question: who enforces the charter of rights and freedoms

answers: Supreme Court of Canada

answers: the courts

answers: courts

answers: The courts

title: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

text: rights. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (), in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of the "Constitution Act, 1982". The Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. The Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on April

title: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

text: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (), in Canada often simply the Charter, is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada. It forms the first part of the "Constitution Act, 1982". The Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. The Charter was signed into law by Queen Elizabeth II of Canada on April 17,

title: Bylaw enforcement officer

text: person for obstruction. Judge M. Hubbard ruled that Bylaw Officers were justified in arresting a person for failing to provide identification, and in so doing, using whatever reasonable force was necessary to subdue a person. In Alberta, section 555(1) of the Municipal Government Act states that “A person who is appointed as a bylaw enforcement officer is, in the execution of enforcement duties, responsible for the preservation and maintenance of the public peace”. Section 15(2) of Ontario's Police Services Act R.S.O. 1990, states "Municipal law enforcement officers are peace officers for the purpose of enforcing municipal by-laws." Similar sections exist

title: Bill Whatcott

text: on behalf of Whatcott were the Canadian Constitution Foundation, the Canadian Civil Liberties Association, Canadian Journalists for Free Expression, the Christian Legal Fellowship, the Evangelical Fellowship of Canada, the Catholic Civil Rights League and the Faith + Freedom Alliance. Intervening against Whatcott were Attorney General of Alberta, Canadian Human Rights Commission, Alberta Human Rights Commission, Egale Canada Inc., Ontario Human Rights Commission, Canadian Jewish Congress, Unitarian Congregation of Saskatoon and Canadian Unitarian Council, Women's Legal Education and Action Fund, Canadian Bar Association, Northwest Territories Human Rights Commission and Yukon Human Rights Commission, League for Human Rights of B'nai B'rith Canada,

title: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

text: The task of interpreting and enforcing the Charter falls to the courts, with the Supreme Court of Canada being the ultimate authority on the matter.

text: Justice Centre for Constitutional Freedoms The Justice Centre for Constitutional Freedoms (JCCF) is a Canadian right-wing legal advocacy organization specializing in Canadian constitutional law, specifically in interpretations of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Based in Calgary, Alberta, the organization was founded in 2010 by John Carpay, a former Alberta provincial director of the Canadian Taxpayers Federation and a former candidate of the federal Reform Party and provincial Wildrose Party who later joined the United Conservative Party. The JCCF has argued past cases before the Court of Queen's Bench of Alberta, Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba, and the

title: John Baird (Canadian politician)

text: and protection of human rights is an integral part of Canada’s foreign policy." Baird refused to sign the world Arms Trade Treaty, with the Canadian government reportedly ordering its diplomats to play a "low-key, minimal role" during negotiations and protect the rights of Canadian gun owners. Following his resignation as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Baird remained a backbench MP for several weeks. On February 19, 2015, he represented the government at the re-opening of Canada House, the home of the Canadian High Commission to the United Kingdom. Baird's resignation from parliament took effect on March 16, 2015. Since leaving politics,

title: Bylaw enforcement officer

text: Bylaw enforcement officer A bylaw enforcement officer is a law enforcement employee of a municipality, county or regional district, charged with the enforcement of non-criminal bylaws, rules, laws, codes or regulations enacted by local governments. This terminology is commonly used in Canada and some other Commonwealth countries. In the Canadian province of Ontario, bylaw enforcement officers are generally titled "municipal law enforcement officers", and in Newfoundland & Labrador, the term "municipal enforcement officer" is also used. In the Canadian province of Alberta, municipalities can appoint bylaw enforcements officers under the authority of section 555 and 556 of the "Municipal Government

text: Section 32 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 32 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms concerns the application and scope of the Charter. Only claims based on the type of law contemplated by this section can be brought before a court. Section 32(1) describes the basis on which all rights can be enforced. Section 32(2) was added in order to delay the enforcement of section 15 until government was given time to amend their laws to conform to the section. Under the heading "Application of Charter" the section states: The purpose of this section is

text: was noted that municipalities exist under the authority of the provincial governments, which are bound by the "Charter" under section 32. (A related case later went to the Supreme Court as "Charlebois v. Saint John (City)".) Section 18 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 18 of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" is one of the provisions of the Constitution that addresses rights relating to Canada's two official languages, English and French. Like section 133 of the "Constitution Act, 1867", section 18 requires that all statutes and other records made by the Parliament of Canada must

text: Section 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms provides everyone in Canada with protection against unreasonable search and seizure. This right provides Canadians with their primary source of constitutionally enforced privacy rights against unreasonable intrusion from the state. Typically, this protects personal information that can be obtained through searching someone in pat-down, entering someone's property or surveillance. Under the heading of legal rights, section 8 states: Any property found or seized by means of a violation of section 8 can be excluded as evidence in a trial under

title: Section 31 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

text: on their powers, but the opposition would have been stronger had Parliament been able to exert its authority over the provinces. As Hogg notes, section 31 also distinguishes the Charter from various rights in the amendments to the United States Constitution. In the United States, the federal Congress has the authority to enforce various rights, including those in the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibits slavery, the Fourteenth Amendment, which binds the states to respect due process, and the Fifteenth Amendment, which contains a partial right to vote. While section 31 denies remedial powers in respect of the Charter for Parliament and

title: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

text: based upon Parliamentary supremacy. As a result, the Charter has attracted both broad support from a majority of the Canadian electorate and criticisms by opponents of increased judicial power. The Charter only applies to government laws and actions (including the laws and actions of federal, provincial, and municipal governments and public school boards), and sometimes to the common law, not to private activity. Under the Charter, people physically present in Canada have numerous civil and political rights. Most of the rights can be exercised by any legal person (the Charter does not define the corporation as a "legal person"), but

title: Canadian Tribute to Human Rights

text: Canadian Tribute to Human Rights The Canadian Tribute to Human Rights, also known as the Human Rights Monument, is a monumental sculpture located at the corner of Lisgar and Elgin streets in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It was designed by Montreal artist and architect Melvin Charney and unveiled by Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama, on September 30, 1990. The location of the Monument, immediately adjacent to Ottawa City Hall and close to the Parliamentary precinct, combined with its dedication to human rights, has led to it becoming the focus for a wide range of demonstrations by groups including anti-racism and

title: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

text: of the Act, may be collectively referred to as the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms". Many of the rights and freedoms that are protected under the Charter, including the rights to freedom of speech, habeas corpus and the presumption of innocence, have their roots in a set of Canadian laws and legal precedents sometimes known as the Implied Bill of Rights. Many of these rights were also included in the Canadian Bill of Rights, which the Canadian Parliament enacted in 1960. However, the Canadian Bill of Rights had a number of shortcomings. Unlike the Charter, it was an ordinary

title: Craig Scott (politician)

text: the aftermath of the 2009 Honduran coup d'état. He also advised rights seeking groups in Canada in regards to legal challenges using the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and assisted Maher Arar in his lawsuit against the Canadian government. Scott was selected as the New Democratic Party's candidate for the Toronto—Danforth by-election on January 9, 2012. He won the seat on March 19, 2012 winning 59% of the vote, despite a strong campaign by second-place Liberal finisher, Grant Gordon. Scott was defeated for re-election in 2015 by Liberal Julie Dabrusin amid the massive Liberal wave that swept through Toronto. Craig

text: Section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 7 of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" is a constitutional provision that protects an individual's autonomy and personal legal rights from actions of the government in Canada. There are three types of protection within the section: the right to life, liberty and security of the person. Denials of these rights are constitutional only if the denials do not breach what is referred to as fundamental justice. This "Charter" provision provides both substantive and procedural rights. It has broad application beyond merely protecting due process in administrative proceedings

title: Jody Wilson-Raybould

text: Judge Silvia Fernández de Gurmendi, President of the International Criminal Court (ICC), unveiled an Inuit inukshuk which had been donated to the ICC by the Government of Canada to mark Canada’s support for the ICC. The unveiling took place at the ICC's premises in The Hague. Jody Wilson-Raybould Jody Wilson-Raybould (born March 23, 1971) is a Kwakwaka’wakw Canadian politician and the Liberal Member of Parliament for the riding of Vancouver Granville. She was sworn in as Minister of Justice of Canada on November 4, 2015. Before entering Canadian federal politics, she was a Crown Prosecutor for British Columbia, a Treaty

text: Section 5 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 5 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is a part of the Constitution of Canada, and the last of three democratic rights in the Charter. Its role is to establish a rule regarding how frequently the Parliament of Canada and the legislatures of the provinces and territories of Canada must meet. This section is thus meant to reflect and constitutionally guarantee a "basic democratic principle" that "a government must explain its actions to the people." The section reads, Section 5 guarantees that, since Parliament and each legislature

title: Bylaw enforcement officer

text: Officers, and Litter Officers. These positions are granted role-specific powers under legislation. Common parts of their roles include enforcing bylaws made by the local council, such as dog-leash rules or parking restrictions. Abuse against these government employees is commonplace and safety measures have started to take effect, such as body-worn cameras. Within Canadian jurisdictions, the term Bylaw Enforcement Officer may refer to one or more classes of employees charged with enforcing bylaws, such as Animal Control Officers, Parking & Traffic Enforcement Officers, Property Use Inspectors, Building Inspectors, and others, but more commonly refers to a person employed in a uniformed

text: Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms The Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms () is a statutory bill of rights and human rights code passed by the National Assembly of Quebec on June 27, 1975. It received Royal Assent from Lieutenant Governor Hugues Lapointe, coming into effect on June 28, 1976. Introduced by the Liberal government of Robert Bourassa, the charter followed extensive preparatory work that began under the Union Nationale government of Daniel Johnson. The charter ranks among other quasi-constitutional Quebec laws, such as the Charter of the French Language and the Act respecting Access to documents held

text: Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 33 of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" is part of the Constitution of Canada. It is commonly known as the notwithstanding clause (or in French), or as the override power, and it allows Parliament or provincial legislatures to override certain portions of the "Charter. The section states: The Parliament of Canada, a provincial legislature or a territorial legislature may declare that one of its laws or part of a law applies temporarily ("notwithstanding") countermanding sections of the "Charter", thereby nullifying any judicial review by overriding the "Charter"

text: Minister for Youth Protection and Rehabilitation (Quebec) The Minister of Youth Protection and Rehabilitation (Quebec) (French: Ministre déléguée à la Protection de la jeunesse et à la Réadaptation) is responsible for the protection of youths and youth legal affairs in the province of Quebec. In Québec, the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms recognizes the fundamental rights and freedoms of all individuals, whatever their age. These rights include: In addition, the Charter specifically recognizes that every child has a right to the protection, security and attention that his or her parents, or the persons acting in their stead, are capable

text: Human Rights and Responsibilities" fulfils a similar purpose. Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 33 of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" is part of the Constitution of Canada. It is commonly known as the notwithstanding clause (or in French), or as the override power, and it allows Parliament or provincial legislatures to override certain portions of the "Charter. The section states: The Parliament of Canada, a provincial legislature or a territorial legislature may declare that one of its laws or part of a law applies temporarily ("notwithstanding") countermanding sections of the "Charter", thereby

title: Richard Warman

text: the Saul Hayes Human Rights Award from the Canadian Jewish Congress in June 2007 for "distinguished service to the cause of human rights". Warman holds a Bachelor of Arts in Drama from Queen's University, a Bachelor of Law from the University of Windsor, and a Masters of Law from McGill University. Warman has initiated a large number of complaints against groups and individuals, alleging violations of Section 13(1) of the Canadian Human Rights Act. He has been identified as the primary complainant under this provision. His targets include the Canadian Heritage Alliance and its leader Melissa Guille; Jason Ouwendyk and

text: Dyment" (1988), the Court defined it simply as the "taking of a thing from a person by a public authority without that person's consent." This meaning has been narrowed to cover property taken in furtherance of administration or criminal investigation ("Quebec (Attorney General) v. Laroche", [2002]). Section 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms provides everyone in Canada with protection against unreasonable search and seizure. This right provides Canadians with their primary source of constitutionally enforced privacy rights against unreasonable intrusion from the state. Typically, this protects personal

title: Bylaw enforcement officer

text: Act". There is a common misconception that all bylaw officers are community peace officers. However, a person appointed as a community peace officer can only enforce provincial acts and regulations. A community peace officer is not authorized to enforce municipal bylaws unless they are also appointed under the authority of the "Municipal Government Act", or if the specific bylaw states it can be enforced by a community peace officer working for that municipality. There are a number of municipalities in Alberta whose officers enforce only municipal bylaws as bylaw officers, others that only enforce provincial acts as community peace officers,

title: Human rights in Canada

text: Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. In 1960, the Parliament of Canada enacted the Canadian Bill of Rights. The trend towards legal protections for human rights culminated in the enactment of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" in 1982, an entrenched constitutional charter of human rights. Human rights in Canada are now given legal protections by the dual mechanisms of the Charter and the statutory human rights codes, both federal and provincial. The Charter provides individuals with constitutional rights which governments must respect. The statutory human rights codes provide individuals with rights binding on governments, and also in

title: David Corbett (lawyer)

text: funding, was obligated to obey laws outlawing discrimination, including the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Mr Corbett succeeded in winning an injunction against the school that forced it not only to allow Mr Hall to take his boyfriend but forbade the school from cancelling the event. The injunction did not, however, make any final ruling outside of this particular case in regards to the role of religious freedoms as they relate to the rights of same-sex couples. In 2005, 2 years after David Corbett was appointed Canadian Superior Justice, Mr Hall dropped his pending court case. Director Larry Peloso

title: RightOnCanada.ca

text: of Canada and the former director of the BC Human Rights Commission. Currently, she is the President of the Rotterdam Convention Alliance and is a senior advisor on human rights to the Rideau Institute. RightOnCanada.ca is an independent organization and does not receive government funding. The only funding it receives is from individual donors. It has purposefully not sought charitable tax status so that it is not restricted in its activism and lobbying activities. The campaign uses, what is refers to as, a holistic approach. Human rights and the environment are deeply interconnected and therefore these issues cannot be dealt

title: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

short_answers:
Supreme Court of Canada
the courts


question: who plays joker in batman the dark knight

answers: Ledger

title: Kevin Michael Richardson

text: Kevin Michael Richardson Kevin Michael Richardson (born October 25, 1964) is an American actor and voice actor, who has played a multitude of characters in animated series and video games. He is known for his distinctively deep voice and has been playing mostly villainous characters since the 1990s. For voicing the Joker in "The Batman" (2004–08), he was nominated for two Daytime Emmy Awards. A classically trained actor and a native of the Bronx, New York, Richardson first gained recognition as one of only eight U.S. high school students selected for the National Foundation for the Arts' "Arts '82" program.

title: Brendon Miller

text: Brendon Miller Brendon Miller (born August 30, 1976) is an American pornographic actor and musician. In 2012, Miller portrayed the Joker in "The Dark Knight XXX". He won the 2013 XBIZ Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in the film. Although he retired from performing in 2014 to focus on his music career, he returned to the industry in 2015 to reprise his role as the Joker for "Batman v Superman XXX: An Axel Braun Parody". Miller edits approximately half of the movies that Stormy Daniels produces. Miller is the lead singer of a band called The Wicked

title: The Dark Knight (film)

text: The Joker burns the money before killing Lau and the Chechen. Coleman Reese, an accountant at Wayne Enterprises, deduces that Bruce is Batman and threatens to publicize the information. Not wanting Reese's revelation to interfere with his plans, the Joker threatens to destroy a hospital unless Reese is killed within an hour. All hospitals are evacuated and Gordon travels to secure Reese. The Joker, disguised as a hospital nurse, discovers Dent's ward and hands him a gun, convincing him to seek revenge for Rachel's death. The Joker then destroys the hospital and escapes with a busload of hostages. Dent goes

title: Joker in other media

text: City villains the Penguin, the Riddler and Catwoman. Jack Nicholson played the Joker in Tim Burton's 1989 film "Batman". The "Newsweek" review of the film stated that the best scenes are due to the surreal black comedy portrayed in the Joker. In 2003, American Film Institute ranked Nicholson's performance #45 on their list of 50 greatest film villains. Hugo Blick and David U. Hodges play younger versions of the character in flashbacks in "Batman" and "Batman Forever", respectively. In the film, Jack Napier is the right-hand man of mob boss Carl Grissom prior to his transformation into the Joker. During

title: Heath Ledger

text: Ledger died on 22 January 2008 from an accidental intoxication from prescription drugs. A few months before his death, Ledger had finished filming his performance as The Joker in The Dark Knight. His death occurred during editing of The Dark Knight and in the midst of filming his last role as Tony in The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus. His untimely death cast a shadow over the subsequent promotion of the $185 million Batman production. Ledger received numerous posthumous accolades for his critically acclaimed performance in the film, including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, a Best Actor International Award at the 2008 Australian Film Institute Awards (for which he became the first actor to win an award posthumously), the 2008 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor, the 2009 Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture, and the 2009 BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor.

title: Christian Bale filmography

text: "Batman" film trilogy entitled "The Dark Knight Rises" as Wayne / Batman. As with its prequels, the film received positive acclaim from movie critics. "The Dark Knight Rises" has earned more than $1 billion worldwide thus becoming the third highest-grossing film of 2012. For his role as Michael Burry in the biographical dramedy "The Big Short", he was nominated for an Academy Award and BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor. Christian Bale filmography British actor Christian Bale has starred in various movies. Bale's role of a young boy, interned in China by the Japanese, received praise from most film critics.

title: John Nolan (British actor)

text: John Nolan (British actor) John Nolan (born 22 May 1938) is a British film and television actor. He is known for his role as Wayne Enterprises board member Douglas Fredericks in "Batman Begins", the "Gotham Central" promotional segments for "The Dark Knight", and "The Dark Knight Rises". Nolan had a recurring role in his nephew Jonathan Nolan's television series "Person of Interest" as John Greer, a mysterious British figure connected with Decima Technologies and the main villain from seasons three to five of the show. Nolan was born in London, England, and has been married to Kim Hartman since 1975.

title: Joker (The Dark Knight)

text: M&A law accountant Coleman Reese (Joshua Harto) from revealing Batman's alter ego on TV, the Joker announces that he will blow up a hospital if Reese is not dead within 60 minutes. During the panic, the Joker sneaks into Gotham General Hospital disguised as a nurse to meet with Dent, and persuades him to take revenge on the people he holds responsible for Rachel's death. He then blows up the hospital and takes a busload of hostages. The Joker rigs explosives on two ferries leaving the Gotham bay, one containing citizens and the other transporting criminals, and tells the passengers

title: Steven Molony

text: Steven Molony Steven Molony (born March 16) is an American actor, screenwriter, and film producer. His film roles include "Pinching Penny", for which he received the award for Best Leading Actor in a Feature Film from the 2011 Indie Fest. He played both Dr. Jeremiah Arkham and Batman in the webseries "The Joker Blogs". He starred as identical twin brothers in the feature film "Efficiency", for which he also wrote the screenplay. As a part of the film's fundraising on Kickstarter, Molony offered to perform randomly selected stunts for a $5 donation. It went on to play at both Dances

title: Batman (1989 film)

text: protest letters sent to Warner Bros. offices. Bob Kane, Sam Hamm and Michael Uslan also heavily questioned the casting. "Obviously there was a negative response from the comic book people. I think they thought we were going to make it like the 1960s TV series, and make it campy, because they thought of Michael Keaton from "Mr. Mom" and "Night Shift" and stuff like that." Keaton studied "The Dark Knight Returns" for inspiration. Brad Dourif, Tim Curry, David Bowie, John Lithgow and James Woods were considered for the Joker. Lithgow, during his audition, attempted to talk Burton out of casting

title: Joker (musician)

text: Joker (musician) Liam McLean (born 30 January 1989), better known by his stage name Joker, is a British record producer who creates music in genres such as dubstep and grime and was known for creating the subgenre "purple sound". He was named "2009 king of bass music" by XLR8R Magazine and was featured in the September 2009 issue of "The Wire" magazine. He has contributed to two releases produced by the London-based record company Hyperdub. He also runs his own label known as Kapsize Recordings. His debut album "The Vision" was released on October 31, 2011 through independent label 4AD.

title: The Dark Knight Rises

text: The Dark Knight Rises The Dark Knight Rises is a 2012 American-British superhero film directed by Christopher Nolan, who co-wrote the screenplay with his brother Jonathan Nolan, and the story with David S. Goyer. Featuring the DC Comics character Batman, the film is the final installment in Nolan's "The Dark Knight Trilogy", and the sequel to "The Dark Knight" (2008). Christian Bale reprises the lead role of Bruce Wayne/Batman, with a returning cast of allies: Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth, Gary Oldman as James Gordon, and Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox. The film introduces Selina Kyle (Anne Hathaway) and Bane

title: Joker (character)

text: Batman" (1977, voiced by Lennie Weinrib) and "" (1985, voiced by Frank Welker). A darker version of the Joker (played by Jack Nicholson) made his film debut in 1989's "Batman", which earned over $400 million at the worldwide box office. The role was a defining performance in Nicholson's career and was considered to overshadow Batman's, with film critic Roger Ebert saying that the audience must sometimes remind themselves not to root for the Joker. "Batman"s success led to the 1992 television series, "". Voiced by Mark Hamill, the Joker retained the darker tone of the comics in stories acceptable for

title: The Dark Knight (film)

text: Batman from Fox and plans to reveal it to Gotham. Melinda McGraw appears as Barbara Gordon, Gordon's wife, while Nathan Gamble appears as James Gordon Jr., Gordon's ten-year-old son. Michael Jai White portrays Gambol, a African mafia boss in charge of illegal gambling and extortion for the mob. Colin McFarlane reprises his role as Gillian B. Loeb, the Police Commissioner of Gotham. The film's supporting cast includes Nydia Rodriguez Terracina as Judge Janet Surrillo, and Tom "Tiny" Lister Jr. as a prison inmate on one of the bomb-rigged ferries. William Fichtner played the Gotham National Bank manager, and Cillian Murphy

title: John Nolan (British actor)

text: He has a son and a daughter. He is the paternal uncle of brothers Christopher and Jonathan Nolan. John Nolan (British actor) John Nolan (born 22 May 1938) is a British film and television actor. He is known for his role as Wayne Enterprises board member Douglas Fredericks in "Batman Begins", the "Gotham Central" promotional segments for "The Dark Knight", and "The Dark Knight Rises". Nolan had a recurring role in his nephew Jonathan Nolan's television series "Person of Interest" as John Greer, a mysterious British figure connected with Decima Technologies and the main villain from seasons three to five

title: Mugamoodi

text: Joker / Scarecrow from English films, "The Dark Knight and Batman Begins respectively." Narain claimed that his villainy in the film would be totally brutal. His character in the movie has no shades and is absolutely negative. In early July 2011, sources reported that Amala Paul had been signed up to portray the lead female character in the film, which the actress dismissed, with Dhananjayan of UTV also confirming that Amala was not approached for the role. Pooja Hegde, second runner up of the 2011 Miss Universe India beauty pageant was eventually finalized as the female lead. K, who had

title: Christian Bale

text: serial killer Patrick Bateman in "American Psycho" (2000). In 2004, he lost 63 pounds for his role in the psychological thriller "The Machinist" (2004). Within six months, he gained 100 pounds to star as Batman in Christopher Nolan's superhero film "Batman Begins" (2005). He later reprised his role in "The Dark Knight" and "The Dark Knight Rises". Bale continued to take on starring roles, in Nolan's period drama "The Prestige" (2006), the western "" (2007), the science fiction film "Terminator Salvation" (2009), and the crime drama "Public Enemies" (2009). He won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his

title: The Dark Knight Rises

text: priest at the orphanage that Blake grew up in. Brett Cullen portrays Byron Gilley, a U.S. congressman who is kidnapped on Harvey Dent Day by Kyle. Cillian Murphy reprises his role as Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow from previous films, as does Liam Neeson as Ra's al Ghul, who appears to Bruce in a hallucination. Josh Pence portrays Ra's al Ghul in scenes set thirty years before the events of "Batman Begins". Nestor Carbonell also returns as Anthony Garcia, Gotham's mayor. Other cast members include Aidan Gillen as CIA agent Bill Wilson (referred to solely as "CIA" in the film's dialogue;

title: Christian Bale filmography

text: Hugh Jackman and Scarlett Johansson. It received positive reviews and was a commercial success in the box office. Bale co-starred with Russell Crowe in the Western "" (2007) which was positively received by movie critics. Bale reprised his role as Wayne / Batman in the second part of Nolan's "Batman" film series, the sequel of 2005's "Batman Begins" entitled "The Dark Knight" (2008). After its release, the film received highly positive reviews and is considered one of the best films of the 2000s. It grossed more than $1 billion worldwide. A year later, he starred in the fourth installment of

title: Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (film)

text: Joker, he admits to feeling responsible for every murder Joker has committed and intends to stop him permanently. In the ensuing fight, Joker stabs Batman repeatedly, and Batman breaks Joker's neck in front of witnesses. Content that he made Batman lose control and that he will be branded a murderer, the Joker finishes twisting his neck, killing himself. The GCPD arrive and Batman, bleeding profusely, fights his way to Kelley and escapes. After Superman deflects a Soviet nuclear missile, he is hit with the blast and badly injured; the detonation creates an electromagnetic pulse that wipes out all electrical equipment

title: Cinema of Wales

text: Academy Award for his role in the 1959 version of "Ben Hur". One of the biggest movie stars to come out of Wales is Oscar winning actor Christian Bale. He is well known for portraying Batman/Bruce Wayne in critically and commercially acclaimed The Dark Knight Trilogy. He has been nominated three times for The Fighter, American Hustle and The Big Short. The most distinctive Welsh actor of the 1990s through to the 2000s was Anthony Hopkins. Hopkins has appeared in film since the 1960s, starring in Hollywood costume dramas such as "The Lion in Winter". Starring in films as diverse

title: David Mazouz

text: has also appeared in the ABC show "Private Practice" as the adopted brother of Betsy. In 2014, Mazouz was cast in the role of a younger Bruce Wayne in Fox's TV series "Gotham". In 2016, he had leading roles in the horror films "The Darkness", as Michael Taylor, and "Incarnate", as Cameron. David Mazouz David Albert Mazouz (; born February 19, 2001) is an American actor. He had several guest roles before joining Fox's TV series "Touch" (2012–13), for which he was nominated for a Young Artist Award. Since 2014 he has portrayed a young Bruce Wayne in Fox's "Gotham",

title: Frances Conroy

text: Twitter that Conroy would appear in "", marking her sixth appearance on the show.. In July 2018, it was announced that Conroy had finalized a deal to appear in the 2019 film ""Joker"" an original story film of the Batman supervillain The Joker.On August 7, 2018, Ryan Murphy announced via Twitter that Conroy would appear in "", marking her seventh appearance on the show. Frances Conroy Frances Hardman Conroy (born November 13, 1953) is an American actress. She is best known for playing Ruth Fisher on the television series "Six Feet Under". Her work on the show won her acclaim

title: Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker

text: the Joker, also voiced Jordan Pryce, a red herring character, in the film, in order to deceive the public about the new Joker's true identity. Tara Strong, who voiced Barbara Gordon/Batgirl, was first credited as Tara Charendoff, her maiden name. For the scene of the old Harley Quinn, Bruce Timm originally wanted to cast an old actress for the role, but at the end, he decided to maintain Arleen Sorkin in the role. In the early drafts of the film's script, Joker's sidekick Harley Quinn was originally set to be killed in the flashback sequence. However, a short scene near

title: Tom Hardy

text: tournament against his brother, gained praise from critics. Hardy also starred in "This Means War" (2012), a romantic comedy directed by McG. He played the supervillain Bane in "The Dark Knight Rises", the final film in Christopher Nolan's "The Dark Knight Trilogy", released on 20 July 2012. He played a bootlegger in John Hillcoat's crime drama "Lawless" (2012). Hardy has signed up to play the lead role of Sam Fisher in Ubisoft's upcoming film adaptation of their video game series "Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell". He also appeared in Riz Mc's music video for the song "Sour Times". In 2014, Hardy

title: The Dark Knight (film)

text: reveals his identity, and starts by murdering Police Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb and the judge presiding over the mob trial. The Joker also tries to kill Mayor Anthony Garcia, but Gordon sacrifices himself to stop the assassination. Dent kidnaps one of Joker’s henchmen and learns that Rachel is the next target. Bruce decides to reveal his secret identity to prevent more deaths. Before he can, however, Dent falsely announces that "he" is Batman. Dent is taken into protective custody, but the Joker appears and attacks the convoy. Batman comes to Dent's rescue and Gordon, who faked his death, apprehends the

title: Bruce Timm

text: episode "Legends of the Dark Mite" in a comic book convention parody scene, where he was wearing Joker's costume, along with Paul Dini wearing Harley Quinn's costume. Prior to that he was animated in "The Batman", appearing as a mental patient in Arkham. He also played a guard in the direct-to-video animated film "". Timm made a cameo appearance in the 2009 film "" as Bug Boy, played The Riddler in the 2010 film "", and Galius Zed in the 2011 film "". While Timm is known primarily for his work in animation, his first ambition was to become a

title: DC Universe Animated Original Movies

text: to reprise his role as The Joker. On July 27, Collider reported that Hamill will voice The Joker in the film and ComicBook.com spoke with Kevin Conroy who has stated he would reprise his voice role as Bruce Wayne / Batman "in a heartbeat". On March 14, 2016 it was officially announced that Conroy and Hamill would reprise their roles as Batman and Joker respectively in the film alongside Tara Strong returning to voice Barbara Gordon. The film also features Ray Wise as Commissioner Gordon, Robin Atkin Downes as Harvey Bullock, Brian George as Alfred Pennyworth, and Rick D. Wasserman

title: Joker (The Dark Knight)

text: on the "clown". Later, the Joker kills Gambol and takes over his gang. After learning that Batman has retrieved Lau, Maroni and the Chechen accept the Joker's offer. The Joker announces that people will die each day until Batman reveals his true identity, and makes good on his threat by assassinating Gotham Police Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb (Colin McFarlane) and mob trial Judge Janet Surillo (Nydia Rodriguez Terracina). When Gotham's district attorney, Harvey Dent (Aaron Eckhart), attempts to draw him out by identifying himself as Batman, the Joker tries to kidnap him, only to be arrested. Batman interrogates him after

title: Joker (The Dark Knight)

text: Dent goes missing. The Joker also reveals that Dent's girlfriend (and Bruce Wayne's childhood sweetheart) Rachel Dawes (Maggie Gyllenhaal) has also gone missing and divulges their separate locations, both rigged up to time bombs. Switching their whereabouts, the Joker tricks Batman into saving Dent, who is disfigured in the explosion, while Rachel is killed. The Joker then escapes the police station with Lau, who had previously fled to Hong Kong only to be captured by Batman. The Joker kills Lau and the Chechen, burns his half of the mob's money and takes over the Chechen's gang. To prevent Wayne Enterprises

title: Heath Ledger


question: who validated the civil rights movement by proclaiming we shall overcome

answers: President Lyndon Johnson

answers: Guy Carawan

answers: Lucille Simmons

title: Benjamin Mays

text: signed by a U.S. president. The petition was sent once more in 2012 to U.S. President Barack Obama, yet failed to be awarded. Benjamin Mays Benjamin Elijah Mays (August 1, 1894 – March 28, 1984) was an American Baptist minister and civil rights leader who is credited with laying the intellectual foundations of the African-American civil rights movement. Mays taught and mentored many influential activists: Martin Luther King Jr, Julian Bond, Maynard Jackson, and Donn Clendenon, among others. His rhetoric and intellectual work focused on notions of nonviolence and civil resistance–beliefs inspired by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi. The peak

title: Selma to Montgomery marches

text: the Civil Rights Movement. He adopted language associated with Dr. King, declaring that "it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we "shall" overcome." Afterward, King sent a telegram to Johnson congratulating him for his speech, calling it "the most moving eloquent unequivocal and passionate plea for human rights ever made by any president of this nation". Johnson's Voting Rights Bill was formally introduced in Congress two days later. A week after Reeb's death, on Wednesday March 17, federal Judge Johnson ruled in favor of

title: Pete Seeger

text: closely associated with the Civil Rights Movement and in 1963 helped organize a landmark Carnegie Hall concert, featuring the youthful Freedom Singers, as a benefit for the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee. This event and Martin Luther King's March on Washington in August of that year brought the Civil Rights anthem "We Shall Overcome" to wide audiences where he sang it on the 50-mile walk from Selma to Montgomery, Ala. along with 1,000 other marchers. By this time, Seeger was a senior figure in the 1960s folk revival centered in Greenwich Village, as a longtime columnist in "Sing Out!", the

title: Fay Bellamy Powell

text: of the Black World, a group of people committed to strengthening the ability of Black communities in the United States to thrive in society. As a continuation of her involvement in the empowerment of African-Americans, Bellamy Powell played a key role in the foundation of multiple organizations: the National Anti-Klan Network, and the We Shall Overcome Fund. The latter of which was founded to nurture grassroots efforts within African-American communities to combat injustice. Working with the Highlander Folk School, Bellamy Powell served on the board of the We Shall Overcome Fund at a social justice leadership and training center for

title: We Shall Overcome

text: The song became associated with the Civil Rights Movement from 1959, when Guy Carawan stepped in with his and Seeger's version as song leader at Highlander, which was then focused on nonviolent civil rights activism.  It quickly became the movement's unofficial anthem. Seeger and other famous folksingers in the early 1960s, such as Joan Baez, sang the song at rallies, folk festivals, and concerts in the North and helped make it widely known. Since its rise to prominence, the song, and songs based on it, have been used in a variety of protests worldwide.

title: Silent Vigil at Duke University

text: participants would join hands to sing "We Shall Overcome" as a tribute to the Reverend and his legacy in the Civil Rights Movement. On Friday, April 5, 1968, the vigil began in front of the Duke Chapel on West Campus at noon. Three hours later, around 450 students and faculty marched through the rain to Duke President Douglas Knight's house. Those protestors would remain in Knight's house for the next several days. Saturday afternoon, they were joined by another group of about 350 faculty, workers, and students from Duke and North Carolina College, a black university. Later that evening, after

title: Guy Carawan

text: to lead the singing, and he closed the first evening with "We Shall Overcome." The audience stood, linked hands and sang—and went away inspired, carrying the song to meetings and demonstrations across the South. According to his wife Candie, one of Guy's most important roles during the Civil Rights Movement—more so than introducing "We Shall Overcome" as a Freedom Song—was his desire to record and archive the evolution of the movement through song. Both Guy and Candie believe that the political usage of religious and folk music could shape movements and influence people to take action in social change, and

title: We Shall Overcome

text: in jail in 1959–1960. Because of this, Carawan has been reluctant to claim credit for the song's widespread popularity. In the PBS video "We Shall Overcome", Julian Bond credits Carawan with teaching and singing the song at the founding meeting of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1960. From there, it spread orally and became an anthem of Southern African American labor union and civil rights activism. Seeger has also publicly, in concert, credited Carawan with the primary role of teaching and popularizing the song within the Civil Rights Movement. In August 1963, 22-year old folksinger

title: Day of Affirmation Address

text: American civil rights movement was ongoing. He emphasizes inclusiveness and the importance of youth involvement in society. The speech shook up the political situation in South Africa and received praise in the media. It is often considered his greatest and most famous speech. Kennedy was first invited to give the address at the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS)'s annual "Day of Reaffirmation of Academic and Human Freedom" in the autumn of 1965 by union president Ian Robertson. The "Day of Affirmation" (as it was known in short) was an assembly designed to directly oppose the South African government's

title: We Shall Overcome

text: similar sermon delivered in 1965 before an interfaith congregation at Temple Israel in Hollywood, California: "We Shall Overcome" was sung days later by over fifty thousand attendees at Dr. King's funeral. Farmworkers in the United States later sang the song in Spanish during the strikes and grape boycotts of the late 1960s. The song was notably sung by the U.S. Senator for New York Robert F. Kennedy, when he led anti-Apartheid crowds in choruses from the rooftop of his car while touring South Africa in 1966. It was also the song which Abie Nathan chose to broadcast as the anthem

title: Margaret Traxler

text: returned to using her baptismal name, began devoting herself to advocacy on behalf of interracial justice and the rights of women in society and in the Catholic Church, She took part in the Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965, singing "We Shall Overcome". Just prior to Selma, she joined the staff of the National Catholic Conference for Interracial Justice, based in Chicago, serving successively as Assistant Director and Director of its Department of Educational Services (1965–1971) and as Executive Director (1971–1973). During this period she marched in the front row in Selma, Alabama, with 12 other Religious Sisters, and, with

title: Ralph Abernathy

text: simple inscription: "I TRIED." During his lifetime, Abernathy was honored with more than 300 awards and citations, including five honorary doctorate degrees. He received a Doctor of Divinity from Morehouse College, a Doctor of Divinity from Kalamazoo College in Michigan, a Doctor of Laws from Allen University of South Carolina, a Doctor of Laws from Long Island University in New York, and a Doctor of Laws at Alabama State University. Ralph Abernathy Ralph David Abernathy Sr. (March 11, 1926 – April 17, 1990) was an American civil rights activist and Christian minister. As a leader of the nonviolent Civil Rights

title: Martin Luther King Jr.

text: struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize the nonviolent 1963 protests in Birmingham, Alabama. He also helped organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. On October 14, 1964, King won the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. In 1965, he helped organize the Selma to Montgomery marches. The following year, he and the SCLC took the movement north to Chicago to work on segregated housing. In his final years, he expanded his focus to include opposition towards poverty and the Vietnam War. He alienated many

title: Alphonzo E. Bell Jr.

text: personal friends with Clarence Mitchell, Jr. of the NAACP. He and Mitchell walked side by side during the March on Washington with Martin Luther King and both were honored by being seated behind the podium in front of the Lincoln Memorial as King delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech in 1963. Writing later about passage of the historic 1964 legislation, Bell said: "I am proud to have supported the Civil Rights Act from the first. It was a bill that embraced the goal of equal opportunity for all people. A coalition of lawmakers forged a consensus on the

title: 1964 Democratic Party presidential primaries

text: constitutional amendment to allow school prayer, tension continued to mount. Senator Ted Kennedy made a stop in the state to denounce him, and both of Indiana's Democratic senators campaigned against him. At a speaking engagement at the University of Notre Dame, Wallace was interrupted when nearly 500 of the 5,000-member audience began heckling him while protesters outside sang the civil rights anthem "We Shall Overcome". During the campaign, Welsh took part in a Civil War Centennial Tour wherein he visited the capitals of each of the southern states, except Alabama, and held official ceremonies to return the Confederate battle flags

title: Selma to Montgomery marches

text: movement which reaches into every section and state of America. It is the effort of American Negroes to secure for themselves the full blessings of American life. Their cause must be our cause, too, because it is not just Negroes but really it is all of us who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall overcome. Many in the Civil Rights movement cheered the speech and were emotionally moved that after so long, and so hard a struggle, a President was finally willing to defend voting rights for blacks. According to C.T. Vivian, an SCLC

title: Benjamin Mays

text: Benjamin Mays Benjamin Elijah Mays (August 1, 1894 – March 28, 1984) was an American Baptist minister and civil rights leader who is credited with laying the intellectual foundations of the African-American civil rights movement. Mays taught and mentored many influential activists: Martin Luther King Jr, Julian Bond, Maynard Jackson, and Donn Clendenon, among others. His rhetoric and intellectual work focused on notions of nonviolence and civil resistance–beliefs inspired by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi. The peak of his public influence occurred during his almost thirty years as the 6th President of Morehouse College, a historically black institution of higher

title: Joan Baez

text: anything.". She performed at the White House on February 10, 2010, as part of an evening celebrating the music associated with the civil rights movement, performing "We Shall Overcome". On March 18, 2011, Baez was honored by Amnesty International at its 50th Anniversary Annual General Meeting in San Francisco. The tribute to Baez was the inaugural event for the Amnesty International Joan Baez Award for Outstanding Inspirational Service in the Global Fight for Human Rights. Baez was presented with the first award in recognition of her human rights work with Amnesty International and beyond, and the inspiration she has given

title: Civil rights movement

text: call from Martin Luther King Jr. in St. Augustine, Florida, in June 1964, where the largest mass arrest of rabbis in American history took place at the Monson Motor Lodgea nationally important civil rights landmark that was demolished in 2003 so that a Hilton Hotel could be built on the site. Abraham Joshua Heschel, a writer, rabbi, and professor of theology at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York, was outspoken on the subject of civil rights. He marched arm-in-arm with Dr. King in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery march. In the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and

title: Council for United Civil Rights Leadership

text: agreed to the CUCRL bargain, they gained access to the resources of the white power structure: As a result, the March did not threaten systemic racism: King announced in October 1963 that he was assigning all rights to the recording of his "I Have a Dream" speech to the Council. The Council subsequently released an official recording of speeches at the March, titled "We Shall Overcome". It includes speeches from King, Wilkins, Young, Rustin, Lewis, Randolph, Walter Reuther, and Joachim Prinz, as well as music from Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Odetta, Marian Anderson, and Peter, Paul & Mary. This record

title: We Shall Overcome

text: of the Voice of Peace radio station on October 1, 1993, and as a result it found its way back to South Africa in the later years of the Anti-Apartheid Movement. The Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association adopted "we shall overcome" as a slogan and used it in the title of its retrospective publication, "We Shall Overcome – The History of the Struggle for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland 1968–1978". The film "Bloody Sunday" depicts march leader and MP Ivan Cooper leading the song shortly before 1972's Bloody Sunday shootings. In 1997, the Christian men's ministry, Promise Keepers featured the

title: Civil rights movement

text: Her dignity revived courage and hope in many of the Movement's members, confirming her place as the new leader in the struggle for racial equality. Coretta Scott King said, Rev. Ralph Abernathy succeeded King as the head of the SCLC and attempted to carry forth King's plan for a Poor People's March. It was to unite blacks and whites to campaign for fundamental changes in American society and economic structure. The march went forward under Abernathy's plainspoken leadership but did not achieve its goals. As 1968 began, the fair housing bill was being filibustered once again, but two developments revived

title: Evelyn G. Lowery

text: awardees are recognized by their contributions to the cause of freedom, equality, and achievement in their professional fields. A partial list of awardees includes Rosa Parks, The Original Tuskegee Airmen, Rev. Hosea Williams, Maya Angelou, Harry Belafonte, Bill Cosby, Oprah Winfrey, Dr. Mae Jemison, Andrew Young, Rev. Jesse Jackson, Sr., and James Meredith. She was also responsible for the erection of the Civil Rights Freedom Wall in Perry County, Alabama, and monuments honoring movement icons such as Viola Liuzzo, John Lewis and Hosea Williams. In 2004 Lowery was herself honored at the International Civil Rights Walk of Fame at the

title: Newport Folk Festival

text: Bikel and the Freedom Singers. The singers stood in a single line facing the audience with crossed arms and clasped hands and began to sing a variation on the Baptist hymn "I'll Overcome Some Day". The hymn's new incarnation - "We Shall Overcome" - had become an anthem for the Civil Rights Movement. In 1928, Mississippi John Hurt, a self-taught amateur musician and farmer, recorded 13 songs for Okeh Records which failed to achieve commercial success. Believing his musical career to be over, Hurt continued farming, apparently thinking little of his brief recording gig. Post WWII, few records cut by

title: Richie Jean Jackson

text: finally a third and successful attempt. It was also in Jackson's home that Martin Luther King Jr. watched Lyndon Johnson give his Voting Rights Act Address on March 15, 1965. Jackson wrote a memoir, "The House by the Side of the Road: The Selma Civil Rights Movement", which was published in 2011 by The University of Alabama Press. A tribute to her life was delivered in the U.S. House of Representatives by Alabama representative Terri Sewell in 2013. In 2014, her house, known as the Sullivan and Richie Jean Jackson House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

title: Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial

text: leader in the Civil Rights Movement, was an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, and advocated for using nonviolent resistance, inspired by Mahatma Gandhi. Although during his life he was monitored by the FBI for presumed communist sympathies, King is now presented as a heroic leader in the history of modern American liberalism. At the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, King imagined an end to racial inequality in his "I Have a Dream" speech. This speech has been canonized as one of the greatest pieces of American

title: Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.

text: leader, were Jesse Jackson, who held the flag of the United Nations, now Congressman John Lewis, and Andrew Young who was at one time the Mayor of Atlanta and also Ambassador to the United Nations. The procession passed by the Georgia state capitol building. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the group sang "We Shall Overcome". The public and final service was held at Morehouse College, where King was eulogized by college president Benjamin Mays, who had given the benediction after King's "I Have a Dream" speech. Following the funeral, King's casket was loaded into a hearse for his final

title: Martin Luther King Jr.

text: Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968. Born in Atlanta, King is best known for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience, tactics his Christian beliefs and the nonviolent activism of Mahatma Gandhi helped inspire. King led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and in 1957 became the first president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). With the SCLC, he led an unsuccessful 1962

title: Martin Luther King Jr.

text: would be redesigned to depict various historical events that had occurred at the Lincoln Memorial. Among the planned designs are images from King's "I Have a Dream" speech and the 1939 concert by opera singer Marian Anderson. Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American Baptist minister and activist who became the most visible spokesperson and leader in the civil rights movement from 1954 until his death in 1968. Born in Atlanta, King is best known for advancing civil rights through nonviolence and civil disobedience, tactics his Christian beliefs and

title: Bloody Tuesday (1964)

text: to lead the Civil Rights Movements in Tuscaloosa in 1964. He was an optimistic and determined leader and was able to get many people of all ages involved in the march, from young teenagers to adults. His meetings grew larger and more people began attending the Monday night mass, and with the growing number of attendees the citizens became more enthusiastic and would start to sing "We Shall Overcome", stomping and clapping their hands and feet. His aim, which was to take action for the denied requests, had been met and he was able to convince people about the importance

title: We Shall Overcome


question: who developed a set of postulates to prove that specific microorganisms cause disease

answers: Robert Koch

answers: Friedrich Loeffler

title: Microbiology

text: spontaneous generation, thereby solidifying microbiology’s identity as a biological science. One of his students, Adrien Certes, is considered the founder of marine microbiology. Pasteur also designed methods for food preservation (pasteurization) and vaccines against several diseases such as anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies. Koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of disease, proving that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogenic micro-organisms. He developed a series of criteria that have become known as the Koch's postulates. Koch was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture resulting in his

title: Germ theory of disease

text: of infectious agents are accepted as the cause of disease despite their not fulfilling all of Koch's postulates. Therefore, while Koch's postulates retain historical importance and continue to inform the approach to microbiologic diagnosis, fulfillment of all four postulates is not required to demonstrate causality. Koch's postulates have also influenced scientists who examine microbial pathogenesis from a molecular point of view. In the 1980s, a molecular version of Koch's postulates was developed to guide the identification of microbial genes encoding virulence factors. Koch's postulates: However, Koch abandoned the universalist requirement of the first postulate altogether when he discovered asymptomatic carriers

title: John Postgate (microbiologist)

text: John Postgate (microbiologist) John Raymond Postgate (24 June 1922 – 22 October 2014), FRS was an English microbiologist and writer, latterly Professor Emeritus of Microbiology at the University of Sussex. Postgate's research in microbiology investigated nitrogen fixation, microbial survival, and sulphate-reducing bacteria. He worked for the Agricultural Research Council's Unit of Nitrogen Fixation from 1963 until he retired, by then its Director, in 1987. In 2011 he was described as a "father figure of British microbiology". His admired popularizing book on microbes in human culture, "Microbes and Man", first published in 1969, remains in print. John Raymond Postgate was born

title: Germ theory of disease

text: end caring for the sick. Searching for a cure, Kircher observed microorganisms under the microscope and invented the germ theory of disease, which he outlined in his "Scrutinium pestis physico-medicum" (Rome 1658). Building on Leeuwenhoek's work, physician Nicolas Andry argued in 1700 that microorganisms he called "worms" were responsible for smallpox and other diseases. In 1720, Richard Bradley theorised that the plague and 'all pestilential distempers' were caused by 'poisonous insects', living creatures viewable only with the help of microscopes. In 1762, the Austrian physician Marcus Antonius von Plenciz (1705-1786) published a book titled "Opera medico-physica". It outlined a theory

title: Koch's postulates

title: Germ theory of disease

text: Germ theory of disease The germ theory of disease is the currently accepted scientific theory of disease. It states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification, invade humans, animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. "Germ" may refer to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganism, especially one which causes disease, such as protists, fungi, viruses, prions, or viroids. Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens, and the diseases they cause are called infectious diseases. Even when a pathogen

title: Koch's postulates

text: causing cancers does not follow Koch's postulates. Koch’s postulates have played an important role in microbiology, yet they have major limitations. For example, Koch was well aware that in the case of cholera, the causal agent, "Vibrio cholerae", could be found in both sick and healthy people, invalidating his first postulate. Furthermore, viral diseases were not yet discovered when Koch formulated his postulates, and there are many viruses that do not cause illness in all infected individuals, a requirement of the first postulate. Additionally, it was known through experimentation that "H. pylori" caused mild inflammation of the gastric lining when

title: Germ theory of disease

text: developing practical applications of the germ theory of disease with respect to sanitation in medical settings and aseptic surgical techniques—partly through the use of carbolic acid (phenol) as an antiseptic. Germ theory of disease The germ theory of disease is the currently accepted scientific theory of disease. It states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification, invade humans, animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. "Germ" may refer to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganism, especially one which

title: Stanley Falkow

text: Stanley Falkow Stanley Falkow (January 24, 1934 – May 5, 2018) was an American microbiologist and a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University School of Medicine. He discovered molecular mechanisms of infectious diseases, like antibiotic resistance and sounded the alarm for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. He championed the benefits of microorganisms. He formulated molecular Koch's postulates, which have guided the study of the microbial determinants of infectious diseases since the late 1980s. Falkow was born into a Yiddish-speaking household in Albany, New York. His father was a shoe salesman and had immigrated from Soviet Kiev, Ukraine. His mother came from

title: Daniel A. Portnoy

text: Daniel A. Portnoy Daniel A. Portnoy (born 1956 in Syracuse, NY) is a microbiologist, the Edward E. Penhoet Distinguished Chair in Global Public Health and Infectious Diseases, and a Professor of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Structural Biology in the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and in the Division of Microbiology in the Department of Plant and Microbial Biology at the University of California, Berkeley. He is one of the world's foremost experts on "Listeria monocytogenes", the bacterium that causes the severe foodborne illness Listeriosis. He has made seminal contributions to multiple aspects of bacterial pathogenesis, cell biology, innate immunity, and

title: John Postgate (microbiologist)

text: led by K R Butlin, was researching their role in iron corrosion and other civil and industrial nuisances. The group also investigated and advised on diverse problems in economic microbiology which had been brought to the laboratory. The bacteria were known to be strict anaerobes which live by converting mineral sulphates to hydrogen sulphide. They are difficult to culture and to separate from other soil bacteria in the laboratory, but Butlin's group had isolated a few pure strains. Postgate managed to culture large populations of the organism and his experience of competition informed his first paper, in which he showed

title: History of science

text: the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Perhaps the most

title: John Postgate (microbiologist)

text: also took over the National Collection of Industrial Bacteria. He was absorbed into its staff in 1950 as Senior Scientific Officer and promoted Principal Scientific Officer in 1952. In 1959, for controversial reasons, Butlin's group was disbanded and its staff and collection redeployed. Postgate was released to take a post at the Microbiological Research Establishment (MRE), part of the Porton Down research complex at Porton near Salisbury in Wiltshire, to undertake fundamental research on how bacteria survive mild stresses such as near starvation, using both continuous and synchronous culture of bacteria. His extensive paper on the survival of starvation by

title: Microorganism

text: disease and these are now known as Koch's postulates. Although these postulates cannot be applied in all cases, they do retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought and are still being used today. The discovery of microorganisms such as "Euglena" that did not fit into either the animal or plant kingdoms, since they were photosynthetic like plants, but motile like animals, led to the naming of a third kingdom in the 1860s. In 1860 John Hogg called this the Protoctista, and in 1866 Ernst Haeckel named it the Protista. The work of Pasteur and Koch did not accurately

title: Ernest Duchesne

text: Ernest Duchesne Ernest Duchesne (30 May 1874 – 12 April 1912) was a French physician who noted that certain molds kill bacteria. He made this discovery 32 years before Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic properties of penicillin, a substance derived from those molds, but his research went unnoticed. Duchesne entered "l'Ecole du Service de Santé Militaire de Lyon" (the Military Health Service School of Lyons) in 1894. Duchesne's thesis, "Contribution à l’étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes" (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between molds and microbes),

title: Microorganism

text: cause disease. He found that the blood of cattle which were infected with anthrax always had large numbers of "Bacillus anthracis". Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one animal to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy one, and this caused the healthy animal to become sick. He also found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, then inject it into a healthy animal, and cause illness. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microorganism and a

title: Germ theory of disease

text: had been isolated from diseased animals. Koch's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day. Even in Koch's time, it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates. Attempts to rigidly apply Koch's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century, at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture, may have impeded the early development of the field of virology. Currently, a number

title: Microbes and Man

text: "ideally" all four books be read in sequence for an overiew of the development of microbiology in half a century. Microbes and Man Microbes and Man is a popularising book by the English microbiologist John Postgate FRS on the role of microorganisms in human society, first published in 1969, and still in print in 2017. Critics called it a "classic" and "a pleasure to read". The book is structured as follows: The 4th edition has 32 illustrations, ranging from photographs of microscopic algae, protozoa, fungi, viruses and bacteria, to the macroscopic effects of microbes such as a sulphur-forming lake in

title: Microorganism

text: of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by microorganisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists. Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living

title: Stanley Falkow

text: September 2008, Falkow was one of five scientists awarded the prestigious Lasker Award for medical research. Stanley Falkow Stanley Falkow (January 24, 1934 – May 5, 2018) was an American microbiologist and a professor of microbiology and immunology at Stanford University School of Medicine. He discovered molecular mechanisms of infectious diseases, like antibiotic resistance and sounded the alarm for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. He championed the benefits of microorganisms. He formulated molecular Koch's postulates, which have guided the study of the microbial determinants of infectious diseases since the late 1980s. Falkow was born into a Yiddish-speaking household in Albany, New York. His

title: Osamu Hayaishi

text: as a medical officer in the Japanese Navy for 3 years, he joined the Institute of Microbial Diseases, Osaka University and was awarded his Ph.D. in 1949. After working with Arthur Kornberg at the National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, National Institutes of Health and Washington University in St. Louis, Hayaishi served as a research group leader or a professor at various research institutions in the US and Japan including Kyoto University, and led approximately 600 graduate students in his life including Yasutomi Nishizuka, Tasuku Honjo, and Shigetada Nakanishi. More than 100 his pupils became professors at various universities

title: John Postgate (microbiologist)

text: klebsiella bacteria reopened a research topic largely dormant since the 1920s and introduced the concept of cryptic growth (a sort of necrophagy) in the persistence of bacterial populations in ancient isolated environments such as salt inclusions or fossils. He was promoted Senior Principal Scientific Officer in 1961. In 1962 he was given leave to take up a Visiting Professorship of Microbiology at the University of Illinois, in the United States, to finish off some earlier research on sulphate-reducing bacteria and undertake some teaching duties. He returned to MRE in early 1963. A change of emphasis in the research remit of

title: Theobald Smith

text: Theobald Smith Prof Theobald Smith FRS(For) HFRSE (July 31, 1859 – December 10, 1934) was a pioneering epidemiologist, bacteriologist, pathologist and professor. He is widely considered to be America's first internationally significant medical research scientist. Smith was a pioneering epidemiologist, bacteriologist, pathologist, and professor. His work included the study of Texas cattle fever and the epidemiology of cattle infected by ticks transmitting protozoa. He also discovered a species of Salmonella, named for his chief, and studied anaphylaxis, then referred to as Theobald Smith phenomenon. Smith taught at Columbian University (now George Washington University) and established the school's department of bacteriology,

title: Moritz Traube

text: contribution to the study of the etiology of disease. Together with Gscheidlen, an assistant of Rudolf Heidenhain he was the first to demonstrate via animal experiments that the organism has the ability to eliminate putrefactive bacteria. In evaluating the results, he distinguished chemical poisoning from infection with microorganisms on the one hand, and pathogenic from putrefactive bacteria on the other. Further, he was the first to propose a relation between immune system to infections and active oxygen in the blood cells. In his last work Traube proposed disinfecting drinking water with calcium chloride. This technique became very important. By 1914

title: Albert Schatz (scientist)

text: and a half months, he had isolated two distinct microorganisms excreting a substance (which he named "streptomycin") that stopped the growth of tubercle bacillus and several other penicillin-resistant bacteria in a Petri dish. Schatz was born in Norwich, Connecticut, and raised on a poor, isolated Passaic, New Jersey, farm by his Russian Jewish émigré father and English mother. His initial interest in soil microbiology stemmed from his intention to become a farmer. Seeing workers being assaulted by the authorities during the Depression prompted him to lifelong socialism and humanitarianism. Vivian Rosenfeld, a student at New Jersey College for Women, and

title: Germ theory of disease

text: of contagion stating that specific 'animalculae' in the soil and the air were responsible for causing specific diseases. Von Plenciz noted the distinction between diseases which are both epidemic and contagious (like measles and dysentry), and diseases which are contagious but not epidemic (like rabies and leprosy). The book cites Anton van Leeuwenhoek to show how ubiquitous such animalculae are, and was unique for describing the presence of germs in ulcerating wounds. Ultimately, the theory espoused by von Plenciz was not accepted by the scientific community. The Italian Agostino Bassi was the first person to prove that a disease was

title: John Postgate (microbiologist)

text: Bob Weir he wrote a bio-discography of the Jazz trumpeter Frankie Newton. Postgate was a member of the Postgate family, and is not to be confused with his grandfather John Percival Postgate (1853–1926), professor of Latin at the University of Liverpool and author of school textbooks and editions of Latin poetry, nor with his great-grandfather John Postgate (1820–1881), a surgeon who became Professor of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology at Queen's College, Birmingham (a predecessor college of the University of Birmingham) and was a leading campaigner against food adulteration. John Postgate (microbiologist) John Raymond Postgate (24 June 1922 – 22 October

title: Harry Smith (microbiologist)

text: biochemistry for the successful conclusion of a research project. In 1947 he became a researcher at the Microbiological Research Establishment at Porton Down. There he carried out research on the mechanisms of anthrax infection using live animals and its possible applications in chemical warfare. From 1965 to 1988, he was Chair of Microbiology at the University of Birmingham, subsequently becoming Emeritus Professor. He was president of the Society for General Microbiology (now known as the Microbiology Society) and of the 14th International Congress of Microbiology. In 1979 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1991 delivered

title: Alice Catherine Evans

text: Alice Catherine Evans Alice Catherine Evans (January 29, 1881 – September 5, 1975) was a pioneering American microbiologist. She became a researcher at the US Department of Agriculture. There she investigated bacteriology in milk and cheese. She later demonstrated that "Bacillus abortus" caused the disease Brucellosis (undulant fever or Malta fever) in both cattle and humans. Evans was born on a farm in Neath, Bradford County, Pennsylvania to William Howell, a farmer and surveyor, and Anne B. Evans, a teacher. When Evans was five and six years old, she was taught at home by her parents and attended a one-room

title: Microbiology

text: the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by micro-organisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages in 1917 and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists. Joseph Lister was the first to use phenol disinfectant on the

title: Koch's postulates

long_answer: Koch's postulates (/ˈkɔːx/) are four criteria designed to establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease. The postulates were formulated by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler in 1884, based on earlier concepts described by Jakob Henle, and refined and published by Koch in 1890. Koch applied the postulates to describe the etiology of cholera and tuberculosis, but they have been controversially generalized to other diseases. These postulates were generated prior to understanding of modern concepts in microbial pathogenesis that cannot be examined using Koch's postulates, including viruses (which are obligate cellular parasites) or asymptomatic carriers. They have largely been supplanted by other criteria such as the Bradford Hill criteria for infectious disease causality in modern public health.

short_answers:
Friedrich Loeffler
Robert Koch