical orbit brought it closer than Neptune to the Sun. The discovery of the Kuiper

title: 55 Cancri e

text: Neptune or a large rocky terrestrial planet. In 2011, a transit of the planet was confirmed, allowing scientists to calculate its density. At first it was suspected to be a water planet. As initial observations showed no hydrogen in its Lyman-alpha signature during transit, Ehrenreich speculated that its volatile materials might be carbon dioxide instead of water or hydrogen. An alternative possibility is that 55 Cancri e is a solid planet made of carbon-rich material rather than the oxygen-rich material that makes up the terrestrial planets in our solar system. In this case, roughly a third of the planet's mass

title: Extraterrestrial skies

text: would only be as bright as magnitude −4.9, about the same as Venus despite its proximity. Judging by the color of its atmosphere, the sky of Neptune is probably an azure or sky blue, similar to Uranus'. As in the case of Uranus, it is unlikely that the planet's rings can be seen from its surface, as they are very thin and dark. Aside from the Sun, the most impressive object in Neptune's sky is its large moon Triton, which would appear slightly smaller than a full Moon on Earth. It moves more swiftly than our Moon, because of its

title: Planetary system

text: the other hand, microlensing surveys indicate that long-period Neptune-mass planets are found around 1 in 3 red dwarfs. Kepler Space Telescope observations of planets with up to one year periods show that occurrence rates of Earth- to Neptune-sized planets (1 to 4 Earth radii) around M, K, G, and F stars are successively higher towards cooler, less massive stars. At the low-mass end of star-formation are sub-stellar objects that don't fuse hydrogen: the brown dwarfs and sub-brown dwarfs, of spectral classification L,T and Y. Planets and protoplanetary disks have been discovered around brown dwarfs, and disks have been found around

title: HD 154672

text: planet Neptune as perceived with the naked eye, which has an apparent magnitude of 7.78 at its brightest. The star's actual brightness is measured with an absolute magnitude of 4.12, similar to that of the Sun. HD 154672 b is a Hot Jupiter, as it is a closely orbiting planet with a high mass. Specifically, HD 154672 has a mass that is 5.02 times greater than Jupiter's mass. It also orbits at a distance of 0.6 AU, or about 60% of the mean distance between the Earth and Sun. This orbit is completed every 163.91 days. HD 154672 b has

title: Neptune

text: god Neptune's trident. Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar System found by mathematical prediction rather than by empirical observation. Unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to deduce that its orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an unknown planet. Neptune was subsequently observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Urbain Le Verrier. Its largest moon, Triton, was discovered shortly thereafter, though none of the planet's remaining known 13 moons were located telescopically until the

title: Hot Neptune

text: greater rate and chance of transiting their star as seen from a farther outlying point, than planets of the same mass in larger orbits. This increases the chances of discovering them by transit-based observation methods. Transiting hot Neptunes include Gliese 436 b and HAT-P-11b. Gliese 436 b (also known as GJ 436b) was the first hot Neptune to be discovered with certainty in 2007. The exoplanet Mu Arae c (or HD 160691 c) discovered in 2004 might also be a hot Neptune, but it has not been determined definitively. Another may be Kepler-56b, which has a mass somewhat larger than

title: BD+20 594b

text: first planet discovered orbiting that star. With a radius of 2.2 R and a mass of 16.31 M, BD+20594b is substantially smaller than Neptune. Taking the estimates of its radius and mass at face value, the composition of the planet would be rocky, hence making it classified as a mega-Earth. BD+20594b's exact composition is still unknown. The planet was discovered on January 28, 2016 by astrophysicist Néstor Espinoza and his team from the Catholic University of Chile, using data from the two-wheeled Kepler mission (K2). It orbits a K-type star 496.08 light years away in the constellation Taurus. It is

title: Mini-Neptune

text: a gaseous planet is around 1.6-2.0 Earth radii. Planets with larger radii and measured masses are mostly low-density and require an extended atmosphere to simultaneously explain their masses and radii, and empirical observations are showing that planets larger than approximately 1.6 Earth-radius (more massive than approximately 6 Earth-masses) contain significant amounts of volatiles or H–He gas (such planets appear to have a diversity of compositions that is not well-explained by a single mass–radius relation as that found in rocky planets). Similar results are confirmed by other studies. As for mass, the lower limit can vary widely for different planets depending

title: Proxima Centauri b

text: many super-Earth sized planets, Proxima Centauri b could have an icy composition like Neptune, with a thick layer of hydrogen on its surface; the likelihood that this is the case has been calculated to be greater than 10%. The planet has an equilibrium temperature of . The planet orbits an M-type red dwarf named Proxima Centauri. The star has a mass of and a radius of . It has a surface temperature of 3042 K and is 4.85 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K. Proxima Centauri

title: Exoplanetology

text: planets in smaller orbits than Mercury's. Neptune is 30 AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit it, but there are exoplanets that are thousands of AU from their star and take tens of thousands of years to orbit, e.g. GU Piscium b. The radial-velocity and transit methods are most sensitive to planets with small orbits. The earliest discoveries such as 51 Peg b were gas giants with orbits of a few days. These "hot Jupiters" likely formed further out and migrated inwards. The "Kepler" space observatory has found planets with even shorter orbits of only a few

title: Kepler-1229b

text: than that of the gas giants Neptune and Uranus. It has an equilibrium temperature of . Kepler-1229b's mass is not known, but based on its radius, it is likely to be in the range of about 2.7 , based on its composition. The planet orbits a (M-type) star named Kepler-1229, orbited by a total of one planet. The star has a mass of 0.54 and a radius of 0.51 . It has a temperature of 3724 K and is about 3.72 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a temperature of 5778 K.

title: Planet Nine

text: mass and two to four times the diameter of Earth. An object with the same diameter as Neptune has not been excluded by previous surveys in visible light. Infrared surveys by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) may have the capabilities to detect Planet Nine, depending upon its location and characteristics. Past surveys by WISE have not excluded the existence of Planet Nine, and a new survey ongoing since 2017 may yet find it. Brown thinks that if Planet Nine exists, its mass is sufficient to clear its orbit of large bodies in 4.6 billion years (with possible exceptions for

title: Neptune

text: Like Jupiter and Saturn, Neptune's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, but it contains a higher proportion of "ices" such as water, ammonia, and methane. However, its interior, like that of Uranus, is primarily composed of ices and rock, which is why Uranus and Neptune are normally considered "ice giants" to emphasise this distinction.  Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet's blue appearance.

title: Neptune