question: who turns into a bear in the hobbit

answers: Beorn

title: Middle-earth dwarf characters

text: 1977 adaptation of "The Hobbit", voiced by John Stephenson. In "The Hobbit" film series by Peter Jackson Dori is portrayed by New Zealand actor Mark Hadlow, who also played Bert the Troll in "". The movies establish Dori, Nori and Ori as half-siblings, sharing the same mother but three different fathers. As the eldest of the three, Dori acts as the patriarch of the family and is very overprotective of the youngest, Ori, whom he had mothered all his life. Dori holds a bit of resentment against Nori, who is a thieving character and not at all uptight, having spent

title: Gimli (Middle-earth)

text: of the non-hobbit members of the Fellowship. Gimli does not appear in the 1980 animated version of "The Return of the King". He is portrayed by Tomi Salmela in the 1993 Finnish miniseries "Hobitit". In Peter Jackson's film trilogy (2001–2003) Gimli is played by John Rhys-Davies, who portrayed the character as having a Welsh accent. Rhys-Davies happened to be taller than the actors playing the Hobbits, who were only (actor Elijah Wood, playing Frodo Baggins) and (actors Sean Astin, Billy Boyd, and Dominic Monaghan, playing Sam Gamgee, Pippin Took, and Merry Brandybuck) while Rhys-Davies is . Thus in scenes where

title: Gimli (Middle-earth)

text: Gimli and the Hobbits appear together, their respective sizes remain in proportion, whereas in scenes where they have to interact with human-sized characters, tricks of scale had to be employed, especially since John Rhys-Davies is also taller than Viggo Mortensen and Orlando Bloom (who played Aragorn and Legolas respectively), both of whom are . Gimli wears a heavy helmet at the outset instead of getting one in Rohan as in the book, as well as wielding various axes of different shapes and uses (ex. small throwing axes, a walking axe, and a double-headed axe he obtains in Moria). In the

title: Frodo Baggins

text: Bilbo in the same company's adaptation of "The Hobbit". In the 1981 BBC radio serial of "The Lord of the Rings", Frodo is played by Ian Holm, who later played Bilbo in Peter Jackson's film adaptation of "The Lord of the Rings". In the 1993 television miniseries "Hobitit" by Finnish broadcaster Yle, Frodo is played by Taneli Mäkelä. In "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy (2001-2003) directed by Peter Jackson, Frodo is played by American actor Elijah Wood. Dan Timmons writes in the Mythopoeic Society's "Tolkien on Film: Essays on Peter Jackson’s The Lord of the Rings" (Mythopoeic Press,

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: Oakenshield, Graham McTavish as Dwalin, Aidan Turner as Kíli, Mark Hadlow as Dori, John Callen as Óin, Stephen Hunter as Bombur and Peter Hambleton as Glóin. On the casting of Armitage, Jackson was quoted as saying, "Richard is one of the most exciting and dynamic actors working on screen today and we know he is going to make an amazing Thorin Oakenshield. We cannot wait to start this adventure with him and feel very lucky that one of the most beloved characters in Middle Earth is in such good hands." McTavish was quoted on his casting, "I think that I

title: The Hobbit (1985 film)

text: The Hobbit (1985 film) The Hobbit (, full name The Fabulous Journey of Mr. Bilbo Baggins, The Hobbit, Across the Wild Land, Through the Dark Forest, Beyond the Misty Mountains. There and Back Again; ) is a 1985 Soviet low-budget children's film, being a loose adaption of J. R. R. Tolkien's 1937 book "The Hobbit" by Vladimir Latyshev. The film featured Zinovy Gerdt as "the professor" (a narrator stand-in for Tolkien), Mikhail Danilov as Bilbo Baggins, Anatoly Ravikovich as Thorin Oakenshield and Igor Dmitriev as Gollum. Smaug and the Mirkwood spiders were portrayed by puppets. Missing in this version are

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: in the earlier films." McCoy, the former "Doctor Who" star, who appeared alongside McKellen in a Royal Shakespeare Company's King Lear, was confirmed to be in negotiations to play a major role as a "wizard" in October 2010, leading to speculation he could appear as Radagast the Brown. During the production of "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, McCoy had been contacted about playing the role of Bilbo and was kept in place as a potential Bilbo for six months before Jackson went with Ian Holm. On the casting of Persbrandt, Jackson was quoted as saying, "The role of

title: Peregrin Took

text: the Rings", Pippin was played by John McAndrew. Jari Pehkonen played Peregrin Took in the 1993 Finnish miniseries "Hobitit". In Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, Pippin is played by Scottish actor Billy Boyd. The filmmakers originally planned for Boyd to adopt an English accent for the role, in keeping with the other hobbits; however, Jackson found that Boyd's comic timing was not as keen when he was not using his native accent. Therefore, it was decided to allow Boyd to play the role with a Scottish accent; the decision was justified by the observation that the

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: "James's charm, warmth and wit are legendary as is his range as an actor in both comedic and dramatic roles. We feel very lucky to be able to welcome him as one of our cast." Nesbitt's daughters also appear in the film series as Sigrid and Tilda, the daughters of Bard the Bowman. Commenting on Brown's casting, Jackson was quoted as saying, "Adam is a wonderfully expressive actor and has a unique screen presence. I look forward to seeing him bring Ori to life." The role also marked Brown's first film appearance. On 7 December 2010, it was revealed that

title: Beorn

text: Beorn is a fictional character created by J. R. R. Tolkien.  He appears in The Hobbit as a "skin-changer", a man who could assume the form of a great black bear.

title: Aidan Turner

text: Peter Jackson, who cast him as the dwarf Kíli in "The Hobbit trilogy" (2012–2014). In 2014, he won the Empire Award for Best Male Newcomer for the second film in the series, "The Desolation of Smaug", which had been released the previous year. In 2013, he also played shadowhunter-turned-werewolf Luke Garroway in "". In the 2015 BBC TV miniseries "And Then There Were None", based on the Agatha Christie novel, he plays the cynical mercenary Philip Lombard. Turner performs the title role of Ross Poldark in the 2015 revival of the BBC series "Poldark". At the National Television Awards ceremony

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: "Lord of the Rings" characters to be played by the original actors where possible. In December 2012, Philippa Boyens expressed regret that del Toro's version of the film remained unmade. She revealed that it would have had a different script and visual elements, and would more closely have resembled a fairy tale. Boyens stated that the most significant script change was to Bilbo's characterisation: "It shifted and changed into someone who, rather than being slightly younger and more innocent in the world, once had a sense of longing for adventure and has lost it and become fussy and fusty." In

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: role of Kíli." On the casting of Hadlow, Jackson said, "I have worked with Mark Hadlow on many projects ["Meet the Feebles" and "King Kong"]; he is a fantastic actor. I am thrilled to be working with [him] on these movies." Hadlow also plays Bert the Stone-troll. On his casting Callen stated, "I did wonder about my casting and how they had made the choice—maybe the long hair and the beard sold it, I thought. But now that has all gone. Given that Óin is almost 200 years old I can presume only that it was the age." On being

title: Middle-earth dwarf characters

text: Hobbit", he is carrying a bag of tools. Fíli is portrayed by Dean O'Gorman in Peter Jackson's "The Hobbit" film adaptation. Rob Kazinsky was originally cast in the role but dropped out citing personal issues. In the film, he is the older brother. In the film "" Thorin says to Fíli, "One day you will be King, and you will understand", an indication that Fíli is older than Kíli. In "", Fíli and Kíli join Thorin and Dwalin in a commando operation to kill Azog. Separated from his brother, Fíli is captured by Azog and helplessly killed before the eyes

title: The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug

text: appearance in the film, reprising his role as the man eating a carrot in Bree, his daughter Katie portrays Barliman Butterbur's wife Betsy, Philippa Boyens's daughter Phoebe and scale double Kiran Shah appear as a waitress and a Hobbit in the Prancing Pony, James Nesbitt's daughters Peggy and Mary portray Tilda and Sigrid, the daughters of Bard, Stephen Colbert and his family along with WingNut Films' assistant Norman Kali and producer Zane Weiner appear as Lake-town spies, and editor Jabez Olssen appears as a fishmonger. Brian Sergent (who portrayed the Hobbit Ted Sandyman in the extended edition of Fellowship of

title: Evangeline Lilly

text: "Real Steel". Despite having turned down a number of film offers, she traveled to Los Angeles to get the part after director Shawn Levy sent her the script. Levy said: "She's magnificent to look at, she's soulful, and she's sexy. I needed someone who you believed had grown up in a man's world. Bailey needed to have a strength and a toughness that was not at the expense of her being womanly." In 2012, Lilly was cast as the Mirkwood elf Tauriel in Peter Jackson's three-part adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Hobbit". The character, which does not appear

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: as saying, "Despite the various rumours and speculation surrounding this role, there has only ever been one Bilbo Baggins for us. There are a few times in your career when you come across an actor who you know was born to play a role, but that was the case as soon as I met Martin Freeman. He is intelligent, funny, surprising and brave—exactly like Bilbo and I feel incredibly proud to be able to announce that he is our Hobbit." Later in October, it was revealed that several other cast members had joined the project, including Richard Armitage as Thorin

title: Middle-earth dwarf characters

text: tool. Notably when Kíli is introduced in "The Hobbit", he is carrying a bag of tools. In Peter Jackson's film adaptation of "The Hobbit", Kíli is portrayed by Aidan Turner. He is the archer of Thorin's company, and is the only Dwarf in the film to not have a full-grown beard, only stubble. In this portrayal, despite their vastly differing backgrounds, he and the elven warrior Tauriel begin to form a bond, as they recognize each other as kindred spirits. During the Battle of Five Armies, he joins Thorin's commando team to take down Azog on Ravenhill, and when Tauriel

title: Gollum

text: Kari Väänänen portrayed Gollum () in the 1993 live-action television miniseries "Hobitit" [The Hobbits] that was produced and broadcast by the Finnish network Yle. In Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, Gollum is a CGI character voiced and performed by actor Andy Serkis. He is smaller than both Frodo and Sam. Barely glimpsed in "" (2001), he becomes a central character in "" (2002) and "" (2003). The CGI character was built around Serkis' facial features, voice, and acting choices. Serkis based the iconic ""gollum"" throat noise on the sound of his cat coughing up hairballs. Using

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: Thranduil had been linked to actor Doug Jones but on 29 April 2011, Jackson reported on Facebook that the role had gone to Lee Pace. On his casting, Jackson said, "Casting these Tolkien stories is very difficult, especially the Elven characters and Lee has always been our first choice for Thranduil. He's going to be great. We loved his performance in a movie called "The Fall" a few years ago and have been hoping to work with him since. When we were first discussing who would be right for Thranduil, Lee came into mind almost immediately." On 30 April 2011,

title: The Hobbit (1977 film)

text: The Hobbit (1977 film) The Hobbit is a 1977 American animated musical television special created by Rankin/Bass, a studio known for their holiday specials, and animated by Topcraft, a precursor to Studio Ghibli. The film is an adaptation of the 1937 book of the same name by J. R. R. Tolkien, and was first broadcast on NBC in the United States on Sunday, November 27, 1977. The plot of the animated production is in most respects similar to that of the book; but certain plot points are significantly compressed or removed due to the time limitations of the format. In

title: Aidan Turner

text: in 2016, Turner was presented with the "Impact Award" for his performance in "Poldark". Aidan Turner Aidan Turner (born 19 June 1983) is an Irish actor. He played the roles of Kíli in the three-part fantasy film "The Hobbit" and Ross Poldark in the 2015 BBC adaptation of "The Poldark Novels" by Winston Graham. Notable television roles include those of Dante Gabriel Rossetti in "Desperate Romantics", Ruairí McGowan in "The Clinic", and John Mitchell in the supernatural drama series "Being Human". Turner was born at home in Clondalkin, a suburban town of Dublin, Ireland. The family moved later to Walkinstown.

title: Bret McKenzie

text: latest work has seen him write the lyrics to the 2016 Sainsburys Christmas advert featuring James Corden on vocals. As an actor, he portrayed Lindir in Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit" film trilogies: in the first he remained unnamed with fans naming him Figwit, a character originally cast as an extra who gained attention thanks to the trilogy's fan community, and in "The Hobbit" is credited as Lindir, a small character who originally appears in the book of "The Fellowship of the Ring". McKenzie was born in Wellington, New Zealand. He is a former member

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: cast in the role, Hunter said, "Being cast in "The Hobbit" is really exciting and really an honour. I auditioned for the original "Lord of the Rings" way back when I signed with my agent in New Zealand. When I saw the films I thought, 'Man, I so want to do "The Hobbit".'" On 1 November 2010, Jackson confirmed that James Nesbitt and Adam Brown had been added to the cast to play Bofur and Ori respectively. It was previously reported that Nesbitt was in negotiations for a part in the film. Jackson was quoted on Nesbitt's casting as saying,

title: Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien

text: inspired by Tolkien's works, particularly "Songs of the Quendi". The Hobbitons was the name of a Dutch folk group who released a CD in 1996, containing 16 tracks of poems by J. R. R. Tolkien, from "The Hobbit", "The Adventures of Tom Bombadil", and "The Lord of the Rings". Production was with permission of the Tolkien Estate, with the provision that it would not be sold commercially. The CD is sold out. Irish singer Enya contributed a song "May it Be" for (2001) movie soundtrack. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. She also released a

title: Dwarf (Middle-earth)

text: a shorter stunt double seen from behind. In contrast, because Dwarves and Hobbits are in the same size scale, Gimli interacts freely with the Hobbit characters within the same camera frame. A good example is when the Fellowship enters Lothlórien, and Gimli walks up to Frodo and puts his hand on his shoulder, warning him to stay close. Actor John Rhys-Davies is actually <nowiki>6'1"</nowiki> (1.85 m) (two inches (5 cm) taller than Viggo Mortensen, who plays Aragorn), much taller than Elijah Wood (Frodo) who is <nowiki>5'6"</nowiki> (1.67 m), thus keeping the proportion that Dwarves are taller than Hobbits. Other dwarves

title: Bilbo Baggins

text: Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated version of "The Lord of the Rings", Bilbo was voiced by Norman Bird. Billy Barty was the model for Bilbo, as well as Frodo and Sam, in the live-action recordings Bakshi used for rotoscoping. The 3000th story to be broadcast in the BBC's long-running children's programme Jackanory was The Hobbit, in 1979. Four narrators told the story, with Bilbo's part being played by Bernard Cribbins In the BBC's 1981 radio serialisation of "The Lord of the Rings", Bilbo is played by John Le Mesurier. In the 1993 television miniseries "Hobitit" by Finnish broadcaster Yle, Bilbo is

title: John Mitchell (Being Human)

text: a few time later. The changing of the actor of Mitchell changed not only the personality of Mitchell, but also of the characters around him. Russell Tovey said in an interview that the George that he played alongside Guy Flanagan (Mitchell - Pilot) and Andrea Riseborough (Annie - Pilot) was different from the George that he played alongside Lenora Crichlow and Aidan Turner, because each actor would respond differently to the character. When Aidan Turner got offered a role in the movie series "The Hobbit" as Kíli he decided to leave the series. The production team could not contract actors

title: The Hobbit (film series)

text: that he thought Ian McShane "would make the most perfect dwarf". Frequent del Toro collaborator Doug Jones said that he would love to play the Elvenking Thranduil, but del Toro later stated that he had another role (or roles) in mind for the actor. Del Toro was the one who originally pushed to cast Sylvester McCoy as Radagast the Brown, a choice Peter Jackson later followed. While del Toro initially wanted Ian Holm to reprise the role of Bilbo Baggins, he also said that he "absolutely" supported the casting of Martin Freeman as the character, and wanted all other returning

title: The Hobbit

text: that has been accepted into mainstream literature, alongside Jostein Gaarder's "Sophie's World" (1991) and J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" series (1997–2007). Tolkien intended "The Hobbit" as a "fairy-story" and wrote it in a tone suited to addressing children although he said later that the book was not specifically written for children but had rather been created out of his interest in mythology and legend. Many of the initial reviews refer to the work as a fairy story. However, according to Jack Zipes writing in "The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales", Bilbo is an atypical character for a fairy tale. The

title: Beorn


question: when did reba mcentire record back to god

answers: February 3, 2017

answers: 2017

title: Reba McEntire

text: back. Reba McEntire Reba Nell McEntire (born March 28, 1955) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and record producer. She began her career in the music industry as a high school student singing in the Kiowa High School band, on local radio shows with her siblings, and at rodeos. While a sophomore in college, she performed the National Anthem at the National Rodeo in Oklahoma City and caught the attention of country artist Red Steagall who brought her to Nashville, Tennessee. She signed a contract with Mercury Records a year later in 1975. She released her first solo album in

title: Reba McEntire

text: Reba McEntire Reba Nell McEntire (born March 28, 1955) is an American singer, songwriter, actress, and record producer. She began her career in the music industry as a high school student singing in the Kiowa High School band, on local radio shows with her siblings, and at rodeos. While a sophomore in college, she performed the National Anthem at the National Rodeo in Oklahoma City and caught the attention of country artist Red Steagall who brought her to Nashville, Tennessee. She signed a contract with Mercury Records a year later in 1975. She released her first solo album in 1977

title: Reba McEntire singles discography

text: and 20 country hits, including "(You Lift Me Up) To Heaven", "Today All Over Again", "Only You (And You Alone)", and her first number one country hit, "Can't Even Get the Blues". However, she was not pleased with the music she was recording under the label (country pop-styled ballads) and signed with MCA Records in 1984, where McEntire had more control over what she recorded and how she recorded it. Under MCA, McEntire began to have her biggest success with the release of her 1984 album, "My Kind of Country", which celebrated traditional country music. The album spawned two number

title: Reba McEntire

text: hit, reaching No. 19 on the "Billboard" country chart in November 1979. In 1980, "You Lift Me Up (To Heaven)" brought her to the Top 10 for the first time. Her third studio album, "Feel the Fire" was released in October and spawned two additional Top 20 hit singles that year. In September 1981, McEntire's fourth album, "Heart to Heart" was issued and became her first album to chart the "Billboard" Top Country Albums list, peaking at No. 2. Its lead single, "Today All Over Again" became a top five country hit. The album received mainly negative reviews from critics.

title: Reba McEntire

text: attended Southeastern Oklahoma State University planning to be an elementary school teacher (eventually graduating December 16, 1976). While not attending school, she also continued to sing locally. That same year she was hired to perform the national anthem at the National Rodeo in Oklahoma City. Country artist Red Steagall, who was also performing that day, was impressed by her vocal ability and agreed to help her launch a country-music career in Nashville, Tennessee. After recording a demo tape, she signed a recording contract with Mercury Records in 1975. McEntire made her first recordings for Mercury on January 22, 1976, when

title: Reba McEntire singles discography

text: Reba McEntire singles discography The singles discography of American country music singer Reba McEntire comprises 95 singles. After being discovered by country artist Red Steagall, McEntire signed a recording contract with Polygram/Mercury Records in 1976. In 1977, she released her debut, self-titled album, which yielded four singles that failed to become major hits on the country chart. It was her next album, released in 1979, titled "Out of a Dream" that produced her first Top 40 hits and her first major hit, a remake of Patsy Cline's "Sweet Dreams". Between 1980 and 1984, McEntire had a series of Top 10

title: Reba McEntire

text: previously recorded country hits from her own record collection, which was then recorded for the album. The album's material included songs originally released as singles by Ray Price ("Don't You Believe Her", "I Want to Hear It from You"), Carl Smith ("Before I Met You"), Faron Young ("He's Only Everything") and Connie Smith ("You've Got Me [Right Where You Want Me"]). The album spawned two number-one singles: "How Blue" and "Somebody Should Leave". It was given positive reviews from critics, with "Billboard" praising McEntire as "the finest woman country singer since Kitty Wells" and "Rolling Stone" critics honoring her as

title: Reba McEntire

text: (and was later certified Platinum). At the end of the year, McEntire won Entertainer of the Year from the Country Music Association, the highest honor in the awards show. McEntire released a second album in 1986 (her tenth overall), "What Am I Gonna Do About You." Allmusic critic William Ruhlmann was not overly pleased with album's production, saying that it lacked the features that had been set forth on "Whoever's in New England." Rulhlmann criticized the title track for "something of the feel of 'Whoever's in New England' in its portrayal of a woman trying to recover from a painfully

title: Reba (album)

text: Reba (album) Reba is the thirteenth studio album by American country singer Reba McEntire, released on April 18, 1988. Gone were the honky tonk stable steel guitars and fiddles of "My Kind of Country" and "Have I Got a Deal for You", to be replaced by a highly produced and orchestrated Bakersfield-like sound. This did not diminish the album's sales, as it was her third #1 country album, and two of its tracks, "I Know How He Feels" and "New Fool at an Old Game," reached #1 on the Billboard country singles charts. A remake of an old jazz vocal

title: Reba McEntire

title: Reba McEntire singles discography

text: 56th Top 10 hit, "Cowgirls Don't Cry", a duet with Brooks & Dunn. Reba McEntire singles discography The singles discography of American country music singer Reba McEntire comprises 95 singles. After being discovered by country artist Red Steagall, McEntire signed a recording contract with Polygram/Mercury Records in 1976. In 1977, she released her debut, self-titled album, which yielded four singles that failed to become major hits on the country chart. It was her next album, released in 1979, titled "Out of a Dream" that produced her first Top 40 hits and her first major hit, a remake of Patsy Cline's

title: Reba McEntire

text: album was a departure from any of McEntire's future releases, as it resembled the material of Tanya Tucker and Tammy Wynette, according to "AllMusic" reviewer Greg Adams. The album itself did not chart the "Billboard" Top Country Albums chart upon its release. After releasing two singles with Jacky Ward ("Three Sheets in the Wind" b/w "I'd Really Love to See You Tonight"; and "That Makes Two of Us" at No. 20 and No. 26, respectively), Mercury issued her second studio album in 1979, "Out of a Dream." The album's cover of Patsy Cline's "Sweet Dreams" became McEntire's first Top 20

title: Reba McEntire

text: by music critics. In 1983, McEntire announced her departure from Mercury, criticizing the label's country pop production styles. McEntire signed with MCA Nashville Records in 1984 and released her seventh studio album, "Just a Little Love." Harold Shedd was originally the album's producer; however, McEntire rejected his suggestions towards country pop arrangements. It was instead produced by Norro Wilson, although the album still had a distinguishable country pop sound. Dissatisfied with the album's sound, she went to MCA president, Jimmy Bowen, who told McEntire to find material that was best-suited to her liking. Instead of finding new material, she found

title: Reba McEntire

text: like losing part of your family. Right now she just wants to get back to Nashville." McEntire dedicated her eighteenth album, "For My Broken Heart," to her deceased road band. Released in October 1991, it contained songs of sorrow and lost love about "all measure of suffering," according to Alanna Nash of "Entertainment Weekly." Nash reported that McEntire "still hits her stride with the more traditional songs of emotional turmoil, above all combining a spectacular vocal performance with a terrific song on 'Buying Her Roses,' a wife's head-spinning discovery of her husband's other woman." The release peaked at No. 1

title: Reba McEntire

text: Top 10 single on the "Billboard" Hot Country Songs chart, tying her with Dolly Parton, who also had the same amount of Top 10 records. The album was given high critical praise from magazines such as "PopMatters", which called McEntire's vocals, "to sound sweet without being syrupy, while being extremely powerful. McEntire's vocal strength yields a different kind of authority than the bluesy, drawling growl of Janis Joplin, the weathered rasp of Marianne Faithfull, or even the soul-shrieking powerhouse of Tina Turner. Instead, Reba's voice combines the aspects of all three singers but tempers it with a Southern sweetness and

text: 20th Century Masters – The Christmas Collection: The Best of Reba 20th Century Masters – The Christmas Collection: The Best of Reba McEntire is a compilation of songs from Reba McEntire's two Christmas albums ("Merry Christmas to You" and "") for release in 2003 on a "20th Century Masters" Christmas collection. No new material was recorded for the compilation. "20th Century Masters – The Christmas Collection: The Best of Reba McEntire" received three out of five stars from William Ruhlmann of Allmusic. In his review, Ruhlmann describes McEntire's versions of "Silent Night" and "Up on the Housetop" as "appropriately reverent,"

title: Reba McEntire

text: McEntire's release, calling the album's ten tracks "powerful" and concluding by stating, "There are so many writers and so many great songs in Nashville, and Reba has collected her disproportionate share[...]She's country music's female artist of the 90's." "What If It's You" peaked at No. 1 Top Country Albums and No. 15 on the "Billboard" 200, while also becoming her first album in three years to certify in multi-platinum sales, selling two million copies by 1999. At the end of 1997, McEntire also charted at No. 23 the charity single "What If". The proceeds of sales for this single were

title: Chuck Ainlay

text:
You - Reba McEntire (Engineer, Mixing)
 2005 - Wide Open Spaces - Dixie Chicks (Mixing)
 2004 - Between Here and Gone - Mary Chapin Carpenter (Engineer, Mixing)
 2004 - Greatest Collection - Reba McEntire (Mixing)
 2004 - Greatest Collection [2004] 0 George Strait (Engineer, Mixing)
 2004 - Livin' the Dream - Ray Herndon (Engineer, Mixing)
 2004 - My Honky Tonk History - Travis Tritt (Mixing)
 2004 - Shangri-La - Mark Knopfler (Engineer, Mixing, Producer)
 2004 - Twice the Speed of Life - Sugarland (Mixing)
 2003 - For God and Country - Dolly Parton (Engineer, Mixing)
 2003 - Have You Forgotten?

title: Rumor Has It (Reba McEntire album)

text: No. 2 on the "Billboard" country album chart and No. 39 on the "Billboard" 200, becoming her first album to enter the mainstream top 40. It was certified triple platinum by the RIAA. The album also contained a TV theme song - though not the last TV theme song McEntire would record. The track "Climb That Mountain High" was featured in the opening credits of an early 1990s ABC sitcom called "Delta" starring Delta Burke, who played an aspiring country singer. Reba also made a guest appearance on the short-lived sitcom. Both "You Lie" and "Waitin' For the Deal to

title: Reba McEntire

text: in 1987 and the second single, "Love Will Find Its Way to You", also reached the top spot. In late 1987, McEntire released her first Christmas collection, "Merry Christmas to You", which sold two million copies in the United States, certifying double Platinum. The album included cover versions of "Away in a Manger", "Silent Night", and Grandpa Jones's "The Christmas Guest". Her thirteenth album, "Reba", was issued in 1988 and was not well received by critics, who claimed she was moving farther away from her "traditional country" sound. "Stereo Review" disliked the album's contemporary style, stating, "After years of insisting

title: Reba McEntire

text: In September she released "Reba Live", her first live album, which originally certified gold but certified platinum ten years later. Sixteen months after the release of "Sweet Sixteen" and after giving birth to her son, McEntire transitioned into 1990 with the release of "Rumor Has It." The album's "sound and production were almost entirely pop-oriented", according to Kurt Wolff of "Country Music: The Rough Guide." Although "Rumor Has It" was an attempt to receive critical praise, many reviewers found the album to be "predictable". "Stereo Review" mainly found the recording displeasing in some places, but the reviewer also believed she

title: Reba McEntire

text: of the album's material was "an odd set—mostly ballads, including an English/Portuguese duet with Jose e Durval on Boz Scaggs' 'We're All Alone'". In 2001, McEntire returned with her third greatest-hits album: "." The album helped McEntire receive her third gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America, which made her the most certified female country artist in music history. It spawned the number-three hit "I'm a Survivor", which would be her last major hit for two years, as McEntire would go on a temporary hiatus to focus on her television sitcom, "Reba." The album's only other single, a

title: Reba McEntire

text: the Recording Industry Association of America. She is referred to as "The Queen of Country". and she is one of the best-selling artists of all time, having sold more than 95 million records worldwide. In the early 1990s, McEntire branched into film starting with 1990's "Tremors." She has since starred in the Broadway revival of "Annie Get Your Gun" and in her television sitcom, "Reba" (2001–07) for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series–Musical or Comedy. Reba Nell McEntire was born March 28, 1955, in McAlester, Oklahoma, to

title: Reba McEntire singles discography

text: In 2007, she released her 25th and final album for MCA, "", a collection of duets with other recording artists, including Kelly Clarkson, Kenny Chesney, and Justin Timberlake. In 2008, she signed with the Valory Music Group, which released her first single, "Strange", to radio in early April 2009. In her 35-year career, McEntire has garnered 32 number one singles, she now holds the record for the most number one singles by a female country artist. In addition, McEntire holds the record for the most Top 10 hits by a female country artist, surpassing Parton's record in 2009 with her

title: Reba McEntire

text: she had not previously entered. The album itself reached No. 2 on both the "Billboard" 200 and Top Country Albums charts. Charlotte Dillon of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars, calling it "another wonderful offering of songs performed by the gifted country singer Reba McEntire". Dillon also felt that the album's material had "a little soul, a little swing, and some pop, too". "Entertainment Weekly"s Alanna Nash also gave the album positive feedback, viewing the album to have "enough boiling rhythms and brooding melodies to reflect the anger and disillusionment of the middle class in the '90s",

title: Reba McEntire

text: an unmistakable femininity." The album contained ten tracks of duets with country and pop artists, including Kenny Chesney, LeAnn Rimes, Trisha Yearwood, Carole King, and Justin Timberlake. "Reba: Duets" peaked at No. 1 on the Top Country Albums chart, while also becoming her first album in her thirty-year career to peak and debut at No. 1 on the "Billboard" 200, with 300,536 copies (according to Nielsen Soundscan) sold within its first week of release. On January 17, 2008, McEntire embarked on the "2 Worlds 2 Voices Tour" with Clarkson, which began in Fairborn, Ohio and ended in November of the

title: Reba McEntire

text: album, "Whoever's in New England" was released. For this album, McEntire and co-producer Jimmy Bowen incorporated her traditional music style into a mainstream sound that was entirely different from anything she had previously recorded. "Country Music: The Rough Guide" called the production of the title track, "bigger and sentimentalism more obvious, even manipulative". The title track peaked at No. 1 on the "Billboard" Country Chart and won her a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance the following year. In addition, the album became McEntire's first release to certify gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America

title: Reba McEntire

text: end of April 2018. McEntire's sound has been influenced by the country music of Bob Wills, Merle Haggard, Dolly Parton, Barbara Mandrell, and Patsy Cline. In college, McEntire would attend local dances at the Oklahoma–Texas border so she could dance to Wills's music, commenting that, "it didn't get any better than dancing to Bob Wills music". She also explained Merle Haggard's influence on her career, stating "I had every album he ever put out", and would sing "every song he did", along with her brother, Pake and sister, Susie. In addition, her first major hit, "Sweet Dreams" was a remake

title: Reba McEntire

text: studio album, the release, "welcomes the fiddles and steel guitars back as she returns to the neo-traditionalist fold", according to Allmusic, which gave the release four-and-a-half out of five stars. Reviewer William Ruhlmann found "Sweet Sixteen" to "double back to a formula that worked for her in the past". The lead single was a cover of The Everly Brothers' "Cathy's Clown", with McEntire's version reaching No. 1 in July on the "Billboard" country music chart. Three more Top 10 hits followed from "Sweet Sixteen": "Till Love Comes Again", "Little Girl", and "Walk On", at No. 4, 7 and 2, respectively.

title: Reba McEntire

text: breaking Dolly's record for the most Top Ten country hits for a solo female. In November 2008, McEntire announced that she would be departing from her label of twenty-five years and signing with the Valory Music Group, an imprint of Big Machine Records (coincidentally distributed by MCA and Mercury's parent, Universal Music Group). Under MCA, she had sold a total of sixty-seven million records worldwide and won two Grammys. The switch to Valory reunited McEntire with the label's president, Scott Borchetta, who had worked as senior vice president of promotion at MCA during most of the 1990s. McEntire later commented

title: Reba McEntire

long_answer: On December 15, 2016, McEntire announced that she was releasing her first Gospel album titled Sing It Now: Songs of Faith & Hope. It was released by Nash Icon/Rockin' R Records on February 3, 2017, and consists of two discs. Disc one contains traditional hymns while disc two contains original tracks. "Softly and Tenderly", featuring Kelly Clarkson and Trisha Yearwood, was the first track off the album released. Another track on the album, "In the Garden/Wonderful Peace", features The Isaacs. Jay DeMarcus of the Rascal Flatts produced the album. The first single off the album is "Back to God". She also headlined the C2C: Country to Country festival in the UK alongside Brad Paisley and Zac Brown Band in March.


question: what is the wave length of x rays

answers: from 0.01 to 10 nanometers

title: X-ray

text: lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called "soft X-rays". Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e.g., in medical radiography and airport security. The term "X-ray" is metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the attenuation length of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less

title: X unit

text: units, which are defined in terms of the wavelengths of the two most commonly used X-ray lines in X-ray crystallography: The 2006 CODATA recommended values for these units are: X unit The x unit (symbol xu) is a unit of length approximately equal to 0.1 pm (10 m). It is used to quote the wavelength of X-rays and gamma rays. Originally defined by the Swedish physicist Manne Siegbahn (1886–1978) in 1925, the x unit could not at that time be measured directly; the definition was instead made in terms of the spacing between planes of the calcite crystals used in

title: Phase-contrast X-ray imaging

text: the length of the wave vector, the length of a wave vector with wavelength of 1 Angstrom and the atomic number. The valid formula under these conditions for the phase shift cross section is: where is the atomic number, the length of the wave vector, and the classical electron radius. This results in the following expressions for the two parts of the complex index of refraction: Inserting typical values of human tissue in the formulas given above shows that is generally three orders of magnitude larger than within the diagnostic X-ray range. This implies that the phase-shift of an X-ray

title: Standing wave

text: very short (in the range of nanometers, 10 m) so the standing waves are microscopic in size. One use for standing light waves is to measure small distances, using optical flats. Interference between X-ray beams can form an X-ray standing wave (XSW) field. Because of the short wavelength of X-rays (less than 1 nanometer), this phenomenon can be exploited for measuring atomic-scale events at material surfaces. The XSW is generated in the region where an X-ray beam interferes with a diffracted beam from a nearly perfect single crystal surface or a reflection from an X-ray mirror. By tuning the crystal

title: X-ray crystallography

text: an electromagnetic wave (the X-ray) impinging on a regular array of scatterers (the repeating arrangement of atoms within the crystal). X-rays are used to produce the diffraction pattern because their wavelength λ is typically the same order of magnitude (1–100 angstroms) as the spacing "d" between planes in the crystal. In principle, any wave impinging on a regular array of scatterers produces diffraction, as predicted first by Francesco Maria Grimaldi in 1665. To produce significant diffraction, the spacing between the scatterers and the wavelength of the impinging wave should be similar in size. For illustration, the diffraction of sunlight through

title: Lawrence Bragg

text: father argued that X-rays are streams of particles, others argued that they are waves. Max von Laue directed an X-ray beam at a crystal in front of a photographic plate; alongside of the spot where the beam struck there were additional spots from deflected rays hence X-rays are waves. In 1912, as a first-year research student at Cambridge, W L Bragg, while strolling by the river, had the insight that crystals made from parallel sheets of atoms would not diffract X-ray beams that struck their surface at most angles because X-rays deflected by collisions with atoms would be out of

title: X-ray crystallography

text: by Charles Glover Barkla showed that X-rays exhibited phenomena associated with electromagnetic waves, including transverse polarization and spectral lines akin to those observed in the visible wavelengths. Single-slit experiments in the laboratory of Arnold Sommerfeld suggested that X-rays had a wavelength of about 1 angstrom. However, X-rays are composed of photons, and thus are not only waves of electromagnetic radiation but also exhibit particle-like properties. Albert Einstein introduced the photon concept in 1905, but it was not broadly accepted until 1922, when Arthur Compton confirmed it by the scattering of X-rays from electrons. Therefore, these particle-like properties of X-rays, such

title: X unit

text: X unit The x unit (symbol xu) is a unit of length approximately equal to 0.1 pm (10 m). It is used to quote the wavelength of X-rays and gamma rays. Originally defined by the Swedish physicist Manne Siegbahn (1886–1978) in 1925, the x unit could not at that time be measured directly; the definition was instead made in terms of the spacing between planes of the calcite crystals used in the measuring apparatus. One x unit was set at of the spacing of the (200) planes of calcite at 18 °C. In modern usage, there are two separate x

title: X-ray crystallography

text: range in wavelength from 10 to 0.01 nanometers; a typical wavelength used for crystallography is 1 Å (0.1 nm), which is on the scale of covalent chemical bonds and the radius of a single atom. Longer-wavelength photons (such as ultraviolet radiation) would not have sufficient resolution to determine the atomic positions. At the other extreme, shorter-wavelength photons such as gamma rays are difficult to produce in large numbers, difficult to focus, and interact too strongly with matter, producing particle-antiparticle pairs. Therefore, X-rays are the "sweetspot" for wavelength when determining atomic-resolution structures from the scattering of electromagnetic radiation. Other forms of

title: X-ray

title: X-ray crystallography

text: diffraction data can determine the mean chemical bond lengths and angles to within a few thousandths of an angstrom and to within a few tenths of a degree, respectively. The atoms in a crystal are not static, but oscillate about their mean positions, usually by less than a few tenths of an angstrom. X-ray crystallography allows measuring the size of these oscillations. The technique of single-crystal X-ray crystallography has three basic steps. The first—and often most difficult—step is to obtain an adequate crystal of the material under study. The crystal should be sufficiently large (typically larger than 0.1 mm in

title: X-ray crystallography

text: as their ionization of gases, caused William Henry Bragg to argue in 1907 that X-rays were "not" electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, Bragg's view was not broadly accepted and the observation of X-ray diffraction by Max von Laue in 1912 confirmed for most scientists that X-rays were a form of electromagnetic radiation. Crystals are regular arrays of atoms, and X-rays can be considered waves of electromagnetic radiation. Atoms scatter X-ray waves, primarily through the atoms' electrons. Just as an ocean wave striking a lighthouse produces secondary circular waves emanating from the lighthouse, so an X-ray striking an electron produces secondary spherical waves

title: Radiation

text: with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy. X-rays are electromagnetic waves with a wavelength less than about 10 m (greater than 3x10 Hz and 1,240 eV). A smaller wavelength corresponds to a higher energy according to the equation E=hc/λ. ("E" is Energy; "h" is Planck's constant; "c" is the speed of light; "λ" is wavelength.) When an X-ray photon collides with an atom, the atom may absorb the energy of the photon and boost an electron to a higher orbital level or if the photon is

title: X-ray

text: than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has several problems: other processes also can generate these high-energy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m

title: X-ray crystallography

text: the fraction of scattered waves that leave with an outgoing wave-vector of k and strike the screen at r. Since no energy is lost (elastic, not inelastic scattering), the wavelengths are the same as are the magnitudes of the wave-vectors |k|=|k|. From the time that the photon is scattered at r until it is absorbed at r, the photon undergoes a change in phase The net radiation arriving at r is the sum of all the scattered waves throughout the crystal which may be written as a Fourier transform where q = k – k. The measured intensity of the

title: High-energy X-rays

text: High-energy X-rays High-energy X-rays or HEX-rays are very hard X-rays, with typical energies of 80–1000 keV (1 MeV), about one order of magnitude higher than conventional X-rays (and well into gamma-ray energies over 120 keV). They are produced at modern synchrotron radiation sources such as the beamline ID15 at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). The main benefit is the deep penetration into matter which makes them a probe for thick samples in physics and materials science and permits an in-air sample environment and operation. Scattering angles are small and diffraction directed forward allows for simple detector setups. High-energy X-rays

title: X-ray spectroscopy

text: for their spectrometers. The law of diffraction of a crystal is called Bragg's law in their honor. Intense and wavelength-tunable X-rays are now typically generated with synchrotrons. In a material, the X-rays may suffer an energy loss compared to the incoming beam. This energy loss of the re-emerging beam reflects an internal excitation of the atomic system, an X-ray analogue to the well-known Raman spectroscopy that is widely used in the optical region. In the X-ray region there is sufficient energy to probe changes in the electronic state (transitions between orbitals; this is in contrast with the optical region, where

title: X-ray

text: MeV. In laboratory discharges with a gap size of approximately 1 meter length and a peak voltage of 1 MV, X-rays with a characteristic energy of 160 keV are observed. A possible explanation is the encounter of two streamers and the production of high-energy run-away electrons; however, microscopic simulations have shown that the duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significantly number of run-away electrons. Recently, it has been proposed that air perturbations in the vicinity of streamers can facilitate the production of run-away electrons and hence of X-rays from discharges. X-ray detectors

title: X-ray

text: for the application so as to give sufficient transmission through the object and at the same time provide good contrast in the image. X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope. This property is used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high resolution images, and also in X-ray crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals. X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through photoabsorption, Compton scattering, and Rayleigh scattering. The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays

title: X-ray standing waves

text: modulations in the XSW yield needed to locate the absorbing atom. For defect-rich substrates such as metal single crystals, a normal-incidence or back-reflection geometry is used. In this geometry, the intrinsic width of the Bragg reflection is maximized. Instead of rocking the crystal in space, the energy of the incident beam is tuned through the Bragg condition. Since this geometry requires soft incident X-rays, this geometry typically uses XPS detection of the XSW yield. Applications which require ultra-high vacuum conditions: Applications which do not require ultra-high vacuum conditions: X-ray standing waves The X-ray standing wave (XSW) technique can be used

title: X-ray optics

text: the Fabry-Pérot effect. These oscillations can be used to infer layer thicknesses and other properties. In X-ray diffraction a beam strikes a crystal and diffracts into many specific directions. The angles and intensities of the diffracted beams indicate a three-dimensional density of electrons within the crystal. X-rays produce a diffraction pattern because their wavelength is typically the same order of magnitude (0.1-10.0 nm) as the spacing between the atomic planes in the crystal. Each atom re-radiates a small portion of an incoming beam's intensity as a spherical wave. If the atoms are arranged symmetrically (as is found in a crystal)

title: X-ray astronomy detector

text: 3 decades in wavelength (~8 nm - 8 pm), frequency (~50 PHz - 50 EHz) and energy (~0.12 - 120 keV). In terms of temperature, 1 eV = 11,604 K. Thus X-rays (0.12 to 120 keV) correspond to 1.39 × 10 to 1.39 × 10 K. From 10 to 0.1 nanometers (nm) (about 0.12 to 12 keV) they are classified as soft X-rays, and from 0.1 nm to 0.01 nm (about 12 to 120 keV) as hard X-rays. Closer to the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum is the ultraviolet. The draft ISO standard on determining solar irradiances (ISO-DIS-21348) describes

title: X-ray

text: (0.1 Å), defined as gamma radiation. This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and

title: Superficial X-rays

text: Superficial X-rays Superficial X-rays are low-energy X-rays that do not penetrate very far before they are absorbed. They are produced by X-ray tubes operating at voltages in the 10–100 kV range, and therefore have peak energies in the 10–100 keV range. Precise naming and definitions of energy ranges may vary, and X-rays at the lower end of this range may also be known as Grenz rays. They are useful in radiation therapy for the treatment of various benign or malignant skin problems, including skin cancer and severe eczema. They have a useful depth of up to 5 mm. In some

title: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: to a few meters of water. One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as radiography). X-rays are useful as probes in high-energy physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena. X-rays are also emitted by the coronas of stars and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae. However, X-ray telescopes must be placed outside the Earth's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the atmosphere of Earth is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 grams per cm), equivalent

title: X-ray spectroscopy

text: in the field of x ray diffraction to calculate various data such as interplanar spacing and wavelength of the incident x ray using Bragg's law. The father-and-son scientific team of William Lawrence Bragg and William Henry Bragg, who were 1915 Nobel Prize Winners, were the original pioneers in developing X-ray emission spectroscopy. Jointly they measured the X-ray wavelengths of many elements to high precision, using high-energy electrons as excitation source. The cathode ray tube or an x-ray tube was the method used to pass electrons through a crystal of numerous elements. They also painstakingly produced numerous diamond-ruled glass diffraction gratings

title: X-ray optics

text: diffracted from atomic nuclei, but only from the electrons surrounding them. X-ray interference is the addition (superposition) of two or more X-ray waves that results in a new wave pattern. X-ray interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency. Two non-monochromatic X-ray waves are only fully coherent with each other if they both have exactly the same range of wavelengths and the same phase differences at each of the constituent wavelengths. The total

title: X-ray

text: is generated by particle accelerators. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent collimation, and linear polarization. Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15-keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by triboelectric charging. The intensity of X-ray triboluminescence is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging. X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive

title: X-ray

text: the sample might otherwise present a problem. The maximum energy of the produced X-ray photon is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes: So the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines. The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray

title: X-ray tube

text: the waveform of the electrical source power (direct or pulsating). The heat produced in these devices is (in Joule) : In radiography voltage is usually expressed in formula_2 (thousands of volts peak), the effective current in mA and the time in seconds: w being the waveform ratio. With a full-wave rectification of a sine wave it equals formula_4, thus the practical unit: Historically, X-rays were discovered radiating from experimental discharge tubes called Crookes tubes invented by British physicist William Crookes and others. As the medical and other uses of X-rays became apparent, workshops began to manufacture specialized Crookes tubes to

title: X-ray

long_answer: X-rays make up X-radiation, a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×10 Hz to 3×10 Hz) and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. In many languages, X-radiation is referred to with terms meaning Röntgen radiation, after the German scientist Wilhelm Röntgen, who usually is credited as its discoverer, and who named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation. Spelling of X-ray(s) in the English language includes the variants x-ray(s), xray(s), and X ray(s).


question: what are the active materials of a lead acid battery

answers: Lead

answers: sulfuric acid

answers: Lead and lead dioxide

answers: lead dioxide

title: Lead–acid battery

text: active material. Consider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an

title: Lead–acid battery

text: further reaction unless charge is allowed to flow out of electrode. taking advantage of the metallic conductivity of . The total reaction can be written as The net energy released per mol (207 g) of (s) converted to (s), or per 36 g of water formed, is ca. 400 kJ. The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-hours per kilogram (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). For a 2 volts cell, this comes

title: Lead–acid battery

text: improves handling and pasting characteristics. It extends battery life by increasing end-of-charge voltage. Sulfonated naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures. Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators and inserted in a cell container. The alternate plates then constitute alternating positive and negative electrodes, and within the cell are later connected to one another (negative to negative, positive to positive) in parallel. The separators inhibit the plates from touching each other, which would otherwise constitute a short circuit. In flooded and gel cells, the separators are insulating rails or

title: Glass battery

text: as the positive electrode (anode), and a mixture of carbon and a redox active component, as the negative electrode (cathode). The cathode mixture is coated onto copper foil. The redox active component is either sulfur, ferrocene, or manganese dioxide. The electrolyte is a highly conductive glass formed from lithium hydroxide and lithium chloride and doped with barium, allowing fast charging of the battery without the formation of metal dendrites. The publication states that the battery operates during discharge by stripping the alkali metal from the anode and re-depositing it at the cathode, with the battery voltage determined by the redox

title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: replaces ammonium chloride) as the primary electrolyte, the anode reaction remains the same but the cathode reaction is: and the overall reaction: The battery has an electromotive force (e.m.f.) of about 1.5 V. The approximate nature of the e.m.f is related to the complexity of the cathode reaction. The anode (zinc) reaction is comparatively simple with a known potential. Side reactions and depletion of the active chemicals increases the internal resistance of the battery, which causes the e.m.f. to drop under load. The zinc chloride cell is an improvement on the original zinc–carbon cell, using purer chemicals and giving a

title: Electric battery

text: cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride. Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures

title: Zinc–air battery

text: into the zinc paste and form zincate (), releasing electrons to travel to the cathode. The zincate decays into zinc oxide and water returns to the electrolyte. The water and hydroxyl from the anode are recycled at the cathode, so the water is not consumed. The reactions produce a theoretical 1.65 volts, but this is reduced to 1.35–1.4 V in available cells. Zinc–air batteries have some properties of fuel cells as well as batteries: the zinc is the fuel, the reaction rate can be controlled by varying the air flow, and oxidized zinc/electrolyte paste can be replaced with fresh paste.

title: Lead–acid battery

text: also result in premature failure. Starting batteries should therefore be kept open circuit but charged regularly (at least once every two weeks) to prevent sulfation. Starting batteries are of lighter weight than deep cycle batteries of the same size, because the thinner and lighter cell plates do not extend all the way to the bottom of the battery case. This allows loose disintegrated material to fall off the plates and collect at the bottom of the cell, prolonging the service life of the battery. If this loose debris rises enough it may touch the bottom of the plates and cause

title: Alkaline battery

text: With mercury content reduced by law and improvements in the purity and consistency of materials, manufacturers have reduced the mercury content in modern cells. In an alkaline battery, the negative electrode is zinc and the positive electrode is manganese dioxide (MnO). The alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide is not part of the reaction, only the zinc and MnO are consumed during discharge. The alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide remains, as there are equal amounts of OH consumed and produced. The half-reactions are: Overall reaction: The chemical energy is stored mostly in the zinc metal, whose cohesive free energy per atom

title: Lead–acid battery

title: Beta-alumina solid electrolyte

text: consists of sulfur at the positive electrode and sodium at the negative electrode as active materials, and sodium-conducting beta alumina ceramic as the electrolyte separating both electrodes. This sealed battery is kept at approximately 300 degrees Celsius and is operated under the condition that the active materials at both electrodes are liquid and its electrolyte is solid. It is only at temperatures around 300 degrees Celsius or more, that it is possible for the negative sodium electrode to completely coat, or "wet," the ceramic electrolyte. At lower temperatures, molten sodium has issues in covering the surface of the beta alumina

title: Lead–acid battery

text: the battery's operating temperature range. In the absorbed glass mat design, or AGM for short, the separators between the plates are replaced by a glass fibre mat soaked in electrolyte. There is only enough electrolyte in the mat to keep it wet, and if the battery is punctured the electrolyte will not flow out of the mats. Principally the purpose of replacing liquid electrolyte in a flooded battery with a semi-saturated fiberglass mat is to substantially increase the gas transport through the separator; Hydrogen or Oxygen gas produced during overcharge or charge (if the charge current is excessive) is able

title: Lead–acid battery

text: or gel versions. AGM batteries often show a characteristic "bulging" in their shells when built in common rectangular shapes, due to the expansion of the positive plates. The mat also prevents the vertical motion of the electrolyte within the battery. When a normal wet cell is stored in a discharged state, the heavier acid molecules tend to settle to the bottom of the battery, causing the electrolyte to stratify. When the battery is then used, the majority of the current flows only in this area, and the bottom of the plates tend to wear out rapidly. This is one of

title: Lead–acid battery

text: failure of a cell, resulting in loss of battery voltage and capacity. Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles (forklift, golf cart, electric cars and other) and uninterruptible power supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less "peak current", but can withstand frequent discharging. Some batteries are designed as a compromise between starter (high-current) and deep cycle. They are able to be discharged to a greater degree than automotive batteries, but less so than deep

title: Alkaline battery

text: separator must conduct ions and remain stable in the highly alkaline electrolyte solution. The negative electrode is composed of a dispersion of zinc powder in a gel containing the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The zinc powder provides more surface area for chemical reactions to take place, compared to a metal can. This lowers the internal resistance of the cell. To prevent gassing of the cell at the end of its life, more manganese dioxide is used than required to react with all the zinc. Also, plastic-made gasket is usually added to increase leakage resistance. The cell is then wrapped in aluminium

title: Lead–acid battery

text: to freely pass through the glass mat and reduce or oxidize the opposing plate respectively. In a flooded cell the bubbles of gas float to the top of the battery and are lost to the atmosphere. This mechanism for the gas produced to recombine and the additional benefit of a semi saturated cell providing no substantial leakage of electrolyte upon physical puncture of the battery case allows the battery to be completely sealed, which makes them useful in portable devices and similar roles, additionally the battery can be installed in any orientation, though if it is installed upside down then

title: Rechargeable alkaline battery

text: of insoluble manganese compounds. The cathode also has a catalyst to recombine any hydrogen that forms; hydrogen is produced as the fine zinc grains created during recharge are corroded by the electrolyte. Zinc oxide is added to the cathode mix to reduce generation of hydrogen gas; the zinc oxide dissociates on charge to form oxygen. The separator between anode and cathode is formulated to be particularly resistant to growth of zinc grains, which could penetrate and short-circuit the cell. The cells are manufactured in the charged state, ready to use. Although these batteries can be used in any device that

title: Lead–acid battery

text: specific gravity was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged. The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge. If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed. Note that neither technique gives any indication of charge capacity, only charge level. Charge capacity of any

title: Alkaline battery

text: "battery", such as those sold for use with flashlights and the 9 volt transistor-radio battery. A cylindrical cell is contained in a drawn stainless steel can, which is the cathode connection. The positive electrode mixture is a compressed paste of manganese dioxide with carbon powder added for increased conductivity. The paste may be pressed into the can or deposited as pre-molded rings. The hollow center of the cathode is lined with a separator, which prevents contact of the electrode materials and short-circuiting of the cell. The separator is made of a non-woven layer of cellulose or a synthetic polymer. The

title: Lithium polymer battery

text: may be, for example, a compound of lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI) and high molecular weight poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), or a high molecular weight poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC). The performance of these proposed electrolytes is usually measured in a half-cell configuration against an electrode of metallic lithium, making the system a "lithium-metal" cell, but it has also been tested with a common lithium-ion cathode material such as lithium-iron-phosphate (LiFePO). Other attempts to design a polymer electrolyte cell include the use of inorganic ionic liquids such as 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([BMIM]BF) as a plasticizer in a microporous polymer matrix like poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene)/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PVDF-HFP/PMMA). New

title: Lead–acid battery

text: the original choice, but deteriorated in the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators are stable in battery acid and provide valuable electrochemical advantages that other materials cannot. An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical properties; such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over

title: Lithium-ion battery

text: batteries consist of lithium salts, such as , or in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A liquid electrolyte acts as a conductive pathway for the movement of cations passing from the negative to the positive electrodes during discharge. Typical conductivities of liquid electrolyte at room temperature () are in the range of 10 mS/cm, increasing by approximately 30–40% at and decreasing slightly at . The combination of linear and cyclic carbonates (e.g., ethylene carbonate (EC) and dimethyl carbonate (DMC)) offers high conductivity and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI)-forming ability. A mixture of a high

title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Zinc–carbon battery A zinc–carbon battery is a dry cell primary battery that delivers about 1.5 volts of direct current from the electrochemical reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide. A carbon rod collects the current from the manganese dioxide electrode, giving the name to the cell. A dry cell is usually made of a zinc can which also serves as the anode with a negative potential, while the inert carbon rod is the positive cathode. General purpose batteries may use an aqueous paste of ammonium chloride as electrolyte, possibly mixed with some zinc chloride solution. "Heavy duty" types use a paste

title: Lithium–air battery

text: protic, and aprotic. In a cell with an aqueous electrolyte the reduction at the cathode can also produce lithium hydroxide: An aqueous Li-air battery consists of a lithium metal anode, an aqueous electrolyte and a porous carbon cathode. The aqueous electrolyte combines lithium salts dissolved in water. It avoids the issue of cathode clogging because the reaction products are water-soluble. The aqueous design has a higher practical discharge potential than its aprotic counterpart. However, lithium metal reacts violently with water and thus the aqueous design requires a solid electrolyte interface between the lithium and electrolyte. Commonly, a lithium-conducting ceramic or

title: Lithium iron phosphate

text: manganese oxide (), and lithium nickel oxide (). The anodes are generally made of carbon. Lithium iron phosphate exists naturally in the form of the mineral triphylite, but such material have insufficient purity for use in batteries. With general chemical formula of , adopts the olivine structure. M includes not only Fe but also Co, Mn and Ti. The first commercial was C/ and therefore, refer to the whole group of as lithium iron phosphate, . However, more than one olivine-type phase may be used as a battery's cathode material. Olivine compounds such as , , and have the same

title: Thermoelectric battery

text: as the electrolyte. The device converted some 29 percent of the battery's chemical energy into electricity. The ammonia electrolyte is only used as an anolyte (electrolyte surrounding an anode) that reacts with the copper electrode as waste heat warms the ammonia, generating electricity. When the reaction uses up the ammonia or depletes the copper ions in the electrolyte near the cathode the reaction stops. Waste heat then is used to distill the ammonia from the used anolyte. The ammonia is then added to the cathode chamber. The battery's polarity reverses and the anode becomes the cathode and vice versa. The

title: Organic radical battery

text: battery charges the oxammonium cation is reduced back to the nitroxide. The redox potentials for nitroxide show some variation and for the TEMPO nitroxide for this redox pair has an oxidation potential of +0.87 V. The positive electrode often takes the shape of a gel made of organic radical solids and graphite, permeated with electrolytes. Graphite is mixed with the polymer to increase the conductivity. The negative electrode uses the nitroxide - hydroxylamine anion redox pair to create an electrochemical potential, i.e. when the battery discharges the nitroxide radical is reduced to the hydroxylamine anion and when the battery charges

title: Lead–acid battery

text: they have been called "maintenance free batteries". However, this is somewhat of a misnomer. VRLA cells do require maintenance. As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells "dry-out" and lose capacity. This can be detected by taking regular internal resistance, conductance or impedance measurements. Regular testing reveals whether more involved testing and maintenance is required. Recent maintenance procedures have been developed allowing "rehydration", often restoring significant amounts of lost capacity. VRLA types became popular on motorcycles around 1983, because the acid electrolyte is absorbed into the separator, so it cannot spill. The separator also helps them better withstand vibration. They are also

title: Electrochemistry

text: metal which is oxidized (loses electrons) to form zinc ions in solution, and copper ions accept electrons from the copper metal electrode and the ions deposit at the copper cathode as an electrodeposit. This cell forms a simple battery as it will spontaneously generate a flow of electric current from the anode to the cathode through the external connection. This reaction can be driven in reverse by applying a voltage, resulting in the deposition of zinc metal at the anode and formation of copper ions at the cathode. To provide a complete electric circuit, there must also be an ionic

title: Magnesium battery

text: anode. Insertion type anodes ('magnesium ion') have also been researched. Primary magnesium cells have been developed since the early 20th century. A number of chemistries for reserve battery types have been researched, with cathode materials including silver chloride, copper(I) chloride, palladium(II) chloride, copper(I) iodide, copper(I) thiocyanate, manganese dioxide and air (oxygen). For example, a water activated silver chloride/magnesium reserve battery became commercially available by 1943. The magnesium dry battery type BA-4386 was fully commercialised, with costs per unit approaching that of zinc batteries - in comparison to equivalent zinc-carbon cells the batteries had greater capacity by volume, and longer shelf

title: Lead–acid battery

long_answer: Lead–acid batteries lose the ability to accept a charge when discharged for too long due to sulfation, the crystallization of lead sulfate. They generate electricity through a double sulfate chemical reaction. Lead and lead dioxide, the active materials on the battery's plates, react with sulfuric acid in the electrolyte to form lead sulfate. The lead sulfate first forms in a finely divided, amorphous state, and easily reverts to lead, lead dioxide and sulfuric acid when the battery recharges. As batteries cycle through numerous discharges and charges, some lead sulfate is not recombined into electrolyte and slowly converts to a stable crystalline form that no longer dissolves on recharging. Thus, not all the lead is returned to the battery plates, and the amount of usable active material necessary for electricity generation declines over time.

short_answers:
Lead
Lead and lead dioxide
lead dioxide
sulfuric acid


question: when did the soviet union first gain control of parts of poland and the baltic republics

answers: 14 June 1940

title: Cold War (1947–1953)

text: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Most of those countries had been ceded to it by the secret agreement portion of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. These later annexed territories include Eastern Poland (incorporated into two different SSRs), Latvia (became Latvian SSR), Estonia (became Estonian SSR), Lithuania (became Lithuanian SSR), part of eastern Finland (became part of the Karelo-Finnish SSR) and northern Romania (became the Moldavian SSR). Several of the other countries it occupied that were not directly annexed into the Soviet Union became Soviet satellite states. In East Germany after local election losses, a forced merger of political parties

title: Czerwień

text: of Poland. Most of the land of Czerwien was seized by the communist Soviet Union, first in September 1939, when the USSR was an axis ally of Nazi Germany and both Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland and divided the Polish nation between them. Then at the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union relied on a pact agreed with the Allies - USA and the U.K., that Russia could retain their sphere of influence over the eastern territories of Europe including the Baltic States, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania. In addition to keeping influence, by imposing

title: Baltic states

text: Soviet Army entered eastern Poland in September 1939, and then coerced Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania into mutual assistance treaties which granted them the right to establish military bases in these countries. In June 1940, the Red Army occupied all of the territory of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and the Red Army installed new, pro-Soviet governments in all three countries. Following rigged elections, in which only pro-communist candidates were allowed to run, the newly "elected" parliaments of the three countries formally applied to "join" the Soviet Union in August 1940 and were incorporated into it as the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic,

text: pressured the three countries to accept its military bases in September 1939. In the case of refusal, the USSR effected an air and naval blockade and threatened to attack immediately with hundreds of thousands of troops massed upon the border. The military forces overtook the political systems of these countries and installed puppet regimes after rigged elections in June 1940. The sovietisation was interrupted by the German occupation in 1941–1944. The Baltic Offensive re-established the Soviet control in 1944–1945, and resumed sovietisation, mostly completed by 1950. The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947, and was completed after the mass

title: Russians in the Baltic states

text: then annexed by Poland) was even smaller, about 2.5%. Following the terms of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union invaded and occupied and subsequently annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania as Soviet republics in 1940. Germany invaded and occupied the Baltic states in 1941 a week after the first Soviet-conducted mass deportation. Communist party members who had arrived in the area with the initial annexation in 1940 and the puppet regimes established evacuated to other parts of the Soviet Union; those who fell into German hands were treated harshly or murdered. The Soviet Union reoccupied the Baltic states in 1944–1945

title: Cold War

text: countries as Soviet Socialist Republics, by agreement with Nazi Germany in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. These included eastern Poland (incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR and the Ukrainian SSR), Latvia (which became the Latvian SSR), Estonia (which became the Estonian SSR), Lithuania (which became the Lithuanian SSR), part of eastern Finland (which became the Karelo-Finnish SSR) and eastern Romania (which became the Moldavian SSR). The Central and Eastern European territories liberated from the Nazis and occupied by the Soviet armed forces were added to the Eastern Bloc by converting them into satellite states, such as: The Soviet-style regimes that arose in the

title: Origins of the Cold War

text: were originally countries effectively ceded to it by Nazi Germany in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, before Germany invaded the Soviet Union. These later annexed territories include Eastern Poland (incorporated into two different SSRs), Latvia (became Latvia SSR), Estonia (became Estonian SSR), Lithuania (became Lithuania SSR), part of eastern Finland (Karelo-Finnish SSR and annexed into the Russian SFSR) and northern Romania (became the Moldavian SSR). Other states were converted into Soviet Satellite states, such as East Germany, the People's Republic of Poland, the People's Republic of Hungary, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the People's Republic of Romania and the People's Republic of Albania,

text: Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–91) This Baltic states were under Soviet rule from the end of World War II in 1945, from Sovietization onwards until independence was regained in 1991. The Baltic states were occupied and annexed, becoming the Soviet socialist republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. After their annexation by Nazi Germany, the USSR reoccupied the Baltic territories in 1944 and maintained control there until the Baltic states regained their independence nearly 50 years later in the aftermath of the Soviet coup of 1991. Between 1940 and 1987, the Soviet Union carried out a process of sovietization which

title: Background of the occupation of the Baltic states

text: asserted its control over the Baltic states with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which declared them as Soviet sphere of influence. On September 16, the Soviets and Japanese governments signed a cease-fire agreement. Next, the Soviets invaded Poland on 17 September, concluding operations on 6 October. After occupying eastern Poland, the Soviets pressured Finland and the Baltic states to conclude mutual assistance treaties. The Soviets questioned the neutrality of Estonia following the escape of a Polish submarine on 18 September. A week later, on 24 September, the Estonian foreign minister Karl Selter was given an ultimatum in Moscow. The Soviets demanded the

title: Occupation of the Baltic states

title: Decolonization

text: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Czechoslovakia became independent countries. Yugoslavia and Romania expanded into former Austro-Hungarian territory. The Soviet Union succeeded the Russian empire in the remainder if its former territory, and Germany, Austria, and Hungary were reduced in size. In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria and part of Czechoslovakia, and in 1939, Nazi Germany and the USSR concluded a pact to occupy the countries that lie between them; the USSR occupied Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and Germany and the USSR split Poland in two. The occupation of Poland started World War II. Germany attacked the USSR in 1941.

text: On 15 February 1989, the last Soviet troops departed on schedule from Afghanistan. Military occupations by the Soviet Union During World War II, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed several countries effectively handed over by Nazi Germany in the secret protocol Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939. These included Eastern Poland (incorporated into two different SSRs), as well as Latvia (became Latvian SSR), Estonia (became Estonian SSR), Lithuania (became Lithuanian SSR), part of eastern Finland (became Karelo-Finnish SSR) and eastern Romania (became the Moldavian SSR and part of Ukrainian SSR). Apart from Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and post-war division of Germany, USSR also occupied

title: Baltic–Soviet relations

text: the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which included secret protocols dividing eastern Europe into "spheres of influence", with Latvia and Estonia falling within the Soviets' sphere. A later amendment to the secret protocols placed Lithuania within the Soviets' sphere. In June 1940, the Soviet Union invaded the Baltic countries and annexed those countries as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic and Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1941, as part of Operation Barbarossa, Germany invaded the Baltic countries, subsequently administered under Germany's Ostland until 1944. In 1944, the Soviet Union re-invaded the Baltic states. The territories of Baltic states remained under

title: Baltic Assembly

text: World War II, under the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, they were illegally annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 and continued on for fifty years. Under Mikhail Gorbachev, the last Soviet leader, the policies of "glasnost" and "perestroika" has led to the restoration of independence between 1990 and 1991 which led the three countries to break away. The Soviet Union itself recognised the independence of the restored Baltic states on 6 September 1991 before its dissolution later that year. The organisation was formed after a decision to establish it was made in Vilnius on 1 December 1990. It works under regulations approved

title: Military history of the Soviet Union

text: of August 1939 established a non-aggression treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union with a secret protocol describing how Poland and the Baltic countries would be divided between them. In the invasion of Poland of 1939 the two powers invaded and partitioned Poland, and in June 1940 the Soviet Union also occupied Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The Red Army had little time to correct its numerous deficiencies before Nazi Germany and other Axis countries allied with it swept across the newly relocated Soviet border on June 22, 1941, in the opening stages of Operation Barbarossa. The poor Soviet performance

title: Sovietization of the Baltic states

text: Sovietization of the Baltic states The Sovietization of the Baltic states refers to the sovietization of all spheres of life in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania when they were under control of the Soviet Union. The first period deals with the occupation from June 1940 to July 1941 when the German occupation began. The second period covers 1944 when the Soviet forces pushed the German out, until 1991 when independence was declared. After the Soviet invasion of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania in 1940 the repressions followed with the mass deportations carried out by the Soviets. The Serov Instructions, ""On the Procedure for

title: Soviet Union in World War II

text: and occupied the Polish territory assigned to it by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, followed by co-ordination with German forces in Poland. Eleven days later, the secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was modified, allotting Germany a larger part of Poland, while ceding most of Lithuania to the Soviet Union. The Soviet portions lay east of the so-called Curzon Line, an ethnographic frontier between Russia and Poland drawn up by a commission of the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. After taking around 300,000 Polish prisoners in 1939 and early 1940, NKVD officers conducted lengthy interrogations of the prisoners in camps that were,

title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: became the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Soviets considered the Kresy territories (prewar eastern Poland) to be colonized by the Poles and the Red Army was proclaimed a liberator of the conquered nationalities. Many Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Lithuanians shared that point of view and cooperated with the new authorities in repressing the Poles. The Soviet administrators used slogans about class struggle and dictatorship of the proletariat, as they applied the policies of Stalinism and Sovietization in occupied eastern Poland. On 22 and 26 October 1939, the Soviets staged elections to Moscow-controlled Supreme Soviets (legislative bodies) of the newly created

title: Russians in Lithuania

text: Union occupied and annexed Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia in 1940. After Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, the three countries quickly fell under German control. Many Russians, especially Communist party members who had arrived in the area with the initial annexation, retreated to Russia; those who fell into German hands were treated harshly, many were murdered. As the war drew to a close, the Soviet Union resumed its occupation of the Baltic states in 1944–1945. Western democracies did not recognize the Soviet occupation. Immediately after the war, Joseph Stalin carried out a major resettlement campaign in the three Baltic

title: Cold War

text: against Iraq (August 1990–February 1991). By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power. Grassroots organizations, such as Poland's Solidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organizing of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a violent uprising. Attitudes had

title: World War II by country

text: Mongolia between May–August, 1939. Later that year, protected with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, it invaded eastern Poland about three weeks after the Germans invaded the west of the country. During the next eleven months the Soviets occupied and annexed the Baltic states. The Soviet Union supported Germany in the war effort against Western Europe through the 1939 German–Soviet Commercial Agreement and larger 1940 German–Soviet Commercial Agreement with supplies of raw materials that were otherwise blocked by the British naval blockade. Following Finland's refusal of Soviet demands for military bases and a territorial swap, the Soviet Union invaded on 30 November 1939,

title: Baltic–Soviet relations

text: Soviet control as Soviet Socialist Republics until 1991. A majority of Western world governments did not recognise the Soviet annexations of the Baltic states "de jure", though some countries did recognize them "de facto". In July 1989, following the dramatic events in East Germany, the Supreme Soviets of the Baltic countries stated their intention to restore full independence. In 1991, the Baltic countries reclaimed independence and restored their sovereignty upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Bolsheviks took power following the Russian Revolution of 1917. After the Baltic states proclaimed independence following the signing of the Armistice, Bolshevist Russia invaded

title: Jaan Kross

text: all their governments to Siberia. Then in 1941, the Nazi Germans invaded and took over the country, which formed a brief respite for many of the population (except, of course, Estonian Jews) but Estonians soon realised that the German Nazis were as bad as the Soviet Communists. These two powers had after all even had a short-lived truce, when they both signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Hitler and Stalin divided up Eastern Europe in a secret protocol within this pact, and the Baltic countries became part of Stalin's share. Kross was first arrested by the Germans for six months in 1944

title: History of the Soviet Union

text: devastated much of the USSR with about one out of every three World War II deaths representing a citizen of the Soviet Union. After World War II the Soviet Union's armies occupied Central and Eastern Europe, where socialist governments took power. By 1949 the Cold War had started between the Western Bloc and the Eastern (Soviet) Bloc, with the Warsaw Pact pitched against NATO in Europe. After 1945 Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his totalitarian rule until his death in 1953. In the USSR, the eleven-year period from the death of Joseph Stalin (1953) to

title: History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27)

text: Poland's Józef Piłsudski envisioned a new federation (Międzymorze), forming a Polish-led East European bloc to form a bulwark against Russia and Germany, while the Russian SFSR considered carrying the revolution westward by force. When Piłsudski carried out a military thrust into Ukraine in 1920, he was met by a Red Army offensive that drove into Polish territory almost to Warsaw. However, Piłsudski halted the Soviet advance at the Battle of Warsaw and resumed the offensive. The "Peace of Riga" signed in early 1921 split the territory of Belarus and Ukraine between Poland and Soviet Russia. On 29 December 1922 a

title: Eastern Bloc media and propaganda

text: into the Soviet Union as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1922, the Russian SFSR, Ukraine SSR, Byelorussian SSR and Transcaucasian SFSR were officially merged as republics creating the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union). At the end of World War II, all eastern and central European capitals were controlled by the Soviet Union. During the final stages of the war, the Soviet Union began the creation of the Eastern Bloc by occupying several countries as Soviet Socialist Republics that were originally effectively ceded to it by Nazi Germany in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. These included eastern Poland (incorporated into

text: Soviet Union was not a significant threat as Joseph Stalins rise to power was underway, and the state retreated to the Socialism in one country ideology. The Soviets signed non-aggression treaties with their neighbor states between 1926–1933, including Finland, Latvia, Estonia and Poland. The early 1930s saw the international community became unstable. First, the stock markets collapsed in 1929, causing an economic slump. Second, economic woes and fear of Communism saw the rise of totalitarian regimes in Japan, Germany and Italy. Economic crises destabilized the internal politics of the Baltic states, causing the rise of authoritarian regimes. Antanas Smetona and

title: Sphere of influence

text: it turned out that the Soviets and the Western Allies had very different ideas concerning the administration and future development of the liberated regions and of Germany itself. During the Cold War the Baltic states, Central Europe, some countries in Eastern Europe, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, North Korea, and, until the Sino-Soviet split and Tito-Stalin split, the People's Republic of China and the People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, among other countries at various times, were said to lie under the Soviet sphere of influence. Western Europe, Oceania, Japan, and South Korea, among other places, were often said to lie under the

title: Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)

text: free to fulfill the state-imposed quotas. While Germans enforced their policies based on racism, the Soviet administration justified their Stalinist policies by appealing to the Soviet ideology, which in reality meant the thorough Sovietization of the area. Immediately after their conquest of eastern Poland, the Soviet authorities started a campaign of Sovietization of the newly acquired areas. No later than several weeks after the last Polish units surrendered, on 22 October 1939, the Soviets organized staged elections to the Moscow-controlled Supreme Soviets (legislative body) of "Western Byelorussia" and "Western Ukraine". The result of the staged voting was to become a

title: Soviet invasion of Poland

text: of 1944. An agreement at the Yalta Conference permitted the Soviet Union to annex almost all of their Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact portion of the Second Polish Republic, compensating the People's Republic of Poland with the southern half of East Prussia and territories east of the Oder–Neisse line. The Soviet Union enclosed most of the conquered annexed territories into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. After the end of World War II in Europe, the USSR signed a new border agreement with the Soviet-backed and installed Polish communist puppet state on 16 August 1945. This agreement recognized

title: Occupation of the Baltic states

long_answer: The occupation of the Baltic states was the military occupation of the three Baltic states—Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania—by the Soviet Union under the auspices of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 14 June 1940 followed by their incorporation into the USSR as constituent republics, unrecognised by most Western powers. On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany attacked the USSR and within weeks occupied the Baltic territories. In July 1941, the Baltic territory was incorporated into the Reichskommissariat Ostland of the Third Reich. As a result of the Baltic Offensive of 1944, the Soviet Union recaptured most of the Baltic states and trapped the remaining German forces in the Courland pocket until their formal surrender in May 1945. The Soviet "annexation occupation" (Annexionsbesetzung or occupation sui generis) of the Baltic states lasted until August 1991, when the Baltic states regained independence.