question: where can the mona lisa be found today

answers: Musée du Louvre, Paris

answers: Louvre Museum in Paris

title: Mona Lisa

text: he stresses that the images never existed. Kemp is also adamant that Cotte’s images in no way establish the existence of a separate underlying portrait. On 21 August 1911, the painting was stolen from the Louvre. The theft was not discovered until the next day, when painter Louis Béroud walked into the museum and went to the Salon Carré where the "Mona Lisa" had been on display for five years, only to find four iron pegs on the wall. Béroud contacted the head of the guards, who thought the painting was being photographed for promotional purposes. A few hours later,

title: Mona Lisa

text: del Giocondo circa 1503, had flanking columns, have been left unfinished and have been in Salaì’s possession in 1525. The second, commissioned by Giuliano de' Medici circa 1513, without the flanking columns, would have been sold by Salaì to Francis I in 1518 and be the one in the Louvre today. The painting was kept at the Palace of Fontainebleau, where it remained until Louis XIV moved the painting to the Palace of Versailles. After the French Revolution, it was moved to the Louvre, but spent a brief period in the bedroom of Napoleon in the Tuileries Palace. During the

title: Mona Lisa (opera)

text: Vinci had been stolen from the Louvre in 1911, and rediscovered in Florence in 1913. The opera was first performed on 26 September 1915 in the Hofoper in Stuttgart, with the composer conducting. In the same year it was also performed in Vienna (with Maria Jeritza in the title role), Berlin (Richard Strauss conducting the first two performances), Breslau, Hamburg and Budapest. The North American premiere took place at the Metropolitan Opera in New York on 1 March 1923, Artur Bodanzky conducting, with Barbara Kemp, Michael Bohnen (both making their Met debut) and Curt Taucher in the principal roles. Post

title: Seymour Reit

text: Day They Stole the Mona Lisa", written in 1981, is about the theft of the Mona Lisa from the Louvre in 1911. In the book, Reit asserted that there were "two" genuine "Mona Lisas" in the world: the one in the Louvre, and an earlier version of the work painted by Leonardo da Vinci which was being held in a bank vault in New Jersey (the so-called "Vernon Mona Lisa"). A long-planned movie adaptation of the book has never materialized, although the Internet Movie Database lists a movie by the same title tentatively planned for 2009. In addition to those

title: Mona Lisa

text: restoration, that the painting is probably by Salaì (1480–1524) or by Melzi (1493–1572). This has been called into question by others. The restored painting is from a slightly different perspective than the original "Mona Lisa", leading to the speculation that it is part of the world's first stereoscopic pair. However, a more recent report has demonstrated that this stereoscopic pair in fact gives no reliable stereoscopic depth. A version of the "Mona Lisa" known as the "Isleworth Mona Lisa" and also known as the "Earlier Mona Lisa" was first bought by an English nobleman in 1778 and was rediscovered in

title: Mona Lisa

text: Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) it was moved from the Louvre to the Brest Arsenal. During World War II, "Mona Lisa" was again removed from the Louvre and taken safely, first to Château d'Amboise, then to the Loc-Dieu Abbey and Château de Chambord, then finally to the Ingres Museum in Montauban. In December 2015, it was reported that French scientist Pascal Cotte had found a hidden portrait underneath the surface of the painting using reflective light technology. The portrait is an underlying image of a model looking off to the side. Having been given access to the painting by Louvre in 2004,

title: Isleworth Mona Lisa

text: is a lack of outside corroboration for his claims. A documentary aired by PBS gives the names of the persons doing the scientific studies. The painting disappeared from public gaze around 1970, locked in a Swiss bank vault. Pulitzer died in 1979, leaving the painting to his Swiss partner. On 27 September 2012, The Mona Lisa Foundation of Zurich unveiled the painting once more to the world's press. A book published at the same time presented the Foundation's research and arguments for the painting's authenticity. Professor Martin Kemp of Oxford University, though having not seen the painting, immediately raised doubts

title: Mona Lisa

text: Mona Lisa The Mona Lisa (; or La Gioconda , ) is a half-length portrait painting by the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci that has been described as "the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world". The "Mona Lisa" is also one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds the Guinness World Record for the highest known insurance valuation in history at $100 million in 1962, which is worth nearly $800 million in 2017. The painting is thought to be a

title: Mona Lisa replicas and reinterpretations

text: hanging in one of the great museums of the world." The image had yet to gain iconic status, and, Sassoon adds, was "not even the most valued painting in the Louvre." The painting's theft on August 11, 1911, and the subsequent media frenzy surrounding the investigation and its recovery are contributing factors which ignited public interest and catapulted "Mona Lisa" to its current standing. "Mona Lisa" is in the public domain and free to be exploited, explaining its reproduction on everything from postcards to coffee mugs, with no legal repercussions. Artistic replicas and reinterpretations as a whole – demonstrating adequate

title: Mona Lisa

text: The painting is thought to be a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, and is in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel. It had been believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. Recent academic work suggests that it would not have been started before 1513. It was acquired by King Francis I of France and is now the property of the French Republic, on permanent display at the Louvre Museum in Paris since 1797.

title: Mona Lisa

text: Lisa"s landscapes to some views in the Montefeltro region in the Italian provinces of Pesaro and Urbino, and Rimini. The "Mona Lisa" has survived for more than 500 years, and an international commission convened in 1952 noted that "the picture is in a remarkable state of preservation." This is partly due to a variety of conservation treatments the painting has undergone. A detailed analysis in 1933 by Madame de Gironde revealed that earlier restorers had "acted with a great deal of restraint." Nevertheless, applications of varnish made to the painting had darkened even by the end of the 16th century,

text: 1778 and was rediscovered in 1913 by Hugh Blaker, an art connoisseur. The painting was presented to the media in 2012 by the Mona Lisa Foundation. It is a painting of the same subject as Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa". The painting is claimed by a majority of experts to be mostly an original work of Leonardo dating from the early 16th century: a survey of all published opinions shows that 22 experts are certain that the major parts of the "Isleworth Mona Lisa" are the work of Leonardo da Vinci. In 2015 and 2016, peer-reviewed academic publications concerning it

title: Louis Béroud

text: museum, and it was confirmed that the "Mona Lisa" was not with the photographers. The Louvre was closed for an entire week to aid in investigation of the theft. List of some of his works in French national museums: Louis Béroud Louis Béroud (January 17, 1852, Lyon-October 9, 1930, Paris) was a French painter of the late 19th, early 20th century. Some of his paintings are visible at the Musée Carnavalet and The Louvre in Paris. On August 22, 1911, Béroud came to The Louvre to sketch his painting "" but where the famous "La Joconde", by Leonardo da Vinci,

title: Mona Lisa

text: Isabela Gualanda, Caterina Sforza—even Salaì and Leonardo himself—are all among the list of posited models portrayed in the painting. The consensus of art historians in the 21st century maintains the long-held traditional opinion, that the painting depicts Lisa del Giocondo. Leonardo da Vinci is thought by some to have begun painting the "Mona Lisa" in 1503 or 1504 in Florence, Italy. Although the Louvre states that it was "doubtless painted between 1503 and 1506", the art historian Martin Kemp says there are some difficulties in confirming the actual dates with certainty. In addition, many Leonardo experts, such as Carlo Pedretti

title: Mona Lisa

text: I to work at the Clos Lucé near the king's castle in Amboise. It is believed that he took the "Mona Lisa" with him and continued to work after he moved to France. Art historian Carmen C. Bambach has concluded that Leonardo probably continued refining the work until 1516 or 1517. The fate of the painting around Leonardo’s death and just after it has divided academic opinion. Some, such as Kemp, believe that upon Leonardo’s death, the painting was inherited with other works by his pupil and assistant Salaì and was still in the latter’s possession in 1525. Others believe

title: Mona Lisa

text: 1913 by Hugh Blaker, an art connoisseur. The painting was presented to the media in 2012 by the Mona Lisa Foundation. It is a painting of the same subject as Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa. The painting is claimed by a majority of experts to be mostly an original work of Leonardo dating from the early 16th century. Other experts, including Zöllner and Kemp, deny the attribution. Notes Bibliography Mona Lisa The Mona Lisa (; or La Gioconda , ) is a half-length portrait painting by the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci that has been described as "the best

title: Mona Lisa (opera)

text: war revivals at the Städtische Oper Berlin in 1953 and at the Badischen Staatstheater in Karlsruhe in 1983 were cut in length. It was revived complete at the Kiel Opera House in November 1994 and subsequently performed at the Wiener Volksoper in 1996. A couple is visiting a palace in Florence. A lay brother tells them the history of the house and its occupants, among them Fiordalisa Gherardini, Francesco Giocondo's wife painted by Leonardo da Vinci. Together with his guests, Francesco is celebrating the last night of the Carnival, while his wife, the beautiful Mona Lisa, has gone out for

title: Isleworth Mona Lisa

text: experts. Skeptics argue that as Henry F. Pulitzer himself owned the painting in question, a conflict of interest is present. His "Where is the Mona Lisa?" was published by the Pulitzer Press, a publisher he owned. Pulitzer notes in the book's introduction that he made a number of sacrifices in order to acquire the painting, including the selling of "a house with all its contents". Pulitzer argues in his book that Leonardo's contemporary Raphael made a sketch of this painting, probably from memory, after seeing it in Leonardo's studio in 1504 (the sketch is reproduced in Pulitzer's book; the book

title: Mona Lisa

text: on Duchamp's own face. Salvador Dalí, famous for his surrealist work, painted "Self portrait as Mona Lisa" in 1954. In 1963 following the painting's visit to the United States, Andy Warhol created serigraph prints of multiple "Mona Lisa"s called "Thirty are Better than One", like his works of Marilyn Monroe ("Twenty-five Coloured Marilyns", 1962), Elvis Presley (1964) and Campbell's soup (1961–62). The "Mona Lisa" continues to inspire artists. A French urban artist known pseudonymously as Invader has created versions on city walls in Paris and Tokyo using a mosaic style. A collection of "Mona Lisa" parodies may be found on

title: Leonardo da Vinci

text: of the most reproduced works of art; countless copies have been made in every medium from carpets to cameos. Among the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the "Mona Lisa" or "la Gioconda", the laughing one. In the present era, it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality perhaps due to the subtly shadowed corners of the mouth and eyes such that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality

title: Isleworth Mona Lisa

text: after the location of Blaker's studio in Isleworth, west London) being the first. The painting was subsequently bought by Henry F. Pulitzer, who argued that it was Leonardo's only real portrait of Lisa Gherardini. It belongs to a private collection and is not on display to the public, but has been examined by many experts in recent years, and been filmed for a TV documentary. According to Leonardo's early biographer Giorgio Vasari, Leonardo had started to paint "Mona Lisa" in 1503, but "left it unfinished". However, a fully finished painting of a "certain Florentine lady" surfaced again in 1517, shortly

text: collection at Paris' Louvre museum since 1797. It is also known as "La Joconde" in French and "La Gioconda" in Italian, and has been known by other names in the past. There is a new study setting the beginning of the Mona Lisa to an earlier date that thought before, pre-1478, contrary to Vasari's narrative. Replicas of "Mona Lisa" date back to the 16th century, including sculptures and etchings inspired by the painting. But even by the start of the 20th century, historian Donald Sassoon has stated, "Mona Lisa" was still "just a well-respected painting by a famous old master,

title: Vandalism of art

text: by Leonardo da Vinci has long been attracting vandals and is currently one of the best-protected artworks. In 1956, the lower part of the painting was severely damaged when a vandal doused the painting with acid while it was on display at a museum in Montauban, France. On 30 December of the same year, a young Bolivian named Ugo Ungaza Villegas threw a rock at the painting; this resulted in the loss of a speck of pigment near the left elbow, which was later painted over. The use of bulletproof glass has shielded the Mona Lisa from more recent attacks.

title: Lisa del Giocondo

text: the possession of the people. Today about six million people visit the painting each year at the Louvre in Paris, where it is part of a French national collection. Lisa del Giocondo Lisa del Giocondo (; née Gherardini ; June 15, 1479 – July 15, 1542) was an Italian noblewoman, member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany. Her name was given to the "Mona Lisa", her portrait commissioned by her husband and painted by Leonardo da Vinci during the Italian Renaissance. Little is known about Lisa's life. Born in Florence and married in her teens to a cloth

title: Lisa del Giocondo

text: his work on "Mona Lisa" when he received payment for starting "The Battle of Anghiari", which was a more valuable commission and one he was contracted to complete by February 1505. In 1506 Leonardo considered the portrait unfinished. He was not paid for the work and did not deliver it to his client. The artist's paintings traveled with him throughout his life, and he may have completed the "Mona Lisa" many years later in France, in one estimation by 1516. The painting's title dates to 1550. An acquaintance of at least some of Francesco's family, Giorgio Vasari, wrote, "Leonardo undertook

title: Mona Lisa

text: frame, a Renaissance-era work consistent with the historical period of the "Mona Lisa". The edges of the painting have been trimmed at least once in its history to fit the picture into various frames, but no part of the original paint layer has been trimmed. The first and most extensive recorded cleaning, revarnishing, and touch-up of the "Mona Lisa" was an 1809 wash and revarnishing undertaken by Jean-Marie Hooghstoel, who was responsible for restoration of paintings for the galleries of the Musée Napoléon. The work involved cleaning with spirits, touch-up of colour, and revarnishing the painting. In 1906, Louvre restorer

text: were part of a 2009 exhibition of artwork inspired by "Mona Lisa". Displayed at the Museo Ideale in Leonardo's hometown of Vinci, near Florence, some believe one of the paintings – dating from Leonardo's time – to be the work of Leonardo himself, and it has at times been credited to him. Other experts theorize the painting, one of at least six known to exist, may be just another copy painted by "followers" of Leonardo. Scholarly dispute persists as to artist, subject and origin. The nude in question, discovered behind a wall in a private library, reportedly belonged to an

title: Mona Lisa

text: two years, Peruggia grew impatient and was caught when he attempted to sell it to directors of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. It was exhibited in the Uffizi Gallery for over two weeks and returned to the Louvre on 4 January 1914. Peruggia served six months in prison for the crime and was hailed for his patriotism in Italy. Before its theft, the "Mona Lisa" was not widely known outside the art world. It was not until the 1860s that some critics, a thin slice of the French intelligentsia, began to hail it as a masterwork of Renaissance painting. In

title: Speculations about Mona Lisa

text: the public on September 27, 2012. The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich has dated the piece to Leonardo's lifetime, and an expert in sacred geometry says it conforms to the artist's basic line structures. The same claim has been made for a version in the Vernon collection. The Vernon "Mona Lisa" is particularly interesting because it was originally part of the collection at the Louvre. Another version, dating from c. 1616, was given in c. 1790 to Joshua Reynolds by the Duke of Leeds in exchange for a Reynolds self-portrait. Reynolds thought it to be the real painting

title: I, Mona Lisa

text: I, Mona Lisa I, Mona Lisa (UK title Painting Mona Lisa) is a historical novel by Jeanne Kalogridis about Lisa Gherardini, the model for Leonardo da Vinci's painting "Mona Lisa". Lisa is portrayed as a young Italian woman who learns about the murder of Giuliano de' Medici, the brother of Lorenzo de' Medici in the Pazzi conspiracy. Guiliano's murder casts a shadow, especially as one of the killers has not been found. She later falls in love with Giuliano's namesake, Lorenzo's son Giuliano in the aftermath of Girolamo Savonarola's uprising in the late 15th century. It's an intricately woven tale

title: Mona Lisa


question: when did canada sign the un declaration of indigenous rights

answers: May 2016

answers: 12 November 2010

text: Empire) was cut off. Under the prior 1867 constitution, 1920s Dominion of Canada and earlier law, which continue to apply to these peoples and treaties, the UN DRIP could have been pleaded in a UK court in conflicts between treaty and Canadian law. Calls to pursue this approach have been common among Canadian natives. Finland signed the International Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples when it was originally put forward. However the reindeer owners and Forest Administration (Metsähallitus) have a long dispute in the area of the forests. The UN Human Rights Committee ordered the Finnish State to stop

text: to action" in its final report. In 2016, Canada officially adopted and promised to implement the declaration fully. Speaking at the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada minister Carolyn Bennett announced, "We are now a full supporter of the declaration, without qualification. We intend nothing less than to adopt and implement the declaration in accordance with the Canadian Constitution." Bennett described the Declaration as "breathing life into Section 35 [of the Canadian Constitution] and recognizing it as a full box of rights for Indigenous Peoples in Canada." In July 2016, Kwakwaka’wakw Justice Minister Jody Wilson-Raybould

text: Bill C-641, the "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act", which would have required the Canadian government to ensure that the laws of Canada are in harmony with UNDRIP but it was defeated on May 6, 2015. On July 7, 2015 in an open letter to provincial cabinet members, Premier of Alberta Rachel Notley asked each minister to conduct a review of their policies, programs, and legislation that might require changes based on the principles of the UN Declaration. In December of 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission listed ratifying UNDRIP as one of its national "calls

text: Nations. And, of course, in Canada, that's inconsistent with our constitution." He gave an example: "In Canada ... you negotiate on this ... because (native rights) don't trump all other rights in the country. You need also to consider the people who have sometimes also lived on those lands for two or three hundred years, and have hunted and fished alongside the First Nations." The Assembly of First Nations passed a resolution in December 2007 to invite Presidents Hugo Chávez and Evo Morales to Canada to put pressure on the government to sign the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous

title: Numbered Treaties

text: occurred during the 1995 Quebec independence referendum, with differing points of view regarding the rights of provincial and indigenous nations to end or maintain their union with Canada, though it had never been in dispute that First Nations would have to voluntarily agree with their formal treaty partner, the Canadian Crown, to modify the treaties . In 2010, Canada signed the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. In 2011 and again in 2012 the United Nations criticized the federal government over Attawapiskat. In 2012 in "Daniels v. Canada" the Federal Court of Canada ruled that 200,000 off-reserve

title: Indigenous peoples in Canada

text: Canada signed in 1949 and passed through Parliament in 1952. The residential school system that removed Aboriginal children from their homes has led scholars to believe that Canada can be tried in international court for genocide. A legal case resulted in settlement of 2 billion C$ in 2006 and the 2008 establishment of a truth and reconciliation commission which confirmed the injurious effect on children of this system and turmoil created between Aboriginal Canadians and Canadian Society. In 2008 Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued an apology on behalf of the Canadian government and its citizens for the residential school system.

text: indigenous populations. Since then, all four countries have moved to endorse the declaration in some informal way in which it would not actually become binding law pleadable in court. Canada, under a Conservative Party leadership made official public statements against the application of the UN DRIP in Canada, e.g. However, the Liberal Government elected to leadership in 2015, has unequivocally indicated Canada's support for the UN DRIP and is working on amending Canada's laws accordingly. Australian government interventions have been challenged under its terms without success. "Abstaining", 11 countries: Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa

text: Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Karen Pierce, "emphasized that the Declaration was non-legally binding and did not propose to have any retroactive application on historical episodes. National minority groups and other ethnic groups within the territory of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories did not fall within the scope of the indigenous peoples to which the Declaration applied." The UK position was also clearly intended to prevent formal appeal of Canadian decisions to UK courts: Canadian indigenous peoples never accepted the 1982 constitution in which such appeal (regarding early treaties made with the Crown of the British

title: Arctic Council

text: term 'peoples' in this declaration shall not be construed as having any implications as regard the rights which may attach to the term under international law." Incidentally, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 September 2007 after 22 years of negotiations, was rejected by Canada and the United States, while Russia abstained. Both the United States and Canada have their origins as colonies of the United Kingdom and have large non-indigenous immigrant majorities and small indigenous populations. This means that most Arctic indigenous people were not covered by

text: On 12 November 2010, Canada officially endorsed the declaration but without changing its position that it was 'aspirational'.

title: Indigenous rights

text: enforced instruments the deal with indigenous rights exclusively. Since 1997, the nations of the Organization of American States have been discussing draft versions of a proposed American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. "The draft declaration is currently one of the most important processes underway with regard to indigenous rights in the Americas" as mentioned by the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. In Canada "Aboriginal rights" () are those rights that indigenous peoples enjoy as a result of their ancestors' long occupancy of the land, for example the right to hunt and fish a particular territory. These are

text: at its adoption. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon described it as a "historic moment when UN Member States and indigenous peoples have reconciled with their painful histories and are resolved to move forward together on the path of human rights, justice and development for all." Louise Arbour, a former justice of the Supreme Court of Canada then serving as the UN's High Commissioner for Human Rights, expressed satisfaction at the hard work and perseverance that had finally "borne fruit in the most comprehensive statement to date of indigenous peoples' rights." Similarly, news of the Declaration's adoption was greeted with jubilation in Africa

title: Human trafficking in Canada

text: C-49. Bill C-49, An Act to amend the Criminal Code (trafficking in persons) came into force on November 25, 2005. Bill C-49 creates three new additional indictable offences specifically to address human trafficking and which can be used by law enforcement to address this crime. As a result of historical injustices (colonization, genocide, loss of lands and resources) and discriminatory government legislation and policies, Indigenous Peoples have been prevented from fully realizing or exercising all of their human rights. Recognized by Canada in November 2000 as an "aspirational document", the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)

title: Brian Slattery

text: the land. The Government of Canada has never acquired a legal or moral right to impose its sovereignty over them. The honorable approach requires the government to recognize the inherent rights of the natives, and to negotiate, consult, and establish treaties where they do not yet exist, rather than force aboriginals to go to court to assert their rights. Brian Slattery Brian Slattery, B.A., BCL, D.Phil., F.R.S.C., is a Professor of Law at Osgoode Hall Law School, York University, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He is a prominent academic in Canadian Constitutional Law and Aboriginal rights discourse. Slattery holds a Doctorate

title: Treaty 7

text: but excluded from the written document which also persuaded the Nations to sign the treaty. The cultural and language differences had the biggest impact on the treaty and how it has affected the Indigenous people in the long run. The lasting impacts of these treaties are seen today. In 1982 in the Canadian Constitution, the government provided protection to the Indigenous people and the treaty rights of the Indigenous people of Canada. The Canadian government has been attempting to reconcile with the Indigenous people of Canada since it became more apparent of the mistreatment of the Indigenous people of Canada.

title: National Energy Board

text: its coal-fired power plants". Another complicating factor is the position of Brad Wall, Premier of Saskatchewan, that equalization can be withheld from provinces that do not support raw bitumen export. A final issue requiring federal clarification is the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Under the UNDRIP, indigenous peoples on unceded lands, including those over which Northern Gateway and Energy East would need to pass, appear to most authorities to have a strict veto and not mere "consultation" rights as under Canada's 1981 constitution. That constitution was not agreed to by the province of Quebec nor aboriginal

text: require governments to secure the consent of indigenous peoples regarding matters of general public policy), and Articles 26 and 28 (which could allow for the re-opening or repudiation of historically settled land claims). Former Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Chuck Strahl described the document as "unworkable in a Western democracy under a constitutional government." Strahl elaborated, saying "In Canada, you are balancing individual rights vs. collective rights, and (this) document ... has none of that. By signing on, you default to this document by saying that the only rights in play here are the rights of the First

text: were to remember the indigenous fight clearly, many of us who are sensitive would end up crying in remembering the discrimination, the scorn." Stephen Corry, Director of the international indigenous rights organization Survival International, said, "The declaration has been debated for nearly a quarter century. Years which have seen many tribal peoples, such as the Akuntsu and Kanoê in Brazil, decimated and others, such as the Innu in Canada, brought to the edge. Governments that oppose it are shamefully fighting against the human rights of their most vulnerable peoples. Claims they make to support human rights in other areas will

title: Canadian Aboriginal law

text: and Northern Development Act. Part II of the Constitution Act, 1982, recognizes Aboriginal treaty and land rights, with section 35 being particularly important. Section 35's recognition of Aboriginal rights refers to an ancient source of Aboriginal rights in custom. Canadian Aboriginal law Canadian Aboriginal law is the body of Canadian law that concerns a variety of issues related to Indigenous peoples in Canada. Thus, Canadian Aboriginal Law is different than Indigenous Law. In Canada, Indigenous Law refers to the legal traditions, customs, and practices of Indigenous peoples and groups. Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain Constitutionally recognized rights to land and

text: officially endorsed the declaration but without changing its position that it was 'aspirational'. Anishinabek spiritual leader, Chief William Commanda (1908-3 August 2011) was honoured at the 21st annual week-long First Peoples' Festival held in Montreal from 2–9 August 2011, celebrating Canada's 2010 adoption of the U. N. declaration. AFN Innu representative, Ghislain Picard's tribute praised Grandfather Commanda for his work that was "key not only in the adoption of the U.N. declaration, but in all the work leading up to it throughout the last 25 years." In 2015, Romeo Saganash (a Cree Member of Parliament for Abitibi—Baie-James—Nunavik—Eeyou) sponsored Private Member's

title: Canadian Friends Service Committee

text: specifically addressing the rights of Indigenous Rights through the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. CFSC is one of the founding members of the Coalition for the Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples. This group of Indigenous and Non-Indigenous partners work together to inform and educate Canadian people and politicians on work related to "the UN Declaration". In 1972, CFSC established the Quaker Committee on Jails and Justice (now called Quakers Fostering Justice, QFJ) which has worked to encourage prison visiting, sought alternatives to prisons, and fostered awareness of the roots of crime and violence in society. QFJ promotes

title: Colonialism and the Olympic Games

text: in 2007 Canada was one of only four countries to vote against the adoption of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The 2010 Winter Games were met with massive protest locally and internationally. In October 2007, 1500 indigenous delegates at the Intercontinental Indigenous Gathering in Sonora, Mexico passed a resolution stating: "We reject the 2010 Winter Olympics on sacred and stolen territory of Turtle Island – Vancouver, Canada." This launched a global boycott of the 2010 Games with indigenous protests of the 2010 Winter Games rallying under the slogan, "No Olympics on stolen Native land." In

text: gave a speech that stated that "adopting the UNDRIP as being Canadian law are unworkable", due to its incompatibility with the Indian Act, the current governing statute. The federal government pledged on 21 June 2017 to rename its National Aboriginal Day to be consistent with the terminology used by the Declaration. In September 2017, British Columbia provincial government announced that it will govern in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration. In 2007 New Zealand's Minister of Māori Affairs Parekura Horomia described the Declaration as "toothless", and said, "There are four provisions we have problems with, which make the

text: to take are The Declaration was over 25 years in the making. The idea originated in 1982 when the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) set up its Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP), established as a result of a study by Special Rapporteur José Ricardo Martínez Cobo on the problem of discrimination faced by indigenous peoples. Tasked with developing human rights standards that would protect indigenous peoples, in 1985 the Working Group began working on drafting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The draft was finished in 1993 and was submitted to the Sub-Commission on the Prevention

title: Indigenous rights

text: distinct from "treaty rights" which are enumerated in specific agreements between indigenous groups and the state. Both treaty rights and Aboriginal rights are protected by Section 35 of the Canadian constitution of 1982. Indigenous rights Indigenous rights are those rights that exist in recognition of the specific condition of the indigenous peoples. This includes not only the most basic human rights of physical survival and integrity, but also the preservation of their land, language, religion, and other elements of cultural heritage that are a part of their existence as a people. This can be used as an expression for advocacy

title: Doreen Spence

text: Civil Liberties Association and from 1981 to 1993 the Committee Against Racism. She founded and directed the Canadian Indigenous Women's Resource Institute (CIWRI), which raises awareness non-natives about native issues and educates natives in traditional knowledge. For the United Nations, she was the Canadian representative in the Working Group on Indigenous Populations since July 1994. Together with others, she created the draft of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which was eventually adopted in 2007. In 2002, she advised the Slovak government in their relationship to Romani people in Slovakia. Spence regularly speaks at international conferences. She is

title: Tom Flanagan (political scientist)

text: arguing against native land claims, and calling for an end to aboriginal rights (McDonald 2004)." Flanagan developed his concept of aboriginal orthodoxy in which he argued against aboriginal collective rights. He claimed that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982 ) Section 35 amendment, which stated that "The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the aboriginal peoples of Canada are hereby recognized and affirmed" resulted in thousands of cases involving aboriginal and treaty rights—indeed thousands of cases including residential school claims. Flanagan decried the increased influence of the courts and "[t]he sheer volume of these cases" which threaten "to

title: Athabasca oil sands

text: environmental concerns, many Indigenous groups have pushed back against pipeline development due to inadequate consultation processes by the federal government. As per Section 35 of the Canadian Constitution Act Indigenous peoples in Canada are guaranteed the right to be meaningfully consulted with and accommodated when the Crown is contemplating resource development on their lands - see Duty to Consult. Through a series of Supreme Court of Canada rulings and political protests from Indigenous peoples (see Haida Nation v. British Columbia [Minister of Forests], Taku River Tlingit First Nation v British Columbia, and Tsilhqot’in Nation v British Columbia), among others, the

title: Treaty 5

text: that treaties did in the past. After the signing of Treaty Five until around 1930, First Nations hunting was becoming more and more restricted by laws and regulations. Many Indigenous groups that signed Treaty Five have ongoing land claims with the Canadian Government. Another contemporary issue facing signatories of Treaty Five is that the land they live on is in extremely rural areas, making access to hospitals and resources difficult to access. The cost of living and transportation can be very high, which poses an issue. There were many different groups involved in the signing of Treaty Five. Both Indigenous

title: Harold Cardinal

text: opposition to the apparent revival of popular and political support for policies of Aboriginal assimilation. Cardinal rose to national prominence in the late 1960s. In 1968, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau proclaimed Canada to be a "just society." However, after a promising round of consultations between the government of Canada and aboriginal leaders in which issues of Aboriginal and Treaty rights and the right of self-government were prominently discussed, Aboriginal people were outraged when Trudeau's Minister of Indian Affairs, the Hon. Jean Chrétien (later Prime Minister of Canada) introduced a "White Paper" which advocated the elimination of separate legal status for


question: computer based models of real life situation are called

answers: Computer simulation

answers: Computer simulations

title: CSMP III

text: CSMP III CSMP III, or Continuous System Modelling Program IlI is an early scientific computer software designed for modelling and solving differential equations numerically. This enables real-world systems to be simulated and tested with a computer. Since the early 1961s computer systems have been able to simulate real-world dynamic situations, such as the interaction between people in a public building such as an airport terminal. Models can be used to test the stresses imposed on an engineering structure without risk or construction cost. Modern uses include weather systems analysis and the effect on our planet Earth due to global warming.

title: Real-time simulation

text: Real-time simulation Real-time simulation refers to a computer model of a physical system that can execute at the same rate as actual "wall clock" time. In other words, the computer model runs at the same rate as the actual physical system. For example, if a tank takes 10 minutes to fill in the real-world, the simulation would take 10 minutes as well. Real-time simulation occurs commonly in computer gaming, but also is important in the industrial market for operator training and off-line controller tuning. Computer languages like LabVIEW, VisSim and Simulink allow quick creation of such real-time simulations and have

title: Simulation

text: evaluation, decision making, and error correction creates a much stronger learning environment than passive instruction. Simulators have been proposed as an ideal tool for assessment of students for clinical skills. For patients, "cybertherapy" can be used for sessions simulating traumatic experiences, from fear of heights to social anxiety. Programmed patients and simulated clinical situations, including mock disaster drills, have been used extensively for education and evaluation. These "lifelike" simulations are expensive, and lack reproducibility. A fully functional "3Di" simulator would be the most specific tool available for teaching and measurement of clinical skills. Gaming platforms have been applied to create

title: Immersion (virtual reality)

text: loads on the model. Studies have used artificial neural networks (ANN) or approximation methods to achieve real-time interaction for the complex geometry, and to simulate its impact via haptic gloves. Large scale structures and bridge simulation have also been achieved in immersive virtual environments. The user can move the loads acting on the bridge, and finite element analysis results are updated immediately using an approximate module. Simulation sickness, or simulator sickness, is a condition where a person exhibits symptoms similar to motion sickness caused by playing computer/simulation/video games (Oculus Rift is working to solve simulator sickness). Motion sickness due to

title: Futures techniques

text: are presented in both current and potential situations. Simulation and modelling are computer-based tools developed to represent reality. They are widely used to analyse behaviours and to understand processes. Models allow demonstration of past changes as well as the examination of various transformations and their impact on each other and other considered factors. They can help to understand the connections between factors and events and to examine their dynamics. Simulation is a process that represents a structure and change of a system. In simulation some aspects of reality are duplicated or reproduced, usually within the model. The main purpose of

title: Emergency management software

text: private operators in better facing a crisis. Simulations can deal with weather and climate forecasting, landslides, ash clouds propagation, earthquake impact, cyber attacks, people behavior, and critical infrastructures. Precondition to simulation is modeling. Furthermore, an increasing interest is in simulating socio-technical systems where the impact of an emergency (e.g., due to a natural disaster) should be considered on both infrastructures and population. For this purpose, a novel approach is to adopt domain-specific modeling techniques in order to support representation of a crisis scenario as an executable model. Emergency management software Emergency management software is the software used by local, state

title: Social simulation

text: action. Michael W. Macy and Robert Willer researched a recent survey of applications and found that there were two main problems with agent-based modeling the self-organization of social structure and the emergence of social order . Below is a brief description of each problem Macy and Willer believe there to be; These examples simply show the complexity of our environment and that agent-based models are designed to explore the minimal conditions, the simplest set of assumptions about human behavior, required for a given social phenomenon to emerge at a higher level of organization. Since its creation, computerized social simulation has

title: Agent-based social simulation

text: scientific implementation of ABSS (Gilbert, Trotzsch; 2005) Like aspects involving its diffusion, dynamics or results. Such a basic models should be based on simple rules, so way in which resulting behavior emerges from system could be easily observable. These models are implemented to prediction real life events and phenomena. Examples of use could be transportation (prediction of traffic in future to find places where traffic jams could occur), prediction of future unemployment rates etc. Problem of models made to accurately predict such an events is increasing complexity of model with number of dynamically changing parameters. Unlike other two main objects,

title: Simulation

text: medicine. Many medical simulators involve a computer connected to a plastic simulation of the relevant anatomy. Sophisticated simulators of this type employ a life-size mannequin that responds to injected drugs and can be programmed to create simulations of life-threatening emergencies. In other simulations, visual components of the procedure are reproduced by computer graphics techniques, while touch-based components are reproduced by haptic feedback devices combined with physical simulation routines computed in response to the user's actions. Medical simulations of this sort will often use 3D CT or MRI scans of patient data to enhance realism. Some medical simulations are developed to

title: Computer simulation

text: Computer simulation reproduces the behavior of a system using a mathematical model. Computer simulations have become a useful tool for the mathematical modeling of many natural systems in physics (computational physics), astrophysics, climatology, chemistry and biology, human systems in economics, psychology, social science, and engineering.  Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the system's model. It can be used to explore and gain new insights into new technology and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for analytical solutions.

title: Crowd simulation

text: that incorporates both aspects, and is able to adapt depending on the situation, would better describe natural human behavior, always incorporating some measure of unpredictability. With the use of multi-agent models understanding these complex behaviors has become a much more comprehensible task. With the use of this type of software, systems can now be tested under extreme conditions, and simulate conditions over long periods of time in the matter of seconds. In some situations, the behavior of swarms of non-human animals can be used as an experimental model of crowd behavior. The panic behavior of ants when exposed to a

title: Cognitive model

text: is often a complex nonlinear system for which simple, intuitive analytical solutions are not readily available. Rather than deriving a mathematical analytical solution to the problem, experimentation with the model is done by changing the parameters of the system in the computer, and studying the differences in the outcome of the experiments. Theories of operation of the model can be derived/deduced from these computational experiments. Examples of common computational models are weather forecasting models, earth simulator models, flight simulator models, molecular protein folding models, and neural network models. . expressed in characters, usually nonnumeric, that require translation before they can

title: Futures techniques

text: simulation is to discern what would really happen in the real world if certain conditions, imitated by the model, developed. Although modelling and simulation became even more popular with the development of computing technology, application of these techniques have certain limits. Models represent a simplification of a system that is being examined; therefore the results need to be carefully considered. As the complexity of real systems increases models need to be more and more complex to represent the reality most accurately. In result, they may become increasingly difficult to understand and to be operated. Their complex nature can cause problems

title: Autism therapies

text: social rules from examples. Computer-assisted autism therapy has been proposed to teach not simply via examples but to teach the rule along with it. A reasoning rehabilitation strategy, based on playing with a computer based mental simulator that is capable of modeling mental and emotional states of the real world, has been subject to short-term and long-term evaluations. The simulator performs the reasoning in the framework of belief-desire-intention model. Learning starts from the basic concepts of knowledge and intention and proceeds to more complex communicative actions such as explaining, agreeing, and pretending. Relationship based models give importance to the relationships

title: Simulation

text: force. Such simulations might be based on fictitious political systems, or be based on current or historical events. An example of the latter would be Barnard College's "Reacting to the Past" series of historical educational games. The National Science Foundation has also supported the creation of reacting games that address science and math education. In Social media simulations, participants train communication with critics and other stakeholders in a private environment. This is also called a Social media stresstest. In recent years, there has been increasing use of social simulations for staff training in aid and development agencies. The Carana simulation,

title: Agent-based model

text: agent-based modeling using VOMAS along with several case studies are given in. This thesis also gives details of "exploratory agent-based modeling", "descriptive agent-based modeling" and "validated agent-based modeling", using several worked case study examples. Mathematical models of complex systems are of three types: black-box (phenomenological), white-box (mechanistic, based on the first principles) and grey-box (mixtures of phenomenological and mechanistic models). Agent-based model An agent-based model (ABM) is a class of computational models for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) with a view to assessing their effects on the

title: Model-centered instruction

text: simulations. According to the theory of model-centered instruction, there are three types of models: (a) a natural or manufactured cause-effect system, (b) an environment in which one or more systems operate, or (c) an expert performance—a set of purposeful, goal-driven actions that causes changes within systems and environments. These three types of models — system, environment, and expert performance - form a comprehensive framework for the representation and communication of subject-matter information in any domain. When learners interact with complex objects or models, they sometimes need assistance in discovering and processing information. Instructional designers can guide learners by introducing problems

title: Agent-based computational economics

text: to, and overlap with, game theory as an agent-based method for modeling social interactions. But practitioners have also noted differences from standard methods, for example in ACE events modeled being driven solely by initial conditions, whether or not equilibria exist or are computationally tractable, and in the modeling facilitation of agent autonomy and learning. The method has benefited from continuing improvements in modeling techniques of computer science and increased computer capabilities. The ultimate scientific objective of the method is to "test theoretical findings against real-world data in ways that permit empirically supported theories to cumulate over time, with each researcher’s

title: Mental model

text: the term "situation model" (in their book "Strategies of Discourse Comprehension", 1983), showed the relevance of mental models for the production and comprehension of discourse. One view of human reasoning is that it depends on mental models. In this view, mental models can be constructed from perception, imagination, or the comprehension of discourse (Johnson-Laird, 1983). Such mental models are similar to architects' models or to physicists' diagrams in that their structure is analogous to the structure of the situation that they represent, unlike, say, the structure of logical forms used in formal rule theories of reasoning. In this respect, they

title: Scientific modelling

text: models are true. For the scientist, a model is also a way in which the human thought processes can be amplified. For instance, models that are rendered in software allow scientists to leverage computational power to simulate, visualize, manipulate and gain intuition about the entity, phenomenon, or process being represented. Such computer models are "in silico". Other types of scientific models are "in vivo" (living models, such as laboratory rats) and "in vitro" (in glassware, such as tissue culture). Models are typically used when it is either impossible or impractical to create experimental conditions in which scientists can directly measure

title: Psychology

text: Since modern computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for high statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human. Computational neuroscience uses mathematical models to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling. Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist

title: Journey planner

text: System|GPS systems]] and can pass on real-time and forecast information to the journey planning system. A trip planner may use a real time interface such as the CEN [[Service Interface for Real Time Information]] to obtain this data. A situation is a software representation of an incident (for example security alert, cancellation or bad weather) or event that is affecting or is likely to affect the transport network. A trip planner can integrate situation information and use it both to revise its trip planning computations and to annotate its responses so as to inform users through both text and map

title: Crowd simulation

text: repellent chemical in a confined space with limited exit routes has been found to have both similarities and differences to equivalent human behavior. Helbing proposed a model based on physics using a particle system and socio-psychological forces in order to describe human crowd behavior in panic situation, this is now called the Helbing Model. His work is based on how the average person would react in a certain situation. Although this is a good model, there are always different types of people present in the crowd and they each have their own individual characteristics as well as how they act

title: Simulation software

text: are used to model statistical events such as customers arriving in queues at a bank. By properly correlating arrival probabilities with observed behavior, a model can determine optimal queue count to keep queue wait times at a specified level. Continuous simulators are used to model a wide variety of physical phenomena like ballistic trajectories, human respiration, electric motor response, radio frequency data communication, steam turbine power generation etc. Simulations are used in initial system design to optimize component selection and controller gains, as well as in Model Based Design systems to generate embedded control code. Real-time operation of continuous simulation

title: Simulation

text: correct their errors to prepare for the real-life emergency. In economics and especially macroeconomics, the effects of proposed policy actions, such as fiscal policy changes or monetary policy changes, are simulated to judge their desirability. A mathematical model of the economy, having been fitted to historical economic data, is used as a proxy for the actual economy; proposed values of government spending, taxation, open market operations, etc. are used as inputs to the simulation of the model, and various variables of interest such as the inflation rate, the unemployment rate, the balance of trade deficit, the government budget deficit, etc.

title: Agent-based model

text: workforce management, and portfolio management. They have also been used to analyze traffic congestion. Recently, agent based modelling and simulation has been applied to various domains such as studying the impact of publication venues by researchers in the computer science domain (journals versus conferences). In addition, ABMs have been used to simulate information delivery in ambient assisted environments. A November 2016 article in arXiv analyzed an agent based simulation of posts spread in the Facebook online social network. In the domain of peer-to-peer, ad-hoc and other self-organizing and complex networks, the usefulness of agent based modeling and simulation has been

title: Computer simulation

text: analysis is subject to the "GIGO" (garbage in, garbage out) restriction, this is especially true of digital simulation. Indeed, observation of this inherent, cumulative error in digital systems was the main catalyst for the development of chaos theory. Computer models can be classified according to several independent pairs of attributes, including: Another way of categorizing models is to look at the underlying data structures. For time-stepped simulations, there are two main classes: Equations define the relationships between elements of the modeled system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are often used

title: Scientific modelling

text: of understanding." Model making can also incorporate blended learning strategies by using web based tools and simulators, thereby allowing students to: "A well-designed simulation simplifies a real world system while heightening awareness of the complexity of the system. Students can participate in the simplified system and learn how the real system operates without spending days, weeks or years it would take to undergo this experience in the real world." The teacher's role in the overall teaching and learning process is primarily that of a facilitator and arranger of the learning experience. He or she would assign the students, a model

title: Model-centered instruction

text: three types: environment, system, and/or expert performance. The terms model and simulation are not synonymous; models can be expressed in a variety of computer-based and non-computer-based forms. 2. Problem solving: Interaction with systems or models should be focused by the solution of one or more carefully selected problems, expressed in terms of the model, with solutions being performed by the learner, by a peer, or by an expert. 3. Denaturing: Models are necessarily denatured from the real by the medium in which they are expressed. Designers must select a level of denaturing matching the target learner’s existing knowledge and goals.

title: Situation theory

text: of type LOC, and the infon «of-type, l, LOC, 1» is a fact. Situation theory Situation theory provides the mathematical foundations to situation semantics, and was developed by writers such as Jon Barwise and Keith Devlin in the 1980s. Due to certain foundational problems, the mathematics was framed in a non-well-founded set theory. One could think of the relation of situation theory to situation semantics as like that of type theory to Montague semantics. Types in the theory are defined by applying two forms of type abstraction, starting with an initial collection of basic types. Basic types Infons are made

title: Computer simulation

short_answers:
Computer simulation
Computer simulations


question: where does the coral sea meet the pacific ocean

answers: in the east

answers: South Pacific

title: Coral Sea

text: (reefs) () off the Southeast extreme of New Caledonia, thence through the East point of Middleton Reef to the Eastern extreme of Elizabeth Reef () and down this meridian to Latitude 30° South. "On the South." The parallel of 30° South to the Australian coast. "On the West." The Eastern limit of the Arafura Sea [The entrance to the Bensbak River (141°01'E), and thence a line to the Northwest extreme of York Peninsula, Australia ()] and the East Coast of Australia as far south as Latitude 30° South. The Coral Sea basin was formed between 58 million and 48 million

title: Coral Sea

text: several metres tall tsunami. The epicentre of this magnitude 8.1 earthquake was northwest of Honiara, at a depth of . It was followed by more than 44 aftershocks of a magnitude 5.0 or greater. The resulting tsunami killed at least 52 people and destroyed more than 900 homes. The sea received its name because of its numerous coral formations. They include the GBR, which extends about along the northeast coast of Australia and includes approximately 2,900 individual reefs and 1000 islands. The Chesterfield Islands and Lihou Reef are the largest atolls of the Coral Sea. Major Coral Sea currents form

title: Coral Sea

text: the 150°E meridian. Gales are rare in this region most of the year except for June–August, when strong southeasterly winds occur a few days per month. The southeasterly trades are also strong north of 15°S between March and November. They weaken and often change to westerly winds in December and to northerly and northwesterly winds in January and February. The Australian shore of the Coral Sea is mostly composed of sand. The GBR is too far away to provide significant coral deposits, but it effectively screens the coast from the ocean waves. As a result, most land vegetation spreads down

title: Coral Sea

text: a counter-clockwise gyro which includes the East Australian Current. It brings warm nutrient-poor waters from the Coral Sea down the east coast of Australia to the cool waters of the Tasman Sea. This current is the strongest along the Australian coasts and transforms 30 million m/s of water within a flow band of about 100 kilometres wide and 500 metres deep. The current is strongest around February and weakest around August. The major river flowing into the sea is the Burdekin River, which has its delta southeast of Townsville. Owing to the seasonal and annual variations in occurrence of cyclones

title: Coral Sea

text: years ago when the Queensland continental shelf was uplifted, forming the Great Dividing Range, and continental blocks subsided at the same time. The sea has been an important source of coral for the Great Barrier Reef, both during its formation and after sea level lowering. The geological formation processes are still proceeding, as partly evidenced by the seismic activity. Several hundred earthquakes with the magnitude between 2 and 6 were recorded in the period 1866–2000 along the Queensland coast and in the Coral Sea. On 2 April 2007, the Solomon Islands were struck by a major earthquake followed by a

title: Coral Sea

text: International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Coral Sea as follows: "On the North." The South coast of New Guinea from the entrance to the Bensbach River (141°01'E) to Gadogadoa Island near its Southeastern extreme (), down this meridian to the 100 fathom line and thence along the Southern edges of Uluma Reef and those extending to the Eastward as far as the Southeast point of Lawik Reef () off Tagula Island, thence a line to the Southern extreme of Rennell Island (Solomon Islands) and from its Eastern point to Cape Surville, the Eastern extreme of San Cristobal Island

title: Coral Sea

text: sea from 19 °C in August to 24 °C in February. It is rather warm and stable at 27–28 °С in the north all through the year. Water salinity is 34.5–35.5‰ (parts per thousand). The water is mostly very clear, with the visibility of about 30 metres (100 ft) near the reefs. The sea has a subtropical climate and is frequently hit by tropical cyclones, especially between January and April. This range extends to November–May in the areas south to 10°S. Between 1969 and 1997, the GBR experienced 80 cyclones, 90% which were of category 1 or 2 (winds 17–33

title: Coral Sea

text: and nowadays only about 70 groups live in the area around the GBR. The sea was the location for the Battle of the Coral Sea, a major confrontation during World War II between the navies of the Empire of Japan, and the United States and Australia. An example is the wreckage of the "USS Lexington" found in 2018. Navigation has long been a traditional human activity on the Coral Sea and there are 10 major ports on the Queensland coast alone. More than 3,500 ships operated in this area in 2007, making over 9,700 voyages that transported coal, sugar, iron

title: Coral Sea

text: record-breaking temperatures March 2016 that bleached reefs, modeling analysis showed. Winds in the Coral Sea can be classified by season, longitude and latitude. Southeasterly trade winds dominate through all sea areas and all seasons, especially between 20°S and 25°S, west of the meridian of 155°E. However, between September and December they change to northerly and northwesterly winds in this region, and the direction is mostly southwestern in May–August. West of 155°E, gales are common between January and August and are less frequent in September–December. In January, the northwest monsoon may occur between the parallels of 15°S and 20°S, west of

title: Coral Sea

title: 2017–18 Australian region cyclone season

text: Coral Sea. On 9 February, a slow-moving tropical low had developed located about 450 km (280 mi) to the northwest of Cooktown, Queensland. The system moved westward and was last noticed three days later. On 4 March, a tropical low persisted to the west of Queensland. In the course of two days, the tropical low emerged towards the waters of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The tropical low rapidly dissipated, however, on 9 March. A weak tropical low near the Solomon Islands was first identified by the Bureau of Meteorology on 17 March. Over the next couple of days, the tropical

title: Coral reef

text: approximately 20,000-year-old Great Barrier Reef offers an example of how coral reefs formed on continental shelves. Sea level was then lower than in the 21st century. As sea level rose, the water and the corals encroached on what had been hills of the Australian coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago, sea level had risen to lower than at present, and many hills of the coastal plains had become continental islands. As sea level rise continued, water topped most of the continental islands. The corals could then overgrow the hills, forming cays and reefs. Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef

title: Coral Sea Islands

text: respective areas of the territory; together they form the Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site. Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, together with reefs around Lord Howe Island (New South Wales) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world. Their location, where tropical and temperate ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species. These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989. They are located on the Lord Howe Rise in the Tasman Sea which joins the Coral Sea in the south. Already

title: Pacific Ocean

text: are the Celebes Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea (East Sea), Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan (East Sea), South China Sea (South Sea), Sulu Sea, Tasman Sea, and Yellow Sea (West Sea of Korea). The Indonesian Seaway (including the Strait of Malacca and Torres Strait) joins the Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the west, and Drake Passage and the Strait of Magellan link the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean on the east. To the north, the Bering Strait connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean. As the Pacific straddles the 180th meridian, the "West Pacific" (or "western Pacific", near

title: Geology of the Pacific Ocean

text: Atolls have developed in tropical waters when, after volcanos sink, coral growth results in reefs as evidenced by the Cook Islands. Coral reefs can develop into islands over a submerged extinct volcano following uplift as in Makatea and Rennell Island in the Solomon Archipelago which have steep coral cliffs over 100 metres high. The collision of two plates, resulting in subduction, have contributed to the emergence of the western Pacific arcs of volcanic islands. A new crust has emerged as the East Pacific Rise. In the northeastern Pacific margin there is a lateral shift, through the San Andreas Fault system,

title: Coral reef

text: that favor one type of patch over another. Growing coral, for example, produces constant change in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical storms may knock out large sections of reef and cause boulders on sandy areas to move." Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km (109,800 sq mi), just under 0.1% of the oceans' surface area. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) account for 91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean

title: 2010–11 South Pacific cyclone season

text: located within the Coral Sea area near to and to the west of the International Dateline, normal or slightly above normal activity was expected for island nations within the Coral Sea. It was also predicted that the risk of tropical cyclones affecting island nations located to the east of the International Date Line would be reduced during the season. It was predicted that Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, New Zealand and the Solomon Islands had an elevated chance of being affected by a single or multiple tropical cyclones. Fiji and Tonga were predicted to have a near normal chance,

title: Pacific Ocean

text: width at about 5°N latitude, where it stretches approximately from Indonesia to the coast of Colombia—halfway around the world, and more than five times the diameter of the Moon. The lowest known point on Earth—the Mariana Trench—lies below sea level. Its average depth is , putting the total water volume at roughly . Due to the effects of plate tectonics, the Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking by roughly per year on three sides, roughly averaging a year. By contrast, the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size. Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins lie many seas, the largest of which

title: 2017–18 South Pacific cyclone season

text: Coral Sea, to the west of the International Dateline. Both the Island Climate Update and the FMS tropical cyclone outlooks assessed the risk of a tropical cyclone affecting a certain island or territory. The Island Climate Update Outlook predicted that New Caledonia, Tonga, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea had an above average chance of being impacted by a tropical cyclone or their remnants. They also predicted that the Solomon Islands, Fiji and Vanuatu had a near normal to normal risk of being impacted by one or more tropical cyclones. The Southern Cook Islands, American Samoa, Samoa, Niue, Tokelau, Tuvalu,

title: Coral Sea

text: <nowiki>[</nowiki>Makira<nowiki>]</nowiki>, Solomons; thence through Nupani Island, the Northwestern of the Santa Cruz Islands () to the Northernmost Island of the Duff Islands (). "On the Northeast." From the Northernmost island of the Duff Islands, through these islands to their Southeastern extreme, thence a line to Méré Lava, Vanuatu Islands() and down the Eastern coasts of the islands of this Group to Anatom Island () in such a way that all the islands of these Groups, and the straits separating them, are included in the Coral Sea. "On the Southeast." A line from the Southeastern extreme of Anatom Island to Nokanhoui

title: Indo-Pacific

text: Pacific oceans, including the seas surrounding the Indonesian archipelago (with the exception of Sumatra's northwest coast, which is part of the Western Indo-Pacific), the South China Sea, the Philippine Sea, the north coast of Australia, and the seas surrounding New Guinea, western and central Micronesia, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, and Tonga. The Central Indo-Pacific, due in part to its central location at the meeting of two oceans, has the greatest diversity of corals and mangroves. The Eastern Indo-Pacific surrounds the mostly volcanic islands of the central Pacific Ocean, extending from the Marshall Islands through central and southeastern

title: Pacific Ocean

text: slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. The volume of the Pacific Ocean, representing about 50.1 percent of the world's oceanic water, has been estimated at some . Surface water temperatures in the Pacific can vary from , the freezing point of sea water, in the poleward areas to about near the equator. Salinity also varies latitudinally, reaching a maximum of 37 parts per thousand in the southeastern area. The water near the equator, which can have a salinity as low as 34 parts per

title: Coral reef

text: become drowned, without sufficient light. Coral reefs are found in the deep sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic islands and atolls. The majority of these islands are volcanic in origin. Others have tectonic origins where plate movements lifted the deep ocean floor. In "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs", Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the "Beagle". He theorized that uplift and subsidence of the Earth's crust under the oceans formed the atolls. Darwin set out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation.

title: Coral Sea Islands

text: Coral Sea Islands The Coral Sea Islands Territory is an external territory of Australia which comprises a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, northeast of Queensland, Australia. The only inhabited island is Willis Island. The territory covers , most of which is ocean, extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef and includes Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group and fifteen other reef/island groups. Cato Island is the highest point in the Territory. The Coral Sea Islands were first charted in 1803. In the 1870s

title: Oceania

text: is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast. Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's

title: Central Indo-Pacific

text: the tropical Indian Ocean, including most of the Indian Ocean coast of the Indonesian archipelago, the northern Australian coast, and the Cocos and Christmas islands. It extends through the tropical seas connecting the Pacific and Indian Oceans, including the Java Sea in central Indonesia, the South China Sea between the Asian land mass and the Philippine and Malay archipelagos, and the Arafura Sea separating Australia and New Guinea. It includes the seas surrounding island groups of the western Pacific, including the Ryukyu Islands, Caroline Islands, Marianas Islands, New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga,

title: Great Barrier Reef

text: anywhere from per year; however, they grow only above a depth of due to their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level. When Queensland edged into tropical waters 24 million years ago, some coral grew, but a sedimentation regime quickly developed with erosion of the Great Dividing Range; creating river deltas, oozes and turbidites, unsuitable conditions for coral growth. 10 million years ago, the sea level significantly lowered, which further enabled sedimentation. The reef's substrate may have needed to build up from the sediment until its edge was too far away for suspended sediments to inhibit coral growth.

title: Geography of Nauru

text: used on the island. Nauru is a raised coral atoll positioned in the Nauru Basin of the Pacific Ocean, on a part of the Pacific Plate that formed at a mid oceanic ridge at 132 Ma. From mid Eocene (35mya) to Oligocene times, a submarine volcano built up over a hotspot, and formed a seamount composed of basalt. The seamount is over 4300 metres high. This hotspot was simultaneous with a major Pacific Plate reorganisation. The volcano was eroded to sea level and a coral atoll grew on top to a thickness of about 500 metres. Coral near the surface

title: Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands

text: Australian people to legalize gay marriage. The Coral Sea Islands Territory is an external territory of Australia which comprises a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, northeast of Queensland, Australia. The territory covers , most of which is ocean, extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef, and includes Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group, and fifteen other reef/island groups. Cato Island is the highest point in the Territory and a camp site on the Island called Heaven was the claimed capital of the Gay

title: Coral reef

text: has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years. The age of living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, Darwin's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since Australia is not about to submerge. It formed the world's largest barrier reef, from shore, stretching for . Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from per year, and grow vertically anywhere from per year; however, they grow only at depths shallower than because of their need for sunlight, and

title: Coral Sea

long_answer: It is bounded in the west by the east coast of Queensland, thereby including the Great Barrier Reef, in the east by Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides) and by New Caledonia, and in the northeast approximately by the southern extremity of the Solomon Islands. In the northwest, it reaches to the south coast of eastern New Guinea, thereby including the Gulf of Papua. It merges with the Tasman Sea in the south, with the Solomon Sea in the north and with the Pacific Ocean in the east. On the west, it is bounded by the mainland coast of Queensland, and in the northwest, it connects with the Arafura Sea through the Torres Strait.


question: what type of writing did ancient egypt use

answers: hieroglyphs

answers: Egyptian hieroglyphs

title: History of writing

text: capable of decipherment only with the aid of a magnifying-glass. In Egypt the principal writing material was of quite a different sort. Wooden tablets are found pictured on the monuments; but the material which was in common use, even from very ancient times, was the papyrus. This reed, found chiefly in Lower Egypt, had various economic means for writing, the pith was taken out, and divided by a pointed instrument into the thin pieces of which it is composed; it was then flattened by pressure, and the strips glued together, other strips being placed at right angles to them, so

title: Greek alphabet

text: in earlier handwriting. The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes. The cursive forms approached the

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: making inscriptions on stone, the chief writing tool of ancient Egypt was the reed pen, a reed fashioned into a stem with a bruised, brush-like end. With pigments of carbon black and red ochre, the reed pen was used to write on scrolls of papyrus—a thin material made from beating together strips of pith from the "Cyperus papyrus" plant—as well as on small ceramic or limestone potsherds known as ostraca. It is thought that papyrus rolls were moderately expensive commercial items, since many are palimpsests, manuscripts that have had their original contents erased to make room for new written works.

title: History of writing

text: idea of writing may have come to Egypt from Mesopotamia. In 1999, "Archaeology Magazine" reported that the earliest Egyptian glyphs date back to 3400 BC, which "challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." Similar debate surrounds the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization, the Rongorongo script of Easter Island, and the Vinča symbols dated around 5,500 BCE. All are undeciphered, and so it is unknown if they represent true writing, proto-writing, or something else. Symbolic communication systems are

title: History of education

text: used on stone monuments, other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink on papyrus, a flexible, paper-like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script,

title: History of writing

text: removed for cloth, was sometimes cheaper than papyrus, which had to be imported outside Egypt. With the invention of wood-pulp paper, the cost of writing material began a steady decline. History of writing The history of writing traces the development of expressing language by letters or other marks and also the studies and descriptions of these developments. In the history of how writing systems have evolved over in different human civilizations, more complete writing systems were preceded by "proto-writing", systems of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols. "True writing", in which the content of a linguistic utterance is encoded so that

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: Fischer-Elfert distinguishes ancient Egyptian graffiti writing as a literary genre. During the New Kingdom, scribes who traveled to ancient sites often left graffiti messages on the walls of sacred mortuary temples and pyramids, usually in commemoration of these structures. Modern scholars do not consider these scribes to have been mere tourists, but pilgrims visiting sacred sites where the extinct cult centers could be used for communicating with the gods. There is evidence from an educational ostracon found in the tomb of Senenmut (TT71) that formulaic graffiti writing was practiced in scribal schools. In one graffiti message, left at the mortuary

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: This, along with the practice of tearing pieces off of larger papyrus documents to make smaller letters, suggests that there were seasonal shortages caused by the limited growing season of "Cyperus papyrus". It also explains the frequent use of ostraca and limestone flakes as writing media for shorter written works. In addition to stone, ceramic ostraca, and papyrus, writing media also included wood, ivory, and plaster. By the Roman Period of Egypt, the traditional Egyptian reed pen had been replaced by the chief writing tool of the Greco-Roman world: a shorter, thicker reed pen with a cut nib. Likewise, the

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: original Egyptian pigments were discarded in favor of Greek lead-based inks. The adoption of Greco-Roman writing tools influenced Egyptian handwriting, as hieratic signs became more spaced, had rounder flourishes, and greater angular precision. Underground Egyptian tombs built in the desert provide possibly the most protective environment for the preservation of papyrus documents. For example, there are many well-preserved "Book of the Dead" funerary papyri placed in tombs to act as afterlife guides for the souls of the deceased tomb occupants. However, it was only customary during the late Middle Kingdom and first half of the New Kingdom to place non-religious

title: Egyptian hieroglyphs

text: Egyptian hieroglyphs (/ˈhaɪrəˌɡlɪf, -roʊ-/) were the formal writing system used in Ancient Egypt. It combined logographic, syllabic and alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters. Cursive hieroglyphs were used for religious literature on papyrus and wood.  The later hieratic and demotic Egyptian scripts were derived from hieroglyphic writing; Meroitic was a late derivation from demotic.

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: Edward F. Wente asserts that, even with explicit references to women reading letters, it is possible that women employed others to write documents. Richard B. Parkinson and Ludwig D. Morenz write that ancient Egyptian literature—narrowly defined as "belles-lettres" ("beautiful writing")—was not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity. Parkinson and Morenz

title: Egyptian hieroglyphs

text: used for monumental inscription in the classical language of the Middle Kingdom period; during this period, the system made use of about 900 distinct signs. The use of this writing system continued through the New Kingdom and Late Period, and on into the Persian and Ptolemaic periods. Late survivals of hieroglyphic use are found well into the Roman period, extending into the 4th century AD. With the final closing of pagan temples in the 5th century, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was lost. Although attempts were made, the script remained undeciphered throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The

title: Scribe

text: rates, street-corner letter-writers (and readers) may still be found providing scribe service. One of the most important professionals in ancient Egypt was a person educated in the arts of writing (both hieroglyphics and hieratic scripts, as well as the demotic script from the second half of the first millennium BCE, which was mainly used as shorthand and for commerce) and arithmetic. Sons of scribes were brought up in the same scribal tradition, sent to school, and inherited their fathers' positions upon entering the civil service. Much of what is known about ancient Egypt is due to the activities of its

title: History of art

text: writing. The great civilizations of the Near East: Egypt and Mesopotamia arose. Globally, during this period the first great cities appeared near major rivers: the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, Indus and Yellow Rivers. One of the great advances of this period was writing, which was developed from the tradition of communication using pictures. The first form of writing were the Jiahu symbols from neolithic China, but the first true writing was cuneiform script, which emerged in Mesopotamia c. 3500 BCE, written on clay tablets. It was based on pictographic and ideographic elements, while later Sumerians developed syllables for writing, reflecting

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the oral literature of the Old Kingdom. It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom. Dating texts by methods of palaeography, the study of handwriting, is problematic because of differing styles of hieratic script. The use of orthography, the study of writing systems and symbol usage, is also problematic, since some texts' authors may have copied the characteristic style of an older archetype. Fictional accounts were often set

title: Penmanship

text: Assyrian and Persian empires and ‘Square Hebrew’ (the script now used in Israel) developed from Aramaic around the third century AD. The Romans in Southern Italy eventually adopted the Greek alphabet as modified by the Etruscans to develop Latin writing. Like the Greeks, the Romans employed stone, metal, clay, and papyrus as writing surfaces. Handwriting styles which were used to produce manuscripts included square capitals, rustic capitals, uncials, and half-uncials. Square capitals were employed for more-formal texts based on stone inscriptional letters, while rustic capitals freer, compressed, and efficient. Uncials were rounded capitals (majuscules) that originally were developed by the

title: History of communication

text: the original Egyptian uniliterals were not a system and were never used by themselves to encode Egyptian speech. In the Middle Bronze Age an apparently "alphabetic" system is thought by some to have been developed in central Egypt around 1700 BC for or by Semitic workers, but we cannot read these early writings and their exact nature remains open to interpretation. Over the next five centuries this Semitic "alphabet" (really a syllabary like Phoenician writing) seems to have spread north. All subsequent alphabets around the world with the sole exception of Korean Hangul have either descended from it, or been

title: Ancient Egyptian literature

text: temple of Thutmose III at Deir el-Bahri, a modified saying from "The Maxims of Ptahhotep" is incorporated into a prayer written on the temple wall. Scribes usually wrote their graffiti in separate clusters to distinguish their graffiti from others'. This led to competition among scribes, who would sometimes denigrate the quality of graffiti inscribed by others, even ancestors from the scribal profession. After the Copts converted to Christianity in the first centuries AD, their Coptic Christian literature became separated from the pharaonic and Hellenistic literary traditions. Nevertheless, scholars speculate that ancient Egyptian literature, perhaps in oral form, influenced Greek and

title: History of writing

text: with seals or signets. The common materials of writing were the tablet and the roll, the former probably having a Chaldean origin, the latter an Egyptian. The tablets of the Chaldeans are among the most remarkable of their remains. There are small pieces of clay, somewhat rudely shaped into a form resembling a pillow, and thickly inscribed with cuneiform characters. Similar use has been seen in hollow cylinders, or prisms of six or eight sides, formed of fine terra cotta, sometimes glazed, on which the characters were traced with a small stylus, in some specimens so minutely as to be

title: Palaeography

text: (cf. ), the earliest of which take back our knowledge only to the end of the 4th century BC. This limitation is less serious than might appear, since the few manuscripts not of Egyptian origin which have survived from this period, like the parchments from Avroman or Dura, the Herculaneum papyri, and a few documents found in Egypt but written elsewhere, reveal a uniformity of style in the various portions of the Greek world; but some differences can be discerned, and it is probable that, were there more material, distinct local styles could be traced. Further, any given period several

title: Ancient Egypt

text: Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations. Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to

title: Book

text: the decline of the culture of ancient Rome. Papyrus became difficult to obtain due to lack of contact with Egypt, and parchment, which had been used for centuries, became the main writing material. Parchment is a material made from processed animal skin and used—mainly in the past—for writing on. Parchment is most commonly made of calfskin, sheepskin, or goatskin. It was historically used for writing documents, notes, or the pages of a book. Parchment is limed, scraped and dried under tension. It is not tanned, and is thus different from leather. This makes it more suitable for writing on, but

title: Ancient Egypt

text: comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC. Late Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as "Sebayt" ("instructions") was developed to

title: History of writing

text: that a roll of any length might be manufactured. Writing seems to have become more widespread with the invention of papyrus in Egypt. That this material was in use in Egypt from a very early period is evidenced by still existing papyrus of the earliest Theban dynasties. As the papyrus, being in great demand, and exported to all parts of the world, became very costly, other materials were often used instead of it, among which is mentioned leather, a few leather mills of an early period having been found in the tombs. Parchment, using sheepskins left after the wool was

title: History of writing

text: alphabet is simply the Proto-Canaanite alphabet as it was continued into the Iron Age (conventionally taken from a cut-off date of 1050 BC). This alphabet gave rise to the Aramaic and Greek alphabets. These in turn led to the writing systems used throughout regions ranging from Western Asia to Africa and Europe. For its part the Greek alphabet introduced for the first time explicit symbols for vowel sounds. The Greek and Latin alphabets in the early centuries of the Common Era gave rise to several European scripts such as the Runes and the Gothic and Cyrillic alphabets while the Aramaic

title: History of books

text: the stems of Papyrus reed, a series of steps (humidification, pressing, drying, gluing, and cutting) produced media of variable quality, the best being used for sacred writing. In Ancient Egypt, papyrus was used as a medium for writing surfaces, maybe as early as from First Dynasty, but first evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC). A calamus, the stem of a reed sharpened to a point, or bird feathers were used for writing. The script of Egyptian scribes was called hieratic, or sacerdotal writing; it is not hieroglyphic, but a

title: Empire and Communications

text: as in Egypt, the small city-states of Sumer depended on the rivers and so, the cycles of agricultural production were organized around them. The rivers also provided communications materials. In Egypt, the Nile's papyrus became a medium for writing while in Mesopotamia, the rivers yielded the alluvial sediments the Sumerians used to fashion the clay tablets on which they inscribed their wedge-shaped, cuneiform script. Their earliest writing recorded agricultural accounts and economic transactions. Innis points out that the tablets were not well suited to pictographic writing because making straight lines "tended to pull up the clay." Therefore Sumerian scribes used

title: Jean-François Champollion

text: to light the trilingual Rosetta Stone. Scholars debated the age of Egyptian civilization and the function and nature of hieroglyphic script, which language if any it recorded, and the degree to which the signs were phonetic (representing speech sounds) or ideographic (recording semantic concepts directly). Many thought that the script was only used for sacred and ritual functions, and that as such it was unlikely to be decipherable since it was tied to esoteric and philosophical ideas, and did not record historical information. The significance of Champollion's decipherment was that he showed these assumptions to be wrong, and made it

title: Papyrus

text: used, such as "pHarris I". These documents provide important information on ancient writings; they give us the only extant copy of Menander, the Egyptian Book of the Dead, Egyptian treatises on medicine (the Ebers Papyrus) and on surgery (the Edwin Smith papyrus), Egyptian mathematical treatises (the Rhind papyrus), and Egyptian folk tales (the Westcar papyrus). When, in the 18th century, a library of ancient papyri was found in Herculaneum, ripples of expectation spread among the learned men of the time. However, since these papyri were badly charred, their unscrolling and deciphering is still going on today. Papyrus is made from

title: Palaeography

text: century BC, one finds both a practised book-hand and a developed and often remarkably handsome cursive. These facts may be due to accident, the few early papyri happening to represent an archaic style which had survived along with a more advanced one; but it is likely that there was a rapid development at this period, due partly to the opening of Egypt, with its supplies of papyri, and still more to the establishment of the great Alexandrian Library, which systematically copied literary and scientific works, and to the multifarious activities of Hellenistic bureaucracy. From here onward, the two types of

title: Egyptian hieroglyphs

short_answers:
Egyptian hieroglyphs
hieroglyphs